STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION ALFRED G.KING PRACTICAL STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION By ALFRED G. KING PRACTICAL STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION A MODERN PRACTICAL WORK ON STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION WITH DESCRIPTIONS AND DATA OF ALL MATERIALS AND APPLIANCES USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUCH APPARATUS; RULES, TABLES, ETC. BY ALFRED G. KING AUTHOR OF "practical HEATING ILLUSTRATED," ETC. SECOND EDITION, REVISED CONTAINING OVER THREE HUNDRED SPECIALLY MADE ILLUSTRATIONS SHOWING IN DETAIL ALL OF THE VARIOUS HEATING SYSTEMS, WITH PIPE, RADIATOR AND BOlLm O^miECTIONS NEW YORK THE NORMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING 132 NASSAU STREET 1912 COMPANY K COPYEIGHT, 1908, BY THE NOEMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Copyright, 1912, by THE NOEMAN W. HENLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY >i COMPOSITION, ELECTROTYPING AND PRESS- WORK BY TROW DIRECTORY, PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY, NEW YORK, U. S. A. |gCI.A3209H PREFACE From a more or less experimental stage to one of an exact science has been the progress of the art of artificial heating and ventilation during the period covering the past twenty-five or thirty years. In the early days of this industry there were but few competent fitters located outside of the larger cities. However, of later years the above conditions have changed, due in a great measure to the constant advancement and education of the steam fitting trade. To-day it Is not an uncommon thing to find In a small city or town one or more steam fitters entirely competent to Install almost any kind of a steam or hot-water heating appa- ratus. This education of the steam fitter has been accomplished largely by the frequent publication in the trade papers of much practical information, accompanied by drawings and data which could be readily understood by him. The publication of a number of books on the subject of Steam and Hot-Water Heating and Ventilation has also been of great assistance to the steam fitter In his mental advancement. How- ever, much of the matter contained in these books is too technical and of a nature too difficult to be clearly understood by a man of average education. In presenting this w^ork the author wishes to give a brief history of the science of steam and hot-water heating and ventilation and the early methods of constructing work, and to describe and Illus- trate the advancement and improvements over the earlier methods. By the illustrations, rules and explanations given, we shall aim to make plain to the steam fitter or apprentice the best methods of 8 PREFACE estimating and installing heating work by any one of the modem methods or systems now in use. To keep pace with the means and methods employed we must be continually studying and actively interesting ourselves in the improvements as they are brought out. The methods of a score of years ago have given place to other and improved methods and further experimenting and study by the wide-awake American mechanics are bound to result in still further progress. To those authors and authorities from whose works we have quoted and to the manufacturers of heating appliances who have so kindly assisted us, we extend our thanks. Our effort is not to criticise but rather to comment upon the various heating and ventilating systems in vogue at the present time and to instruct the steam fitter in a practical way regarding their application and installation. We have also added such tables, rules and general informa- tion as will make this valuable as a reference book for the con- tracting steam fitter. A. G. King. October, 1912. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE Introduction — Modern methods of steam and hot-water heating and ventilation — Evolution of steam and hot-water heating and ventilation — The practice of heati. g and ventilation — Steam ar.d hot-water heating and ventilation — A practical treatise — Steam and hot-water heating and ventilation and practia^ 15 CHAPTER II Heat — Nature of heat — How measured — How transmitted — The heat unit (B, T. U.) — Radiating power of bodies — Absorption of heat ... 18 CHAPTER III Evolution of artificial heating apparatus — Open fire-places — Stoves — ^Furnaces — Average life and cost — Healthfulness — Early type of boilers — Steam boilers, Hot-water heaters CHAPTER IV Boiler surfaces and settings — Grate surface — ^Water surface — Boiler setting — The safety valve — ^The steam gauge — The automatic damper regulator — ^The water column and gauge glass — The blow-off cock — The firing tools and brushes — The fusible plug 40 CHAPTER V The chimney flue — Sizes of chimneys — Elements of a good flue — Proper construc- tion of chimney flues — Heights of chimneys — Table of heights and areas . 56 9 10 CONTENTS CHAPTER VI Pipe and fittings — Pipe — ^Table of sizes — Threading of pipe — Bending of pipe — Expansion of pipe — ^Table of pipe expansion — ^Wronght-iron or steel pipe — Nipples — Couplings — Fittings — Branch tees — Flanges — Table of flanges — Measuring pipe and fittings 63 CHAPTER VII Valves, various kinds — Air valves, various kinds 73 CHAPTER VIII Forms of radiating surfaces — Radiators — ^Pipe coils — Coil building ... 81 CHAPTER IX Locating of radiating surfaces — Direct radiators — ^Indirect radiators — Table of air ducts — Direct-indirect radiators 91 CHAPTER X Estimating radiation — Rules for estimating — For steam — For hot water — Some dependable rules 97 CHAPTER XI Steam-heating apparatus — ^The circuit system — ^The divided-circuit system — ^The one-pipe system — Dry returns — ^The overhead system — ^The two-pipe system — ^Advantages of steam heating — ^Tables — Sizes of mains . . . .103 CHAPTER XII Exhaust-steam heating — Value of exhaust steam — Necessary fixtures— Heating capacity of exhaust steam 115 CHAPTER XIII Hot-water heating — Two-pipe system — Sizes of mains for two-pipe system — The expansion tank — Water connection — Table of expansion-tank sizes — The overhead system — Expansion-tank connections for overhead system — The circuit system — Sizes of mains for circuit system — Why water circulates . 120 CONTENTS 11 CHAPTEIl XIV PAGE Pressure systems of liot-water work — Table of temperatures — Expansion-tiink connections for pressure work — Evans and Almirall systems .... 141 CHAPTER XV Hot-water appliances — ^The altitude gauge — The hot-water thermometer — Floor and ceiling plates — Pressure appliances — The IIoneyAvell system — The Phelps heat retainer 146 CHAPTER XVI Greenhouse heating — Early method — Modern greenhouse heating — Estimating radiation for greenhouses — Table of temperatures — ^IMethods of greenhouse piping 155 CHAPTER XVII Vacuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating — Explanation of a vacuum — Im- proved methods of exhaust heating — The Webster system — The Paul system — The Van x-Vuken system — Mercury seal systems — The K.M.C. system — The Trane system — The Ryan system — Vapor heating — The Broomell system — Vaciunn vapor heating — ^The Gorton system — The vacuum-vapor system — Dunham vacuo-vaj)or system — The future of vacuum heating . 163 CHAPTER XVIII Miscellaneous heating — The heating of swimming pools — Heating Avater for domestic purposes — Steam for cooking and manufacturing .... 189 CHAPTER XIX Radiator and pipe connections — Steam radiator connections, hot-water radiator connections — Improper use of tees — Methods of pipe construction — Artificial water-lines — Cross-connecting boilers — Pipe measurements for 45° and other angles 199 CHAPTER XX Ventilation — ^Importance of ventilation — Air necessary for ventilation — ^Amount of air required — Methods of ventilation 211 12 CONTENTS CHAPTER XXI Aiechanical ventilation and hot-blast heating — Growth and improvement — Methods employed — Exhaust and plenum — Heat losses and heating capacity required — Quality of the air supplied — An ideal system — Fans for blowing and exhausting. — Types of heaters — Methods of dri\dng fans — Some details of construction — Factory heating — Relative cost of installation and opera- tion — ^^Vpparatus for testing 224 CHAPTER XXII Steam appliances — Steam traps — Return traps — Separators — Oil separators — Steam separators — Feed-water heaters — Steam pumps — Boiler feed pumps- Vacuum pumps — Pump governors and regulators — Back-pressure valves — Pressure-reducing valves — Injectors — Inspirators — Automatic water feeders . 262 CHAPTER XXIII District heating — Early methods — ^Modern methods — Central station hot-water heating — Scale of hot-water temperatures 288 CHAPTER XXIV Pipe and boiler covering — Importance of covering pipes — Saving effected by covering — Materials used — Underground covering 293 CHAPTER XXV Temperature regulation and heat control — Automatic steam damper regulator, automatic temperature regulators — The Pow-ers thermostat, the Powers system — The National regulator — The D. & R. regulator — The Howard regulator — The IVIinneapolis regulator — The Lawler thermostatic regulator — The Johnson pneumatic system ^ . . 299 CHAPTER XXVI Business methods — Estimating — Proposal and bid — Specifications for steam heat- ing — Specifications for hot-water heating — Special features of contracts . 316 CONTENTS 13 CIL\l»TEll XXVII PAGE Miscellaneous — Care of heating apparatus — Summer care — Proper attention to boilers — Removal of oil and dirt — Summer tests to determine efficiency — Care of tools — Labor-saving suggestions — Bronzing, jxiinting, and decoration — Guaranty — Boiler explosions — Prevention of boiler explosions — Utilizing waste heat 329 CHAPTER XXVm Rules, Tables, and Useful Information 347 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION CHAPTER I Introduction It is well in beginning the study and consideration of the science of heating and ventilation to look back to the start of what has grown to be one of our most important industries. We may properly term it Domestic Engineering, as on the work of the heating and ventilating engineer depends largely the health, and consequently the happiness, of the great body of civ- ilized people of the world. There is no doubt that the use of hot water for heating pur- poses antedates the use of steam. We have a more or less obscure record of the use of hot water in this respect by the Romans. In the beginning of the eighteenth century we have records of green- houses (at that time called " hothouses ") being successfully heated by hot water and later in the same century, about the year 1775, we find a Frenchman, Bonnemain, using hot water to heat a brooder on a chicken farm. This may be said to be the beginning of the practical application of hot water for heating purposes. Steam was probably first used for heating purposes in the early part of the nineteenth century, when efforts were made to heat a factory by steam at a high pressure. The development of steam heating from that date to the present time has been both rapid and constant, although the last decade has seen this industry ad- vanced to a state of perfection never dreamed of by the early heating engineers. From a loose and haphazard method of figur- ing and installing work of this character, it has reached a scientific stage, and as such is more or less understood by a large majority of those engaged in the business. 15 16 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Heating and Ventilation are kindred trades and sciences, each, in a measure, dependent on the other. The early effort to ventilate the British House of Commons, in 1723, was probably the real be- ginning of artificial ventilation. Dr. J. F. Desaguliers, a French boy, whose father removed to England when Desaguliers was but an infant, was, without doubt, the most distinguished student of physics and mechanics of that time. To him was intrusted the problem of ventilating the House of Commons. Previous to this date, however, other plans had been tried to provide a means of ventilation, but we believe the first scientific study and experiments were conducted by Dr. Desaguliers. Efforts were put forth during the early part of the nineteenth centurj^ to improve on this ventilating apparatus by the pro- viding of large fans or blowers, which were propelled by hand. The ventilation of other public buildings was then undertaken and the science had advanced to such a stage that in the year 1824 an English engineer, Tredgold by name, published a book entitled " Principles of Warming and Ventilating Public Buildings " — a standard work still referred to at this date. While the history of the sciences of heating and ventilation and the endeavors of many engineers of eminence may be both interesting as well as instructive, we refer only to the beginning in order that our readers may realize, to the fullest extent, the evolution of the methods of heating by steam and hot water and ventilating by natural or mechanical means. To such men as Tredgold, Dr. Reid, Charles Hood, E. Peclet, Robert Briggs and others of earlier date, and Mills, Billings, Baldwin, Carpenter and other engineers of these latter times, are we indebted for the advancement and perfecting of the various methods of estimating and constructing the warming and ventilat- ing systems of to-day. The remainder of the credit is justly due to those who manu- facture and install the work and who have, by the use of modern machinery and up-to-date ideas, reduced the cost of steam and hot-water warming and ventilating apparatus to such an extent as to place it within the reach of those in moderate circumstances. Our public schools are better warmed and ventilated than ever INTRODUCTION 17 before, as are also tlic majority of our other public and semi-public buildings. Our architects now study and consider the subject of heating and ventilation and we firmly believe that the coming decade will witness far greater advancement in these sciences than we have known before. An estimate made in the year 1906 shows that but a little over one tenth of our homes and public buildings are provided witli steam or hot-water heating apparatus. Such an estimate further reveals the fact that less than two per cent of our homes arc pro- vided with even a partial ventilating apparatus. As a nation we seem to have been satisfied to roast one side of our body while the other side was chilled, or, when fresh air was absolutely needed in the room, to open the door or window, re- gardless of the outside temperature or the condition of the weather. These sudden changes, of course, produced colds and bodily ills of like nature, which, no doubt, in many cases, proved fatal. We knew of no uniformity in either the temperature of the house or the purity of the atmosphere in the several rooms. Becoming aware of our mistakes of the past, we now" demand a uniform temperature within our homes ; we are swiftly coming to the conclusion that we might better pay the coal dealer for the energy to produce heat, ventilation and comfort than to pay our physician for doctoring the ills resulting from our carelessness. It will be readily noted what a tremendous field there is for study and work along these lines, and to the journeyman steam fitter or contractor who fits himself thoroughly for this work, we see an abundant reward In store. CHAPTER II Heat Heat is motion, or a form of energy. Scientists tell us that it is their belief that all matter is made up of small A^brating par- ticles called molecules. The faster these particles move or vibrate, the more heat is produced, and the more the matter or body is expanded. This expansion may be carried to such an extent as to transform the body into another state. For example, note the formation of gas from coal or oil, or the formation of steam from water. With a hammer we may pound upon a piece of iron until it becomes hot. The Indians started a fire by briskly rubbing to- gether two pieces of wood, the energy of motion producing the necessary heat to ignite the dry moss, or other material used for kindling. The nature of heat is peculiar and it is w^ell that we become somewhat acquainted with these peculiarities. Heat cannot be measured as to quantity, but the intensity of heat may be measured by a thermometer, and this measure we call temperature, and for registering this temperature we use the Fah- renheit scale. For example, water freezes at 32° F. and boils at 212° F. (Fahrenheit was a German, who in 1721 made the first mercurial thermometer. ) Heat may be transferred from one body to another by three distinct methods, namely. Conduction, Convection and Radiation. Lay a piece of hot iron upon another piece of iron, or a different object, and a certain proportion of the heat from the heated iron is transferred to the under object. This method is by Conduction. Water which has been heated and transferred to a storage tank through pipes makes the tank hot. This is heating by Convection. We may place a chair too near a heated stove and burn or blister the paint or finish upon same. The chair has not been 18 HEAT 19 against the stove, neither has there been any direct connection between it and the heat producer, yet it has received the heat from the stove to such an intensity as to damage it. This damage was caused by radiation of heat, the heat being carried to the chair upon waves of air usually imperceptible to the eye. It is this latter method of heat transfer which is employed in the warming of buildings. The energy is developed at a boiler, or heater, placed usually in the basement of the building, the heat being transferred to the radiators, or radiating surfaces placed within or adjacent to the room to be heated and the heat again trans-ferred to the room by radiation. While we cannot properly measure heat itself, we may measure it by the effect it produces, and this is accomplished by the so-called Heat Unit. The Heat Unit as adopted for engineering and scien- tific purposes is of three measures : viz., British, French and Ger- man. In this country it is the former that has come into general use. A British Thermal Heat Unit (B. T. U.) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, or one degree on the Fahrenheit scale of measuring. The British system of measuring heating work, or the effect pro- duced by the action of heat, is by what is known as foot pounds. Professor Allen's definition of this term foot pounds is as simple as we have come across. He says : " Ten units of work or ten foot pounds would be the amount of w'ork done in raising ten pounds one foot high, or one pound ten feet high." Professor Allen thus calls our attention to the definite relationship between heat and work, which was probably first determined by Joule in 1838 while conducting a series of experiments. In measuring w^ork the term horse power (H. P.) is fre- quently made use of. A horse power is 33,000 foot pounds per minute, or the amount of work required to raise 33,000 pounds one foot high per minute, and this is equivalent to 42.5 heat units per minute. As in this country the capacity of all engines and machinery, and all tubular and power boilers, is expressed by horse power, it IS well to remember that a horse power represents the energy de- veloped by evaporating 2.655 pounds of water into steam, and which is sufficient to supply 100 square feet of radiation. Fur- 20 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION thermore, a horse power represents the condensation from 100 square feet of direct cast-iron radiation, or approximately 90 square feet of pipe radiation or heating coils. The steam is condensed by loss of heat or cooling, and we must know in what manner certain elements act upon the heating surface to cool it, and again in what manner the heat is given off from the radiator or heated body. All building material is porous and there is a loss of heat through walls and window glass. Again, a ventilating register may be open in the room. There is a constant loss of heat through this aperture until such time as it is closed. Therefore, to de- termine upon the amount of heat necessary we must take into con- sideration all heat losses and this we shall discuss later on in this work. Heat is radiated in straight lines or in waves from a heated body. If certain objects are placed in the line of these waves they will absorb the heat and transmit it again to some cooler body. On the contrary, such substances as magnesia, asbestos, hair felt, and the like, will prevent the radiation of the heat beyond their influence. For example, note the plastic covering on boilers, or the asbestos and hair-felt coverings placed on steam and hot-water pipes. Air and other gases are almost transparent to heat and, in fact, in many cases assist in conveying it from the source of energy to the body to be warmed. The radiating power of bodies differs materially. Polished or enameled surfaces radiate less heat than rough or unfinished sur- faces. Peclet gives the following table of the radiating power of bodies, the figures equaling heat units given off from a square foot of surface per hour for a difference of one degree Fahrenheit : TABLE NO. I Radiating Power of Bodies Polished Copper 0327 Sheet Iron 0920 Glass 5940 Cast Iron (rusted) 6480 Stone, Wood or Brick 7358 Woolen Material 7522 Water 1.0850 HEAT n A cast-iron radiator will radiate much less heat when enameled than when painted with bronze or a mineral paint. Specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to raise the tem- perature of a solid or liquid bod3' a certain iiunil)er of degrees, taking water as a unit or standard of c()ni})aris()n. Some bodies absorb heat more rapidly than others. According to Walter Jones, M.E., the heat necessary to raise one pound of water one degree will raise 32 lbs. of Lead 31 lbs. of Mercury 9 lbs. of Iron \ one degree. 4I/2 lbs. of Air or 2 lbs. of Ice For the practical purposes of the steam fitter it is necessary only that he consider: 1. The energy necessary to produce a certain amount of heat, or number of heat units ; how produced, and how measured. 2. How these heat units may be transferred, radiated or con- ducted from one body to another. 3. The effect of this heat upon the cooler body to which it is transferred, or the so-called cooling surfaces of a room or building. 4. The percentage of loss of energy by radiation, or other- wise, between the production of the heat and its delivery to the body to be warmed. In the discussion of radiation, ventilation, etc., w^e shall give other peculiarities and facts regarding the loss of heat, the causes leading to the same and rules for providing against the amount of heat loss under varying conditions. CHAPTER III Evolution of Artificial Heating Apparatus The arrangement of some form or method of securing warmth within our homes or buildings is a matter to which our attention has grown in keeping with our advancement as a nation. History relates that among the ancient Romans it was custom- ary for the poorer class to build fires upon a stone or brick floor located at one side or end of a room, the smoke and soot passing out of the room through holes in the roof. The wealthier class used braziers in their living rooms, in which was burned carefully dried wood. The heating apparatus of our forefathers was the open fire- place, and it is related of the old New England type of fireplace that it was six or eight feet in length and so deep that the children had blocks on which they sat far within, where they could see the stars up the chimney. Large logs of wood were used for fuel. Later, after coal could be purchased, the fireplace was built very much smaller. In either case a very large proportion of the heat thus obtained escaped up the chimney, probably from seventy-five to ninety per cent being lost in this manner. As the country grew in population, cities and towns sprang up and fuel became scarcer. Larger buildings were erected and the number of rooms increased until, as a matter of economy, it became necessary to provide some other form of heating apparatus. To this end the old Franklin stove was designed, followed by later styles more improved, all in order to provide better combus- tion and save the lost heat. Again was " necessity the mother of invention," as, to save labor of carrying fuel and ashes for many fires, the idea of cen- tralizing the heating apparatus and of warming several rooms from one fire, led to the adoption of the inclosed stove. Tin or EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 23 sheet-iron pipes were used to convey the heated air to each separate room and from this arrangement deveh)pcd tlie modern furnace. Kx])eriments were next conchicted witli lieated water and steam as means of conveying heat from a central point to various parts 01 a huilding, a form of heating wliich has been carried to sucli a state of perfection as to warrant the use of either system under ahnost any known conchtion, and tlie estabhsliing of founch'les and shops for the manufacture of heating apparatus. The devek)p- ment has been such that at the present time there are man^^ milHons of dollars invested in the business of manufacturing and installing apparatus for heating by steam and hot water. The relative efficiency of the several methods of heating may be given as follows : 1. Open Fireplaces. 2. Stoves. 3. Hot-Air Furnaces. 4. Steam. 5. Hot Water. In classifying them in this order, we consider not only efficiency, but health fulness, durability, and cost of maintenance, i. e., cost for fuel. Were healthfulness alone considered, we should prefer the open fireplace to either stoves or furnaces. The waste of fuel in fireplaces and stoves, largely also in hot-air furnaces, is too well known to need many comments. Fireplaces radiate the heat from one side of the room only, and stoves warm but in spots. Furnaces fail to produce the right results when placed in build- ings not well protected from the wind; and there is no uniformity in temperature where any one of the three above-mentioned sys- tems are used. Furnaces as ordinarily installed are not much more satisfactory than stoves, and nine tenths of them are too small. They are used in preference to a steam or hot-water apparatus because of the apparent saving in cost. We say apparent saving in cost, as after all things are weighed, there is no saving in using a furnace in preference to steam cr h.ot water, and it is well that the steam fitter or lieating contractor hiis this fact clearly in mind. There- 24 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION fore, we shall discuss this feature of furnace heating very freely and shall consider the matter, endeavoring to show a comparison between the furnace and steam or hot-water heat. First: As to cost and average life of the apparatus. Second: As to comfort and healthfulness. Average Life and Cost Where a furnace too small is installed, it is necessary, in ex- treme cold weather, to raise the heating surfaces to an exceedingly high temperature, often a red heat, in order to secure comfort. As a result, the expansion and contraction loosens the joints of the furnace and allows the sulphurous and carbonic-oxide gases and other poisonous products of combustion to escape through the hot- air pipes into the rooms above. This is true of both wrought- iron and cast-iron furnaces. Again, heating the furnace to this extremely high temperature shortens the life of the apparatus, with the result that ten per cent of the first cost is needed for repairs during the first five years, while, as a rule, the next five years find the furnace entirely worn out. A steam-heating apparatus has an average life of probably twenty-five years, the first ten years of this period without any repairs except of a trivial nature, such as the repacking of valves, etc. A hot-water-heating apparatus will last an even greater length of time, without the expense of repairs, the system being practi- cally indestructible. Thus it will be readily seen that while the cost of a furnace, as usually installed, is but one half that of a steam-heating apparatus, or probably two fifths that of a hot- water-heating apparatus, it is, as an investment, not counting healthfulness or the excess amount of fuel consumed, by far the more costly of the three systems. In pondering the question of cost, we have not taken into con- sideration the long list of fires and damaged buildings resulting from the " defective flue," nor the damage to house furnishings, due to dust and dirt from the furnace. The housewife, more than anyone else, knows of the constant dusting and cleaning and the frequency with which it is necessary to renew carpets and draperies. EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 25 Healthfulness of Furnace Heating ^s. Steam or Hot Water We have mentioned some of the disadvantages of heating with a furnace. Let us now consider the healthfulness of the various systems, the quality of the heat produced and its effect on the human system. A furnace must of necessity have an air supply. The source of this air supply is often very bad. Perhaps the air is admitted to the furnace direct from the basement or cellar in which it is located. This air may be contaminated with the odors from de- caying vegetable matter, or gases from a sewer. The air is ad- mitted to the furnace at its base, or from underneath the base, and when a fresh air supply is taken from outside the building, it is frequently conveyed to the furnace through an underground duct which is not air tight, with the result that it gathers impurities from the earth. The duct may run across the basement floor and if not air tight, will, owing to the draught produced by the fur- nace, suck in the impure air from the basement through the numer- ous cracks or crevices. With an impure air supply, it is impossible to serve the occupants of the building with pure air. Again, the air is devitalized by passing over metal, heated often to 1,200 or 1,500 degrees Fahr., which robs it of all its health-giving prop- erties. The advocate of the furnace will endeavor to tell of the pure air which is constantly admitted to the building, and its advan- tages — an exploded theory, as every heating and ventilating en- gineer knows. What then with devitalized air, often charged with dust or poisoned by gases, can we say in favor of the healthfulness of heat- ing with a hot-air furnace.^ Nothing, except possibly the apparent saving in first cost and the freedom of the house owner from par- ticipating In the " semiannual stovepipe performance," viz. — that of taking down or putting up a miscellaneous assortment of stovepipe loaded with soot, as would be the case where stoves were used. Heating by either steam or hot water has none of the disad- vantages mentioned and for this reason, since the large reduction in cost during the last decade, have in their several forms and 26 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION variations, been generally adopted as the best methods of heating known. There are many buildings more or less protected from the vari- able winds of winter, where a furnace properly installed will heat all parts of the building to a uniformly comfortable temperature. We emphasize " properly installed " and " all parts " for the rea- son that the average furnace has neither of these conditions to recommend it. As a rule, the contractor setting the furnace places it near to the center of the basement in order to shorten the hot-air supply pipes and thereby simplify or cheapen the work. It is impossible to force the heated air to the side of the building against which the wind is blowing, and for this reason the furnace should be set near to the side which most frequently receives the action of the wind. We think it safe to say that a furnace installed in this manner and built heavy enough to last a considerable term of years, with the tin work of first quality, will cost one third more than the average furnace job as regularly installed, or to within a very small amount of the price of a low-pressure steam-heating apparatus. The Heart of the System In a steam or hot-water heating apparatus, the boiler or heater is the real heart of the system and largely upon the char- acter of the boiler or heater installed, depends the success of the apparatus as a whole. It has become customary to refer to the heart of a steam-heat- ing apparatus as a " boiler," and to the heart of a hot-water-heat- ing apparatus as a " heater," probably from the fact that in a steam-heating apparatus it is necessary to boil the water to make steam, while in a hot-water-heating apparatus it is necessary only to heat or expand the water in the heater to produce a circulation in the system. Early Types of Boilers There seems to be no question but that the original type of boiler used for steam heating was the horizontal tubular, or the upright tubular wrought-iron boiler, or the same character of a boiler as was used for power, and very much the same in outward appearance as those in use to-day. EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 27 Fig. 1 shows a st.andard make of tubular boiler, with full- arch front and manner of brickina\ FiG. 1, — Standard type of tubular boiler with full-arch front. Fig. 2 shows the same character of a boiler, with half-arch front and manner of brickinec- Under " Boiler Setting " will be found explanations and di- FiG. 2. — Standard type of tubular boiler with half-arch front. rections for setting each of the above, with sketches showing ground plan, longitudinal section and cross section of brickwork, etc. The original type of upright tubular was mounted on a brick S8 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION and iron base, forming the ash pit and supporting the grate. Fig. 3 shows this boiler as it is now commonly used, with a cast- iron portable base and without brickwork. One of the earliest types of wrought-iron boilers used exclu- sively for heating purposes was designed and patented by ]\Ir. William B. Dunning, of Geneva, N. Y., and is yet manufactured as the Dunning Boiler in an improved form by the New York Cen- tral Iron Works Company. Fig. 4 shows the shell of this boiler; Fig. 5, the boiler as it appears when bricked. Another early type and somewhat similar character of a boiler Fig. 3. — Common type of upright tubular boiler. Fig. 4. — Shell of Dunninfj boiler. is shown by Fig. 6. This is known as the " Haxtun " boiler, manu- factured by the Kewanee Boiler Company, Kewanee, 111. Many other boilers of similar construction were built and sold, following the introduction of those illustrated, some of them having a local sale only, being used in the immediate vicinity where they were manufactured. It is probable that the H. B. Smith Company, of Westfield, Mass., were the pioneers in the manufacture of the cast-iron boiler for steam heating, as the Gold Boiler (see Fig. 7), manufactured EVOLUTION OF HEATING APrARATUS 29 by this concern, was undoubtedly the first of the cast-iron steam boilers, and as such should receive more than a passing mention. Fig. 5. — Dunning boiler set in brickwork. Reference to the illustration (Fig. 8) will show the Mills Boiler and the manner in which this boiler is constructed. The Fig. 6.— The Haxhm boiler. sections are cast in halves, and on the square or rectangular base supporting the grate, these half sections are erected in pairs. The 30 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION upper parts of the half sections are joined to a central dome or header, lock-nut nipples being used for this purpose. The upper part of each half section, as well as the header suspended between these half sections, form a steam chamber from which the supply Fig. 7.— The Gold boiler. pipes are taken. In depth these sections are about six inches, and they may be arranged to form a boiler of practically any size desired. Along either side of the boiler is a cast-iron header into which Fig. -The Mills boiler. the various return pipes are connected, the water being admitted to the boiler through nipples connecting each individual half sec- tion with the return header. This connection is made in the same manner as the connections to the steam header with lock-nut EVOLUTION OF HEATING APPARATUS 31 nipples. Each half section, therefore, is a unit or boiler by itself, contributing its quota of steam to the steam chamber above. This proved to be a very strong type of boiler, able to withstand Fig. 9. — Ivocomotive fire-box boiler. a considerable pressure and being also a quick and powerful steamer. It is Avorthv of note that some of the more modern boilers are Fig. 10. — I.,ocomotive fire-box boiler showintj smoke travel. built along the lines of the Willis Boiler, without the brick setting. We refer to the " divided-section " or " half-section " idea of boiler construction which we illustrate elsewhere. 32 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Aside from those already mentioned, the most common type of wrought-iron boiler now used for heating is tlie locomotive fire- box boiler, as illustrated by Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. Fig. 9 shows a view of the boiler as it appears in the bricking, and Fig. 10 shows the smoke travel. In some localities these boilers are used largely O^ O-' 00 3C GO '-5 t' l^ Ci C5 O ^__ --^ -^J^ 0»_ '^l -1"^ -^^ ».'5 'O OOOOOOOOOOOOOOC:OOOOOC ooooooooooooooooooooo 0» X C^ O i^ X 0_ X_ CO O-'^ '3-*_ '^^ 05^ o_ .— ^ -f-^ t-^ i-^ o_ x^ o_ lo »o o t-" ?-" x' o~ o' r-^ CO 'f »o~ -+ o' o t-' x' cT r-' o" o-r ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ,_ ,_ ©< o< o< M \ci \^i \?i \c^i \rf Vf \tJ< \rt< \tJ( \t(< \^ \-j( \M \c>i \c^ \^i V c-1 \ci \ci \ri V r 1 i-\ -H\-^'\-H\co\M\«\ec\M^ ^^\c<^\cc\•--<\•--^^--\•-^^ i-iv --^ ^^ ^^ ^s l>t>l>l>»>O<'#^-^Tf.^Tf.O?©?©»(3.>O»C0C0O5CS i-H00i-iC0'!fO'*«0X«0XO0S^05i-HC0'-'C0'-C0 -vJ 0<0>Q^XX0^0J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0^ c p^ c o c ^ c COCOCOCOXXXXXXXX(3'>(^'3^G'»0'>OJ©>Q^O> s c 22S222iiiiii^i5i;s^^^^g - c XXXXXXC5050>OiO>0500000000»(^ s^ c 1-5 c \N \ N \^1 V (M \e-l \?5 \C1 - c w ^ 0000'5»'^0)<5»'^OOOOOXXX-^-fi> 46 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Fig. 29 shows the brick setting plan for horizontal tubular boilers with full-arch front, and Fig. 30 the same plan for hori- zontal tubular boilers with half-arch front. With a setting of this character it is necessary to use fire brick. On the illustrations BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 47 w o -2 ^ « Ci § O- X ^ O O 0< '?» '^^ 00 CC X '--5 'O X X GC O O '2 o GO CO >* -^ :S O t^ t' i> C5 Ci C5 r-<^ r- '><_ o<_ 0<^ "* -f*^ 'C 'O il ^ l^ r-< C5 »0 O CO :0 -f< O O O »0 t-^ l-^ O^ CO CO_^ 0_ CO__ 'O^ Xfi ko <0 ^ 1> C» Oi O r;H CO -^ «0 i;*'' "O >0 l-^" X O O O ^ M OG^OQ^CO05t-C5lr-0'-iC5'-HOf>J rHi-Hi— II— 11— Ir—ir— II— ii-H,— (i-Hl-Hi— (i-Hi— 11— lO^I— l(5<0-t-t't— t^t-OOXO>05'05C50500 c C ^^^^>^^^^^^:^:^i§§§ig!g!^?2 Ph c CO o o :o >— 1 >— 1 "— 1 >— ' i-H I— 1 >— 1 1— • lo >o '^ 'O »o 'o 'O »o »o i-ii-i>-ii-iO<©»G^G^O<0*(XO^»< Q d ooooooooooooooooo^^^o ^ - 22S22S222S22Sg|g|^^^glg^^g.^g^ ^ c S22222iii8§i^^^i;^^^^^ - ci X00XXXX0505050>0>05OOOOOOO<3->r5< 1— 1 - i-irHi— ii-iO>(^0<0(©<©«^oJoSoSoS§ P^ ^ i^^^i^^^^^^^^^^i^ir^g^i W c C5CiOiCiOC5C50C5C5C5C5C5C5C505C5C5C5005 o -" « Pm 0CO00OO0»O0>'f<©>-^<0'!f<«D-^«0X«0XOX -< ^ ^^^^55^^^^^^:^^§i§i§gigi 48 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION given, the fire brick are indicated by the heavy shading of the drawing. The tables given, accompanying each illustration, give measurements, as indicated by the letters on the drawing and the number of common and fire brick necessary for each size of boiler that is given. BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 49 All steam boilers used for heating should be provided with the regulation set of trimmings. By " regulation set " we mean safety valve, steam gauge, automatic damper regulator, water column and glass, blow-off or draw-off cock, and a complete set of cleaning and firing tools, and of these trimmings and tools we wish to speak in detail. The Safety Valve The safety valve on a steam boiler should be of a kind not liable to stick or become inoperative, as accidents are frequently the result of this occurrence. There are three kinds of safety valves in general use, the weighted valve, as shown by Fig. 31, the lever valve, shown by Fig. 32. — Lever safety valve. Fig. 31.— Weighted safety valve. Fig. 33.— Spring safety valve. Fig. 32, and the spring valve, often called the " pop safety valve," shown by Fig. 33. The weighted safety valve is a simple ground seat valve, the disc of which is held against the seat by a weight usually in the form of a cast-iron ball placed or screwed on the top of the stem. This ball varies in weight, according to the size of the valve. The lever safety valve shown is a type of valve in general use not only on steam boilers, but on other work as well, and this is an excellent form of safety valve. It may be regulated to operate at different pressures by adjusting the weight or hanging it in different positions on the lever until sufficient pressure has accumu- lated to operate it. 50 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION This type of valve, as well as the others mentioned, is used ex- tensively on low-pressure as well as high-pressure boilers. The safety valve should never be weighted down with a weight heavier than that accompanying the valve. We have seen the levers of safety valves held down by a block or board wedged between the lever and a joist of the floor above — a very careless practice and one liable to cause serious damage to person or property. We, therefore, favor the spring, or " pop," valve, owing to the fact that it cannot be easily tampered with. The attendant of a steam boiler should frequently try the safety valve by releasing it, in order that he may know that it is in good condition. The Steam Gauge Low-pressure steam gauges, as used with boilers for heating, are made to register about thirty pounds. Fig. S4< illustrates a gauge of this character and while it is customary to provide for all boilers, high or low pressure, a gauge registering double the working pressure, it is very seldom that the pressure exceeds ten pounds on a boiler used for low-pressure heating. A stopcock should always be provided with the gauge in case it is found necessary to remove it for cleaning or adjustment. In connecting the gauge, a siphon should be used to prevent dry steam from entering the gauge. It is good practice to fill the loop of this siphon with water before screwing on the gauge. The Automatic Damper Regulator All steam boilers, high or low pressure, should be provided with an automatic damper regulator. Without this regulation it would be impossible to control the boiler except by constant watching and work of the attendant in charge of the boiler. Automatic damper regulators for low-pressure boilers are very simple aff'airs, the regulators for high pressure being more com- plicated. There are a variety of high-pressure regulators on the market, which our space will not permit of illustrating or describ- ing. It is of the low-pressure regulator that we desire more par- ticularly to speak. All of them are alike in principle and very similar in design, to that shown by Fig. 35. Two castings shaped BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 51 almost exactly like the old-fashioned soup plate form the bowl of the regulator, the upper one inverted and bolted face to face with the lower, with the rubber diaphragm between, the lower casting of the bowl being tapped for a connection with the boiler. The upper casting of the bowl has a round orifice or opening in the center, through which a small plunger protrudes, the lower side of the plunger resting on the rubber diaphragm. As the pressure increases under the rubber diaphragm, it is expanded, forcing the plunger upward. To the top of the plunger is bolted a wrought- iron rod or lever, at point marked " A " on the illustration. At point marked "* B " there are two lips which extend upward from the outer edge of the upper bowl casting, these lips forming the fulcrum, the lever being bolted between the lips at this point. The Fig. 3d. — Low-pressure damper regulator. Fig. 34. — Low-pressure steam gauge. regulator is set so that the fulcrum is on the side toward the front of the boiler. A weight, marked '* C," is placed on the lever at a point back of the plunger. This weight is movable and by placing it on the lever farther from or nearer to the plunger, a greater or lesser pressure is required to operate the lever. On some regulators there is a chain extending from the front end of the lever only, this chain connecting with the draught door of the boiler. On most regulators, however, there are two chains, one from either end of the rod. The front chain connects witli the draught door and the rear chain connects with the cold-air check door at the rear of the boiler, the chains being so adjusted that when the lever moves to close the draught door, it will also open the cold-air check. 52 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION The steam should never come in contact with the rubber dia- phragm, and for this reason a water bottle or trap is used in connecting the regulator to the boiler. E Fig. 36. — Showing connection and action of regulator. Fig. 37. — Showing connection and action of regulator. Many fitters of limited experience become confused in adjust- ing the chains to draught and check doors, and in order to make this plain, we illustrate as in Figs. 36, 37 and 38, showing the three positions of the regulator in action. " A " represents the Fig. 38. — Showing connection and action of regulator. draught door being a part of the base or ash-pit front ; " B " the cold-air check, a door on the smoke connection at rear of boiler; " C " the trap used in connecting regulator to boiler ; " D " the BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 53 diaphragm castings with rubber between ; " E " the weight, or ball, on lever ; " F " the smoke pipe, and " G " the smoke con- nection to boiler. Fig. 36 shows the adjustment of chains when draught is on the boiler. Note that the front chain is taut, the draught door being held open. The rear chain is slack, the check door being shut. In this position the doors remain until sufficient pressure is raised to operate regulator, when the plunger is slowly raised, the lever allowing draught door " A " to gradually close. Fig. 37 shows the operation of the chains when draught door is closed. Note that the rear chain is yet slack, although there is no draught on the boiler. If the pressure of the boiler is not held in check by the closing of the draught door, the plunger in the diaphragm will continue to rise until, as shown by Fig. 38, the rear chain becomes taut and opens the check draught door at the rear of boiler, thus effectually checking the fire. The weight on the lever may be set in such a manner that both draught and check doors remain closed. The Water Column and Gauge Glass Fig. 39 shows a standard size of water column, with gauge cocks and water gauge. The try cocks, of which there are three, are not shown on the drawing. These try cocks are screwed into the water column at points marked " A " on the drawing. While it is desirable to use three try cocks, it is not absolutely necessary, and many manufacturers of heating boilers make use of but two. The water column should be at least two and one half inches (21/)") in diameter and fourteen (l-t") or fifteen (15") inches in length. On the illustration, " B " is the gauge glass, " C " the guard rods, " D " the drip cock, which should be placed at the bottom of all water gauges, and " E " the packing or rubber washer used to make tight joints around the glass. The Blow-Off Cock Fig. 40, the blow off or drain cock, often called, also, sediment cock, is a necessary trimming to every boiler. At the lowest part of the boiler, there should be an opening to which a pipe con- 54 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION nection can be made to drain the boiler or heating sj^stem. This connection must have a valve, and we have seen all sorts of valves used for this purpose. A drain cock, known also as a plug cock, should always be used, as it has a straight opening through which Fig. 40. — Steam or "blow-off" cock. Fig. 39. — Water column and gauge. the sediment or scale from the boiler can pass without choking. Many of the smaller sizes of boilers are tapped for a %" blow off; a 1" or 11/4" opening would be better. Firing Tools and Brushes All boilers should be provided with firing tools, consisting of ash hoe, poker and slice bar, and with brushes for cleaning the heating surfaces and flues, in order that the attendant may properly fire and clean the boiler. Nearly all makers of low-pressure boilers furnish firing tools, as well as specially designed brushes. Fusible Plug When we take into consideration the thousands of boilers in use for heating purposes and the fact that but very few explosions occur, it would seem that all necessary precautions had been taken when the boiler is provided with a complete set of trimmings. How- BOILER SURFACES AND SETTINGS 55 ever tlie Boiler Inspection Bureaus of some states, and some in- surance companies, demand that a fusible plug be placed on all heating boilers. This consists of a brass plug, having usually a hexagon head, through the center of which there is an opening or core. This core is filled with Banca Tin, a metal which melts at about 430 degrees Fahr. The boiler is tapped at a point below what might be termed the low-water line, and the fusible plug inserted. Should the water in the boiler get below the plug, the heat from the hot iron will melt the tin, thus making an opening to the atmosphere and giving relief. CHAPTER V The Chimney Flue There is no one part of a steam or hot-water heating appara- tus which contributes so largely to its success or failure as the chimney to which the boiler or heater is connected. The chimney is comparatively a modern invention. It is said that none of the old Roman ruins, nor the restored buildings in Herculaneum or Pompeii have chimneys ; the chimney of that period consisted of a hole in the roof. The modern chimney was first used in the fourteenth century. At the time steam and hot water were first used for heating PLASTERED BRICK^ \lk "'°^llf Fig. 41. — ^Round and square chimney flues. purposes in this country but very little attention was given to the chimney, with the result that many of the heating plants then installed failed to work satisfactorily. Experience has taught us several facts in the building and use of chimneys : First : — A chimney used for a low-pressure steam or a hot- water heating apparatus should have no other opening than that used for the heating apparatus. Second: — The draught in a chimney is spiral; therefore, round chimneys, or those as nearly square as possible, are most 56 THE CHIMNEY FLUE 67 effective. A round chimney 12" in diameter, liaving an area of approximately 113 sq. in., is as effective as a chimney 12" X 12" having an area of ll?!) sq. in. See Fig. 41. GOOD D-^AFT POOR DRAFT Fig. 42. — Proi)er and improper construction of chimneys. Third : — Adding height to a chimney will increase the velocity of the draught and add to the fuel consumption. As we desire a low rate of combustion in a low-pressure boiler or hot-water heater, greater area and less proportionate height of the flue is desirable. (T- ■ 1 TILE-»e vL •'>:/;■ r.v;- v.; '■'^'■''•^ ••:■;:=.•' -v:, Fig. 43. — ^Tile-lined chimnev flue. Fourth : — The height of a chimney should be great enough to preclude the possibility of interference with the draught by sur- 58 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION rounding buildings, trees, or the roof of the building of which the chimney forms a part. Fig. 42 illustrates the character of this interference. Fifth : — The chimney should be built straight upward without any offsets, which cause friction and interfere with the draught ; and the inside lining should be as smooth as possible, a tile-lined flue being superior to all others. See Fig. 43. Sizes of Chimneys The following table we give as the result of practical expe- rience with chimneys on heating work and may be safely accepted: TABLE IV Cubic Feet. Contents of Building. Sq. Ft. Direct Steam Radn. Sq. Ft. Hot-Water Radn. Round, Tile or Iron — Inside. Inches. Square or Rectangu- lar—Tile or Brick. Inches. 10,000- 20,000 20,000- 45,000 45,000- 75,000 75,000-140,000 140,000-200,000 200,000-350,000 250 to 450 450 to 700 700 to 1,200 1,200 to 2,400 2,400 to 3,500 3,500 to 5,000 300 to 800 800 to 1,200 1,200 to 2,200 2,200 to 3,600 3,600 to 5,200 5,200 to 8,000 8 10 12 14 16 18 8X 8 8X12 12X12 12X16 16X16 16X20 It will interest our readers to know what other authorities say regarding chimney sizes, and we shall therefore quote from some of them. Lawler in his work on steam and hot-water heating gives a graphic diagram (see Fig. 44) which gives the proportion of grate surface, heating surface and chimney area, and he says : " It will be noticed that one square foot of grate surface will sup- ply 36 sq. ft. of boiler surface ; and this amount of grate and boiler surface will carry 196 sq. ft. of direct radiating surface for heating purposes. The area of the chimney must be taken into consideration and for this amount of cerate and boiler surface, we allow 49 sq. in. For low-pressure gravity steam-heating plants, carrying over 1,000 sq. ft. of radiation, the size of chimney may be reduced somewhat less in proportion to that shown." Jones, an English authority, says : " For steam boilers where THE CHIMNEY FLUE 59 a keen or rapid draught is required, it is necessary to have lofty chimneys, but for hot-water boilers they are not often available, low chimneys being generally sufficient. Where practicable the height of chimney should be twenty-five per cent to fifty per cent greater than the total length of horizontal flues." n GRATE SURFACE 36 SO. FEE T BOILER SURFACE CHIMNEV SURFACE 196 SQ_. FEET — — _J DIRECT STEAM RADIATING SURFACE Fig. 44. — Diagram of flue capacity. (The author refers to length of fire travel.) " The total length (horizontal) of flues should not in any case exceed the height of the chimney." Baldwin says : " The chimney must be capable of passing suffi- cient air for the greatest consumption of fuel ever likely to be used in the apparatus. Less air will not do. More than is needed does no harm, for it is within the power of the operator or the auto- matic draught regulator to diminish the quantit^^ of air." We would like to add to the above by saying that a chimney is only as large as its smallest area, and if at any point in its con- struction, for no matter how short a distance, the area is reduced for any cause whatsoever, the area of the entire flue must be figured according to its size at the point of reduction. Elements of a Good Flue The flue should be properly proportioned according to the size of heater or amount of radiating surface used. It should have no obstructions, and in height should extend 60 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION well above the roof and higher than surrounding buildings, trees, etc. There should be only one smoke-pipe hole, and that used to connect witli boiler. The area of the flue should be maintained full size from bot- tom to top Avithout off'sets. A flue 8" X 8" is the smallest that should be provided for a heating apparatus. Velocity sufficient to carry burning paper up the flue does not indicate a perfect chimney. See that area is provided as well as velocity (meaning height). If flue opening extends below the smoke-pipe entrance, fill it up with dirt, broken brick or other material at hand, to a point level with the bottom of smoke-pipe hole. If this is neglected, an air pocket will be formed, causing down draught in the chimney. Take no chances on a chimney until the above conditions are fulfilled. There are some few facts regarding chimney construction that are worthy of note. We have particular reference to the materials used in their erection and to the location of the chimneys. In the observance of various chimneys note that at the top, frequently for a distance of from four to five feet, the bricks have become loosened and seem about ready to fall. The reason for this is that such bricks were laid with lime mortar, and the action of the sul- phuric acid on the lime decomposes it, thus allowing the sand to loosen. Through the action of the wind and weather and also the settling of the bricks they blow or fall out, leaving cracks or openings in the brickwork of the chimney. Brick chimneys laid with cement are better, as the sulphuric acid will not injuriously aff'ect the cement. Unlined chimneys should be plastered smooth on the inside in order to reduce the friction as much as possible and thereby in- crease the velocity of the draught. It is a very good plan to build the chimney up through the center of the house. The warmer the air surrounding the chim- ney, the less condensation of the smoke and gases and the greater the efficiency of the flue. The foundation for the chimney should be adequate to support the weight upon it without settling. Cracked walls, loose chim- THE CHIMNEY FLUE 61 nejs and the like can usually be traced to a weak foundation, which is also frequently the cause of disastrous fires. With the pressure of the atmosphere exerted against the ascending column of smoke and gases, the smallest crack or opening in the walls of the chimney will prove troublesome and dangerous. Masons and contractors give too little attention to chimney building, with the result that many chimneys are improperly and loosely built, of too small area or poor design. In order to justly protect themselves from the unsatisfactory results arising from such methods of chimney erection, many heating contractors state clearly in their specifications that the owner must furnish a good and sufficient flue, and tliat the heating contractor will not be re- sponsible for failure of the apparatus due to poor draught. Heights of Chimneys The following table of heights and area will be found to be substantially correct. One hundred square feet of radiation may be allowed for each H. P. given in the table. TABLE V Scjuare Chimney. Side of Square. it m 4) a; II 50 60 Heiglit of Chimneys in Feet. 70 80 90 100 110 125 150 175 Commercial Horse Power of Boilers. 16X16 19X19 22X22 24X24 27X27 30X30 32X32 35X35 38X38 43X43 48X48 54X54 59X59 64X64 70X70 75X75 80X80 86X86 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 1.77 2.41 3.14 3.98 4.91 5.94 7.07 8.30 9.62 12.57 15.90 19.64 23.76 28.27 33.18 38.48 44.18 50.27 .97 1.47 2.08 2.78 3.58 4.48 5.47 6.57 7.76 10.44 13.51 16.98 20.83 25.08 29.73 34.76 40.19 46.01 23 35 49 65 84 54 72 92 115 141 58 78 100 125 152 62 83 107 133 Ifi'i 113 141 173 208 245 330 427 536 183 219 258 348 448 565 694 835 183 196 216 ^31 271 365 472 593 728 876 1,038 1,214 311 389 503 632 776 934 1,107 1,294 1,496 551 692 849 1,023 1,212 1,418 1,639 1,876 748 918 1,105 1,300 1,500 1,800 2.000 .... 62 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Attention is called to the table " Capacities of Stacks " given in the last chapter of this book. The height of the average house or other building is usually sufficient for a chimney of ordinary area. However, for larger work it is well that the height, area, etc., of the chimney be care- fully proportioned in order that the best results may be obtained from the heating apparatus and the most economical service from the amount of fuel consumed. CHAPTER VI PIPE AND FITTINGS Pipe Wrought-irox tubes of the character we to-day call pipe were first made in England and later (about the year 1834) were originally manufactured in this country by the firm of Morris, Tasker & Morris at Philadelphia, who afterwards built a tube mill known as the Pascal Iron Works. In 184^9 a tube plant was erected at Maiden, Mass., known as the Wanalancet Iron & Tube Works, the firm of Walworth & Nason, of Boston, being the prin- cipal owners of this Company. The manufacture of pipe has now come to be a very important part of tlie iron and steel industry of this country. TABLE YI Standard Wrought Iron Pipe Internal Diameter. Inches. i ^"1 c r 5 Length of Pipe Con- taining 1 Cubic Ft. 5'^ WeiKlit of Water in 1 Ft. of Pipe. Pounds. Internal Area. Square Indies. Lenfrth of Pipe Per Sq. Ft. Outside. Surface. Vs .068 .24 27 2513. .024 0.0583 9.44 H .088 .42 18 1383.3 .044 0.1041 7.075 Vs .091 .56 18 751.5 .082 0.1917 5.657 Yi .109 .84 14 472.4 .132 0.3048 4.547 M .113 1.12 14 270.00 .25 0.5333 3.637 1 .134 1.67 nu 160.90 .006 .37 0.8627 2.903 iM .140 2.24 111^ 96.25 .010 .647 1.496 2.301 Wi .145 2.68 n}4 70.66 .014 .881 2.038 2.010 % .154 3.61 lllo 42.91 .023 1.45 3 . 356 1.608 m .204 5.74 8 30.10 .032 2.07 4 784 1.328 3 .217 7.54 8 19.50 .051 3.20 7.388 1.091 33^ .226 9.00 8 14.57 .069 4.28 9.887 0.955 4 .237 10.66 8 11.31 .088 5.50 12.730 0.849 41.^ .246 12.49 8 9.02 .111 6.92 15.961 0.764 5 .259 14.50 8 7.20 .138 8,63 19.990 0.687 6 .280 18.76 8 4.98 .197 12.25 28.889 0.577 7 .301 23.27 8 3.72 .270 16.87 38.738 0.501 8 .322 28.18 8 2.88 .340 21.61 50.039 0.443 9 .344 33.70 8 2.29 .440 27.25 62 . 733 0.397 10 .366 40.00 8 1.82 .550 34 . 50 78 . 838 0.355 63 64 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION The pipe used for steam, water and gas is graded in size from %" upward to the larger sizes. The internal diameter forms the basis of the pipe size as given. Pipe at present is manufac- tured in three thicknesses or weights, known commercially as " Standard," " Extra Strong " and " Double Extra Strong," the " Standard " weight being used on all steam and hot-water heat- ing work, and all reference to pipe in this book will apply to the standard weight unless stated otherwise. Among the tables published in the last chapter of this work will be found tables of sizes, weights, etc., of " Extra Strong " and " Double Extra Strong " pipe. Pipe up to and including 1^/4'' in size is what is known as " butt welded," 1% ' ^^^ larger, being " lap welded " and is manu- factured in lengths varying from 16 to 20 feet. Threading of Pipe All pipe is now threaded uniformly, the Briggs' standard of pipe-thread sizes being used by all manufacturers. The taper is an inclination of 1 in 32 to the axis, or %" to 1 foot. Bending of Pipe Some years ago it was a common occurrence to bend pipe, where offsets were needed, or change of direction required. The piece of pipe to be bent was filled with sand and both ends capped, the sand acting as an aid in preserving the form of the pipe, without flattening. It was then heated to a cherry-red color and bent to the desired form. In these later years but very little pipe is bent, the offsets or changes of direction being made with the use of cast- iron or malleable-iron fittings. The smaller sizes of pipe, such as are used for water or gas service, are frequently bent by the plumber without heating and without the use of sand. When it becomes necessary to do any considerable amount of work of this character, it is better to use bending blocks or bending forms. Expansion of Pipe In heating work the expansion of pipe, when heated, must al- ways be taken into consideration and opportunity given the pipe PIPE AND FITTINGS 65 to stretch without breaking fittings or straining joints. To this end all mains should be hung or supported by expansion liangers as shown by Fig. 45. Pipe connections, particularly on steam work, should be made by using elbows to form a swing or expan- sion joint. We shall speak of this more fully In discussing methods of steam piping. Whenever pipe is run through boxing, tile or other form of conduit, a roller support (see Fig. 46) should be used. CtitWtM Fig. 46.— Roller support for piping. Fig. 45.— Eximnsion pipe hangers. Pipe heated from 30 degrees to 212 degrees will expand about 1%" in 100 feet of length. The following table gives the expansion of 100 lineal feet of pipe heated to various degrees of temperature. TABLE VII Expansion of Wrought-Iron Pipe Temperature of the Air When Pii)e Is Fitted. Leuffth of Pipe When Fitted. Ft. Length of Pipe When Heated to— 215° 265" 297° 338° Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Zero 64° 100 100 100 100 100 100 1.72 1.47 1.21 Ill 2.12 1.78 1.61 100 100 100 2.31 2.12 1.87 100 100 100 2.70 2.45 2.19 The number of degrees pipe is heated, corresponding approx- imately to steam pressure, as follows: 215° = 1 lb. pressure. 265° = 25 lbs. pressure. 297° = 50 lbs. pressure. 338° = 100 lbs. pressure. 66 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Wrought-Iron or Steel Pipe Up to the year 1885, approximately, all pipe was made of wrought iron. At about this time the manufacture of welded steel pipe on a commercial basis was started. The difficulties experi- enced before in its manufacture, principally in welding, had been overcome by improvement, so that it could now be readily welded. The first of the steel pipe seemed hard and brittle and the steam fitter had considerable trouble in threading it. However, as now manufactured it is soft and tough in fiber and a die, if blunt, will tear the thread. Consequently it is necessary that the die be sharp in threading steel pipe. In appearance, iron pipe is rough and has a heavy scale, while steel pipe has a lighter scale, underneath which the surface is smooth. The grain of steel pipe is fine, while that of wrought-iron pipe is coarse. The author of this work is located near the center of the iron and steel industry and has endeavored to ascertain the difference in value between steel and wrought-iron pipe and our investigation may be summed up as follows : Steel pipe costs less to manufacture than wrought-iron pipe ; it is, therefore, cheaper. With improved dies, threads may be cut on steel pipe as good, but not as quickly, as on wrought- iron pipe. When steel pipe is new it has a higher tensile strength than wrought iron. We are told that after a few years' use the reverse is the case. There seems to be no doubt but that wrought-iron pipe will last much longer than pipe made of steel, as it is less liable to cor- rode, the difference in longevity, under certain conditions, more than making up for the increased cost. To Ascertain Whether Pipe Is Made of Iron or Steel The following test is given us by an officer of an iron company : " Cut off a short piece of pipe — file the end smooth to oblit- erate the marks of the cutting tool. Suspend the piece of pipe in a solution of nine parts of water, three parts of sulphuric acid and one part muriatic acid. Place the water in a porcelain or glass dish, adding the sulphuric and then the muriatic acid. Suspend the pipe in such a manner that the end will not touch the bottom PIPE AND IlTTIxNGS 67 of tlie dish. After an iniiiiersion of about two liours, remove the piece of pipe and wash off the acid. If tlie pipe is steel, the end will present a bright, solid, unbroken surface; if made of iron, /. Steel Fig. 47. — Wrought-iron and steel pipe. it will show faint ridges or rings, displaying the different layers of iron and streaks of cinder," as shown by Fig. 47. Nipples Short pieces of standard pipe threaded at both ends are called " nipples " and are know^n commercially as " close," " short," or " long." A close nipple is one so short that in threading the ends, the threads join at the center of the nipple, and by the use of which two fittings or valves may be joined together close to each other. From this fact the nipple is called " close." The short nipple is one showing a small amount of bare pipe between the threads, the length varying from l^A" for 1/g" to 1/2 " nipples to 5" for nipples made from 7" to 12" pipe. SHOULDER NIPPLE CLOSE NIPPLE Fig. 48.— Nipples. Long nipples run from 2" to 6|j" In length, according to the size of pipe. Fig. 48 shows the two kinds of nipples and the following table gives lists of lengths and sizes. 68 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE VIII Wrought-Iron Nipples Length in Inches. Close. Short. Loi g- ¥4. 11/^ 2 23^ 3 33^ 3^ % \}A 2 2^^ 3 3H 1 ^Yi 2 2U 3 33^ /^ 1^ IM 2 23^ 3 33^ ^ w% 2 21^ 3 33i2 4 M IK 2 2}^ 3 33^ 4 1 m 23^ 3 ^Yi 43^ 13€ iM 2>^ 3 3K> 43^ 13^ 2 2>^ 3 33^ 43^ 2 2}^ 3 ^Yi 4 4Vo 5 2U 2H 3 3K 4 43^^ 5 3 2-M 4 4U 5 b}A 6 33^ 3 4 414 5 53^ 6 4 3 4 4,U 5 0Y2 6 432 3^ 41-^ 5 5^ 6 63^ 5 3^ 43^ 5 ^Yi 6 614 6 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 8 8 7 8 9 10 1 ' Couplings Pipe is joined together by what is known as a coupHng — a sleeve of wrought iron tapped out or threaded right hand on the inside. Pipe mills furnish one coupling with each full length of pipe. They may also be obtained tapped right and left hand, if desired, although it is customary when using a right and left coupling to use one made of malleable iron. Reducing couplings WROUGHT IRON COUPLING "* ^ MAULEABtE COUPLING Fig. 49. — Couplings, are also made of malleable iron, reducing from one pipe size to another of smaller size. Fig. 49 shows the wrought-iron right- hand coupling and the malleable right and left hand coupling. PIPE AND FITTINGS 69 Fittings The fittings used in connection with steam, gas or water pipe are of two general kinds, viz. : those made of cast iron and tliose made of malleable iron. By fittings we mean elbows, tees, crosses, flanges, bushings, caps, plugs, etc. For heating work the cast-iron fitting is used; for gas piping, the malleable-iron fitting, and for domestic water supply, the gal- vanized malleable-iron fitting. We shall illustrate and describe only the cast-iron fitting. Cast-iron fittings are of two kinds, viz. : those having a flat bead, and those having a round bead, — Fig. 50. " Straight " fit- ELBOW, ROUND BEAD ELBOW, FLAT BEAD Fig. 50. — Beaded fittings. tings are those having all openings tapped for the same size of pipe. " Reducing " fittings are those tapped for different sizes of pipes. Fig. 51 shows a group of flat beaded fittings. The terms " male " and " female " fittings are sometimes used. By " male " fitting we mean one with the threads on the outside ; by " female " fitting we mean one with the threads on the inside. When reading or describing a tee fitting, the run is named first, the side opening last. If the run is tapped reducing, the larger tapping is read first. Thus a tee whose tappings are 3" X 2'' X 1 Yl" is read : three by two by one and one half inch. The top and side outlets of a cross are all of the same size, while the inlet may be the same size or larger. Thus a 2 X 1 X 1" cross would indicate that the bottom or inlet was 2" and the top and side outlets 1" in size. Branch Tees A fitting used largely on coil work is known as a Branch Tee, frequently (but erroneously) called a Branch Header. Shown by Fig. 52. All branch tees are tapped right hand in the run and 70 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION in the branches, excepting when used in making box coils, when the branches are tapped left hand and the back opening right hand. R.& U ELBOW FLANGED UNION REDUCING TEE ECCENTRIC TEE ECCENTRIC TEE RETURN BEND, WIDE PATTERN BACK OUTLET Fig. 51. — Types of cast-iron fittings. Cast-iron Flanges Cast-iron flanges are now made according to two uniform stand- ards. A joint committee of the Master Steam Fitters Association PIPE AND FITTINGS 1 and the American Society of Heating Engineers reconiniendecl a standard for a working pressure up to 125 pounds. This stand- ard has been adopted bj all manufacturers, who also have a stand- NO. 2. FOR CIRCULATION OUTLET OPEN INLET OPEN NO. 3. FOR BOX COILS Fig. 52. — Branch tees. ard of their own for pressures up to 250 pounds. The following gives all measurements for flanges, as used on heating work. TABLE IX Schedule of Standard Flanges Flantte Size of Flange Diameter Num- Size of Bolts, Size of Bolts, Thick- Flange Thick- ness at Edge. Width of Flange Face. Pipe Size X Diam. of Bolt Circle. ber of Bolts. Pressure Under 80 Lbs. Pressure 80 Lbs. and Over. ness at Hub for Iron Pipe. 2X6 m 4 3^X21^ ^^X2 1 2 21^ X 7 5U 4 3^X2 ^X2i^ Us % 21^ 3 X VA 6 4 >^X2^ ^X23^ iM H 2M 3^X 81^ 7 4 HX2i^ ^X2i^ iM '\, 01.; 4X9 71^ 4 ^X2M MX2M l^s % ^^4 4UX 91^ IH 8 ^X3 ^X3 1^^ % i% 5 XIO 814 8 ^X3 Hxs V/o % 21^ 6 Xll 91 8 ^X3 MX3 \y> 1 21^ 7 X12U 10^1 8 %x^H Hxsii 1}4 V{^ 2M 8 XI314 ii'K 8 H^^M MX3i^ m m 2M 9 X15 13K 12 %y-^^-2 MX 31^ iH -iVs 3 10 X16 l^M 12 Hxsy, VsXSVs 2 15^6 3 VI X19 17 12 HX3H VsXSH 2 iH 33^ U X21 183^ 12 Vsxm 1 X4i^ 2 1^ 33^ 1"> X22K 20 16 VsX^H 1 X4M 2 rVs 3^8 16 X23i.^ 21^ 16 J^X4M 1 X4}4 2M IJTe 3M 18 X25 22'H 16 1 X4-M Vix^H 1% 3^ 20 X27i^ 25 20 1 X4-M iVsX^H 1% 3M Do not drill bolt holes on center line but syinmetricallv each side. 72 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Measuring Pipe and Fittings The proper method of measuring pipe and fittings is by " end- to-center " measure, or " center to center," the former being used in measuring a piece or length of pipe with a fitting on one end; for example, with an elbow on the end of the pipe, measure from end of pipe to center of the elbow, or in case of a tee, measure from end of pipe to center of the side outlet of the tee. Fig. 53. — Measiirlno^ pipe and fittings. In measuring center to center measurements, Fig. 53 shows the method employed. The illustration shows two elbows, a valve, a union and a tee, with dotted lines indicating method of measure- ment. When ordering pipe " cut to sketch " this manner of in- dicating measurements, no matter how crude the drawing, will guard against possible errors. CHAPTER VII Valves The method employed in blocking or stopping the flow of steam or hot water in the piping or in the supply to the radiating surfaces of a steam or water warming apparatus is the placing of a cock or valve at some convenient point or points on the system, which may be opened or closed at will. The early types of cocks and valves, as used in connection with a heating apparatus, were very crude when compared with those used at the present time, and there is probably no part of the heat- ing apparatus which has received closer attention in the way of improvement in manufacture, utility and appearance, than the steam, water and air valves. The valves used in shutting off or supplying steam or water to the radiators are customarily called Radiator Valves. These are of several kinds, and, as a matter of convenience in connecting piping to a radiator, are usually provided with a union connection. As a rule, radiator valves are nickel plated all over, the body of the valve being left rough, the other portion being finished or polished. Fig. 54 shows the regular form of steam radiator valve with union, and has a ground seat and composition disk, the Jenkins Disk being the standard. Fig. 55 shows the regular form of the hot-water radiator valve. This is known as a quick-opening valve from the fact that it is made in such a manner that a quarter turn of the wheel will open or close the valve. A sleeve, with opening in the side, is attached to the stem and fitted closely inside the body of the valve. To operate the valve the opening in the sleeve is turned in the direction of the discharge opening of the valve; to close the valve the opening in the sleeve is turned back from the discharge opening of the valve. In the early da^^s of steam and hot-water heating, the valves used on hot-water radia- 73 74 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION tors were of practically the same design as those used on steam radiators. A change in the construction of the hot-water radiator valve was found necessary, as with the old type the water within the radiator ceased circulating when the valve was closed. This /^^^ Fig. 54. — Steam radi- ator valve with union. Fig. 55. — Hot-water radi- ator valve with union. Fig. 56. — Union elbow. complete stoppage frequently resulted in a freezing of the water in the radiating surface. To overcome this difficulty the sleeve of a hot-water radiator valve is now made with a small opening through it, so that, though the valve be closed tight, there is still a slight circulation within the radiator, and this effectually pre- vents freezing of the water. c :) D a Fig. 57. — Globe valve. Fig. 58. — Angle valve. Fig. 59. — Gate valve. Hot-water radiator valves of other patterns are manufactured and quite extensively used. As a matter of appearance and also of convenience in con- necting the return end of a hot-water radiator with the piping, VALVES 75 a nickel-plated brass elbow, with union connection, is used. This is connnonly called a Union Elbow and is illustrated by Fig. 56. The principal valves used on piping are the Globe Valve, Fig. 57, the xVngle Valve, Fig. 58, and the Gate Valve, Fig. 59, and there are many varieties of each. Some globe valves are made with a solid metal disk and seat; others have a seat made of soft metal, while some are provided with a composition disk of the Jenkins type, or similar. The diaphragm of a globe valve forms an obstruction in the valve, as will be noticed by referring to Fig. 60, which illustrates the in- terior of the valve. Consequently it is well to use this valve only on a vertical pipe, unless so set that the stem of the valve is hori- zontal. The angle valve is used on the piping in place of an elbow c J c J Fig. 60. — Interior of globe valve. Fig. 61. — Interior of gate valve. when change of direction is desired and it is found convenient to place the valve at this point. The gate valve (known also as the straightway valve) has superseded the globe and angle types of valves on nearly all work, as it has so many important advantages in comparison. It sliould always be made use of on hot-water piping, owing to the fact that, when open, there is nothing to prevent the free flow of water through the valve. See illustration, Fig. 61. Extra large globe and gate valves are frequently provided with a yoke or saddle, as shown by Figs. 62 and 63. We have still another form of valve, known as the Cross Valve, which, in construction, is quite similar to the angle valve, with the exception, however, that it has two discharge openings instead 76 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION of a single one. The cross valve is a convenient one to use when it is desired to discharge in opposite directions. All of the above valves, shown in Fig. 57 to Fig. 63, inclusive, may be had in the larger sizes with flanges for bolting to com- panion flanges on the piping. I I rm. k Fig. 62. — Globe valve with yoke. TUT mr It Fig. 63. — Gate valve with yoke. When it is desired that the flow through a pipe should be in one direction only, the result is secured by the use of a form of valve, known as a Check Valve. It takes its name from the fact that it checks the reverse flow of steam or water in the pipe. These valves are of three varieties, the horizontal check, the vertical check and the angle check. The common type of check valve is what is known as the Swinging Check Valve, and is illustrated by Fig. Fig. 64. — Swing check valve. Fig. 65. — Interior of swing check valve. 64 and Fig. 65, the views showing the exterior and interior of the valve. There are other types of valves manufactured for special pur- poses, but those as above described and illustrated are those gen- erally used by the heating contractor. VALVES 77 Air Valves Doubtless no portion of a heating apparatus has received more attention or has been more experimented with and improved than has the air valve. In all heating apparatus it is necessary to pro- vide a means of escape for the air in the system, piping or radia- tors, and this is accomplished by the use of an air valve. The simplest form of an air valve is the compression valve. Fig. 66 Fig. 66. — Wood wlieel compression air valve. shows the common type of a wood-wheel compression air valve. Fig. 67 shows the type of compression air valve as used on a hot- water system ; this air valve is operated with a key. While we wish our readers to become familiar with the various types of air valves, it would be next to impossible to illustrate or describe all of them in a book of this character, as there is such a multiplicity of styles. In fact, nearly all manufacturers of radia- tor valves also make several patterns or designs of air valves. Fig. 67. — Lock and shield compression air valve. Air valves are of two general kinds : positive and automatic. The positive type is of the compression variety, which we have already described and illustrated. Automatic air valves are all made on the same general prin- ciple, although various different metals or substances are employed in their manufacture. Most of the automatic air valves close by 78 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION the expansion of and open bj the contraction of the metal or sub- stance employed in the interior of the valve. The early types of automatic air valves are the Breckenridge, shown by Fig. 68 and Fig. 69, the Baker, shown by Fig. 70 and Fig. 71. In this type ^^ Fig. 68.— Breck- enridge auto- matic air valve. Fig. 69.— Breck- enridge auto- matic air valve with drip. No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 Fig. 70. — Baker automatic air valve. Fig. 72. — Interior of Victor automatic ail' valve. 73 -Victor automatic air valve with wood wheel. Fig. 71.— Inte- rior of Baker automatic air valve. of valve the strip of brass or tube used in the interior of the valve, when expanded by contact with the steam, will seat or close the valve, which will again open when the steam pressure is removed. VALVES 79 As automatic valves are now manufactured, the expansion post or tube Is made of carbon or a c()m])osite material, which will ex- pand more quickly than metal, as shown by Fig. 7^ and Fig. 73. Others are made with a combination of the expansion post and a float, which temporarily closes the valve should there be any water forced through the air-valve opening of the radiator. Fig. 7-i shows an air valve of this type. Still another variety is that shown by Fig. 75. The float of this valve is sealed and contains a liquid extremely sensitive to Fig. 74. — Automatic air valve with exj)ansion post and float. Fig. 75. — ^Russell automatic air valve. heat, which vaporizes at a temperature of 151° Fahr., expanding the ends of the float, which are corrugated, closing the valve. Some makes of air valves are provided with a vacuum attach- ment, which, working in connection with the float and expansion post, allows the air to escape under pressure from the steam, clos- ing against the steam when all air is expelled. When the steam pressure is removed, or the system is cooled, the attachment ef- fectually closes the air port preventing the return again of air through the valve. Thus the system is placed under a partial vacuum. 80 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION One of the greatest of the troubles that the steam fitter has to contend with is air in the system. The radiators or radiating surfaces becoming air bound, the steam cannot enter, nor the hot water circulate. It is of importance then that the steam fitter should use a type of air valve which will effectually do the work required. CHAPTER VIII Forms of Radiating Surfaces One of the most interesting parts of tlic study of tlie science of steam and hot-water heating is to be found in following up tlie improvements in the beauty and utility of the radiating surfaces employed in the distribution of heat. Perhaps no part of a heat- ing apparatus shows so well the effort of " Yankee " ingenuity Fig. 77.— The Wliitfier radiator. Fig. 76. — The Verona radiator. as the various styles of heating surfaces we to-day call radiators, for the radiator is of American orioin. From the old pipe box coil, or the " pan " radiator made of sheet iron, to the American Radiator Company's " Verona," as shown by Fig. 76, or, in fact, almost any one of the present orna- 81 82 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION mental cast-iron radiators, is an achievement of which any person connected with the heating industry may be justly proud. Fig. 78. — ^The Bundy loop radiator. Fig. 79. — The Reed radiator. It is probable that the first direct radiator to be manufactured and sold in any quantity was the original " Bundy " radiator, FORMS OF RADIATING SURFACES 83 made with a cast-iron base into which were screwed short lenixths of one-inch pipe capped at the top and covered with a cast-iron Ifc&i:^ Fig. 80.— The Union radiator. Fig. 81.— The Pyro radiator. fretwork top. This was followed by other makes of pipe-tube radiators of similar desian. The first of the cast-iron direct radiators were the " Whittier," Fig. 82.— The Elite radiator. Fig. 77, and the '' Biindy " loop radiator, shown by Fig. 78. These radiators were placed on the market about the year 1873 or 1874, the former by the H. B. Smith Co. and the latter by the 84 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION A. A. Griffing Iron Co. Improvements in design and manufac- ture followed almost immediately, the H. B. Smith Co. bringing out the " Reed " radiator, Fig. 79, and still later the " Union," shown by Fig. 80. The A. A. GrifRng Iron Co. followed the "Bundy" with the " Pyro," Fig. 81 (1876), and the "Elite," Fig. 82 (1877). The Exeter Machine Co., of Exeter, N. H., were early in the field with the " Exeter," a cast-iron radiator of double- tube construction. Fig. 83.— The Gold Pin indirect radiator. Of the cast-iron indirect radiators the " Gold " pin radiator. Fig. 83, was the first, the original being manufactured as early as 1862, and is no doubt the oldest of the cast-iron radiators in any form used for heating. The illustration shows the improved style which, however, is quite similar to the original. The " Bundy Climax," Fig. 84, is another type of the early indirect radiators. Fig. 84. — The Bundy Chmax indirect radiator. Radiators may now be obtained in numerous heights and widths to fill any desired space and in a multitude of designs of orna- mentation, which when properly decorated become a thing of beauty as compared with the ugly looking box coil. Illustrative of this we show a low-down window radiator, Fig. 85, of such a height that a seat may be built over it, thus making not only a warm and comfortable window seat, but adding also largely to the beauty of the room. FOiniS OF RADIATING SURFACES 85 Pipe colls ill residence heating have hecn almost entirely su- perseded by what is known as the Wall Radiator, Fig. 86. This Fig. 8.5. — AYindow radiator type of radiator is largely used in narrow halls, bath rooms, or in fact, any place where there is an abundance of wall space and Fig. 80.— Wall radiator. but little floor space, and while not so effective as a pipe coil, is much more effective than the regular type of radiator. 86 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Cast-iron radiators, direct and indirect, and direct-indirect, are now manufactured by many concerns, the largest of which is the American Radiator Company, originally formed by the merging of the Pierce Company, of Buffalo, and the Detroit and Perfection Radiator Companies, of Detroit. The extremely large output of this concern, together with the other manufacturers of radiators, bears witness to the great popularity of steam and hot-water heat- ing in this country. Pipe Coils Pipe coils are still used largely on factory or other work where their appearance is not objectionable. There are several styles of pipe coils as generally used. Fig. 87 illustrates the Miter Coil BRANCH TEE- MITRE COIL Fig. 87. — Mitre pipe coil. made with branch tees and right and left elbows. The position of the air valve, as shown at A, is for hot water. If for steam, the coil should be vented at end marked B and the air valve should be placed on the branch tee just above the lowest pipe of the coil. In building all coils used for steam, expansion must be provided for, and the angles in this style of coil formed by the right and left elbows provide for the expansion. It should always be used on walls at the position shown in the illustration, with the miter end up, and it may also be used as a ceiling coil. Fig. 88 shows the Corner Coil. This coil as shown and vented is for hot water, but may also be used for steam. The Return Bend Coil, Fig. 89, is not so good for steam FORMS OF RADIATING SURFACES 87 c Return Bend Cc Return Fig. 89. — Return bend pipe coil. IRETURN RETURN BRANCH TEE COIL Fig. 90. — Return branch tee pipe coil. 88 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION as either of those already mentioned, as the steam must travel through the entire coil in a single pipe. When used for steam it should be vented at B ; when used for hot water it should be vented at A. Fig. 90 illustrates th.e Return Branch Tee Coil. Where the length of w^all space is limited, this is a very compact type of coil Standing Wall Coil >C_K_X_X 3C^ ^c_>c^ ^ X X Fig. 91. — Upright coil pipe. Return Ezr to use. It is made with one set of right hand elbows, the other set being right and left hand elbows. When used for hot water, vent as shown at A; when used for steam, vent at end marked B, but place vent lower down on the coil, as recommended for coil shown by Fig. 87. FORMS OF RADIATING SURFACES 89 A style of coil used for hot water is shown by Fig. 91. Do not use a coil of this character for steam, as suitable provision is not made for expansion and trouble would ensue. To those who have had no very great experience in building coils it may not be amiss to say a few words regarding coil building. There are many methods of procedure, any one of which when the details are properly worked out will result' in a neat and well- proportioned coil. We will take the miter coil for illustration, and our method is as follows : Determine the center to center measurements of the openings of the branch tees to be used and with an ordinary chalked - C ' >V \ V - v" I Vv^ I V . line snap as many chalk lines upon the shop floor as there are openings in the branch tees to be used, making the distance be- tween the lines the center to center measurement of the openings in the branch tees. Calling these the horizontal lines, make at one end the same number of vertical lines the same distance apart. Determine the length and height of coil according to the space to be used, and then lay the branch tees and R. and L. elbows on the marks as shown by Fig. 92. It is well to have the left hand thread of the elbow looking toward the short or expansion end of the coil. Accurate measurements for the pipes may now be taken. Tlie line A is the longest pipe of the coil. The line B is the longest of the upright or expansion pipes. To make a symmetrical and 90 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION neat appearing coil the shortest upright pipe C should be in length but one third that of D, the shortest horizontal pipe. Cut right hand threads on each end of the long pipes and a right hand thread on one end of the short pipes and a left hand thread on the other end. Make the right hand side of the elbows on one end of the long pipes and make the other end of the pipe into one of the branch tees, with the elbows in proper position to receive the short end of the coil. ^ Fig. 93. — Coil partially completed. This portion of the coil now looks as shown by Fig. 93. Next begin with the pipe marked C on Fig. 92 and make this up in the usual manner of making right and left hand connec- tions, following with the next shortest pipe and so on until coil is completed. While yet on the shop floor, see that the alignment of the pipes is perfect. If not, make it so, when the coil is ready to hang in position. EXPANSION PLATE Fig. 94. — Hook plates and coil stands. The same general method of laying out measurements is used in making all styles of coils. Wall coils are held in place by hook plates fastened singly or in groups, as shown by Fig. 94. Ceil- ing coils are hung or suspended by different forms of hangers so arranged as to give the proper pitch or drip to the coil and to allow of expansion and contraction. CHAPTER IX Locating Radiating Surfaces The proper location of the radiator, whether direct, indirect, or direct-indirect, has much to do with the success of a heating plant. Direct radiators should be located on outside walls or under the windows of the most exposed parts of a building. Indirect radia- FiG. 95. — ^Locating radiators and registers. tors, or more properly speaking, the register openings from in- direct radiators, should be located on the warmer or less exposed side of the room. With direct-indirect radiators it is well, if pos- sible, to place them under windows. To illustrate this we show 91 92 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION by Fig. 95 a room with two walls exposed. The dotted line divid- ing the room cornerwise shows the warm and cold or exposed parts of the room. If heated by a direct radiator, it should be located in either of the positions shown, and if heated by indirect radiation the register should be located in the floor or wall at or near either position shown on the illustration. When called upon to place and box an indirect radiator the steam fitter frequently becomes confused. As an aid to the proper hanging and boxing of indirects we shall illustrate and describe the usual methods followed. Fig. 96 shows a method of installing an indirect where the hot- air flue and register are placed in the wall. Figs. 97 and 98 show Fig. 96. — Indirect radiator — register in wall. two methods of installing indirect radiators when floor registers are used. The casing or boxing should fit snugly against the radiator sections in order that the air will pass through the radiator and not around it, and the cold-air supply or duct should always be provided with a damper. It is well to take the hot-air duct from the boxing at the end opposite to that where the cold air enters in order that the air will travel as great a distance through the radiator sections as possible. A number of sections of indirect radiation when nippled or bolted together are usually referred to as a " stack " of indirect LOCATING RADIATING SURFACES 93 radiation, or as an " indirect stack." The space between the top of a stack and the casing should be from eight to ten inches and the space between the bottom of the stack and the lower side of the casing should be six or eight inches. +> ^ i^ Fig. 97. — Indirect radiator — register in floor. The hot-air supply or area of the hot-air duct should be, for hot water, 2 sq. in. of area, or for steam 11/2 sq. in. of area for each sq. ft. of radiation in the stack. As a general rule, the cold- ^W^4=^ ^^12lS.^ Register Return Fig. 98. — Indirect radiator — register in floor. 94 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION air supply or area of the cold-air duct should be from two thirds (66% fc) to three fourths (75;?') of the area of the hot-air flue. Cir- cumstances vary these figures somewhat, but the above represents a fair average. The following table gives the proper sizes of hot and cold air ducts and sizes of registers for both steam and hot-water indirect heating under ordinary conditions. TABLE X Indirect Work. — Sizes of Cold and Hot Air Ducts and Registers — For First Floor INDIRECT HOT WATER INDIRECT STEAM Sq. ft. of Heating Surface. Sq. in. Cold-air Duct. Sq. in. Hot-air Duct. Size of Register. Sq. ft. of Heating Surface. Sq. in. Cold-air Duct. Sq. in. Hot-air Duct. Size of Register. 26 36 48 8X12 13 36 48 8X12 52 54 72 9X12 26 54 72 9X12 78 72 96 10X14 39 72 96 10X14 104 96 120 12X15 52 90 120 12X15 130 108 144 12X19 65 108 144 12X19 156 126 168 14X22 78 126 168 14X22 182 144 192 14X24 91 144 192 14X24 208 162 216 16X20 104 162 216 20X20 234 180 240 16X24 117 180 240 20X24 260 198 264 20X20 130 198 264 20X24 286 216 288 20X24 143 216 288 24X24 312 234 312 20X24 156 234 312 24X24 Note. — Registers and hoSair ducts to upper floors should be from 25 to 30 per cent, smaller than for first floor as given above. It is well to be generous in the size of flues, as if properly dampered they may be reduced at any time as desired. There are two good methods in vogue of hanging a stack of indirect radiation. Fig. 99 shows one method, — that of eye bolts screwed into the joists, suspending a cross bar of pipe on which the stack rests. Fig. 100 shows another method and one which we favor, owing to the fact that the weight of the radiator is dis- tributed across several joists. Heavy stacks suspended on a pair of supports or hangers in this manner will not weaken or strain the flooring as much as when the former method is employed. Casings may be made of wood lined with tin or of sheet iron, as may be desired. A casing of galvanized iron with joints seamed LOCATING RADIATING SURFACES 95 or bolted together is without doubt the best method to use, as it not only presents a neat appearance, but is the most durable. Fig. 101 shows the method of setting a direct-indirect radiator Fig. 99.— Method of supporting indirect stack. Fig. 101.— Method of setting direct-indirect radiator. Fig. 100.— Another method of supporting indirect stack. and while there are several modifications of this style, the principle for the setting of all direct-indirects is the same. The wall boxes. Fig. 102, are of standard size, conforming to brick measurements and are furnished by all manufacturers of ra- FiG. 102.— Wall box for direct-indirect radiator. diators. The radiator itself is of the ordinary direct pattern. It is fitted with and rests on a box base. This base is provided with a damper and is connected to the cold-air wall box by a boxing 96 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION made of galvanized iron or tin. Fig. 103 shows a base of this kind. By closing the damper to the cold-air duct and opening the damper in the box base, the radiator may be used as a direct radiator. This Fig. 103. — Box base for direct-indirect radiator. is of importance in connection with the heating of a cold room or when ventilation is not necessary. The " flue " type of radiator is the best design for direct-in- direct, owing to the length of air travel through the flues between Fig. 104. — Flue type of direct-indirect radiator. the sections. Fig. 104 shows a section of a flue radiator. By refer- ence to the following chapter our readers will learn why we believe a radiator of this type is best adapted for work of this character. CHAPTER X Estimating Radiation Having considered the various forms of radiating surfaces and their proper location, we liave now reached that part of the work which the steam fitter frequently finds confusing, viz. : the estimating of radiation. This requires careful thought and study on the part of the steam fitter, as no two jobs of heating are alike, excepting, of course, there be two buildings erected from the same plans ; therefore, each j ob or contract for heating must be consid- ered separately and the radiation estimated accordingly. As a rule, all radiation is first estimated as direct, that is to say, the amount of direct radiation necessary to do the work required, and certain percentages are added if the radiation or any por- tion of it is to be direct-indirect or indirect. Many good rules are in vogue for estimating, any one of which will give proper results if applied with good judgment, but just as there are exceptions to all other rules, so that it is in estimating radiation. To use ^ood judgment it is necessary that we should understand something of the cooling surfaces in a room or build- ing, the action of the heat from a radiator upon the air in a room and the heat loss from a radiator under certain varying con- ditions. The principal cooling surfaces of a room are the exposed or exterior walls and the glass surface (windows) and outside doors. A room with two sides exposed, for instance, a corner room, will require more radiation than an intermediate room with but one wall exposed, while a room having two windows and an outside door will require correspondingly more radiation than a room with but one window. Just how much more is determined by rule. Again, if there be no objects such as trees or adjacent buildings to protect any one of the sides of a house, the north, west, or 97 98 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION northwest rooms will need more radiating surface than the rooms on the south, east, or southeast sides of the building. The rea- son for this is readily seen, as practically all the chilly winter winds come from the north, west, or nortlnvest. A frame building without weather board or paper used in its construction requires more radiation than one with this additional protection, and either one requires more than a brick or stone building. Fig. 105. — Circulation of air by direct radiator. As to the action of the heat from a radiator upon the air of the room, the radiator, if direct, should be placed in the coldest place in the room, as stated in the preceding chapter, for the rea- son that it meets and warms the cold air entering through the out- side walls and windows, tempers and heats it, causing it to cir- culate or turn in the room, thus warming all portions of the room to a uniform temperature. Fig. 105 shows the action of a direct radiator upon the air ESTIMATING RADIATION 99 in a room, the arrows indicating the direction of tlie air currents. We note that tlie heated air first rises to the ceihng where the air of the room is hghter than below, tlien passes to an inside wall, where it is forced downward and drawn across the floor again to the radiator, where it receives the same treatment as before, the rapidity of the circulation depending upon the volume of heat from the radiator. Note also the downward draught of the cold air enterinir at tlie wind( id how it is prevented from entering the Screen Fig. lOG. — Circulation of air by indirect radiator. body of the room. Sliould the radiator be placed along an outside wall between two windows, or in a corner, the cold air entering through the windows would pass downward to the floor and then be drawn along the floor to the radiator. Heat, or more properly, heated air, from an indirect radiator passes directly to the ceiling, then across to the windows or out- side wall where, as it cools, it settles to the floor and is drawn across the floor again to the register as shown by Fig. 106. It 100 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION is for this reason that churches or rooms with very high ceil- ings are very difficult to heat with indirect radiation without the assistance of some direct radiators to aid in turning the air of the room. Where direct-indirect radiation is placed the action upon the air in the room is similar to that of the direct radiator as shown by Fig. 105. Eules for Estimating Kadiation Some one has aptly said, " We gain knowledge and profit by the mistakes of others," and truly this is exemplified in figuring radia- tion. Many years ago the writer was taught to estimate radiation by the following rule: For Steam To ascertain the amount of radiation required find the cubical contents and divide the result by the following factors • Living rooms^ ordinary exposure 50 Living rooms, extraordinary exposure 40 Bath and dressing rooms 40 Staircase halls 50- 70 Sleeping rooms 55- 70 School rooms 60- 80 Churches, theaters, halls, etc 65-100 Factories 75-150 For Hot Water Add one third to the result obtained for steam. For direct-indirect, add twenty-five per cent, and for indirect, add fifty per cent. It will readily be seen that the results obtained by this old rule, which is now almost entirely obsolete, were anything but cor- rect, and unless the person using the rule was thoroughly con- versant as to the requirements of certain rooms, or was endowed with extraordinary good judgment, many errors would result. Yet many heating contractors are to-day using this rule or some other " rule of thumb " just as antiquated. ESTIMATING RADIATION 101 Some Dependable Rules Baldwin's Rule : Divide the difference in temperature, be- tween that at which the room is to be kept and the coldest outside atmosphere, by the difference between the temperature of the steam pipes and that at which you wish to keep the room, and the product will be the square feet, or fraction thereof of plate or pipe surface to each square foot of glass (or its equivalent in wall surface). Thus : Temperature of room, 70 degrees ; less temperature outside, ; difference, 70 degrees. Again : Temperature of steam pipe, 212 degrees; less temperature of room, 70 degrees; differ- ence, 142 degrees. Thus: 142-^70 equals 0.493, or about one- half a square foot of heating surface to each square foot of glass, or its equivalent. The above covers only the exposure of the room and is for a well-built building. Loose windows, poor construction, etc., must be taken into consideration and the proper allowances made. Another rule (and the one used by the author for quick fig- uring) is that of Mills, and briefly stated, is as follows: To find the amount of radiation required to heat a room with low-pressure steam to 70° Fahr. when the outside temperature is at 0° Fahr., allow one square foot of radiation for each 200 cubic feet of contents, one square foot of radiation for each 20 square feet of outside wall surface, and one square foot of radiation for each 2 square feet of glass surface (counting outside doors as glass surface). The product of these results will be the amount of radiation required. For hot water add 60 per cent to this result. As an example consider a room 12' X 15' in size, having a 10 ft. ceiling. The cubical contents, found by multiplying 12 X 15 X 10, equals 1,800 cu. ft. One 12 ft. side is exposed wall: 102 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 12X10 = 120 sq. ft. of exposed wall surface. The room has two windows 3 X 6' : 3 X 6 = 18 X 2 = 36 sq. ft. of glass surface. 1,800 -^ 200 — 9 120-f- 20 = 6 36-- - 2 = 18 Total 33 sq. ft. radiation. ' For hot water: 33 X 60;^= 19.8 + 33 = 52.8 sq. ft. of ra- diation required. It is the custom of the author to add 25^ to the amount of direct for direct-indirect, either steam or hot water, and for in- direct to add 50^ for steam and 60;^/ for hot water. While there are many rules for estimating and some of them possibly a little more accurate than the above, we consider either Baldwin's or Mills's rule to be the simplest and best, as they are free from complicated methods not readily understood. The author has found that it was excellent practice to increase the radiation somewhat on the north and west sides of a building, also that when a building is heated intermittently (as is the case with some churches, halls, etc.) the radiation should be increased 25^ over and above the normal amount required should the build- ing be heated continuoush\ It is well to become familiar with two or more rules, using one as a check upon the other. CHAPTER XI Steam-Heating Apparatus In one of the early chapters of this book we gave a brief his- tory of steam heating and its introduction in this country. We shall now take up the many various s^^stems and consider the advantages or disadvantages -of each, showing also the various styles of piping. The early method of heating by steam was with the two-pipe system, small sizes of pipe being used and a high pressure of steam maintained. As our knowledge of steam heating increased, larger piping and a lower pressure were made use of. At the present time there are many buildings, such as factories and offices, or commercial buildings, where a medium or compara- tively high pressure is used, the steam being generated at high pressure by the boilers and reduced for use in the heating system. On work of this character the water of condensation is returned to the boiler by return steam traps or by a pump. For the heating of residences and small buildings, we use what is called a " gravity system," the pressure of steam being from one to five pounds, the condensed steam returning to boiler by its own gravit3\ The boiler is located below the level of all mains and radiators. It is of this latter method that we shall treat, illustrat- ing and explaining each system. Low-pressure gravity steam heating may be divided into sev- eral systems or styles of construction, as follows : (a) The one-pipe system, where the radiators are connected by a single pipe which is used both as flow and return. (b) The two-pipe system, where each radiator has a separate flow and return pipe. This system also necessitates a double sys- tem of cellar piping. These two methods ma}- be subdivided into several styles or systems, viz. : 103 104 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION (a) The Circuit System. (b) The Divided Circuit System. (c) The One-pipe S3^stem with Dry Returns. (d) The Overhead System. Fig. 107 illustrates the regular circuit system. The steam main rises from the boiler as high as possible, or as high as circum- DOWTi Automatic Air Vent A, A, A = Risers ^ Down — Fig. 107. — Circuit system of steam heating. stances or height of basement will permit. This is the high point of the system, so far as the steam main is concerned. From this point the main makes a circuit of the building, as shown by illus- tration. This circuit is made at a distance of from two to six feet STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 105 from basement wall (circumstances governing this distance), the main pitching downward from the boiler from YJ' to V in each ten feet of length. In making the circuit of the basement, the main is carried to a point as near to the boiler as is possible. At this point a reducing elbow is placed on the end of the main, re- ducing one or two sizes. Connection is then made with return opening of boiler. This reducing elbow should be tapped for an air vent and an automatic air vent be placed on the same. As the main acts as a steam reservoir to supply the various radiators, it is well to free it of all air, in order that the steam may be supplied to all radiators at the same time, thus allowing them to Fig. 108. — Branching from main witli 45° elbow. heat uniformly. The automatic air vent placed on the elbow at the end of the main accomplishes this purpose. The various branches should be taken from the main by the use of a nipple and a 45-degree elbow, as shown by Fig. 108. As a general rule, the branches should be one size larger than the vertical pipe or " spud " supplying the radiator valve, or one size larger than the risers which they feed. Most of the old-time steam fitters, as well as many fitters of the present day, make a practice of taking the connection for branch from the top of the main. This practice is wrong, as the con- densation returning through the branch to the main drops directly into the steam supply, saturating and cooling it. Fig. 109 illus- 106 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION trates this. We may add, for example, that a main where all the branches are taken off with the use of 45-degree elbows, as shown by Fig. 108, will do 25^r more work, and prove 25^ more economi- cal than if taken off main from the top. Fig. 108 also shows how the water of condensation joins that in the main without interference with the steam, when 45-degree el- bows are used. The main on a circuit job of heating should not be reduced in size, but should be carried full size to point where air vent is used. The principal reason for this is that it is constantly being reduced ^BRANCH 90°ELBOW nEE Fig. 109. — Branching from main with 90° elbow. in area by the water of condensation from the various radiators entering it, so that its area at the end may not be more than one half the full capacity of the pipe. The branches should have a pitch upward from main of at least 1'' in 5 feet of length, and a greater pitch is desirable. Special elbows, called pitch elbows, for use on end of branch, in order to throw the vertical spud or riser straight, may be purchased from those who deal in steam-fitting supplies. Where the circuit system can be used to advantage, we would recommend it on account of its utility and good appearance. For STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS lo- an L-shapcd building, it is necessary to take a separate loop from the main circuit, as shown by Fig. 110; otherwise the work is similar to the single loop. Fig. 110. — Circuit system of steam heating with loop. The Divided Circuit System When installing a steam-heating apparatus in a long building where the boiler is located near the center of the basement, and on either side of the same, we may use what is called the Divided 108 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Circuit System, as illustrated by Fig. 111. The convenience of installing this system can be readily seen from the illustration. In installing this system and also the Single Circuit, it is well to keep the end of mains at least 14" above the water line of the boiler. With the Divided Circuit System it is necessary that an auto- matic air vent be placed on the end of each loop. The returns should be connected together below the water line of the boiler, as shown by illustration. The One-pipe System— Dry Returns When it is necessary to install steam heat in a long, narrow building, such as one side of a double house, where the radiators are all placed along the outside wall, this system, as illustrated by Fig. 112, is particularly adaptable. The flow pipes, as shown, pitch downward from the boiler to end of main. On the end of main a reducing elbow is placed. Into this elbow is connected a close nipple with a 90-degree elbow on the end of same, and from this elbow the return is taken dry to the boiler, as showm. These elbows should be " thrown " or turned upward until the top of the return is level with the bottom of the main, in order to gain head room. A short piece of pipe, with crooked thread on one end, should be used in starting the return ; the longer pipe should be attached to this piece with an ordinary coupling. In this manner the return may be taken to boiler almost directly under and par- allel to the main, making a good appearing and workmanlike job. At a point near the boiler, elbows should be placed on end of returns and drop made to return opening of boiler. These elbows should be tapped for air vent and automatic air vents placed on same. Note the coil shown on illustration. All pipe coils should be connected " two pipe " with return connected below the water line of the boiler. The Overhead System The Overhead System of steam heating is necessarily a combina- tion of the one and two pipe systems and it may have either a wet or a dry return, although the wet return is by far preferable. We illustrate by Fig. 113 an adaptation of the overhead system STEAM-HEATING APrAKATUS 109 \\^g^ C. M c. ; ) c, , ; &^ ■■) ( . . > ^^i- -^ 110 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION <=^ -^ t ) ('. . , .) r — — ^ c -^ c. ::^ ( w > B« STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 111 and show tlic many different methods by which the radiators may be connected. The riser or risers (there may be more than one) rise directly to the top floor or attic of the building and here branch in the several directions necessary to feed the various drop risers sup- plying the radiators. The branches connecting these risers are 112 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION C C ~3r 3 H iir e STEAM-HEATING APPARATUS 113 taken from the side of tlie main. Should it be necessary to run the main any c'onsideral)le (Hstance from tlie boiler in the basement })e- fore risino' to top of })uilding, it is well to " heel drip " the elbow at bottom of the riser and connect the drip with the wet return. At the left of the illustration in the basement we show one method of creating a false water line, in order that the returns from risers in an unexcavated portion of the basement may be con- nected into a wet return. We shall in a later chapter illustrate and describe the false water line more fully. At the right of the illustration we show in the basement a wall radiator for heating a basement room, which is warmed par- tially by steam, above the water line of the boiler, and partially by the water of condensation, below the water line of the boiler and is connected in such a manner, without valves, that it might be designated as a cooling coil. The illustration shown is composed of three sections of wall radiation, although a pipe coil could be used in the same manner. The Two-pipe System Illustrated by Fig. 111< we show the Two-pipe System of steam heating. This system has been discarded generally on ordinary work, being succeeded by the One-pipe System, although it still has some adherents among the fitters. Smaller piping for both flow and returns and flow and return risers is used for this system than for either of those already de- scribed. The cost of installation will, however, exceed that of either style of the single-pipe systems. It is customary when using the a. 1 1 K "^ - S:^ Fig. 115.— Eccentric fittings— the right method. two-pipe system, to reduce the size of the main as the various radiators are taken off". We would caution against reducing the main too rapidly, as so nnich friction would result that it would be necessary to carry a considerable pressure at the boiler in order to supply the radiators at the far end of the system and this 114 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION would thereby destroy the economical features of the job. When- ever the main is reduced, a tee should be used and a drip con- nected to return, or, what is better, eccentric fittings should be used, ■Wi.-ai~nTr — P=J Fig. 116. — Common fittings — the wrong method. as shown by Fig. 115. Unless this course is pursued, the water of condensation will lodge in the main (see Fig. 116) and cause " water hammer " or pounding in the piping. Advantages of Steam Heating The advantages of steam heating over other systems, not consid- ering the patented vacuum or vapor systems, are: (1) there is less liability of damage by frost; (2) smaller radiators and piping are used ; (3) rooms are more quickly warmed and cooled, and (i) where a system of ventilation is used, the air is more quickly purified. By the use of automatic damper regulators, safety valves, etc., the danger of explosion has been practically eliminated, so that now steam may be used with as great a degree of safety as any other system. TABLE XI Sizes of Steam Mains ONE-PIPE SYSTEM. TWO-PIPE SYSTEM. Size of Main. Radiation Supplied. Size of Steam Main. Radiation Supplied. Flow. Return. S" 5" 1" 8" 125 to 250 sq.ft. 250 to 400 " " 400 to 650 " " 650 to 900 " " 900 to 1.200 " " 1,200 to 1,600 " " 1,600 to 2,000 " " 2,000 to 2,.500 " " 2,500 to 3,500 " " 3,500 to 5,000 " ' 5,000 to 6,500 " " 21^" 3" 1" 8" 2" 3"" 3" V 250 to 400 sq.ft. 400 to 650 " " 650 to 900 " " 900 to 1,200 " " 1,200 to 1,600 " " 1,600 to 2,000 " " 2,000 to 2,500 " " 2,500 to 3,500 " " 3,500 to 5.000 " " 5,000 to 6,500 " " 6,500 to 8,000 " " CHAPTER XII Exhaust Steam Heating While exhaust steam for many years has been used for heat- ing factories, its use in heating office and pubhc buildings, stores, etc., may be said to cover a period of probably the past ten years. We mean b>' this its general use, as in the larger cities it has been more or less employed for the past score of years. Of later years numerous improvements have been made in utiliz- ing and controlling the steam, both live and exhaust, and the heat- ing contractor or engineer who does not familiarize himself with these new and improved methods is neglecting a very important part of his business education. We now desire to treat only of the value and utility of using the exhaust from the engine and the ordinary method of applying the same for heating purposes. The improved methods will be found illustrated and described in a later chapter of this book. Value of Exhaust Steam It is a lamentable fact that in many factories and business build- ings a A-ery great percentage of the steam from the engines is al- lowed to exhaust into the outside atmosphere. We think we are perfectly safe in saying that over 50;?/ of the steam produced by the boilers is thus wasted. Could the value of this waste be brought directly and forcibly to the attention of the owners, in such a man- ner as to be thoroughly understood by them, without doubt they would lose no time in taking such steps as would be necessary to stop the loss. The amount of steam used by the average non- condensing engine is but about from 7%/^ ^^ ^^^ of the amount produced by the boiler; in other words, the steam exhausted from the engine has practically 90^ of its original energy and value. Should the exhaust be employed In supplying a feed-water heater, 115 116 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION five per cent more should be deducted, leaving eighty-five per cent of the original amount available for heating purposes or other uses. Many concerns do not make a practice of heating their feed water, although some of them discharge their exhaust into an open well or tank and thus warm the water supply that is pumped to the boiler. Steam specialties such as feed-water heaters, separators, steam traps, etc., will usually pay for themselves by their saving in one or two seasons, and, when the excess steam is utilized for heating, the saving will equal about one half of the usual coal pile. When there is not a sufficient amount of exhaust steam to supply the heating system, the piping may be so arranged that enough live steam may be introduced into the heating system to make up the deficiency. There are many methods of arranging the piping and fixtures for making use of exhaust steam. We show one of them in the illustration. Fig. 117. Necessary Fixtures In connecting the exhaust to supply the heating system, care must be exercised not to increase the resistance and thus cause back pressure on the engine. A back pressure of from one to three pounds may be readily overcome by a slight increase of pressure at the boiler. A steam main of generous size for the heating sys- tem, as free from right-angle turns (elbows), or bends, as pos- sible, is recommended, and a back-pressure valve should be placed on the exhaust pipe a considerable distance from the engine. The engine delivers steam into the exhaust intermittently, that is, at the end of each stroke, the engine governor admitting only sufficient steam to the engine for the work required of it. It may be " run- ning light " with but a small proportion of the machinery in the factory in use. Thus the amount of exhaust steam delivered to the heating system may not be sufficient, in which case a supply of live steam is admitted to it. This steam supply is admitted at a re- duced pressure, hence a reducing-pressure valve is necessary on the live steam connection. A valve partially open or " throttled " may be used, but it is much better to have a reducing valve set to reduce to the pressure required. EXHAUST STEAM HEATING 117 118 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION In the exhaust as dehvered by the engine, there is considerable water, which is more or less filled with particles of lubricating oil, small particles of dirt and packing. This must be removed before the steam is admitted to the heating system ; consequently a sepa- tor which will separate both oil and water is placed on the exhaust pipe before it is connected to the heating system. A small drip pipe or waste should be connected from the bottom of the separator to a trap, which will discharge outside the building or to a sewer. Were it not for this separator the oil, etc., in the exhaust would pass through the return of the heating system to the pump or trap feeding the boiler. This must be guarded against. Refer- ence to Fig. 117 will show in general the fixtures used and method of connecting the same. The exhaust may be taken direct from the engine to a large closed tank, which is provided with baffle plates for separating the oil and other impurities from the steam. This is called a " grease tank " and a drip should be taken from the bottom to a trap empty- ing to sewer in the same manner as though taken from a separator, as before described. A relief pipe may be used, connecting the tank with back-pressure valve. This tank should be placed at the top of the heating system, and from it connection to heating main should be made. Different engineers have various methods of making connec- tions. We have found that it is well to have the heating main connected as high above the engine as possible. An overhead sup- ply or overhead system is preferable to all others. When con- necting valves and fixtures, it is well to make frequent and gen- erous use of flanges, as these will be found of great convenience when changing valves or making repairs. Heating Capacity of Exhaust Steam For estimating the amount of exhaust steam available from a certain size of engine, many rules, more or less complicated, have been given by various authorities. For the practical use of the fitter would say a safe rule is to allow from 100 to 125 feet of direct radiation (pipe and fittings covered, or figured as radiation) per H. P. of the engine. Thus a 100 H. P. engine, working to its EXHAUST STEAM HEATING 119 regular capacity, should exhaust sufficient steam to heat the nec- essary feed-water for the boiler or boilers and have sufficient excess to heat 10,000 sq. ft. of direct radiation. Of the character of steam appliances or specialties we shall treat in a future chapter. CHAPTER XIII Hot-water Heating The growth of hot-water heating in this country, as a means of warming our homes, has been httle short of phcnomenaL The personal experience of the writer, covering a httle less than twenty years, shows that, where twenty years ago for residence heating there were four or five times as many steam boilers installed as there were hot-water heaters, at this period the great percentage is in favor of hot water. While we have no accurate data on the subject, the records of two or three manufacturers of heaters show a ratio of about ten or eleven to one in favor of hot water. Steam is, as a rule, used for heating factories, business build- ings, public and semipublic buildings, although for this class of work hot water is beginning to be more generally employed. There are two general systems of hot-water warming, namely, " low pressure " and " high pressure." It is the former method which is in general use. Low-pressure hot-water heating has many advantages to recommend it for residence work. Very little attention to the apparatus is required, aside fronj coaling the heater and removing the ashes. This is of considerable importance, however, as the man or men of the family may fre- quently be compelled to absent themselves from home for extended periods and the care of the heating apparatus be left to inexperi- enced hands. Hot-water heat is very easily controlled and an even tempera- ture can be readily maintained. Regulators are now used with hot-water apparatus, and it is possible to so adjust these that any desired temperature can be maintained within the rooms. As to consumption of fuel, the hot-water apparatus is the most economical of any of the various heating systems. As the average hot-water apparatus works at a temperature ranging from 100 to 120 degrees in mild weather, and from 160 to 120 HOT-WATER HEATING 121 180 degrees in cold weather, the heat from it is very mild and the at- mosphere is not rohbed of any of its healthy qualities. Some years ago it was customary to maintain a temperature of from 180 to 21^ degrees. Experience has demonstrated that the greatest economy and most satisfactory heat are obtained by carrying the water at a nmch lower temperature, and the heating contractor of to-day, as a rule, places sufficient radiation in the building to warm th.e same with the water at the lower temperature. Low-pressure hot-water heating may be divided into three sys- tems, or methods of piping, viz. : (a) The regular two-pipe system. (/;) The overhead system. (c) The single main or circuit style of piping. The Two-pipe System The two-pipe system is the oldest of the various styles of pip- ing for hot water, hence is best understood by the fitter and heating contractor, and is more generally used than either of the other systems. The flow pipe, or pipes, of sufficient size to feed the necessary amount of radiation, are carried to such a height above the heater as to allow of a proper pitch of the main. On the top of this riser an elbow is placed and the lateral pipe or main is run with a pitch upward of from one half to one inch in each ten feet of length to the end of the system, or to the branch supplying the radiator farthest from the boiler. The general design of this system is shown by Fig. 118. We show several styles of radiator connections, and attention is called to the manner of supplying the branch at the end of the main, the elbow on the end being tipped to an angle of 45°, and a 45° elbow and nipple used in making the connection. This manner of con- necting the branch is a lielp to tlie circulation at this point and the radiator will heat better than when the connection is made with 90° elbows. All tees on tlie mains supplying branches should be tipped to an angle of 45 degrees and the branch supplied by using a nipple and 45° elbow. Many fitters seem to think that by taking branches 122 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION ) ) ) ) ^ L^ >> HOT-WATER HEATING US 1^4 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION out of the top they are increasing the circulation, but such is not the case, as every 90° elbow used on hot-water work increases the friction and impedes the circulation. Any '' choking " of the cir- culation necessary to make radiators heat uniformly should be done by using a reducing elbow at the end of the branch. Great care should be taken not to reduce the size of the main too rapidly. Frequently the reducing in size of a short piece of pipe between two tees supplying branches, has " killed " the circulation beyond the point of reduction. As a better means of understanding this system we show by Fig. 119 a basement plan of the cellar piping of a hot-water ap- paratus. For convenience in illustrating we have shown branches taken from top of main; ^5° connections are preferable, as ex- plained above. Where the flow pipe is divided in order to feed radiators in opposite directions, it is well to use double elbows. See Fig. 120. In fact, this fitting should be employed on all pip- ing either for steam or hot water. The tee as used " bull head " not only increases the friction but frequently is the means of caus- ing an uneven circulation in the piping supplied by it. TABLE XII Sizes of Mains — TSvo-pipe Hot-water System Size of Main. Radiation Supplied. \\^" . 125 to 175 sq. ft. 175 to ,300 " " 300 to 475 " " 475 to 700 " " 700 to 1,000 " " 1,000 to 1,400 " " 1,400 to 1,750 " " 1,750 to 2.200 " " 2,200 to 3,000 " " 1 2'^ 2U" 3" " 3^'' V 4^" 5," . . 6" There seems to be quite a difference of opinion among heating engineers as to the size of mains necessary for hot-water heating, many of them advocating much smaller piping than is given in the above table; that is, they increase the amount of radiation a cer- tain size of pipe w^ill supply by from one third to one half of the amount as given above. HOT-WATER HEATING Ud In an experience covering nearly a score of 3^ears the writer has used both large and small piping, and we find that while the character of the work to a great extent governs the size of pipe to be used, it is well to be generous in the size of piping, par- ticularly for the main supply pipes. For all ordinary two-pipe Fig. 1^20.— The double elbow. work we consider the sizes as given in the schedule consemative. Friction should be avoided and as the friction in a horizontal pipe is much greater than in a vertical pipe, the horizontal pipe must of necessity be larger than the vertical to accomplish the same service. The Expansion Tank As water heated to 180 or 212 degrees expands from one twenty-fourth to one thirtieth of its volume, it is necessary on hot-water work to make some provision for the increased volume of water and for this purpose we make use of a tank, which we call an " expansion tank." There are several methods of connect- ing this tank with the hot-water system. It should, however, in each instance be located at least three feet above the highest radia- tor on the system and the expansion pipe should be connected to the return pipe of the radiator. The vent pipe leading from the top of the tank should be carried through the roof above the tank, or through the side of the building into the outside atmos- phere. This vent pipe may also be used as the overflow ; in case -the system overflows by reason of being filled too full, the excess water will empty on the roof or outside the building. When the expansion tank is placed in the bathroom of a resi- dence, many fitters make a practice of carrying the overflow into 126 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION the closet tank, while others take the pipe to a basement drain. The former method is poor practice, and the latter a waste of mate- rial entirely unnecessary. By Fig. 121 we show the simplest form of connecting the ex- pansion tank. When this style of connection is used, the tank must be located in a room which is heated, or where there is no liability of freezing. / EXP. PIPE ^M RETURN FROM HIGHEST RADIATOR, Fig. 121. — Connecting expansion tank- common method. ^ *— VENTPIPg ^ ¥4. ---' -^- ^ c /J FLOW AND RETURN CONNECTED TO HIGHEST RADIATOB Fig. 122. — Connecting ex- pansion tank — circulat- ing water to tank. Fig. 122 shows a method of tank connection where the water is circulated to the tank or directly underneath it. In employing this style of connection, one pipe must be connected to the flow and the other to the return pipe of one of the highest radiators on the system. When it is necessary to place the tank in a cold room or an exposed place, we recommend the connection as shown by Fig. 123. We also recommend that nothing less than 1'' pipe HOT-WATKR HEATING 127 be used for the connections. With this method the water in the tank is circulated or warmed. Either of the latter two metliods VENT n .OVERFLOW WATER SUPPLY Fig. 123. — Connecting expansion tank — circulating water in tank. of connection will prove of assistance in keeping air out of the system. Fig. 124. — Automatic expansion tank. A later style of expansion tank and one which has met with favor is the automatic expansion tank which operates with a ball 128 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION cock and float. Fig. 124? shows an interior view of the tank. It is made of wood and has a copper Hning. They are also constructed of steel and of a form similar in appearance to the regular style of tank. That illustrated has much the appearance of the regular closet tank and when placed in a bathroom or other occupied room is commendable for its neat appearance. No valves of any de- scription should be placed on any of the expansion-tank connec- tions. They are not only unnecessary, but are liable to be closed (by error) and the system thereby be put under pressure, with liability to damage by explosion. Water Connection The water connection to a hot-water heating apparatus should be made by connecting into the return pipe at the rear of the boiler. Where there is no regular water supply and it is necessary to fill the system by hand or with a pump, the connection must of neces- sity be made at the tank or the top of the system. Table of Expansion-tank Sizes The following table gives the proper size of expansion tank for any hot-water heating apparatus up to 6,000 sq. ft. of radiation. TABLE XIII Capacity. Size. 300 sq. ft. radiation 10 gal. 12X20" 500 " " 15 " 12X30" 700 " " 20 " 14X30" 950 " " 26 " 16X30" 1,300 " " 32 " 16X36" 2,000 " " 42 " 16X48" 3,000 " " 66 " 18X60" 5,000 " " 82 " 20X60" 6,000 " " 100 " 22X60" The Overhead System A style of piping for hot water which, when it has been prop- erly erected, has met with much favor, is the so-called " overhead system." We do not hesitate to say that it is the best method of hot-water piping in use to-day, and while it is not adaptable HOT-WATER HEATING 129 130 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION to all classes of buildings, there are many, such as flat or apart- ment buildings, store and office buildings, hotels or factories, where the character of construction, manner of dividing the space into living rooms, offices, etc., render the overhead system particularly serviceable. There are many advantages to be gained by the use of this system, the principal one being that but one riser or drop pipe is necessary for supplying a line of radiators, and also that the circulation of the water is both positive and rapid. No air vents are necessary at any point on the system, as the piping is so arranged that all air works to the top of the system into the expansion tank and through this to the atmosphere, thus keeping the system free from air at all times and as the removal of air from the heating system is one of the great troubles of the steam fitter, much good has been accomplished by this alone. MAI NT ^BRANCH DROP RISER^ Fig. 126. — ^The overhead system branch from main. In illustrating this system (Fig. 125) we show in detail some of the many methods of connecting the radiators and the general mode of piping. The main flow pipe is taken from the top of the heater, as with the regular two-pipe system, and run to some con- venient point to allow it to be run vertically to the attic or top floor of the building. This should be the high point of the system and from this point the connection to the expansion tank should be made. From the top of the main riser, the various branch mains are run. These have a drop of at least one half inch in each ten feet of length and from these mains the branches supplying the drop risers are taken. Those shown on Fig. 125 are taken out of the side of the main. We favor a 45° connection as shown by Fig. 126. The size of the drop risers depends entirely upon HOT-WATER HEATING 131 the amount of radiation fed by tlieui. As a rule, they should be larger at the top than at the bottom, reducing gradually as the various radiators are supplied. The radiator connections from the risers should be smaller at the top of the building, increasing in size (the same size of radiators considered) toward the bottoin of the riser. Fig. 1^7.— The O. S. distribu- ting fitting. Fig. 129.— Straightway valve ^^g with union. Fig. 128. — Application of O. S. distributing fitting. In the basement the risers are connected into returns in the same manner as with the regular two-pipe system, these returns being increased in size as the various branches are connected until finally the water is returned to the boiler through approximately the same size of pipe as the main riser. 132 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION An advantage where this system is used and one which should not be overlooked, is the ability to circulate the water through m B/anch out of Tee dd u r~\/''~^r^/''~\r~^ Main v^vyv^ y -Return pjQ_ |3Q_ — ConnectiniT radiator on a level with heater. and supply heat to radiators located on the same floor as the heater, or even lower than it. This is by reason of the weight of the m K ^\t r\ 1 J aa=^ H Fig. 131. — Connectingf radiator on a level with heater. HOT-WATER HEATING 133 water or pressure on the system, there being one pound pressure for each two feet of height of the water in the system. We have sliown by Eig. 125 several methods of using the ordinary tees on the riser from which connections to radiators are made. We also show on the two risers, at the right hand of the illustration, a special fitting (Fig. 127) known as the " O. S." fitting and we commend it to the use of all heating contractors as an aid to the reduction of friction and a quickening of the circulation, and also on account of the labor saved by its use. In order that it may be better understood, we show an enlarged riser (Fig. 128), illus- trating two radiators connected by the use of this fitting. A style of radiator valve which is particularly adaptable for use with this system is shown by Fig. 129. It is known as the Fig. 132.— Base elbow. " straightway " valve, and is a quick-opening valve. As its name indicates, it is for use on a straight pipe or connection. When connecting radiators on or below the level of the heater, care must be taken not to make a connection which will get air bound. If the connection is taken from one of the overhead return pipes, we recommend that it be done as shown by Fig. 130. If taken from the drop riser it should be connected as shown by Fig. 131. The sizes of mains for the overhead S3^stem are practically the same as for the two-pipe system, although the main riser may be somewhat reduced in size. When this riser exceeds 3'' in size, it is well to use a special elbow at its base (Fig. 132). This should be supported by a brick or cement pier, in order to relieve the building of the weight of water in this portion of the apparatus. 134 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Expansion Tank Connections The expansion tank should be placed somewhat higher than the fitting on the top of the main riser. A very simple method of con- necting the tank is shown by Fig. 133. The tank should be placed on a support or framework of sufficient strength to make it stationary. No gauge on the tank is necessary, although many fitters use it. Another method is that shown by Fig. 134. The tank is VENT AND OVERFLOW EXPANSION TANK- OOOOOOOOOOOOOO ooo oo o oooooooo a HIGH POINT OF SYSTEM. y EXPANSION PIPE D MAIN RISER ATTIC FLOOR Fig. 133. — Expansion tank connection — overhead system. suspended in a horizontal position by iron straps hung from the roof timbers, which are strengthened sufficiently to support the ex- tra weight. The overflow may empty into a pan, from which there is a drip to the sewer in the basement. As is the case with the regular two-pipe system, no valves should be placed on the con- nections to the tank. There are several modifications of the overhead system, which lack of space will not allow us to illustrate. There is one method, HOT-WATER HEATING 135 -.MAIN RISER Fig. ISJ'. — Expansion tank connection with drij3 — overhead system. EXPANSION TANK ^ LVENT AND OVERFLOW Fig. 135. — Modified overhead system. 136 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION however, which we should be famihar with. It is frequently nec- essary in heating a store or small building to place both boiler and radiators on the same floor. To do this successfully, the main flow^ pipe should be run on the ceiling as shown by Fig. 135. The illustration shows an elevation plan without the branch connections. The branches should be taken out of the side of the main. The drop pipes supplying radiators should be connected into the top of one end of the radiator, the return being taken from the bottom of the opposite end. The expansion tank should be hung horizon- tall}^ from the ceiling, with vent and overflow to the roof. No air vents are necessary, as all air in the system works out through the expansion tank. The work may be put under pressure, if desired, by sealing the tank and using a safety valve, as described in a later chapter. The Circuit System of Hot-water Heating The circuit system commonly called the " single-main system," has in the past few years gained considerable favor among heating contractors. A single main pipe, which also acts as a return, is taken from the top of heater to a point as high as desired under the first floor joists. From this point the connection to expansion tank is made. This main pipe is then run around the basement, in a circuit, near to the ceiling and with a gradual pitch from the heater, which should never be less than % inch in each 10 feet of length, but may be more, if desired. This main, which is of extra large size, supplies all of the branches feeding the radia- tors on the first floor or risers to the floors above. The flow pipes or branches are taken from the top of the main, the returns enter- ing at the side. After supplying the various radiators, the main is run directly back to the heater, where it drops and is connected into the return opening of the same. The main must never be reduced, but should be run full size until it enters the return of the heater. Illustration Fig. 136 shows a general view of this system of piping. The fittings shown on the main, which supply branches, are of three kinds. Those marked A A are the regular tee fittings ; those marked B B are the Eureka fittings, an enlarged view of which is shown by Fig. 137. This is a single fitting HOT-WATER HEATING 137 I'SS PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION used for connecting both flow and return, the flow leaving the top of the main and the return entering the bottom. It is as easily placed as the regular tee and the saving in labor and cutting of threads is considerable. Those marked C C are the O. S. fittings for use on single-main work and they divide the Return Flow Return Flow Full View Sectional. Yiew Fig. 137. — Eureka combinatioR fitting. circulation in the same manner as the regular O. S. distributing fitting. Yet another style of fitting for use on the main of a circuit job is known as the " Phelps Ideal " fitting, as illustrated by Fig. 138. This fitting is quite like a tee with side outlet tapped eccen- tric. The flow is taken from the top of main and the return re- FiG. 138. — Phelps combination fitting. enters it at the side on a level with the bottom of the main. This is a much better fitting to use than the regular tee, as one fitting on the main does the work of two, saving thread cutting and labor, and it also has the advantage of delivering the return circulation lower down in the main. HOT-WATER HEATING 139 Tlic branches should liavc an upward })lt('h from main; also, the radiator connections are made the same as for tlie regular two- pipe system. We have found it excellent j)ractlce on work of any considerable size to increase the size of the radiators somewhat, that are con- nected on the last two sides of the circuit. The water in the main being cooled somewhat before it reaches this part of the system, it is necessary to provide more radijition in order that all portions of the work will heat evenly. The sizes of the branches may be somewhat smaller nearest the boiler than those toward the end of the main. It will be found that this system of piping will prove most efficient and acceptable when properly proportioned and erected. TABLE XIV Size of Main for Onf Pipe — Hot Water Size of Main. Direo t Radiation Supplied. 2 inclios • 175 sq. ft. 300" " 500 " " 700 " " 1,000 " " 1,200 " " 1,600 " " 2,WQ " " 014 " 3 " . . 314 " 4 " 414 " . 5 " . 6 " . . The systems of low-pressure hot-water work we have described and illustrated are the principal forms of this class of work. There are several modifications of each, which it is not necessary to de- scribe as the same general principles of piping, etc., prevail. Hav- ing detailed the character of this work, it is well that Vve should un- derstand the principles which underlie it, and will therefore treat briefly on the cause of hot-water circulation. Why Water Circulates In answering the question — What causes circulation .f* — we say that unquestionably it is heat which causes the water to circulate in a hot-water heating s^^stem. When heating by hot water first came into general use in the United States, the writer was taught that 140 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION water, being heated, became lighter and when confined in a heat- ing system would ascend to the top and circulate through the pip- ing and radiators. This statement was a gross error, although we believed it at the time, and as we have heard the same state- ment made many times since, it is undoubtedly a very common error. As a matter of fact, hot water will move only when there is a cooler and heavier body of water displacing it and forcing it upward, and were it not for the difference in temperature be- tween the flow and return pipes of a hot-water heating system, there would be no circulation at all. Hot water, as it cools, becomes compact and outweighs the warmer water in the heater, causing it to rise in the system and circulate through the piping and radiators, the difference in the mean temperature of the water as it ascends and descends in the system keeping the circulation constant. The higher the water in the system, the more rapid the circulation, or, stated in another form, the greater the height of the return pipe (in which the cooler water is descending), the more energy and push against the warmer water in the heater and consequently the more rapid the circulation. The height of the flow riser (the ascending water) makes no difference in the rapidity of the circulation of the water in the apparatus, except as the height of the return is increased. The velocity of the flow of water in a heating apparatus depends upon the difference in weight of the ascending and descending columns of water, with due allowance made for friction. There are several methods of determining theoretically this velocity. How- ever, as this book is written only from a practical standpoint, we shall not burden our readers with a discussion of these theories. CHAPTER XIV Pressure Systems of Hot-water Work The higli-pressure system of hot-water heating is not, as a rule, practiced in this country. In England we find it used for various purposes, such as laundry dryers, bake ovens, enameling, etc., the apparatus carrying from 250 to 350 degrees temperature. The piping used is small in diameter and extra strong, or extra heavy in weight. The fittings used are also much heavier than it is our custom to use on heating work. This system was designed and used originally by Mr. A. M. Perkins, of London, Eng., and is known as the " Perkins System." Pressure work as practiced in this country (closed-tank sys- tem), consists of sealing the outlets of the expansion tank, thus putting the apparatus under pressure, a safety valve being used on the overflow at the tank to regulate the same. On ordinary work it is seldom that a pressure exceeding ten pounds is em- ployed, the water in the apparatus at this pressure having a tem- perature of about 240 degrees. This style of work is probably used in greenhouses more frequently than in any other manner, and among its advantages are the use of less radiation, a less volume of water in the apparatus and a more quickly controlled apparatus. For use in heating dwellings or apartments it is objectionable because of the element of danger connected with its operation. Should the safety valve at the expansion tank become inoperative from any cause, an explosion would be the probable result. We have known heating contractors to use this method when they find that too little radiation had been installed to give the temperature required, and frequently to adopt this seeming remedy without giving notice to or obtaining the consent of the owner of the property, which involves not only a dishonest, but a very dangerous practice as well. 141 142 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION The following table gives the temperatures at which water will boil at various pressures (atmospheric), with the equivalent head in feet: TABLE XV PRESSURE. Boiling Point (Degrees). Pounds above Atmosphere. Head in Feet. 212 5 12 228 10 24 240 15 36 250 20 48 259 25 60 267 30 72 274 35 84 280 40 96 287 45 108 292 50 120 297 60 144 307 70 168 316 80 192 324 90 216 332 100 240 338 When it is necessary to place both boiler and radiator on the same floor, as is shown by Fig. 135 in the previous chapter, it is sometimes advantageous to put the work under a moderate pres- sure in order to quicken and maintain a more positive circulation throughout the system. On certain work of this character it is sometimes impossible to run the overhead piping sufficiently high to admit of a free circulation through all of the radiators, those farthest from the heater not working as well as those placed nearer the heater. This is readily remedied by placing the system under sufficient pressure to maintain a free circulation in all parts of the apparatus. Expansion-tank Connections The expansion-tank connections for pressure work may be made in the same manner as for the open-tank system. The open- ing in the tank used for air vent is plugged and the safety valve, which is usually of the lever variety, is placed on the overflow pipe at a point near the tank. PRESSURE SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER WORK 14S Wliere a vertical tank is used, the connections sliould be made as shown by Fifi;. 139. Where a horizontal tank is used, the con- Safety Valv( Overflow o Air Cushion OOOOOOOOOOOOO Expansion/ Pipe Fig. 139. — Expansion tank with safety vah^e. nections should be made as shown by Fig. 140. We show on this illustration the use of a vacuum valve. When the safety valve A [o^ -Vacuum. Valve Safety Valve Overflow :iA.irXushlon= o ooooooooooooooooooooooooo o ooo ooo Expansion Pipe- FiG. 140. — Expansion tank with safety and vacuum valves. 144 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION is opened from excess pressure, trouble is frequently experienced in relieving the vacuum at this point, and for this purpose the vacuum valve is used. There are times, however, when the vacuum valve does not relieve the vacuum, due probably to the failure of the valve to operate. A very simple method of relieving the Overflow -V Check Valve Safety Val V ( cK>o-<>-t>-o-a--o =o ^-o---cp -^CEtt -^ ~f^3^ t __ _..O.s..n. ^i =^-^^= = ^-^^^^ ^-— -^^ o oo O o o o o o o D o o o coooo oooooooo \J Expansion Pipe Fig. 141.— Expansion tank with method of relieving vacuum. vacuum without the use of a valve is shown by Fig. 141. It con sists of a check valve used in connection with the safety valve. The connection shown from the check valve into a tee placed on the overflow pipe is made for the purpose of discharging any water which might leak through the check valve. A pressure system of hot-water heating that has been used ex- PRESSURE SYSTEMS OF HOT-WATER WORK U5 tensively in this country is that of Evans & Ahnirall. This sys- tem is only apphcable to large work, as the water is heated by the exhaust steam from engines, pumps or other mechanism requir- ing live steam. The water of the heating system is passed through a tank or heater constructed in much the same manner as a feed- water heater. Its interior is filled with copper tubes through which the water circulates and is heated by the exhaust steam which is carried through the heater and which surrounds the copper pipes. The excess steam, or that which is not condensed in warming the water of the heating system, is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe. The water in the heating system is circulated under pressure by a pump, the velocity of the circulation depending upon the speed of the pump, which may be regulated at will by the attendant. Where the exhaust steam is not sufficient to heat the water to the temperature desired, a supplementary heater is used, such a heater being fed with live steam. This system makes an ideal method for the heating of de- tached buildings, or buildings adjacent to that in which the engines, etc., are located, as there is no dependence placed on gravity pip- ing or the use of traps as with steam heat. The temperature of the water may be carried just as high as the pump will handle it. Other systems which are in some respects similar to the above are in use, but are not so well known or as extensively used. Hot water under pressure is made use of by numerous manu- facturers for the purposes of drying, heating, etc. However, it probably will not, in this country at least, replace steam as used for similar purposes. CHAPTER XV Hot-water Heating Appliances We might, in the broader sense of the words, designate all por- tions of a hot-water system as " heating appliances." We confine our use of the term, however, to cover only those parts or " trim- mings " which tend to finish or render the appearance more comely ; also to those apphances which assist in maintaining a uniform temperature arid which render the care and attention due the ap- paratus less of a burden. The early systems of hot-water heating had a small pipe, of usually 1/2'' or %" in size, running from the overflow of the expan- sion tank to the basement. This was called a " tell-tale," and the operator in filling the apparatus would leave the water pressure turned on until the water was heard running from the tell-tale. The Altitude Gauge This crude arrangement has been dispensed with and in its place we now employ the altitude gauge, Fig. 142. This is or- dinarily a spring gauge of the Bourdon type. The gauge has two dials, a black and a red one. The black dial is attached to the mechanism of the gauge and registers the height of the water in the system, by feet. The red dial is stationary and is movable only by hand. After filling the system to the proper height, the same being registered on the gauge, the face of the gauge is re- moved and the red dial moved to the same position as that occu- pied by the black dial, when the face of the gauge is then replaced. As the water in the system evaporates, the black dial will drop away from the red one, indicating to the attendant that the water is low in the system. As the gauge is attached to the apparatus at or near the heater, it is necessary only for the attendant to admit sufficient water to the system to bring the black dial back to 146 HOT-WATER HEATING ArPLIANCES 147 the position held by the red one, thus indicating that the system is properly filled. The Hot-water Thermometer The hot-water thermometer used on a hot-water heating ap- paratus is a mercurial thermometer, as shown by Fig. 143. The framework is of iron, or brass, on the face of which is the indi- cator. Attached to the face of the indicator is the glass mercury tube, the lower end of which extends through the center of a small '■2^ Fig. 142. — iVltitude gauge. Fig. 143.— Hot-water thermometer. brass casting. The lower part of this brass casting forms a cup, and this cup part of the casting is turned down until it is very thin. This renders this portion of it very susceptible to the heat. A standard pipe thread is cut on the outside of the casting, which may then be screwed into an opening in the heater or other portion of the heating apparatus. This leaves the lower and thinner part of the appliance submerged in the water. In order to get a true register of the temperature of the water it is necessary that the lower part of the thermometer containing the bulb of mercury be submerged in the water, as shown by Fig. 144. Unless this is done the thermometer will register falsely. 148 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION H. W. Thermcmeter Fig. 144. — Right method of attachmg thermometer. We have seen thermometers used where they were screwed into an opening which had been reduced in size by the use of several K H.w. Thermometer Bushings Fig. 145. — ^Wrong method of attaching thermometer. HOT-WATER HEATING APPLIANCES 149 bushings, with the result that the thernioinetcr did not reach the water in the system. Fig. 145 illustrates this, and under such conditions it is impossible to register the correct temj)erature. Floor and Ceiling Plates Not a very long time ago we were accustomed to notice cumber- some cast-iron plates surrounding the pipes where they passed through floors or ceilings. They would frequently drop a distance Fig. 146. — Brass floor and ceiling plates nickeled. from the ceiling, and sometimes fall entirely to the floor below, be- cause they were insecurely fastened in place. These crude aff"airs have been replaced by a nickeled plate of spun brass, Fig. 146, or iron. Fig. 147. These plates are made in two parts and so Fig. 147. — Cast-iron floor and ceiling plates nickeled. constructed as to be adjustable. They are held to the pipe by springs and this method keeps them firmly in their proper posi- tions. The heating contractor now gives much attention to the fin- ished appearance of his work and this fact, no doubt, has led to the use of better trimmings on heating jobs. 150 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Pressure Appliances Some of the more recent developments in accessories to a hot- water heating apparatus are various apphances for putting the system under a nominal pressure without sealing or closing the vent opening of the expansion tank. There is no element of danger presented by the use of any one of these appliances, as the system remains an open one, but is, however, weighted down in a manner which allows of a nominal pressure under the force caused by the expansion of the water within the apparatus. A considerable saving is made in the first cost of the heating apparatus by using an appliance of this character, as not only may there be a reduction made in the amount of radiation installed, but smaller piping may be used, the same as for a pressure system. The Honeywell system is operated by mercury. This appliance is designated as a " Heat Generator " and is illustrated by Fig. 148. It consists of two pipes, one within the other, the larger pipe termed the " stand pipe," the inner one, the " circulating pipe." The upper end of the stand pipe is screwed into the bot- tom opening of a hollow bulb, termed a " separating chamber," which has also an opening at the top into which the pipe connection to the expansion tank is made. The lower half of the stand pipe is screwed into a bottle-shaped hollow casting, as shown by Fig. 149 (12)? terminating in a hol- low cup or " shoe " screwed on the bottom of the pipe. The plug (16) screwed into the bottom of the bottle makes it tight, except for opening (6) on one side near the top of the casting, into which expansion pipe from heating system is connected. The lower part of the bottle is termed the " mercury chamber," being filled with mercury to the height of the small plug shown (10), making it approximately 1%" i^^ depth. The principle of the operation of the generator is based on the fact that mercury is thirteen times heavier than water, and the apparatus is really a mercury seal, requiring a pressure of about ten pounds to break the seal and allow the pressure to reach the expansion tank. The various parts of the generator are so arranged as to allow the mercury to circulate under pressure and to be separated from the water (by plate 2) when the mercury HOT-WATER HEATING APPLIANCES 151 seal is broken by excess of pressure on the system. As the mer- cury is heavier than the water, it settles again through space 8, as per sketch, into the mercury chamber at the bottom of the gen- erator. The rapidity of the circulation through small piping and re- duced radiation, under a temperature equal to steam at ten pounds OVERFLOW A ^ ~^ 1 i EXPANSION '^1' 1 jTANK ! Ill ' I'l 1 ''i nr c r GENERATOR 'if 1' fl z liii' ''|i: t" BOILER !Di a=3 Fig. 169. — Gorton svstem of vacuum-v •apor heating. mains may be connected above the water line, as shown, or they may drop as indicated by dotted lines on Fig. 169 and be con- nected below the water line. The lowest point of return mains should be at least 18" above the water line of the boiler, and the relief pipe should be 4<" above the return mains. The automatic relief valve is connected to the relief pipe and to the steam main as shown. The Vacuum-Vapor System The vacuum-vapor metliod may be applied to almost any style of piping. The special appliances necessary are an air trap, a float valve and an ejector. A condensing radiator is used as shown on Fig. 170. The 184 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION a VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 185 air lines containing vapor and more or less water are discharged into the condensing radiator by means of an ejector. This ejector is connected directly to the boiler or steam main, from which it receives the necessary force to operate it. The air and water pass through the return outlet of the condensing radiator, the water of condensation returning to the boiler by gravity. The air passes through the air trap and thence to the float or vadium valve and into the atmosphere. In other respects this system is similar to those already de- scribed. The Dunham Vacuo-Vapor System A method of vacuum heating styled " Vacuo-Vapor " has been developed by Mr. C. A. Dunham, which is in some respects both novel and interesting, mainly in that the appliances employed maintain a constant difference in pressure between the steam or flow pipe and the return pipe without any mechanical means. The maintenance of this difference in pressure proves of great assist- ance to the circulation on the regular gravity system of steam heating. Like many of the vacuum systems, air valves on the radiators are dispensed with, the air and return water of condensation being taken to the basement into a small tank hung 18" or more above the regular water line of the boiler. A drip from this tank drops to the return opening of the boiler, the water of condensation re- turning to the boiler through this drip, which has a horizontal check valve on it near to the boiler. The condensation in entering the tank passes through a horizontal check placed on the return near the tank. The air, separated from the water in the tank, passes through a thermostatic and vacuum air valve to the at- mosphere. An air trap. Fig. 170A, is placed on the return end of each radiator, remaining open when cold and closing as soon as the heated vapor or steam reaches it. The closed trap retards the steam until the water of condensation collects in sufiicient quantity to operate the trap, when it, together with the accumulated air, passes through the returns to the separating tank. When the system is working above atmospheric pressure, the 186 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION accumulated air passes freely through the air trap or thermostatic air valve and the vacuum air valve above the tank, the water con- tinuing to collect in the tank until such an amount has been evapo- rated from the boiler as will lower the water line below the end of the equalizing pipe. This equalizing pipe forms a loop approxi- mately four feet in length connecting the receiving tank with the boiler, the end of the loop entering the boiler through an opening, tapped for the purpose, and extending below the water line. This permits live steam to enter the loop, equalizing the pres- sure between the tank and the boiler, permitting the water to flow Fig. 170a. — Air trap Dunham vacuo-vapor system. down into the return pipes and through the check valves into the boiler. This action again raises the water line above the bottom of the loop or equalizing pipe, effectually sealing it. The partial vacuum created by the condensing of the steam in the tank after the discharging process, relieves the pressure against the check valves on the return pipes, allowing the accu- mulated air and water to enter the tank, and relieving the returns of any pressure, as the partial vacuum reaches to the radiators. To obtain the most economical results from a system of this character, the supply valves on the radiators should be opened only enough to admit sufficient steam to properly heat the room, the pressure at the boiler being slightly above that of the atmosphere and not greater than one pound. The fire should be banked at night and the system operated under a vacuum. Fig. 170B shows the application of this system for ordinary low-pressure work. Smaller piping is employed than that used on VAPOR AND VACUUM EXHAUST HEATING 187 a regular steam job. The return connections from all radiators sliould be l/>" in size, and the supply end of radiators tapped up to 50 sq. ft. %", 50 to 90 sq. ft. 1", 90 to 185 sq. ft. II4". A special form of this system is devised for larger jobs, using live or exhaust steam, the regular form of air trap being employed Fig. 170b. — Dunham system for low pressure. on all radiators, and an air relief and pump governor or con- troller, which acts as a receiver for all condensation, is placed near the pump and is so connected that the pump may assist the cir- culation by pulling directly on the returns. 188 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION The Future of Vacuum Heating But a few years ago (1895) a heating engineer made use of the following expression in discussing the future of the heating business before a trade association : " If you can circulate a system below atmosphere in a large building you can certainly circulate it below atmosphere in a dwelling house. If you can circulate it below, how much below can you circulate it? It is possible that in a few years from now we will be heating houses not by hot water but by steam below atmospheric pressure, of such a low temperature that it gives all of the advantages of hot water without any of its disadvantages." His prediction is now an accepted fact and vacuum and vapor heating, as we may observe by following up the many ideas and the many systems already before us, have by the use of various devices described on the preceding pages become adaptable to any size of residence or building. CHAPTER XVHI MISCELLANEOUS HEATING The Heating of Swimming Pools The simplest method of heating an open body of water sucli as a swimming pool or tank is by hot-water circulation. The heater should be placed sufficiently below the level or surface of the water that a natural circulation may be established between tlie heater and the tank. Fig. 171 shows an apparatus of this kind. The swimming pool illustrated contains approximately 30,000 gal- lons of water when filled to the normal water level. The size of flow pipe leaving the heater should be 6" and this should supply two 4" feed or flow pipes to the pool. These may be connected to it at points about 18" below the water line, the first pipe entering the pool about midway of its length, the last pipe entering well toward the shallow end. The return pipes should be connected from the deep end of the pool at a point about 6" from the bottom. The direction of the circulation of the water is indicated by the arrows shown on the illustration. The heater must be so set that the return open- ings in it are at least 12" below the bottom of the water in the pool. Fig. 172 is an elevation plan of the same apparatus and shows the relative heights at which the circulation enters and leaves the pool. Some engineers favor the method of having the flow pipes enter at the bottom of the shallow end of the pool and the taking of the returns out of the bottom of the deep end. This is not as good a plan as that which we illustrate by Fig. 171. With an apparatus installed in this manner the cross currents in the circulation thoroughly excite and warm all portions of the pool. 189 190 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION In estimating heating capacity for work of this character it is safe to assume that each 100 sq. ft. of heater capacity will warm 1,000 gallons of water from -lO degrees to 90 degrees in from six to eight hours. Thus a 5,000-gallon tank would require a 500-ft. hot-water heater to properly do the work. As the tank capacity MISCELLAxXEOUS HEATING 191 li^S PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION is increased in size the relative size of heater may be somewhat decreased as shown by the following table: TABLE XVIII Capacity of Pool or Tank— Gallons. Rated Capacity of Hot-water Heater — Sq. Ft. Capacity of Pool or Tank — Gallons. Rated Capacity of Hot- water Heater — Sq. Ft. 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 500 950 1,350 1,800 2,200 2,550 2,950 40,000 45,000 50,000 55,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 3,450 3,800 4,200 4,600 5,000 6,000 6,800 There are many circumstances which would vary the above figures considerably. However, those given are sufficiently accurate for estimating and represent the gross rating of cast-iron hot- water heaters as listed by any one of the reliable manufacturers and whose named ratings may be accepted as correct. It is a frequent occurrence to find that the necessary depth for heater room cannot be procured, owing to low ground, trouble with drainage, etc. In a case of this kind it is necessary to make use of steam for heating the water and an apparatus of this kind is somew^hat more complicated than the one for hot water already described. Where the steam is obtained from pure water, the pool may be heated by blowing live steam into the water through an orifice of the nature of an injector. A large circulating pipe is arranged at the deep end of the pool as shown by Fig. 173. At the top connection a reducing tee is used, as shown, in making the injector. This not only heats the water but causes also a circulation through the large pipe in the manner shown. Where it has been correctly used this arrangement has proven to be very successful. In the event of heating a large body of water, say 40,000 gal- lons or more, it is well to use two circulating pipes and injectors and they should each be placed at the deep end of the pool about from 18'' to 20" from each corner. The manner of circulation of the water in the pool is shown on the illustration Fig. 173. W^hen making use of the injector method the greater the pres- sure of the steam the more quickly a circulation may be established MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 193 and the water heated. For this work we recommend a boiler on which a pressure of from SO to 60 pounds may be maintained. The usual practice is to clean and refill a swimming- j)()()l a})out once in each week or ten days, depending somewhat u})()n tlie lumi- 0=0 1 ber of bathers using it. To keep the water as pure as possible during this period there is generally a small stream of fresh water entering the pool constantly, and the overflow openings of the 194 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION pool empty the excess water. Therefore, it will be seen that it is but once in a period ranging from six to ten days that the full volume of water in the pool has to be heated. For this reason the steam-injector principle is the most economical as the excess of boiler power may be put to other uses, such as heating a tank of water for domestic uses or for shower baths. In determining the size of boiler power the conditions of the work must be considered. A safe estimate is one-horse power of boiler capacity for each ^,500 gallons of water. Still another method whereby steam can be employed for heat- ing a pool is shown by Fig. 174. Coils of this nature are placed d <- Water Line Steam Supply Return — Q~ t^ fe ife P 'its. k Fig. ITJ'. — Heating swimming pool with steam coils. in recesses along the sides and end of the pool, the condensation returning to the boiler room, where it is pumped into the boiler or fed to it by an injector or return trap. Ow'ing to the large amount of condensation in coils when used in this manner, it is well to use a header or branch tee coil and to make the runs as short as possible. Heating Water for Domestic Purposes A class of heating now largely practiced is that of heating water for domestic purposes. In the cities and towns of any con- siderable size we find numbers of flat or apartment buildings and it MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 195 is customary in the better class of these buildings to furnish the various apartments with hot water from a central supply tank located in the basement. Such a tank is called a storage tank. There are two methods of heating the water, first by means of a small hot-water heater, called a tank heater, which is directly con- nected to the tank, and second by means of a steam coil within the tank. Such an apparatus becomes a part of the heating speci- fications and the methods as generally adopted should, therefore, be understood by the heating contractor. Storage tanks are made in two styles, namely, horizontal and vertical. The horizontal tank is usually hung from the first-floor Fig. 175. — Domestic hot-water supply — horizontal tank. joists by means of wrought-iron straps or hangers, or it may rest on brick piers. The vertical tanks are supported by cast-iron legs provided for the purpose. We have found the latter method to be better, as the weight of a large tank full of water is liable to strain the joists from which it is suspended, unless hung very close to a supporting wall. Fig. 175 illustrates the method of hanging a horizontal tank and making the heater connections, and Fig. 176 shows the method of setting and connecting the vertical tank. In making use of tliC latter method the tank should stand sufficiently high so that the bottom of it is above the return opening of the tank heater, as the return pipe is connected to opening in the bottom of the tank. 196 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION When steam boilers are employed in heating the building or when steam is obtained from a central heating plant the water may be heated by means of a steam coil within the tank, as shown by Fig. 177. Black iron or steel pipe should never be used for this purpose, owing to liability of rust or corrosion. The coil should be made of galvanized iron or copper pipe, the latter being Hot Water House Supply Draw-off Tank Heater Fig. 176. — Domestic hot-water supply — vertical tank. preferable, and it should be well braced or stayed in order that the expansion and contraction will not loosen it. The tank may also be double connected, that is, directly con- nected to a tank heater for use in the summer months and provided with a coil, and connected to the steam boiler in order that steam may be utilized for heating in cold weather. This method makes a very satisfactory arrangement. In determining the size or capacity of tank required several points should be considered. The ordinary tank capacity provided MISCELLANEOUS HEATING 197 when each apartment has its separate supply from water front in range is thirty gallons. When providing for apartments hav- ing but one set of bathroom fixtures, it will be found that an al- lowance of from twenty to twenty-five-gallon-tank capacity for Hot Water Supply Fig. r Draw-off -JT -Storage tank with steam coil. each apartment will prove sufficient. The tank heater should have a capacity of from 20^r to 25^ greater than that of the tank. The following table shows approxlmatel}^ the sizes of tank and heater necessary for from four to thirty-six apartments. TABLE XIX Number of Apartments. Capacity of Tank. Size of Tank. Heater Capacity — Size of Grate. 4 100 gallons 22"X60" 78 sq. in. 6 120 " 24"X60" 78 " " 8 180 " 30"X60" 113 " " 10 215 " 30"X72" 132 " " 12 250 " 30"X84" 176 " " 16 365 " 36"X84" 254 " " 20 430 " 42"X72" 314 " " 2t 575 " 42"X96" 380 " " 36 720 " 42" XI 20" 452 " " Should the tank service be used for other than regular domes- tic purposes, additional capacity must be provided. The manufacturers of storage tanks seldom place colls In them except according to specifications received with the order ; therefore, the heating contractor nmst specify the length of coll or number 198 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION of runs of pipe desired and the size of same. As a basis of what is required the following table will prove useful: TABLE XX Size of Tank. Size of Coil. 100 and 120 gal. 180 " 215 " 250 " 365 " 430 " 575 " 720 gal. 4 V })ipes 6 V 6 IM'' " 4 IH" " 6 Hi'' " Steam for Cooking and Manufacturing Purposes While the use of steam for cooking, or rather the adaptation of certain methods for accomplishing this, is in reality no part of a steam fitter's education, we wish in a general way to make men- tion of the subject in this chapter, and at the same time to call attention to the use of steam for manufacturing purposes. No large hotel or restaurant is complete in its equipment with- out a steam carving table and in most of the hotel and restaurant kitchens all vegetables are cooked by steaming. Meats may be cooked or roasted in ovens made for the purpose, and when pre- pared in this manner, meat will be as tender as would be a pot- roast cooked in the usual way over the fire of a kitchen range, and will lose less weight in cooking than when roasted in an oven. Ap- pliances for cooking and baking are marketed by the builders of such apparatus and the steam fitter, as a usual thing, has simply to make certain specified pipe connections to the apparatus. The usages of steam for manufacturing purposes are many and varied in character. Double-bottomed kettles for the use of dyeing establishments, soap making, etc., and for heating glue, paste and numerous other purposes are in common use. For carpet cleaning, feather renovating and drying, in hat manufac- tories and for numerous other manufacturing purposes, steam is employed in a greater or lesser quantity, and the subject would require a volume to illustrate and describe the various fixtures and fittings. It is quite probable that more than two thirds of our manufactories make use of steam for purposes other than the generation of power. CHAPTER XIX Radiator and Pipe Connections In those chapters of this book having reference to systems or methods of piping for steam or liot-water circulation we have fre- quently made mention of certain styles of radiator and pipe con- nections. We shall in this chapter illustrate and explain the sev- eral modes of radiator connections and show the method of using swing or expansion joints on piping, together with some special forms of pipe connections which are made desirable by conditions of building construction. Steam Radiator Connections Fig. 178 shows the most simple form of connecting a single steam radiator with the main. The illustration shows the branch connection taken from the top of the main with a 90° elbow. A am c m Fig. 178. — Simple form steam radiator connection. Fig. 179. — Steam radiator connected from riser. 45° elbow at this point would be preferable. The valve should be used on the end of radiator farthest from the riser or branch in order to provide for expansion. When a radiator is connected 199 200 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION from a riser on single-pipe steam work the connection should be made as illustrated by Fig. 179. This is known as a " stiff " con- nection and when used in this manner there should be a " double swing " or expansion connection at the base of the riser. In order Double Swing Joiut Fig. 180. — Double swin^ connection at bottom of riser. that this form of radiator connection may be thoroughly under- stood we illustrate by Fig. 180 a riser feeding three radiators, all of which are connected with stiff joints. The radiator on the first floor is connected direct from riser with an offset valve; the radi- ator on the second floor is connected by a stiff joint, as described RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS 201 by Fig. 179, and tlie tliird-floor radiator is connected by a valve placed directly on the tcp of the riser. Note the double swing or Fig. 181. — Radiator connected with expansion joints. expansion joints at the base of the riser. When the riser is con- nected to main by a stiff joint on the branch, all radiators fed by it should be connected by expansion joints as shown by Fig. 181. Hot-Water Radiator Connections The regular form of connecting a single hot-water radiator from main and to the return is illustrated by Fig. 182 and needs no further explanation. When the same branch feeds a riser, as well as the first-floor radiator, the connection should be made as shown by Fig. 183. There is always a tendency for hot water in circu- lation to rise quickly to the highest radiator ; hence the connec- tion to upper radiator should be taken from the side of the riser as shown. 202 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Fig. 182. — ^Hot-water radiator connection. Fig. 184.— Radiator connection for overhead system. I ^-■' FLOOR RADIATOR. Fig. 186.— Flow connected at top of radiator. Fig. 185. — Connection for overhead system- swing joints. RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS ^03 Fig. 184 sliows one method of connecting to a radiator wlien the riser is fed from above by tlie overliead system. 15iit one valve is necessary and tliis may be placed either on the flow or return connection. In order to make the connection as illustrated the riser must be carried a considerable distance from the wall. We favor the use of a swing connection, as shown by Fig. 185, in order that the riser may be run well against the wall and thus make a better appearance. Some fitters favor the method of connecting the flow into the top of one end of a radiator and the return out of the bottom of op- posite end. There are some cases where this is advisable, but on regular hot-water work it is not necessary. By Fig. 186 we show the manner of making this form of connection. Improper Use of Tees Notwithstanding the fact that in nearly all of the text books on steam and hot-water heating the fitter has been warned against it, and that writers on the subject have repeatedly condemned tb.e practice, some steam fitters will persist in using a tee " bull head," Tee used "Bull Head':. Fig. 187. — Wroiijr use of tee. as illustrated by Fig. 187. The friction caused by using a tee in this manner must be apparent even to a person unacquainted with steam or hot-water circulation. This is more noticeable on hot-water circulation than on steam. The proper style of fitting to use is the double elbow, illustrated by Fig. 120, and when em- 204 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION ployed to divide a main into two branches the object is accompHshed with the least possible amount of friction. Fig. 188 as compared with Fig. 187 clearly illustrates this. Double or "Twin" Ell Branch' Qsm ^^=^^^- ^mr' iii|tii iijiifi itfii iiiiti Branch' -Main Fig. 188. — Double ell for dividing flow. Methods of Pipe Construction When a steam main is run at a considerable length from the boiler it frequently happens that in order to keep the end of it a sufficient distance above the w^ater line it must be dripped and raised again to keep at the height necessary. When this is essen- tial the connection should be made as shown by Fig. 189. The main r i ^ Main A 111 A ir Vnl vp > Tl 1 ^ Mam/ Drip- =5 i Fig. li -Method of relieving main. should be carried a short distance beyond the point at which the rise is made, and a reducing elbow used in connecting the drip. This elbow should be tapped and fitted with an automatic air valve, RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS 205 as sliown by the illustration. The use of this method will relieve the main of much friction and eliminates the use of a tee placed bullhead on the end of main at point where drip is made. On circuit work it occasionally happens that the main must be run very low owing to certain wood or iron beams supporting the joists. When it is possible to drip the main and rise again this difficulty may be easily overcome. Frequently, however, the base- ment is put to such use that a drip connection cannot be made •Joists Fig. 190. — Method of crossing beam without drip. or will not be permitted. By Fig. 190 we illustrate a simple method of surmounting this difficulty, which we think is self- explanatory. Care should be exercised in the alignment of the main on either side of the beam. Artificial Water Line When it is necessary to run a wet return under a building where the basement or a portion of it is unexcavated, it is some- times essential to create what is known as a " false water line." By this is meant a water line above that of the boiler and it is required in order that the return may be kept full of the water of conden- sation. This will prevent the short-circuiting of steam into the return and thereby cause trouble by retaining the water of con- densation in piping or radiators. There are several methods of doing this. Fig. 191 illustrates a mode quite commonly used, and the piping as arranged works all right, although we are inclined 206 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Main Flow Down False Water - Line ^ Water Line in Boiler Valve for Draining Loop . Aut. Air Vent Wain Return & lO^^ ^ ^=^ n ^Excavated % 1 Fig. 191. — Common method of establisliing a false water line. to favor the method illustrated by Fig. 192. The equalizmg pipe shown, connecting top of loop with the main, prevents any false Main to Heating System EqualizingPipe Return from Heating System Not Excavated Down False AVater ^ Line Aut.Air Vent Valve to Drain System into Wet Return Water Line^ in Boiler Fig. 19*2. — Another method of establishing a false water line. register due to unequal pressure, which might be a result from the use of the method as first illustrated. Cross-Connecting Boilers When the boiler or heater capacity of a heating plant is di- vided the boilers or heaters should be so valved and cross-con- nected that either of them may be used independently of the other. RADIATOR AND PIPE CONNECTIONS ^07 On work of any considerable size it has been discovered that as a matter of safety and economy this plan is advisable. It In- sures the use of one part of the apparatus in the event of an accident occurring to the other, and it is economical from the fact that in mild weather or with a portion of tlie radiation turned off one boiler is sufficient to furnish the amount of heat desired. There is considerable variance of opinion as to tlie utility of di- viding the boiler power. Where the boiler capacity is fully large Steain Main -(J Fig. 193. — Cros.s-coniiectiii ( Fig. 196. — Cross-connecting hot-water boilers. that the normal w^ater line of one is on a level with that of the other boiler. It may be found necessary to set the larger boiler Boiler Boiler Return Draw Connection ction -JIQ4J_ -Gate- Valve Fiange Flange -Gate- Valve Flange Return j'ater -Connection Fig. 197. — Cross-connecting returns — hot-water boilers. in a pit or to place the smaller one upon a brick foundation, in order to level the water lines. 210 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Pipe Measurements for 45-Degree and Other Angles The base of the triangle being given the length of the hy- pothenuse may be determined by the use of constant multipliers Fig. 198. — Measuring 45° angles. for each different angle. Fig. 198 illustrates the method. The following constants are the multipliers. TABLE XXI Angle (line B). Constants (Multipliers). iiM° 22,1^° 30° 45° 60° 1.0196 1.0824 1.1547 1.4143 2.0000 Rule. — To determine the dimension C (the hypothenuse), center to center measure, multiply the distance A by the constant opposite the angle B. CHAPTER XX VENTILATION Importance of Ventilation The need or Importance of ventilation has been recognized for many years. Probably the first effort to ventilate a room of any considerable size was made by Dr. J. F. Desaguliers, as briefly referred to in the Introductory pages of this book, who In 1723 arranged a ventilating apparatus for the British House of Com- mons. This apparatus was used for upward of eighty years, being replaced early In the nineteenth century by a system of fans propelled by hand. These fans were arranged to exhaust the foul air at the top of the building. Records of ventilation by means of bellows or blowers by the Romans and later by the Germans are to be had. Without doubt, however, the British attempt marked the beginning of ventila- tion as we to-day understand and use the term. The early at- tempts at ventilation were to remove the air vitiated by the exhalations of many people occupying a single room and by the candles or various styles of lamps used for lighting. With the advent of the present-day type of heating apparatus came the greater need of ventilatiori in order not only to exhaust the foul air but also to provide a supply of fresh air to replace that vitiated by the breath of the persons occupying a building and also the oxygen consumed by lamps or gas burners for illumina- tion. Oxygen is the all-important element or quality of the atmos- phere and without It we can have neither heat nor light. It is required in the chemical process of combustion and without It fuel will not burn. It Is necessary to sustain life and without Its presence all living beings would die. The atmosphere we breathe is composed principally of about one part oxygen to four parts of nitrogen, together with more or less vapor or water in a gaseous 211 212 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION state or held in suspension and is expressed bj the term humidity. Oxygen is the Hfe-sustaining quahty of the air, which is diffused or diluted by the nitrogen. The percentage of watery vapor present varies with the temperature and the exposure or proximity to a body of water. There is also present in the atmosphere carbon dioxide or car- bonic-acid -gas, which by itself is not particularly harmful. Under certain conditions, however, it is detrimental to health, not from the amount usually present in the air, which ranges but from two to four parts in 10,000, but when present in larger quantities due to the exhalations from the lungs of several persons con- gregated in a single room. It then produces a feeling of close- ness or stuffiness, causing headaches and is otherwise detrimental to health. The poisonous matter thrown into the air or given off by our bodies is also the source of great danger to health. For example, confine a person in a tight inclosure. That person will liv.e as long as there is oxygen to breathe, depending upon the size of the inclosure. The oxygen will eventually be con- sumed and the person choke or suffocate, being poisoned by the carbonic-acid gas and impurities exhaled from his own body. If our exhalations are poisonous to ourselves what then may be said of the risk entailed by living in or even temporarily occupying crowded rooms, such as offices, workrooms, or places of amuse- ment where we are breathing the foul air exhaled from the lungs of our neighbors, some of whom may be suffering from tubercu- losis or other diseases and so contaminate the air with the germs of such diseases. Not a very pleasant thought but true never- theless and the fact should be carefully considered by every think- ing person. Ventilation is not a luxury — it is a necessity. As another example, enter a residence temporarily occupied for a social gathering. Entering the building from outside where the air is pure into brilliantly lighted rooms not sufficiently ven- tilated and possibly more or less crowded with people, a feeling of closeness, stuffiness, or suffocation is at once apparent. A person not strongly constituted or in good health may in a short time faint from lack of air, while a stronger individual may perhaps become acclimated and soon fail to notice the oppress- ing effects of the foyl atmosphere of the room. VENTILATION glS The use of electricity for lighting purposes has done much toward maintaining the purity of the atmosphere under conditions as cited above. Dr. Tidy after exhaustive tests compiled the following table showing the air consumed by various modes of artificial lighting and the percentage of carbonic-acid gas given off by the various burners : TABLE XXII Liglit Producing Material equal to 12 Standard Candles. Cubic Feet of Oxygen Consumed. Cubic Feet of Air Consumed. Cubic Feet of Carbonic Acid given off. Cubic Feet of Air Vitiated. Heat, Equal Parts of, raised to 10° Fahr. Comirion Gas. 5.45 4.75 6.81 7.51 8.41 None 17.25 23 . 75 34.05 37.85 42.05 None 3.21 3 33 4.50 5.77 5.90 None 345.25 278.6 356.75 233.5 484.05 361.9 1 614.85 351.7 632.25 38.S 1 1 Sperm Oil Paraffin Sperm Candles Wax Candles Electric Light None 13.8 That the need of ventilation has long been recognized by physicians, scientists and engineers is shown by the works of such men as Chas. Hood, London, whose writings and book puhlisl.cd in 1879 are a fair treatise of the subject. Other works more or less practical were published by Dr. D. B. Reid (1844) and by Chas. Tomlinson (1864). Probably the most authentic Ameri- can work is that from the pen of Dr. John S. Billings, of Wash- ington, D. C, a Surgeon of the L^nited States Navy, whose book on w^arming and ventilation is accepted as a standard authority. Other pubhcations by Thos. Box, F. Schuman, C.E., Butler, Leeds, and the authorities mentioned in the introduction of this book will repa}^ a careful reading. Air Necessary for Ventilation What amount of air is necessary for ventilation.? This ques- tion may be answered by numerous examples. Perfect ventila- tion might be said to be the exhausting of the foul air and the admitting of the fresh air in such quantities that the inhabitants of a room or building would never inhale the same air twice, or, in other words, would breathe air inside the building of the same purity as that on the outside. Such a state, however, is neither 214 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION practical nor necessary. With the size and conditions of a build- ing and the probable number of occupants known it is possible to estimate Aery closely the air supply necessary to maintain a certain standard of purity of the air within the building. Not so many years ago a fresh-air supply of 300 cubic feet per hour per person was considered sufficient. To-day we look upon 30 cubic feet per minute or 1,800 cubic feet per hour per person as being the minimum supply essential. Dr. Billings gives the hourly air supply necessary for certain requirements as follows : TABLE XXIII Hospitals liegislative Assembly Halls Barracks, Bedrooms and Workshops Schools and Churches Theaters and Ordinary Halls of Audience , Office Tlooms DininH ^rTn^'^K'-^rF^M^^.K^^'^^^'K^M' .■VPr^M.S^/^rr^'^^-^ ,^1 ^n Foul Air Duct between Jois Fig. 199. — Connecting foul-air duct to ventilating shaft. size of same depending upon existing conditions. The inlet reg- isters for all ventilation of this character should be placed in the wall at a point about two thirds the height of the ceiling and they should be located at a point opposite to the fireplace, if there be one in the room. See Fig. 200. The importance of chimneys as ventilating shafts is not gen- erally recognized. The open fireplace, when in use, provides a VENTILATION 221 most successful means of exhausting the foul air from a room. A chimney or shaft may be successfully used for ventilation b}^ running a smoke flue constructed of boiler iron through the center of the shaft and surrounding it wltli ventilating ducts of such number and size as may be necessary to accommodate the rooms to be ventilated. When used in this connection a chimney should r^^/ Fresh Air Inlet Register 3' from Ceiling X_~ ."r_-AxcJ3 1 _' Fig. '200. — Location of fresh-air inlet. be located in the center of the building and the bottom of the smoke flue should rest on a cast-iron plate supported on a brick or stone foundation, as shown by Fig. 201. The arrangement of ventilating ducts is shown by Fig. 202. These ducts rise to the height of the brickwork of the chinmey, on the top of which there should be erected an iron canopy open at the sides. The smoke flue should protrude through the top of the canopy and may have a cowl at the extreme end, if desired. The smoke flue should be anchored to the brick walls })y iron clamps, as illustrated by Fig. 203. These anchor clamps should be attached at the line of each floor, at the roof line and at the top of the brick chinmey. The smoke flue warms and expands the air in the ventilating ducts, inducing an upward circulation, 222 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION which exhausts the foul air from each room and discharges it into the atmosphere under the canopy at the top of the chimney. This method of ventilation, in connection with indirect or semidirect radiators for warming, is quite successful and by slight modifications may be readily adapted for many small build- Smok Fig. 203. — ^Iron clamps for support- FiG. 201. — Construction of ventilating shaft. ing stack. ings. For residences this method may be employed in place of the ventilating shaft as previously mentioned. The movement of air in the vertical or main vent flues should not be less than 6 feet per second. With an arrangement of the flues as described above, if properly constructed, this velocity, or even a greater, should be easily obtained. Make the register openings of such sizes that the velocity of the air through them will not be more than one half that in the vertical duct, or in other words, not more than 3 feet per VENTILATION 223 second. If this schedule is adhered to, no perceptible draughts Avill abound or be felt by the occupants of a room. Wlien seniidirect radiators are used for warming the enter- ing air, the dampers may be adjusted to suit the state of the weather. With indirect radiation the registers should equal in size and open area those used for foul air. Definite results as to air volume and velocity may be obtained by properly proportioning the amount of heating surface and the sizes of hot and cold air ducts. This is particularly true in cold weather when the maximum amount of pure air would be supplied to the building. There seems to be no question but that the combination of gravity ventilation and indirect heating is one tliat gives vary- ing quantities of air dependent on atmospheric conditions. In warmer weather, when the minimum amount of heat is necessary, the resulting temperatures and velocities of the air in the ven- tilating flues are less than in colder weather; consequently the volume of fresh air admitted and the volume of air exhausted are less. With this understanding we should not use the average vol- ume necessary as a basis for estimating, but should so plan the work that the volume of air moved in warmer weather would be adequate for the character of the building in which the appa- ratus is placed. CHAPTER XXI MECHANICAL VENTILATION AND HOT-BLAST HEATING Growth, and Improvement The phenomenal growth of the various systems of hot-blast heating and mechanical ventilation during the past twenty-five years is due largely to the better understanding of those who plan and erect buildings as to the need of a positive system of heating and ventilation. Many excellent works have been pub- lished covering the advantages of this type of apparatus and the application of the various methods employed in performing the w^ork. These books and papers are more or less necessarily tech- nical in character and, therefore, useful principally to experienced engineers and are intelligible only to those who have received the benefit of a higher education. While we may not be able to add to the value of what has already been written on the subject, we hope to so describe and illustrate the various methods employed that the average steam fitter or heating contractor will obtain an intelligent idea of the principles applied and the methods practiced in installing work of this character. Our thanks are due to such representative manufacturers of fans and ventilating apparatus as The Buffalo Forge Company, The B. F. Sturtevant Company, American Blower Company, New York Blower Company and The Massachusetts Fan Com- pany and the engineers employed by them for much valuable assistance and for permission granted to use such tables relating to the movement of air, etc., etc., as appear in the last chapter of this book. Experience has clearly demonstrated that mechanical heating and ventilation should go hand in hand, and in order that the cost of installation and operation may be reduced to a minimum, 224 MECHANICAL VENTILATION 225 thev should be considered unitedly, planned for unitedly and in- stalled unitedly. A system of heating and ventilating camiot l)e perfectly controlled where one pai't is installed independent of the other and without perfect control the cost of operation must be excessive and the results obtained be intermittent, if not a complete failure. Mechanical systems for heating and ventilating are at this date installed principally in buildings of large size, such as schools, theaters, churches, hospitals, factories, etc., and in com- paratively few residences. This latter condition is due undoubt- edly to the cost, both of apparatus and of maintenance. When as a people we shall have decided that we are willing to pay as much for health and comfort (which result from the breathing of pure, fresh air) as we do for the heating of our homes, then, without question, we shall see mechanical methods of heating and ventilating more generally practiced. Another influence oper- ating against the adoption of methods of mechanical heating and ventilation, which possibly has not been heretofore fully recog- nized, has been the antagonism of the steam-fitting trade in many localities to the approval and acceptance of the blower system. In all likelihood this situation is due to two reasons, namely (1) ignorance of the modes applied and the results obtained, and (2) the question of personal gain arising from the adoption of some one of the old orthodox systems of heating. Methods Employed There are two general methods practiced in supplying a building with heat and fresh air and in exhausting or expelling the foul air. These methods are known as the exhaust and ple- num methods. In arranging the apparatus for an exhaust sys- tem, the fan is placed in the main ventilating shaft or duct and cold or fresh air ducts lead to the heating surfaces supplying each room, as would be the case if indirect radiators were used. The entire heating surface may also be placed within a single chamber (brick or iron) and from this chamber the warm-air supply pipes connect with ducts leading to each room. Again, the heating surface may be direct, that is to say, direct cast-iron radiators 226 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION or pipe coils placed under windows or at points where the inward leakage is the greatest. In action the fan produces a partial vacuum within the room. This results in drawing the fresh air from outside the building through the coils or other heating surfaces and from them into the various rooms. At the same time it exhausts the foul air through ducts provided for the purpose, which are connected with the main ventilating shaft. In so far as the heating and ventilating results are concerned, it is possible to thoroughly warm and ventilate a building by this method and there are a great many structures heated in this manner. The objections to this mode are that in operation the partial vacuum created draws all air currents inwardly through the crevices around doors or windows, thus often producing a draught which is dan- gerous to the occupants of the rooms ; also, that it is difficult to control a system of this character, particularly in a change- able climate. Again, the locations of the inlet and outlet regis- ters must be arranged with great care, owing to the direct course of the air from the inlets to the outlets, and often the conditions of the building (particularly if previously erected) are such that the ducts and openings cannot be distributed as desired. For these reasons this system is not now generally used ; it has been replaced by the so-called " plenum " method. With the plenum method the heated air is forced into each room under a slight pressure and all leaks of air around doors, windows or other openings are outward and no perceptible draughts are felt or experienced by the occupants of the room. As the slight pressure exerted is from the source of the pure- air supply it is impossible for any obnoxious odors or gases to enter into and contaminate the air of the room. With this sys- tem the supply of heated air, as well as the supply of fresh air, or we might say the quality, quantity and temperature of the air are always under perfect control. There are several adaptations of the plenum system of heat- ing and ventilating. The older method employed is where the cold air is supplied to the fan direct from a cold-air chamber or cold-air duct, the fan driving it through the heater or heating coils into the various warm air ducts supplying the rooms of the MECHANICAL VENTILATION 2^7 building. Tlie air may be sufficiently heated by these coils, or it may be driven through supplementary heaters located at the base of the hot-air flues and be increasingly heated before de- livery to the room or rooms to be warmed. Separate ducts may be arranged to connect the main hot-air supply with the rising flues, or the heated air from the coil may be discharged under a slight pressure into a plenum chamber with which all supply pipes or warm-air ducts are connected. Heat Losses and Heating Capacity Required The proportion of heat losses depends principally upon the construction of the building, whether of frame, stone or })rick, the conditions of exposure, that is to say, whether standing alone in an isolated position or protected from chilling winds by sur- rounding buildings, the number and sizes of windows and the amount of exposed wall surface. Brick buildings lose less heat through walls than buildings constructed of wood or stone and of the three classes, the frame structure is usually less compactly erected and correspondingly harder to heat. The percentage of loss through walls of varying thicknesses has been ascertained with sufficient accuracy for estimating purposes, as has also been the percentage of heat transmission through windows (glass), doors, floors and ceilings. The use to which the building is put largely governs the heating capacity required. A schoolhouse or similar structure, built in the open and having a large proportion of exposed glass and wall surface, and where a certain number of changes of air per hour is desired, or a definite amount of fresh air per hour per person required, is proportionately harder to warm than would be a theater with its small glass exposure and usually well protected walls, to say nothing of the animal heat emanating from a large number of people closely assembled. In tlie latter type of building the matter of furnishing fresh air to replace that vitiated by the breaths of the Individuals within the struc- ture, and exhausting the air so contaminated without producing draughts or dangerous air currents, is a problem not easily solved. Assembly halls, churches, hospitals, factories and other types of buildings present conditions of heat losses and air vitiation which 228 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION vary according to the diversified uses to which each building is put ; therefore each type of building must be considered separately in planning the heating and ventilating of it. The heating capacity of the apparatus is therefore based on two conditions, namely, the temperature of the air necessary to warm the building and the volume of fresh air necessary to be supplied in order to maintain a given standard of purity of the atmosphere within the building. Reference to the table " Volume of Air Necessary to Maintain a Standard of Purity " given in the last chapter of this book will show the volume of air essential under certain stated conditions. Quality of the Air Supplied When a blower apparatus is placed in a building erected in a location where the purity of the air is unquestioned, it may be supplied in its natural state to the building. As a matter of fact, the large proportion of buildings heated and ventilated by mechanical methods are located in the cities, in congested dis- tricts, or in factory towns where the atmosphere surrounding the structure is contaminated by dust and soot and which, aside from the possibility of being more or less filled with the germs of dis- ease, is unfit to breathe. Again, in all buildings heated by arti- ficial means, the air is deficient in moisture, the dryness being so apparent that it is necessary to heat the rooms to a temperature much higher than would be required were proper attention given to the quality of the air supplied. Proper provision for a desirable degree of moisture in the air supplied to a building is as necessary, indeed we may say, more necessary, for health of its occupants, than the heating of it. Proper protection in the way of clothing will prevent chill- ing in a structure insufficiently warmed, 1 ut there is no individual resource whereby a person may prevent the oppressive feeling resulting from the dryness or overheating of a room, causing the evaporation of the moisture from the body to such an extent as to produce irritation of the skin and other unpleasant sensations. One can never feel as comfortable inside a room heated to 70° as in the open and balmy outside air when the temperature is at 70°. This fact alone shows conclusively that the nearer we MECHANICAL VENTILATION ^^9 can come to maintaining a fixed standard of lunnidity witliin a building, the riclicr will be the conditions of health and comfort. With these circumstances provided for it is possible at times to breathe better air within than without an edifice, because the weight of moisture in the outside air is variable, as it de- pends upon the conditions of humidity and temperature and these change daily, often hourly. Prof. Kinealy states that the weight of moisture brought into a room per hour by air which enters from the outside, is equal to the number of cubic feet of air, measured at the outside temperature, which enters per hour, nml- tiplied hy the weight in grains of the moisture in one cubic foot of air, and that the amount of moisture in one cubic foot of external air is obtained by multiplying its humidity by the weight of moisture required to saturate it at the outside temperature. Again, the same authority states that as it is customary in this country to keep the air of the rooms at 70°, and to assume that the volume of the air supplied for ventilation is measured at 70°, the following table has been calculated to show the weight of moisture in one cubic foot of air at 70°, when the air is taken in a saturated condition at different outside temperatures and heated to 70°. TABLE XXV Weight of Vapor in One Temperature of Saturated Cubic Foot of Air wlien Humidity of Air when Heated Outside Air. Temperature is Raised to 70 Degrees. to 70 Degrees. 0.68 8.5 10 0.98 12.3 20 1.43 17.9 30 2.04 25.5 40 2.92 36.5 50 4.13 51.6 60 5.76 72.0 An Ideal System The ideal system of mechanical heating and ventilation must, therefore, be the system Avhich will not only properly warm a building, but which will at the same time expel the foul air in such quantities as to thoroughly remove all excess carbonic-acid 230 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION gas and all poisons of respiration from the atmosphere within the building and replace the air expelled with air which has been washed of its soot, dirt and germs and moistened to such a degree as will insure healthfulness and comfort to the occupants. Fur- ther, the ideal system is one which is always under perfect con- trol, giving certain definite results within a minimum cost of maintenance. Our readers may ask if all this is possible, to which we reply : Yes, not only possible, but further, that systems of this character are now in constant use. Installations of this kind are known as the " double-duct system " or more familiarly as the " hot and cold system." The reason for these appellations is shown in the following descriptions of apparatus. Taking the modern school or public building for illustration, Fig. 204 shows a system of this kind as designed by the Buffalo Forge Company. The fan, heaters and air ducts are arranged in the usual manner. The tempering coils are located nearest to the fresh-air inlet and are of sufficient capacity to maintain any temperature desired up to 70° or 80°. The coils are spe- cially constructed to admit of temperature regulation by hand, or the temperature in the spray or humidifying chamber may be automatically controlled by means of a by-pass damper under tempering coils. At one end of the spray chamber are located the spray nozzles. These are made of brass and are of simple construction, practically atomizing the water and distributing it uniformly throughout the chamber, the discharge being par- allel to the air currents. At the opposite end of the chamber is located the eliminator or separator, which removes all free par- ticles of moisture from the air before it enters the fan which draws the air direct from the humidifying chamber through the eliminator. The air thus cleansed and moistened is then dis- charged through the coils of the heater into the plenum chamber from which the various ducts supplying the building are taken. Reference to Fig. 205 (which is an elevation plan of an appa- ratus designed for the Carnegie Library at St. Louis, Mo.) will show that the entire volume of air from the fan may be delivered through the heater, or a portion of it may be passed around the heater through the by-pass shown and mixed with the hot air in such quantities as desired or necessary to maintain a given MECHANICAL VENTILATION P^l .''<-;^,/y/ ///X 'V^y:-^^'}^ ^231 232 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION MECHANICAL VENTILATION 233 temperature within tlie building. Thermostatic control at tiie mixing dampers for each room is an essential and special feature for a system of this character. It may be well to state that the water for the sprays may be furnished from city pressure. The most economical method, however, is to use the water continuously until it is unfit for further use. This is achieved by draining the water separated from the air by the eliminator into a well, from which it is Fig. 206. — Wire screen for cleansing air. pumped by a centrifugal pump and delivered again to the spray system. This pump may be direct connected or driven by belt from the fan, or a separate motor. Air cleansing and humidifying may be secured l)y several methods. For cleaning it of soot and dust, the air may be passed through a fine wire screen similar to that shown by Fig. 206. Originally cheese cloth stretched over wooden frames was used. These frames were made removable, to be replaced when clogged with dirt. 234 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Coke washing and purifying seems to be a very good method of removing dust and dirt and at the same time moistening the air. The coke is placed on shelving within a wire cage, through a Oh P o U which the air is passed on its way to the fan. At the top of the cage the water supply is placed. The water is allowed to trickle down over and through the coke, while the air passing through MECHANICAL VENTILATION 236 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION at right angles is purified and moistened. Fig. 207 shows a per- spective section of a school Avith heater, fan, coke washer, etc., as installed by the American Blower Company. Tlie fresh air enters the building in the usual manner, through a screened opening in basement wall, passes through tempering coils, or direct through by-pass under the coils, to the coke washer and from here to the fan. MECHANICAL VENTILATION 237 It is delivered to the heater or passed around it in the usual manner and under thermostatic control is admitted to the vari- ous rooms through ducts leading out of the plenum cliamhcr. Quite similar is the apparatus of the New York Blower Com- pany, as illustrated by Fig. 208. As conditions of area, location, etc., largely govern the cliar- acter of the apparatus installed, each particular })uilding must be separately considered and this fact is responsible in no small degree for the many arrangements and designs of the blower system. One of the many Sturtevant methods is shown by illustration Fig. 209. It is a three-quarter housing pulley fan with blow- through heater for the '' hot-and-cold " or " double-duct " sys- tem. An apparatus of this kind is used on work where space is limited, or where the space allotted is in such form as to preclude the placing of apparatus of the ordinary form with moistening chamber and tempering coils. The outlet from the heater may be made to discharge directly outward from the end, or upward or downward in either direction. In fact, the methods of setting and housing of the fan, whether a steam fan or operated by a pulley, are such as may be adapted for any special form of installation. A typical apparatus for heating and ventilating a school is shown by the small basement plan Fig. 210. In this case the fan discharges in opposite directions through separate heaters to the right and to the left into separate plenum chambers, as shown. This arrangement of the apparatus is particularly com- mendable owing to the centralizing of the fan and heaters and the direct delivery of the warm air. One engineer summarizes the features of this system as follows : " The entire heating surface is centrally located, inclosed within a fireproof casing, and placed under the control of a single individual, thereby avoiding the possibility of damage by leakage or freezing incident to a scattered system of steam piping and radiators. The heater itself is adapted for the use of either exhaust or live steam, and provision is made for utilizing the exhaust of the fan engine, thereby reducing the cost of operation (of the fan) to practically nothing. At all times ample and PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION positive ventilation may be provided with air tempered to the desired degree. Absokite control may be had over the quality and quantity of air supplied. It may he filtered, cleansed, heated -'-;;.- l i ■ ■ ^ Fig. 210. — A typical method for schools. or cooled, dried or moistened at will. By means of the hot and cold system, the temperature of the air admitted to any given apartment may be instantly and radically changed without the employment of supplementary heating surface." Fans for Blowing and Exhausting For exhaust ventilation and the removal of smoke, obnoxious gases, etc., from factories or other buildings, the regular forms of fan wheels used are of the disc or the cone type. Fans of this character are lightly constructed, are easily installed and require but little power to operate when run at low speed. The Cone type of peripheral discharge, without any casing MECHANICAL VENTILATION ^B9 whatever, is thouo'lit to . 5 .£f a OQ fe HiJ < ^ 1 -,«,--, ' ' 1^ - z •^oaaipuj 5* -^ \Ol •joajiQ •;j bs o »o O 'O X Ci X M ^il::?^§i^ i§ io § § Is 'aoujang ssbj'j ^ ©» ^ o »0 t- »0 C5 ^ ^ Tf. o ^ CO ^'5 X 'O «0 (W O W r-> T-. CO CO CO '-"^ CO CC CC >-i •J J ajBnbg a* r>» m -f r: C5 »o CO 'f* G< o^ -t X f>» ^ CC i> t- o< ^ 'TJi rN o< O O CO — ^' -^r r-^' Cfi O O O •'f* X 13^ -* G^ ■-f* ©< -3^ O Q^ 1-1 CO 'O O*^ CO 0_ ^^ l--^ 'O X '-'^ Oi .-T of r4 i-T r-T r-T X o» O X O* CO C5 o 't- "^^ ^. "* ]y; S3S2 o c: Ci c: c: c: c: c: X X X X •Suoi SS2§ J--^ ».T CO CD -(f <3< CO •<# CO '* X •aP'AV '>> 'r^ O^ -O -f '3> O -^J 0?.'>» X X 0> <>» O CO ' 1 /''/r*^ Floor: Parlor Sittin-rRoom Library Diiiin: -^ - =r::p<^ 317 ^ CO . l^ C3 _» ^ ^ 'i. |^-> -'^ II III ^T^^ 3 •- ^ ra o j-i c a^ «^ -i ro o fc, c3 ra to o ^ a; §8i§?ii :§^^ :§8§i2^§gi§ : : i ?§§§ :§§ : :§ 2?5 S? a^ • 0^ c^ ^ •Tf<^L--— ir-HOXG-J-f ■ • i ^^^1 • ox • ■ lo C5 J?> 4^ ^ «- ^ 3 0(5 0h ;-H X >. ^^^^ K 13^ ^ 1-H ^ G^ 1— I o E ^ s O !/: O n3 ^ 05 O^ O O CO . O* CO ^ r-H 318 BUSINESS METHODS 319 detail represents an estimate for both steam and hot water for a brick throL-story dwelHng. The rule " 2—20—^00 " is used in estimating the amount of radiation required ; the prices inserted are fictitious, being given for the sole purpose of instructing our readers in the right course to pursue in correctly filling out the blanks on estimate sheet. Having estimated carefully the requirements of the work, size of heater, square feet of radiation, etc., etc., and checked over the cost figures to insure accuracy, the next step is to prepare a proposal and bid to sul)mit to the owner. Proposal and Bid Printed forms arranged with spaces left blank for filling in with a pen may be procured for this purpose. It is our belief, however, that a typewritten form of proposal and bid is better suited to the purpose, as the printed forms must necessarily con- tain much matter whlcli lias to be crossed off or eliminated to cover certain work, but which, if excluded from the printed form, would for certain other work have to be inserted with a pen. We submit the following form of proposal as covering such detail as is necessary-, and the bid attached becomes a legal contract after the signatures of both the contractor and the owner are added to it. The usual practice is to make two copies, the contractor signing both of them before submitting to the owner, who, if he accepts tlie proposition submitted, signs the acceptance clause and returns one copy to the heating contractor. As no one style of proposal can cover both steam and hot water work, we give separate forms for each. Where the dotted horizontal line " " occurs it denotes space in which the name of the boiler, radiator or other goods to be used, should be inserted. Proposal and Bid for Steam-Heating Apparatus General. — These specifications are intended to cover a com- plete low-pressure steam-heating apparatus and it is understood that the same wnll be placed exactly as specified. 1. Boiler. — I will furnish and erect in basement one No Steam Boiler. The exterior surface of the boiler, witli 320 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION the exception of the front, to be thoroughly covered with asbestos cement. The boiler will be provided with a complete set of trim- mings, which shall consist of automatic damper regulator, safety valve, water column and gauge, steam gauge and blow-off cock, and a complete set of firing tools, consisting of poker, slice bar, ash hoe and flue-cleaning brushes. Connection is to be made to the boiler from water pipe in basement to supply water to the boiler. A %'' steam cock or globe valve will be placed on this pipe. 2. Foundation. — A suitable and substantial brick and cement foundation for the boiler will be constructed by me. 3. Smoke Pipe. — I will make necessary smoke connection from boiler to chimney by means of a galvanized iron smoke pipe .... inches in diameter, made of ... . gauge iron and provided with a suitable damper. Owner is to provide a good chimney with sufficient draught for the work. SCHEDULE OF RADIATION Ft. Rad. Style. Height. Tap. Tempera- ture. First Floor. Parlor 1 Rad. 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 Rad. 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 Rad. 1 " 1 " 1 " 50 60 50 85 120 45 50 35 45 40 20 35 35 30 15 Pin In 38" 38" 38" 38" direct 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" IM" l>r iM" 11.^" 134X1" iM'' 134" iM" iM" iM" 134'' 134" 114" 134" 1" 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° Sitting Room Library Dining Room Reception Hall .... (Stairs out) Second Floor. Over Parlor Over Sitting Room . Over Library Over Dining Room Over Hall Bathroom Upper Hall (In- cluded in Recep- tion Hall). Third Floor. Front Chamber Middle Chamber. . Rear Chamber. . . . Bathroom 715 sq. ft. BUSINESS METHODS .'3^1 4*. System of Warming. — Building is to be warmed through- out by direct radiators, except as noted in the scliedule of i'a(ha- tion. Radiators are to he of such kinds and heights as in(hcated. Wherever possible radiators will be placed along outside or ex- posed walls, their positions conforming, in so far as possible, to the wishes of the owner. 5. Uadlation. — I will erect and connect in building the total amount of radiatinx^T surface as indicated in the schedule ffiven. All direct radiators shall be of make, .... or .... col- umn and divided and placed as specified. 6. Radldtor Valves. — All radiators shall be connected to piping, using a heavy pattern, wood wheel, »Jenkins Disc radiator valve in each instance, with rough body, nickel plated all over, and of a size to conform to the tapping as given for each radi- ator in the schedule. 7. Air Valves. — Each radiator and the steam mains in the basement, where necessary, shall be provided with a first-class automatic air valve of the pattern. 8. Pipe and Fittings. — The piping is to be erected according to what is known as the system of gravity steam heat- ing. All main pipes shall have a pitch downward from the boiler at least ^/>" in each 10 feet of length. All branches shall pitch upward from mains at least ^/o" in each 5 feet of length. In the event of it being necessary to pitch any branches downward, there will be a heel drip taken from the bottom of the riser so supplied and this drip will be connected into a wet return. All pipe to be of full weight and standard quality. All risers to be put up plumb and straight and all joints made tight. All fittings to be of the best gray iron, flat beaded and having clean-cut taper threads. 9. Hangers. — Pipe in basement is to be hung on expansion pipe hangers of approved pattern, to allow of perfect freedom from expansion and contraction. 10. Cutting. — I will do all necessary cutting of holes through floors and walls for the passage of pipes. Any breakages to walls or floors resulting from such work will be remedied by me and the walls and floors left in first-class condition. 11. Floor and Ceiling Plates. — Where pipes pass through 322 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION floors or ceilings, nickel-plated floor and ceiling plates shall be used. In case of pipes coming in contact with woodwork, the opening shall be lined with a good quality of tin. 12. Bro7izing and Paint'mg. — All exposed piping and radia- tors above the basement will be given a priming coat of paint, followed by a coat of gold or aluminum bronze, as may be desired by the owner. All basement piping and all portions of the boiler uncovered shall be painted with black asphaltum. 13. Pipe Covering. — All steam pipes in the basement, both flow and return, will be covered with low-pressure sec- tional pipe covering. Same to be neatly and securely fastened with brass bands placed three to each length of covering. All fittings to be covered with magnesia-asbestos plastic cement. 14. Setting of Direct-Indirect Radiators. — I shall provide box bases with suitable dampers for all direct-indirect radiators and shall provide proper wall boxes to be set by the mason in the w^alls of the building. On connecting the radiator to the piping w^ill make proper connection from the wall box to the box base by means of a galvanized iron duct or sleeve. 15. Hanging Indirect Radiators. — All indirect radiators shall be suspended from the ceiling of the basement by suitable wrought iron hangers, at such a height that the bottom of the radiators will be at least 18" above the water line of boiler. All stacks of indirect radiation so hung shall be piped in such a manner as to permit of a free and easy circulation throughout their entire surfaces. 16. Casings Air Ducts, etc. — All indirect radiators shall be cased with a boxing made of heavy galvanized iron, constructed in such a manner that a portion of the bottom may be readily removed for cleaning purposes. The casing shall fit snugly around the sides of the radiators in order that the cold air shall pass between the surfaces instead of around them. The cold-air ducts will be made of galvanized iron and provided with a suitable damper and will be of such sizes as are necessary to supply the proper amount of cold air to the radiators. The hot-air duct shall be connected from the top of the casing to the register boxing in floor above. 17. Registers and Register Boxes. — All registers shall be of BUSINESS METHODS 323 dcsio-n. The area of the openings in same will not he iVs^ 'than the Trea of the warn,-air .luct. Registers will be set firmly in the wall or floor an.l flv.sh with the san.e. Register boxes made of bright I. C. tin shall be providod for each of the register "^'"(The' clauses U, 15, 16 and 17 should be omitted except where direct-indirect or indirect radiators are specified in a contract.) 18 In Generd.— The material used in the construction ot this apparatus will be new and of the best quality and the work put up by skilled workmen. When the apparatus is completed it will be fired up and tested in the presence of the owner or his repre- sentative and left in good order ready for use. 19. GuaranUj.-l guarantee this work in every respect: that when completed it shall be free from mechanical defects and noise- less in operation, and that after the apparatus shall have been accepted by the owner, any part thereof shall fail to accomphsh the guaranty herein contained by reason of any defect due to my workmanship or the materials furnished, I agree to remedy such defects at once at my expense. It is understood that the term " defect " as above used shall not be construed as embracing such imperfections as would naturally follow improper treatment, accident, or the wear and tear of use. 20 Bid —I agree to furnish the material herein specified and do the work as herein enumerated for the sum of Seven Hundred and Thirty-nine Dollars and thirty-four cents ($739.3*)- Payments to be made as follows: One third when boiler ,s erected and material delivered on the job, one third when radiators are delivered and connected to the system, and the remaining one third after job shall have been completed and tested. (Signed) John H. Jones. SI. Acceptance. To John H. Jones, Heating Contractor. I hereby accept your proposal and bid for installing a com- plete steam'-heating apparatus in my residence and for the same agree to pay you Seven Hundred and Thirty-nine Dollars and thirty-four cents ($739.34). Payments to be made as above specified. ....:.. (Date) (Signed) R. D. Bl-.nk. 324 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Proposal and Bid for Hot-Water Heating Apparatus General—These specifications are intended to cover a com- plete hot-water heating apparatus and it is understood that the same will be placed exactly as specified. 1. Heater.~l will furnish and erect in basement one No Hot-water Heater. The exterior surface of the boiler, with the exception of the front, to be thoroughly covered with asbestos cement. The heater will be provided with a complete set of firing tools, consisting of poker, shce bar, ash hoe, and flue- cleaning brushes. 2. Foundation.~A suitable and substantial brick and cement foundation for the heater will be constructed by me. 3. Smoke Pipe.~l will make necessary smoke connection from heater to chimney by means of a galvanized iron smoke pipe .... inches in diameter, made of .... gauge iron and provided with a suitable damper. Owner is to provide a good chimney with sufficient draught for the work. SCHEDULE OF RADIATION First Floor. Parlor Sitting Room . . Library Dining Room. Reception Hall 1 Rad. 1 " 1 " 2 Rads. 1 Rad. Second Floor. Over Parlor 1 Rad. Over Sitting Room 1 Over Library ] Over Dining Room ] Over Hall I l Bathroom j 1 Upper Hall (In- cluded in Recep- tion Hall) Third Floor. Front Chamber. . Middle Chamber. Rear Chamber. . . Bathroom 1 Rad. 1 " 1 " 1 " Ft. Rad. 80 95 80 135 200 70 80 55 70 65 30 55 55 50 20 1.140 sq.ft. Style. Height. 38'' 38'' 38" Pin Indirect 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" 38" Tap. l]4" lU" 1>^" 1" 1" Tempera- ture. 1" 70° 1" 70° 1" 70° 1" 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° 70° BUSINESS METHODS J35^5 4. Sijstcm of Warming. — Building is to be wanned through- out by (Hrect radiators, except as noted in the schedule of radia- tion. Radiators are to be of such kinds and heights as indicated. Wherever possible, radiators will be placed along outside or ex- posed walls, their positions conforming, in so far as possible, to the wishes of the owner. 5. Uadiat'ion. — I will erect and connect in building the total amount of radiating surface as indicated in the schedule given. All direct radiators shall be of make, . . . . or . . . . col- umn and divided and placed as specified. 6. Altitude Gauge and Thermometer. — I shall place on the heater an altitude gauge in order to show at the heater the height of the water in the expansion tank. I shall also place on the heater a first-class hot-water thermometer. 7. Expansion Tank and Gauge. — I shall place on the work a heavy galvanized steel expansion tank of suitable size, wnth gauge glass complete. Tank to be placed on suitable shelf in bath or other room at least three feet above one of the highest radiators on the system. Overflow connection shall be made through roof. 8. Water Connection. — I will make necessary water connec- tion from water pipe in basement to bottom and rear of heater and place on this connection a suitable globe valve or stopcock. 9. Radiator Valves and Union Elbows. — Each radiator will be connected to the system of piping with a rough body, wood wheel, quick opening hot-water radiator valve with union, to be of heavy pattern and nickel plated all over. Return ends of radiators to be connected to return pipes by the use of a heavy pattern, nickel-plated brass union elbow. Sizes of valves and elbows to conform to the tappings as given in above schedule of radiation. 10. Air Valves. — Each radiator shall be provided with a lock- shield nickel-plated brass air valve operated with a key. 11. Pipe and Fittings. — System of piping used shall be the gravity return system of hot-water piping. All mains shall pitch upward from boiler at least 1" in each 10 feet of length, and all branches shall pitch upward from mains at least 1" in each 5 feet of length. All flow and return mains to be put up plumb and straight and all joints made tight. All pipe to be of best quality 326 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION wrought iron, of standard weight, and all fittings to be of the best gray iron of heavy pattern, flat beaded, having clean-cut taper threads. 12. Hangers. — Pipe in basement is to be hung on expansion pipe hangers of approved pattern, to allow of perfect freedom from expansion and contraction. 13. Cutting. — I will do all necessary cutting of holes through floors and walls for the passage of pipes. Any breakages to walls or floors resulting from such work will be remedied by me and the walls and floors left in first-class condition. 14. Floor and Ceiling Plates. — Where pipes pass through floors or ceilings, nickel-plated floor and ceiling plates shall be used. In case of pipes coming in contact with woodwork, the opening shall be lined with a good quality of tin. 15. Bronzing and Painting. — All exposed piping and radi- ators above the basement will be given a priming coat of paint, followed by a coat of gold or aluminum bronze, as may be selected by the owner. All basement piping and all portions of the boiler uncovered shall be painted with black asphaltum. 16. Pipe Covering. — All pipes in the basement, both flow and return, will be covered with low-pressure sectional pipe covering. Same to be neatly and securely fastened with brass bands placed three to each length of the covering. All fittings to be covered with magnesia-asbestos plastic cement. 17. Setting of Direct-Indirect Radiators. — I shall provide box bases with suitable dampers for all direct-indirect radiators and shall provide proper wall boxes to be set by the mason in the walls of the building. On connecting the radiator to the piping I will make proper connection from the wall box to the box base by means of a galvanized iron duct or sleeve. 18. Hanging Indirect Radiators. — All indirect radiators shall be suspended from the ceiling of the basement by suitable wrought- iron hangers. The connections to the same shall be made in such a manner as to permit of a perfect circulation throughout their entire surfaces. 19. Casing, Air Ducts, etc. — All indirect radiators shall be cased with a boxing made of heavy galvanized iron, constructed in such a manner that a portion of the bottom may be readily removed BUSINESS METHODS 327 for cleaning purposes. The casing shall fit snugly around tlie sides of the radiators in order that the cold air shall pass between the surfaces instead of around them. The cold-air ducts will be made of galvanized iron and provided with a suitable damper and will be of such sizes as are necessary to supply the proper amount of cold air to the radiators. Tlie hot-air duct shall l)c connected from the top of the casing to the register boxing in floor above. 20. Registers and Register Boxes. — All registers shall be of design. The area of the openings in same will not be less than the area of the warm-air duct. Registers will be set firmly in the wall or floor and flush with the same. Register boxes made of bright I. C. tin shall be provided for each of the register openings. (The clauses 17, 18, 19 and 20 should be omitted, except where direct-indirect or indirect radiators are specified in a contract.) 21. In General. — The material used in the construction of this apparatus shall be new and of the best quality and tlie work put up by skilled workmen. When the apparatus is completed it will be fired up and tested in the presence of the owner or his repre- sentative and left in good order ready for use. 22. Guaranty. — I guarantee this work in every respect, that when completed it shall be free from mechanical defects and noise- less in operation, and that after the apparatus shall have been accepted by the owner, any part thereof shall fail to accomplish the guaranty herein contained by reason of any defect due to my workmanship or the materials furnished, I agree to remedy such defects at once at my expense. It is understood that the term " defect " as above used shall not be construed as embracing such imperfections as would naturally follow improper treatment, accident, or the wear and tear of use. 23. Bid. — I agree to furnish the material herein specified and do the work as herein enumerated for the sum of Nine Hundred and Ninety-one Dollars and fifty-two cents ($991.52). Payments to be made as follows : One third when boiler is erected and material delivered on the job, one third when radia- tors are delivered and connected to the system, and the remain- ing one third after job shall have been completed and tested. (Signed) John H. Jones. 328 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION 24. Acceptance. To John H. Jones, Heating Contractor. I hereby accept your proposal and bid for installing a com- plete hot-water heating apparatus in my residence and for the same agree to pay you Nine Hundred and Ninety-one Dollars and fifty-two cents ($991.52). Payments to be made as above specified. (Date) . (Signed) R. D. Blank. Special Features of Contracts Should there be any special materials or extra work de- manded, each additional item should be made the subject of a special paragraph and incorporated in the specifications. The following include some such items as might be necessary: Radiator boards, Temporary use of apparatus (charge for same), Coil in heater or boiler for heating water for domestic use. Domestic water supply where a tank with steam coil in same is provided for use with a steam boiler. There should also be figured such " extras " on the work, as additional charges for low radiators, peculiar decoration of radiators, etc., etc. Again, it is customary for some contractors to insert a clause in the specifications relative to the construc- tion of the building. For example, if it should be afterwards discovered that the plans of the job or the building to be heated or the information respecting same, which had been received from the owner or his representative, did not conform to the building or plans of same as figured, the heating contractor charges for any alterations occasioned by such misrepresenta- tion as an " extra." Some heating contractors desire to insert a paragraph in the specifications to the effect that if when the work is partially finished or nearly completed, delay shall arise, due to no fault of the heating contractor, he shall be entitled to receive settlement, the same as though the work was entirely completed, except -that a certain percentage is allowed to be withheld pending the actual completion of the job. Matters of the above kind are sure to arise on heating contracts and it is well to make mention of the same in the specifications in cases where the heating contractor considers it essential. CHAPTER XXVII MISCELLANEOUS Care of Heating Apparatus The life and efficiency of a steam or hot water heating appa- ratus of whatever nature depend largely upon the care and at- tention given it, hoth when in service and during the summer period when the apparatus is not in use. Summer Care It is when the apparatus is inoperative that the greatest dam- age to it is wrought by disintegration due to rust and the chemical action of soot and ashes. It is, therefore, a good plan as soon as the season for artificial heating is past and the fire is allowed to go out in the heater, to thoroughly clean the grate and ash pit of all ashes. Remove the casing of the heater, if of portable construction. If not so provided, open all clean-out doors and thoroughly clean all heating and flue surfaces with a steel brush. Remove the smoke connection and clean it in a thorough manner. Find a dry place in which to store the smoke pipe for the sum- mer. Open all doors of the heater — clean-out, fire and draught doors — and allow them to remain open until the fire is again built in the heater. There has been much discussion, pro and con, as to the advisability of emptying the steam boiler or the hot-water heating apparatus during the summer season. Many engineers and heater manufacturers contend that the apparatus should be left full of water; others affirming just as positively that it should not be. Our own opinion, based upon our personal experience together with that of others, is that it is well to empty the system and free it of all moisture. We advocate the following procedure: Open the draw-off connection to the sewer, or with the use of pails drain all water from the boiler or s^^stem. Open all air 329 330 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION vents and valves in order that none of the water may be entrained in the piping or radiators. Then build a light wood fire in the heater and evaporate all remaining water and moisture from the system, allowing all valves and air vents to remain open until the time has arrived when the use of the apparatus is again necessary, when the boiler or system can be refilled with fresh water. By following the directions given the inner surfaces of the apparatus may rust slightly, but will not scale and the bronzing or other decoration of radiators and piping will retain its luster for a longer period of time. Proper Attention to Boilers There are some few rules regarding the proper attention to a steam boiler or hot-water heater which should be followed in order to escape possible damage to the heater and at the same time obtain good results from the use of the apparatus. Manu- facturers of heaters, as a rule, furnish each customer with direc- tions for the care and operation of every heater sold by them. There are, however, some few instructions which it may be well to repeat. To put the apparatus in condition for service, pro- ceed as follows. (We assume that the directions for summer care have been followed.) Put the smoke connection in position and see that the damper in the same works freely. Replace all fixtures, which may have previously been removed, in their proper positions. Refill the apparatus with water. If a steam boiler, it should be refilled to such an extent that the gauge on the water column stands about one half full of water. If a hot-water apparatus, the sys- tem should be refilled to such an extent that the gauge glass on the expansion tank stands about one quarter full of water. With a key suitable for the purpose, open each one of the air valves, using a small cup to catch any water that may flow out. Go over the entire system, freeing each radiator of all air. Now examine the gauge on the expansion tank and in all probability you will discover that it is necessary to turn more water into the system. If a steam apparatus, see that the damper MISCELLANEOUS 331 regulator is properly connected to draught and check doors and try the safety valve to insure its working freely. The apparatus is now ready for the season's service. In building the first fire, note with care that the grate is thor- oughly covered with wood before putting on any coal in order that no unburnt coal will fall down on the grate and thereby deaden the fire. Add a quantity of coal from time to time until there is a deep clean fire in the heater. Endeavor to keep it in this condition while the apparatus is in use, remembering that there is no economy in a shallow 'fire and that a heater fire pot partially filled with ashes or the grate with unburnt coal will not give proper results. The ashes should be removed daily to pre- vent the possible burning out or warping of the grate. Should the water in a steam boiler become low through acci- dent or neglect, do not refill the apparatus until the fire has been drawn and the boiler castings allowed to cool. With some of those boilers constructed with a water base, this course is not absolutely necessary, although it is the safer plan to pursue. As long as any water shows in the gauge glass of a steam boiler, fresh water may be supplied with safety. Clean all heating and flue surfaces of soot at least once each week. Soot is a great non-conductor of heat and the boilers whose surfaces are allowx^d to remain coated with soot, require more attention and consume a greater amount of fuel than those in which the surfaces are kept thoroughly clean from all accu- mulation of such dirt. Steel wire brushes are made for this pur- pose and with their proper use a satisfactory cleaning of the heating surfaces can be obtained. Should a building remain unoccupied during cold weather, or should it be closed temporarily in winter, all water should he drawn off and evaporated from the system in order to offset a possible danger from freezing. Removing Oil and Dirt In all new heating systems there is more or less oil and dirt present. The oil from machined castings, radiator tappings and pipe threading will work down into the boiler as will also particles of core sand from the radiator and boiler castings. The oil with PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION considerable dirt forms a scum on the surface of the water in the boiler, causing it to foam and at the same time preventing the generation of steam. This action frequently produces an un- steady water-line and hinders the proper working of the apparatus. The remedy for this condition is to blow off the boiler while under pressure. This should be done several times at intervals of a week or more until the oil has been thoroughly removed. To successful!}^ blow off a steam boiler, close all radiator valves and build a good wood fire in the heater, generating a pressure of from ten to fifteen pounds. Open the blow-off valve and let the pressure of the steam blow all water out of the boiler. With it this water will carry most of the dirt and the greasy scum or oil. Allow the fire to burn out and the castings to cool, after which the boiler can be again refilled and the fire started. The blow-off is usually located at the bottom and rear of the boiler and as much of the oil will adhere to the inner surfaces of the boiler, as the water settles or is forced out, it is often necessary to repeat this cleaning operation several times. Some manufacturers of sectional boilers, recognizing the ex- tent of the trouble due to the presence of oil, have provided their boilers with a blow-off located at the rear a few inches below the water line. Where such an opening is furnished, the scum and oil are readily blow^n out from the surface of the water, the ac- cumulation of dirt being removed through the draw-off cock at the bottom of the boiler. The blow-off opening should be at least 1%" '^^ diameter, and a still larger opening is preferable. Such a provision is styled a " surface blow-off " by some fitters and engineers. Summer Tests to Determine Efficiency Although the fact is not generally recognized by the con- tracting fitter, a heating apparatus may be tested as to its effi- ciency on a warm summer's day as well as in midwinter. Prof. R. C. Carpenter has laid down a rule which the writer has for some years followed in actual practice and we can, therefore, testify and vouch to the correctness of it. The table given shows in Column Four (Resulting Temperature of Room) the tempera- MISCELLANEOUS 333 tures which a room would have for various degrees of heat out- side, provided tlie rachation placed was sufficient to warm the room to 70° in zero weatlier with three pouiTds pressure of steam or 220° temperature. TABLE XXVIII Ternperature Outside Air. Coefficient Heat per Square Foot per Hour per Degree. Total Heat per Square Foot per Hour. Resulting Tein- perature of Room. Difference Tem- perature Radia- tor and Room. -10 1.85 288 64.7 155.3 1.8 270 70 150 10 1.75 253 75.1 144.9 ^20 1.7 236 81 139 30 1.65 218 86.5 133.5 40 1.6 203 93.1 128 .50 1.55 188 98.7 122.5 GO 1.5 172 104.7 116.5 70 1.45 158 110.5 109.5 80 1.4 142 117.1 102.9 1)0 1.35 130.5 123.5 96.5 100 1.3 117 130.3 89.7 Example showing application of Table: To determine by a test of the apparatus, when weather is 60°, whether a guaranty to heat to 70° in zero weather is maintained, operate the apparatus as though in regular use and note the average temperature of the room. If the room has a temperature equal to or in excess of 104.7° F., it would have a temperature of 70° in zero weather, all other conditions, such as wind, position of windows, etc., being the same as on the day of the test. Care of Tools In order to perform good work rapidly it is necessary to have serviceable and sharp tools, particularly wrenches and those for pipe cutting and threading. Judging from the author's personal experience the old axiom " A workman is known by his tools " was apparently never intended to apply to a journeyman steam fitter for, as a class, the ordinary steam fitter can break, mutilate or otherwise destroy the efficiency of a tool quicker and with more reckless abandon than any other tradesman we have ever come in contact with in spite of the fact that there is absolutely no other trade where good and sharp tools are more necessary for efficient 334 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION and rapid work than that of pipe fitting. There are some shop rules governing the care and use of tools which might be adopted by all heating contractors to good advantage. First, a complete kit of tools should be furnished each jour- neyman fitter and he should be charged with and held personally responsible for them and their condition. A steam fitter cannot be expected to make good time on work when he is furnished with wrenches that will not " bite " nor take proper hold of a pipe until after possibly three or four trials. Neither can good, clean threads be cut with dull or imperfect dies. For the reasons given these tools should have frequent and careful scrutiny by the master fitter or his shop boss. Second, the fitter should be instructed to allow his helper to spend the last fifteen or thirty minutes of each working day in gathering together and cleaning all tools which have been in use and all broken or dulled tools should be promptly returned to the shop. It is well to have a tool chest for each individual kit of tools. Iron chests, made for this purpose, are models of con- vonience. To a contractor doing any considerable amount of work a pipe-cutting and threading machine will pay for itself in the labor saved on one or two fair-sized jobs. It is well to have one large machine for shop use and one or more portable machines cut- ting and threading up to 4" for use on the job. Labor Saving Suggestions There are some methods of saving time and money on contract work which are worthy of consideration. Do not allow the fitter to do the unskilled work of a laborer. Large pipe should be handled by laborers and the radiation on a job should be car- ried into and distributed throughout the building by the teamster and one or two laborers under the direction of the fitter or in accordance with an itemized list furnished the driver. Do not allow the cutting off of a short piece of pipe without first threading one end of it. These short pieces of pipe may then be returned to the shop and the other end of each piece threaded by a helper or unskilled workman. We have found it excellent practice to send to each job a MISCELLANEOUS 335 box each of short pieces of pipe in sizes 1", 1^4" »ind iVli" with both ends tlireaded. These may be laid out on the basement floor in a place conveniently near to the pipe vise, to be ({uickly measured and used by the fitter in order to save the cutting of short measurements. As soon as the vise and bench are in position the helper should arrange all fittings on the floor in rows according to their sizes and in such a place near the vise that they can be reached rapidly by the fitter. A pad of paper on which to make memoranda of measures or supplies needed from the shop should be tacked up close to the work bench. We would urge the advisability of making plans of all work, plans which will show in a general way the sizes of pipe and fittings and the method of running same and the manner of making the different connections. Such plans should be ad- hered to by the fitter as closely as the conditions of the work will permit. Adopt a system for handling all work and the results will show^ time and labor saved and increased profits accruing from the contracts. Bronzing, Painting and Decoration There are some few facts relating to the bronzing or paint- ing of radiators or radiating surfaces of a heating plant which the steam fitter should be fully posted on and thoroughly \m- derstand. It is well to give all direct radiators or exposed pip- ing above the basement a priming coat of paint before applying the bronze, as the bronze will then cover more surface, look brighter and retain its luster for a longer period of time. Where gold bronze is to be used, a priming coat of yellow ochre is the best to apply ; where aluminum bronze is made use of the priming coat should be white. If color bronzes are desired, the priming coats should conform as nearly as possible to the tints of the bronze. The priming coat should not contain oil of any kind, but should be mixed with japan and turpentine. One pound of gold bronze will cover 150 ft. of iron sur- face not primed and 200 ft. of primed surface. Each four pounds of gold bronze requires one gallon of liquid. As one pound of aluminum bronze powder is more than twice 336 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION as bulky as gold bronze, it will cover more than double the sur- face, the amount varying from 350 to ttOO ft. of surface. Uncovered basement piping should be painted with black japan or asphaltum varnish. In painting the piping in greenhouses, do not use tar paint ; or asphaltum, as the odor or fumes given off, when heated, \yIA injure the plants. The best policy is to leave unpainted all greenhouse piping. However, in case it is necessary, use lamp- black mixed with turpentine and a very little boiled linseed oil. In mixing colors to harmonize with other decorations, the following table will prove useful as a guide. The first color named in each combination is the base or predominant shade. Re- member to use only japan and turpentine in your mixing. Gray: Use white lead and lampblack. Buff: LTse white lead, yellow ochre and red. Orange: Use yellow and red. Snuff: Use yellow and Vandyke brown. Pearl: Use white, black and blue. Drah: Use white, raw and burnt umber; or white, yellow ochre, red and black. Fawn: Use white, yellow and red. Flesh: L^sc white, yellow ochre and vermilion. Gold: Use white, stone ochre and red. Copj)er: Use red, yellow and black. Lemon: Use white and yellow. Pea Green: Use white and chrome green. Bronze-Green: Use chrome green, black and yellow; or white, yellow ochre, red and black. In tinting use nearly as much of the base or first-named color, as is desired and tint with the following named or supplementary colors. Colored enameled paints for the decoration of radiators may be procured. However, we advise against their use, as they tend to subtract from the efficiency of the radiating surfaces by filling and sealing the pores of the iron, thus making necessary a larger amount of heating surface than would otherwise be required. Care should be taken to remove all oil or grease from the surfaces to be painted or bronzed. MISCELLANEOUS 337 Guaranty It may not be amiss to make mention of and comment on the above term as used verbally or written in contracts by the heat- ing contractor. While, no doubt, the man who is doing honest and conscientious work, figuring a sufficiency of radiation and plenty of boiler power, has little to fear from the employment of this word, there are occasions where it becomes unwise to make use of it in a heating contract. In contracts for heating work we have noted many times the words " I guarantee satisfaction," or " I guarantee to give you a satisfactory job." This word " satisfaction " employed in this connection is apt to prove a troublesome one and a contractor is making a great mistake when he incorporates it in a heating contract. He may be perfectly honest in his intentions to give the owner a " satisfactory " job and may go to extremes in his endeavors to do perfect work and satisfy the owner. However, it leaves a loophole for the sharp and unscrupulous man to crawl into and although the job may be perfect in its working and effectiveness he may withhold payment for it indefinitely on the plea that he is not satisfied. If a guaranty is included, it should be carefully worded to cover certain specific things. A certain temperature in each room in which radiation is placed, a workmanlike job, a boiler or heater to be of sufficient size to do the work easily, all or any one of these conditions may be safely guaranteed by the con- tractor who does good work. Architects, unwisely, frequently draw up specifications in which certain conditions are set forth and the heating contractor is requested to sign a contract of which these specifications become a part. He should refuse to affix his name to them until all the circumstances are clearly stated. Commercially the clause " 70° in zero weather " implies that the apparatus must be of sufficient size to heat a certain build- ing in which it is placed to this degree when the prevailing tem- perature outside the building stands at zero. In many sections of this country in which artificial heat is required, the ther- mometer may not register a zero weather temperature once in five years or more, and therefore should the architect or owner 338 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION resort to unprincipled practice the heating contractor would be compelled to wait an indefinite time for payment. As stated in a former chapter of this book, Prof. Carpenter has given a very good and accurate rule for summer or warm weather tests and where a 70° clause is inserted in a contract, there should be a reference made to this or some other equally good rule governing a test which will be acceptable alike to owner and contractor. Quite frequently we find an architect or owner who requires the heating contractor to give a bond that the apparatus when completed will perform a certain work. Where a bond of this nature is insisted upon, the contractor should be paid in full the moment his work is finished. We have always regarded the fur- nishing of a bond as tending to operate against the best interests of the owner. In his anxiety to have the work completed at as low a price as possible, he may accept the low bid of a con- tractor without responsibility or reputation, require a bond from him and save a few dollars on the original cost of the contract. When difficulty arises, as is quite likely in such cases, and it becomes necessary to bring suit, the expenses incident to such action more than offset the amount originally saved and the owner has the further trouble, discomfort and expense of the tem- porary maintenance of an unsatisfactory job. Had the work been awarded to a contractor of experience and reputation no such trouble would be experienced. It would seem that the over-anxiety of some heating con- tractors to secure work is largely responsible for many of the conditions we have enumerated. In some instances they seem willing to agree to anything or to sign any document in order to obtain a contract, and this of itself should furnish a danger signal to both architect and owner, as the responsible man will not affix his name or agree to anything which he cannot con- sistently perform, or which is against his best interests. In examinino; the contracts of some heatino; contractors of large experience, we find some clauses included which are well worth our consideration. In connection with the " Acceptance " clause we find the following: " Upon notification from us that the work herein specified is MISCELLANEOUS 339 complete, it shall be promptly inspected and accepted or rejected, so that our man, while still on the premises, may, without delay, complete it or remedy any defect that may appear, after which you are to give said man written acceptance of the work herein specified, it being agreed that such acceptance is not a waiver of our guaranties. " If not inspected immediately on completion, the apparatus will be left in your charge, and our responsibility for it ceases. " Failure to so promptly inspect and accept or reject said work shall be construed as an acceptance of it, and shall entitle us to payment according to contract." Or this : " The apparatus, in so far as the mechanical work thereof and the construction of the same are concerned, shall be considered as accepted immediately upon completion. If it be found that the same does not comply with said specifications, notice thereof shall be given in writing immediately to the heating contractor. " It is distinctly understood that no payments or part thereof are to be delayed on account of lack of cold weather in which to test the heating apparatus, as the guaranty herein contained is binding upon the heating contractor as to the fulfillment of the contract. It is further understood that such acceptance shall not be deemed a waiver of our guaranty as to efficiency of the heat- ing apparatus." As to the forms of guaranties, we have given in the chapter on " Business Methods " a short concise form. Some others, which in certain cases cover more of the detail of the work, are as follows : (a) " We hereby guarantee that the apparatus shall be noise- less in operation, of ample capacity and, under proper conditions of firing and management, to be capable of warming all rooms in which radiators are placed to — degrees in coldest weather. (h) " The apparatus is guaranteed for a period of one year from this date against any defects of workmanship or materials. Should any defect or deficiency develop, we will, upon notice, make good such defect or deficiency at our expense." Or this : " When the apparatus herein proposed to be furnished is 340 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION completed in accordance with the conditions hereof, we guarantee that it will be so constructed as to permit steam to circulate in all its parts with — pressure thereon, or any higher pressure; and that the said apparatus shall be capable of continuously warm- ing all parts of said building that are enumerated in Section 8 of this proposal (schedule of radiation and temperatures) to the temperature mentioned therein when the outside temperature is — degrees below zero ; further, the buildings and apparatus being kept in repair, and the apparatus properl}^ operated, there shall be no snapping, cracking or pounding in the piping or radiators. We further guarantee all materials furnished shall be free from all defects for a period of one year from the date of this instrument." Several of the guaranties examined contain this or a similar clause : " The chimney furnished hy the owner shall be large enough to be capable of passing sufficient air to insure rapid combustion of fuel. We will not be responsible for failure of apparatus due to insufficient draught." A steam or hot-water heating apparatus or a ventilating apparatus is designed to secure certain results under certain given conditions and these should be clearly stated in and be made the subject matter of all conditions and guaranties of a contract. Boiler Explosions The danger arising from the explosion of a low-pressure cast-iron steam or hot-water heater is very remote, yet it is a feature which causes fear in the mind of every nervous person whose duty it is to attend to such a heater or to be in any manner brought into close contact with it. While it is a fact that many boilers explode, the percentage is small, even consider- ing the vast number of boilers used for generating steam for power purposes as well as for heating. There is no question but that excess of pressure is the cause of all explosions ; we mean by this, excess over the ability of the boiler to stand. For in- stance, a boiler may be built originally to withstand a pressure of 250 pounds, but through frequent scaling, or from rupture, or some other damaging cause, may become weakened to such an MISCELLANEOUS ^41 extent that 100 lbs. would be an excess of pressure for it to carry with safety. Low water in such a boiler, with the consequent rapid vapor- izing into steam, due to a hot fire, would cause it to explode, and were the explosion to occur instantly it would be accom- panied with disastrous results. If, on the contrary, there were a gradual tearing of the iron at the weak point or gradual open- ing of tlie rupture, no very great damage might occur. Most of the disastrous explosions of heating boilers have occurred where boilers of the tubular (vertical or horizontal) or fire-box type were used and but few have happened with cast-iron boilers. There are many theories as to the causes of boiler explosions, and when applied to boilers employed for warming, the principal one seems to be that the explosion is caused by admitting cold water into red-hot boilers. When for some unaccountable reason the boiler has been drained or the water in it lowered well below the crown-sheet surface, the sudden admission of a quantity of cold water will cause trouble; not necessarily an explosion, for we do not believe this would be the result once in ten times. If a cast-iron boiler, the sections would undoubtedly crack ; if a wrought-iron boiler, a rupturing of the plates and riveting would likely result, requiring in either case extensive repairs. We have alluded especially to steam boilers as being liable to explode under certain conditions, but, as a matter of fact, the most dangerous explosions of heating apparatus might occur with a hot-water system. The pent-up or stored energy in a hot-water apparatus is very much greater than that from steam at an equal volume. The sudden releasing of this force, due to a break in the apparatus, is liable to cause great damage, including a possible loss of life. Prevention of Explosions In the operation of a steam-heating apparatus only ordinary caution is necessary to prevent a rupture or explosion of the boiler, provided the usual safeguards are furnished with the ap- paratus. These safeguards are, first, a safety valve of adequate size, kept operative by frequent testing; second, the providing of 342 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION a fusible plug, which should be placed at a point just below the low water-line of the boiler, that is, the lowest level at which the water may stand with safety ; third, the provision of a sediment cock at a low point, where sediment (mud, sand, etc.) may be frequently drawn from the boiler. Should valves be placed on the flow and return pipes at the boiler, they must be used with caution. Never entirely close the valves on the steam main without checking and thereby cooling the fire. Never close all valves on the return pipes while the valves on steam-supply pipes are open, or when heat is on the building. We have known cases where a slothful janitor left the valves on the returns closed, with the result that the rapid condensing of the steam and collection of the condensation in the returns low- ered the water in the boiler below the level of safety. When this condition occurs, or should the water become low from any other cause, do not open the valves on the returns and admit the water of condensation, which has cooled, and do not admit any other supply of cold water until, as a precautionary measure, the fire has been dampened or drawn and the boiler allowed to cool for two hours. In operating a hot-water heating apparatus but few precau- tions are necessary, provided the contractor in erecting the work has exercised due care. There should be no valves placed on the expansion-tank connections. The tank should be placed in a warm room in order that these connections will not freeze. If of necessity the tank must be located in a cold spot, it should be circulated in a manner illustrated in a previous chapter of this book, in order to prevent freezing. With the tank open to the atmosphere the attendant of a hot-water boiler may feel ab- solutely safe as far as any danger or damage from explosion is concerned. TTtilizing Waste Heat Wasted heat units in the process of heating or manufacturing often represent an expense for fuel, which, if saved, would ma- terially lessen the cost of production and add to the profits of the business. Many of our readers are no doubt more or less familiar with the old methods of heating dryers, dry kilns, etc., by the use of steam coils. MISCELLANEOUS 343 The waste of heat in an ordinary heating apparatus, due to poor draught or an imperfect chinniej^, we have commented u])()n and shown the advantages and saving accruing from perfect com- bustion and a properly constructed cliinmey. We have also shown the benefit resulting from tlie use of the exhaust steam from engines, pumps, etc. In this chapter we wish to make mention of the saving effected by a proper use of fans. The trouble encoimtered in using the old style of dryer and heat from steam coils was principally due to the slow and often uncertain movement of the air in the dryer. In drying lumber, bricks and pottery the circulation of air is as important as the heat provided. The same is true regarding the drying of manu- factured wooden articles, of laundry and all the various woolen and cotton products. High temperatures are maintained in the dry-room or kiln and under the original methods of drying by steam the hotter the dry-room the quicker and the cheaper the desired results could be obtained. The character of the work, that is to say, the nature of the material to be dried and the temperature necessary to be main- tained govern the method of installing the apparatus. There are two general methods of utilizing waste heat for this purpose, the first, the utilizing of exhaust steam in heating coils within the dryer, air being forced into and through it by a pulley-driven fan located at one end of the dryer. The second is that which is adapted for the drying of bricks or pottery, where the waste heat from cooling kilns is drawn through ducts to a fan, which in turn delivers it, in such quantities as desired, to the dryer. An exhaust fan is located at the opposite end of the dryer to facilitate the movement of the air. To illustrate this method we have chosen the apparatus as designed by the New York Blower Company and show by Fig. 303 an elevation plan and by Fig. 304 a ground-floor plan of the same. There are so many adaptations of this method that it is not convenient to illustrate or discuss all of them. When no waste heat is available, an ordinary type of pipe heater may be used with a blower fan and exhaust steam used in the heater. On many jobs a large proportion of the heat units from the 344 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION MISCELLANEOUS 345 coal consumed will be lost in the chimney flue, the amount of loss beino" dependent on the character of the boiler, as some boilers MACHINE ROOM TRANSFER TRACK b DUCT L NDER L JJlENGlNE- COMBINATION WASTE HEAT STEAM AND FURNACE BRICK DRYER DAIVIPER~x:| i Fig. 304.— Ground-floor plan waste-heat utilizer. have more of a direct draught than others and consequently lose more of the heat units from the fuel consumed. It is true that 346 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION a certain percentage of this loss is necessary — the chimney must be provided with sufficient heat to expand the air in the flue and to produce sufficient draught in the same. There are several methods of utilizing the heat units ordi- narily wasted in this manner. The hot smoke and gases may be passed through the flues of a cylindrical jacket or water heater, thus warming a sufficient quantity of water for domestic pur- poses. Again, they may pass through a supplementary casing under the ordinary type of hot-water storage tank, the smoke and gases entering this compartment at one end of the tank and leaving the compartment at the opposite end. It is a fact in heating practice that the hotter the return water, the more easily it is reheated by the boiler and circulated, if a hot-water appa- ratus, or generated into steam, if a steam-heating apparatus. The smoke and hot gases usually wasted may be utilized in heating the return water on a steam job by returning the con- densation through a heater having large flues through which the hot gases pass en route to the chimney, thus adding to the capac- ity of the boiler and accomplishing at the same time a material saving in fuel. While to a certain extent mechanical methods of drying and utilizing waste heat, or the reheating of return water, have no particular bearing on general steam-fitting practice, it is well to become familiar with the various methods employed in this direc- tion. CHAPTER XXVIII Rules, Tables, and Other Information The author has selected the following information and tables from a large mass of data gathered from all reliable sources, as being of value to the steam fitter and heating contractor. While we cannot in every case guarantee the correctness of the data given, we believe all the information to be fully reliable, as it has been compiled from standard authorities and by men of practical experience. As we have previously remarked in the pages of this book, there is no rule but what must be applied with judgment, as existing conditions necessarily govern its application. Where this care is exercised the information given will prove of very great value and assistance to the practical steam fitter. Rules, Tables, and Useful Information A U. S. gallon weighs 8.331 lbs. and contains 231 cubic inches or .13667 cubic feet. 224 gallons of pure water weigh one ton ; 13.44 gallons weigh 100 lbs. A cubic foot of water at a temperature of 32° Fahr. weighs .418 lbs.; at 212° Fahr. it weighs 59.76 lbs. The expansion of water from 32° Fahr. (freezing) to 212° Fahr. (boiling) is one gallon in each twenty-three, or approxi- mately 4-g-^. Water boils in vacuum at 98° Fahr, at sea level at 212° Fahr. 347 348 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION In figuring weight of water its hulk or quantity is considered. In determining pressure, the height of its column (vertical) is figured, approximately 1/4 lb. for each foot of height. A column of water one foot high equals a pressure of .433 lb. per square inch. A pressure of 1 lb. per square inch equals 2.31 feet of water in height. . Water transformed into steam expands 1,700 times its vol- ume. One cubic inch of water will produce approximately one cubic foot of steam. A pound of anthracite coal contains about 14,500 heat units. A bushel of anthracite coal weighs about 86 lbs. A ton of anthracite contains about 40 cubic feet. A bushel of bituminous coal weighs about 76 lbs. A ton of bituminous contains about 49 cubic feet. The average consumption of fuel in a powder boiler is 7% pounds of coal or 15 pounds of dry pine wood for each cubic foot of water evaporated. One square foot of grate (tubular boiler) will with natural draught consume 12 pounds of anthracite or 20 pounds of bitu- minous coal per hour. Double this amount can be burned with forced draught. Each nominal Horse Power in a tubular boiler requires 1 cubic foot of water per hour. RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 349 Condensing engines re(|ulre from ^0 to ^5 gallons of water to condense the steam from one gallon of water. In calculating Horse Power of tubular or flue boilers, 15 square feet of heating surface is equivalent to one nominal Horse Power. The specific gravity of steam at atmospheric pressure is .411 that of air at 34^ Fahr., and .0006 that of water at the same temperature. To determine necessary surface in stjuare feet for asj)irating coil in ventilating flue, divide the cubic feet of air to be moved per hour by .95 when steam is used, or .60 when hot water. To find capacity of expansion tank required, multiply the square feet of radiation by .03 if less than 1,000 sq. ft. Mul- tiply by .025 between 1,000 and 2,000 sq. ft. and by .02 if more than 2,000 sq. ft. The result will be the size in gallons. To find the length of pipe required when making an offset with 45° fittings, a simple rule is as follows: For each inch of offset add if of an inch and the result will be the center-to- center measurement of the 45° angle. Twelve pounds of air are required to supply oxygen enough to burn one pound of coal. Perfectly dry air expands one-four-hundred-ninetieth (1/490) of its volume when heated from 32 degrees to 190 degrees. When saturated with vapor it expands nearly four times its former volume. The velocity of hot air from a furnace is approximately 10 feet per second at the register, with ordinarily good circulation. To find the circumference of a circle nuiltl})ly the diameter by 3.1414 or by 3f 350 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION To find diameter of circle, multiply the circumference by 0.3183. To find the area of a circle multiply .7854^ by the square of the diameter, that is, by the diameter multiplied by itself. Cement for Steam Boilers: Red or white lead in oil four parts, iron borings three parts, makes a soft cement. Cement for Leaky Boilers: A cement for leaky boilers (steam or hot water) consists of two parts powdered litharge, two parts of fine sand and one part of slacked lime. Mix with linseed oil and apply quickly. Rule for Calculating Speed and Size of Pulleys To Find the Size of Driving Pulley: Multiply the diameter of the driven by the number of revolutions it shall make and divide the answer by the revolutions of the driver per minute. The answer will be the diameter of the driver. To Find the Diameter of the Driven That Shall Make a Given Number of Revolutions: Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide the answer by the number of revolutions of the driven. The answer will be the diameter of the driven. To Find the Number of Revolutions of the Driven Pulley: Multiply the diameter of the driver by its number of revolutions and divide by the diameter of the driven. The answer will be the number of revolutions of the driven. When it is not convenient to measure with the tape line the length required, apply the following rule: Add the diameter of the two pulleys together, divide the result by ^, and multiply the RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 351 quotient by 31/4, then add this product to twice the distance be- tween the centers of the shafts, and you have the length required. The working adhesion of a belt to the pulley will be in pro- portion both to the number of square inches of belt contact with the surface of the pulley and also to the arc of the circumference of the pulley touched by the belt. This adhesion forms the basis of all right calculation in ascertaining the width of belt necessary to transmit a given horse power. TABLE XXIX Gauges and Their Eqihyalents No. 27, equal to i^V inch. No. 1-2, equal to -^4 inch. No. 9A, equal to ^tV inch. No. 10, equal to ^ inch. No. 18, equal to ^^^ inch. No. 8, equal to ^^ inch. No. 16, equal to i^,, inch. No. 6, equal to 1% inch. No. 14, equal to ^^ inch. No. 5, equal to 3^/ inch. No. 13, equal to i^ inch. No. 4, equal to ^ inch. To Find Expansion of Pipe: Deduct the temperature of pipe at time of installation from the maximum temperature to which it will be heated, take -yu of this difference and divide by 100. The result will equal the expansion in inches for each 100 lineal feet of pipe. To Determine the Capacity of a Cylinder or Round Tank in Gallons: Multiply the diameter in inches by itself, this by the height in inches, and the result by 24. Another rule is to multiply the square of the diameter in feet by 0.785-1 and this by the depth in feet. This result multiplied by 7.476 will give the capacity in gallons. To Clean Brass: ]Mix in a stone jar one part of nitric acid, and one half part of sulphuric acid. Dip the brass into this mix- ture, wash in water, and dry in sawdust. If greasy, first clean the brass by dipping in a strong mixture of potash, soda, and water, and wash thoroughly in water. 352 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION To Remove Stains from Marble: Mix two parts of soda, one of ground pumice, and one of finely-powdered chalk. Sift through a fine sieve and with water mix into a paste. Rub this composi- tion on the marble and wash with soap and water. To Remove Grease Stains from Marble: IVIix one and one half parts of soft soap, three parts of fuller's earth, and one and one half parts of potash with boiling water. Cover grease spots with this mixture and allow it to stand twenty-four hours, after which wash with hot water. To Remove Rust from Steel: Steel which has been rusted can be cleaned by brushing with a paste compound of ^/o oz. cyanide of potassium, 1/^ oz. castile soap, 1 oz. whiting, and water sufficient to form a paste. The steel should be washed with a solution of V2 oz. cyanide of potassium in 2 oz. of water. To Prevent Machinery from Rusting: Take 1 oz. of camphor and dissolve in one pound of melted lard. Remove the scum and mix enough lamp-black to give an iron color. Clean the ma- chinery and smear it with the mixture. Under ordinary circum- stances it will not rust for months. To Harden Cast Iron: Cast iron can be hardened as easily as steel, and to such a degree of hardness that a file will not touch it. Take one half pint of vitriol, one peck of salt, one half pound of saltpetre, two pounds of alum, one quarter pound prussic potash, one quarter pound of cyanide of potash and dissolve in ten gallons of rain water. Stir until thoroughly dissolved. Heat the iron to a cherry red and dip it into the solution. If the iron needs to be very hard, reheat it and dip a second or a third time. To Inscribe Metal: Cover the part with melted beeswax; when cold, write what you desire plainly in the wax, taking care that the scriber cleans the wax from the metal. Then with a mixture RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 353 of V2 o2- i^itric acid and 1 oz. of muriatic acid carefully fill each letter of the inscription. For this service a feather will be found to be very adaptable. Let the acid remain for from one to ten minutes and then throw on water to arrest the action of the acid. Remove the wax by heating and the inscription will be completed. TABLE XXX Melting Points of Metals Tin 446° Bismuth 507° Lead 617° Zinc 773° Antimony 810° Aluminum 1,400° Bronze 1,692° Silver 1,873° Brass 1,900° Copper 1,996° Gold 2,066° Glass 2,377° Steel 4,000° Cast iron 2,250° Wrought iron 2,912° Platinum 3,080° TABLE XXXI Boiling Points of Fluids Water (Complete Vacuum) 98° Linseed Oil 597° Water (At Sea Level) 212° Mercury (Atmospheric Pressure) . . 676° Alcohol 173° Ammonia 140° Sulphuric Acid 240° Coal Tar 325° Refined Petroleum 316° Olive Oil 413° Turpentine 315° Sea Water (Average) £13° Sulphur 570° 354 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE XXXII Tables of Weights and Measures gills, pints . Liquid Measure make 1 pint 1 4 quarts make 1 gallon " 1 quart | 313^ gallons " 1 barrel Measures of Length 4 inches make 1 hand 92 " " 1 link 18 " " 1 cubit 12 " " 1 foot 6 feet " 1 fathom 3 " " 1 yard 5^2 yards make 1 rod or pole 40 poles 8 furlongs 69)4 miles 60 geographical miles 1,760 yards or 5,280 feet 1 furlong 1 mile 1 degree 1 degree 1 mUe 1 square foot 1 square yard 1 square rod 1 square rood 1 square acre 1 square acre 1 square mile Measures of Surface 144 square inches make 9 square feet " 301^ square yards *' 40 square rods " 4 square roods " 10 square chains " 640 square acres " Cubic Measures 1,728 cubic inches make 1 cubic foot 2,150 .42 cubic inches " 1 bushel 46,656 cubic inches " 1 cubic yard 7,276 . 5 cubic inches " 1 barrel 27 cubic feet " 1 cubic yard 128 cubic feet " 1 cord 4 . 21 cubic feet " 1 barrel Weight of Metals Lead 1 foot square, 1 inch thick, weighs 59 . 06 Copper 1 " "1 " " " 45.3 Cast Iron 1 " "1 " " " 37.54 Wrought Iron 1 " " 1 " " " 40.5 Cast Steel 1 " "1 " " " 40.83 Table of Weights (avoirdupois) 16 drams make 1 16 ounces. 25 pounds " 1 4 quarters " 1 pounds 20 cwt. or 2,000 lbs. The gross ton is 2,240 pounds. ounce (oz.) 1 pound (lb.) quarter (qr.) hundred (cwt.) 1 net ton Weights, etc. One Cubic Inch of Cast Iron weighs . 26 pound One Cubic Inch of Wrought Iron weighs . 28 pound One Cubic Inch of Water weighs .36 pound One United States Gallon weighs 8 . 33 pounds One Imperial Gallon weighs 10 .00 pounds One United States Gallon equals 231 . 00 cubic inches One Imperial Gallon equals 277 . 274 cubic inches One Cubic Foot of Water equals 7 .48 U. S. gallons One Pound of Steam equals 27 . 222 cubic feet One Pound of Air equals 13 . 817 cubic feet RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 355 TABLE XXXITI Metric System Prefixes of Multiples and Sub-Multiples of Meter, Liter, and Gram Deka =10 Deci =0.1 Hecto=100 Centi=0.01 Kilo =1000 Milli =0.001 10 millimeters =1 centimeter. 10 meters =1 dekameter, 10 centimeters =1 decimeter. 10 dekameters =1 hectometer. 10 decimeters =1 meter. 10 hectometers =1 kilometer. Metric Equivalents Linear Measure 1 centimeter =0.3937 in. 1 in. =2.54 centimeters or 0.254 meter. 1 decimeter = 3 . 937 in. = . 328 ft. 1 ft. = 3 . 048 decimeters or . 3048 meter. 1 meter =39.27 in. =1.0936 yards. 1 yard =0.9144 meter. 1 dekameter = 1.9884 rods. 1 rod =0.5029 dekameter. 1 kilometer =0.62137 mile. 1 mile =1.6093 kilometers. Surface or Square Measure 1 sq. centimeter = 0.1550 sq. in. 1 sq. inch = 6.452 sq. centimeters. 1 sq. decimeter = 0.1076 sq. ft. 1 sq. foot = 9.2903 sq. decimeters. 1 sq. meter = 1.196 sq. yd. 1 sq. yard = 0.8361 sq. meter. 1 are = 3.954 sq. rods. 1 sq. rod = 0.2529 are. 1 hektar = 2.47 acres. 1 sq. acre = 0.4047 hektar. 1 sq. kilometer = 0.386 sq. mile. 1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. kilometers. Measure of Volume and Capacity 1 cu. centimeter =0.061 cu. in. 1 cu. inch =16.39 cu. centimeters. 1 cu. decimeter = . 0353 cu. ft. 1 cu. foot =28.317 cu. decimeters. 1 cu. meter [ _ j 1308 cu. yards. 1 cu. yard =0.7646 cu. meter. 1 ster ) i 0.2759 cord. 1 cord =3.624 sters. 1 liter = i 0.908 quart dry. 1 quart dry =1.101 liters. 1.0567 quarts liq. 1 quart liq. =0.9463 Hter. 1 dekaliter = \ ^•^^l'^ gallons. 1 gallon = . 3785 dekaliter. .135 peck. 1 peck =0.881 dekaliter. 1 hectoliter =2.8375 bushels. 1 bushel =0.3524 hectoliter. Weights 1 gram =0.0527 ounce. 1 ounce =28.35 grams. 1 kilogram =2.2046 lbs. 1 lb. =0.4536 kilogram. 1 metric ton =1.1023 English tons. 1 English ton =0.9072 metric ton. s < < u p Is < H in Q w . EH *^ SCO U 2 PS -2* p C/2 § i B^ G " o 01 OJ Cj j„ -t^ oooooooooooooooooooooooo Oi-Hi-HOOO.-HC^OO.-Hf.-iOOO'-HOOOOc'^OSt-O C a3 ° a;:3 C'500f-i>MOOOOOOOGO»OCO»00<0»'f*i:OG^OTiOO 00050i'*i>X050000iQOOOSb-l>obxbMSo?-tOOO <4-l ^ l-Ot-Xi>t^ir5l>i>i>C0t^OO»0Xi>i>l>G0C0'^»-0 1>»0'**i>XXX •^ 05 G< CO Oi O CO CO CX) Ci OS O CO ©< r-l r-H CO ®< GO »0 ?0 ' ■^lOCOOSO^-^COQ^f^ O CD G^ ©) O \>^> U. M cT o ? -^ - <125 356 Si 8 o S ^1 Si .13 d fi X -— C =4-1 = 11 >< Sx C3 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORALVTION 357 TABLE XXXV Comparison of Tiiermometric Scales Fahr- enheit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. Fahr- enheit. Centi- grade. Reaumur. - 40 - 40.00 - 32.00 + 125 + 51.67 + 41.33 ' 35 " 37.22 " 29.78 "130 " 54.44 " 43.56 ' 30 " 34.44 " 27.56 "135 " 57.22 " 45.78 ' 25 " 31.67 " 25.33 "140 " 60.00 " 48.00 ' 20 ' 28.89 " 23.11 "145 " 62.78 " 50.22 ' 15 ' 26.11 " 20.89 "150 65.55 " 52.44 ' 10 ' 23.33 " 18.67 "155 " 68.33 " 54.67 " 5 ! '. 20.55 " 16.44 "160 " 71.11 " 56.89 ' 17.78 " 14.22 "165 " 73.89 " 59.11 + o ' 15.00 " 12.00 ■"170 " 76.67 " 61.33 " 10 ' 12.22 " 9.78 " 175 " 79.44 " 63.56 " 15 ' 9.44 " 7.56 "180 " 82.22 " 65.78 " 20 ' 6.67 " 5.33 "185 " 85.00 " 68.00 " 25 ' 3.89 " 3.11 "190 " 87.78 " 70.22 " 30 ' 1.11 " 0.89 "195 " 90.55 " 72.44 " 32 0.0 0.00 "200 " 93.33 " 74.67 " 35 h 1.67 + 1.33 "205 " 96.11 " 76.89 " 40 ' 4.44 " 3.56 "210 " 98.89 " 79.11 " 45 ' 7.22 " 5.78 "212 "100.00 " 80.00 " 50 ' 10.00 " 8.00 "250 "121.10 " 96.90 " 55 ' 12.78 " 10.22 "300 "148.89 "119.20 " 60 ' 15.55 " 12.44 "302 "150.00 "120.00 " «^ ' ' 18.33 " 14.67 "350 "176.66 "141.40 "70 ' ' 21.11 " 16.89 "392 "200.00 "160.00 "75 ' ' 23.89 " 19.11 "464 "240.00 "192.00 " 80 ' ' 26.67 " 21.33 "500 "260.00 "208.00 " 85 ' 29.44 " 23.56 "572 "300.00 "240.00 " 90 ' 32.22 " 25.78 "600 "315.06 "252.40 " 95 ' 35.00 " 28.00 "662 "350.00 "280.00 "100 ' 37.78 " 30.22 "700 "371.11 "296.90 " 105 ' 40.55 " 32.44 "752 "400.00 "320.00 "110 ' 43.33 " 34.67 "800 "426.66 "341.30 "115 ' 46.11 " 36.89 " 932 "500.00 "400.00 '' 120 ' 48.89 " 39.11 i 358 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE XXXVI Table of the Areas of Circles and of the Sides of Squ.^jies of the Same Area Diam- eter of Circle in inches. Area of Circle in square inches. Sides of Sq. of same area in square inches. Diam- eter of Circle in inches. Area of Circle in square inches. Sides of Sq. of same area in square inches. - Diam- eter of Circle in inches. Area of Circle in square inches. Sides of Sq. of same area in scjuare inches. 1 .785 .89 21 346.36 18.61 41 1,320.26 36.34 y^ 1.767 1.33 /2 363.05 19.05 Y2 1,352.66 36.78 2 3.142 1.77 22 '^ 380.13 19.50 42 1,385.45 37.22 y 4.909 2.22 1.2 397.61 19.94 Yi 1,418.63 37.66 3 7.069 2.66 23 " 415.48 20.38 43 1,452.20 38.11 y 9.621 3.10 3^2 433.74 20.83 Yi 1,486.17 38.55 4 12.566 3.54 24 ^ 452.39 21.27 44 1,520.53 38.99 Yi 15.904 3.99 32 471.44 21.71 1-7 1,555.29 39.44 5 19.635 4.43 25 "^ 490.88 22 . 16 45^^^ 1,590.43 39.88 Yi 23.758 4.87 ^■2 510.71 22.60 Y2 1,625.97 40.32 6 28.274 5.32 26 530.93 23.04 46 1,661.91 40.77 Yi 33.183 5.76 3 2 bb\.bb 23.49 Y2 1,698.23 41.21 7 38.485 6.20 27 572.56 23.93 47 1,734.95 41.65 Y2 44 . 179 6.65 32 593.96 24.37 Y2 1,772.06 42.10 8 50.266 7.09 28 615.75 24.81 48 1,809.56 42.58 Yi 56.745 7.53 K 637.94 25.26 Y2 1,847.46 42.98 9 63.617 7.98 29 660.52 25.70 49 1,885.75 43.43 Y2 70.882 8.42 Y2 683.49 26.14 Y2 1,924.43 43.87 10 78.540 8.86 30 706.86 26.59 50 1,963.50 44.31 y^ 86.590 9.30 Y2 730.62 27.03 Yi 2,002.97 44.75 11 95.03 9.75 31 754.77 27.47 51 2,042.83 45.20 Y2 103.87 10.19 Yi 779.31 27.92 Yi 2,083.08 45.64 12 113.10 10.63 32 804.25 28.36 52 2,123.72 46.08 Y2 122.72 11.08 1 / / 2 829.58 28.80 Y2 2,164.76 46.53 13 132.73 11.52 33 ^ 855.30 29.25 53 2,206.19 46.97 Y2 143.14 11.96 3-2 881.41 29.69 Y2 2,248.01 47.41 14 153.94 12.41 34 907.92 30.13 54 2,290.23 47.86 ^ 165.13 12.85 Y 934.82 30.57 Y2 2,332.83 48.30 15 176.72 13.29 35 962.11 31.02 55 2,375.83 48.74 K 188.69 13.74 Y2 989.80 31.46 Y2 2,419.23 49.19 16 201.06 14.18 36 1,017.88 31.90 56 2,463.01 49.63 Y2 213.83 14.62 Y2 1,046.35 32.35 Yi 2,507.19 50.07 17 226.98 15.07 2,1 1,075.21 32.79 57 2,551.76 50.51 ^ 240.53 15.51 Y2 1,104.47 33.23 3-2 2,596.73 50.96 18 254.47 15.95 38 1,134.12 33.68 58 2,642.09 51.40 3^ 268.80 16.40 Y2 1,164.16 34.12 14 2,687.84 51.84 19 283.53 16.84 39 1,194.59 34.56 59^ 2,733.98 52.29 3^ 298.65 17.28 Y2 1,225.42 35.01 Y2 2,780.51 52.73 20 314.16 17.72 40 1,256.64 35.45 60 2,827.74 53.17 ^ 330.06 18.17 Y2 1,288.25 35.89 Y2 2,874.76 53.62 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER IXEORMATION 359 TABLE XXXMI Temperature of Steaai at Various Pressures above that of the Atmosphere (14.7 lbs.) Pounds Degrees Pounds Degrees I^ounds Degrees Pressure. Fahrenheit. Pressure. Fahrenheit. Pressure. Fahrenlieit. 212 18 254.5 100 337 5 1 215.5 19 256 105 341 2 219 20 257.5 115 347 3 222 25 265 125 353 ■i 225 30 272 . 5 135 358 5 227.5 35 279,5 145 363 6 230 40 285.5 155 308 7 232.5 45 291 165 373 8 235 50 297 175 377 9 237.5 55 302 185 381 10 240 60 307 235 401 11 242 65 311 285 417 12 244 70 315 335 430 13 246 75 320 385 445 14 248 80 323 435 456 15 250 85 327 485 467 16 252 90 331 585 487 17 253.5 95 334 685 504 TABLE XXXVIII Properties of Saturated Ste.\m Pres- sure. Abso- lute Pres- sure. Tem- perature Fahren- heit. Total Heat above 32 degrees. Latent Heat. Relative Volume 39°= 1. Volume C. F. in 1 lb. Steam. Weight 1 cubic foot Steam. Lbs. Heat Units in the Water. Heat Units in the Steam. 0.0 14.7 212.0 180.9 1,146.6 965.7 1,646.0 26.36 .03794 1.3 16.0 216.3 185.3 1,147.9 902 . 7 1,519.0 24.33 .04110 2.3 17.0 219.4 188.4 1,148.9 960.5 1,434.0 22.98 .04352 3.3 18.0 222.4 191.4 1,149.8 958.3 1,359.0 21.78 .04592 4.3 19.0 225.2 194.3 1,150.6 956.3 1,292.0 20.70 .04831 5.3 20.0 227.9 197.0 1,151.5 954.4 1,231.0 19.72 .05070 10.3 25.0 240.0 209.3 1,155.1 945.8 998.4 15.99 .06253 15.3 30.0 250.2 219.7 1,158.3 938.9 841.3 13.48 .07420 20.3 35.0 259.2 228.8 1,161.0 932.2 727.9 11.66 .08570 25.3 40.0 267.1 236.9 1,163.4 926.5 642.0 10.28 .09721 30.3 45.0 274.3 244.3 1,165.6 921.3 574.7 9.21 .1086 40.3 55.0 286.9 257.2 1,169.4 912.3 475.9 7.63 .1311 50.3 65.0 297.8 268.3 1,172.8 904.5 406.6 6.53 .1533 60.3 75.0 307.4 278.2 1,175.7 897.5 355 . 5 5 .71 .1753 70.3 85.0 316.0 287.0 1,178.3 891.3 315.9 5.07 .1971 80.3 95.0 323.9 295.1 1,180.7 885.6 284.5 4.57 .2188 90.3 105.0 331.1 302.6 1,182.9 880.3 258.9 4.16 .2403 100.3 115.0 337.8 309.5 1,185.0 875.5 237.6 3.82 .2617 125.3 140.0 352.8 325.0 1,189.5 864.6 197.3 3.18 .3147 150.3 165.0 365.7 338.4 1,193.5 855 . 1 169.0 2.72 .3671 200.3 215.0 387.7 361.3 1,200.2 838.9 131.5 2.12 .4707 360 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE XXXIX Materials for Brickwork of Tubular Boilers Boilers. Common r irP "RFif*lr Sand Cement, Fire Clay, Lime, Brick. X lie JJIXV^IV. Bushels. Barrels. Pounds. Barrels. Single Setting SOin.x 8 ft. 5,200 320 42 5 192 2 30 in. X 10 ft. 5,800 320 46 5}4 192 21^ 36in.x 8 ft. 6,200 480 50 6 288 2K SGin.x Oft. 6,600 480 53 6K 288 2'M 36 in. X 10 ft. 7,000 480 56 7 ^ 288 3 36 in. X 12 ft. 7,800 480 62 8 288 3M 42 in. X 10 ft. 10,000 720 80 10 432 4 42 in. X 12 ft. 10,800 720 86 11 432 4M 42 in. X 14 ft. 11,600 720 92 n% 432 -iy. 42 in. X 16 ft. 12,400 720 99 12-^ 432 5 48 in. X 10 ft. 12,500 980 100 12^ 590 5Xi 48 in. X 12 ft. 13,200 980 108 ISU 590 5K 48 in. X 14 ft. 14,200 980 116 14^^ 590 5H 48 in. X 16 ft. 15,200 980 124 15^.^ 590 6 54 in. X 12 ft. 13,800 1,150 108 13M 690 5H 54 in. X 14 ft. 14,900 1,150 117 15 690 6 54 in. X 16 ft. 16,000 1,150 126 16 690 Qli 60 in. X 10 ft. 13,50^ 1,280 108 131-^ 768 ^Yi 60 in. X 12 ft. i4,eoo 1,280 118 14M 768 6 60 in. X 14 ft. 16,0^ 1,280 128 16 768 63^ 60 in. X 16 ft. 17.403 1,280 140 171^ 768 7 60 in. X 18 ft. 18,-03 1,2F0 148 im 768 73^ 66 in. X 16 ft. 19,700 1,400 157 19M 840 8 66 in. X 18 ft. 21,000 1,400 168 21 840 83^ 72 in. X 16 ft. 20,800 1,550 166 20M 930 8>^ 72 in. X 18 ft. 22,000 1,550 175 22 930 9 Two Boilers in a Battery 30in. X 8 ft. 8,900 640 70 9 384 33-^ SOin.x 10 ft. 9,G00 640 76 9i.< 384 4 36in. X 8 ft. 10,500 960 84 101^ 576 4M 36 in. X 9 ft. 11,100 960 88 11 576 43-^> 36 in. X 10 ft. 11,800 900 95 12 576 4M 36 in. X 12 ft. 13,003 960 104 13 576 534 42 in. X 10 ft. 17,500 1,440 140 m6 864 7 42 in. X 12 ft. 18,600 1,440 148 181^ 864 73^ 42 in. X 14 ft. 19,903 1,440 159 20 864 8 42 in. X 16 ft. 21,200 1,440 168 21 864 81^ 48 in. X 10 ft. 21,400 1,9G0 170 211 o 1,180 8M 48 in. X 12 ft. 22,300 1,960 178 22i| 1,180 9 48 in. X 14 ft. 23,900 1,960 190 24 1,180 91.^ 48 in. X 16 ft. 25,100 1,960 200 25 1,180 10 " 54 in. X 12 ft. 23,300 2,300 186 23K 1,380 ^y. 54 in. X 14 ft. 24,800 2,300 198 25 1,380 10 54 in. X 16 ft. 26,300 2,300 210 261.3^ 1,380 101 / 60 in. X 10 ft. 22,600 2,560 180 221^ 1,536 9 60 in. X 12 ft. 24,800 2,560 198 25 1,536 10 60 in. X 14 ft. 26,800 2,560 214 27 1,536 103.^ 60 in. X 16 ft. 28,900 2,560 230 29 1,536 lll.> 60in. xl8ft. 31,000 2,560 248 31 1,536 121 T; 66 in. X 16 ft. 33,100 2,800 264 33 1,680 1334 66 in. X 18 ft. 36,500 2,800 276 35 1,680 14 72 in. X 16 ft. 34,000 3,100 272 34 1,860 1334 72 in. X 18 ft. 38,000 3,100 282 36 1,860 15 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 36 1 TABLE XL Standard Pipe Extra Strong Actual Nominal Nominal Size, Price Outside Inside Thickness, Weight, Inches. per Foot. Diameter, Diameter, Indies. per Foot, Inches. Inches. Pounds. Vs .11 .405 .205 .100 .29 H .11 .540 .294 .123 .54 Vs .11 .675 .421 .127 .74 Yi .12 .840 .542 .149 1.09 k .15 1.05 .736 .157 1.39 1 .22 1.315 .951 .182 2.17 1^ .30 1.66 1.272 .194 3.00 \y2 .36 1.900 1.494 .203 3.63 2 .50 2.375 1.933 .221 5.02 2>^ .81 2.875 2.315 .280 7.67 3 1.05 3.500 2.892 .304 10.25 31/^ 1.33 4.000 3.358 .321 12.47 4 1.50 4.500 3.818 .341 14.97 4^ 1.95 5.000 4 . 280 .360 18.22 5 2.16 5.503 4.813 .375 20.54 6 2.90 6.625 5.750 .437 28.58 7 3.80 7.625 6.625 .500 37.67 8 4.30 S.625 7.625 .500 43.00 Double Extra Strong 1 Actual Nominal Nominal Size, Price Outside Inside Thickness, Weight Inches. I^er Foot. Diameter, Diameter, Inches. per Foot, Inches. Inches. Pounds. K .25 .84 .244 .298 1.70 M .30 1.05 .422 .314 2 44 1 .37 1.315 .587 .364 3.65 IK .52 1.66 .885 .388 5.20 IH .65 1.90 1.088 .406 6.40 2 .95 2.375 1.491 .442 9.02 2^ 1.37 2.875 1 . 755 .560 13.68 3 1.92 3.50 2.284 .608 18.56 S}4 2.45 4.00 2.716 .642 22.75 4 2.85 4.50 3.136 .682 27.48 43^ 3.30 5.00 3.564 .718 32.53 5 3.80 5.563 4.063 .750 38.12 6 5.30 6.625 4.875 . 875 53.11 7 6.25 7.625 5.875 .875 62.38 8 7.20 8.625 6.875 .875 71.62 C3 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ G^'^OOOOOOOOOOOO C! ai >^ G^OG^GO'#COGOOG^"'J*OQOO O i-i ^ r-T r4^ of cf Th O i> « oT o" ©f 1 "o Q ;^ «© 02 1 >> COOOOOOOOOOOOOO 01 O 00 o o o o c> o o o o o o o PLI U o ?0^ «5_ -* 0<^ 0<^ rH o_ Lh o "o T-T r^ oi (« '^'" io" of of o J COOOOOOOOOOOOOO r^ ^1 o o «: o o o o o o o o o o o i-ic<^Tf'OG^O»00»-OOi-OOiOO _^ ^ >) u 03 JP c4 ^ f^Q r-i(^CO'<^COi>050 o o l^l .-H .-H .-H (^ of ©r co*^ 3i ^^^^^22sss § § § § pi 0. eg OS < K 0, 2 OQ (S n r-i.-iO^CO'^iOCOt>XOSO t-t-O^iOXrHCOO^t-COX-^OSiO 5 ) iO<-OO5001>J>iOtJTf«i-Ht>- J ^ M i-H o^ rf i-O X O^ CO^ CO^ 0q_ i-H T^^ CO^ 1) "* c g P ^ i-h" >-r ,-r r-T of of of He 2> >> OSCOTf.OOCOl-O'^OJ-HOXOiO Tj l>XC0O<05iOC0'-i'*t^O0^»O00 c ^ i-iJ>'*i0iC0G0t^l>O»0»-0'f 00 X >> 5IIIIIIIIIIIII 25 J = 5 aJ f :^ < P5 ■<'" ^ u '-lO^CO'iJ'COCOOO^'^COOOO 8 1 01 In 1-H ^ .-H r-H rH 0< r-iO"^0 0>-0 000000000 I-I o< o t- o »o O 'O o »o o >o o £ i-lr-iO^O^COCO-^-^iO c 36^ ^ r^ ^ w ^ >H m & < ^ H ^ < u 1 1 o c o 1 m i S i ! r-T ,-r .-T i-T of oT of of f^ -^rio—ic^i^o^csoio: 1^ j> OS ^ « »o i> q_ r-*_ CO >c ; ; ! ; ! '. '. '. '. .-r ,-r ,-r ^-r of ©f of ©f 12 -^O)C5C0O»XCiCCC0CCCi Ph >OC5-^0)'-i^COl--f<^C5 ^ »OOCOO<^'*OCXiOO»CO :::::::::: ^^^ ^" ^"^ ^^ ^"^ of of of ;;;;;;;; r- r-. i-i i-h r^ of of o - ^0S'-i»O0?C0G0C0G0-fXO0»'+Ol^XO ^ : : : : : : ^- ^-^ ^- ^' ^-r ^^ of o ^ • ^ ^ .-1 0< O^ CO 'f' <0 CO X O 1--^ CO i-O 1^ . . . -l^COi-HCOCO'-OOl^OXO^CSOCO • • • ^ •X^'fO-fC0OC5'fCi->C ^^ • r^>-Hi-(0*0(CO"*iOOt'05 0_0*_ g (li -OXOCOOOSCOi— lOOO^'^XCO ; ; o g ^'J2?Sr^»^!^I2!^5SSS2*5S ■ '■ '■ ^ § w s c 225;^^i?^^^^^:^ii^^Siii§| 363 364 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE XLIII Relation Between Temperature of Feed Water and Evaporative Capacity of Boiler ^ Temperature of 1 Feed Water, ! Degrees Fahr. Steam I'ressure, Pounds. Feed Water per Horse Power per Hour, Pounds. Gallons per IMinute per 100 Horse Power. 100 70 100 150 180 200 212 70 100 100 100 100 100 100 *30.00 29.04 29.82 31.22 32 . 14 32.77 33.17 6.02+10 percent. = 6.62 5.79+10 " " = 6.36 5.98+10 " " = 6.57 6.34+10 " " = 6.97 6.61+10 " " = 7.27 6.65+10 " ' = 7.31 6.94+10 " " = 7.63 * This is the standard adopted by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and is the generally accepted commercial standard by boiler makers and users. The evaporative capacity of a boiler depends, among other things, upon the steam pressure and temperature of the feed water. The pressure makes so httle difference that it has been estimated for 100 pounds as practically correct for all pressures. The difference between making steam at atmospheric pressure and 100 pounds pressure is only 31/2 per cent. Changing the tem- perature of the feed water from 100 degrees to 212 degrees will vary the evaporative capacity of a boiler over 11 per cent. TABLE XLIV Quantity of Feed Water Required to Supply Boiler Horse Power Quantity of Feed Water Required. Temperature of Feed Water. Degrees Fahr. of Boiler. Gallons per Minute. Pounds per Hour. 50 3.60 to 4.20 1,599 to 2,029 100 to 212 100 6.57 to 7.63 3,285 to 3,815 100 to 212 200 13.14 to 15.26 6,590 to 7,630 100 to 212 250 16.43 to 19.07 8,215 to 9,535 100 to 212 300 19.71 to 22.89 9,855 to 11,445 100 to 212 400 26.28 to 30.52 13,140 to 15,260 100 to 212 500 32.85 to 38.15 16,425 to 19,075 100 to 212 600 39.42 to 45.78 19,710 to 22,890 100 to 212 800 52.26 to 61.04 26,280 to 30,520 100 to 212 1,000 65.70 to 76.30 32,350 to 38,150 100 to 212 1,200 78.84 to 91.56 39,420 to 45,780 100 to 212 1,500 98.55 to 114.45 49,275 to 57,225 100 to 212 • 1,800 118.26 to 137.34 59,130 to 68,670 100 to 212 2,200 144.50 to 167.80 71,290 to 83,930 100 to 212 3,000 197.10 to 228.90 98,500 to 114,500 100 to 212 3,500 229.95 to 267.05 114,975 to 133,525 100 to 212 4,500 295.65 to 343.35 147,825 to 171,6^5 100 to 212 6,000 394.20 to 457.80 197,100 to 228,900 100 to 212 7,000 459.90 to 534.10 229,950 to 267,050 100 to 212 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 365 TABLE XLV Vacuum, Pressure and Temperature, Etc. measured in inches of Mercury. Absolute pressure in inclies of Mercury. Absolute pressure in lbs. per square inch. Temperature of boiling point. Fahr. Latent heat of evaporation in B. T. U. Sensible heat of Evaporation. 29)2 y2 .245 59.1 1072.8 27.1 29 1 .490 79.3 1058.8 47.3 281^ V4 .735 92.0 1049.9 60.1 28 2 .980 101.4 1044.4 69.5 27 3 1.470 115.3 1033.7 83.4 26 4 1.960 125.6 1026.5 93.8 25 5 2.450 134.0 1020.6 102.2 24 6 2.940 141.0 1015.7 109.3 23 7 3.430 147.0 1011.5 115.3 22 8 3.9-20 152.3 1007.8 120.5 21 9 4.410 157.0 1004.5 125.4 20 10 4.900 161.5 1001.3 129.9 19 11 5.390 165.6 998.4 134.1 18 12 5.880 169.2 995.9 137.7 17 13 6.370 172.8 993.4 140.3 16 14 6.860 176.0 991.1 144.5 15 15 7.350 179.1 988.8 147.7 U 16 7.840 182.0 986.9 150.6 12 17 8.820 187.4 983.1 156.0 10 20 9.800 192.3 979.6 161.0 5 25 12.25 203.0 972 . 1 171.8 30 14.70 212.0 965.7 180.9 S66 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE XLVI Pump Diameters and Capacities in Gallons Area Inches. Displacement Area Inches. Displacement Diameter. in Gals, per Ft. of Travel. Diameter. in Gals, per Ft. of Travel. Vs .0129 .0006 8 50.26 2.548 H .0490 .0025 8K 53.45 2.7739 Vs .1104 .0056 83^ 56.74 2.944 y^ .1963 .0101 m 60.13 3.0105 Vs .3068 .0135 9 63.61 3.2505 % .4417 .0228 9H 67.20 3.407 % .6018 .0311 9y2 70.88 3.678 1 .7854 .0407 9M 74.66 3.874 1^ .9940 .0505 10 78.54 3.997 1^ 1.227 .0624 lOM 82.51 4.281 Ws 1.484 .0629 10X4 86.59 4.493 I'A 1.767 .0896 mi 90.76 4.708 v>A 2.073 .1073 11 95.03 4.931 iH 2.405 .1237 11^ 99.40 5.158 m 2.761 . 1432 113^^ 103.8 5.386 2 3.141 .1639 IIM 108.4 5.634 ^Vs 3.546 .1839 12 113.0 5.852 2M 3.970 .2063 121^ 117.8 6.015 ^Vs 4.430 .2296 123^ 122.7 6.366 2^ 4.908 .2545 12M 127.6 6.620 2^ 5.411 .2807 13 132.7 6.884 2M 5.939 .2948 133^ 137.8 7.149 ^Vs 6.491 .3411 133^ 143.1 7.254 3 7.068 .3667 13M 148.4 7.688 SVs 7.669 .3979 14 153.9 7.966 3M 8.295 .4304 Uji 159.4 8.270 3^ 8.946 .4641 141^ 165.1 8.565 3^ 9.621 .4992 14^ 170.8 8.874 3^ 10.32 .5355 15 176.7 9.167 3M 11.04 .5728 15M 182.6 9.474 3;^ 11.79 .5953 153^ 188.6 9.785 4 12.56 .6522 15M 194.8 10.098 4M 14.18 .7356 16 201.0 10.435 43^ 15.90 .8250 16M 207.3 10.720 43^ 17.72 .9194 161^ 213.8 11.079 5 19.63 .9954 16^ 220.3 11.43 5M 21.54 1.123 17 226.9 11.775 53^ 23.75 1.2035 17M 233.7 12.125 5M 25.96 1.346 17^ 240.5 12.172 6 28.27 1.433 17^ 247.4 12.838 61^ 30.67 1.5915 18 254.4 13.208 63^ 33.18 1.6817 183€ 261.5 13.57 6M 35.78 1.8137 181^ 268.8 13.975 7 38.48 1.9965 183^ 276.1 14.375 7M 41.28 2.1416 19 283.5 14.711 73^ 44.17 2.2958 191^ 291.0 15.10 7H 47.17 2.4465 19^ 298.6 15.55 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 367 TABLE XLVn Table of Decimal Equivalents of an Inch By 64ths; from l-64th to 1 Inch Fraction. Decimal. Fraction. Decimal. -h .015625 M- .515625 -h .031250 H .531250 A- .046875 n .546875 A .062500 -.% .562500 ^ .078125 n .578125 A .093750 M .593750 -6*4 .109375 u .609375 i .125000 f .625000 6^ . 140625 n .640625 ^ . 156250 1^ .656250 H . 171875 n .671875 'h . 187500 u .687500 U .203125 n .703125 3V .218750 e .718750 it .234375 ii .734375 1 4 .250000 f .750000 \\ .265625 r. .765625 ^ .281250 ii .781250 U .296875 u .796875 -h .312500 if .812500 n .328125 if .828125 ¥2 .343750 u .843750 n .359375 ^f .859375 3 » .375000 I .875000 ff .390625 u .890625 M .406250 II .906250 II- .421875 H .921875 f. .437500 il .937500 if .453125 ii .953125 il .468750 H .968750 ti .484375 n .984375 i .500000 1 1.000000 368 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION Belting Horse power of a belt velocity in feet per minute, multiplied by the width the product divided by 1,000. 1 in. single belt moving at 1,000 feet per minute, 1 H. P. 1 in. double " " " 700 " " " 1 H. P. It is desirable that the angle of the belt with the floor should not exceed 45. It is also desirable to locate the shafting and ma- chinery so that the belts should run off from each shaft in op- posite directions, as this arrangement will relieve the bearings from the friction that would result when the belts all pull one way on the shaft. The diameter of the pulleys should be as large as can be ad- mitted. The pulleys should be a little wilder than the belt required for the work. Belts should be kept soft and pliable. For this purpose blood- warm tallow, dried in by the heat of fire or the sun, is advised. Castor-oil dressing is also good. TABLE XLVIII Horse Power of a Leather Belt One Inch Wide Velocity in Feet per Second. L.\CED BELTS- -THICKNESS IN INCHES. 1 i 1% 3^ i A I .143 .167 .187 .219 .250 .312 .333 10 .51 .59 .63 .73 .84 1.05 1.18 15 .75 .88 1.00 1.16 1.32 1.66 1.77 20 1.00 1.17 1.32 1.54 1.75 2.19 2.34 25 1.23 1.43 1.61 1.88 2.16 2.69 2.86 30 1.47 1.72 1.93 2.25 2.58 3.22 3.44 35 1.69 1.97 2.22 2.59 2.96 3.70 3.94 40 1.90 2.22 2.49 2.90 3.32 4.15 4.44 45 2.09 2.45 2.75 3.21 3.67 4.58 4.89 50 2.27 2.65 2.98 3.48 3.98 4.97 5.30 55 2.44 2.84 3.19 3.72 4.26 5.32 5.69 60 2.58 3.01 3.38 3.95 4.51 5.64 6.02 65 2.71 3.16 3.55 4.14 4.74 5.92 6.32 70 2.81 3.27 3.68 4.29 4.91 6.14 6.54 75 2.89 3.37 3.79 4.42 5.05 6.31 6.73 80 2.94 3.43 3.86 4.50 5.15 6.44 6.86 85 2.97 3.47 3.90 4.55 5.20 6.50 6.93 90 2.97 3.47 3.90 4.55 5.20 6.50 6.93 The horse power becomes a maximum at 87.41 feet per second, 5,245 per minute. RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFOR^NIATION 369 If possible to avoid it, connected shafts should never be placed one directly over the other, as in such case the belt must be kept very tight to do the work. For this purpose belts should be care- fully selected of well-stretched leather. RULE FOR FINDING LENGTH OF BELTS Add the diameter of the two pulleys together, multiply by 3%, divide the product by two, add to the quotient twice the dis- tance between the centers of the shafts, and product will be the required length. THE TABLES ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES HAVE TO DO WITH THE TEMPERATURES AND MOVE- MENTS OF AIR, VOLUMES AND VELOCI- TIES, SIZES OF DUCTS, ETC., AS USED IN COMPUTATIONS FOR THE BLOWER SYSTEM OF HEATING AND VENTILATION RULES, TABLES, AND OllIKR INFORALV IION 373 TABLE XLIX Number of Square Inches of Flue Area Required per 1,000 Cubic Feet of Contents for Given Velocity and Air Change No. iVTinn tf*s VELOCITY OF AIR IN FLUE IN FEET PER MINUTE. to Change Air. 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 1.200 1,300 1,400 1,500 4 I'-^O. 90. 72. 60. 51.6 45. 40. 36. 32.2 30. 27.6 25.6 21.4 5 96. 72.2 57.6 48. 41.1 36.1 32. 28.8 26.2 24. 22.2 20.5 19.2 6 80. 60. 48. 40. 34.3 30. 26.6 24. 21.8 20. 18.5 17.1 16. 7 68.6 51.4 41.1 34.3 29.4 25.7 22.9 20.6 18.7 17.2 15.7 14.7 13.7 8 60. 45. 36. 30. 25.8 22.5 20. 18. 16.1 15. 13.8 12.8 12. 9 58.3 40. 32. 26.6 22.9 20. 17.8 16. 14.5 13.3 12.3 11.4 10.7 10 48. 30. 28.8 24. 20.6 18. 16. 14.4 13.1 12. 11.1 10.3 9.6 11 43.6 32.2 26.2 21.8 18.7 16.1 14.5 13.1 11.9 10.9 10.1 9.5 8.7 12 40. 30. 24. 20. 17.2 15. 13.3 12. 10.9 10. 9.2 8.6 8. 13 36.9 27.7 22.2 18.5 15.7 13.8 12.3 11.1 10.1 9.2 8.5 7.9 7.4 14 34.3 25.7 20.6 17.2 14.7 12.8 11.4 10.3 9.5 8.6 7.9 7.4 6.9 15 32. 24. 19.2 16. 13.7 12. 10.7 9.6 8.7 8. 7.4 6.9 6.4 16 30. 22.5 18. 15. 12.9 11.2 10. 9. 8.2 7.5 6.9 6.4 6. 17 28.2 21.2 16.9 14.1 12.1 10.6 9.4 8.5 7.7 7. 6.5 6.1 5.6 18 26.6 20. 16. 13.3 11.5 10. 8.9 8. 7.3 6.6 6.2 5.7 5.3 19 25.3 18.9 15.2 12.6 10.8 9.5 8.4 7.6 6.9 6.3 5.8 5.4 5.1 20 24. 18. 14.4 12. 10.3 9 8. 7.2 6.5 6. 5.5 5.1 4.8 To facilitate calculation of flue areas for different requirements in heating, ventila- tion and the general movement of air, the table above and that upon the three suc- ceeding pages have been prepared. Tlie former is to be em{)loyed when in a ventilating system the area of the flue is to be based upon the time required to change the air within the room and upon the permissible velocity in the flue. The latter table indicates the flue area necessary for the passage of a predetermined volume of air at stated velocity. Values for volumes below 100 or above 1,000 cubic feet may be readily determined from the latter table by reading for the multiple of the given volume, and then pointing off the requisite number of places. Thus, if a volume of 8,750 cubic feet of air is required to pass through a flue at a velocity of 900 feet per minute, the cross sectional area of that must be 1,400 square inches. 374 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE L Flue Area Required for the Passage of a Given Volume of Air at a Given Velocity Volume in Cubic Feet VELOCITY IN FEET PER MINUTE. per Minute. 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 1,100 100 48 36 29 24 21 18 16 14 13 125 60 45 36 30 26 23 20 18 16 150 n 54 43 36 31 27 24 22 20 175 84 63 50 42 36 32 28 25 23 200 96 72 58 48 41 36 32 29 26 225 108 81 65 54 46 41 36 32 29 250 120 90 72 60 51 45 40 36 33 275 132 99 79 66 57 50 44 40 36 300 144 108 86 72 62 54 48 43 39 325 156 117 94 78 67 59 52 47 43 350 168 126 101 84 72 63 56 50 46 375 180 135 108 90 77 68 60 54 49 400 192 144 115 96 82 72 64 58 52 425 204 153 122 102 87 77 68 61 56 450 216 162 130 108 93 81 72 65 59 475 228 171 137 114 98 86 76 68 62 500 240 180 144 120 103 90 80 72 65 525 252 189 151 126 108 95 84 76 69 550 264 198 158 132 113 99 88 79 72 575 276 207 166 138 118 104 92 83 75 600 288 216 173 144 123 108 96 86 79 625 300 225 180 150 129 113 100 90 82 650 312 234 187 156 134 117 104 94 85 675 324 243 194 162 139 122 108 97 88 700 336 252 202 168 144 126 112 101 92 725 348 261 209 174 149 131 116 104 95 750 360 270 216 180 154 135 120 108 98 775 372 279 223 186 159 140 124 112 101 800 384 288 230 192 165 144 128 115 105 825 396 297 238 198 170 149 132 119 108 850 408 306 245 204 175 153 136 122 111 875 420 315 252 210 180 158 140 126 115 900 432 324 259 216 185 162 144 130 118 925 444 333 266 222 190 167 148 133 121 950 456 342 274 228 195 171 152 137 124 975 468 351 281 234 201 176 156 140 128 1,000 480 360 288 240 206 180 160 144 131 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 375 TABLE LI Flue Area Required for the Passage of a Gfv^en Volusie of Air at a Given Velocity — ( Coiitiniu-d ) Volume in Cubic Feet VELOCITY IN FEET PER MINUTE. per Minute. 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,600 1,700 1,800 1,900 2,000 100 12 11 10 9.6 9. 8.5 8 7.6 7.2 125 1.5 14 13 12. 11.3 10.6 10 9.5 9. 150 18 16 15 14.4 13.5 12.7 12 11.4 10.8 175 21 19 18 16.8 15.8 14.8 14 13.3 12.6 200 24 22 21 19.2 18. 16.9 16 15.2 14.4 225 27 25 23 21.6 20.3 19.1 18 17.1 16.2 250 30 28 26 24. 22.5 21.2 20 19. 18. 275 33 30 28 26.4 24.8 23.3 22 21.8 19.8 300 36 33 31 28.8 27. 25.4 24 22.7 21.6 325 39 36 33 31.2 29.3 27.5 26 24.6 23.4 350 42 39 36 33.6 31.5 29.6 28 26.5 25.2 375 43 42 39 36. 33.8 31.8 30 28.4 27. 400 48 44 41 38.4 36. 33.9 32 30.3 28.8 425 51 47 44 40.8 38.3 36. 34 32.2 30.6 450 54 50 46 43.2 40.5 38.1 36 34.1 32.4 475 57 53 49 45.6 42.8 40.2 38 36. 34.2 500 60 55 51 48. 45. 42.4 40 37.9 36. 525 63 58 54 50.4 47.3 44.5 42 39.8 37.8 550 66 61 57 52.8 49.5 46.6 44 41.7 38.6 575 69 64 59 55.2 51.8 48.7 46 43.6 41.4 600 72 66 62 57.6 54. 50.8 48 45.5 43.2 625 75 69 64 60. 56.3 52.9 50 47.4 45. 650 78 72 67 62.4 58.5 55.1 52 49.3 46.8 675 81 75 69 64.8 60.8 57.2 54 51.2 48.6 700 84 78 72 67.2 63. 59.3 56 53.1 50.4 725 87 80 75 69.6 65.3 61.4 58 55. 52.2 750 90 83 77 72. 67.5 63.5 60 56.9 54. 775 93 86 80 74.4 69.8 65.6 62 58.8 56.3 800 96 89 82 76.8 72. 67.8 64 60.6 57.6 825 99 91 85 79.2 74.3 69.9 66 62.5 59.4 850 102 94 87 81.6 76.5 72. 68 64.4 61.2 875 105 97 90 84. 78.8 74. 70 67.3 63. 900 108 100 93 86.4 81. 76.2 72 68.2 64,8 925 111 103 95 88.8 83.3 78.4 74 70.1 66.6 950 114 105 98 91.2 85.5 80.5 76 72. 68.4 975 117 108 100 93.6 87.8 82.6 78 73.9 70.2 1,000 120 111 103 96. 90. 84 7 80 75.8 72. 376 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE LII Flue Akea Requiked for the Passage of a Given Volume of Am at a Grv^EN Velocity — {Continued) Volume in Cubic Feet per Minute. VELOCITY IN FEET PER VIINUTE. 2,100 2,200 2,300 2,400 2,600 2,700 2,800 2,900 3,000 3,100 100 6.9 6.6 6.3 6. 5.5 5.3 5.1 5. 4.8 4.6 125 8.6 8.2 7.8 7.5 6.9 6.7 6.4 6.2 6. 5.8 150 10.3 9.8 9.4 9. 8. 8. 7.7 7.5 7.2 7. 175 12. 11.5 11. 10.5 9.7 9.3 9. 8.7 8.4 8.1 200 13.7 13.1 12.5 12. 11.1 10.7 10.3 9.9 9.6 9.3 225 15.6 14.7 14.1 13.5 12.5 12. 11.6 11.2 10.8 10.4 250 17.1 16.4 15.7 15. 13.9 13.3 12.9 12.4 12. 11.6 275 18.9 18. 17.2 16.5 15.2 14.7 14.1 13.7 13.2 12.8 300 20.6 19.6 18.8 18. 16.6 16. 15.4 14.9 14.4 13.9 325 22.3 21.3 20.6 19.5 18. 17.3 16.7 16.1 15.6 15.1 350 24. 22.9 21.9 21. 19.4 18.7 18. 17.4 16.8 16.3 375 25.7 24.5 23.5 22.5 20.8 20. 19.3 18.6 18. 17.4 400 27.4 26.2 25. 24. 22.2 21.3 20.6 19.8 19.2 18.6 425 29.1 27.8 26.6 25.5 23.5 22.7 21.9 21.1 20.4 19.7 450 30.9 29.5 28.2 27. 24.9 24. 23.1 22.3 21.6 20.9 475 32.6 31.1 29.7 28.5 26.3 25.3 24.4 23.6 22.8 22.1 500 34.3 32.7 31.3 30. 27.7 26.7 25.7 24.8 24. 23.2 525 36. 34.4 32.9 31.5 29.1 28. 26.9 25. 25.2 24.4 550 37.7 36. 34.4 33. 30.5 29.3 28.3 27.3 26.4 25.5 575 39.4 37.6 36. 34.5 31.9 30.7 29.6 28.5 27.6 26.7 600 41.1 39.3 37.6 36. 33.2 32. 30.8 29.8 28.8 27.8 625 42.9 40.9 39.1 37.5 34.6 33.3 32.1 31. 30. 29. 650 44.6 42.5 40.7 39. 36. 34.7 33.4 32.2 31.2 30.2 675 46.3 44.1 42.3 40.5 37.5 36. 34.7 33.5 32.4 31.3 700 48. 45.8 43.8 42. 38.8 37.3 36. 34.7 33.6 32.5 725 49.7 47.4 45.4 43.5 40.2 38.7 37.3 36. 34.8 33.6 750 51.4 49.1 47. 45. 41.5 40. 38.6 37.2 36. . 34.8 775 53.1 50.7 48.5 46.5 42.9 41.3 39.9 38.5 37.2 36. 800 54.9 52.4 50.1 48. 44.3 42.7 41.2 39.7 38.4 37.1 825 56.6 54. 51.7 49.5 45.7 44. 42.4 40.9 39.6 38.3 850 58.4 55.6 53.2 51. 47.1 45.3 43.7 42.2 40.8 39.4 875 60. 57.3 54.8 52.5 48.5 46.7 45. 43.4 42. 40.6 900 61.7 58.9 56.3 54. 49.9 48. 46.3 44.6 43.2 41.8 925 63.4 60.5 57.9 55. o 51.3 49.3 47.6 46. 44.4 42.9 950 65.1 62.2 59.5 51. 52.6 50.7 48.8 47.1 45.6 44.1 975 66.8 63.8 61.0 58.5 54. 52. 50.2 48.4 46.8 45.3 1,000 68.7 66. 62.6 60. 55.4 53.3 51.4 49.6 48. 46.4 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 377 TABLE Lni Weight of Round Galvanized Iron Pipe and Elbows, of the Proper Gauges FOR Heating and Ventilating Systems Gauge and Diam. Area Weight per Weight Full Elbow. Gauge and Diam. Area Weight per Weight of Full Elbow. Weight of in Run- Weight of in Run- per Sq. Ft. Pipe. Sq. Ins. ning Foot. per Sq. Ft. Pipe. Sq. Ins. ning Foot. 3 7.1 0.7 0*4 36 1,017.9 17.2 124.4 4 12.6 1.1 0.9 37 1,075.2 17.8 131.4 No. 28 5 19.6 1.2 1.2 38 1,134.1 18.2 139.4 0.78 6 7 28.3 38.5 1.4 1.7 1.7 2.3 No. 20 39 40 1,194.6 1,256.6 18.7 19.1 146.0 152.9 8 50.3 1.9 2.9 1.66 41 42 43 1,320.3 1,385.4 1,452.2 19.6 20.1 20.6 160.7 168.6 176.7 9 63.6 2.4 4.3 44 1,520.5 21.0 185.0 10 78.5 2.7 5.3 45 1,590.4 21.5 193.4 No. 26 11 95.0 2.9 6.4 46 1,661.9 22.0 202.2 0.91 V2 13 113.1 132.7 3.2 3.4 7.6 8.9 14 153.9 3.7 10.4 47 48 49 1,734.9 1,809.6 1,885.7 29.2 29.8 30.4 274.3 286.6 298.8 15 176.7 4.5 13.5 50 1,963.5 31.0 309.9 No. 25 16 201 . 1 4.7 15.1 51 2,042.8 31.6 322.5 17 227.0 5.0 17.0 No. 18 52 2,123.7 32.2 335 . 1 1.03 18 254 . 5 5.3 19.1 53 2,206.2 33.0 349.7 19 283.5 5.6 21.4 2.16 54 2,290.2 33.6 363.4 20 314.2 6.0 23.9 55 56 57 2,375.8 2,463.0 2,551.8 34.4 34.9 35.6 377.2 390.7 405.1 21 346.4 7.0 29.6 58 2,642 . 1 36.1 418.8 22 380.1 7.3 32.3 59 2,734.0 36.7 433 . 1 No. 24 23 415.5 7.7 35.6 60 2,827.4 37.4 448.6 1.16 24 25 452.4 490.9 8.0 8.3 38.6 41.7 26 530.9 8.7 45.1 61 62 63 2,922.5 3,019.1 3,117.3 46.7 47.5 48.3 569.7 589.0 608.6 27 572.6 10.9 59.1 64 3,217.0 49.1 628.5 28 615.7 11.4 64.2 65 3,318.3 49.8 647.4 29 660.5 11.8 68.6 No. 16 66 3,421.2 50.5 666.6 No. 22 30 70() . 9 12 2 73.4 2.66 67 3,525 . 7 51.3 687.4 31 754.8 12.6 78.3 68 3,631.7 52.1 708.6 1.41 32 804.3 13.0 83.4 69 3,739.3 52.8 728.6 33 855.3 13.5 88.9 70 3,848.5 53.6 750.4 34 907.9 13.9 94.3 71 3,959.2 54.3 771.0 35 962 . 1 14.3 99.9 72 4,071.5 55.1 793.4 s" " Figures in bold face type at the top of the column are the diameters of the branches, those in the first, or left-hand column are X I-H s ^-l;-l:l« ^zz G)| C0[ l> CO 1 Tfi 1 to si:i:5i:i:i2 • C0|<^ '^l <3^ ^1*^1 ^ Oi\r^ ^" 1 G* CO 1 Tfi 1 CO 00 si!- r^' ^' 1 G< ^I 1> CO OS TfH 1 iO i> OS j^ G^I^O XIG* TfH OIO 'f< G< i CO CO 1 OS 1 CO 1 CO ^1 r-ll 0»| G^ CO •*| OSI G* CO col xl '"' '"' 03 2 ^"^XIG^^COOIOCOOiOX ^ ^ .-H U) ^ CO 1 'O t- '^ '~' ^ 1 2|- COl t> G) G* o CO CO i> CO »o to G^l CO i -IS i^ii:- >ri OS Tj^ OS iO r-H »0 CO Tfi CO CO COl X CO os^h^ 5rt Si: !-l2 r^l G* G^l col Tf* :i:i=pi-s a; 1-1 ,__, ^ 'OIX G^ CO G*] O X G* CO 1 Tf^ Tj*' i>|O5IC0 »o 1 X r X| ^ G< ^1 G) CO -3 »» '^ co( OS G< G» G> CO X CO CO '^ 2lgJlil§§ G^ CO CO G? G* OS Gi t> CO CO Tji l^ X xl-P CO GJ - CO w o^i O X GJ G* X G» G< CO CO »o OS CO COl OS sO xl OS '^ li ^ ^ CO to "^ ©* lO 00 o< rH ^ r-i 0( 3.22.6 3.82.9 4.33.4 OS CO i> CO 'O 0|G> X '^r OS cs osi CO OS 1- G) CO »0 CO o ^ CO Oi GO --H ^ Ol Ol'O^ O G* iG» CO X O) CO CO >o 'O O* OS --^ CO CO s^ O Xl X to CO X CO l> G^ 1 OS 1 t- CO CO OS ©< Tf< 1> i ^ CO CO ^ to QO CO l> GO «!? G^ CO I— 1 X i> CO «5 CO X X OS OS CO CO ^^^^2 88|2|^ t^ : OS G*l CO GO t^ t- J> CO -# >o o OS G< i> OS O G^ Tf* sg^ ^ 0)1 X O X CO CO CO X CO G* ^ G* o lO o» 00 o 1 ^o ©i col -* I- OS »-o o CO OS X OS ^ CO CO X B CO G-) G* CO OS X CO '^ J§ 88 § 1 G> G* GO « o CO CO CO t-l o "if* »o 1> o OS ^ CO s X G^ 'f X o< o? M G^ -^ CO i> X X crs CO i ^ GO CO (5^ '^ 0510* i> osl O OS CO G* G-> CO ^ CO OS § l> ^ 2 1 1-1 G) X i X « o< CO »0 CO 00 G^ s§i ?? OS CO § § ^ 38 1 - 1 i—T r-^ 1 w T— 1 § ^ ^ § 1> 8§ § OS G> G* '-0 1 G* OS CO G^ G< CO CO i CO CO -* ^ i of of CO to go' OS iH I-H CO 00 CO 2 g 1> CO i § CO CO g i 1-H § »0 2 1 o of Gf 1 GO X x^ 1> X X OS X os^ to" © CO tO^ CO OS Diameter of Main Blast- pipe in Inches. w w ^ 10 « i^ GC OJ o ri fO -t to CO {>. cc ^ n ^ i ^ ^ i RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION S79 TABLE LV Am Loss of Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch for Varying Velocities and Varying Diameters of Pipes DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 1 Velocity of Air, Feet 1 2 3 1 4 5 6 per Minute. LOSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCES. 600 .400 .200 .133 .100 .080 .067 1,^00 1.600 .800 .533 .400 .320 .267 1,800 3.600 1 .800 1.200 .900 .720 .600 2,400 6.400 3.200 2.133 1.600 1.280 1.067 3,000 10.000 5.000 3.333 2.500 2.000 1.667 3,000 14.400 7.200 4.800 3 600 2.880 2.400 4,200 9.800 6.553 4.900 3.920 3.267 4,800 12.800 8.533 6.400 5.120 4.267 6,000 600 20.000 13.333 10.000 8.000 6.667 DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 7 8 9 1 10 11 12 LOSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCES. .057 .050 .044 .040 .036 .033 1,200 .229 .200 .178 .160 .145 .133 1,800 .514 .450 .400 .360 .327 .300 2,400 .914 .800 .711 .040 .582 .533 3,000 1.429 1.250 1.111 1.000 .909 .833 3,600 2.057 1.800 1.600 1.440 1.309 1.200 4,200 2.800 2.450 2.178 1.960 1.782 1.633 4,800 3.657 3 . 200 2.844 2.560 2.327 2.133 6,000 600 5 714 5.000 4 444 4.000 3.636 3.333 DIAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHES. 14 16 18 1 20 22 24 L OSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCE s. .029 .026 .022 .020 .018 .017 1,200 .114 .100 .089 .080 .073 .007 1,800 .257 .225 .200 .180 .164 .156 2,400 .457 .400 .356 .320 .291 .207 3,600 1.029 .900 .800 .720 .655 .600 4,200 1.400 1.225 1.089 .980 .891 .817 4,800 1.829 1.600 1.422 1.280 1.164 1.067 6,000 600 2.857 2.500 2.222 2.000 1.818 1.667 D lAMETER OF PIPE IN INCHE 3. 28 32 36 1 40 44 48 LOSS OF PRESSURE IN OUNCES. .014 .012 .011 .010 .009 .008 1,200 .057 .050 .044 .040 .036 . 033 1,800 .129 .112 .100 .090 .082 .075 2,400 .239 .200 .178 .160 .145 .133 3,600 .514 .450 .400 .360 .327 .300 4,200 .700 .612 .544 .490 .445 .408 4,800 .914 .800 .711 .640 .582 .533 6,000 1 . 429 1 . 250 1.111 1.000 .909 .833 380 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION o CO o !>. 00 '^ o^ Of Oi (N i> CO Of l^ -* t- CO Oi to CO o CCi CH 'f^ t-^ *H l> co^ Oi o_ co^ o y^ Oi 1> fi '^ '*' co' co' Of of of »o ^ >^ »o o •o to to to to ' o 00 a cc o Oi '*' to »o CO CO <> CO Oi CO o 05 -f< i> o> cc^ CO o l-^ co__ Of 05 Oi o 'O"' ^ co" CO' of o> of ,— r I— r «^ »0 •o «: o »o to to to to Ct! 05 -f* ^ »-o CO Oi ^ to to -tl CO '0 CO o^ CO CO r—( 00 cc •^ co' of ^ o' o' o' Oi' Oi' Oi ^ ^o »o »o o o to to ■* '^ ^ CO X o Ci CO »o o ~ CO T— 1 K o ^ GO Oi Oi 'O l^ GO o Of to CO' of ^' o" o' Oi Oi' Oi oo' oo' Oi AO »o »o »o «5 tP •^ "* ■* '=?< IS o CO 2J J^ CO CO CO Oi Oi ^ o t^ 05 i-- CO *o «o 'O ^ '# ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ H J C5 O) »o •^ 00 '^ to ,_, ^ o CO |< o 1^ CO CO CO 00 CO Oi CO CO oo (N O*^ ©^ *o 00 ^^ o co^ co^ ^ i^^ QQ ■^ cT cs' go' go' oo' t-' t-' i-' co' Oi »o »o -^ ^ ^ ^ -p '^ ^ Tf< o> »o CO 05 t- o CO ^ t^ 'f* o o o o to OD Of -^ Of Of 'O (N o* Of i-O Oi »o r— 1 t- -^ oo^ Oi" CO Oi o" oT GO t-' t-' l^ co' co' co' 'O' »o •^ '* -f* •^ ^ -^ ^ ■* -^ ^ Ci ~ o o Oi to CO CO X '^ o> 'f* 'O 05 -fH CO 00 CO t- o (N "^1 '--0 I- Oi (N Oi C5 go' i--' CO o CO 'O' 'O »o -f* Tf* tp ^ -^ ^ -f< •^ -* -f< -^ CO i> »o -p o CO CO Oi o^ CO i> CO C5 o -p o Oi o t^ (N o»_ o O to 00^ ^ Of^ Oi Oi tH Oi cc i> o" O »c t-O •^ -f -f^' co' -^ -# -* -f ^ ^ -f -^ -J< '-p o -f< 05 CO O) to ^ Oi X ^ -f* O) Oi o CO 5 00 Of o C5_ o^ co^ OO^ CO^ o CO CO o cc^ oi O Oi o" o' 'O' '^ -f^' -p co' co' CO of ■<** ":?< "^ ^ -^ -f< "f* ^ -f< ^ ««-• EC 1 1 C-i2-|^ 3 H c rt ;; 3 I' cs _^ c— "^ n 3 lO iCl UO lO lO lO \o to to to cen an 11 be air ii P tH cq CO ^ to CD t> 00 a o 3 ^ Per ove at wi l°if ted. Q rt -^^"2 2 > -43 C3 r- =2 ^ ^ •■^ 2 a; ;3 -73 -^ c =*- • ^ -T-i Ul RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 381 TABLE lAlI Of the Number of Thermal Units Cont.vined in One Pound of Water Temper- ature. Number of Thermal Units. 35° 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 35.000 40.001 4.5.00^2 50.003 55.006 60.009 65.014 70.020 75.027 80.036 85.045 90.055 95.067 100.080 105.095 110.110 115.129 120.149 125.169 130.192 135.217 140.245 145.175 150.305 In- crease. Temper- ature. 155" 5.001 160 5.001 165 5.001 170 5.003 5.003 5.005 5.006 5.007 5.009 5.009 5.010 5.012 5.013 5.015 5.015 5.019 5.020 5.020 5.023 5.025 5.028 5.030 5.030 175 180 185 190 195 200 205 210 215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250 255 260 265 270 Number of Thermal Units. 155.339 160.374 165.413 170.453 175.497 180.542 185.591 190.043 195.697 200.753 205.813 210.874 215.939 221.007 226.078 231.153 236.232 241.313 246.398 251.487 256.579 261.674 266.774 271.878 In- crease. Temper- ature. Number of Thermal Units. 5.034 275° 276.985 5.035 280 282.095 287.210 292.329 297.452 302.580 307.712 312.848 317.988 323 . 134 328.284 333.438 338.596 343.759 348.927 354 . 101 359.280 364.464 369.653 374.846 380.044 385.247 390.456 395.672 5.039 285 5.040 290 5.044 295 5.045 300 5.049 305 5.052 310 5.054 315 5.056 320 5.060 325 5.061 330 5.065 335 5.068 340 5.071 345 5.075 350 5.079 355 5.081 360 5.085 365 5.089 370 5.092 375 5.095 380 5.100 385 5.104 1 390 In- crease. 5.107 5.110 5.115 5.119 5.123 5 . 128 5.132 5.136 5.140 5.146 5.150 5. 154 5.158 5.163 5.168 5.174 5.179 5.184 5.189 5.193 5.198 5.203 5.209 5.216 382 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE LVIII Voi.ixviE AND Density of Air at Various Temperatures Temperature. Degrees. Volume of 1 lb. of Air at Atmospheric Presssure of 14.7 lbs. Density or Weight of 1 Cubic foot of Air at 14.7 lbs. Lbs. Cubic Feet. 11.583 .086331 32 12.387 .080728 40 12.586 .079439 50 12.84 .077884 62 13.141 .076097 70 13.342 .07495 80 13.593 . 073565 90 13.845 . 07223 100 14.096 .070942 120 14.592 .0685 140 15.1 .066221 160 15.603 .064088 180 16 . 106 .06209 200 16.606 .06021 210 16.86 .059313 212 16.91 .059135 220 17.111 .058442 240 17.612 .056774 260 18.116 .0552 280 18.621 .05371 300 19.121 .052297 320 19.624 .050959 340 20 . 126 .049686 360 20.63 .048476 380 21.131 .047323 400 21.634 .046223 425 22.262 .04492 450 22.89 .043686 475 23.518 .04252 500 24 . 146 .041414 525 24.775 .040364 550 25.403 .039365 575 26.031 .038415 600 26.659 .03751 650 27.915 .035822 700 29.171 .03428 750 30.428 .032865 800 31.684 .031561 850 32.941 .030358 900 34 . 197 .029242 950 35.454 .028206 1,000 36.811 .027241 1,500 49.375 .020295 2,000 61.94 .016172 2,500 74.565 .013441 3,000 87.13 .011499 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 383 TABLE IJX Influence of the Temperature of Air upon the Conditions of Its Movement 1 Relative Temper- ature in Degrees, Fahr. Relative Velocity Due to the Same Pressure. Relative Pressure Necessary to Pro- duce the Same Velocity. Relative Weight of Air Moved at the Same Velocity. Relative Velocity Necessary to Move the Same Weight of Air. Relative Pressure Necessary to Produce the Velocity to Move the Same Weight of Air. Relative Power Necessary to Move the Same Volume of Air at the Same Velocity. Power Neces.sary to Move the Same Weight of Air at the Velocity in Column 5 and the Pressure in Column 6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ^ 8 30 0.98 1.04 1.04 0.96 0.96 1.04 0.92 40 0.99 1.02 1.02 0.98 0.98 1.02 0.96 50 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 60 1.01 0.98 0.98 1.02 1.02 0.98 1.04 70 1.02 0.96 0.96 1.04 1.04 0.96 1.08 80 1.03 0.94 0.94 1.06 1.06 0.94 1.12 90 1.04 0.93 0.93 1.08 1.08 0.93 1.17 100 1.05 0.91 0.91 1.10 1.10 0.91 1.21 125 1.07 0.87 0.87 1.15 1.15 0.87 1.32 150 1.09 0.84 0.84 1.20 1.20 0.84 1.43 175 1.11 0.81 0.81 1.24 1.24 0.81 1.55 200 1.14 0.78 0.78 1.29 1.29 0.78 1.67 225 1.16 0.75 0.75 1.34 1.34 0.75 1.80 250 1.18 0.72 0.72 1.39 1.39 0.72 1.93 275 1.20 0.69 0.69 1.44 1.44 0.69 2.07 300 1.22 0.67 0.67 1.49 1.49 0.67 2.22 325 1.24 0.65 0.65 1.54 1.54 0.65 2.36 350 1.26 0.63 0.63 1.59 1.59 0.63 2.51 375 1.28 0.61 0.61 1.63 1.63 0.61 2.66 400 1.30 0.59 0.59 1.68 1.68 0.59 2.82 425 1.32 0.58 0.58 1.73 1.73 0.58 2.99 450 1.34 0.56 0.56 1.78 1.78 0.56 3.17 475 1.35 0.55 0.55 1.83 1.83 0.55 3.35 500 1.37 0.53 0.53 1.88 1.88 0.53 3.53 525 1.39 0.52 0.52 1.93 1.93 0.52 3.72 550 1.41 0.51 0.51 1.98 1.98 0.51 3.92 575 1.43 0.49 0.49 2.03 2.03 0.49 4.12 600 1.44 0.48 0.48 2.08 2.08 0.48 4.33 625 1.46 0.47 0.47 2.13 2.13 0.47 4.54 1 650 1.48 0.46 0.46 2.18 2.18 0.46 4.75 675 1.49 0.45 0.45 2.22 2 22 0.45 4.93 700 1.51 0.44 0.44 2.27 2.27 0.44 5.15 725 1.52 0.43 0.43 2.32 2.32 0.43 5.38 750 1.54 0.42 0.42 2.37 2.37 0.42 5.62 775 1.56 0.41 0.41 2.42 2.42 0.41 5.86 800 1.57 0.40 0.40 2.47 2.47 0.40 6.10 —J PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE LX Velocity Created, Volume Discharged and Horse Power Required when Air under a Given Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch is Allowed TO Escape into the Atmosphere In the following table the volume is proportional to the velocity. The power varies as the cube of the velocity. " Blast area " generally means the maximum area over which the velocity of the air will equal the velocity of the pipes at the tips of the floats. If this area is decreased the volume will be decreased, but the pressure will remain constant. If this area is increased the pressure is lowered, but the volume somewhat increased. This table is calculated for 50° F. temperature. Different temperature will effect the result. The movement of air through pipes will also change results. Velocity of Air Escaping into Volume Dis- Pressure Atmosphere. charged in One Minute Through Horse Power Ounces per Effective Area of One Square Inch, in Cubic Feet. of Air Blast. Square Inch. In Feet per Second. In Feet per Minute. Vs 30.47 1,828 12.69 0.0004 43.08 2,585 17.95 0.001 % 52.75 3,165 21.98 0.002 y^ 60.90 3,654 25.37 0.003 Vs 68.07 4,084 28.36 0.005 H 74.54 4,473 31.06 0.006 % 80.50 4,830 33.54 0.008 1 86.03 5,162 35.85 0.01 IM 96.13 5,768 40.06 0.014 W2 105.25 6,315 43.86 0.02 iM 113.64 6,818 47.34 0.023 2 121.41 7,284 50.59 0.028 2M 128.70 7,722 53.63 0.033 2>^ 135.59 8,136 56.50 0.039 2M 142.14 8,528 59.22 0.044 3 148.38 8,903 61.83 0.05 m 160.10 9,606 66.71 0.06 4 170.98 10,259 71.24 0.08 41^ 181.16 10,870 75.48 0.09 5 190.76 11,446 79.48 0.11 53^ 199.86 11,992 83.24 0.12 6 208.53 12,512 86.89 0.14 7 224.77 13,486 93.66 0.18 8 239.80 14,388 99.92 0.22 9 253.83 15,230 105.76 0.26 10 267.00 16,020 111.25 0.30 11 279.70 16,768 116.45 0.35 12 291.30 17,478 121.38 0.40 13 302.59 18,155 126.06 0.45 14 313.38 18,803 130.57 0.50 15 323.73 19,424 134.89 0.55 16 333.68 20,021 139.03 0.61 17 343.26 20,596 143.03 0.66 18 352.52 21,151 146.88 0.72 19 361.46 21,688 150.61 0.78 20 370.13 22,208 154.22 0.84 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 385 TABLE TAX Moisture Absorbed by Air Tfie Quantity of Water Which Air is Capable of Absorbing to the Point of Maximum Saturation, in Grains per Cubic Foot for Various Temperatures Degrees. Fahrenheit. drains in a Cubic Foot. Degrees Fahrenheit. (Jrairis in a Cubic Foot. 10 1.1 85 12.43 15 1.31 90 14.38 20 1.56 95 16.60 25 1.85 100 19.12 30 2.19 105 22.0 32 2.35 110 25.5 35 2.59 115 30.0 40 3.06 130 42.5 45 3.61 141 58.0 50 4.24 157 85.0 55 4.97 170 112.5 60 5.82 179 138.0 65 6.81 188 166.0 70 7.94 195 194.0 75 9.24 212 265.0 80 10.73 386 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION ^ o> >0 CO ( o? o? G* CO CO .^ X (N G^ o< Q-< (N ■^ l^ o < CO iH CO C5 O) *o o -* 00 T— 1 - rH d Ol CO CO CO '^ — « «o fc* i> o^ CO o CO iH o CO CO '* "* ^ iO « c »o C5 Q^ to o 1-i CC GO CO '^ "* :;: — •^ rf b- CO X G» «-o 1> "" tH ©: CO "* "^ •^ "o a o CO m O CO T— 1 »o 00 o ,. CO CO -t< -^ -^ »o Q >j O ^ ^ c: -p 00 ,_ CO P tH ^ 00 CO '^^ ■* »o to X o ©? I- I— 1 'f* CO tH ti-i CO ■* '* »o to to O 9^ o o aj o CO o -p l^ C5 iH 2 Tfl •^ lO to to to S M i^ o Q -* c '*< t- o G» a >* »o »-o »-o CO CO S 05 -* 00 ,_H -^ CO 00 ^ »o o CO CO CO 'f' C5 o-> »o X o t- O O CO CO CO t> o '^ J> C5 o^ CO « CO CO CO CO b- i> CO 05 «5< ^ co J> lO CO CO t- l> J> 1> o< ■* J> C5 o ,_, Tj) b- 1> i> t- X X — 00 o <3^ -f* »o to CO J> 00 00 00 X X »o »o CO 00 Oi o o i> cc 00 X 00 OS Oi b- Oi CO ■^ ■^ to to 00 Oi C5 C5 05 05 C5 <» ©* o^ o^ ©< (5< (>? Q< CO "* to CO J^ X C5 sC^p-i ^- ^ RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INEOR^LVTION 387 s «o lo 'O « ^ l^ t- i; ^; 3 o i-ii 5 2 S "o a; ~ »o '-I o o (•^ Si ^2 lO -f* -+< -f< -* -* s ,— T-H 1 -*l CO o< — ' ^ 4^ 2, ei a 3 "S o »o <; s y o 5 s ^ c 5 o O t<-l o 3 3 o ^ -^ ^ ^ 3 o 3 ^ < 2 s t-^ s »o 2~ CO 2" 2- »-0 o o 2 1 ^ o 3 3 o (3, ^ o 3 3 -^ 3 3 o ^ Q ^ 3 CD o o o o o o o o o o o o Oi GC l^ o »o 't CO Of 1—1 o 'O o »-o o< <^ Cjf of of or o< o< o^ o» -u c -— ■ dj.^ dj c3 « « ft3 c o o © o ^ o ^ o ^ Q ^ ^ 1^ o -r o o o o o o o o o 1 Q ^ ^ 0( « -* 'O o l^ CO 05 rH of Ol 3^/%- C O O-H. 388 PRACTICAL HEATING AND VENTILATION TABLE LXIV Pressure in Inches of Water and Corresponding Pressure in Ounces, with Velocities of Air Due to Pressures Pressure per Square Inch in Inches of Water. Corresponding Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch. Velocity Due to the Pres- sure in P'eet per Minute. Pressure per Square Inch in Inches of Water. Corresponding Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch. Velocity Due to the Pres- sure in Feet per Minute. v.. .01817 696.78 % .36340 3,118.38 X, .03634 987.66 Va .43608 3,416.64 Vs .07268 1,393.75 % .50870 3,690.62 %> . 10902 1,707.00 I 1 .58140 3,946.17 y4. . 14536 1,971.30 IM .7267 4,362.62 %, .18170 2,204 . 16 W2 .8721 4,836 . 06 ^ .21804 2,414.70 m 1.0174 5,224.98 }/2 .29072 2,788.74 2 1 . 1628 5,587.58 TABLE LXV Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch with Velocities of Air Due to Pressures Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch. Velocity Due to the Pres- sure in Feet per Minute. Pressure in Ounces per Square Inch. Velocity Due to the Pres- sure in Feet per Minute. Pressure in Ounces per Square inch. Velocity Due to the Pres- sure in Feet per Minute. .25 2,582 2.75 8,618 7.50 14,374 .50 3,658 3.00 9,006 8.00 14,861 .75 4,482 3.50 9,739 9.00 15,795 1.00 5,178 4.00 10,421 10.00 16,684 1.25 5,792 4.50 11,065 11.00 17,534 1.50 6,349 5.00 11,676 12.00 18,350 1.75 6,861 5.50 12,259 13.00 19,138 2.00 7,338 6.00 12,817 14.00 19,901 2.25 7,787 6.50 13,354 15.00 20,641 2.50 8,213 7.00 13,873 16.00 21,360 RULES, TABLES, AND OTHER INFORMATION 389 TABLE LXVI Weights of Galvanized Iron Pipe pek Lineal Foot GAUGE OF IKON NUMBERS. Diameter of Pipe in Indies. 18 20 22 24 26 3 2M IM 13^ 13€ 1 4 2^ 23€ iM . 13^ IH 5 3M m 2 iM I'A 6 3% 5 23€ 2 IH 7 4K> 33^ 2M 23^ 2 8 5M 4 3 2^ 2H 9 5-j4 43^ 334 3 2H 10 6M 43^ 33^ 3M 23^ 11 6% 5H 3H 33^ 2M 12 m 5H 43^ 3M 3 13 8 6M 43^ 4 SH 14 83^ 6% 4M 43^ 33^ 15 9K 73^ 53€ 4^ 3M 16 93^ 7M 5y2 5 4 17 lOM 8 6 53^ 43^ 18 103^ m 6^ 53^ 43^ 19 111^ 9 63^ 5M 4M 20 12 93^ 7 6 53€ 21 121^ 9M 7K 63^ 53^ 22 131^ 103^ 7^ 6M 5!^ 23 14 11 83€ 7 6 24 143^ 113^ 8^ 73^ 63^ 26 1534 123^ 914 7H 63^ 28 16^ 133^ 9M 8y2 7 30 18 14 io>^ 9 73^ 32 19M 15 1134 9^ 8 34 20M 153^ 12 103€ 8^ 36 213^ 16M 13H lOH 9 38 22K 18 133^ 113^ 93^ 40 24 18^ 14 12 10 42 25 193^ 14^ 123^ 103^ 44 261^ 203^ 153.<^ 13 11 46 27>^ 2134 16 " 133^ 113^ 48 281^ 22H 163^ 14M 12 50 293^ 23 173^ 15 123^ 52 3134 243^ 183€ ... 1 54 321/^ 25 183| 56 33M 26 19 58 35 26^ 20M • ■ 60 S6H 273^ 203^ 63 381^ 29 21^ 66 40 3034 223^ 69 41M 32M 233^ 72 433^ 333€ 25 The figures in bold-faced type represent weight of round piping ordinarily used in heating work. i INDEX Advantages of steam beatine^, 114. Air, circulation of, bv direct racba- tion, 98. Air, circulation of, bv indirect radia- tion, })f). Air cleansing, 233, 234. Air compressor, Johnson, 312. Air, conditions of its movement, 383, Air ducts for ventilating, 248, 2.50. Air ducts, indirect beating, 94. Air, expansion of, 349. Air, humidity of, 259, 2()0. Air, influence of the temperature, 383. Air, loss of pressure in pipes, 379. Air, method of measuring Aelocity, 258. Air, moisture absorbed by, 385. Air necessary for ventilation, 213, 218. Air required to burn coal, 349. Air, table of velocities due to pressure, 388. Air valve, 77. Air valve, com})ression, 77. Air valves, automatic, 78, 79. Air, velocity at furnace register, 349. Air, velocity, volume, and horse power required, 384. Air, volume and density at various pressures, 382. Air, volume necessary to maintain given standard of purity, 387. Air, wire screen for cleansing, 233. Altitude gauge, 146. Anemometer, description of, 258. Angles, measurements for, 209, 210, 349. Angle valve, 74. Apparatus for testing blower systems, 257, 2G1. Area of circle, 350, Areas of circles, table of, 358. Artificial heating apparatus, evolu- tion of, 22. Artificial heating, methods of, 23. Artificial water line, 205, 206. Asbestos, 295. Aspirating coil, to determine size of, 349. Atmosj)here, moisture in the, 386. Attention to boilers, 330, 331. Automatic damper regulator, 50, 53, 300. Automatic water feeders, 287., Back-pressure valves, 282. Belting, horse power of, 368, Belting, rule for finding length, 369. Blow-off cock, 53, 54. Boiler, All Right, 33. Boiler, Bundy, 33. Boiler, common type of upright tubu- lar, 28. Boiler covering, 293. Boilers, cross-connecting. 206. 209. Boiler, Dunning, 29. Boilers, early types of, 26. Boiler explosions, 340, 341. Boilers, feed water recjuired, 364, 391 392 INDEX Boiler, Florida, 32. Boiler, Gold, 30. Boiler, Gorton, 34. Boilers, grate surface of, 41. Boiler, Haxtun, 29. Boiler, locomotive fire-box, 31. Boiler, manner of bricking locomo- tive fire-box, 43, 44. Boiler, Mills, 30. Boiler, original type of Fiirman, 32. Boiler, Page Safety Sectional, 32. Boilers, proper attention to, 330, 331. Boilers, removing oil and dirt from, 331, 332. Boiler setting, 42. Boiler, shell of Dunning, 28. Boiler, standard type of horizontal tubular, 27. Boiler surfaces and settings, 40. Boiler, volunteer, 32. Boilers, water surface of, 41, Boiler, what constitutes a good one, 38. Boiling point of water, 347. Boiling point of water, table, 142. Boiling points of fluids, 353. Box base for direct-indirect radiator, 96. Boxing indirect radiators, 92, 93. Brass, to clean, 351. Branch tees, 69, 71. Bricking tubular boilers, materials required, 360. Brick setting tubular boilers with full fronts, 46. Brick setting tubular boilers with half fronts, 48. British thermal heat unit (B. T. U.), 19. Bronzing, painting, and decoration, 335, 336. Broomell vapor-heating system, 178, 181. Bucket traps, 263, 264. Business methods, 316, 328. Capacities of pumps, 366. Capacity of stacks, 363. Care of heating apparatus, 329, 330. Care of tools, 333, 334. Casing indirect radiators, 92, 93. Cast-iron fittings, 69. Cast iron, to harden, 352. Cast-iron fittings, types of, 70. Cast-iron flanges, 71. Cast-iron flanges, schedule of, 71. Cement for leaky boilers, 350. Cement for steam boilers, 350. Central - station hot - water heating, 291, 292. Check valve, 76. Chimney flue, 5G. Chimney flue, capacity of, 59. Chimney flue, elements of, 59. Chimney flue, proper construction of, 56, 58. Chimney flue, table of sizes, 58. Chimneys, tables of heights and area, 61. Circles, table of areas, 358. Circle, to find area of, 350. Circle, to find circumference of, 349. Circle, to find diameter of, 350. Circulation of air by direct radiator, 98. Circulation of air by indirect radiator, 99. Circumference of circle, 349. Coal, air necessary to burn, 349. Coal, heat units in, 348. Coal, weight of anthracite, 348. Coal, weight of bituminous, 348. INDEX 393 Coil stands and hook plates, 00. Coils for tanks, sizes of, 11)8. Comparison of thernionielrie scales, oo7. Condensin duties assigned to them in service con- ditions. This CHART IS KEALLV AN 1' NCVCLOI'EDl A OF A SUBMARINE. It is educational and worth many times its cost. Mailed in a Tube for 25 cents CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS BOX CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a box car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list 20 cents GONDOLA CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a gondola car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper reference name given in a reference list 20 cents PASSENGER CAR CHART. A chart showing the anatomy of a passenger car, having every part of the car numbered and its proper name given in a reference list 20 cents WESTINGHOUSE AIR-BRAKE CHARTS. Chart I. — Shows (in colors) the most modern Westinghouse High Speed and Signal Equip- ment used on Passenger Engines, Passenger Engine Tenders, and Passenger Cars. Chart II. — Shows (in colors) the Standard Westinghouse Equipment for Freight and Switch En- gines, Freight and Switch Engine Tenders, and Freight Cars. Price for the set . 50 cents TRACTIVE POWER CHART. A chart whereby you can find the tractive power or drawbar pull of any locomotive, withoui making a figure. Shows what cylinders are equal, how driving wheels and steam pressure affect the power. What sized engine you need to exert a given drawbar pull or anything you desire in this line 50 cents HORSE POWER CHART. Shows the horse power of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke; the steam pressure or cut-off; the revolutions, or whether con- densing or non-condensine, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calcu- lations. Especially useful to engineers and designers ... 50 cents BOILER ROOM CHART. By Geo. L. Fowler. A Chart — size 14 x 28 inches — showing in isometric perspective the mechanisms belonging in a modern boiler room. Water tube boilers, ordinary grates and mechanical stokers, feed water heaters and pumps comprise the equipment. The various parts are shown broken or removed, so that the internal construction is fully illustrated. Each part is given a reference number, and these, with the corresponding name, are given in a glossary printed at the sides. This chart is really a dictionary of the boiler room — the names of more than 200 parts being given. It is educational — worth many times its cost 25 cents CIVIL ENGINEERING HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. Edited by Joseph G. Horxer, A. M. I. E. M. This set of five volumes contains about 2,500 pages with thousands of illustrations, including diagrammatic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. This work covers the entire practice of Civil and ]\lechanical Engineering. The best known experts in all branches of engineering have contributed to these volumes. The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught practical man, as well as the mechanical en- gineer, designer, draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman, and machinist. The work will be found a means of advancement to any progressive man. It is encyclopedic in scope, thorough and practical in its treatment of technical subjects, simple and clear in its descriptive matter, and without unnecessary technicalities or formulae. The articles are as brief as may be and yet give a reasonably clear and explicit statement of the subject, and are written by men who have had ample practical experience in the matters of which they write. It tells you all you want to know about engineering and tells it so simply, so clearly, so concisely, that one cannot help but understand. As a work of reference it is without a peer. $6.00 per single volume. For complete set of five volumes, price $25.00 COKE COKE— MODERN COKING PRACTICE; INCLUDING THE ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS AND PRODUCTS. By T. H. Byrom and J. E. Christopher. A handbook for those engaged in Coke manufacture and the recovery of By-products. Fully illustrated with folding plates. It has been the aim of the authors, in preparing this book, to produce one which shall be of use and benefit to those who are associated with, or inter- ested in, the modern developments of the industry. Contents: I. Introductory. II. Gen- CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS eral Classification of Fuels. III. Coal Washing. IV. The Sampling and Valuation of Coal. Coke, etc. V. The Calorific Power of Coal and Coke. VI. Coke Ovens. VII. Coke Ovens, continued. VIII. Coke Ovens, continued. IX. Charging and Discharging of Coke n applied. Includes forty-four tables of the physical properties of air, its compression, expansion, and volumes required for various kinds of work, and a list of patents on com])ressed air from 1875 to date. Over 500 illustrations. 5th Edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth bound, $5.00. Half Morocco, price $6.60 CONCRETE ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE WITHOUT MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton. The process for making ornamental concrete without molds has long been held as a secret, and now, for the first time, this process is given to the public. The book reveals the secret and is the only book published which explains a simple, practical method whereby the concrete worker is enabled, by employing wood and metal templates of different designs." to mold or model in concrete any Cornice, .\rchivolt. Column, Pedestal. Base Cap. Urn or Pier in a monolithic form — right upon the job. These may be molded in units or blocks, and then built up to suit the specifications demanded. This work is fully illustrated, with detailed engravings. Price $2.00 CONCRETE FROM SAND MOLDS. By A. A. Houghton. A Practical Work treating on a process which has heretofore been held as a trade secret by the few who possessed it, and which will successfullj^ mold every and any class of ornamental concrete work. The process of molding concrete with sand molds is of the utmost practical value, possessing the manifold advantages of a low cost of molds, the ease and rapidity of operation, perfect details to all ornamental designs, density, and increased strength of the concrete, perfect curing of the work without attention and the easy removal of the molds re- gardless of any undercutt ing t lie design may have. 192 pages. Fully illustrated. Price $2.00 CONCRETE WALL FORMS. By A. A. Houghton. Anew automatic wall clamp is illustrated with working drawings. Other types of wall forms, clamps, separators, etc., are also illustrated and explained 50 cents CONCRETE FLOORS AND SIDEWALKS. By A. A. Houghton. The molds for luol'ling squarr-s, hexagonal and many other styles of mosaic floor and side- walk blocks are fully illustrated and (explained 50 cents PRACTICAL CONCRETE SILO CONSTRUCTION. By A. A. Houghton. Complete working drawings and s[)eciiicatioiis are given for several styles of concrete silos, with illustrations of molds for monolithic and block silos. The tables. 'data and information presented in this book are of the utmost value in planning and constructing all forms of concrete silos 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE CHIMNEYS, SLATE AND ROOF TILES. By A. A. Houghton. The manufacture of all types of concrete slate and roof tile is fully treated. Valuable data on all forms of reinforced concrete roofs are contained within its pages. The construction of concrete chimneys by block and monoiithic systems is fully illustrated and describeti. A number of ornamental designs of chimney construction with molds are shown in this valu- able treatise • . . .... 50 cents CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS MOLDING AND CURING ORNAMENTAL CONCRETE. By A. A. Houghton. Ihe proper proportions of cement and aggregates for various finishes, also the methods of thoroughly mixing and placing in the molds, are fully treated. An exhaustive treatise on this s ibjeci that every concrete worker will find of daily use and value 50 cents CONCRETE MONUMENTS, MAUSOLEUMS AND BURIAL VAULTS. By A. A. Houghton. The molding of concrete monuments to imitate the most expensive cut stone is explained in this treatise, with working drawings of easily built molds. Cutting inscriptions and designs is also fully treated. .50 cenis MOLDING CONCRETE BATH TUBS, AQUARIUMS AND NATATORIUMS. By A. A. Houghton. Simple molds and instruction are given for molding many styles of concrete bath tubs, swimming pools, etc. These molds are easily built and permit rapid and successful work 50 cents CONCRETE BRIDGES, CULVERTS AND SEWERS. By A. A. Houghton. A number of ornamental concrete bridges with illustrations of molds are given. A collapsible center or core for bridges, culverts and sewers is fully illustrated with detailed instructions for building 50 cents CONSTRUCTING CONCRETE PORCHES. By A. A. Houghton. A number of designs v/ith working drawings of molds are fully explained so anyone can easily construct different styles of ornamental concrete porches without the purchase of expensive molds 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE FLOWER POTS, BOXES, JARDINIERES, ETC. By A. A. Houghton. The molds for producing many original designs of flower pots, urns, flower boxes, jardinieres, etc., are fully illustrated and explained, so the worker can easily construct and operate same 50 cents MOLDING CONCRETE FOUNTAINS AND LAWN ORNAMENTS. By A. A, Houghton. The molding of a number of designs of lawn seats, curbing, hitching posts, pergolas, sun dials and other forms of ornamental concrete for the ornamentation of lawns and gardens, is fully illustrated and described 50 cents CONCRETE FOR THE FARM AND SHOP. By A. A. Houghton. The molding of drain tile, tanks, cisterns, fence posts, stable floors, hog and poultry houses and all the purposes for which concrete is an invaluable aid to the farmer are numbered among the contents of this handy volume 50 cents POPULAR HANDBOOK FOR CEMENT AND CONCRETE USERS. By Myron H. Lswis, This is a concise treatise of the principles and methods employed in the manufacture and use of cement in all classes of modern works. The author has brought together in this work all the salient matter of interest to the user of concrete and its many diversified products. The matter is presented in logical and systematic order, clearly written, fully illustrated and free from involved mathematics. Everything of value to the concrete user is given including kinds of cement employed in construction, concrete architecture, inspection and testing, water- proofing, coloring and painting, rules, tables, working, and cost data. The book comprises thirty-three chapters, as follows: Introductory. Kinds of Cements and How They are Made. Properties, Testing and Requirements of Hydraulic Cement. Concrete and its Properties. Sand, Broken Stone and Gravel for Concrete. How to Proportion the Materials. How to IVIix and Place Concrete. Forms for Concrete Construction. The Architectural and Artistic Possibilities of Concrete. Concrete Residences. Mortars, Plasters and Stucco and How to Use Them. The Artistic Treatment of Concrete Surfaces. Concrete Building Blocks. The Making of Ornamental Concrete. Concrete Pipes, Fences, Posts. Etc. Essential Features and Advantages of Reen- forced Concrete. How to Design Reenforced Concrete Beams, Slabs and Columns. Ex- planations of the Methods and Principles in Designing Reenforced Concrete Beams and Slabs. Systems of Reenforcement Employed. Reenforced Concrete in Factory and General CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS Building Construction. (\)ncrotc in Foundation Work. Concrete Retaining Walls. Abut- ments, and HLilkhcad.s. c\)n(Tet(> Arche.s and Arch Bridges. Concrete Beam and Girder Bridges. Concietc in Sewerage and Drainage Works. Concrete Tanks, Dams and Reser- voirs. Concrete sidewalks. Curbs and Pavements. Concrete in Railroad Constructions. The Ltllity of Concrete on the Farm. The "Waterproofing of Concrete Structure. Grout or Liquid Concrete and Its Use. Inspection of Concrete Work. Cost of Concrete Work Some of the special featiu-es of the book are: 1. The Attention Paid to the Artistic and Architectural Side of Concrete Work. 2. The Authoritative Treatment of the Problem of Waterproofing Concrete. 3. An Excellent Summary of the Rules to be Followed in Concrete Construction. 4. The Valuable Cost Data and Useful Tables given. A valuable Addition to the Library of Every Cement and Concrete User. Price $2.60 WATERPROOFING CONCRETE. By Myron H. Lewis. Modern Methods of Waterproofing Concrete and Other Structures. A condensed statement of the Prmciples, Rules, and Precautions to be Observed in Waterproofing and Damp- proofing Structures and Structural Materials. Paper binding. Illustrated. Price. .50 cents DICTIONARIES STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conor Sloane. An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the student and professional. A practical hand-book of reference containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progress of this branch of science Complete, concise and convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustrations. Price .... $3.00 DIES— METAL WORK DIES: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND USE FOR THE MODERN WORKING OF SHEET METALS. By J. V. Woodworth. A most useful book, and one which should be in the hands of all engaged in the press working of metals; treating on the Designing, Constructing, and Use of Tools, Fixtures and Devices together with the manner in which they should be used in the Power Press, for the cheap and rapid production of the great variety of sheet metal articles now in use. It is designed as a guide to the production of sheet metal parts at the minimum of cost with the maximum of output. The hardening and tempering of Press tools and the classes of work which may be produced to the best advantage by the use of dies in the power press are fully treated It<5 505 illustrations show dies, press fixtures and sheet metal w^orking devices, the descriptions of which are so clear and practical that all metal-working mechanics will be able to understand how to design, construct and use them. Many of the dies and press fixtures treated were either constructed by the author or under his supervision. Others were built by skilful mechanics and are in use in large sheet metal establishments and machine shops. Price $3.00 PUNCHES, DIES AND TOOLS FOR MANUFACTURING IN PRESSES. By J. V. Woodworth. This work is a companion volume to the author's elementary work entitled "Dies Their Construction and Use." It does not go into the details of die making to the extent of the author's previous book, but gives a comprehensive review of the field of operations carried on by presses. A large part of the information given has been drawn from the author's personal experience. It might well be termed an Encyclopedia of Die Making, Punch Making Die Sinking, Sheet Metal Working, and Making of Special Tools, Sub-pre.sses, Devices and Mechani- cal Combinations for Punching, Cutting, Bending, Forming, Piercing, Drawing, Compressing and Assembling Sheet Metal Parts, and also Articles of other Materials in Machine Tools 2a Edition. Price $4.00 DROP FORGING, DIE SINKING AND MACHINE FORMING OF STEEL. By J. \'. Woodworth. "This is a practical treatise on Modem Shop Practice. Processes, Methods. Machines Tools and Details, treating on the Hot and Cold Machine- Forming of Steel and Iron into Finished shapes; Together with Tools, Dies, and Machinery involved in the manufacture of Duplicate 7 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS Forgings and Interchangeable Hot and Cold Pressed Parts from Bar and Sheet Metal. This book fills a demand of long standing for information i-egarding drop forging, die-sinking and machine forming of steel and the shop practice involved, as it actuallj- exists in the modern drop forging shop. The processes of die-sinking and force-making, which are thor- oughly described and illustrated in this admirable work, are rarely to be found explained in s .ch a clear and concise manner as is here set forth. The process of die-sinking relates to tne engraving or sinking of the female or lower dies, such as are used for drop forgings, hot and cold machine forging, swedging and the press working of metals. The process of force- making relates to the engraving or raising of the male or upper dies used in producing the lower dies for the press-forming and machine-forging of duplicate parts of metal. In addition to the arts above mentioned the book contains explicit information regarding the drop forging and hardening plants, designs, conditions, equipment, drop hammers, forging machines, etc.. machine forging, hydraulic forging, autogenous welding and shop practice. The book contains eleven chapters, and the information contained in these chapters is just what will prove most valuable to the forged metal worker. All operations described in the work are thoroughly illustrated by means of perspective half-tones and outline sketches of the machinery employed. 300 detailed illustrations. Price $2.50 DRAWING— SKETCHING PAPER LINEAR PERSPECTIVE SELF-TAUGHT. By Herman T. C. Kraus. This work gives the theory and practice of linear perspective, as used in architectural, engi- neering, and mechanical drawings. Persons taking up the study of the subject by themselves will be able by the use of the instruction given to readily grasp the subject, and by reason- able practice become good perspective draftsmen. The arrangement of the book is good ; the plate is on the left-hand, while the descriptive text follows on the opposite page, so as to be readily referred to. The drawings are on sufficiently large scale to show the work clearly and are plainly figured. The whole work makes a very complete course on perspective draw- ing, and will be found of great value to architects, civil and mechanical engineers, patent attorneys, art designers, engravers, and draftsmen $2.50 PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE. By Richards and Colvin. Shows just how to make all kinds of mechanical drawings in the only practical perspective isometric. Makes everything plain so that any mechanic can understand a sketch or drawing in this way. Saves tinie in the drawing room, and mistakes in the shops. Contains practical examples of various classes of work. 3rd Edition 50 cents SELF-TAUGHT MECHANICAL DRAWING AND ELEMENTARY MACHINE DESIGN. By F- L. Sylvester, M.E., Draftsma;i. with additions by Erik Oberg, associate editor of "Machinery." This is a practical treatise on INIechanical Drawing and Machine Design, comprising the first principles of geometric and mechanical drawing, workshop mathematics, mechanics, strength of materials and the calculations and design of machine details. The author's aim has been to adapt this treatise to the requirements of the practical mechanic and young draftsman and to present the matter in as clear and concise a manner as possible. To meet the demands of this class of students, practically all the important elements of machine design have been dealt with, and in addition algebraic formulas have been explained, and the elements of trigonometry treated in the manner best suited to the needs of the prac- tical man. The book is divided into 20 chapters, and in arranging the material, mechan- ical drawing, pure and simple, has been taken up first, as a thorough understanding of the principles of representing objects facilitates the further study of mechanical subjects. This is followed by the mathematics necessary for the solution of the problems in machine de- sign which are presented later, and a practical introduction to theoretical mechanics and the strength of materials. The various elements entering into machine design, such as cams, gears, sprocket wheels, cone pulleys, bolts, screws, couplings, clutches, shafting and fly- wheels have been treated in such a way as to make possible the use of the work as a text- book for a continuous course of study.' It is easily comprehended and assimilated even by students of limited previous training. 330 pages, 215 engravings. Price. . . . $2.00 A NEW SKETCHING PAPER. .\ new specially ruled paper to enable you to make sketches or drawings in isometric perspective without any figuring or fussing. It is being used for shop details as well as for assembly drawings, as it makes one sketch do the work of three, and no workman can help seeing ju.^^i what is wanted. Pads of 40 sheets, 6x9 inches, 25 cents. Pads of 40 sheets, 9x12 inches 50 cents; 40 sheets, 12x18, Price $1.00 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS ELECTRICITY ARITHMETIC OF ELECTRICITY. By Prof. T. O'CoNOR Sloane. A practical treatise on electrical calculations of all kinds reduced to a series of rules, all of the simplest forms, and involving only ordinary aritlimetic; each rule illustrated by one or more practical problems, with detailed solution of each one. This book is classed among the most useful works published on the science of electricity covering as it does the mathematics of electricity in a manner that will attract the attention of those who are not familiar with alge- braical formulas. 20th Edition. 160 pages. Price $1.00 COMMUTATOR CONSTRUCTION. By Wm. Baxter, Jr. The business end of any dynamo or motor of the direct current type is the commutator. This book goes into the designing, building, and maintenance of commutators, shows how to locate troubles and how to remedy them; everyone who fusses with dynamos needs this. 25 cents DYNAMO BUILDING FOR AMATEURS, OR HOW TO CONSTRUCT A FIFIY-WATT DYNAMO. By Arthur J. Weed, Member of N. Y. Electrical Society. A practical treatise showing in detail the construction of a small dynamo or motor, the entire machine work of wliich can be done on a small foot lathe. Dimensioned working drawings are given for each piece of machine w^ork and each operation is clearly described. This machine, when used as a dynamo, has an output of fifty watts; when used as a motor it will drive a small drill press or lathe. It can be used to drive a sewing machines on any and all ordinary work. The book is illustrated with more than sixty original engravings showing the actual construction of the different parts. Among the contents are chapters on 1 . Fifty Watt Dynamo. 2. Side Bearing Rods. 3. Field Punchings. 4. Bearings. 5. Commu- tator. 6. Pulley. 7. Brush Holders. 8. Connection Board. 9. Armature Shaft. 10. Armature. 11. Armature Winding. 12. Field Winding. 13. Connecting and Starting. Price, paper, 50 cents. Cloth $1.00 ELECTRIC FURNACES AND THEIR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. By J. Wright This is a book which will prove of interest to many classes of people; the manufacturer who desires to know what product can be manufactured successfully in the electric furnace, the chemist who wishes to post himself on the electro-chemistry, and the student of science who merely looks into the subject from curiosity. The book is not so scientific as to be of use only to the technologist, nor so unscientific as to suit only the tyro in electro-chemistry; it is a practical treatise of what has been done, and of what is being done, both experimentally and commercially with the electric furnace. In important processes not only are the chemical equations given, but complete thermal data are set forth and both the efficiency of the furnace and the cost of the product are worked out, thus giving the work a solid commercial value aside from its efficacy as a work of reference. The practical features of furnace building are given the space that the' subject deserves. The forms and refractory materials used in the linings, the arrangement of the connections to the electrodes, and other important details are explained. 288 pages. New Revised Edition. Fully illustrated. Price $3.00 ELECTRIC LIGHTING AND HEATING POCKET BOOK. By Sydney F. Walker. Ihis book puts in convenient form useful information regarding the apparatus which is likely to be attached to the mains of an electrical company. Tables of units and equivalents are included and useful electrical laws and formulas are stated. One section is devoted to dynamos, motors, transformers and accessory apparatus; another to accumulators, another to switchboards and related equipment, a fourth to a description of various systems of distribution, a fifth section to a discussion of instruments, botli for portable use and switchboards; another section deals with electric lamps of various types and accessory appliances, and the concluding section is given up to electric heating ai)i)aiatus. In each section a large number of coiimiercial types are described, frequent tables of dimen- sions being included. A great deal of detail information of each line of api)aratus is given and the illustrations shown give a good idea of the general appearance of the apparatus under discussion. The book also contains much valuable information for the central station engi- neer. 438 pages. 300 engravings. Bound in leather pocket book form. Price . $3.00 ELECTRIC WIRING, DIAGRAMS AND SWITCHBOARDS. By Newton Harrison. \ thoroughly practical treatise covering the subject of Electric Wiring in all its branches, including explanations and diagrams which are thoroughly explicit and greatly simplify the subject. Practical every-day problems in wiring are presented and the method of obtaining intelligent results clearly shown. Only arithmetic is used. Ohm's law is given CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS a simple explanation with reference to wiring for direct and alterna,ting currents. The funda- mental principle of drop of potential in circuits is shown with its various applications. The simple circuit is developed with the position of mains, feeders and branches; their treat- ment as a part of a wiring plan and their employment in house- wiring clearly illustrated . Some simple facts about testing are included in connection with the wiring. Molding and conduit work are given careful consideration; and switchboards are systematically treated, built up and illustrated, showing the pm-pose they serve, for connection with thj circuits, and to shunt and compound wound machines. The simple principles of switchboard construction, the development of the switchboard, the connections of the various instru- ments including the lightning arrester, are also plainly set forth. Alternating cm-rent wiring is treated, with explanations of the power factor, conditions calling for various sizes of wire and a simple way of obtaining the sizes for single-phase, two- phase and three-phase circuits. This is the only complete work issued showing and telling you what you should know about direct and alternating current wiring. It is a ready refer- ence. The work is free from advanced technicalities and mathematics, arithmetic being used throughout. It is in every respect a handy, well-written, instructive, comprehensive volume on wiring for the wireman, foreman, contractor, or electrician. 272 pages; 105 illus- trations. Price $1.60 ELECTRIC TOY MAKING, DYNAMO BUILDING, AND ELECTRIC MOTOR CON- STRUCTION. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. This work treats of the making at home of electrical toys, electrical apparatus, motors, dynamos and instruments in general, and is designed to bring within the reach of young and old the manufacture of genuine and useful electrical appliances. The work is especially designed for amateurs and young folks. Thousands of our young people are daily experimenting, and busily engaged in making electrical toys and apparatus of various kinds. The present work is just what is wanted to give the much needed information in a plain, practical manner, with illustrations to make easy the carrying out of the work. 19th Edition. Price $1.00 ELECTRICIAN'S HANDY BOOK. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. This work of 768 pages is intended for the practical electrician who has to make things go. The entire field of electricity is covered within its pages. Among some of the subjects treated are: The Theory of the Electric Current and Circuit, Electro-Chemistry, Primary Batteries, Storage Batteries, Generation and Utilization of Electric Powers, Alternating Current, Arma- ture Winding, Dynamos and Motors, Motor Generators, Operation of the Central Station Switchboards, Safety Appliances, Distribution of Electric Light and Power, Street Mains, Transformers, Arc and Incandescent Lighting, Electric Measurements, Photometry, Electric Railways, Telephony, Bell-Wiring, Electro-Platmg, Electric Heating, V/ireless Telegraphy, etc. It contains no useless theory; everything is to the point. It teaches you just what you want to know about electricity. It is the standard work published on the subject. Forty-one chapters, 610 engravings, handsomely bound in red leather with title and edges in gold. Price: $3.50 ELECTRICITY IN FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS, ITS COST AND CONVENIENCE. By Arthur P. Haslam. A practical book for power producers and power users showing what a convenience the electric motor, in its various forms, has become to the modern manufacturer. It also deals with the conditions which determine the cost of electric driving, and compares this with other methods of producing and utilizing power. Among the chapters contained in the book are: The Direct Current Motor; The Alternating Current Motor; The Starting and Speed Regulation of Electric Motors; The Rating and Efficiency of Electric Motors; The Cost of Energy as Affected by Conditions of Working, The Question for the Small Power User; Independent Generating Plants; Oil and Gas Engine Plants; Steam Plants; Power Station Tariffs; The Use of Electric Power in Textile Factories; Electric Power in Printing Works; The Use of Electric Power in Engineering Workshops Miscellaneous Application of Electric Power; The Installation of Electric Motors; The Lighting of Industrial Establishments. 312 pages. Very fully illustrated. Price .... $2.50 ELECTRICITY SIMPLIFIED. By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. The object of "Electricity Simplified" is to make the subject as plain as possible and to show what the modern conception of electricity is; to show how two plates of different metals immersed in acid can send a message around the globe; to explain how a bundle of copper wire rotated by a steam engine can be the agent in lighting our streets, to tell what the volt, ohm and ampere are, and what high and low tension mean; and to answer the questions that perpetually arise in the mind in this age of electricity. 172 pages. Illustrats<^. Price $ 1.00 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS HOUSE WIRING. By Thomas W. Poppe. This work describes and illustrates the actual installation of Electric Light Wiring, the manner in which the work should be done, and the method of doing it. The book can be conveniently carried in the pocket. It is intended for the Electrician, Helper and Apprentice. It solves all Wiring Problems, and contains nothing that conflicts with the rulings of the Nation- al Board of Fire Underwriters. It gives just the information essential to the Succ(>ssful Wiring of a Building. Among the subjects treated are: Locating the Meter. I'ancl Boards. Switches. Plug Receptacles. Brackets. Ceiling Fixtures. The Meter ConncH-tions. The Feed Wires. The Steel Armored Cable System. The Flexible Steel Conduit System. The Ridig Conduit System. A digest of the National Board of Fire Irulerwriters' rules relating to metallic wiring systems. Various switching arrangements explained and diagrammed. The easiest method of testing the Three and Four-way circuits explained. The grounding of all metallic wiring systems and the reason for doing so shown and explained. The in- sulation of the metal parts of lamp fixttu-es and the reason for the same described and illustrated. 125 pages. Fully illustrated. Flexible cloth. Price 50 cents HOW TO BECOME A SUCCESSFUL ELECTRICIAN- By Prof. T. O'Conor Sloane. Every young man who wishes to become a successful electrician should read this book. It tells in simple language tlie surest and easiest way to become a successful electrician. The studies to be followed, methods of work, field of operation and the requirements of the successful electrician are pointed out and fully explained. Every young engineer will find this an ex- cellent stepping-stone to more advanced works on electricity which he must master before success can be attained. Many young men become discouraged at the very outstart bv attempting to read and study books that are far beyond their comprehension. This book serves as the connecting link between the rudiments taught in the public schools and the real study of electricity. It is interesting from cover to cover. Fifteenth edition. 202 pages. Illustrated. Price $1.00 MANAGEMENT OF DYNAMOS. By Lummis-Paterson. A handbook of theory and practice. This work is arranged in three parts. The first part covers the elementary theory of the dynamo. The second part, the construction and action of the different classes of dynamos in common use are described; while the third part relates to such matters as affect the practical management and working of dynamos and motors. The following chapters are contained in the book: Electrical Units; Magnetic Principles; Theory of the Dynamo; Armature; Armature in Practice; Field Magnets; Field Magnets in Practice; Regulating Dynamos; Coupling Dynamos; Installation, Running, and Maintenance of Dynamos; Faults in Dynamos; Faults in Armatures; Motors. 292 pages. 117 illustra- tions. Price $1.50 STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY. By T. O'Conor Sloane. An indispensable work to all interested in electrical science. Suitable alike for the student and professional. A practical hand-book of reference containing definitions of about 5,000 distinct words, terms and phrases. The definitions are terse and concise and include every term used in electrical science. Recently issued. An entirely new edition. Should be in the possession of all who desire to keep abreast with the progesss of this branch of science. In its arrangement and typography the book is very convenient. The word or term defined is printed in black-faced type which readily catches the eye, while the body of the i)age is in smaller but distinct type. The definitions are well worded, and so as to be understood by the non-technical reader. The general plan seems to be to give an exact, concise definition, and then amplify and explain in a more popular way. Synonyms are also given, and refer- ences to other words and phrases are made. A very complete and accurate index of fifty pages is at the end of the volume; and as this index contains all synonyms, and as all phrases are indexed in every reasonable combination of words, reference to the proper place in the body of the book is readily made. It is difficult to decide how far a book of this character is to keep the dictionary form, and to what extent it may assume the encyclopedia form. For some purposes, concise, exactly worded definitions are needed; for other purposes, more extended descriptions are required. This book seeks to satisfy both demands, and does it with considerable success. Complete, concise, and convenient. 682 pages. 393 illustra- tions. Twelfth edition. Price $3.00 SWITCHBOARDS. By William Baxter, Jr. This book appeals to every engineer and electrician who wants to know the practical side of things. It takes up all sorts and conditions of dynamos, connections and circuits and shows by diagram and illustration just how the switchboard should be connected. Includes direct and alternating current boards, also those for arc lighting, incandescent, and power circuits. Special treatment on high voltage boards for power transmission. 2d Edition. 190 pages. lUustrated. Price $1.50 II CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLATION, WIRING, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE. By W. H. Radcliffe and H. C. Gushing. This book gives the principles of construction gnd operation of both the Bell and Independent instruments; approved methods of installing and wiring them; the means of protecting them from lightning and abnormal currents; their connection together for operation as series or bridging stations; and rules for their inspection and maintenance. Line wiring and the wir- ing and operation of special telephone systems are also treated. Intricate mathematics are avoided, and all apparatus, circuits and systems are thoroughly described. The appendix contains definitions of units and terms used in the text. Selected wiring tables, which are very helpful, are also included. Among the subjects treated are Construction, Operation, and installation of Telephone Instruments, Inspection and Main- tenance of Telephone Instruments; Telephone Line Wiring; Testing Telephone Line Wires and Cables; Wiring and Operation of Special Telephone Systems, etc. 100 pages, 125 illus- trations $1.00 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY SIMPLY EXPLAINED. By Alfred P. Morgan. This is undoubtedly one of the most complete and comprehensible treatises on the subject ever published, and a close study of its pages will enable one to master all the details of the wireless transmission of messages. The author has filled a long felt want and has succeeded in furnishing a lucid, comprehensible explanation in simple language of the theory and practice of wireless telegraphy and telephony. Among the contents are: Introductory; Wireless Transmission and KeceptioT) — The Aerial System, Earth Connections — The Transmitting Apparatus, Spark Coils and Trans- formers, Condensers, Helixes, Spark Gaps, Anchor Gaps, Aerial Switches — The Receiving Apparatus, Detectors, etc. — Tuning and Coupling, Tuning Coils, Loose Couplers, Variable Condensers, Directive Wave Systems — ^Miscellaneous Apparatus, Telephone Receivers, Range of Stations. Static, Interference — W^ireless Telephones, Sound and Soimd Waves, The Vocal Cords and Ear — Wireless Telephones, How Sounds are changed into Electric AVaves — Wireless Telephones, The Apparatus — Siunmary. 200 pages. 150 engravings. Price $1.00 WIRELESS TELEPHONES AND HOW THEY WORK. By James Erskine-Murray. This work is free from elaborate details and aims at giving a clear survey of the way in which Wireless Telephones work. It is intended for amateur workers and for those whose knowledge of electricity is slight. Chapters contained: How We Hear; Historical; The Conversion of Sound into Electric Waves; Wireless Transmission; The Production of Alternating Currents of High Frequency; How the Electric Waves are Radiated and Received; The Receiving Instruments; Detectors; Achievements and Expectations; Glossary of Technical Words, Cloth. Price $1.00 WIRING A HOUSE. By Herbert Pratt. Shows a house already built; tells just how to start about wiring it; where to begin; what wire to use; how to run it according to Insurance Rules; in fact just the information you need. Directions apply equally to a shop. Fourth edition 25 cents FACTORY MANAGEMENT, ETC. MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By O. E. Perrigo, M.E. The only work published that describes the modern machine shop or manufacturing plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. By a careful study of its thirty-two chapters the practical man may economically build, efficiently equip, and successfully manage the modern machine shop or manufacturing estab- ishment. Just the book needed by those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the re-building and re-organization of old ones, or the introduction of modern shop methods, time and cost system. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shopmen who are too busy to read //icori>s and \va,nt facts. It is the most complete all around book of its kind ever publisb.d. It is a practical book for practical men, from the apprentice in the shop to the president ni the office. It minutely describes and illustrates the most simple and yet the most efficient time and cost system yet devised. Price $5.00 12 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS FUEL COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By Wm. M. Barr. This book has been prepared witli special reference to tlie generation of heat by the combus- tion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly with the condi- tions necessary to the economic and smoiicless combustion of bituminous coals in Stationary and Locomotiv^e Steam Boilers. The presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The arrangement of the book is in a series of practical questions to which are appended accurate answers, which describe in lanjvuage, free from technicalities, the several processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods for furnace construction for obtaining the great- est quantity of heat from any given quality of coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully Illustrated. Price $1.00 SMOKE PREVENTION AND FUEL ECONOMY. By Booth and Kershaw. A complete treatise for all interested in smoke prevention and combustion, being based on the German work of Ernst Schmatolla, but it is more tlian a mere translation of the German treatise, much being added. The authors show as briefly as possible the principles of fuel combustion, the methods which have been and are at present in use, as well as the proper scientific methods for obtaining all the energy in the coal and burning it without smoke. Considerable space is also given to the examination of the waste gases, and several of the representative English and American mechanical stoker and similar appliances are described. The losses carried away in the waste gases are thoroughly analyzed and discussed in the Ap- gendix, and abstracts are also here given of various patents on combustion apparatus. The ook is complete and contains much of value to all who have charge of large plants. 194 pages. Illustrated. Price $2.50 GAS ENGINES AND GAS GASOLINE ENGINES : THEIR OPERATION, USE AND CARE. By A. Hyatt Verrill. The Simplest, Latest and Most Comprehensive popular work published on Gasoline Engines describing what the GasoUne engine is; its construction and operation; how to install it: how to select it; how to use it and how to remedy troubles encoimtered. Intended for owners Operators and U.sers of GasoUne :Motors of all kinds. This work fully describes and illus- trates the various types of Gasoline engines used in Motor Boats, Motor Vehicles and Stationary Work. The parts, accessories and Appliances are described, with chapters on ignition, fuel, lubrication, operation and engine troubles. Special attention is given to the care, operation and rc^pair of motors with useful hints and suggestions on emergency re- pairs and make-shifts. A complete glossary of technical terms and an alphabetically ar- ranged table of troubles and their symptoms form most valuable and unique features of this manual. Nearly every illustration in the book is original, having been made by the author. Every page is full of interest and value. A book which you cannot afford to be without. 320 pages. Nearly 150 specially made engravings. Price $1.60 GAS, GASOLINE, AND OIL ENGINES. By Gardner D. Hiscox. Just issued, 20th revised and enlarged edition. Every user of a gas engine needs this book. Simple, instructive, and right up-to-date. The only complete work on the subject. Tells all about the running and management of gas, gasoline and oil engines, as designed and manu- factured in the United States. Explosive motors for stationary, marine and vehicle power are fully treated, together with illustrations of their parts and tabulated sizes, also their care and running are included. Electric ignition by induction coil and jump spark are fully explained and illustrated, including valuable information on the testing for economy and power and the erection of power plants. The rules and regulations of the Board of Fire Underwriters in regard to the installation ani management of gasoline motors is given in full, suggesting the safe installation of explosive motor power. A list of United States Patents issued on gas, gasoline, and oil engines and their adjuncts from 1875 to date is included. 484 pages. 410 engravings Price . . . $2.50 MODERN GAS ENGINES AND PRODUCER GAS PLANTS. By R. E. M.\thot, M.E. A guide for the gas engine designer, user, and engineer in the construction, selection, purchase installation, operation, and maintenance of gas engines. More than one book on gas engines has been written, but not one has thus far even (mcroached on the field covered by this book. Above all .Mr. Mathot's work is a practical guide. Recognizing the need of a volume that 13 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS would assist the gas engine user in understanding thoroughly the motor upon which he depends for power, the author has discussed his subject without the help of any mathematics and without elaborate theoretical explanations. Every part of the gas engine is described in detail, tersely, clearly, with a thorough understanding of the requirements of the mechanic. Helpful suggestions as to the purchase of an engine, its installation, care, and operation form a most valuable feature of the work. 320 pages. 175 detailed illustrations. Price . . . $2.50 oAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, OR HOW TO BUILD A HALF-HORSE-POWER GAS ENGINE. By Parsell and Weed. A practical treatise of 300 pages describing the theory and principles of the action of Gas Engines of various types and the design and construction of a half-horse power Gas Engine, with illustrations of the work in actual progress, together with the dimensioned working drawings giving clearly the sizes of the various details; for the student, the scientific investigator and the amateur mechanic. Tnis book treats of the subject more from the standpoint of practice than that of theory. The principles of operation of Gas Engines are clearly and simply described and then the actual construction of a half-horse power engine is taken up, step by step, showing in detail the making of the Gas Engine. 3d Edition. 300 pages. Price $3.50 THE GASOLINE ENGINE ON THE FARM: ITS OPERATION, REPAIR AND USES. By Xeno W. Putnam. This is a practical treatise on the Gasoline and Kerosene engine intended for the man who wants to know just how to manage his engine and how to apply it to all kinds of farm work to the best advantage. The book includes selecting the most suitable engine for farm work, its most convenient and efficient installation, with chapters on troubles, their remedies and how to avoid them. The care and management of the farm tractor in plowing, harrowing, harvesting and road grading are fully covered; also plain directions are given for handling the tractor on the road. Special attention is given to relieving farm life of its drudgery by applying power to the disagreeable small tasks which must otherwise be done by hand. Many homemade con- trivances for cutting wood, supplying kitchen, garden and barn with water, loading, hauling and unloading hay, delivering grain to the bins or the feed trough are included; also full directions for making the engine milk the cows, churn, wash, sweep the house and clean the windows, etc. Very fully illustrated with drawings of working parts and cuts showing Stationary. Portable and Tractor Engines doing all kinds of farm work. 300 pages. Nearly 150 engravings. 12mo. Price $1.50 CHEMISTRY OF GAS MANUFACTURE. By H. M. Royles. This book covers points likely to arise in the ordinary course of the duties of the engineer or manager of a gas works not large enough to necessitate the employment of a separate chemical staff. It treats of the testing of the raw materials employed in the manufacture of illuminat- ing coal gas, and of the gas produced. The preparation of standard solutions is given as well as the chemical and physical examination of gas coal including among its contents — Prepa- rations of Standard Solutions, Coal, Furnaces, Testing and Regulation. Products of Car- bonization. Analysis of Crude Coal Gas. Analysis of Lime. Ammonia. Analysis of Oxide of Iron. Naphthalene. Analysis of Fire-Bricks and Fire-Clay. Weldom and Spent Oxide. Photometry and Gas Testing. Carburetted Water Gas. Metropolis Gas. Miscellaneous Extracts. Useful Tables $4.50 GEARING AND CAMS BEVEL GEAR TABLES. By D. Ac. Engstrom. A book that will at once commend itself to mechanics and draftsmen. Does away with all the trigonometry and fancy figuring on bevel gears and makes it easy for anyone to lay them out or make them just right. There are 36 full-page tables that show every necessary dimen- sion for all sizes or combinations you're apt to need. No puzzling figuring or guessing. Gives placing distance, all the angles (including cutting angles), and the correct cutter to use. A copy of this prepares you for anything in the bevel gear line. 66 pages. . $1.00 CHANGE GEAR DEVICES. By Oscar E. Perrigo. A practical book for every designer, draftsman, and mechanic interested in the invention and development of the devices for feed changes on the different machines requiring such mechan- ism. All the necessary information on this subject is taken up, analyzed, classified, sifted, and concentrated for the use of busy men who have not the time to go through the masses of irrelevant matter with which such a subject is usually encumbered and select such infor- mation as will be useful to them. It shows just what has been done, how it has been done, when it was done, and who did it. It saves time in hunting up patent records and re-inventing old ideas. 88 pages. $1.00 14 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS DRAFTING OF CAMS. By Louis Rouillion. problem unless you any kind of cam yo HYDRAULICS The laying out of cams is a serious problem unless you know how to go at it right. This puts you oia the right road for practically any kind of cam you are likely to run up against. 25 cents HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING. By Gardner D. Hiscox. A treatise on the properties, power, and resources of water for all purposes. Including the measurement of streams, the flow of water in pipes or conduits; the horse-power of falling water; turl^ine and impact water-wheels, wave motors, centrifugal, reciprocating, and air- lift pumps. Witb-300 figures and diagrams and 36 practical tables. All who are interested in water-works development will find this book a useful one, because it is an entin-ly practical treatise upon a subject of present importance, and cannot fail in having a far-nnicliing influence, and lor tills reason should have a place in the working library of every engim-er. Among the subjects treated are: Historical — Hydraulics, Proj)erties of Water; Measurement of the flow of Streams; Flow from Subsurface orifices and nozzles; Flow of water in Pipes; Siphons of various kinds; Dams and Great Storage Reservoirs; City and Town Water Supply; AVells and their reenforcement; Air lift methods of raising water: artesian wells; Irrigation of Arid districts; Water Power, Water Wheels; Pinnps and Pumping ^Machinery; Keciprocating Pumps; Hydraulic Power Transmission; Hydraulic Mining; Canals; Ditches; Conduits and Pipe Lines; Marine Hydraulics; Tidal and Sea Wave power, etc. 320 pages. Price $4.00 ICE AND REFRIGERATION POCKET BOOK OF REFRIGERATION AND ICE MAKING. By A. J. Wallis- Taylor. This is one of the latest and most comprehensive reference books published on the subject of refrigeration and cold storage. It explains the properties and refrigerating effect of the different fluids in use, the management of refrigerating machinery and the construction and insulation of cold rooms with their required pipe surface for different degrees of cold; freezing mixtures and non-freezing brines, temperatures of cold rooms for all kinds of provisions, cold storage charges for all classes of goods, ice making and storage of ice, data and memoranda for constant reference by refrigerating engineers, with nearly one hundred tables containing valuable references to every fact and condition required in the installment and operation of a refrigerat- ing plant. Illustrated. (5th Edition, revised.) Price $1.50 INVENTIONS— PATENTS INVENTOR'S MANUAL, HOW TO MAKE A PATENT PAY. This is a book designed as a guide to inventors in perfecting their inventions, taking out their patents and disposing of them. It is not in any sense a Patent Sohcitor's Circular, nor a Patent Broker's Advertisement. No advertisements of any description appear in the work. It is a book containing a quarter of a century's experience of a successful inventor, together with notes based upon the experience of many other inventors. Among the subjects treated in this work are: How to Invent. How to Secure a Good Patent. Value of Good Invention. How to exliibit an Invention. How to Interest Capital. How to Estimate the Value of a Patent. Value of Design Patents. Value of Foreign Patents. Value of Small Inventions. Advice on SelUng Patents. Advice on the Formation of Stock Companies. Advice on the Formation of Limited Liability Companies. Advice on Disposing of Old Patents. Advice as to Patent Attorneys. Advice as to Selling Agents. Forms of Assignments. License and Contracts. State Laws Concerning Patent Rights. 1900 Census of the United States by counties of over 10,000 population. Revised edition. 120 pages. Price $1.00 KNOTS KNOTS, SPLICES AND ROPE WORK. By A. Hyatt Verrill. This is a practical book giving complete and simple directions for making all the most use- ful and ornamental knots in common use. with chapters on Splicing. Pointing, Seizing, CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS Serving, etc. This book is fully illustrated with one hundred and fifty original engravings, which show how each knot, tie or sphce is formed and its appearance when fljiished. The book will be found of the greatest value to Campers, Yachtsmen, Travelers, Boy Scouts, in fact to anyone having occasion to use or handle rope or knots for any purpose. The book is thoroughly reliable and practical and is not only a guide but a teacher. It is the standard work on the subject. Among the contents are: 1. Cordage, Kinds of Rope. Construction of Rope, Parts of Rope Cable and Bolt Rope. Strength of Rope, Weight of Rope. 2. Sim- ple knots and Bends. Terms used in Handling Rope. Seizing Rope. 3. Ties and Hitches. 4. Noose, Loops and Mooring Knots. 5. Shortenings, Grommets and Selvages. 6. Lash- ings. Seizings and Splices. 7. Fancy Knots and Rope Work. 128 pages. 150 original engravings. Price 60 cents LATHE WORK MODERN AMERICAN LATHE PRACTICE. By Oscar E. Perrigo. This is a new book from cover to cover, and the only complete American work on the subject written by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do it, and how to convey this knowledge to others. It is strictly up-to-date in its descriptions and illustrations, which represent the very latest practice in lathe and boring mill operations as well as the construction of and latest developments in the manufacture of these important classes of machine tools. Lathe history and the relations of the Lathe to manufacturing are given ; also a description of the various devices for Feeds and Thread Cutting mechanisms from early efforts in this direction to the present time. Lathe design is thoroughly discussed, including Back Gearing, Driving Cones, Thread Cutting Gears, and all the essential elements of the modem Lathe. The classification of Lathes is taken up, giving the essential differences of the several types of Lathes, including, as is usually understood, Engine Lathes, Bench Lathes, Speed Lathes, Forge Lathes, Gap Lathes, Pulley Lathes, Forming Lathes, Multiple Spindle Lathes, Rapid Reduction Lathes, Precision Lathes, Turret Lathes, Special Lathes, Electrically Driven Lathes, etc. 424 pages. 314 illustrations. Price $2.50 PRACTICAL METAL TURNING. By Joseph G. Horner. This important and practical subject is treated in a full and exhaustive manner and nothing of importance is omitted. The principles and practice and all the different branches of Turn- ing are considered and well illustrated. All the different kinds of Chucks of usual forms, as well as some unusual kinds, are shown. A feature of the book is the important section de- voted to modern Turret practice; Boring is another subject which is treated fully; and the chapter on Tool Holders illustrates a large number of representative types. Thread Cutting is treated at reasonable length; and the last chapter contains a good deal of information relating to the High-Speed Steels and their work. The numerous tools used by machinists are illustrated, and also the aujuncts of the lathe. In fact, the entire subject is treated in such a thorough manner as to make this book the standard one on the subject. It is indis- pensable to the manager, engineer, and machinist, as well as to the student, amateur, and experimental man who desires to keep up-to-date. 400 pages, fully illustrated. Price $3.50 TURNING AND BORING TAPERS. By Fred H. Colvin. There are two ways to turn tapers; the right way and one other. This treatise has to do with the right way; it tells you how to start the work properly, how to set the lathe, what tools to use and how to use them, and forty and one other little things that you should know. Fourth edition 25 cents LIQUID AIR LIQUID AIR AND THE LIQUEFACTION OF GASES. By T. O'Conor Sloane. This book gives the history of the theory, discovery, and manufacture of Liquid Air, and contains an illustrated description of all the experiments that have excited the wonder of audiences all over the country. It shows how liquid air, like water, is carried hundreds of miles and is handled in open buckets. It tells what may be expected from it in the near future. A book that renders simple one of the most perplexing chemical problems of the century. Startling developments illustrated by actual experiments. It is not only a work of scientific interest and authority, but is intended for the general reader, being written in a popular style — easily understood by every one. Second edition. 365 pages. Price $2.00 i6 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING AIR-BRAKE CATECHISM. By Robert H. Blackall. This book is a standard text book. It covers the Weslinghouse Air-Brake Equipment, in- cluding the No. 5 and the No. 6 E. T Locomotive Brake E(iuipment; the K ((^uick-Service) Triple Valve for Freight Service; and the Cross-Compound Pump. The operation of all parts of the apparatus is explained in detail, and a practical way of finding their peculiarities and defects, with a proper -remedy, is given. It contains 2,000 questions with their answers, which will enable any railroad man to pass any examination on the subject of Air Brakes. Endorsed and used by air-brake instructors and examiners on nearly every railroad in the United States. 25th Edition. 350 pages, fully illustrated with folding plates and dia- grams $2.00 AMERICAN COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES. By Fred. H. Colvin. The only book on compounds for the engineman or shopman that shows in a plain, practical way the various features of compound locomotives in use. Shows how they are made, what to do when they break down or balk. Contains sections as follows: — A Bit "of History. The- ory of Compounding Steam Cylinders. Baldwin Two-Cylinder Compound. Pittsburg Two- Cylinder Compound. Rhode Island Compound. Richmond Compound. Rogers Compound. Schenectady Two-Cylinder Compound. Vauclain Compound. Tandem Compounds. Bald- win Tandem. The Colvin-Wightman Tandem. Schenectady Tandem. Balanced Loco- motives. Baldwm Balanced Compound. Plans for Balancing. Locating Blows. Break- downs. Reducing Valves. Drifting. Valve ]\lotion. Disconnecting. Power of Compound Locomotives. Practical Notes. Fully illustrated 'and containing ten special "Duotone" inserts on heavy Plate Paper, show- ing different types of Compounds. 142 pages. Price $1.00 APPLICATION OF HIGHLY SUPERHEATED STEAM TO LOCOMOTIVES. By Robert Garbe. A practical book. Contains special chapters on Generation of Highly Superheated Steam; Superheated Steam and the Two-Cylinder Simple Engine; Compounding and Superheating; Designs of I Locomotive Superheaters; Constructive Details of Locomotives using Highly Superheated Steam; Experimental and Working Results. Illustrated with folding plates and tables. Price $2.50 COMBUSTION OF COAL AND THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. By Wm. M. Barr. This book has been prepared with special reference to the generation of heat by the combus- tion of the common fuels found in the United States, and deals particularly with the condi- tions necessary to the economic and smokeless combustion of bituminous coal in Stationary and Locomotive Steam Boilers. ,^^ The presentation of this important subject is systematic and progressive. The arrangement of the book is in a series of i)ractical questions to which are appended accurate answers, which describe in language, free from technicalities, the several processes involved in the furnace combustion of American fuels; it clearly states the essential requisites for perfect combustion, and points out the best methods of furnace construction for obtaining the greatest quantity of heat from any given quality of coal. Nearly 350 pages, fully illustrated. Price $1.00 DIARY OF A ROUND HOUSE FOREMAN. By T. S. Reilly . This is the greatest book of railroad experiences ever published. Containing a fund of infor- mation and suggestions along the line of handling men, organizing, etc. , that one cannot afford to miss. 176 pages. Price $1.00 LINK MOTIONS, VALVES AND VALVE SETTING. By Fred H. Colvin, Associate Editor of "American Machinist." A handy book for the engineer or machinist that clears up the mysteries of valve setting. Shows the different valve gears in use, how they work, and why. Piston and slide valves of different types are illustrated and explained. A book that every railroad man in the mo- tive power department ought to have. Contains chapters on Locomotive Link Motion, Valve Movements, Setting Slide Valves, Analysis by Diagrams, Modern Practice, Slip of Block, Slide Valves, Piston Valves, Setting Piston Valves, Joy-Allen Valve Gear, Walschaert Valve Gear, Gooch Valve Gear, Alfree-Hubbell Valve Gear, etc., etc. Fully illustrated. Price 50 cents 17 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. By Frank A. Kleinhans. The construction of boilers in general is treated, and following this, the locomotive boiler is taken up in the order in which its various parts go through the shop. Shows all types of boilers used; gives details of construction; practical facts, such as life of riveting, punches and dies; work done per day, allowance for bending and hanging sheets, and other data. Locomotive boilers present more difficulty in laying out and building than any other type, and for this reason the author uses them as examples. Anyone who can handle them can tackle anythmg. Contains chapters on Laying Out Work; Flanging and Forging; Punching; Shearing; Plate Planing; General Tables; Finishing Parts; Bending; Machinery Parts; Riveting; Boiler Details; Smoke Box Details; Assembling and Calking; Boiler Shop Machinery, etc., etc. There isn't a man who has anything to do with boiler work, either new or repair work, who doesn't need this book. The manufacturer, superintendent, foreman, and boiler worker — all need it. No matter what the type of boiler, you'll find a mint of information that you wouldn't be without. Over 400 pages, five large folding plates. Price $3.00 LOCOMOTIVE BREAKDOWNS AND THEIR REMEDIES. By Geo. L. Fowler. Revised by Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Just issued. Revised pockei edition. It is out of the question to try and tell you about every subject that is covered in this pocket edition of Locomotive Breakdowns. Just imagine all the common troubles that an engineer may expect to happen some time, and then add all of the unexpected ones, troubles that could occur, but that you had never thought about, and you will find that they are all treated with the very best methods of repair. Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear Troubles, Electric Headlight Troubles, as well as" Questions and Answers on the Air Brake are all included. 294 pages. 7th Revised Edition. Fully illustrated $1.00 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. The revised edition of "Locomotive Catechism," by Robert Grimshaw, is a New Book from Cover to Cover. It contains twice as many pages and double the number of illustrations of previous editions. Includes the greatest amount of practical information ever published on the construction and management of modern locomotives. Specially Prepared Chapters on the Walschaert Locomotive Valve Gear, the Air Brake Equipment and the Electric Head Light are given. It commends itself at once to every Engineer and Fireman, and to all who are going in for examination or promotion. In plain language, with full complete answers, not only all the questions asked by the examining engineer are given, but those which the young and less experienced would ask the veteran, and which old hands ask as "stickers." It is a veritable Encyclopedia of the Locomotive, is entirely free from mathematics, easily understood and thoroughly up-to-date. Contains over 4,000 Examination Questions with their Answers. 825 pages, 437 illustrations and three folding plates. 28th Revised Edition. . . $2.50 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTOR AND REFERENCE BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN AND ENGINEERS. By Chas. F. Lockhart. An entirely new book on the Locomotive. It appeals to every railroad man, as it tells him how things are done and the right way to do them. AVritten by a man who has had years of practical experience in locomotive shops and on the road firing and running. The infor- mation given in this book cannot be found in any other similar treatise. Eight hundred and fifty-one questions with their answers are included, which will prove specially helpful to those preparing for examination. Practical information on: The Construction and Opera- tion of Locomotives. Breakdowns and their Remedies; Air Brakes and Valve Gears. Rules and Signals are handled in a thorough manner. As a book of reference it cannot be excelled. The book is divided into six parts, as follows: 1. The Fireman's Duties. 2. General description of the Locomotive. 3. Breakdowns and their Remedies. 4. Air Brakes. 5. Extracts from Standard Rules. 6. Questions for examination. The 851 questions have been carefully selected and arranged. These cover the examinations required by the different railroads. 368 pages. 88 Illustrations. Price $1.50 PREVENTION OF RAILROAD ACCIDENTS, OR SAFETY IN RAILROADING. By George Bradshaw. This book is a heart-to-heart talk with Railroad Employees, dealing with facts, not theories, and showing the men in the ranks, from every-day experience, how accidents occur and how they may be avoided. The book is illustrated with seventy original photographs and draw- ings showing the safe and unsafe methods of work. No visionary schemes, no ideal pictures Just plain facts and Practical Suggestions are given. Every railroad employee who reads the i8 CATALOGUE Oh GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS book is a better and safer man to have in railroad service. It gives just the information which will be the means of preventing many injuries and deaths. All railroad employees should procure a copj-, read it, and do your part in preventing accidents. 169 pages. Pocket Size. Fully illustrated. Price 50 cents TRAIN RULE EXAMINATIONS MADE EASY. By G. E. Collingwood. This is the only practical work on train-rules in i)rint. Every detail is covered, and puzzling points are explained in simi)le. eonii)rt lunsive language, making it a practical tr(!atise for the Train Dispatelier, Kiighienian, Traiiunan. and all others wlio ha'e to do with the move- ments of trains. Contains complete and relial^li^ information of tlK Standard Code of Train Rules for single track. Sliows Siiruuls in Colors, as used on the diherent roads. Explains fully the practical api)licatioii of train orders, giving a clear and definite understanding of all orders which may be used. The meaning and necessity for certain rules arc explained in such a manner that the student may know l)eyond a doubt the rights conferred imder any orders he maj- receive or the action re(|uired by certain rules. As nearly all roads require trainmen to pass regular examinations, a complete set of examina- tion questions, with their answers, are included. These will enable the student to pass the required examinations with credit to himself and the road for which he works, 256 pages.. Fully illustrated with Train Signals in colors. Price $1.26 TRAIN RULES AND DESPATCHING. By H. A. Dalby. Every railroad man, no matter what department he's in, needs a copy of this book. It give^= the standard rules for both single and double track, shows all the signals, with colors wher- ever necessary, and has a list of towns where time changes, with a map showing the whole country. The rules are explained wherever there is any doubt about their meaning or where they are modified by different railroads. It's the only practical book on train rules in print. Over 220 pages. Leather cover. Price $1.50 THE WALSCHAERT AND OTHER MODERN RADIAL VALVE GEARS FOR LOCOMOTIVES. By Wm. W. Wood. If you would thoroughly understand the Walschaert Valve Gear you should possess a copy of this book, as the author takes the plainest form of a steam engine — a stationary engine in the rough, that will only turn its crank in one direction — and from it builds up — with the reader's help — a modern locomotive equipped Avith the WaLschaert Valve Gear, complete. The points discussed are clearly illustrated: two large folding plates that show the positions of the valves of both inside or outside admission type, as well as the links and other parts of the gear when the crank is at nine different points in its revolution, are especially valuable in making the movement clear. These employ sliding cardboard models which are contained in a pocket in the cover. The book is divided into five general divisions, as follows: I, Analysis of the gear. II. De- .signing and erecting the gear. III. Advantages of the gear. IV. Questions and answers relating to the Walschaert Valve Gear. V. Setting valves with the Walschaert Valve Gear; the three primary types of locomotive valve motion; modern radial valve gears other than the AValschaert; the Hobart All-free valve and valve gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns; the Baker-Pilliod valve gear; the Improved Baker-Pilliod Valve Gear, with questions and answers on breakdowns. The questions with full answers given will be especially valuable to firemen and engineers in preparing for an examination for promotion, 245 pages. Third Revised Edition. Price $1.50 WESTINGHOUSE E— T AIR-BRAKE INSTRUCTION POCKET BOOK. By Wm. W. Wood, Air-Brake Instructor. Here is a book for the railroad man, and the man who aims to be one. It is without doubt the only complete work published on the Westinghouse E-T Locomotive Brake Equipment. Written by an Air Brake Instructor who knows just what is needed. It covers the subject thoroughly. Everything about the New Westinghou,se Engine and Tender Brake Efjuip- ment, including the Standard No. 5 and the Perfected No. 6 Style of brake, is treated in de- tail. Written in plain English and profu.sely illustrated with Colored Plates, which enable one to trace the flow of pressures throughout the entire equipment. The best book ever published on the Air Brake. Equally good for the beginner and the advanced engineer. Will pass any one through any examination. It informs and enlightens you on every point. Indispensable to every engineman and trainman. Contains examination questions and answers on the E-T equipment. Covering what the E-T Brake is. How it should be operated. What to do when defective. Not a question can be asked of the engineman up for promotion on either the No. 5 or the No. 6 E-T eoiiipinent that is not asked and answered in the book. If you want to thoroughly understand the E-T equipment get a copy of this book. It covers every detail. Makes .\ir Brake troubles and examinations easy. Price $1.50 19 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE AMERICAN TOOL MAKING AND INTERCHANGEABLE MANUFACTURING. By J. V. WOODWORTH. A "shoppy" book, containing no theorizing, no problematical or experimental devices, there are no badly proportioned and impossible diagrams, no catalogue cuts, but a valuable collec- tion of drawings and descriptions of devices, the rich fruits of the author's own experience. In its 500-odd pages the one subject only, Tool Making, and whatever relates thereto, is dealt with. The work stands without a rival. It is a complete practical treatise on the art of American Tool Making and system of interchangeable manufacturing as carried on to-day in the United States. In it are described and illustrated all of the different types and classes of small tools, fixtures, devices, and special appliances which are in general use in all machine manufacturing and metal working establishments where economy, capacity, and interchangeability in the production of machined metal parts are imperative. The science of jig making is exhaustively discussed, and particular attention is paid to drill jigs, boring, profiling and milling fixtures and other devices in which the parts to be machined are located and fastened within the contrivances. All of the tools, fixtures, and devices illustrated and described have been or are used for the actual production of work, such as parts of drill presses, lathes, patented machinery, typewriters, electrical apparatus, mechan- ical appliances, brass goods, composition parts, mould products, sheet metal articles, drop forgings, jewelry, watches, medals, coins, etc. 531 pages. Price $4.00 HENLEY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PRACTICAL ENGINEERING AND ALLIED TRADES. Edited by Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I., M.E. This set of five volumes contains about 2,500 pages with thousands of illustrations, including diagrammatic and sectional drawings with full explanatory details. This work covers the entire practice of Civil and Mechanical Engineering. The best known expert in all branches of engineering have contributed to these volumes. The Cyclopedia is admirably well adapted to the needs of the beginner and the self-taught practical man, as well as the mechanical en- gineer, designer, draftsman, shop superintendent, foreman, and machinist. The work will be found a means of advancement to any progressive man. It is encyclopedic in scope, thorough and practical in its treatment of technical subjects, simple and clear in its descriptive matter, and without unnecessary technicalities or formulae. The articles are as brief as may be and yet give a reasonably clear and explicit statement of the subject, and are written by men who have had ample practical experience in the matters of which they write. It tells you all you want to know about engineering and tells it so simply, so clearly, so concisely, that one cannot help but understand. As a work of reference it is without a peer. $6.00 per volume. For complete set of five volumes, price $25.00 MACHINE SHOP ARITHMETIC. By Colvin-Cheney. This is an arithmetic of the things you have to do with daily. It tells you plainly about: how to find areas of figures; how to find surface or volume of balls or spheres; handy way^ for calculating; about compound gearing; cutting screw threads on any lathe; drilling for taps; speeds of drills, taps, emery wheels, grindstones, milling cutters, etc.; all about the Metric system with conversion tables; properties of metals; strength of bolts and nuts; decimal equivalent of an inch. All sorts of machine shop figuring and 1,001 other things, any one of which ought to be worth more than the price of this book to you, and it saves you the trouble of bothering the boss. 6th Edition. 131 pages. Price 50 cents MODERN MACHINE SHOP CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT AND MANAGEMENT. By Oscar E. Perrigo. The only work published that describes the Modern Machine Shop or Manufacturing Plant from the time the grass is growing on the site intended for it until the finished product is shipped. Just the book needed bv those contemplating the erection of modern shop buildings, the re- building and reorganization of old ones, or the introduction of Modern Shop Methods, time and cost systems. It is a book written and illustrated by a practical shop man for practical shop men who are too busy to read theories and want facts. It is the most complete all-around book of its kind ever published. 400 large quarto pages. 225 original and specially-made illustrations. Price $5.00 MECHANICAL APPLIANCES, MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS AND NOVELTIES OF CONSTRUCTION. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a supplementary volume to the one apon mechanical movements. Unlike the first volume, which is more elementary in character, this volume contains illustrations and descrip- tions of many combinations of motions and of mechanical devices and appliances found m different lines of machinery. Each device being shown bv a line drawing with a description 20 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS showing its working parts and the method of operation. From the multitude of devices de- scribed, and illustrated, might be mentioned, in passing, such items as conveyors and elevators, Prony brakes, thermometers, various types of boilers, solar engines, oil-fue^ burners, condensers, evaporators, Corliss and other valve sears, governors, gas engines, water motors of various descriptions, air ships, motors and dynamos, automobile and motor bicycles, railway block signals, car couplers, link and gear motions, ball bearings, breech block mechanism for heavy guns, and a large accumulation of others of etjual importance. 1,000 specially made engrav- ings. 396 octavo pages. Price $2.50 MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS, POWERS, AND DEVICES. By Gardner D. Hlscox. This is a collection of 1,890 engravings of different mechanical motions and appliances, accom- panied by appropriate text, making it a book of great value to the inventor, the draftsman, and to all readers with mechanical tastes. The book is divided into eighteen sections or chapters in which the subject matter is classified under the following heads: Mechanical Powers; Transmission of Power; .Measurement of Power, Steam Power; Air Power .\ppliances; Electric Power and Construction, Navigation and Koads; Gearing; Motion and Devices; Controlling Motion; Horological; .Mining; .Mill and Factory Appliances; Construction and Devices; Drafting Devices: Miscellaneous Devices, etc. 12th edition, 400 octavo pages. Price $2.50 MACHINE SHOP TOOLS AND SHOP PRACTICE. By W. H. Vandervoort. A work of 555 pages and 673 illustrations, describing in every detail the construction, operation, and manipulation of both hand and machine tools. Includes chapters on filing, fitting, and scraping surfaces; on drills, reamers, taps, and dies; the lathe and its tools; planers, sliapers, and their tools: milling machines and cutters; gear cutters and gear cutting; drilling machines and drill work; grinding machines and their work; hardening and tempering; gearing, belting and transmission machinery: useful data and tables. 6th edition. Price . . . , $3.00 THE MODERN MACHINIST. By JoHxN T. Usher. This is a book showing, by plain description and by profuse engravings, made expressly for the work, all that is best, most advanced, and of the highest efficiency in modern machine shop practice, tools, and implements, showing the way by which and through which, as Mr. Maxim says, "American machinists have become and are the finest mechanics in the world." Indicating as it does, in every line, the familiarity of the author with every detail of daily experience in the shop, it cannot fail to be of service to any man practically •connected with the shaping or finishing of metals. There is nothing experimental or visionary about the book, all devices being in actual use and giving good results. It might be called a compendium of shop methods, showing a vari- ety of special tools and appliances which will give new ideas to many mechanics, from the superintendent down to the man at the bench. It will be found a valuable addition to any machinist's library, and should be consulted whenever a new or difficult job is to be done, whether it is boring, milling, turning, or planing, as they are all treated in a practical manner. Fifth Edition. 320 pages. 250 illustrations. Price ... $2.50 MODERN MILLING MACHINES: THEIR DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND OPERA- TION. By Joseph G. Horner. This book describes and illustrates the iMilling Machine and its work in such a plain, clear, and forceful manner, and illustrates the subject so clearly and completely, that the up-to-date machinist, student, or mechanical engineer cannot afford to do without the valuable infor- mation which it contains. It describes not only the early machines of this class, but notes their gradual development into the splendid machines of the present day, giving the design and construction of the various types, forms, and special features produced by prominent manufacturers, American and foreign. Milling cutters in all their development and modernized forms are illustrated and described, and the operations they are capable of producing upon different cla.s.ses of work are carefully described in detail, and the speeds and feeds necessary are discussed, and valuable and us^efui data given for de^rmining these usually perplexing problems. The book is the most compre- hensive work published on the subject. 304 pages. 300 illustrations. Price . . $4.00 " SHOP KINKS." By Robert Grimshaw. A book of 400 pages and 222 illustrations, being entirely different froirt any other book on machine shop practice. Departing from conventional style, the author avoids universal or common shop usage and limits his work to showing special ways of doing things better, more cheaply and more rapidly than usual. As a result the advanced methods of representative establishments of the world are placed at the disposal of the reader. This book shows the proprietor where large savings are possible, and now products may be improved. To the employee it holds out suggestions that, properly applied, will hasten his advancement. No shop can afford to be without it. It bristles with valuable wrinkles and helpful suggestions. It will benefit all, from apprentice to proprietor. Every machinist, at any age, should study its pages. Fifth Edition. Price $2.50 21 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS THREADS AND THREAD CUTTING. By Colvin and Stabel. This clears up many of the mysteries of thread-cutting, such as double and triple threads, internal threads, catching threads, use of hobs, etc. Contains a lot of useful hints and several tables. 3rd Edition. Price 35 cents TOOLS FOR MACHINISTS AND WOOD WORKERS, INCLUDING INSTRUMENTS OF MEASUREMENT. By Joseph G. Horner. The principles upon which cutting tools for wood, metal, and other substances are made are identical, whether used by the machinist, the carpenter, or by any other skilled mechanic in their daily work, and the object of this book is to give a correct and practical description of these tools as they are commonly designed, constructed, and used. 340 pages, fully illustrated. Price $3.50 MANUAL TRAINING ECONOMICS OF MANUAL TRAINING. By Louis Rouillion. The only book published that gives just the information needed by all interested in Manual Training, regarding Buildings, Equipment, and Supplies. Shows exactly what is needed for all grades of the work from the Kindergarten to the High and Normal School. Gives item- ized lists of everything used in ^lanual Training Work and tells just what it ought to cost. Also shows where to buy supplies, etc. Contains 174 pages, and is fully illustrated. 2nd Edition. Price $1.50 MARINE ENGINEERING MARINE ENGINES AND BOILERS, THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. By Dr. G. Bauer, Leslie S. Robertson, and S. Bryan Donkin. In the words of Dr. Bauer, the present work owes its origin to an oft felt want of a Condensed Treatise, embodying the Theoretical and Practical Rules used in Designing ^Marine Engines and Boilers. The need for such a work has been felt by most engineers engaged in the con- struction and working of Marine Engines, not only by the younger men, but also by those of greater experience. The fact that the original German work was written by the chief engineer of the famous Vulcan Works, Stettin, "is in itself a guarantee that this book is in all respects thoroughly up-to-date, and that it embodies all the information which is necessary for the design and construction of the highest types of marine engines and boilers. It may be said, that the motive power which Dr. Bauer has placed in the fast German liners that have beon turned out of late years from the Stettin Works, represent the very best practice in marine engineering of the present day. This work is clearly written, thoroughly systematic, theoretically sound; while the characttr of its plans, drawings, tables, and statistics is without reproach. The illustrations are caic ful reproductions from actual working drawings, with some well-executed photographic views of completed engines and boilers. 744 pages. 550 illustrations and numerous tables. $9.00 net MODERN SUBMARINE CHART. A cross-section view, showing clearly and distinctly all the interior of a Submarine of the latest type. You get more information from this chart, about the construction and operation of a Submarine, than in any other way. No Details omitted — everything is accurate and to scale. It is absolutely correct in every detail, having been approved by Naval Engineers. All the machinery and devices fitted in a modern Submarine Boat are shown and to make the engraving more readily understood all the features are shown in operative form with Officers and Men in the act of performing the duties assigned to them in service conditions. This CHART IS REALLY AN ENCYCLOPEDIA OF A SUBMARINE. It is educational and worth many times its cost. Mailed in a Tube for . . . . -. . . . 25 cents MINING ORE DEPOSITS, WITH A CHAPTER ON HINTS TO PROSPECTORS. By J. P. Johnson This book gives a condensed account of the ore-deposits at present known in South Africa. It is also intended as a guide to the prospector. Only an elementary knowledge of geology and some mining experience are necessary in order to understand this work. With these qualifications, it will materially assist one in his search for metalliferous nuneral occurrences 22 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS and, so far as simple ores are concerned, should enable one to form some idea of the possi- bilities of any he may find. Among the chapters given are: Titaniferous and Chromiferous Iron Oxides — Nickel — Cop- per — Cobalt — Tin — Molybdenum — Tungsten — Lead — Mercury — Antimony — Iron — Hints to Prospectors $2.00 PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF MINING. By T. H. Byrom. A practical work for the use of all preparing for examinations in mining or qualifying for colliery managers' certificates. The aim of the author in this excellent book is to place clearly before the reader useful and authoritative data which will render him valuable assistance in his studies. The only work of its kind published. The information incorporated in it will prove of the greatest practical utility to students, mining engineers, colliery managers, and all others who are specially interested in the present-day treatment of mining problems. Among its contents are chapters on: Tiie Atmosphere; Laws Relating to the Beliavior of Gases; The Diffusion of Gases; Composition of the Atmosphere: Sundry Constituents of the Atmosphere; Water; Carbon; Fire-Damp; Combustion; Coal Dust and Its .\ction; Ex- plosives; Composition of Various Coals and Fuels; Methods of Analysis of Coal; Strata Ad- joining the Coal Measures; Magnetism and Electricity; Appendix; Useful Tables, etc ; Miscellaneous Questions. 160 pages. lUustrateu $2.00 PRACTICAL COAL MINING. By T. H. Cockin. .\n important work, containing 428 pages and 213 illustrations, complete with practical de- tails, which will intuitively impart to the reader, not only a general knowledge of the princi- ples of coal mining, but also considerable insight into allied subjects. This treatise is posi- tively up to date in every instance, and should be in the hands of every coUierj' engineer, geologist, mine operator, superintendent, foreman, and all others who are interested in or connected with the industry. 2nd Edition $2.50 PATTERN MAKING PRACTICAL PATTERN MAKING. By F. W. Barrows. This is a very complete and entirely practical treatise on the subject of pattern making, illus- trating pattern work in wood and metal. From its pages you are taught just what you should know about pattern making. It contains a detailed description of the materials used by pattern makers, also the tools, both those for hand use. and the more interesting machine tools; having complete chapters on the band saw. The Buzz Saw. and the Lathe. Individual patterns of many different kinds are fully illustrated and described, and the mounting of metal patterns on plates for molding machines is included. Rules, Formulas and Tables are included, containing simple and original methods for finding the weight of castings, both from the pattern itself and from the drawings. This section contains some new and practical formulas, which will be found very usefid in estimating weights, with the accuracy required for quotations to prospective customers. Ah of these rules are simi)le. and can be put to practical use by the ordinary, every-day man, and they have been proved by years of actual use. Plain rules for keeping down the cost of patterns, with a complete system for checking the cost of and marking the patterns, and a card record showing what the pattern is, material used, where located in safe, with its cost and date of production, is included. The book closes with an original and practical method for the inventory and valuation of patterns. Con- ^iaining 326 pages and 150 detailed illustrations. Price $2.00 PERFUMERY HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PRO- CESSES. Edited by G. D. Hiscox. The most valuable Techno-chemical Receipt Book i)ublished. Contains over 10,000 practical receipts, many of which will prove of special value to the perfumer, a mine of information, up- to-date in every respect. Price, Cloth, $3.00; half morocco $4.00 PERFUMES AND THEIR PREPARATION. By G. W. Askinson, Perfumer. A comprehensive treatise, in which there has been nothing omitted that could be of value to the Perfumer. Complete directions for making handkerchief perfumes, smelling-salts, sachets, fumigating pastilles: preparations for the care of the skin, the mouth, the hair, cos- metics, hair dyes and other toilet articles are given, also a detailed description of aromatic suostances: their nature, tests of purity, and wholesale manufacture. .\ book of general, as well as professional interest, meeting the wants not onlv of the druggist and perfume man- ufacturer, but also of the general public. Third edition. "^312 pages. Ihustrated. . $3.00 23 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS PLUMBING MECHANICAL DRAWING FOR PLUMBERS. By R. M. Starbuck. A concise, comprehensive and practical treatise on the subject of mechanical drawing in its various modern applications to the work of all who are in any way connected with *he plumbing trade. Nothing will so help the plumber in estimating and in explaining work to customers and workmen as a knowledge of drawing, and to the workman it is of inestimable value if he is to rise above his position to positions of greater responsibiUty. Among the chapters contained are: 1. Value to plumber of knowledge of drawing; tools required and their use; common views needed in mechanical drawing. 2. Perspective versus mechan- ical drawing in showing plumbing construction. 3. Correct and incorrect methods in plumbing drawing; plan and elevation explained. 3. Floor and cellar plans and elevation; scale drawings; use of triangles. 5. Use of triangles; drawing of fittings, traps, etc. 6. Drawing plumbing elevations and fittings. 7. Instructions in drawing plumbing elevations. 8. The drawing of plumbing fixtures; scale drawings. 9. Drawing of fixtures and fittings. 10. Inking of drawings. 11. Shading of drawings. 12. Shading of drawings. 13. Sec- tional drawings; drawing of threads. 14. Plumbing elevations from architect's plan. 15. Elevations of separate parts of the plumbing system. 16. Elevations from architect'^ plans. 17. Drawing of detail plumbing connections. 18. Architect's plans and plumbing elevations of residence. 19. Plumbing elevations of residence (continued) ; plumbing plans for cottage. 20. Plumbing elevations; roof connections. 21. Plans and plumbing eleva- tions for six-fiat building. 22. Drawing of various parts of the plumbing system; use of scales. 23. Use of architect's scales. 24, Special features in the illustrations of country plumbing. 25. Drawing of wrought iron piping, valves, radiators, coils, etc. 26. Drawing of piping to illustrate heating systems. 150 illustrations. Price $1.60 MODERN PLUMBING ILLUSTRATED. By R. M. Starbuck. This book represents the highest standard of plumbing work. It has been adopted and used as a reference book by the United States Government, in its sanitary work in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, and by the principal Boards of Health of the United States and Canada. It gives connections, sizes and working data for all fixtures and groups of fixtures. It is helpful to the master plumber in demonstrating to his customers and in figuring work. It gives the mechanic and student quick and easy access to the best modern plumbing practice. Suggestions for estimating plumbing construction are contained in its pages. This book represents, in a Avord, the latest and best up-to-date practice, and should be in the hands of every architect, sanitary engineer and plumber who wishes to keep himself up to the minute on this important feature of construction. Contains following chapters, each illustrated with a full-page plate: Kitchen sinlv, laundry tubs, vegetable wash sink; lavatories, pantry sinks, contents of marble slabs; bath tub, foot and sitz bath, shower bath; water closets, venting of water closets; low-down water closets, water closets operated by flush valves, water closet range; .slop sink, urinals, the bidet; hotel and restaurant sink, grease trap; refrigerators, safe wastes, laundry waste; hnes of refrigerators, bar sinks, soda foun- tain sinks; horse stall, frost-proof water closets; connections for S traps, venting; con- nections for drum traps; soil pipe connections; supporting of soil pipe; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor drains and cellar drains, subsoil drainage; water closets and floor connections; local venting; connections for bath rooms ; connections for bath rooms, con- tinued; connections for bath rooms, continued; connections for bath rooms, continued; examples of poor practice; roughing- work ready for test; testing of plumbing system; method of continuous venting ; continuous venting for two-floor work ; continuous venting for two lines of fixtures on three or more floors ; continuous venting of water closets ; plumb- ing for cottage house; construction for cellar piping; plumbing for residence, use of special fittings; plumbing for two-fiat house; plumbing for apartment building; plumbing for double apartment building; plumbing for office building; plumbing for public toilet rooms; plumbing for public toilet rooms, continued; plumbing for bath establishment; plumbing for engine house, factory plumbing; automatic fiushing for schools, factories, etc.; use of fiushing valves; urinals for public toilet rooms; the Durham system, the destruction of pipes by electrolysis; construction of work without use of lead; Automatic sewage lift, automatic sump tank ; coimtry plumbing ; construction of cesspools ; septic tank and auto- matic sewage siphon; coimtry plumbing; water siipply for country house; thawing of water mains and ser\ice by electricity; double boilers; hot water supply of large build- ings; automatic control of hot water tank; suggestions for estimating plumbing construc- tion. 400 octavo pages, fully illustrated by 55 full-page engravings. Price . $4.00 STANDARD PRACTICAL PLUMBING. By R. M. Starbuck. A complete practical treatise of 450 pages covering the subject of Modern Plumbing in all its branches, a large amount of space being devoted to a very complete and practical treatment of the subject of Hot Water Supply and Circulation and Range Boiler Work. Its thirty chapters include about every phase of the subject one can think of, making it 24 CATALOGUE OF GOOD. PRACTICAL BOOKS an indispensable work to the master plumber, the journeyman plumber, and the apprentice plumbor, containing? chapters on: the plumber's tools; wiping solder, composition and use; joint wiping; lead wotiv; traps; siphonage of traps; venting; continuous venting; house sewer and sewer connections; house drain; soil piping, rougliing; main trap and fresh air inlet; floor, yard, cellar drains, rain leaders, etc. ; fixture wastes: water closets ; ventilation; improved plumbing connections; residence plumbing; plumbing for hotels, schools, fac- tories, stables, etc; modern country plumbing; filtration of sewage and water supply; hot and cold supply: range boilers; circulation; circulating pipes; range boiler problems; hot water for large buildings; water lift and its use; multiple connections for hot water boilers; heating of radiation by supply system; theory for the plumber; drawing for the plumber. Fully illustrated by ;i47 engravings. Price $3*00 RECEIPT BOOK HENLEY'S TWENTIETH CENTURY BOOK OF RECEIPTS, FORMULAS AND PRO- CESSES. Edited by Gardner D. Hiscox. The most valuable Techno-chemical Receipt Book pubhshed, including over 10,000 selected scientific, chemical, technological, and practical receipts and processes. This is the most complete Book of Receipts ever published, giving thousands of receipts for the manufacturer of valuable articles for everyday use. Hints, Helps, Practical Ideas, and Secret Processes are revealed witliin its pages. It covers every branch of the useful arts and tells thousands of ways of making money and is just the book everyone should have at his command. Modern in its treatment of every subject that properly falls within its scope, the book may truthfully be said to present the very latest formulas to be found in the arts and industries and to retain those processes which long experience has proven worthy of a permanent record To present here even a limited number of the subjects which find a place in this valuable work would be difficult. Suffice to say that in its pages will be foimd matter of intense in- terest and immeasurable practical value to the scientific amateur and to him who wishes to obtain a knowledge of the many processes used in the arts, trades and manufactures, a knowledge which will render his pursuits more instructive and remunerative. Serving as a reference book to the small and large manufacturer and suppplying intelligent seekers with the information necessary to conduct a process, the work will be foimd of inestimable worth to the Metallurgist, the Photographer, the Perfumer, the Painter, the Manufacturer of Glues, Pastes, Cements, and Mucilages, the Compounder of Alloys, the Cook, the Physician, the Druggist, the Electrician, the Brewer, the Engineer, the Foundryman, the Machinist, the Potter, the Tanner, the Confectioner, the Chiropodist, the Manicure, ^lie Manufacturer of Chemical Novelties and Toilet Preparations, the Dyer, the Electroplater, the Enameler, the Engraver, the Provisioner. the Glass Vorker, the Goldbeater, the Watchmaker, the Jew- eler, the Hat Maker, the Ink Mantifacturer, the Optician, the Farmer, the Dairyman, the Paper Maker, the Wood and Metal Worker, the Chandler and Soap Maker, the Veterinary Surgeon, and the Technologist in general. A mine of information, and up-to-date in every respect. A book which will prove of value to EVERYONE, as it covers every branch of the Useful Arts. 800 pages. Price $8.00 WHAT IS SAID OF THIS BOOK: " Your Twentieth Century Book of Receipts, Formulas and Processes duly received. I am glad to have a copy of it, and if I could not replace it money couldn't buvit. It is the best thing of the sort I ever saw." (Signed) M. E. Trux, Sparta, Wis. ' There are few persons who would not be able to find in the book some single formula that would repay several times the cost of the book." — Merchant's Record and Show Window. RUBBER RUBBER HAND STAMPS AND THE MANIPULATION OF INDIA RUBBER. By T. O'CoNOR Sloane. This book gives full details on all points, treating in a concise and simple manner the elements of nearly everything it is necessary to understand for a commencement in any branch of the India Rul)ber Manufacture. The making of all kinds of Rubber Hand Stamps. Small .Articles of India Rubber, U. S. Government (Jomposition, Dating Hand Stamps, the .Manipulation of Sheet Rubber, Toy Balloons. India Rubber Solutions, Cements, Blackings, Renovating 25 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS Varnish, and Treatment for India Rimber Shoes, etc.; the Hektopraph Stamp Inks, and Miscellaneous Notes, with a Short Account of the Discovery, Collection, and Manufacture of India Rubber are set forth in a manner designed to be readily understood, the explanations being plain and simple. Including a chapter on Rubber Tire Making and Vulcanizing; also a chapter on the uses of rubber in Surgery and Dentistry. Third revised and enlarged edition. 175 pages. lUustrated $1.00 SAWS SAW FILINGS AND MANAGEMENT OF SAWS. By Robert Grimshaw. A practical hand book on filing, gumming, swaging, hammering, and the brazing of band saws, the speed, work, and power to run circular saws, etc. A handy book for those who have charge of saws, or for those mechanics who do their own filing, as it deals with the proper shape and pitches of saw teeth of all kinds and gives many useful hints and rules for gumming, netting, and filing, and is a practical aid to those who use saws for any purpose. New edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated. Price $1.00 STEAM ENGINEERING AMERICAN STATIONARY ENGINEERING. By W. E. Crane. This book begins at the boiler room and takes in the whole power plant. A plain talk on every-day work about engines, boilers, and their accessories. It is not intended to be scien- tific or mathematical. All formulas are in simple form so that any one understanding plain arithmetic can readily miderstand any of them. Tlie autlior has made this the most prac- tical book in print; has given the results of his years of experience, and has included about dl that has to do with an engine room or a power plant. You are not left to guess at a single joint. You are sho^\^l clearly w^hat to expect under tlie various conditions ; how to secure (he best results; ways of preventing "shut downs" and repairs; in sliort, all that goes to make up the requirements of a good engineer, capable of taking charge of a plant. It's plain enough for practical men and yet of value to those high in the profession. V partial list of contents is: The boiler room, cleaning boilers, firing, feeding; pumps; nspection and repair ; chimneys, sizes and cost; piping; mason work: foundations; testing cement; pile driving; engines, slow and high speed; valves; valve setting; Corliss engines, netting va^ ^es, single and double eccentric; air pumps and condensers; different types of condensers; water needed: lining up; pounds; pins not square in crosshead or crank; engineers' tools; pistons and piston rings; bearing metal ; hardened copper : drip pipes from cylinder jackets; belts, how made, care of; oils; greases; testing lubricants; rules and tables, including steam tables; areas of segments; squares and square root; cubes and cube root; areas and circumferences of circles. Notes on: Brick work; explosions; pumps; pump valves; heaters, economizers; safety valves; lap. lead, and clearance. Has a complete examination for a license, etc., etc. Second edition. 285 pages. Illustrated. Price . $2.00 EMINENT ENGINEERS. By Dwight Goddabd. Everyone who appreciates the effect of such great inventions as the Steam Engine, Steamboat, r.ocomotive. Sewing Machine, Steel Working, and other fundamental discoveries, is interested in knowing a httle about the men who made them and their achievements. Mr. Goddard has selected thirty-two of the world's engineers who have contributed most largely to the advancement of our civilization by mechanical means, giving only such facts as are of general interest and in a way which appeals to all, whether mechanics or not. 280 pages. 35 illustrations. Price $1.50 ENGINE RUNNER'S CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. A practical treatise for the stationary engineer, telling how to erect, adjust and run the prin- cipal steam engines in use in the United States. Describing the principal features of various soecial and well-known makes of engines: Temper Cut-off, Shipping and Receiving Founda- tions, Erecting and Starting, Valve Setting, Care and Use, Emergencies, Erecting and Ad- . justing Special Engines. Tlia questions asked throughout the catechism are plain and to the point, and the answers a-o Riven in such simple language as to be readily understood by anyone. All the instructions •riven are complete and up-to-date; and they are written in a popular style, without any technicalities or mathematical formulp. The work is of a handy size for the pocket, clearly and well printed, nicely bound and profusely illustrated. To young engineers this catechism 26 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS will be of great valuer especially lo mose whu may be prepariiiii to ko forward to be examined for certifi. ates of competency; and to engineers generally it will be of no little service, as they will find in this volume more really practical and useful information tiian is to be found any- where else within a like compass. 387 pages. Seventh edition. Price .... $2.00 ENGINE TESTS AND BOILER EFFICIENCIES. By J. Buchetti. This work fully describes and illustrates the method of testing the power of steam engines, turbines and explosive motors. The properties of steam and the evaporative power of fuels. Combustion of fuel and chimney draft; with formulas explained or practically computed 255 pages, 179 illustrations .... $3.00 HORSEPOWER CHART. Shows the horsepower of any stationary engine without calculation. No matter what the cylinder diameter of stroke; the steam pressure or cut off; the revolutions, or whether con- densing or non-condensing, it's all there. Easy to use, accurate, and saves time and calcu- lations. Especially useful to engineers and designers 50 cents MODERN STEAM ENGINEERING IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By Gardner D. Hiscox. This is a complete and practical work issued for Stationary Engineers and firemen dealing with the care and management of boilers, engines, pumps, superheated steam, refrigerating machinery, dynamos, motors, elevators, air compressors, and all other branches with which the modern engine(T must be familiar. Nearly 200 questions with their answers on steam, and electrical engineering, likely to be asked by the Examining Board, arc included. Among the chapters are: Historical; steam and its properties; appliances for the genera- tion of steam; types of boilers: chimney and its work; heat economy of the feed water; steam pumps and their work; incrustation and its work; steam above atmospheric pressure; flow of steam from nozzles; superheated steam and its work: adiabatic expansion of steam; indicator and its work; steam engine proportions; sUde valve engines and valve motion; Corhss engine and its valve gear; compound engine and its theory; triple and multiple expansion engine, steam turbine; refrigeration; elevators and their management: cost of power; steam engine troubles; electric power and electric plants. 487 pages. 405 en- gravings. Price $3.00 STEAM ENGINE CATECHISM. By Robert Grimshaw. This unique volume of 413 pages is not only a catechism on the question and answer princi- ple; but it contains formulas and worked-out answers for all the Steam problems t at apper- tain to the operation and management of the Steam Engine. Illustrations of various valves and valve gear with their prinrii^lcs of operation are given. Thirty-four Tables that are Indispensable to every engineer and fireman that wishes to be progressive and is ambitious to become master of his calling are within its pages. It is a most valuable instructor in the service of Steam Engineering. Leading engineers have recommended it as a valuable educa- tor for the beginner as well as a reference book for the engineer It is thoroughly indt^xed for every detail. Every essential question on the Steam Engine with its answer is contained in this valuable work. Sixteenth edition. Price $2.00 STEAM ENGINEER'S ARITHMETIC. By Colvin-Cheney. A practical pocket book for the steam engineer. Shows how to work the problems of the engine room and shows "why." Tells how to figure horse-power of engines and boilers; area of boilers; has tables of areas and circumferences; steam tables; has a dictionary of engineering terms. Puts you on to all all of the little kinks in figuring whatever there is to figure around a power plant. Tells you about the heat unit; absolute zero; adiabatic expansion; duty of engines: factor of safety; and 1,001 other things: and everything is plain and simple— not the hardest way to figure, but the easiest. 2nd Edition 50 cents STEAM HEATING AND VENTILATION PRACTICAL STEAM, HOT- WATER HEATING AND VENTILATION. By A. G. King. This book is the standard and latest work published on the subject and has been prepared for the u.se of all engaged in the busine-ss of steam, hot water heating, and ventilation. It is an original and exhaustive work. Tells how to get heating contracts, how to install heating and ventilating apparatus, the best business methods to be u.sed, with "Tricks of the Trade" for 21 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS shop use. Rules and data for estimating radiation and cost and such tables and information as make it an indispensable work for everyone interested in steam, hot water heating, and venti- lation. It describes all the principal systems of steam, hot water, vacuum, vapor, and vacuum- vapor heating, together with the new accelerated systems of hot water circulation, including chapters on up-to-date methods of ventilation and the fan or blower system of heating and ventilation. Containing chapters on: I. Introduction. II. Heat. III. Evolution of artificial heating apparatus. IV. Boiler surface and settings. V. The chimney flue. VI. Pipe and fittings. VII. Valves, various kinds. VIII. Forms of radiating surfaces. IX. Locating of radiating surfaces. X. Estimating radiation. XI. Steam-heating apparatus. XII. Exhaust-steam heating. XIII. Hot-water heating. XIV. Pressure systems of hot- water work. XV. Hot-water appliances. XVI. Greenhouse heating. XVII. Vacuum vapor and vacuum exhaust heating. XVIII. Miscellaneous heating. XIX. Radiator and pipe connections. XX. Ventilation. XXI. Tvlechanical ventilation and hot-blast heating. XXII. Steam appliances. XXIII. District heating. XXIV. Pipe and boiler covering. XXV. Temperature regulation and heat control. XXVI. Business methods. XXVII. Miscellaneous. XXVIII. Rules, tables and useful information. 367 pages. 300 detailed engravings. Price $8.00 STEAM PIPES STEAM PIPES: THEIR DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION. By Wm. H. Booth. The work is well illustrated in regard to pipe joints, expansion offsets, flexible joints, and self-contained sliding joints for taking up the expansion of long pipes. In fact, the chapters on the flow of steam and expansion of pipes are most valuable to all steam fitters and users. The pressure strength of pipes and method of hanging them are well treated and illustrated. Valves and by-passes are fully illustrated and described, as are also flange joints and their proper proportions, exhaust heads and separators. One of the most valuable chanters is that on superheated steam and the saving of steam by insulation with the various kinds of felt- ing and other materials with comparison tables of the loss of heat in thermal units from naked and felted steam pipes. Contains 187 pages. Price $2.00 STEEL AMERICAN STEEL WORKER. By E. R. Markham. This book tells how to select, and how to work, temper, harden, and anneal steel for everything on earth. It doesn't tell how to temper one class of tools and then leave the treatment of another kind of tool to your imagination and judgment, but it gives careful instructions for every detail of every tool, whether it be a tap, a reamer or just a screw-driver. It tells about the tempering of small watch springs, the hardening of cutlery, and the annealing of dies. In fact there isn't a thing that a steel worker would want to know that isn't included. It is the standard book on selecting, hardening, and tempering all grades of steel. Among the chapter headings might be mentioned the following subjects: Introduction; the workman; steel ; methods of heating ; heating tool steel ; forging ; annealing ; hardening baths ; baths for hardening; hardening steel; drawing the temper after hardening; examples of hard- ening; pack hardening; case hardening; spring tempering; making tools of machine steel; special steels; steel for various tools; causes of trouble; high speed steels, etc. 366 pages. Very fully illustrated. 3rd Edition. Price $2.50 HARDENING, TEMPERING, ANNEALING, AND FORGING OF STEEL. By J. V. WOODWORTH. A new work treating in a clear, concise manner all modern processes for the heating, annealing forging, welding, hardening, and tempering of steel, making it a book of great practical value to the metal-working mechanic in general, with special directions for the successful hardening and tempering of all steel tools used in the arts, including milling cutters, taps, thread dies, reamers, both solid and shell, hollow mills, punches and dies, and all kinds of sheet metal working tools, shear blades, saws, fine cutlery, and metal cutting tools of all description, as well as for all implements of steel both large and small. In this work the simplest and most satisfactory hardening and tempering processes are given. The uses to which the leading brands of steel may be adapted are concisely presented, and their treatment for working under different conditions explained, also the special methods for the hardening and tempering of special brands. A chapter devoted to the different processes for Case-hardening is also included, and special reference made to the adoption of machinery steel for tools of various kinds. 4th Edition. 288 pages. 201 Illustrations. Price $2.50 28 CATALOGUE OF GOOD, PRACTICAL BOOKS TURBINES MARINE STEAM TURBINES. By Dr. G. Bauek and O. Lasche. Assisted by E. Ludwig and H. Vogel. Translated from the German and edited by M. G. S. Swallow. This work forms a supplementary volume to the book entitled "Marine Engines and Boilers." The authors of this book. Dr. (i. Bauer and O. Lasche, may be regarded as the leading authorities on turbine construction. The book is essentially practical and discusses turbines in which the full expansion of steam passes through a number of separate turbines arranged for driving two or more shafts, as in the Parsons system, and turbines in which the complete expansion of steam from inlet to exhaust pressure occurs in a turbine on one shaft, as in the case of the Curtis machines. It will enable a designer to carry out all the ordinary calculations necessary for the con- struction of steam turbines, hence it fills a want which is hardly met by larger and more theoretical works. Numerous tables, curves and diagrams will be found, which explain with remarkable lucidity the reason why turbine blades are designed as they are, the course which steam takes through turbines of various types, the thermodynamics of steam turbine calculation, the influence of vacuum on steam consumption of steam turbines, etc. In a word, the very information which a designer and builder of steam turbines most requires. The book is divided into parts as follows: 1. Introduction. 2. General remarks on the design of a turbine installa- tion. 3. The calculation of steam turbines. 4. Turbine design. 5. Shafting and pro- pellers. 6. Condensing plant. 7. Arrangement of turbines. 8. General remarks on the arrangement of steam turbines in steamers. 9. Turbine-driven auxiliaries. 10. Tables. Large octavo. 214 pages. Fully illustrated and containing 18 tables. Including an entropy chart. Price, net $3.60 WATCH MAKING WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. By Claudius Saunier. This famous work has now reached its seventh edition and there is no work issued that can compare to it for clearness and completene.ss. It contains 498 pages and is intended as a workshop companion for those engaged in Watch-making and allied Mechanical Arts. Nearly 250 engravings and fourteen plates are included. Price ... .... $3.00 29 OCT 15 1912 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 021 231 222 8 i I