Chs,^ FlC2^h^ 
 
 Book. 
 
 J-'-T y 
 
 ~^\j 
 
 Copyright N^_ 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
MEXICAN TOPICS 
 
 PREPARED FOR 
 
 THE NEW STUDENT'S REFERENCE WORK 
 
 JUAN HUMBERTO CORNYN, B.A., LL.B., B.E. 
 
 DIRECTOR COLEGIO PAN-AMERICANO, MEXICO CITY 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 F. E. COMPTON AND COMPANY 
 1910 
 

 COPYRIGHT, 1910 
 By chandler B. BEACH 
 
 g:CI.A256796 
 
PRESIDENT DIAZ AND HIS CABIXET 
 
 JuRTiNO Fernandez 
 
 Minister of Justice 
 
 Jose Ives Limantour 
 
 Minister of Finance 
 
 Olegario Molina 
 
 Minister of Fomento (Encour- 
 
 aKenient) 
 
 Ramon Corral 
 Minister of Interior and Vice- 
 President 
 PORFIRIO DIAZ 
 
 President 
 
 Ignacio Marincal 
 
 Minister of Foreign Relations 
 
 ir 1 
 
 Leandro Fernandez 
 Minister of Public Works 
 
 JusTO Sierra 
 Minister of Public Instruction 
 
 Manuel Gonzalez Cosio 
 Minister of War and Marine 
 
MEXICAN TOPICS 
 
 ACADEMY— ACUNA 
 
 Academy, San Carlos, the National 
 School of Fine Arts of Mexico, first estab- 
 lished in the Mint Building, in Mexico City, 
 by order of Charles III of Spain in 1778. 
 At first it was only a school of engineering; 
 but, three years later, classes in painting, 
 sculpture and architecture were added. In 
 1785, the "Academy of Noble Arts of San 
 Carlos of New Spain" was opened; and six 
 years later the school was removed to its 
 present quarters. Owing to political 
 troubles the academy was several times 
 temporarily closed, but it never really ceased 
 to exist. It is now in a flourishing condi- 
 tion, is one of the most popular educational 
 institutions of the Capital and receives 
 much attention from the Mexican govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Academy, National Military, The, 
 occupies a part of Chapultepec Castle, the 
 official residence of the president of the 
 republic. From 300 to 400 students are in 
 attendance each year. It is the chief train- 
 ing school for the army and it furnishes an 
 excellent engineering course. The instruc- 
 tion is much similar to that of West Point. 
 (See Chapultepec). 
 
 Acamapitzin, {a-kdni' d-pet' sen) (Prince of 
 the Reeds), the first king of the Mexicans 
 (1352-89), was prudent, wise and brave and 
 especially fitted to govern his people during 
 their early days of struggle. His long reign 
 of 37 years is noted for .the advancement 
 made by the Mexicans. So noted was this 
 advancement that Acamapitzin has been 
 called the Alfred the Great of Mexican his- 
 tory. When he came to the throne the 
 Aztecs were practically confined to the city 
 of Mexico (Tenochtitlan) ; it was tributary 
 to the Tepanecas; but notwithstanding the 
 heavy tribute exacted by the latter, the city 
 of Tenochtitlan grew steadily during this 
 reign;, stone buildings were erected, canals 
 built and a trade with the neighboring tribes 
 established. So fair and just was the govern- 
 ment that many people from other tribes 
 
 cast in their lot with the Mexicans; this was 
 the beginning of that rapid growth and 
 progress which soon made the Aztecs the 
 ruling power in the lands between the Gulf 
 of Mexico and the Pacific. 
 
 Acambaro (d-kdin'bd-rd) , a town in the 
 state of Guanajuato, Mexico, situated at the 
 junction of two important lines of the 
 National Railways of Mexico, about 180 
 miles from the City of Mexico, and lies in 
 the Lerma Valley, one of the most fertile 
 spots in the state. It was founded in 1526, 
 four years after the Spanish conquest, and 
 was for many years a very important mid- 
 way place on the old highway between the 
 Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. As it is on 
 the main highway to the capital, it has 
 often, especially during the revolutionary 
 period in Mexican history, been the theatre 
 of many stormy events. Population 15,000. 
 
 Acapulco. See page 12 14. 
 
 Acevedo, Caspar de Zuniga y. See 
 
 ZUNIGA. 
 
 Acuna (d-kodn'yd), Juan de, Marquis of 
 Casafuerte, a native of Lima, 36th viceroy 
 of New Spain (1722-34) and General of 
 Artillery, was, according to a chronicler of 
 the times, "Adorned with all the civic and 
 private virtues, skilled in the science of 
 government, a tireless reformer of abuses 
 and ever active in legislating for the interest 
 and welfare of the people of New Spain." 
 Having so many civic virtues he was nat- 
 urally popular with the law-abiding portion 
 of the inhabitants of the province; and he 
 was sincerely mourned when he died in 
 office. During his administration mining 
 began to develop rapidly and commerce 
 with Spain and the Phillipines was very 
 greatly increased. As an indication of the 
 activity of the tiijies it is interesting to note 
 that $10,000,000 were coined at the Mexico 
 City mint in 1733. 
 
 AcuiTa {d-kddn'yd), Manuel '(i849--i 873), 
 one of the greatest of Mexican poets, who 
 died at the early age of 24, leaving behind 
 
 2245 
 
AGUASCALIENTES 
 
 2246 
 
 ALHONDIGA 
 
 him an imperishable name and a host of 
 imitators, whose name has become legion 
 since his death. He is one of the most vivid 
 word painters in the Spanish language, his 
 meter and melody are unsurpassed and he 
 exhibits strong dramatic force. But great 
 genius is often to madness closely allied 
 This seems to have been the case with 
 Acuna, who took his own life in a fit of 
 despondency over a love affair. Though he 
 wrote a very promising drama, his works 
 are principally lyrical. 
 
 Aguascalientes {d'gwds-kd'le-dn'tds), the 
 capital of the state of the same name, is so 
 called "Hot Waters," on account of the 
 many springs of wann water in the neigh- 
 borhood. It is situated on the Mexican 
 division of the National Lines of Mexico, 
 165 miles north of Mexico City, in a valley 
 some 6,000 feet above sea level. The city, 
 which was founded in 1575, has seen many 
 stirring times, especially during the war of 
 independence, when it was more than once 
 the theatre of war. It was made the cap- 
 ital of the new state of Aguascalientes in 
 1835. It contains excellent public build- 
 ings, good schools and colleges and a noted 
 Scientific Institute, and its cathedral is one 
 of the celebrated church buildings of Mex- 
 ico. Population 20,000. 
 
 Aguascalientes (d'givds-kd'le-dn'ids) , 
 
 (Hot Waters), a state and capital of the 
 same name situated on the upland plateau 
 of Mexico, between the states of Zacatecas 
 and Jalisco. It has an area of 2,976 square 
 niiles and a population of 120,000. The 
 principal industries of the state are mining 
 and agriculture. Although the mountains 
 of the state are rich in minerals these have 
 been but partially exploited, so that its 
 yearly mineral output generally falls below 
 half a million dollars; while its agricultural 
 products are v.^orth three times that of its 
 mines. Among the chief agricultural prod- 
 ucts of the state are : chili (native red 
 pepper) , frijoles (native brown and black 
 beans), wheat and corn, the value of the 
 latter being twice that of the combined 
 value of all the other agricultural products 
 of the state. 
 
 Agustin, Cebrian y. See Cebrian y 
 Agustin 
 
 Ahuizotl {d'we-so'tl), (the Water Rat), 
 emperor of Mexico (1486-1502), was a great 
 conqueror and he carried the Mexican arms 
 as far south as Guatemala. He completed 
 the great temple or tocalli on the main 
 plaza of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) and it 
 is said that, by his order, 20,000 prisoners 
 and slaves were delivered to the priests to 
 be sacrificed at its dedication. The blood of 
 the victims ran down the sides of the great 
 pyramid upon which the teinple was sit- 
 uated and formed streams in the streets. It 
 was during this reign that America was dis- 
 covered by Christopher Columbus. In 1499 
 the city of Tenochtitlan was flooded for the 
 
 second time. In trying to escape from his 
 flooded palace Ahuizotl received injuries 
 from which he subsequently died. 
 
 Ahumada y Villalon {d'od-md'thd e veV- 
 yd-lon'), Agustin, Marquis of Amarillas, 
 41st viceroy of New Spain (1755-60), had 
 gained renown in the wars in Italy before 
 coming to Mexico. He is remembered as 
 an excellent ruler who was zealous in the 
 correction of public abuses. He died in 
 Cuernavaca, Mexico, from a stroke of 
 apoplexy. 
 
 A j usee (d-hdds'ko), the highest mountain 
 in the Federal District of Mexico. Although 
 within the tropics, owing to. its altitude, 
 13,612 feet, its summit is often covered with 
 snow in winter. 
 
 Alameda (d'ld-md'dd), (derived from 
 alamo, the poplar tree), a name now gen- 
 erally applied throughout Mexico to the 
 principal public park of a city or town. Of 
 these the most noted is the Alameda of 
 Mexico City, which was set apart as a public 
 park in 1592 by the viceroy, Luis de Velasco. 
 Previous to this the ground occupied by the 
 Alameda had been one of the inost noted of 
 the great market places of the Aztecs. Upon 
 the east side of this park was erected the 
 Quemadero or stone platform upon which 
 were burned the victims condemned by the 
 Inquisition. The Alameda, which is 1483 
 feet long by 712 feet wide, is covered with 
 beautiful trees and traversed by shaded 
 walks, and contains handsome fountains 
 and statues. It is the favorite place of 
 recreation of the people of Mexico City. On 
 Sundays and feast days, when the best 
 military bands of country play there, 
 some of the principal walks are covered 
 with awnings to protect the visitors from 
 the tropical sun, and a continual stream of 
 people pass and repass under these awnings 
 from 1 1 :oo a. m. to i p. m. 
 
 Alamo. See Alameda. 
 
 Alba de Liste, Count of. See Enri- 
 QUEZ DE Guzman, Luis. 
 
 Alburquerque, Duke of. See Fernan- 
 dez DE LA CUEVA, FrANCISCO. 
 
 Aldama (dl-ddm'd), Ramon (1832-82), a 
 Mexican prose writer and dramatist of note. 
 He graduated in law, but made literature 
 and journalism more of a profession, mixing 
 up with them politics. His four successful 
 dramas are: Honor and Happiness, A 
 Pledge of Vengeance, Nobility of Heart and 
 Head and Heart. 
 
 Alencastre, Fernando. See Norona y 
 Silva. 
 
 Alhondiga {dl-on' de-gd') de Granaditas, 
 the old commercial exchange built in 1785 
 by the intendent, Juan Antonio Riano, near 
 to the city of Guanajuato. It was captured 
 by the revolutionary army under Hidalgo 
 in 1810, after a desperate fight. The heads 
 of Hidalgo and his chief officers, Jimenez, 
 Aldama and AUende were fastened upon 
 spikes on the walls of the Alhondiga in 1811. 
 
ALMANZA 
 
 2247 
 
 ARMENDARIS 
 
 Almanza (dl-mdn' sd) , Martin Enriquez 
 
 de, fourth viceroy of New Spain (1568-80), 
 known as the "Inquisitor" because the 
 Inquisition was introduced into Mexico dur- 
 ing his administration. He drove the Eng- 
 lish from the Island of Sacrifices, in the 
 Gulf of Mexico, conquered the Chichimecas 
 and divided their country into districts and 
 began the work of draining the surplus 
 waters of the lakes in the Valley of Mexico. 
 During his administration the Jesuits estab- 
 lished themselves in Mexico and a terrible 
 plague broke out among the Indians from 
 which over two millions died. This was 
 followed by an inundation of the City of 
 Mexico. Almanza also turned his atten- 
 tion to regulating the employment of Indian 
 labor in the mines of New Spain. The vice- 
 roy went from Mexico to Peru where he 
 also represented the king of Spain. 
 
 Alpuche (dl-poo'chd), Wenceslao (1804- 
 1841), one of the best of the Mexican poets 
 of the first half of the 19th century in a 
 restricted field, for his best poems are war 
 songs and compositions in praise of the 
 heroes of his native land. 
 
 Altamirano (dl'td-me-rd'nd), Ignacio M. 
 (1834-93), a pure native Indian, and one of 
 the most vivid writers and greatest thinkers 
 that Mexican literature has produced. He 
 was a power in politics, in literature and in 
 the social life of his day, and he became 
 the leader of a school, with hundreds of 
 imitators. He was lawyer, soldier, orator, 
 diplomat, journalist, poet, essayist, philos- 
 opher and one of the greatest champions of 
 the liberal cause in Mexico. In addition to 
 his poems (Rimas), his principal works are: 
 The Literary Movement in Mexico; Baltasar; 
 The Mexican Drama; Medea; Cletnencia (his 
 best novel) ; Antonia and Beatrice; Louisa 
 and Christinas in the Mountains. He is 
 original in matter form of- versification and 
 manner of expression, and his power of 
 depicting local colors is especially strong. 
 So strong was his influence over the writers 
 of his day that he is credited with creating 
 the moder^ renaissance period in Mexican 
 literature. It is certain that his influence 
 over the literature of his native country was 
 great and ever exercised for good. 
 
 Alvarado (dl'vd-rd'thd), Laguna de, an 
 important deep-water lagoon on the south- 
 eastern coast of the state of Veracruz, 
 Mexico. It is formed by the wide mouth 
 of the Papaloapam river, where it enters 
 into the Gulf of Mexico. Even in pre- 
 Columbian times it was noted for the com- 
 merce that took place over its waters. It 
 is still an important port for small vessels. 
 In the 17th and i8th centuries it formed 
 an excellent hiding place for the pirates and 
 freebooters who frequented the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Alvarado {dl'vd-rdHhd), Pedro de, a 
 soldier of fortune who followed the banner 
 of Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico. He was 
 
 a man of huge stature and great strength 
 and his name figures frequently in the 
 legends and stories of Mexico, for he was 
 the ideal of the reckless, daring soldier of 
 fortune of those chivalrous days when Spain 
 was at her height of military glory. 
 
 Amarillas, Marquis of. See Ahumada 
 
 Y ViLLALON. 
 
 Amecameca {d-m.d'kd-m.d'ka) , a town in 
 the state of Mexico, at the foot of Mount 
 Popocatepetl, which was founded, years be- 
 fore the Spanish conquest of Mexico, was 
 the home of the principal branch of the 
 Chichimeca people, who played such an im- 
 portant part in the pre-conquest period of 
 Mexican history. By them the city was 
 called Amaquemecan. See Sacro Monte 
 and also Sor Juana Inez de la Cruz. 
 
 Anahuac (d-nd'wdk) (meaning near to 
 the water), a name given in Aztec times to 
 the country bordering upon Lake Texcoco, 
 and afterwards extended to the whole 
 Valley of Mexico, and, later on, by poetic 
 license, to the vast empire ruled over by 
 the Mexican confederacy. 
 
 Angel de la Quardia (dn'hdl da Id gwdr'- 
 the-d) , an island of considerable extent in 
 the Gulf of Lower California, and lying close 
 to the shore of the state of the same name, 
 to which it belongs politically. A strong 
 fortress was erected upon this island in pre- 
 Columbian days and archaeological remains 
 of interest are frequently encountered 
 there. 
 
 Angostura, Battle of. See Buenavista, 
 Battle of. 
 
 Apodaca (d'po-ddk'd) , Juan Ruiz de, 60th 
 viceroy of New Spain (1816-21), ex-governor 
 and captain general of Cuba, and lieutenant 
 colonel of the Royal Armada, was attacked 
 on the way to the Capital of Mexico to 
 assume his office by the forces of the revo- 
 lutionists under Vasquez; but the latter was 
 defeated by the Marquis of Donallo, who 
 had come from Mexico City to Puebla to 
 receive Apodaca. The viceroy prosecuted 
 the war against the revolutionists with 
 vigor, and at first with success. One leader 
 after another suffered defeat at the hands 
 of the royalist generals. Teran and Guerrero 
 were both defeated; Monte Blanco Fort, 
 near Cordoba, Boquilla de Piedras, Janicho, 
 Mescala, Cuiristaran, Coporo, Mixteca and 
 La Mesa all fell into the hands of the roy- 
 alists in rapid succession, and the cause of 
 the revolution seemed lost, when Gen. 
 Francisco Javier Mina, by gaining a number 
 of important engagements, put life into the 
 cause of independence. The Spanish cause 
 grew weaker daily, the royalists accused 
 Apodaca of incapacity, and the latter, in 
 despair of ruling the now disrupted prov- 
 ince, gave up the struggle in disgust and 
 returned to Spain. 
 
 Arion, Duke of. See Zuniga Guzman. 
 
 Armendaris, Lope Diaz de. See Diaz 
 DE Armendaris. 
 
ATZCAPOTZALCO 
 
 2248 
 
 BARCENA 
 
 Atzcapotzalco (dts'cd-pd-sdl'ko) ,■ a town 
 situated a short distance to the northwest 
 of Mexico City In Aztec times it was the 
 center of power of a Nahuatl people who 
 held the Aztecs in subjection. The Mexicans 
 and the Texcocans joined forces and sub- 
 dued Atzcapotzalco and made it a part of 
 the Mexican confederacy. It was noted for 
 its skilled artisans, especially its workers in 
 gold and silver. As the town was on the 
 extreme border of Lake Texcoco, it became 
 the slave market of Mexico. 
 
 Azanza {d-thdn'ihd), Miguel Jose, 53rd 
 viceroy of New Spain (1798-1800), was one 
 of the few viceroys of New Spain who were 
 not either priests or noblemen. He was a 
 wise ruler, prudent and a clever statesman 
 and had had considerable previous experi- 
 ence which aided him much in the discharge 
 of the duties of his office. He had been 
 secretary to the famous visitor to New 
 Spain, Galvez, was intendent of the army 
 and had filled various important diplomatic 
 commissions with credit to himself and 
 
 honor to his country. He built eleven small 
 war cruisers for the defense of the gulf 
 coast and made preparation for the defense 
 of Veracruz. During this administration 
 manufactures greatly increased, especially 
 in cotton, woolen and silk goods, and the 
 war with England brought much money 
 into New Spain, which increased the 
 commerce of the country and improved 
 greatly its business interests. In 1799 
 the port of Acapulco was destroyed by a 
 hurricane. 
 
 Aztec Calendar Stone. See Calendar 
 Stone. 
 
 Aztlan (dst-ldn') (meaning place of 
 water), the ancient home of the Aztecs, 
 which, according to tradition, was situated 
 somewhere to the north of Mexico City, 
 very many days' journey. Some suppose it 
 to have been in Colorado or New Mexico, 
 and some maintain that the Aztecs were the 
 original Mound Builders who, at one time, 
 covered vast stretches of the Mississippi 
 Valley. 
 
 B 
 
 Bajio {bd-he'd). The, a rich agricultural 
 district extending almost from Leon to 
 Queretaro, and lying principally within the 
 boundaries of the state of Guanajuato. Its 
 principal products are heavy crops of 
 cereals; but it is capable of producing a 
 large variety of products. 
 
 Ball, Our Lady of the, a very small but 
 greatly venerated image in the church of 
 Jesus Nazareno, in Mexico City. The legend 
 connected with this iinage is as follows: 
 Early after the Spanish conquest, an Indian 
 living in Ixtapalapa accused his wife of being 
 unfaithful to him, and, in his anger, at- 
 tempted to shoot her. The accused wife 
 threw herself before the image of the virgin, 
 to whom an altar had been erected in their 
 house. The latter intercepted the ball, 
 thus convincing the jealous husband that 
 his suspicions were unjustifiable. As the 
 fame of the image rapidly spread through- 
 out the Valley of Mexico the ecclesiastical 
 authorities took it and placed it in the 
 Church of the Purisima, from whence it was 
 afterguards removed to San Lazaro, where 
 it remained for about two hundred years. 
 By order of archbishop Labastida it was 
 placed in the Jesus Nazareno church in 
 1884. 
 
 Banner of Independence, The, which 
 bore upon it a picture of Our Lady of 
 
 Guadalupe, was taken from the sanctuary of 
 Jesus Nazareno de Atotonilco, by Miguel 
 Hidalgo, the patriot priest of Dolores and 
 the leader of the revolution against Spanish 
 rule in Mexico, which broke out in 1810. 
 See Guadalupe. 
 
 Banner of the Conquest, The, which 
 was carried by Hernan Cortes in his wars 
 against Mexico, is now in the National 
 Museum in Mexico City. A solemn annual 
 ceremony known as the Procession of the 
 Banner, was celebrated in the church of 
 San Hipolito (which see) up to the year 
 1 81 2. The archbishop of Mexico, the vice- 
 roy, the nobles and the church and state 
 authorities and dignitaries took part in this 
 ceremony, which consisted of the carrying 
 in state of the Banner of the Conquest. As 
 it was a commemoration of Spanish suc- 
 cesses in Mexico against the native races, 
 there has been no desire to revive the cere- 
 mony since the independence of the country 
 was conceded in 1821. 
 
 Bafios, Count of. See Leiva y de la 
 CuERDA, Juan. 
 
 Bar'cena (bdr'sd-nd), Jose Maria Roa 
 (1827-1908), the one great writer which the 
 imperialist party produced in Mexican lit- 
 erature. He was poet, historian, journalist, 
 critic and master of delightful prose, his 
 shorter stories being among the best that 
 
BARRAGAN 
 
 2249 
 
 BUSTILLOS 
 
 JOSE MARIA ROA 
 BARCENA 
 
 Mexico has produced. Numerous editions of 
 his poems and shorter stories have been 
 pubHshed both in 
 Mexico and on the 
 continent, and he has 
 received unstinted 
 praise from the best 
 of Spanish critics. 
 Translations of va- 
 rious of his works' 
 have been made into 
 Italian, French and 
 English. His stories 
 are noted for their 
 originality, dramatic 
 force, humor and 
 power of depicting 
 character. Barcena 
 possessed the power 
 of careful investiga- 
 tion, which is seldom 
 met with in such a high degree of perfection 
 in one who had so much of the poetic in his 
 character. This is shown in his literary 
 reviews, in his powerful newspaper articles 
 on the questions of the day and in the work 
 which, of all his literary productions, has 
 most interest for Americans, Recollections of 
 the North American Invasion, the name by 
 which the Mexican War is known in 
 Mexico. 
 
 Barragan {ha-rd-gdn') , Gen. Miguel, 
 acting president of Mexico and tool in the 
 hands of General Santa Anna when the 
 latter marched northward to subdue Texas 
 in 1835. 
 
 Bazaine (bd-zdn'), Francois Achille 
 (1811-1888), went to Mexico with the expe- 
 dition sent there by Napoleon III, which 
 was under the command of General Forey. 
 He took part in the principal engagements 
 of note during the French occupation of 
 Mexico. In 1863 he was made commander 
 of the French forces in the Republic and the 
 following year he was created a Marshal of 
 France . He remained in Mexico until the 
 downfall of the Maximilian empire. He 
 acted with great harshness and his name is 
 consequently detested in Mexico. In 1871 
 he was tried, found guilty and sentenced to 
 death for the surrender of Metz; but this 
 sentence was commuted to imprisonment 
 for 20 years on St. Marguerite Island. From 
 here he escaped, through the help of his 
 wife, a beautiful Mexican woman, who had 
 been a great favorite of the Emperor Max- 
 imilian; and together they lived in Spain 
 till his death. 
 
 Bells, Hill of the. See Cerro de las 
 Campanas. 
 
 Bobadilla y Cabrera. See Cabrera. 
 Boot, Adrian, a Dutch engineer sent by 
 the king of Spain to Mexico about the be- 
 ginning of the 17th century to report upon 
 the practicability of draining the Valley of 
 
 Mexico, which was then subject to dan- 
 gerous floods. His report and his presence 
 in the country gave definite form -to a proj- 
 ect, which it remained for the present gen- 
 eration to accomplish. 
 
 Branciforte, Marquis of. See Grua 
 Talamanca. 
 
 Bravo (brd'vd), Gen. Nicolas, a famous 
 revolutionary leader who contributed much 
 to the cause of Mexican independence. He 
 was instrumental in establishing the Council 
 of Notables which, on June 12, 1843, 
 promulgated a new constitution for Mexico, 
 the chief object of which was to centralize 
 the powers of government in the hands of 
 the federal authorities as much as possible. 
 He was president of Mexico ad interim in 
 1846. 
 
 Brigantines {hre' gdn-te' nds) , flat boats 
 constructed in Tlaxcala by order of Cortes, 
 the conqueror of Mexico, and carried in sec- 
 tions upon the backs of hundreds of Indians 
 to Texcoco, where they were put together 
 and launched upon the lake of the same 
 name, and, later on, used effectively in the 
 repeated attacks made upon Tenochtitlan 
 (Mexico City) during the famous siege of 
 1521. 
 
 Bucareli y Ursula {hoo'kd-rd'le e 55r- 
 soc'ld), Antonio Maria de, viceroy of New 
 Spain (17 71-17 79), was one of the best 
 rulers Spain gave to Mexico. He notably 
 increased the trade of the country, by remov- 
 ing various restrictions . upon foreign com- 
 merce. He encouraged coinage, with the 
 result that the coinage during his admin- 
 istration in Mexico amounted to $127,396,- 
 000, a vast sum for those days. He com- 
 pleted, at his own cost, the Chapultepec 
 aqueduct, thus bringing into the Capital a 
 plentiful supply of pure water, which had 
 been greatly needed. He extended his in- 
 fluence to build up the military strength of 
 New Spain, and many public buildings were 
 erected through his encouragement during 
 his administration. He was just, active and 
 progressive and he is still remembered with 
 affection in Mexico. 
 
 Buenavista (bwd'nd-ves'td), Battle of 
 (known to the Mexicans as Angostura), in 
 which the Americans under General Taylor, 
 defeated the Mexicans under Santa Anna 
 in a bloody fight (Feb. 23, 1847). 
 
 Bustillos (bdds-teVyos), Jose M. (1866- 
 ), a talented Mexican writer who has 
 made a new field for himself in a quarter 
 almost entirely neglected by other Mexican 
 writers; for he sings the sorrows, the ambi- 
 tions, the customs and the interests of the 
 neglected lower classes in Mexico, which he 
 makes more than interesting. His delib- 
 erate aim has been to widen out the interests 
 of the national literature of Mexico. Among 
 his most noted collections of poems are El 
 Tabare and The Rocks in the Lake. 
 
CABRERA 
 
 2250 
 
 CARMEX 
 
 Cabrera y Bobaditia (kd-hrd'ra e bo'hd- 
 del'yd), Diego Lopez Pacheco, Duke of 
 Escalona and Marquis of Villena, viceroy of 
 New Spain (1640-1), was a very unpopular 
 ruler. He was opposed by the church fac- 
 tion, and finally, through the influence of 
 the Bishop of Puebla, who succeeded him, 
 he was deposed and shipped back to New 
 Spain. 
 
 Cadereita, Marquis of. See Diaz de 
 Armendaris. 
 
 Cajigal de la Vega (ka'e-gdl da Id vd'gd), 
 Francisco, 42nd viceroy of New Spain 
 (1760), governed the province for but six 
 months. Previous to coming to Mexico he 
 had been governor of Cuba. In both places 
 he made himself much liked by his fairness, 
 affable manners and tact. 
 
 Calderon {kaV da-ron') , Fernando (1809- 
 1845), the greatest dramatist of Mexico and 
 one of her most inspired poets. He shares 
 with Ignacio Rodriguez Galvan the honor 
 of being the greatest Mexican writer of the 
 first years of the Republic. He was a 
 wonderfully prolific writer and he produced 
 in his short life work enough for twice the 
 period of his literary activity. He did 
 more than any other writer to create in 
 Mexico a national dramatic literature. 
 Among the most noted of his dramatic 
 works are the following: Zadig-Zeila; 
 Reinaldo and Elina; The Pohiics of the Day; 
 Armandina; Rarniro, Count of Lucena; Ephi- 
 genia; To None of the Three; The Tourna~ 
 tnent; Herman, or the Return of the Criisader; 
 Hersilia and Virginia and Anne Boleyn. 
 
 Calendar Stone, Aztec, a huge carved 
 stone now in the National Museum in 
 Mexico City, round which discussion has 
 waged warm, Leon y Gama and his followers 
 claiming it is purely an astronomical record, 
 while Chavero asserts that it originally 
 served as the base of a smaller stone to 
 which the victims destined for sacrifice were 
 tied. This stone is circular in shape, and 
 upon it are carved several concentric cir- 
 cles. In the center is a figure representing 
 the sun, and around this are twenty other 
 figures which represent the twenty days of 
 the Mexican month. It is one of the largest 
 and most interesting of the many stone 
 monuments left us of the curious civiliza- 
 tion of the Aztecs. 
 
 Calleja (kdl-yd'hd), Felix Maria, 59th 
 viceroy of New Spain (1813-1816), was 
 field marshal under the previous viceroy 
 and had distinguished himself as a royalist 
 leader against the revolutionary army in 
 New Spain. However, after the siege of 
 Cuautla (See Morelos) Calleja, who was in 
 command of the Army of the Center, gave 
 
 up his command, on account of a disagree- 
 ment with the viceroy Venegas, and retired 
 to private life; from which he again emerged 
 to become himself viceroy He prosecuted 
 the war against the revolutionists, with 
 varying success. However his vigilant 
 policy gradually weakened the army of the 
 revolution until, in 1814 Calleja was able 
 to write home to Spain that "The insur- 
 gents have been dislodged from all parts of 
 New Spain, the only military point remain- 
 ing to them being Lake Chapala;" and, in- 
 deed, this was no idle boast, for of the great 
 leaders, Matamoros, Morelos, Miguel Bravo 
 and his father and Galiana were dead and 
 their forces captured or in hiding in all the 
 mountains, swamps and inaccessible places 
 of New Spain. Calleja was a man of cool 
 judgment and he did much to put down 
 the revolution by the systematic manner in 
 which he carried on his military operations, 
 and by the indulgence he extended to those 
 of the revolutionary party who were will- 
 ing to lay down their arms. His admin- 
 istration was one of constant agitation on 
 account of the unsettled condition of affairs 
 both in Mexico and Spain, but Calleja, 
 carried a level head throughout it all. For 
 his good services the viceroy was made 
 Count of Calderon on his return to Spain. 
 
 Camera de Diputados. See Chamber of 
 Deputies, 
 
 Campanas, Cerro de las. See Cerro de 
 LAS Campanas. 
 
 Campeche {kdm-pd'chd), one of the 
 southern states of Mexico, situated between 
 Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Tabasco and 
 Guatemala, has an area of 18,025 square 
 miles. It is purely an agricultural state 
 and its principal products are: timber, 
 corn, frijoles (native brown and black 
 beans), rice, sugar, chili (native red pepper), 
 henequen, fruits, chicle (chewing gum), a 
 large variety of vegetables, and aguardiente 
 (native brandy). Its principal cities are 
 Campeche (the capital) and El Carmen. 
 The state is generally low, very hot and 
 possesses few rivers or lakes. One of its 
 chief sources of riches is fishing, which is 
 carried on all along the coast. . 
 
 Canalize (kd' nd-le' so) , Gen. Valentin, 
 commander of the Mexican army at the 
 battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18, 1S47. His 
 defeat at this place left the way open for 
 the march of General Scott upon Mexico 
 City with the division of the American army 
 of invasion under his command. 
 
 Carmen (kdr'mdn), the largest island be- 
 longing to Mexico in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 It and Puerto Real form the bar which 
 shuts off Laguna de Terminos from the 
 
CARPIO 
 
 2251 
 
 CEBRIAN Y AGUSTIN 
 
 Gulf, which see. Commercially these two 
 islands are of very little importance; but 
 their presence there shuts off ■ the great 
 tides of the Gulf from the lagoon. How- 
 ever, there is a very remarkable deposit of 
 excellent salt upon the Island of Carmen, 
 which is over three miles long by two 
 miles wide and of great depth. 
 
 Carpio (kdr'pe-o), Manuel (i 791-1860), 
 a poet of wide range, but overestimated by 
 Mexican critics. He gives us, as one critic 
 aptly says, "A gallery of exact and well- 
 painted pictures;" but while he shows a 
 wide range of poetic power, his execution is 
 not equal to his promise and his talents. 
 He possesses great facility of expression, 
 smoothness of verse and a very pleasing 
 imagination. He is especially forceful in de- 
 scription, and religious poetry appeals to him. 
 
 Carrillo, Diego. See Mendoza y 
 
 PiMENTEL. 
 
 Casa de Moneda. See the Mint. 
 
 Casafuerte, Marquis of. See Acuna, 
 Juan de. 
 
 Casasus {kds-d-sdos') , Joaquin (1858- 
 ), journalist, diplomat, educator and 
 noted Mexican writer on civics and political 
 economy. For some time he was Mexican 
 Ambassador to Washington. His most 
 noted contributions to the civic and political 
 literature of Mexico are : History of the 
 London Debt; The Banking Question; Inter- 
 national Exchanges ; The Monetary Question; 
 and a History of the Gold and Silver Qtiestion. 
 He has also made some excellent transla- 
 tions from foreign languages into Spanish, 
 among them being Horace's Odes and Long- 
 fellow's Evangeline. 
 
 Castro, Pedro Nuffo Colon de Portugal y. 
 See Colon de Portugal. 
 
 Cathedral of Mexico, the largest church 
 building in the republic and one of the most 
 imposing structures in the New World, is 
 the seat of the Bishopric of Mexico. It 
 stands upon the site of the famous teocalli 
 or Aztec temple (which see) on the north 
 side of the Zocalo or Plaza Major of the 
 Capital. In 1523, two years after the con- 
 quest, the Cathedral of the Holy Metro- 
 politan Church of Mexico, was built upon 
 the site of the present Cathedral. This, 
 which was a small building for such a high- 
 sounding title, was replaced, a few years 
 later, by a somewhat larger structure; and 
 this, in its turn, gave place to the present 
 building, which was over one hundred years 
 in construction. The first stone was laid 
 in 1573. by order of Philip II of Spain, by 
 permission granted by Pope Clement VII. 
 So slow was the work of construction that 
 it was not until 1626 that the first service 
 was held in sacristy. The final dedication 
 took place Dec. 22, 1667. The building 
 was finally completed in 1791. The edifice 
 measures inside 387 feet long by 177 feet 
 front and 197 feet high. The two great 
 towers (see engraving) are 203 feet six inches 
 
 in height and cost $200,000; the great bell, 
 known as Santa Maria de Guadalupe, is 19 
 feet tall and cost $10,000, an enormous sum 
 of money for those days, when the actual 
 value of money was much greater than now. 
 Irrespective of the free labor which was 
 given by slaves and religious property 
 owners, the building cost over $2,000,000. 
 Today it would probably cost five times 
 that amount. The edifice is built of stone 
 and is a mixture of Doric and Ionic styles 
 of architecture, with white marble ^capitals, 
 statues, friezes and basso-relievos. Among 
 the various architects who contributed to 
 the plans of the Cathedral were Manuel 
 Tolsa and Alonzo Perez Castaneda. The 
 prevailing style of the interior is Doric, with 
 occasional traces of Gothic; 20 great fluted 
 columns support the roof in part; and be- 
 neath the great central dome handsome 
 arches form a vast Latin cross. The Cathe- 
 dral is rich in fine wood carving, numerous 
 paintings and statuettes. 
 
 San Felipe de Jesus (Saint Philip of 
 Jesus), the Chapel of the Relics and Saint 
 Peter are the principal chapels of the 
 Cathedral. All of these have excellent 
 paintings, and within them are buried the 
 remains of various men famous in Mexican 
 history, among these being Agustin de 
 Iturbide, first emperor of Mexico, Juan de 
 Zumarraga, first archbishop of Mexico and 
 Gregorio Lopez, "The Man with the Iron. 
 Mask." 
 
 Catholic Church on the continent of 
 America. The first, was established by a. 
 priest called Alonzo Gonzalez in Yucatan in. 
 1517. Gonzalez was attached to the expe- 
 dition of Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, 
 De Cordoba landed near Cape Catoche and 
 was forced to fight a battle with the natives: 
 which is described as follows by an ancient 
 chronicler: "Fifteen Spaniards were killed 
 in the battle, but, by the grace of God, 
 fifteen of the natives were also slain and two 
 captured." While the fighting was going 
 on Gonzalez entered a native temple and 
 ordered collected the idols therein and 
 carried them away. When the battle was 
 over the temple was dedicated as a Chris- 
 tian church and two Indian chiefs who had 
 been captured were baptized. And the 
 chronicler adds: "And this was the first 
 Christian church, and these were the first 
 Christian converts that ever were in the 
 continental parts of the New World." 
 
 Cebrian y Agustin {thd'bre-dn e d'g55s- 
 ten'), Pedro, Count of Fuenclara,, viceroy 
 of New Spain (1742-46), made the first 
 effort to obtain geographical and statistical 
 information of an official character relative 
 to New Spain. Settlers from Mexico were 
 sent to Florida and the Franciscans estab- 
 lished numerous missions throughout New 
 Spain. The viceroy paid much attention to 
 the erection of much-needed public build- 
 ings and other works of an official nature. 
 
CEDROS 
 
 2252 
 
 CHAPULTEPEC 
 
 Cedros (sd'drds) Island, ot considerable 
 size, forms the western side of the Bay of 
 Sabastian, on the west coast of Lower Cali- 
 fornia. It is of rocky formation and rugged 
 coast, and must originally have formed the 
 extension of what is now known as Point 
 Eugenia. The few inhabitants are Indians. 
 
 Celaya (sd-ld'yd), (Level Land), a city 
 in the \'alley of Laja, in the state of Guana- 
 juato, on the central braaich of the National 
 Railways of Me.xico, iSo miles to the north 
 of Mexico City, is a manufacturing place of 
 considerable importance. It was founded 
 in 1570. It is noted for its woolen and 
 cotton goods, soaps and candies, the latter 
 of which have a reputation throughout 
 Mexico. The place-has many fine buildings, 
 including colleges, schools, churches and 
 public edifices. Architecturally the hand- 
 somest building in the city is the church 
 of Our Lady of Caniien, the work of the 
 famous architect and painter, Eduardo 
 Tresguerras, many of whose fine pictures 
 are in various churches in Celaya, Popu- 
 .lition 35,000. 
 
 Cerda (thar'dd), Thomas Antonio Man= 
 rlque de la, Marquis de la Laguna and 
 Count of Paredes, 27th viceroy of New 
 Spain (16S0-16S6). During his adminis- 
 tration the natives of New Mexico rose 
 against Spanish dominion and murdered all 
 the white men found in that district, among 
 these being 21 Franciscan friars. They laid 
 siege to and took Santa Fe, plundered and 
 set fire to the town and then retreated be- 
 fore the arrival of Spanish troops which the 
 viceroy sent from Mexico City. The latter 
 sent some 300 families composed of Spanish 
 emigrants and Mexicans to populate New 
 Mexico, with a view to preventing a second 
 uprising of the natives, and all the forts of 
 the territory were strongly garrisoned with 
 trained soldiers. Pirates still continued to 
 trouble the. coasts of Mexico, and the famous 
 corsair, Agramonte, an Englishman with a 
 Spanish name, sacked the city of Veracruz, 
 on the Mtexican Gulf coast of New Spain, 
 and carried off with him a number of 
 women, several priests and all the portable 
 wealth he could lay his hands on. There 
 were between 800 and 1,000 men under 
 his command. 
 
 Cerralvo, Marquis of. See Pacheco y 
 
 OSORIO. 
 
 Cerro de las Campanas {sdr'rd da Ids 
 kdni-pdn' as) (Hill of the Bells) , the hill upon 
 which the Emperor Maximilian took refuge 
 when the city of Queretaro fell into the 
 hands of the republicans. Upon this same 
 hill he was executed a month later on the 
 charge of treason, usurpation of power be- 
 longing to the Mexican people and pro- 
 longing civil war in Mexico. See Maxi- 
 milian. 
 
 Cerro de Mercado. See Mercado. 
 
 Cerro Gordo. See Canalizo. 
 
 Chac=Mool. See Fire God. 
 
 Chalcas (clidl'kds), The, a powerful peo- 
 ple who originally .lived upon the shores of 
 Lake Chalco, in the Valley of Mexico. They 
 were one of the most powerful enemies with 
 which the Aztecs had to contend in the 
 early days of their history in the valley. 
 They were finally defeated by the allied 
 armies of Atzcapozalco and Mexico, though 
 the Mexicans bore the brunt of the battle. 
 After this defeat, the Chalcas became part 
 of the Aztec confederacy though they raised 
 the standard of rebellion un.successfully 
 several times. The land of the Chalcas is 
 now one of the most productive parts of 
 the Valley of Mexico. See Chalco and 
 Lake Chalco. 
 
 Chalco (chdl'ko), Lake, a fresh-water 
 lagoon in the Valley of Mexico, which, in 
 the course of several centuries of attempts 
 to drain the valley, has decreased very 
 much in extent. Upon this lake were fought 
 very many bloody battles in the days of the 
 Aztec confederacy. See Chalco. 
 
 Chalco {chdl'ko) , situated on Lake Chalco, 
 in the Valley of Mexico, now a picturesque 
 little Indian town. It early figured in Mexi- 
 can history as the chief city of the Chalcas, 
 one of the powerful tribes who opposed, the 
 Aztecs on their arrival in the Valley of 
 Mexico. The Chalcas were afterwards sub- 
 jected by the Mexicans and their lands be- 
 came part of the Aztec empire. 
 
 Chamber of Deputies (Camara de Dipu- 
 tados) , was fonn«^-^lv the Iturbide Theater, 
 but upon the destruction Aug. 22, 1872, of 
 the quarters in the National Palace, occupied 
 by the deputies, arrangements were made 
 to hold all meetings of that body in the 
 Iturbide Theater. This arrangement con- 
 tinued until the latter b.uilding was burned 
 on March 23, 1909. With this building 
 were destro^^ed most of the records of the 
 nation belonging to the transactions of the 
 deputies. Upon the destruction of the 
 Chamber of Deputies the congress at once 
 made an appropriation to rebuild the edifice 
 upon the same ground. 
 
 Chapultepec {chd-pddl'td-pdk') Castle 
 (meaning the Hill of the Grasshopper), the 
 official residence of the President of Mexico, 
 situated upon a steep hill at the southwest 
 end of the Passeo de la Reforma, the main 
 driveway which connects it with the City 
 of Mexico, about a mile distant, has an 
 interesting history w^hich reaches back into 
 the legendary past of the country. It was 
 formerly surrounded on three sides by the 
 marshy grounds which formed part of the 
 shallow shore-water of Lake Texcoco. 
 Shortly after their arrival in the Valley of 
 Mexico, the Aztecs took refuge on this rock, 
 which is of extensive proportions. They 
 were driven from this and, after _ more 
 wanderings, they settled upon two islands 
 in the center of Lake Texcoco. By a treaty, 
 made some years later, they obtained per- 
 mission from a neighboring prince to make 
 
CHAPULTEPEC 
 
 2253 
 
 CHURUBUSCO 
 
 use of the waters of a spring at the foot of 
 the rock of Chapultepec. Chimalpopoca, 
 one of their later kings, built an aqueduct 
 over three miles long, to bring this water 
 into the city of Tenochititlan (Mexico). 
 Later on Chapultepec fell into the hands of 
 the Mexicans, who made of it a summer 
 residence for their kings, and the forest sur- 
 rounding it an extensive hunting ground. 
 There, too, was the royal burying ground 
 of the Aztec princes during the supremacy 
 of the Mexicans. One of the finest natural 
 forests and parks in the world is that which 
 still surrounds this ancient rock. It is now 
 the favorite out of city park of the people 
 of the Capital of the Republic, and there, 
 on feast days and Sunday afternoons, all the 
 wealth and fashion of the city may be seen; 
 and the display of vehicles of pleasure on 
 such occasions is only equalled in Paris and 
 St. Petersburg. 
 
 The Hill of Chapultepec was stormed by 
 the American army under General Pillow, 
 Sept. 13, 1847, after a desperate resistance 
 on the part of the garrison, which was com- 
 posed for the most part of students of the 
 Military College. See Galvez-, Military 
 College-, Aztecs. 
 
 Chapulfepcc, The Hill of. See Cha- 
 pultepec Castle. 
 
 Chavero {cha-va'ro), Alfredo (1841-1907), 
 antiquarian, historian, journalist, dramatist, 
 critic, editor and poet, who made his influ- 
 ence deeply felt in politics and the social 
 life of the Capital, where he was born. He 
 was one of the few Mexican dramatists 
 whose plays have been popular in Madrid. 
 His most noted plays are Xochitl (his best). 
 The Loves of Alar con and Quetzalcoatl. He 
 contributed the first volume to the monu- 
 mental work, Mexico Throiighout the Cen- 
 turies, he wrote a History of Mexico in five 
 volumes, edited the works of a number of 
 the early and important writers of Mexico, 
 published biographies and criticisms, all 
 showing careful thought and investigation 
 and devoted much attention to archaeology 
 and kindred subjects. Among his works on 
 the latter subjects are: Mexican Antiq- 
 uities, extensively illustrated; Hieroglyph- 
 ical Paintings; The Wheel of Years and 
 The Astronoinical Gods of the Ancient Mexi- 
 cans. On his death he was accorded a state 
 funeral by the Mexican government. 
 
 Chiapas (che-d'pds), a state of Mexico, 
 bordering on Guatemala to the south and 
 lying between Tabasca, Veracruz and 
 Oaxaca, has an area of 27,220 square miles, 
 most of which is humid, warm and well 
 watered. In natural endowments it is one 
 of the richest states in the republic; but its 
 riches have been but partially developed. 
 Chiapas naturally divides into three parts: 
 the .Pacific slope, which is well watered by 
 many small streams, capable of developing 
 an immense amount of water power; the 
 Central Tableland and the Gulf Slope, the 
 
 latter of which is well watered by branches 
 of important rivers. Through the tableland 
 flows the Mexcalapa, a branch of the Gri- 
 jalva, which extends its numerous trib- 
 utaries throughout this territory. The 
 chief products of the state are: Coffee, 
 rubber, cacao, lumber, fine woods, hene- 
 quen, cattle, horses and salt. In Tabasco 
 is the largest rubber plantation in the 
 world, which contains over 15,000 acres of 
 rubber trees, owned by an American com- 
 pany, with headquarters in San Francisco, 
 California. The principal cities are,_Tuxtla 
 Gutierrez, the capital and commercial cen- 
 ter, San Cristobal las Casas, Tapachula and 
 Tonala . 
 
 Chichimecas (che' che-md' kds) , one of the 
 semi-civilized tribes who entered the Valley 
 of Mexico before the arrival of the Aztecs, 
 probably about the middle of the 12th 
 century, A. D. They are supposed to have 
 united with the part of the Toltecs who 
 remained in the Valley of Mexico after the 
 emigration of the greater part of that people 
 about 100 years before the arrival of the 
 Chichimecas. On the arrival of the Acol- 
 huas, who apparently spoke the same 
 tongue as the Chichimecas, the two people 
 formed a more or less close union; but the 
 Acolhuas, being the much more civilized of 
 the two, they gradually absorbed the former 
 and the united people became known as the 
 Acolhuas. They finally took up their abode 
 at Texcoco, which became one of_ the most 
 noted centers of native civilization in Mexico. 
 See Texcoco. 
 
 Chihuahua. See »p. 384. 
 
 Chimalpopoca (che-mdl' po-pdk' a) (Smok- 
 ing Shield), third king of Mexico ( 1409- 
 1423). During his reign the Mexicans and 
 the Texcocans became friends, for, _ when 
 Nezahualcoyotl, the famous poet king of 
 the latter nation was a refugee from _ his 
 kingdom, Chimalpopoca helped him against 
 his enemy, Tezozomoc, king of Azcapot- 
 zcalco; and on the death of this latter, the 
 two friendly nations carried on the struggle 
 against his successor, Maxtlaton, known in 
 history as the Tyrant of Azcapotzcalco ; but 
 the latter gaining the upper hand in the 
 struggle, carried off Chimalpopoca to Azca- 
 potzcalco, where he shut him in a cage on 
 the market place, thus leaving him exposed 
 to the ridicule of the people. In despera- 
 tion Chimalpopoca hanged himself. In his 
 reign the aqueduct from Chapultepec to 
 Mexico was built. 
 
 Cholula (cho-ldo' Id) , a town of about 
 5,000 inhabitants, situated eight miles from 
 Puebla, Mexico. At the time of the Spanish 
 Conquest, it was one of the greatest cities 
 of the Aztec empire and its most sacred 
 place. It was there that Cortes, the con- 
 queror, discovering a plot of the natives 
 against himself, massacred some three thou- i 
 sand 'of the nobles and chief men on the 
 market place. But today the chief interest 
 
COAHUILA 
 
 2254 
 
 CO XT RE R AS 
 
 of Cholula centers around the great pyramid 
 of Quetzalcoatl (the Fair God), probably 
 the largest pyramid in the world, certainly 
 larger than the famous Cheops of Egypt. 
 Part of its base is covered with the debris 
 of centuries, yet the part above ground 
 measures 1,000 feet square. This pyramid, 
 though probably of very ancient construc- 
 tion, was still in use at the time of the 
 conquest, and upon the top of it there was 
 a great and most famous temple dedicated 
 to the worship of Quetzalcoatl, a Toltec 
 god adopted by the Aztecs. See Quet- 
 z.ALCOATL. The Pyramid of Cholula, ill- 
 treated as it has been by the hand of time, 
 appears much like a natural hill. To this 
 partial destruction and disfigurement, its 
 construction has lent ready help; for it was 
 built of sundried bricks, much after the 
 manner of the structures of the early Egyp- 
 tians and other civilized nations of the 
 same age. Unlike the other two great 
 pyramids of the upland plateaux of Mexico 
 (See Teotihuac.a.x), that of Cholula is 
 built with four terraces (and a truncated 
 top), which have also aided the work of 
 disfigurement. On the summit of the 
 pyramid there is a beautiful church of 
 Spanish construction dedicated to the 
 worship of our Lady of los Remedios, to 
 whom the Spaniards were addicted to erect- 
 ing churches and altars. 
 
 Churubusco {choo' rod-bods' ko) , a town in 
 the Valley of Mexico, a short distance from 
 the capital, with which it is connected by 
 tramway. The name is a corruption of 
 Huitzilopochtli, the Aztec god of war, to 
 whom there was erected in the days of the 
 Aztec confederacy, a great temple and 
 shrine. Here is one of the largest and best 
 known churches and convents in Mexico. 
 This place was taken by storm, after a 
 stubborn resistance, by the American army 
 of invasion under General Worth, on Aug. 
 20, 1847. Just opposite Churubusco is the 
 Mexico Country Club, the greatest institu- 
 tion of its class in all Mexico. The value of 
 the club's property is over $2,000,000. 
 
 Coahuila (ko'd-we'ld), a northern state 
 of Mexico, bordering on the United States, 
 Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, San Luis 
 Potosi and Xuevo Leon, having an area of 
 62,360 square miles of territory, which con- 
 sists of small plains, valleys, mountains and 
 canons, with a considerable portion of very 
 fertile land. In the west there are two dry, 
 practically desert plains, the Bolson de 
 Mapimi and Barreal de la Paila, in which 
 are two extensive lakes, Mayran and Viezca, 
 into which flow the rivers Nazas and Agua- 
 naval from the state of Durango. The chief 
 industrial and commercial centers of Coa- 
 huila are Saltillo, Parras, Viezca, Mata- 
 moros, San Pedro, Cuatro Cienagas and 
 Porfirio Diaz (Piedras Negras). Principal 
 products: Cotton, corn, frijoles (native 
 brown and black beans), ixtli, wheat, wine, 
 
 woods, fruits, minerals, brandy, sugar, 
 barley, mescal and chili (native red pepper). 
 Colima {ko-le'md), a Pacific-coast state of 
 Mexico lying between Jalisco and Michoacan 
 contains 2,272 square miles. Unlike most 
 of the west-coast states, it is generally level, 
 only in the northeast being somewhat 
 mountainous. In general the climate is 
 wami, though in the mountainous regions 
 it is temperate. It produces all the tropical 
 products and exploits the salt beds along 
 the coast. The state is connected by the 
 Manzanillo-Colima railway with the Cen- 
 tral branch of the National Railways of 
 Mexico, and, through the latter, with the 
 commercial centers of the republic. The 
 principal cities are Colima, the capital, with 
 its excellent seaport of Manzanillo. 
 
 Conquest, Banner of the. See Banner 
 OF THE Conquest. 
 
 Contreras (kon-trd'rds) , Jose Peon y 
 (1843-1907), medical man, poet, dramatic, 
 epic, lyric and pas- 
 toral, and the most 
 noted of all the mod- 
 ern dramatists of 
 Mexico. He may be 
 said to be truly a 
 national poet and 
 dramatist, for he has 
 made Mexican sub- 
 jects his chief themes, 
 and he has handled 
 them in such a way 
 as to make them 
 more popular than 
 has any other Mex- 
 ican author. He was 
 a most prolific writer 
 and he has a long 
 list of dramas and 
 poetical works to his credit, all of which 
 show vivid imagination, delicacy, yet sure- 
 ness of touch, strong characterization, 
 beauty of expression and dramatic power. 
 His writings all show a strong romantic in- 
 fluence. Among his best known dramas 
 are the following; The Punishment of God; 
 Simple Mary; An Idyl of Childhood; The 
 Count of Santiesteban; To the Very Heavens; 
 Gil Gonzalez de Avila; The Sacrifice of Life; 
 The King's Daughter; Struggles of Honor and 
 Love; Juan de Villalpando; A Love Affair 
 of Hernando Cortes; Impulses of the Heart; 
 The Count of Pcnalva; Between Your Uncle 
 and Your Aunt; Hope; Anton de Alaminos; 
 For a Hat Ornament; Soledad, Padre Jose; 
 Gabriela and Pedrenales. All of these 
 dramas show action, knowledge of stage- 
 craft and deep comprehension of character 
 and the motives that inove men. In addi- 
 tion to the above long list of dramas. Peon 
 has produced historical legends, romances, 
 lyrical and other poems, all touched with 
 the spirit of romanticism and vivid with 
 imagination and the same power of movement 
 and characterization found in his dramas. 
 
 JOSE PEON Y 
 CONTRERAS 
 
COLOSSAL MONUMENT TO CUAUTEMOC, THE LAST OF THE AZTEC EMPERORS, 
 
 ■ MEXICO CITY 
 
CONTRERAS 
 
 2255 
 
 CUAUTEMOC 
 
 Contreras, Pedro Moya de. See Moya 
 DE Contreras. 
 
 Colon de Portugal y Castro {kd-lon'dd 
 
 pdr'tod-gdl'e kds'tro), Pedro Nuno, Duke de 
 Veraguas, 25th yiceroy of New Spain in 
 1673, was a descendant of Christopher 
 Columbus, the discoverer of the New World. 
 He died a few days after having arrived in 
 Mexico City to take charge of his office. 
 
 Conquest, Duke of the. See Salazar, 
 Pedro Castro Figueroa. 
 
 Cordoba, (kdr'do-vd), a commercially im- 
 portant town in the state of Veracruz at 
 the junction of the Mexican and Veracruz 
 and Pacific railways, about 200 miles from 
 the City of Mexico, was founded in 1618. 
 It is the center of and chief town in a very 
 rich agricultural district and does a large 
 trade in tropical fruits, tobacco, sugar and 
 corn. Population 10,000. 
 
 Cordoba, Fernandez de. See Fer- 
 nandez DE Cordoba. 
 
 Coruna, Count of. See Lorenzo Juarez 
 DE Mendoza. 
 
 Coyoacan (co-yo'd-kdn') , a picturesque 
 town in the Valley of Mexico, a short dis- 
 tance to the south of the Capital, by which 
 it is connected by electric tramway. It 
 is the favorite summer residence of many 
 rich people of Mexico City, who have there 
 grand old homes, with extensive gardens 
 and orchards. Coyoacan (the place of the 
 coyote), was an important commercial cen- 
 ter during the days of the Aztec confederacy, 
 and it was there that Cortes, after the con- 
 quest of Tenochtitlan, made his residence. 
 The house he built for himself is still 
 standing and bears his coat of arms over 
 the door. It now serves as the town court 
 house and jail. 
 
 Cozumel (ko' sod-mdl') , an island of con- 
 siderable size lying close to the eastern 
 coast of Yucatan, Mexico. In pre-Colum- 
 bian times it was the seat of a strong native 
 government and considerable civilization. 
 Hernando Cortes visited it on his famous 
 voyage to Mexican waters. On the island 
 are notable ruins, some of them dating to 
 an early period in the history of Mexico. 
 
 Croix (cro'es), Carlos de. Marquis de 
 Croix, 44th viceroy of New Spain (1766- 
 1771), acting under orders from Charles III 
 of Spain, decreed the expulsion of all the 
 Jesuits from the Spanish dominions and 
 confiscated to the crown their possessions. 
 The order of expulsion was passed secretly 
 throughout the country by messengers to 
 trusted officers of the court, and the utmost 
 secrecy was maintained so that not an 
 inkling of what was about to happen might 
 reach the ears of those interested lest the 
 populace should rise in behalf of the mis- 
 sionaries, who were much beloved by the 
 Indians. On June 25, 1767, before day- 
 light, the order was delivered to the heads 
 of all the Jesuit establishments throughout 
 New Spain and at once the friars were 
 
 herded together and hurried, under escort, 
 to Veracruz. Some of them perished on 
 the, way and others died of yellow fever 
 while in port, and still others in Havana, 
 from which they were taken to various 
 places designated by the royal decree, most 
 of them being sent to Italy, among these 
 latter being the following who were after- 
 wards to become famous: Alegre, Clavigero, 
 Maneiro, Cavo, Landivar, Lacunza and 
 Marquez. After the departure of the 
 Jesuits, many of the native tribes fell back 
 into savagery, and were, for almost a cen- 
 tury, to give trouble to the government. 
 
 Cruillas, Marquis de. See Monserrat, 
 Joaquin de. 
 
 Cruz (kroos), Sor Juana Inez de la 
 (165 1— 1694), the most popular and the best 
 of the women writers of Mexico, and in 
 the very forerank of the literati of the 
 Republic. So popular is she that streets, 
 theatres, schools and literary and other 
 societies have been named after her. At 
 the age of 17 she had already attained 
 literary fame. It was about this time that 
 she became a nun; and, from then on for 
 the next 12 years, in the seclusion of the 
 cloister, she devoted her life to literature 
 and the study of science, history, sociology 
 and all the lines of knowledge of her day. 
 So great was her intelligence and her 
 capacity for the assimilation of knowledge 
 that she attracted the attention of the 
 whole Spanish world. This career came 
 suddenly to an end in 1690, when the 
 Bishop of Puebla, Manuel Fernandez, pre- 
 vailed upon her to give up the study of 
 profane subjects and to devote herself alto- 
 gether to the duties of her religious life. 
 In the enthusiasm of her religious zeal, she 
 sold her library, which consisted of over 
 4,000 volumes, distributed the money thus 
 obtained among the poor, and from that 
 day on until her death, four years later, 
 the voice of the "tenth muse" was never 
 again heard in the outside world. Her 
 literary remains show what a struggle this 
 must have cost her; and in all probability 
 the severance of all the literary ties which 
 had been her very life up to this time, 
 shortened her days. The world has lost 
 much through the intolerance of Manuel 
 Fernandez, Bishop of Puebla. 
 
 Few Mexican writers have understood so 
 well as Sor Juana Inez de la Cruz the work- 
 ings of the human heart; for she reflects its 
 every mood and passion; and her great 
 learning gives her writings a profoundness 
 to be met with among few of the other 
 Mexican writers. Her poetry is rich in 
 coloring, melodious, varied in form and 
 simple in conception, yet, at the same time, 
 notable for the depth of its philosophy. 
 
 Cuautemoc {kwd'dd-td'mdk) (i 520-1 521), 
 the last emperor of the Aztecs, and son of 
 Ahuizotl, is the most heroic figure in Aztec 
 history. On the death of his uncle, Cuit- 
 
CUAUTLA 
 
 2256 
 
 CUITLAHUAC 
 
 lahuac, he became head of the Aztec con- 
 federacy, which was then being hardly 
 pressed by the Spanish conqueror, Hernan 
 Cortes. He was but 24 years of age, but 
 he had in him the stuff of which warriors 
 are made. At once he proceeded to put the 
 city of Tenochtitlan in the best condition 
 possible to withstand a protracted siege, 
 and he animated his people to resist the 
 invaders. From the surrounding country 
 he hurried into the capital of his empire 
 hundreds of tried and trusty warriors. But 
 his was a lost cause before he assumed the 
 reins of power; for the fight was one of the 
 science of Europe against the courage and 
 patriotism of the semi-barbaric Aztecs. 
 For So days, Cuautemoc defended the city, 
 until it was literally battered down about 
 his head. Thousands died of hunger and 
 of that still more terrible enemy, thirst. 
 And fevers and diseases of various kinds, 
 including smallpox, claimed their holocausts 
 of victims. Only when the beautiful cap- 
 ital ot Aztecland was a mass of ruins did 
 Cuautemoc try to make his escape with his 
 family and some of his principal nobles. 
 He was captured and brought before the 
 conqueror, Cortes, who praised his braverv 
 and promised him protection. How well 
 this promise was kept history shows; for 
 shortly afterwards Cuautemoc was put to 
 the torture to make him reveal the hiding, 
 place of the treasure of Montezuma II. On 
 an expedition made by Cortes into Central 
 America, in which Cuautemoc took part, 
 the latter was, without trial, hanged to a 
 Cyprus tree (1525). 
 
 Cuautia {k-dud-dof Id) , a picturesque city 
 in the state of Morelos, which has long been 
 a favorite health resort for people from the 
 capital. It is on the main line of the Inter- 
 oceanic Railway, 85 miles from Mexico City. 
 The city is noted for the heroic defense 
 made there by Morelos, the revolutionary 
 general, against the Spanish army, for two 
 months and a half in 181 2 Altitude 3,500 
 feet; population 22,000. The city is the 
 center of a rich agricultural country. 
 
 Cubas (kod-vds), Antonio Garcia (1832- 
 ), noted as a statistical and archaeo- 
 logical writer, has held many important 
 positions in his native country. He has 
 published numerous valuable maps and 
 charts of the Republic of Mexico and he 
 has done important literary work. He is 
 a meinber of the Legion of Honor of France 
 and his name figures among the honorary 
 members of many societies of note in var- 
 
 ious parts of the world. In 1857 he pub- 
 lished the first trustworthy map of the 
 Republic of Mexico. 
 
 Cuellar (kwd'ydr), Jose T. de (1823- 
 ), editor, dramatist and journalist, has 
 been very successful as a writer of comedy. 
 Of the latter the best known are: Poor 
 Boys; Old Chacon and The Art of Love. 
 Natural y Figiira, a serious drama, is one 
 of the most successful plays ever put upon 
 the Mexican stage. Among his other suc- 
 cessful serious plays. Griefs and Sacrifices is 
 worthy of inention. Among his successful 
 novels are: The Magic Lantern, a series of 
 many stories; Salad and Chickens; Chnchu; 
 Old Maids; Gobina; People who are Just So 
 and Gabriel the Locksmith. Cuellar has also 
 been one of the noted journalists of the 
 Capital and the editor of various important 
 publications. 
 
 Cuellar, Marquis of. See Fernandez 
 
 DE L.A. CUEV.A.. 
 
 Cueva Enriquez, Fernandez de la. See 
 
 Fernandez de h\ Cueva. 
 
 Cuitlahuac (kwet-ld'wdk) , Lord of Ixta- 
 palapa, and brother of Montezuma II, 
 whom he succeeded as emperor of Mexico 
 on the death of the latter, June 30, 1520. 
 He was a noted warrior, wise, brave and 
 generous, qualities very much needed at 
 that particular time in the history of 
 Mexico, which was then struggling desper- 
 ately against the invading Spaniards. He 
 was intensely patriotic, and he worked 
 ceaselessly to unite the Mexican people 
 against the white invaders. He set hun- 
 dreds of Indians to work to repair the 
 ruined houses of the city of Mexico; he 
 repaired the ruined fortifications and con- 
 structed additional lines of defense and he 
 sent out trusted men in all directions 
 throughout the Aztec empire to excite and 
 encourage the Mexican people to resist the 
 Spaniards to the bitter end. He even tried 
 to persuade the Tlaxcalans, the traditional 
 enemies of the Mexicans, to unite with the 
 latter against the invaders. But the con- 
 queror, Cortes, gaining engagement after 
 engagement, owing to the fact that he was 
 provided with cavalry and modern arms, 
 the allies of the Mexicans deserted one 
 after another, and even Cuitlahuac himself 
 was defeated by Cortes. In the midst of 
 this desperate struggle, Cuitlahuac was 
 smitten with smallpox, which the Spaniards 
 had brought to Mexico, and he died in a 
 few days after a stirring reign of only 
 four months. 
 
DEAD 
 
 2257 
 
 ESTEVA 
 
 D 
 
 Dead, Street of the, often mentioned 
 by tourists and writers on Mexican sub- 
 jects, is a very ancient cauSeway beginning 
 at the "Citadel" and stretching from there 
 past the pyramid of the Sun to the pyramid 
 of the Moon in the vast ruins of the very 
 ancient city of San Juan Teotihuacan 
 (The City of the Gods), which is situated 
 27 miles to the north of the city of Mexico, 
 on the line of the Mexican Railway This 
 causeway is supposed to have been the 
 main thoroughfare of Teotihuacan in the 
 days when it flourished as the greatest and 
 most sacred city of ancient Mexico. It is 
 lined on both sides by numerous tumuli 
 constructed of earth. See Teotihuacan. 
 
 Del Rey, General. See Calleja del Rey. 
 
 Deputies, Chamber of. See Chamber 
 OF Deputies. 
 
 Desierto (dd'se-dr'to), EI, a famous 
 ruined Carmelite mission situated 12 miles 
 to the southwest of the City of Mexico. In 
 ancient days it was a place of great renown 
 and sanctity; but it is now deserted and 
 falling into ruins among its surrounding of 
 stately hills and primeval forests. The 
 ruins are of vast extent, most picturesquely 
 situated and possessed of a wild beauty 
 which attracts hundreds of tourists and 
 picknickers each year. By the people of 
 the cities and towns of the Valley of Mexico 
 and, especially of the Capital of the Republic, 
 El Desierto is looked upon as one of the 
 most pleasant places for a day's outing. _ 
 
 Diaz de Armendaris {de'as da dr'man- 
 dar'es). Lope, Marquis de Cadereita i6th 
 viceroy of New Spain (1635-1640), rented 
 a number of vessels and established a small 
 fleet on the shore of the. Gulf of Mexico, 
 to free the ports of those waters of the 
 pirates and privateers who harassed them 
 frequently. He encouraged the setulement 
 of the Indian districts of New Spain with 
 white and half-breed families from the more 
 .settled districts and he occupied himself 
 
 See p. 528. 
 
 See Guadalupe, 
 
 Our 
 
 with the sanitation of the Capital of the 
 province. 
 
 Diaz, Porfirio. 
 
 Diego, Juan. 
 
 Lady of. 
 
 Dolores {do-l5r' as)' CemQtery , the national 
 cemetery of Mexico, situated to the south- 
 west of the City of Mexico, upon the hill- 
 side behind the suburban town of Tacubaya. 
 It is in no way noted for its beauty; but 
 there are buried many of Mexico's most 
 noted dead. It figures frequently in the 
 literature of Mexico, on account of its many 
 associations and its intimate relationship 
 with all classes of the Mexican people. 
 
 Dolores de Hidalgo {dd-ldr'ds da e-ddl'go) 
 a little town in the state of Guanajuato, 
 Mexico, and near the Capital of the state. 
 It is noted as the place where the patriot 
 priest Hidalgo first raised the standard of 
 rebellion against Spanish rule in New 
 Spain. 
 
 Durango {doo-rdn' go) , one of the largest 
 states of Mexico, lying between Chihuahua, 
 Coahuila, Zacatecas, Jalisco, Tepic and 
 Sinaloa, has an area of 38,800 square miles 
 of territory, which is in general moun- 
 tainous, with great and fertile valleys. It 
 has every variety of climate to be, found 
 in Mexico, from the heat of the lowlands to 
 the extreme cold of the mountain heights. 
 The mountainous regions are extremely 
 rich in valuable minerals, whose yearly out- 
 put is valued at over $12,000,000. Durango 
 is, in general, well watered by many rivers 
 and mountain streams, the principal of 
 which are the Nazas, Papasquiaro,' Mes- 
 quital and Aguanaval. The chief products 
 of the state are: Cotton, timber, sugar, 
 chili (native red pepper), corn, wine, wheat, 
 frijoles, ixtli, fruit, minerals and cattle. 
 The principal cities of the state are: Dur- 
 ango, the capital and chief commercial and 
 mining center, Mapimi, Villa Lerdo, Nazas, 
 Juarez, Papasquiaro and El Oro. 
 
 Education. See p. 1215. 
 
 Enriquez de Almanza. See Almanza. 
 
 Enriquez de Guzman (dn-re'kds da gdds- 
 nidn'), Luis, Count of Alba de Liste, 20th 
 viceroy of New Spain (1650-1653). During 
 
 his administration the Tarahumare Indians 
 rose against the government and destroyed 
 towns and villages in the state of Durango 
 and demolished the forts which the govern- 
 ment had built to defend the state against 
 
EXRIQUEZ DE ALMAXZA 
 
 2258 
 
 FERNANDEZ DE CORDOBA 
 
 them. Practically all the white inhabitants 
 in the Tarahumare country perished at the 
 hands of the Indians. Important new 
 mines were discovered and the famous 
 palace of the Marquis del Valle was burned 
 in 1652. Enriquez de Guzman was sent 
 from Mexico to Peru as viceroy. 
 
 Enriquez de Rivera (dn-re'kds da re- 
 var'd). Fray Payo, archbishop of Mexico 
 and 26th viceroy of New Spain (1673- 
 16S0), was one of the best rulers of Mexico 
 during the viceregal period. A chronicler 
 of his time writing of him says: "So well 
 did he temper justice with mercy, liberty 
 with economy that his administration will 
 serve for centuries to come as a model " 
 During his administration gold was coined 
 for the tirst time at the mint in Mexico 
 City, a large colony was sent to California 
 from New Spain and the famous hospital 
 of Betlemitas was founded. The viceregal 
 palace, which had been in the course of 
 construction, was finished, the drainage 
 works of the Valley of Mexico were com- 
 
 pleted and the streets of the Capital paved. 
 The viceroy spent vast sums from his private 
 purse for the public good, thus leaving behind 
 him many monuments in various parts of the 
 dominion and especially in the Capital of 
 New Spain. On his return to Spain he was 
 appointed president of the Council of the 
 Indies and Bishop of Cuenca. 
 
 Escalona, Duke of. See Cabrera y 
 
 BOBADILLA. 
 
 Escobar y Llamas, Diego Osorio. See 
 
 OsoRio Escobar y Llamas, Pedro. 
 
 Esteva {ds-td'vd), Jose Maria (1818- 
 1904), a Mexican poet who is very popular 
 with the masses on account of his humor 
 and the facility with which he paints the 
 customs, thoughts and prejudices of the 
 lower classes, especially those of his native 
 state, Veracruz. But beneath all his appar- 
 ent frivolity there runs a depth of feeling 
 and an insight into the moods and passions 
 that niove humanity, that gives him con- 
 sideration in the eyes of those who look 
 for the serious in literature. 
 
 Falces, Marquis of. See Peralta, 
 Gaston de. 
 
 Feast Days are many in Mexico, though 
 officially the government recognizes but few. 
 The feast days that are recognized, wholly 
 or in part, more especially in the rural dis- 
 tricts and the towns and smaller cities of 
 Mexico, number about one hundred. Most 
 of these are religious festivals and their 
 origin is to be found back in the days of 
 Spanish occupation. As the Mexican peon 
 is naturally fond of a holiday, he clings 
 tenaciously to these ancient festivals. The 
 days that are recognized each year by the 
 government as national holidays are: Feb- 
 ruary 5, Constitution day; May 5, defeat 
 of the French at the Battle of Puebla, 
 1862; May 8, Hidalgo's birthday; Septem- 
 ber 15 and 16, independence days. 
 
 Feathers of the Hummingbird. See 
 
 HUITZILIHUITL. 
 
 Federal District of Mexico, the 
 
 smallest political division of the republic, 
 occupies the central part of the Valley of 
 Mexico, and is almost surrounded by the 
 state of the same name. It contains the 
 City of Mexico, the capital of the republic, 
 to which it owes its importance and wealth. 
 It is mountainous toward the south and 
 west and flat to the east and north. For 
 the greater part of the year the climate is 
 
 even and delightful On account of the 
 numerous railways centering in the Capital 
 of the Republic, the Federal District has 
 communication with almost every impor- 
 tant part of Mexico. This gives it great 
 commercial importance; and its political 
 character gives it social and political im- 
 portance. The chief towns are Mexico City, 
 Xochimilco, Atzcapotzcalco, Tacubaya, 
 Coyoacan and San Angel. Area 450 square 
 miles. Population 650,000. 
 
 Fernandez de Cordoba (fd-r-ndn'dds da 
 kdr' do-vd') , Diego, Marquis of Guadalcazar, 
 13th viceroy of New Spain (1612-1621), 
 established a department for the collection 
 of tribute and the distribution of quick- 
 silver, which was much used in the mining 
 of the precious metals; continued the work 
 of drainage of the Valley of Mexico, founded 
 the cities of Cordoba and Lerma and com- 
 pleted (1620) the Chapultepec aqueduct, 
 thus bringing good potable water into the 
 Capital of the province, the need of which 
 had long been felt During his administra- 
 tion there was an uprising of the Tepehuan 
 Indians, during which many Spaniards and 
 friendly natives were slaughtered. On Feb. 
 13, 1 6 19, a terrible earthquake, one of the 
 longest on record, which lasted over a 
 quarter of an hour, visited New Spain, 
 ruining hundreds of buildings and killing 
 
FERNANDEZ DE LA CUEVA 
 
 2259 
 
 GALVEZ 
 
 many people. Its influence extended over 
 1, 5 DO miles. It was during his administra- 
 tion that the famous engineer, Boot, visited 
 NeT/ Spain, at the request of Philip III, to 
 report upon the drainage work of the Valley 
 of Mexico then being carried on (See Boot). 
 About this time rich pearls began to be 
 brought from the Gulf of Lower California. 
 
 Fernandez de la Cueva {fdr-ndn'dds da 
 Id kwd'vd), Francisco, Duke of Albur- 
 querque, 21st viceroy of New Spain (1653- 
 1660), protected scholars, artists and stu- 
 dents of all classes, swept the public high- 
 ways of robbers, sent a military expedition 
 to Jamaica to help the inhabitants who 
 were trying to throw of? the dominion of 
 the English, founded in New Mexico the 
 town of Albuquerque, established numer- 
 ous missions, and "reduced to the Chris- 
 tian faith multitudes of Indians." From 
 Mexico he was sent to Sicily as viceroy. 
 
 Fernandez de la Cueva Enriquez (fdr- 
 ndn'dds dd Id kwd'vd dn-re'kds), Francisco, 
 Duke of Alburquerque and Marquis of 
 Cuellar, 33rd viceroy of New Spain (1702— 
 171 1), was a careful and tactful ruler, qual- 
 ities much needed at this particular time 
 in Mexico when there were numerous fac- 
 tions, each ready to show its illwill against 
 the other. He increased the naval force in 
 Mexican waters, pursued the pirates and 
 other enemies of New Spain and practically 
 cleared the Gulf of Mexico of the former, 
 for the first time since the conquest. 
 
 Fire Qod, The (Chac-Mool), a remark- 
 able stone figure in the National Museum in 
 Mexico City, was exhumed by Dr. Le Plon- 
 geon from, the ruins of Chichen-Itza in 
 Yucatan. It is a huge, recumbent figure 
 holding with both hands over the upturned 
 
 navel a circular disk, which is supposed to 
 represent the sun. Alfredo Chavero is of 
 the opinion that this figure represents the 
 fire god of the ancient inhabitants of Yuca- 
 tan. Three other figures of almost exactly 
 similar form have been discovered in 
 Mexico. The museum contains two speci- 
 mens. 
 
 Flores, (fldr'ds) Manuel Antonio, 50th 
 viceroy of New Spain (1787-1789), had been 
 governor of Bogota before coming to Mexico. 
 He created several new bodies of native 
 troops, inspected the principal forts of the 
 country and put them on a better footing 
 and made successful war upon the still 
 unconquered Indian tribes of New Spain, 
 forcing them to make peace with the Span- 
 iards along the northern frontier, the result 
 of which was felt for many years after- 
 wards. He encouraged learning and im- 
 proved the teaching staff in the School of 
 Mines. 
 
 Flower Carnival. An attempt has been 
 made to hold each year in Mexico City a 
 great Flower Carnival, which has not been 
 very successful, as the great body of rich 
 people have not taken kindly to it, although 
 the day is made a general holiday, and as 
 such is taken advantage of by vast num- 
 bers of people; the display of handsome 
 carriages on this day is one of the sights 
 of the city. Another flower carnival, whose 
 origin is to be found in the dim past, long 
 before the discovery of America, is held 
 also each year in Mexico City on the banks 
 of the Viga Canal. This is the most pic- 
 turesque festival held in the republic. See 
 Viga Canal. 
 
 Fuenclara, Count of- See Cebrian y 
 Agustin. 
 
 G 
 
 Qachupina, La. See Remedios, Our 
 Lady of Loo. 
 
 Qalvan (gdl-vdn'), Ignacio Rodriguez 
 
 (1816— 1842), one of the best of the romantic 
 poets of the earlier years of the Mexican 
 republic. He was a self-educated country 
 boy, who came to the city, worked in a 
 bookstore, devoured books and studied far 
 into the night to wake up one morning to 
 find himself famous. Notwithstanding all 
 these disadvantages, he was a lyrical and 
 dramatic poet of great power and literary 
 excellence. On his way to take a post 
 under the Mexican government in Central 
 America, he contracted yellow fever and 
 
 died in Havana, at the early age of 26 
 His best dramas are Munoz; Visitor to 
 Mexico and Private Secretary to the Vice- 
 roy. He was the first to introduce into 
 the drama subjects wholly Mexican in char- 
 acter, and his influence in this respect upon 
 succeeding Mexican dramatists has been 
 considerable. 
 
 Galve, Count of. See Silva y Men- 
 
 DOZA. 
 
 Qalvez (gdl'vdfh), Bernardo de, Count 
 of Galvez, 48th viceroy of New Spain (1785- 
 1786) and son of the previous viceroy, 
 Matias de Galvez, had distinguished him- 
 self as a warrior during the administration 
 
GALVEZ 
 
 2260 
 
 GRASSHOPPER 
 
 of the Marquis of Croix, when he accom- 
 panied the miHtary expedition to Florida, 
 in consequence of which he was appointed 
 governor of Cuba, from whence he was 
 called to New Spain to fill the chief execu- 
 tive office. He was a peculiarly fascinating 
 man, just and honest,, and he won the 
 reputation of being the most popular of all 
 the viceroys up to his time. A heavy frost 
 killed the crops during the first year of his 
 administration, and the viceroy exerted all 
 his powers and resources to help the thou- 
 sands of suffering people and he was seconded 
 by the Archbishop of Mexico and the 
 church generally, half a million Spanish 
 dollars being taken from the ecclesiastical 
 treasury for this purpose. On account of 
 the depression in commercial centers there 
 was little work, and this made the suffer- 
 ing of the masses more intense. To relieve 
 this condition of affairs the viceroy under- 
 took the rebuilding of the Castle of Cha- 
 pultepec and various other public works 
 of an important nature. He died while 
 in office, in Tacubaya, a suburb of the 
 Capital. 
 
 Galvez, Marquis of. See Mendoza y 
 
 PiMENTEL. 
 
 Galvez (gdl'vdth), Matias de, president 
 of Guatemala and 47th viceroy of New 
 Spain (17S3-1784), was just, kind and good- 
 hearted and gave encouragement to the 
 liberal arts and to education generally. 
 Through his influence the Academy of Noble 
 Arts in Mexico City was endowed with more 
 liberal funds by the king of Spain, and was 
 thus enabled to do better work. He also 
 sought and obtained permission to protect 
 and improve the forest of Chapultepec and 
 the castle on the summit of the hill of the 
 same name, which is now the official resi- 
 dence of the president of the republic. 
 
 Garcia Guerra, Fray. See Guerra, 
 Fray Garcia. 
 
 Garcia Real, Marquis of. See Salazar, 
 Pedro Castro Figueroa. 
 
 Garisbay {gdr-es'bd), Pedro, 56th vice- 
 roy of New Spain (1S0S-1809), was an old 
 soldier who had worked his way up from 
 the militia. He was the choice of the 
 oidores who deposed the preceding viceroy 
 (See Iturrigaray). His position was a 
 peculiar one. While he claimed to be gov- 
 erning New Spain in the name of Fernando 
 VII, he in reality obeyed the commands of 
 the oidores. He collected all the money he 
 could in Mexico and sent it to Spain. Dur- 
 ing his administration the revolutionary 
 idea made rapid headway in New Spain, 
 owing to the unsettled condition in the 
 mother country, and the viceroy had to be 
 constantly on his guard to protect the 
 interests of the Spanish crown in Mexico. 
 Lie. Verdad, one of the first promoters of 
 the independence of Mexico, was arrested, 
 charged with plotting against the Spanish 
 government, thrown into prison and mur- 
 
 dered there by the prison authorities. See 
 Verdad. 
 
 Gaston de Peralta. See Peralta. 
 
 Gonzalez {gun-sa'lds), Manuel, president 
 of Mexico (1880-18S4), had been a brave 
 and successful general during the wars 
 which preceded and followed the overthrow 
 of the empire under Maximilian; but he 
 proved an inefficient chief executive, and 
 the country advanced very little during his 
 administration, the chief events of which 
 were, the "nickel riots" (1S83); uprisings 
 in various parts of the country over an 
 unpopular plan of the government to settle 
 the English debt of Mexico; the opening of 
 the Mexican Railway and the failure of the 
 Monte de Piedad. The "nickel riots" were 
 an uprising of the populace of Mexico in 
 protest against the issuing of nickel coins 
 and the temporary suspension of the Monte 
 de Piedad was occasioned by the govern- 
 ment drawing heavily upon its reserve fund. 
 
 Gorostiza (gor'os-tes'd), Manuel Edu= 
 ardo de (17S9-1851), the best of all the 
 earlier dramatists of Mexico. He follows 
 the romantic Spanish school of drama; his 
 plots are skilfully worked out, his situa- 
 tions excellent and his characters well 
 drawn. He has a store of philosophy which 
 runs through all his dramas; yet it is not 
 intruded in such a way as to detract from 
 the popularity of his plays. Although a 
 Mexican born, most of his dramas were 
 written in Spain and first presented upon 
 the Spanish stage, where he was very pop- 
 ular in his day and where his coinpositions 
 are still produced side by side with the 
 masters of the earlier Spanish drama. 
 
 Granaditas, Alhondiga de. See Alhon- 
 
 DIGA. 
 
 Granados (grdn-d'ihos), Enrique Fer- 
 nandez (1S66-1 ), one of the leaders of 
 the modern classical 
 school of literature in 
 l\Iexico. He has de- 
 voted all of his atten- 
 tion to poetry and to 
 translations from 
 Italian and French, 
 in both of which he 
 has shown purity of 
 style, facility of versi- 
 fication, melody and 
 rhythmical qualities 
 possessed by few of 
 the modern writers in 
 Mexico. His pub- 
 lished works consist 
 of two vo 1 u m e s, 
 Myrtles and Daisies. 
 In addition to these 
 he has published several small booklets, all 
 exquisitely printed on fine paper showing the 
 taste of the author even in these small 
 details. 
 
 Grasshopper, Hill of the. See Cha- 
 pultepec Castle. 
 
 ENRIQUE FERNANDEZ 
 GRANADOS 
 
GRUA TALAMANCA 
 
 2261 
 
 GUEMES PACHECO DE PADILLA 
 
 Qrua Talamanca {groo'a tdl'd-mdn'kd), 
 Miguel La, Marquis of Branciforte, 52nd 
 viceroy of New Spain (i 794-1 798), was an 
 Italian by birth, but intimately related to 
 noble Spanish families. He left a very un- 
 savory reputation behind him. It is asserted 
 that he sold the offices, from the highest to 
 the lowest in his gift in New Spain, that he 
 persecuted the French in the province, and 
 that the few who were allowed to remain 
 in the country were enabled to do so only 
 by buying the friendship of the viceroy. 
 He made a pretext of the war with the 
 French nation to confiscate the property of 
 all the French subjects in New Spain. He 
 re-established the rural militia, which had 
 been previously abolished (See Guemes 
 Pacheco) and he did his best to cast dis- 
 honor upon his predecessor in office, the 
 famous Count of Revillagigedo. 
 
 Quadalcazar, Marquis of. See Fer- 
 nandez DE .Cordoba. 
 
 Guadalupe Hidalgo {gwd' dd-l5d' pd 
 e-ddl'go), a village some three miles to the 
 north of Mexico City, which is of importance 
 because there is the shrine of Our Lady of 
 Guadalupe, the patroness of Mexico, and 
 the most popular saint on the American 
 continents. In pre-Columbian times the 
 site of the present village was the home of 
 the Aztec goddess, Tonantzin (the mother 
 of Gods and Men). A causeway connected 
 the shrine through the lake, which then 
 covered this part of the valley, with 
 Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City). See Our 
 Lady of Guadalupe. 
 
 Guadalupe, Island of. See p. 808. 
 
 Guadalupe (gwd'dd-ldd'pd) , Our Lady of, 
 the patron saint of Mexico. Hers is the 
 most widely venerated shrine on the Amer- 
 ican continent: In the year 1531, it is 
 asserted that the Virgin Mary appeared 
 four separate times to a poor Indian by the 
 name of Juan Diego from Cuatitlan, a 
 neighboring village, and urged him to go 
 to the Archbishop of Mexico and tell him 
 that she wished erected upon the hill of 
 Tepeyac a temple to be dedicated to her 
 worship. The bishop demanded proofs of 
 what Juan Diego told him. So the Indian 
 went back to the Virgin, who told him to 
 come the next day and he should have the 
 desired proofs; but his uncle being sick at 
 home, Juan was not able to keep his appoint- 
 ment. On December 12 he was hurrying to 
 Mexico for medicine and a priest, when the 
 Virgin met him, told him not to fear, for 
 his uncle would get well, and bade him 
 pluck some roses from the hill. This he 
 did and wrapped them in his zerape and 
 took them to the Archbishop. When the 
 zerape was opened in the presence of the 
 Archbishop, a wonderful picture was found 
 imprinted upon it. So the Archbishop 
 ordered a chapel to be built upon the top 
 of the hill, where the shrine of Guadalupe 
 stands todav. 
 
 The fame of this shrine grew rapidly and 
 soon pilgrims came from all parts of Mexico 
 to worship there. The banner of Our Lady 
 of Guadalupe became the standard of the 
 revolutionary party in 18 10, and this en- 
 deared the saint more to the Mexican people, 
 who were inclined to look upon her as their 
 Savior from the rule of the Spaniard. There 
 is scarcely a day throughout the whole year 
 now that a party of pilgrims may not be 
 found at Guadalupe. Often they come in 
 droves of from five hundred to several 
 thousand, under the leadership of one or 
 more priests and sometimes they remain a 
 week at the Holy City. 
 
 Throughout the month of December the 
 Villa de Guadalupe is thronged with people 
 of all classes; but on December 12, Our 
 . Lady's saint's day, the place is so packed 
 with people that it is almost impossible to 
 make one's way through the streets. 
 
 Guanajuato. See p. 809. 
 
 Guaymas (gwt'mds), the most important 
 seaport town in the state of Sonora, Mexico. 
 It is situated upon the gulf of the same 
 name, which looks out upon the Gulf of 
 Lower California. The port is famous for 
 its oysters, which are shipped to all parts 
 of the Republic of Mexico and exported to 
 Europe and Asia. The town, which con- 
 tains about 10,000 inhabitants, is situated 
 upon a land-locked bay, with high hills 
 almost in the foreground. For this reason 
 it is one of the warmest places on the 
 Pacific coast of Mexico in the summer 
 months; but when the wet months pass it 
 is more agreeable. It is the terminus of 
 the Sonora Railway and several lines of 
 coast steamers call at the port. Therefore, 
 most of the important port towns on the 
 Pacific coast of Mexico can be reached 
 from Guaymas. 
 
 Guemes Pacheco de Padilla '{gwd' mas 
 pd-chd'ko dd pd-del'yd), Juan Vicente de. 
 Count of Revillagigedo, 51st viceroy of New 
 Spain and second of this title, one of the 
 most notable governors of New Spain (1789— 
 1794). He was untiring in his efforts to 
 improve the police service, which had fallen 
 to a very low condition at the time of his 
 arrival in Mexico. He pursued tenaciously 
 and with all the vigor of the law thieves, 
 highwaymen and criminals of all classes, 
 visited incognito frequently various parts of 
 the city until he became known as the 
 Haroun al Raschid of New Spain. He had 
 the streets of the Capital paved, new 
 avenues opened up, a perfect system of 
 night watchmen inaugurated, the city 
 lighted at night and established a semi- 
 weekly postal service between the capitals 
 of the various states. He interested him- 
 self greatly in the arts, sciences and educa- 
 tion in general and he had a chair in anatomy 
 established in the hospital for Indians in 
 the Capital. He encouraged the study of 
 botany, geography and history, especially 
 
GUEMES Y HORCASITAS 
 
 2262 GUZMAN SOTOMAYOR Y MEXDOZA 
 
 that referring to ancient Mexico and the 
 eadier races which populated what was 
 then known as New Spain. After careful 
 investigation into the military affairs of the 
 province he resolved to do away with the 
 native militia, which he believed was not 
 worth the money, time and attention which 
 had necessarily to be given to it; what the 
 country required, he claimed, was regularly 
 trained soldiers which the native militia 
 seemed unable to give. He interested him- 
 self greatly in the building of good roads 
 throughout the country, which he claimed 
 were a necessity for the peace, progress and 
 commercial prosperity of New Spain, among 
 the highways which he promoted being that 
 to Toluca. the capital of the state of Mex- 
 ico, and those to the gulf port of Veracruz 
 and the Pacific port of Acapulco. He was 
 a man of sound judgment, methodical mind 
 and a vast capacity for work. These qual- 
 ities made him the terror of evildoers, the 
 despair of the indolent and slow occupants 
 of government positions and the admira- 
 tion of ambitious young men whom he pro- 
 moted rapidly, as soon as he found them 
 earnest and capable. 
 
 Giiemes y Horcasitas {gwd'mas e or'kci- 
 se'tds), Juan Francisco, Count of Revil- 
 lagigedo, 40th viceroy of New Spain (1746- 
 1755), had been governor of Cuba previous 
 to coming to Mexico. He established the 
 fort of Horcasitas in Sonora to keep the 
 Apaches in check, established many fam- 
 ilies of Spaniards and Mexicans in the 
 northern part of the country as a check 
 against the half-civilized Indians and he 
 removed the station of the Spanish fleet of 
 the Indies from Mexico to Habana. The 
 famous Bolanos mines then became knowa 
 as rich producers of the precious metals and 
 that district became populous. As a result 
 of the order sent out by a previous vice- 
 roy (See Cebrian y Agustin) to collect 
 statistical information relating to New 
 Spain, the following data concerning the 
 City of Mexico, is of interest: The Capital 
 was then composed of "50,000 families of 
 Spaniards, Europeans and Creoles (descen- 
 dants of pure Spanish blood born in New 
 Spain), 40,000 families of mestizos and 
 8,000 native Indians." 
 
 Querra {gdr'rd), Fray Garcia, arch- 
 bishop of Mexico and 12th viceroy of New 
 Spain (1611— 1612), made an elaborate report 
 upon the construction of the drainage 
 works of the Valley of Mexico, in which he 
 expressed the opinion that the plans then 
 being pursued would not secure the object 
 that the execution of the works had in 
 view. During his administration a terrible 
 earthquake visited Mexico, destroying many 
 buildings in the Capital and in other places 
 throughout the country. 
 
 Guerrero (gar-rd'ro), one of the southern 
 states of Mexico, bordering on the Pacific 
 Ocean and the states of Michoacan, Morelos, 
 
 Mexico, Puebla and Oaxaca, has an area of 
 24,900 square miles. It is traversed by the 
 Sierra Madre Mountains, which throw the 
 greater part of the state into the Pacific 
 slope. It is one of the' most mountainous 
 divisions of Mexico and contains vast min- 
 eral deposits, which are as yet but slightly 
 developed. It contains many smaller rivers 
 and streams capable of developing much 
 motor power, but most of them unfit for 
 navigation. Of these the largest are the 
 Ometepec, Papagayo, Las Balsas, and Mis- 
 teco. Agriculture, cattle raising and min- 
 ing are the chief industries of the state. 
 The chief cities are Chilpancingo, the cap- 
 ital, Chilapa, Tixtla and Acapulco (the 
 chief seaport). Three branches of the 
 National Railways traverse the state. 
 
 Guerrero {gdr-rd'ro), Julio (1862- ), 
 author of the Genesis of Crime in Mexico, 
 is one of the profoundest thinkers that the 
 republic has produced; and few works have 
 been written in any country more worthy 
 of serious attention than this analy.sis of 
 the social conditions of the Mexican people, 
 Guerrero has written other works of a like 
 nature, all thoughtful, and showing careful 
 study, investigation and power of drawing 
 accurate deductions. 
 
 Guerrero (gdr-rd'rd) , Gen. Vicente, one 
 of the most prominent revolutionary leaders 
 in Mexican history. When the cause of 
 independence was on the wane in 1816, 
 Guerrero took to the mountains and from 
 there carried on guerrilla warfare, which 
 kept alive the revolution for the succeed- 
 ing five years. He was bom in Tixtla in 
 17S2. His parents were farmers in very 
 poor circumstances, and so the boy was 
 forced to make his way in the world with- 
 out other help than his own native energy 
 and talent. He joined the army of Hidalgo 
 in 1 8 1 o and he continued to struggle for the 
 independence of his country until Spanish 
 dominion was finally overthrown in 1821. 
 He was in many battles and he did more 
 to organize the revolutionary forces, when 
 the cause of independence was seeing its 
 darkest hours, than any other man. Even 
 when things were at their worst he was 
 always hopeful and resourceful. For this 
 reason he is considered one of the greatest 
 figures in Mexican history. In 1821 he 
 joined Iturbide in the Plan de Iguala, and 
 the two great leaders swept everything be- 
 fore them in a few months, thus winning 
 the independence of Mexico. He was a 
 member of the first provisional government 
 which governed the country after the over- 
 throw of the Spanish power in New Spain; 
 and later on he held various high offices in 
 his native country, all of which he filled 
 with ability and zeal for the public welfare. 
 His tomb is in the Pantheon of San Fer- 
 nando in Mexico City. 
 
 Guzman Sotomayor y Mendoza, Bal= 
 tasar de Zuniga. See Zuniga Guzman. 
 
HARO Y PER ALT A 
 
 2263 
 
 HIPOLITO 
 
 H 
 
 Haro y Peralta, Alonzo Nunez de. 
 
 See Nunez de Haro. 
 
 Hernandez de Cordoba. See Cordoba, 
 Hernandez de. 
 
 Hidalgo {e-ddl'go), one of the central 
 states of Mexico, situated, on the upland 
 plateau and bordering on the states of San 
 Luis Potosi, Veracruz, Puebla, Tlaxcala, 
 Mexico and Queretaro, has an area of 8,100 
 square miles. The climate varies from cold 
 in the higher mountain regions to quite 
 warm on the gulf side where a part of the 
 state slopes to the east down to the borders 
 of the hotlands. The state is well supplied 
 with railways, being traversed by the Na- 
 tional Lines of Mexico and the Hidalgo and 
 Northeastern, all of which connect it with 
 Mexico City. The chief industries of the 
 state are mining and agriculture, the out- 
 put of the former being yearly over $7,000,- 
 000. The chief cities are Pachuca, the capi- 
 tal and most noted mining center, Tula, 
 Tulancingo and Zimapan. See Tula. 
 
 Hidalgo y Costilla {e-ddl'go e kos-te'yd) , 
 Miguel, the father of Mexican indepen- 
 dence (17 53-181 1), was, at the time that 
 he appears prominently in history, the 
 curate of the parish church of Dolores, a 
 little town not far from Guanajuato, Mex- 
 ico. He was a man of wide reading and 
 very liberal in his ideas. Thoroughly Mex- 
 ican at heart, though of Spanish blood, he 
 longed for the freedom of his native coun- 
 try from the rule of Spain. This desire 
 was increased by his reading of French 
 literature, which was, at this time, filled 
 with the new thought engendered by the 
 French revolution. So he gathered about 
 him in Dolores a few kindred spirits, who 
 met to discuss plans for the betterment of 
 their country at a so-called literary and 
 scientific society. There plans, it is said, 
 were laid, for an uprising of the Indians 
 and others favorable to the cause of inde- 
 pendence. But they were discovered be- 
 fore the conspirators were ready to act. 
 Hidalgo was informed that the government 
 was about to seize him and his friends; so 
 he decided upon an immediate call to arms 
 that night, Sept. 15, 1810. A few of the 
 conspirators were called together about 11 
 o'clock at night and plans were laid for an 
 uprising that same morning. People were 
 called to early mass by the church bell; 
 from the pulpit Hidalgo proclaimed the 
 revolution, the prisoners in Dolores were 
 liberated, arms were seized, all the Span- 
 iards in the place were secured and put 
 under lock and key, and, with this small 
 force, Hidalgo began his famous march to- 
 ward the Capital of the republic. Hidalgo 
 
 was commander in chief of the revolutionary 
 army and AUende (Ignacio), a captain of 
 dragoons who deserted with most of his 
 regiment from the Spanish army in Mexico, 
 was made Lieutenant-General and Aldama 
 and Abasolo, officers under AUende, were 
 made staff officers. At Atotonilco Hidalgo 
 took from the little church there a banner 
 upon which was printed a picture of Our 
 Lady of Guadalupe, the patroness of Mex- 
 ico, thus giving the movement a religious 
 as well as a political feature; and the ever- 
 increasing multitude of insurgents marched 
 toward Guanajuato to the cry: "Long live 
 religion! Long live our Holy Mother of 
 Guadalupe! Hurrah for America and down 
 with bad government!" The march was 
 necessarily slow. In five days the insurgent 
 army had reached Celaya, when it num- 
 bered 50,000 men; five days later, when it 
 had reached Guanajuato, it numbered prob- 
 ably twice as many. After a terrible fight 
 and slaughter, the city was captured and 
 most of the inhabitants butchered by the 
 undisciplined hordes of Hidalgo. The city 
 government was reorganized and the place 
 made the capital of the new political power. 
 On Oct. 10 the revolutionary army began 
 its march to Valladolid (Morelia), which it 
 reached eight days later, and captured with- 
 out opposition. After establishing officers 
 of his own in Valladolid, Hidalgo began 
 his march upon the city of Mexico, by way 
 of Toluca, the Capital of the state of Mex- 
 ico. At Monte de las Cruces, which is on 
 the heights overlooking the Valley of 
 Mexico, the revolutionists met and defeated 
 the Spanish army in a struggle noted for 
 its bitterness and the heavy losses on both 
 sides (Oct. 30, 1810). In sight of the 
 Capital of the country, the armies of Spain 
 defeated and the whole governing force of 
 the country demoralized, Hidalgo decided 
 to retreat. This was the most memorable 
 event of the whole campaign; for, in all 
 probability, it put off the independence of 
 the country 11 years. Then followed one 
 disaster after another until finally Hidalgo 
 with AUende and others of his officers were 
 captured at Acatita de Bejan in Coahuila, 
 March 21, 181 1, and taken to Monclova 
 and from there to Chihuahua, where they 
 were tried, condemned and shot, July 
 30, 1811. 
 
 Hill of the Bells. See Cerro de las 
 Campanas. 
 
 Hill of the Grasshopper. See Cha- 
 PULTEPEC Castle. 
 
 Hipolito {e-poV e-to') , San, a church and 
 hospital for the insane, both of ancient 
 foundation and historical interest in Mexico 
 
HIPOLITOS 
 
 2264 
 
 ICAZBALCETA 
 
 City. The church was built close to the 
 spot where so many Spaniards and their 
 allies lost their lives on the retreat from 
 the city on the "sad night," July i, 1520, 
 which event it was intended to commem- 
 orate. The hospital, Avhich is on the same 
 street and but a short distance away, was 
 founded some years later (1567), as an 
 annex to the church, as an institution to 
 look after the poor and helpless sick, by 
 a Spanish merchant by the name of Ber- 
 nardin Alvarez. In 1700 the "Brothers of 
 Charity," known popularly as the "Ilipo- 
 litos," a purely Mexican order, but having 
 the sanction of the Pope, became legally 
 organized and bound by vows to devote 
 their lives to looking after the sick and 
 the infirm, especially those in care of their 
 own order and hospital. About this time 
 San Hipolito hospital decided to devote 
 its energies and resources entirely to the 
 insane, of which there were many then in 
 Mexico. Since that day this institution 
 has remained an insane asylum, and the 
 most important of its kind in Mexico. So 
 generally is this refuge known throughout 
 the country, that to invite one to go to 
 San Hipolito is equivalent to saying that 
 he is foolish or insane. 
 
 Hipolitos. See Hipolito, San. 
 
 Horcasitas, Juan Francisco Quemes y. 
 See GuEMEs y Horcasitas. 
 
 Huitzilopochtli (wet'se-lo-pdsht'le),' the 
 famous god of war of the ancient Aztecs. 
 To him , the greatest temples of this race 
 were erected, and on his altars thousands 
 of human victims were sacrificed. At the 
 dedication of the great temple upon the 
 Plaza Mayor of Mexico City (then called 
 Tenochtitlan) it is gravely asserted by his- 
 torians that the incredible number of 80,- 
 000 captives were sacrificed by order of 
 the then reigning emperor, Axayacatl, upon 
 the altars of the war god. See Axayacatl. 
 
 Huitzilihuitl {wet'se-le'wetT) (Feathers 
 of the Hummingbird), second king of Mex- 
 
 ijo (1389-1409), was son of Acamapitzin, 
 During his reign the Mexicans began a 
 career of conquest, which was practically 
 never interrupted until the advent of the 
 Spanish army under Cortes in 15 18. Huit- 
 zilihuitl combined many of the qualities of 
 a great ruler; he was a diplomat, an organ- 
 izer, a warrior and a successful leader of 
 inen; he made a friend of the king of Atz- 
 capotzalco by marrying his daughter and 
 thus made the Mexican people practically 
 the allies of that nation, to which they had 
 been subject up to this time; and a war 
 which Huitzilihuitl undertook in union with 
 Atzcapotzalco against the Acolhuas, which 
 the allies defeated, brought much honor 
 and respect to the Mexicans, who thus 
 secured an alliance with Atxcapotzcalco 
 upon honorable terms. From this time on 
 tlie advancement of Mexico was rapid. The 
 city began to erect substantial buildings of 
 stone, to manufacture fine cotton garments 
 and to extend their trade in fish, which 
 they caught in Lake Texcoco, to all the 
 lands bordering on the lake shore. As the 
 inhabitants of the city had outgrown the 
 size of their island home they began to 
 build great rafts of wood upon which they 
 made the famous "chinampas" (floating 
 gardens). In a short time hundreds of 
 Aztecs were living upon these rafts and 
 cultivating vegetables which found a ready 
 sale in Tenochtitlan (Mexico) and in the 
 cities and towns along the shores of the 
 lake. A war with Atzcapotzalco and an- 
 other with Coyoacan both increased the 
 reputation of the Mexicans, who began, by 
 this time to be both feared and respected 
 by all the neighboring nations and tribes. 
 Huitzilihuitl was the first great law-giver 
 of the Mexicans during their residence in 
 the A^alley of Mexico; he policed the city 
 of Tenochtitlan and encouraged trade and 
 commerce. 
 
 Hummingbird, Feathers of the. See 
 Huitzilihuitl. 
 
 I 
 
 Icaza {e-kds'a), Francisco A. de (1S63- 
 ), poet, essayist and diplomat, a writer 
 of correct and sonorous prose and verse, 
 and one of the best diplomats in the service 
 of his country, which he has served in 
 various capacities. He belongs more to the 
 classical school than to the modern romantic 
 movement, to which Mexico owes the 
 larger number of her most talented literary 
 
 men of first rank. He has been more under 
 Spanish than Mexican influence; this is no 
 doubt due to the fact that he spent con- 
 siderable time in Spain as secretary to the 
 Mexican legation at Madrid. Since then he 
 has been Mexican minister to Belgium and 
 is now Mexican ambassador at Washington. 
 Icazbalceta {e-kds'bdl-sd'td), Joaquin 
 Garcia (182 5-1849), a Mexican poet and 
 
IGUATZIO 
 
 2265 
 
 ITURRIGARAY 
 
 historian of great talent, industry and 
 erudition. He collected together a vast 
 number of documents of a very interesting 
 and valuable nature, the titles of which 
 collections are indicative of their nature, 
 viz. : A Collection of Documents for the 
 History of Mexico and A New Collection of 
 Documents for the History of Mexico. Many 
 of these were almost-forgotten writings, but 
 invaluable as shedding light upon the 
 obscurer periods in Mexican history; others 
 documents which throw broadly forth the 
 characters of makers of Mexican history, 
 the importance of events in the develop- 
 ment of the country, politically and socially. 
 He also wrote xAn Ecclesiastical History of 
 the Indies; Spiritual and Sacred Colloquies; 
 Mexico in 1554. 
 
 Iguatzio {e-gwdts' e-o) , a little town in the 
 state of Michoacan, Mexico, noted for its 
 many ancient ruins and reinains of archae- 
 ological interest. Here are to be found 
 idols, pottery and other carved and manu- 
 factured articles of very ancient make, a 
 pyramid, prehistoric roads, buildings, fort- 
 ress, walls and underground passages, which 
 probably belonged to a race antedating the 
 Indians now living there. 
 
 IlhuicaiTiina. See Montezuma I. 
 
 Indio Triste (en'de-o tres'td) (The Sad 
 Indian), a sculptured stone figure of an 
 Indian, almost life size, in the National 
 Museum in Mexico City. It has given its 
 name to the street in which it was found. 
 This figure is of interest on account of the 
 many references to it found in Mexican 
 literature. It is supposed to have been 
 one of the two sculptured candle or torch 
 bearers upon the turrets of the great temple 
 of the war god, Huitzilopochtli, in M'.,xico 
 City. Its present name was probably 
 populai-ly given to it on account of its 
 peculiar half-crouched position. 
 
 Inquisition in Mexico, The. Shortly 
 after the Spanish conquest the power of the 
 Inquisition began to make itself felt in 
 New Spain, and in 1529 the archbishop and 
 the heads of the A^arious church founda- 
 tions in the Capital, supported by the city 
 council, extended an invitation to the head 
 of the Spanish Inquisition to extend the 
 order to Mexico. As a result, "visitors" 
 were sent to Mexico until 1570, bringing 
 with them inquisitorial powers, when Pedro 
 Moya de Contreras, was appointed In- 
 quisitor General of New Spain, Guatemala 
 and the Philippines. He opened his office 
 in the chief building of the Dominicans, -who 
 ever afterwards were the strongest sup- 
 porters of the Inquisition in the New 
 World. But the erection of a special build- 
 ing for the "Holy Office" was begun in 
 1732 and completed in 1736. The Burning 
 Place, where those condemned to death by 
 the Holy Office, were executed, was estab- 
 lished on the west side of what is now the 
 Alameda, and directly in front of the 
 
 church of San Diego; and the first burning 
 took place in 1574, when 21 victims per- 
 ished. On June 8, 1813, the Inquisition 
 was abolished in New Spain, and all prop- 
 erty belonging to the order confiscated to 
 the crown of Spain. But it was re-estab- 
 lished in Mexico the following year, where 
 it continued to exercise its powers until 
 May 31, 1820, when it was finally abolished, 
 Among the victims of the Inquisition was 
 the famous patriot priest, Morelos, who was 
 condemned by that body on No-". 26, 181 5, 
 turned over to the secular authorities and 
 shot a month later. 
 
 Inquisitor, The. See Almanza. 
 
 Iturbide (e'tddr-be'thd), Agustin de (See 
 Guerrero), a noted soldier v/ho, after 
 spending years in the services of the Spanish 
 king, principally in Mexico, went over to 
 the side of the revolutionists, became a 
 popular hero, and succeeded in having him- 
 self elected emperor of Mexico under the 
 title of Agustin I. He was born in Morelia, 
 then called Valladolid, Sept. 27, 1873, of 
 mixed blood, his father being a Spaniard 
 and his mother a Mexican. His advance- 
 ment in the Spanish army was rapid, for 
 he showed undoubted military genius. On 
 the failure of the Pan of Iguala, Iturbide 
 saw his opportunity, which he pushed with 
 his boundless ambition; and the Mexican 
 people proclaimed him emperor May 19, 
 1822. But soon troubles began in the ranks 
 of the uncompromising republicans, and 
 Iturbide was forced to resign (March 20, 
 1823) and leave the country. From Europe: 
 he watched the trend of events at home- 
 He was constantly in com^munication with, 
 friends in Mexico. Misled by their reports 
 he set out from London for Mexico in July, 
 1824, to help, as he stated it, to fight for 
 the independence of his country. Imme- 
 diately upon his landing at Soto la Marina, 
 Tamaulipas, he was seized by the military 
 commander of that state, tried and pro- 
 nounced a traitor, and, as such, condemned 
 to death. Five days later he was executed 
 at Padilla. Thus perished he whom all 
 Mexico, but two years previously, had pro- 
 claimed "The Liberator." See Pl.a.n de 
 Iguai^a. 
 
 Iturrigaray {e-toor're-gdr't), Jose de, 
 55th viceroy of New Spain (1803-1808), 
 gave much attention to the improvement 
 of public works, completed some half fin- 
 ished and built others completely. During 
 his administration the famous scholar. 
 Baron Von Humboldt, spent considerable 
 Lime in Mexico collecting the material for 
 the works which were afterwards to make 
 his reputation asa scholar and an authority 
 on Mexico. 
 
 On Sept. 15, x8o8, headed by Gabriel de 
 Yermo, a rich land owner, many Spaniards 
 and the oidores of the court in New Spain 
 raised a revolution and deposed the viceroy, 
 who supported the cause of the exiled 
 
JALISCO 
 
 2267 
 
 LAS CASAS 
 
 Jalisco (hd-les'ko) , commercially the most 
 important state in Mexico, partially sit- 
 uated on the upland plateau and partially 
 on the Pacific slope, which gives it all 
 varieties of climate. It borders on the 
 states of Durango, Zacatecas, Tepic, Aguas- 
 calientes, Guanajuato, Michoacan, Colima 
 and the Pacific Ocean. Area 31,850 square 
 miles. Principal products: Brandy, sugar, 
 corn, wheat, tobacco, valuable woods, 
 fruits and minerals. Agriculturally it is 
 the richest state in the republic, and it is 
 one of the most notable cattle-raising dis- 
 tricts. It is well watered, its principal 
 rivers being Tuscacuesco, Ameca, Santiago, 
 
 Verde, Bolafios and Juchipila. To the east 
 of this state is the most important lake 
 region in Mexico (See Lakes of Mexico). 
 The principal cities are: Guadalajara, the 
 capital of the state and the second largest 
 city in the republic, Lagos and Ciudad 
 Guzman. The National Railways of Mex- 
 ico connect Jalisco with the Capital. 
 
 Javier de Lianza, Francisco. See 
 
 de 
 
 Lianza. 
 
 Javier 
 Venegas. 
 
 Jesuits, 
 Carlos de. 
 
 Juarez, Benito 
 
 Venegas, Francisco. See 
 Expulsion of. See Croix, 
 See pp. 981 and 12 17. 
 
 K 
 
 Kukulkan (kdo-kdol-kdn') , a successful 
 leader of the ancient Indians of Yucatan, 
 whom time raised into a demi-god. He is 
 said to have taught his people practically 
 all they knew of the arts ^and industries 
 and to have placed them among the 
 
 most civilized of ancient Mexico. Like 
 Quetzalcoatl (the Fair God), when he 
 was forced to leave Yucatan, he prom- 
 ised to return some day and again rule 
 over the country. See Hiawatha and 
 Quetzalcoatl. 
 
 Laguna Madre (Id-gdo'nd md'drd), La, a 
 large long shallow lagoon forming an inlet of 
 the Gulf of Mexico and running down half the 
 eastern coast of the state of Tamaulipas in 
 the republic of Mexico. Considerable traffic 
 is done over it in srfiall boats by the native 
 Indians of the state. 
 
 Lakes, The, of Mexico are neither ex- 
 tensive in size nor in number. The high 
 elevation of the great tablelands, which 
 stretch from the United States border to 
 far south of Mexico City, and the rapid 
 descent from these to the coast, coupled 
 with the rapid evaporation engendered by 
 the heat of the tropical lands, make the 
 accumulation of great bodies of water much 
 less probable than in fiat and colder coun- 
 tries. In the states of Jalisco and Michoacan 
 is a very picturesque lake region, which is 
 more famous and more visited than any 
 other in Mexico. Of the numerous lakes 
 
 and lakelets found there, the three most 
 important are Chapala, which is 80 miles 
 long by 30 miles wide, and Patzcuaro, and 
 Cuitzeo, somewhat less known. In the 
 Valley of Mexico are several lakes, more 
 noted for their historical associations than 
 for their size or importance. Of these the 
 most important are Texcoco, Xochimilco, 
 Chalco, Zumpango and San Cristobal. _ The 
 Lake of Caimen, some 30 miles long, in the 
 Valley of the Bolson, is surrounded by 
 many picturesque little lakelets. Most of 
 the other lakes credited to Mexico are 
 inlets from the oceans or from the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 La Laguna, Marquis of, and Count of 
 Paredes. See Cerda, Thomas Antonio 
 Manrique de la. 
 
 Las Casas (Ids-kds'ds) , Bartolome de 
 one of the early missionaries in Mexico, 
 shortly after the Spanish conquest, was 
 
LAS CRUCES 
 
 2268 
 
 LOWER CALIFORXLV 
 
 created bishop of Chiapas in 1544. Most 
 of his hfe, while in Mexico, was spent in 
 protecting the Indians against the cruelties 
 of the Spaniards. And he succeeded in 
 having a number of excellent laws passed 
 in their behalf. He was made "Protector 
 General of the Indians," in whose behalf 
 he had already labored many years. He 
 died in Madrid in 1566, at the age of 92. 
 His most famous work is his History of 
 the Indies, a book that gives a wonderful 
 insight into the result of Spanish rule in 
 the Xew World. 
 
 Las Cruces. See Hidalgo. 
 
 Laso de la Vega (Id' so da Id vd'gd), 
 Melchor Portocarrero, Count of Mon- 
 clova, 28th viceroy of New Spain (1686- 
 16S8), known as "Silver-arm," on account 
 of his having his right arm made of silver, 
 reduced to submission the Indians of Coa- 
 huila, established a strong garrison in their 
 territory and founded the town of Mon- 
 clova. On his retirement from New Spain 
 he was sent as viceroy to Peru. 
 
 Leiva y de La Ccrda {Id'e-vd e dd Id 
 sdr'dd), Juan de Marquis de Leiva y Lad- 
 rada and Count of Banos, 22nd viceroy of 
 New Spain (i 660-1 664), began again the 
 suspended work of the drainage of the 
 Valley of Mexico, was energetic in the 
 propagation of the Christian religion to 
 such an extent that 24 towns and villages 
 "professed the faith." On account of the 
 bad conduct of his sons, who made them- 
 selves very unpopular, he resigned his office 
 and returned to Spain where he entered 
 the Carmelite order and retired to the 
 seclusion of the monastery. During his 
 administration the Tehuantepec Indians 
 rose against the government; but they were 
 finally induced to submit to the authority 
 of Spain through the influence of Bishop 
 Alonso de Cuevas y Davalos of Oaxaca, 
 who, on account of the valuable aid thus 
 rendered the government, was made Arch- 
 bishop of Mexico. During this adminis- 
 tration considerable territory was captured 
 from the Indians and added to New 
 Spain. 
 
 Leon (Id-on'), a city of 100,000 inhab- 
 itants, on the line of the Central division 
 of the National Lines of Mexico, in the 
 state of Guanajuato, at an elevation of 5,865 
 feet above sea level, is an important com- 
 mercial center 260 miles from Mexico City. 
 It produces leather, woolen and cotton 
 goods, cutlery, soap, carriages and imple- 
 ments of various kinds. It is also the 
 center of an important local trade. Leon 
 was founded in 1552. 
 
 Lianza {le-dn'sd) , Francisco Javier de, 
 archbishop and 57th viceroy of New Spain 
 ( 1 809-1 8 10), had been instrumental in 
 deposing the previous viceroy, Iturrigaray, 
 no doubt fro.m conscientious motives; but 
 he was afterw-ards sorry for his action when 
 he saw how events were moving in New 
 
 Spain. His whole administration was a 
 struggle to obtain money to forward to the 
 court of Spain to aid in the defense of that 
 country against the French. At one time 
 he sent $2,000,000 in addition to sums col- 
 lected by the sale of the properties of 
 several persons of wealth convicted of 
 treasonable practices or tendencies; and he 
 tried in vain to collect the sum of $20,000,- 
 000 more s-oted by the central committee 
 as a contribution from New Spain for the 
 defense of the mother country. He com- 
 ])lained that already in addition to the 
 money sent officially by Mexico to the 
 court of Spain, over $10,000,000 more had 
 been taken out of the country for the same 
 purpose, through confiscated property men- 
 tioned above. This excessive drain of the 
 wealth of the country stirred tip a strong 
 feeling in New Spain against the Spaniards 
 and Spanish rule. Notwithstanding the 
 efforts made by the viceroy to help the 
 court, a feeling gained ground that he was 
 not a strong enough character to cope with 
 the pronounced revolutionary sentiment in 
 New Spi^n and his eneinies succeeded in 
 having him removed from office. 
 
 Liberty Bell. See Palacio Muni- 
 cipal. 
 
 Linares, Duke of. See Noroxa y 
 
 SiLVA. 
 
 Lizardi {le-sdr'the), Jose Joaquin de 
 
 (i 774-1827), the father of modern Mexican 
 literature, was journalist, poet, novelist and 
 political and social reformer of great influ- 
 ence upon the destinies of his country, 
 especially during the wars of independence 
 (1810-1S21), He advocated popular educa- 
 tion, independence of church and state, 
 prison reform, and many other ideas in 
 advance of his times, and some of which 
 have not yet been carried out. His novel. 
 El Periquillo Sarmiculo, has become a 
 household word in Mexico, and is Con- 
 sidered by many critics as the greatest 
 novel v/ritten by any Mexican author. He 
 wrote hundreds of political pamphlets, 
 poems and reviews advocating the inde- 
 pendence of Mexico from Spain, various 
 reforms in addition to those already men- 
 tioned, and depicted, in a powerful style, 
 the abuses of the social fabric in his day. 
 He lashed, with a merciless whip, the vices, 
 indolence and want of public spirit of the 
 lower, middle and upper classes. Much ot 
 his terrible upbraiding of society is to be 
 found in the Pcriqiiillo. Two others of his 
 works which still continue to be published 
 are Fables and Sad A^is^hts. 
 
 Llorona, La. See I\Ialinche, La. 
 
 Lord of Ixtapalapa. See Cuitlahuac. 
 
 Lorenzo Juarez de Mendoza. See Mex- 
 doza. 
 
 Lower California, the most northern 
 territory of Mexico, which borders on the 
 United States to the north and lies between 
 the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Cali- 
 
LUNA 
 
 2269 
 
 .MANRIQUE DE ZUNIGA 
 
 foniia. To it belong politically most of the 
 islands along its coast. Owing to its moun- 
 tainous character, lack of rain and nvers 
 and its dry and warm climate, the peninsula 
 presents a semi-desert appearance. Fish- 
 ing and mining are its principal industries; 
 
 and its chief towns are La Paz, on the 
 Gulf of California, its capital, Ensenada, 
 Santa Rosalia and San Jose. Area 60,000 
 square miles; population 150,000. 
 
 Luna, Juan de Mendoza y. See Men- 
 
 DOZA. 
 
 M 
 
 Malinche (md-len'chd). The, a fabled 
 woman, much like the Greek syren, who 
 has somewhat changing attributes m va- 
 rious parts of Mexico. In some she is sup- 
 posed to be kind, in others to have a never- 
 ceasing desire to lure people to death. 
 Even these malign powers she exercises in 
 different ways, according to the part of the 
 country from which the legend comes. In 
 the state of Mexico she is accredited with 
 singing the most beautiful songs which 
 those who hear them cannot resist, and so 
 they follow her only to fall into deep water 
 where they are pulled to the bottom by 
 the evil spirits who make their homes there. 
 In other places it is the beauty of her 
 face and form that attract, with like result. 
 In the northern part of Mexico the Mahnche 
 is known as "La Llorona" (she who cries). 
 Here her modus operandi is somewhat 
 different, for there she waylays some be- 
 nighted traveler in some solitary place, and, 
 as^he passes, she cries like a sick child in 
 distress. The traveler follows in the direc- 
 tion of the voice, only to sink into some 
 hidden swamp, bog or quicksand. In the 
 center of Mexico she is known as "La 
 Rebosada" (the Woman who wears a Re- 
 bosa or mantle). She appears, beautiful of 
 form, her face hidden in her reboso, mys- 
 tery about her every movement; and with 
 her great power of attraction she lures the 
 unwary to their death. In the south of 
 Mexico she is supposed to make her home 
 upon Mount Malinche, upon the _ top of 
 which she appears, in the approaching eve- 
 ning, when her wondrous beauty is lit up 
 by °t'he level rays of the setting sun, and 
 thus is rendered even more bewitching her 
 power of attraction. She beckons, and he 
 who sees her is forced to run toward her. 
 Next day his dead body is found, mangled 
 and torn as though by the claws of some 
 savage beast, in the barranca, more than 
 a thousand feet below. 
 
 Mancera, Marquis of. See Toledo, 
 Seb.^stian de. 
 
 Manrique de Zuniga (mdn-rfka da 
 soon'ye-gd'), Alvaro, Marquis of Villa Man- 
 
 rique, 7th viceroy of New Spain (1585- 
 1590). During his administration Sir 
 Francis Drake plundered a number of 
 towns along the Pacific coast of Mexico, 
 and escaped with his booty. Zuniga did 
 not get along with the other royal author- 
 ities in Mexico, and civil war was about to 
 break out, when the viceroy was recalled 
 by order of Philip II. 
 
 Manzanillo {mdn'sd-ne'yo) , an important 
 seaport town in the state of Colima, on the 
 Pacific coast of Mexico. As a port it has 
 natural advantages which have been added 
 to by expenditures of large sums of money 
 by the Mexican government. All the 
 Pacific coast steamers touching at Mexican 
 ports call at Manzanillo, which is the 
 seaport of Colima, the capital of the. 
 state of the same name. Population 
 5,000. 
 
 Marina (md-re'nd) , La, a famous Indian 
 woman, who, after the battle of Grijalva, 
 was presented to the conqueror, Cortes, as 
 a slave, while on his way to Mexico. She 
 became his interpreter, constant com- 
 panion, and the mother of Martin, his most 
 noted son. She afterwards married one of 
 Cortes' soldiers. She was a very beautiful 
 woman, cunning and a good diplomat. On 
 account of these qualities she was called 
 by the Indians, "La Malinche". See 
 Malinche, La. 
 
 M.arquina (mdr-ke'nd), Felix de Ber= 
 enguer, 54th viceroy of New Spain (1800- 
 1803), arrived in Mexico with a strong feel- 
 ing against him on account of illfounded 
 reports which had preceded him_; but he 
 succeeded in gaining the good will of _ the 
 mass of the people. He carefully examined 
 the treasury department and dictated cer- 
 tain orders which much facilitated its work- 
 ing, spent from his own private purse_ large 
 sums for public improvements, prohibited 
 bull fighting, negotiated an exchange of 
 English for Spanish prisoners of the late 
 war between England and Spain, who were 
 in Mexico and Jamaica, increased the mili- 
 tary forces in the Capital and made merci- 
 less and unceasing war on the smugglers 
 
MATAMOROS 
 
 2270 
 
 ME R I DA 
 
 who had, up to his time, done a thriving 
 business in Xew Spain. 
 
 Marquis de Falces. See Peralta. 
 
 Alatamoros, Gen. A\ariano. Seep. 1187. 
 
 Mateos (md-td'us), Juan A. (1841- ), 
 a Mexican novehst and dramatic writer of 
 strong imagination and great constructive 
 ability. He is Mexican to the core, and 
 all his plots and characters are Mexican. 
 He was an^ong the first of the writers of 
 his day to break away from imitations of 
 French and Spanish authors. As an orator 
 he was, at one time, unsurpassed in Mexico. 
 Xo other modern dramatic author has had 
 more success upon the stage than he, and 
 his historical novels have had a wider sale 
 than those of any of his fellow literary 
 men. Among his novels which are still 
 popular are: Priest and Leader; Tlie Hill 
 of the Bells and The Insurgents. 
 
 Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico. See 
 pp. 981, 1191, 1217, 1239, 1675. 
 
 Mayorga {md-ydr' gd) , Martin, 46th vice- 
 roy of New Spain (i 779-1 783), had been 
 president of Guatemala. During his admin- 
 istration the English entered Guatemala, 
 the result being that they were attacked in 
 Belize by the Spaniards and a local war 
 ensued, which the latter carried into 
 Florida, recapturing Pensacola. The vice- 
 roy made strenuous efforts to fortify Vera- 
 cruz and other points leading to the Capital 
 of New Spain, along the old coach road by 
 way of Jalapa. On account of a very bad 
 epidemic of smallpox, vaccination for its 
 prevention was introduced into the country 
 for the first time. 
 
 Medina {md-de'nd), Bartolome de, is 
 remembered for his invention in Pachuca 
 in 1534 of the famous "patio process" for 
 the amalgamation of silver ores, which was 
 in constant use from that time until a few 
 years ago throughout Mexico. In fact it 
 is still employed in rural districts today in 
 some old-fashioned mines. 
 
 Mendoza (mdji-do'thd), Antonio de. Count 
 of Tendilla, ist viceroy of New Spain 
 (153 5-1 550), had been nominated to his 
 office in 1530, but was not able to assume 
 the duties belonging to it until five years 
 later. He was an able and conscientious 
 man and proved an excellent governor of 
 Mexico, which was then in a very unsettled 
 state. He put down several insurrections 
 of the Indians, encouraged trade and com- 
 merce, divided up the public lands of the 
 newly-conquered country, was a patron of 
 the arts, introduced silk culture into New 
 Spain and did his best to protect the 
 Indians from the abuses both of the Span- 
 iards and of their own chiefs, and, under 
 his protection, many mines were opened up. 
 During his administration many monks and 
 priests arrived in Mexico, some to teach the 
 natives, others to expound the principles 
 of the Christian religion and others to 
 establish foundations of their orders. Men- 
 
 doza was sent to Peru in 1550 by Charles 
 V, who desired to have a capable man there, 
 for that country was then in arms against 
 the dominion of Spain. He died there in 
 
 ^552- 
 
 Mendoza y Pimentel (mdn-do'thd e 
 pe'mdn-tdl'), Diego Carrillo, Marquis of 
 Galves (i 621— 1624), 15th viceroy of Xew 
 Spain, improved and extended the scope of 
 the teaching in the University of Mexico, 
 organized the police and pursued the 
 thieves and highway robbers until soon the 
 public roads throughout the country were 
 safe for travelers. He suspended the work 
 of drainage of the Valley of Mexico and 
 ordered the breaking down of a dyke, which 
 resulted in the City of Mexico being once 
 more inundated. A quarrel arose between 
 the viceroy and the archbishop over the 
 refuge given by the convent of Santo 
 Domingo to a breaker of the law, which 
 finally grew so bitter that the archbishop 
 excominunicated the viceroy and pro- 
 claimed an interdict. The populace made 
 an uprising, burned the palace, destroyed 
 the furniture and other property of "the 
 \iceroy, and forced the latter to take refuge 
 in the convent of San Francisco, where he 
 remained hidden for several days. The 
 nobles took a hand in the quarrel at this 
 juncture and deposed the viceroy. The 
 archbishop made a triumphal entry into 
 the Capital, where he was received with 
 great rejoicing by the populace. 
 
 Mendoza y Luna (mdn-do'thd e loo' no), 
 Juan de, Marquis de Montes Claros, loth 
 viceroy of New Spain (1603-160 7). He 
 built some excellent roads throughout the 
 Valley of Mexico which exist to the present 
 day, paid much attention to the health of 
 the City of Mexico, and began the construc- 
 tion of an aqueduct to bring drinking water 
 into the Capital of the republic. On leav- 
 ing Mexico he was sent to Peru as viceroy. 
 
 Mendoza {mdn-do'thd), Lorenzo Juarez 
 de, Count of Coruna, 5th viceroy of New 
 Spain (15S0-1582). He at once petitioned 
 the king of Spain to investigate the abuses 
 of the oidores and other officials of the 
 royal power in New Spain, and encouraged 
 commerce, appointing what were known as^ 
 commercial consuls. He died in Mexico. 
 
 Mercado (mdr-kd'thd), Cerro de, an 
 immense mountain of iron in the state of 
 Durango, Mexico. It is 1,900 yards long, 
 900 yards wide and 235 yards ligh and is 
 estimated to contain 460,000,000 tons of 
 iron ore, assaying from 70 to 75 per cent 
 iron. On account of the refractory nature 
 of the ore it has been very little worked 
 up to the present. 
 
 Merida (md're-thd), the capital of the 
 state of Yucatan, is connected with Pro- 
 greso, its port, by rail. It is by far the 
 most important city in southeastern Mexico, 
 being the center of the henequen trade for 
 which the state of Yucatan is noted. It 
 
MEXICO 
 
 2271 
 
 MINING IN MEXICO 
 
 is rich, well paved and contains many 
 handsome buildings. Being on the low- 
 lands and within the tropics, it is exces- 
 sively warm during the summer months. 
 It has a beautiful cathedral and rnany fine 
 churches. Merida was founded in 1542, 
 shortly after the conquest of that terri- 
 tory. Population 45,000. 
 
 Mexico, one of the central states of the 
 republic of Mexico, bordering on Hidalgo, 
 Tlaxcala, Puebla, Morelos, Guerrero, Micho- 
 acan and Queretaro, has an area of 9,200 
 square miles. Surrounding as it does the 
 Federal District, containing Mexico City 
 and various important towns, which are 
 connected with interurban railways, the 
 state of Mexico carries on an extensive 
 trade in agricultural products, which are its 
 principal assets. It is somewhat moun- 
 tainous, and contains one of the most im- 
 Eortant lake regions of the republic (See 
 ■AKEs OF Mexico). Its climate varies from 
 cold, in the upper mountain regions, to 
 warm in the lower lands in the south. On 
 account of the natural richness of the state 
 its chief occupation is agriculture and min- 
 ing, the output of the latter being over 
 $7,000,000 yearly. Chief cities: Toluca, 
 the capital, Texcoco, Chalco, Tenancingo, 
 Sultepec and El Oro, the latter two being 
 noted mining centers. The state contains 
 two noted valleys of considerable extent, 
 Mexico and Toluca, which are agriculturally 
 very rich and contain some of the most 
 valuable land in the republic. Population 
 1,100,000. 
 
 Mexican Flag, whose colors are white, 
 green and red, representing religious purity, 
 unity and independence, had its origin in 
 what are styled "the three guarantees." 
 See The Three Guarantees. 
 
 Michoacan {me-cho' d-kdn') , an important 
 state of southwestern Mexico, surrounded 
 by Jalisco, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Mexico, 
 Colima and Guerrero and touching on the 
 Pacific Ocean, has an area of 22,700 square 
 miles of territory, in general raountainous, 
 interspersed with exceedingly rich valleys, 
 in which cattle raising, agriculture and 
 manufacturing are carried on extensively. 
 The climate is temperate and the agri- 
 cultural lands are well watered by rivers 
 and streams which are to be found in all 
 parts of the state. In addition, the northern 
 part contains the most important lake 
 region of Mexico (See Lakes of Mexico). 
 The principal products are: Sugar, rice, 
 cotton, molasses, wheat, coffee, frijoles 
 barley, tobacco, fruits, brandy, chili (native 
 red pepper), woods and minerals, the out- 
 put of the latter being over $4,000,000 
 yearly. Population 950,000. 
 
 Military Academy, National. See 
 Academy, National Military. 
 
 Mineri'a (men-d-re' a) , La (School of 
 Mines), is one of the largest and most im- 
 portant buildings in Mexico. As far back 
 
 as 1777 this school existed, and had for its 
 object the encouragement of mining in New. 
 Spain; but it was not until 18 13 that the 
 present huge building was completed at a 
 cost of over one and one-half million 
 dollars. The architect, Manuel Tolsa, was 
 one of the greatest civil engineers that 
 Mexico has produced. The building has 
 magnificent patios and stairways, and raany 
 rooms of liberal dimensions. In the great 
 central court many gorgeous functions of 
 a public nature have been held. The build- 
 ing is at present devoted to the teaching 
 of engineering, with special attention to all 
 that relates to mining. The course for 
 graduation covers seven years. 
 
 Mining in Mexico began years before 
 the conquest of the Aztec empire by the 
 Spaniards in 1521; and the amount of gold 
 displayed in temples and as personal orna- 
 ments excited the wonder of Cortes and his 
 followers when they entered the Aztec cap- 
 ital for the first time. It is probable that 
 most of the metal so employed was obtained 
 by placer mining. But immediately after 
 the conquest in 182 1 the Spaniards began 
 developing the mining resources of the 
 country and soon a number of the mining 
 districts of Mexico became famous. Fab- 
 ulous sums were produced from some of 
 those old mines; and yet the mining wealth 
 of Mexico today, as then, consists more in 
 the vast deposits of ores throughout the 
 length and breadth of the country than in 
 their high grade. Of this vast wealth of 
 low grade ore but a very small percentage 
 has as yet been touched. Modern methods 
 have, however, begun to change the condi- 
 tion of mining in the country and the invest- 
 ment of large amounts of foreign capital 
 has begun the development of many large 
 mines on a broad scale. Abandoned mines 
 have been reopened and scientific methods 
 applied to their development, which have 
 made of them rich properties in a short 
 time; but there are hundreds of these still 
 untouched, most of them flooded with 
 water. 
 
 The great present commercial mineral 
 wealth of Mexico consists in its silver and 
 copper mines; but iron ore of high grade 
 is plentiful. However it has been but 
 little developed, owing to want of cheap 
 fuel and distance from transportation. 
 Gold, lead and quicksilver are also plentiful 
 in Mexico; coal has been discovered in 
 large quantities in Coahuila and petroleum 
 in Veracruz, Tamaulipas and the southern 
 states of the republic and both of these 
 natural resources are being rapidly devel- 
 oped by foreign capital, principally Amer- 
 ican, French and English. Among other 
 metals to be found extensively throughout 
 Mexico are zinc, salt, antimony, sulphur 
 and bismuth, onyx, marble, opals, emeralds, 
 garnets, sapphires, topazes, jaspers, rubies 
 and agates. Obsidian of an excellent qnal- 
 
MI XT 
 
 2272 
 
 MOCTEZUMA 
 
 ity exists in vast deposits in many parts of 
 the republic, especially in the volcanic dis- 
 tricts, and fine pearls and pearl shells are 
 to be found in large quantities in the Gulf 
 of Lower California. Many rare minerals 
 have been discovered in various of the 
 mineral zones of Mexico, but practically no 
 attempt has been made at exploiting them. 
 Vast deposits of excellent salt exist in 
 numerous parts of Mexico, generally close 
 to the sea coast, in exposed stretches called 
 " Salinas." Of these one of the most exten- 
 sive is close to the city of Salina Cruz in 
 the state of Oaxaca, which derives its name 
 from these same deposits. A strong com- 
 pany has been at work for several years, 
 exnloiting these latter salinas, and salt from 
 this region is to be found on sale in most 
 of the cities and towns of Mexico. Twu- 
 thirds of ]\Iexico is one vast mineralized 
 field awaiting the advent of modern min- 
 ing methods and unlimited capital for its 
 de\'elopment, the construction of good 
 wagon roads and railways and cheaper fuel. 
 The opening up of new coal fields and the 
 exploiting of broad petroleum areas of 
 territory promise to soon supply this latter 
 factor. (See p. 1214.) 
 
 .iWint, The, of Mexico, has a history 
 reaching back to within a few years of the 
 conquest of the country by the Spaniards. 
 In 1535 small pieces of silver with the 
 government mark stamped upon them, 
 were introduced into the currency of the 
 country, which was insufficient to meet the 
 demands of greatly increased trade. These 
 coins were issued from the newly estab- 
 lished mint, which was permitted to coin 
 onlv silver. In 1675 a royal decree of the 
 court of Spain perniitted the Mexican mint 
 to coin pieces of money similar to the 
 Spanish gold doubloon. 
 
 The mint was first established on Mon- 
 terilla street, next to the city hall; but in 
 1569 it was removed to the building now 
 known as the National Palace, facing the 
 Zocalo, in Mexico City. In 1731 it was 
 removed to the building which it now 
 occvipies, which had been constructed for 
 it. During the colonial period (1521- 
 1821) the mint coined $68,874,958 in gold 
 pieces, $542 ,893 in copper pieces and $2 ,08 1 ,- 
 217,985 in silver. In the year 1805 over 
 $25,000,000 in silver were coined at the 
 mint. 
 
 From iSioto 1821 mints were established 
 in Zacatecas, Chihuahua, Guanajuato, Som- 
 brerete, Guadalajara and Durango, all then 
 as now great mining centers. Later on 
 additional mints were established at San 
 Luis Potosi, Culiacan, Tlalpam, Oaxaca, 
 Guadalupe y Calvo, Alamos, Catorce and 
 Hermosillo. But in 1893 the Mexican gov- 
 ernment closed all the mints throughout 
 the republic except that in the Capital, 
 which now has facilities for coining $250,- 
 000 a dav. 
 
 S.\LVADOR DI.^Z 
 MIRON 
 
 To the present there have been coined 
 in the various mints of Mexico §131,573,- 
 256 in gold; $3,563,178,979 in silver and 
 $47,488,674 in bronze and copper, to which 
 must be added a small percentage for coin- 
 age in the past couple of years for which 
 statistics are not at present available. The 
 total coinage of Mexico, including nickel 
 coins during the period since the Spanish 
 conquest to the present day, is over $4,- 
 000,000.000. 
 
 Miramon, Gen. Miguel. See p. 1239. 
 Aliron {mc-roii'), Salvador Diaz (1853- 
 ) , orator and poet of forcible style 
 and strong imagina- 
 tion which is oriental 
 in its richness. He 
 is a true Latin in his 
 love of beauty and 
 niceness of expres- 
 sion, yet he has that 
 force which ever com- 
 pels attention. He is 
 the poet of the upper 
 classes, the learned 
 and the thoughtful, 
 for his poetry is clas- 
 sical in its exactness 
 and its adherence to 
 chastity of form and 
 expression. He has 
 been called the Mex- 
 ican poet for the poets. 
 
 Moctezuma and Tula, Count of. See 
 
 V.\LL,\D.'>iRES, JoSE SaRMIENTO. 
 
 Moctezuma I (mdk'id-sdd'md) , known as 
 Ilhuicamina (Strongbow), fifth king of the 
 Aztecs (1436-1464), was son of Huitzili- 
 huitl, second king of Mexico and nephew of 
 the famous Itzcoatl, during whose reign he 
 had been commander of the Mexican army, 
 which he led with great bravery, skill and 
 wisdom. To him is due much of the suc- 
 cess which followed the armies of Itzcoatl. 
 During the reign of Moctezuma I the allies 
 greatly extended the boundaries of the 
 Aztec confederacy, carrying their victorious 
 arms to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico; 
 much attention was given to the beautify- 
 ing of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) , which was 
 greatly enriched with the spoils of the con- 
 quered cities and peoples and the tribute 
 collected from them and the power of the 
 king, the nobles and the priests was greatly 
 extended, for Moctezuma I, like his famous 
 namesake of later date, was very much of 
 an aristocrat, and assumed an attitude 
 never before taken by Aztecs, hedging him- 
 self about with elaborate ceremonies which 
 he introduced into the court. He was 
 proud in bearing, severe in punishment of 
 crime, but just in all his dealings; so he 
 was' respected and feared by his subjects. 
 Though a great warrior, he was also very 
 religious and he did much to increase the 
 power of the priests and to extend the 
 sphere of the church. Among other places 
 
MOCTEZUMA 
 
 2273 
 
 MORELIA 
 
 of worship he built a great teocalli or ternple 
 to the war god, and he introduced into 
 the church service, as he had into the court, 
 a much more elaborate ceremony. In 1446 
 the city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) was visited 
 by a flood which destroyed many buildings 
 and this was followed in 145 1 by a famine, 
 which was pretty general throughout the 
 Aztec empire, and which caused the death 
 of thousands of people. To prevent future 
 floods II miles of dykes were thrown up 
 to keep back the waters of Lake Texcoco. 
 But though of great general use, these 
 dykes did not insure the safety of the 
 city. 
 
 Moctezuma {mok'td-soo'md) II, known as 
 Moctezuma Zocoyotzin, or the younger, the 
 eighth emperor of the Aztecs, and the 
 third last ruler of the Aztec confederacy. 
 He had been a brilliant warrior, and as 
 high priest of the nation he had increased 
 the power of the church. While a priest, 
 he showed himself humble and frugal in 
 his way of living; but as soon as he cairie 
 to the throne of the Aztecs, he changed his 
 conduct and became as proud and haughty 
 as he had previously been humble. He had 
 a thousand servants in his famous New 
 Palace, all to wait on him personally, and 
 every one was 9f noble birth. He extended 
 the sphere of the arms of the Nahuatl con- 
 federac}^ and m.ade the name of the Mocta- 
 zumas feared from one end of Mexico to 
 the other. The extravagance of the royal 
 court, the vast sums required for the main- 
 tenance of the ceremonies of church and 
 state and for the beautifying and extend- 
 ing of the city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) 
 which Moctezuma undertook, necessitated 
 a very heavy taxation, which brought with 
 it its accompanying discontent, all tended 
 to weaken the Aztec dominion, especially 
 over the recently conquered peoples, who 
 had been added to the acquisitions of the 
 confederacy by Moctezuma himself and b/ 
 the two previous rulers. Moctezuma II 
 was very superstitious, and, when the Span- 
 iards appeared off the coast of Yucatan 
 and later Mexico, he believed they were 
 gods, or at least the followers of the fabled 
 Quetzalcoatl, who had promised to return 
 some day and rule over the people .of Mex- 
 ico. For this reason he feared to attack 
 them as they made their way to the Cap- 
 ital of the Aztec empire, despite his ex- 
 pressed wishes to the contrary and his 
 commands to advance no further. This 
 vacillating conduct was the direct cause of 
 the downfall of the greatest native entity 
 among the governments upon the American 
 continents in the pre-conquest period. See 
 p. 1257, and also Quetzalcoatl. 
 
 Molino del Rey {mo-le'no del rd') , as 
 its name indicates, is a large mill, which 
 is now painted a dull red color. It is sit- 
 uated on the heights behind Chapul1ep~'c 
 Castle, and is reached bv the Dolores line 
 
 of the street railway of Mexico City. On 
 Sept. 8, 1847, the Casa Mata, a point 
 further up the heights, and the Molino del 
 Rey (The King's Mill) were both taken by 
 General Worth, after a desperate battle. 
 General Grant, then lieutenant, was among 
 the attacking party. These two points 
 defended Chapultepec Castle, which was 
 taken by storm five days later. See 
 Chapultepec. 
 
 Monclova, Count of. See Laso de la 
 Vega. 
 
 Monserrat {mdn-sdr-rdf) , Joaquin de, 
 Marquis de Cruillas, 43rd viceroy of New 
 Spain ( 1 760-1 766), gave much attention to 
 fortifying Veracruz, Jalapa and Perote, 
 three strong forts in the state of Veracruz, 
 and along the old stage road which con- 
 nected the port with the Capital, and by 
 his orders trained military officers were 
 brought from Spain to the province to train 
 the native militia. Smallpox carried off 
 many children and the plague thousands of 
 Indians of all ages. During this adminis- 
 tration the Jesuits relinquished the admin- 
 istration of the missions in various parts of 
 New Spain, into the hands of the Spanish 
 court. 
 
 Montanes, Juan de Ortega. See Or- 
 tega MONTANES. 
 
 Monies de Oca, Ignacio. See Oca, 
 Ignacio Montes de. 
 
 Morales (md-rd'lds), La Laguna de, an 
 
 important inlet of the Gulf of Mexico on 
 the eastern coast of the state of Tamaulipas, 
 Mexico. It is picturesque and surrounded 
 by excellent lands, which stretch inward 
 toward the west. 
 
 Morales (md-rd'lds), Meliseo (1853- 
 ), one of the greatest writers of lyrical 
 dramas that Mexico has produced. His 
 success has been even greater in_ Europe 
 than at home. Especially is this so in 
 Italy where his operas have been printed 
 and repeatedly produced. Owing to his 
 popularity numerous musical societies have 
 been named after him both in M'exicoand 
 in Italy. He has done much for music in 
 Mexico, and to his efforts his country to- 
 day has the National Conservatory _ of 
 Music, one of the finest schools of its kind 
 on the American Continent. His best 
 known operas are: Ildegonda and Romeo 
 and Juliet. 
 
 Morelia (mo-rd'le-d), the capital of the 
 state of Michoacan, is situated at an eleva- 
 tion of 6,200 feet above sea level, on a 
 branch of the National Lines of Mexico. 
 It stands upon a hill in the midst of a beau- 
 tiful valley, which gives it a commanding 
 appearance. The climate is one of the best 
 in Mexico. The city, which was founded 
 in 1 54 1, was known for many years as 
 Valladolid; but after the overthrow of 
 Spanish power in New Spain, it was called 
 Morelia after the patriot leader Morelos. It 
 contains many handsome buildings, includ- 
 
MORELOS 
 
 2274 
 
 MOUNT MALIXCHE 
 
 ing the cathedral, churches, schools, parks, 
 plazas and state and public edifices. It 
 has always been noted as a very religious 
 city and the people still pride themselves 
 on being very catholic. Morelia was the 
 storm center of the revolutionary period 
 and it is said to have lost four-fifths of its 
 inhabitants. Population 40,000. 
 
 Morelos (mo-rd'lds), one of the smallest 
 states in Mexico, which touches on the 
 Federal District, Puebla, Mexico and Guer- 
 rero, has an area of 2,750 square miles. 
 Principal products: Brandy, rice, sugar, 
 yucca, corn, woods and fruit. Chief cities 
 Cuernavaca, the. capital, and Cuautla, both 
 farnous health resorts, and Jojutla, Popu- 
 lation 210,000. 
 
 Morelos (mo-rd'lds). Gen. Jose Maria, 
 is considered by Mexican historians as, 
 next to Hidalgo, the greatest hero of the 
 war of independence. As a soldier and 
 general he was much Hidalgo's superior. 
 He was born in Valladolid (now called 
 Moreha in his honor) in 1765, and he was 
 30 years of age before he began to study 
 for the priesthood, in the college of San 
 Nicholas, of which Hidalgo, the future hero 
 of Mexican independence, was then rector. 
 There he imbibed the teachings of Hidalgo, 
 and consequently he was one of the first 
 to follow his banner. He soon took the 
 lead of the revolutionary party in the 
 south, with great success. In December, 
 181 1, he entered Izucar; on the 17th he 
 repelled General Soto's forces, who made 
 a strong attack upon Izucar; and on the 
 2 2nd_those of General Porher. He followed 
 up his advantage over the latter, captured 
 much munitions of war, and swept the 
 royalist from the surrounding country from 
 Cuautla to Acapulco. Then Morelos took 
 possession of Cuautla, wiiere he sustained a 
 siege of two months, being besieged by a 
 force more than twice his own. He was 
 at last forced to evacuate the town, and 
 retreat to Tehuacan. From here, while 
 the enemy was following him, he besieged 
 and took Orizaba in October, 181 2, where 
 several millions of dollars' M^orth of spoils 
 fell into his hands. On Nov. 25 he took 
 Oaxaca by storm. Then he carried on his 
 operations in the south country again, laid 
 siege to the strong fortress of Acapulco, 
 which he captured after a protracted siege 
 ^Aug. 25, 1 813); and the following month 
 
 he called a congress at Chilpancingo to 
 organize an independent Mexican govern- 
 ment. This congress issued a formal decla- 
 ration of Mexican independence, and gave 
 the new republic the name of "Anahuac." 
 Morelos then attempted to capture Valla- 
 dolid, but was forced to retire before a 
 superior force, and he retreated to Acapulco, 
 where he convened congress. On Oct. 22 
 the first Mexican constitution was adopted. 
 But the royalists followed Morelos into the 
 state of Guerrero and the latter retreated 
 again before superior numbers. On the 
 eve of a great battle, Xov. 5, 1815, Morelos 
 was betrayed by one of his own men into 
 the hands of the royalists at Texmalaca. 
 He was brought to Mexico City, tried by 
 the inquisition and the militarv courts, 
 condemned to death and shot' at San 
 Cristobal Ecatepec, Dec. 22, 181 5. 
 
 Moreno (md-rd'nd), Jose Rosas (1838- 
 1883), historian, dramatist, poet and the 
 best writer of metrical fables that Mexico 
 has produced. His style is correct, har- 
 monious and sweet. Juan de Dios Peza 
 (which see) says of him: "Rosas Moreno, 
 as a poet, is of wonderful sweetness, and 
 so correct is his style, that, without any 
 fear of making a mistake, we may assert 
 that, if we have classical writers in "Mexico, 
 he is one of them." The following of his 
 numerous dramas are worthy of mention: 
 Flowers and Thorns; An Innocent Lie; No 
 One Dies of Love; A Plan for Divorce; Rela- 
 tives; Our Daily Bread; for Juana Inez de 
 la Cruz; The Wife of Caesar; Around the 
 Cradle and The Bard of Acolhuacan. He 
 was a writer of excellent school books, 
 but of all his works his Fables are his most 
 popular productions. 
 
 Mount Malinche. See Malinche, La. 
 Moya de Contreras {mo-yd dd kdn- 
 trdr'ds), Pedro, viceroy of New Spain 
 ( 1 584-1 585), was archbishop and visitador 
 to Mexico from the court of Spain, and he 
 was appointed to assume the duties of 
 viceroy by Philip II. At once he deprived 
 of office several oidores, hanged a number 
 of officials and made a clean sweep of 
 malefactors in office, so that administration 
 of justice was, for the time being, honest. 
 Under his direction a council of the church 
 was held wherein the ecclesiastical author- 
 ities put themselves on record as in favor 
 of the liberty of the Indians, 
 
NATERA 
 
 2275 
 
 NORONA Y SILVA 
 
 N 
 
 Najera (nd'hd-ra), Manuel Gutierrez 
 
 (1859-1895), who achieved fame under the 
 nom de plume of the "Duque Job," was 
 painter, sculptor, poet, critic and prose 
 writer of note. Few Mexican writers have 
 had success in so many fields of literature 
 as he. Humor, wit, pathos, political and 
 literary criticism, short stories, descriptive 
 articles of wonderful vividness, all flowed 
 from his pen from week to week as the 
 calls of journalism produced them, all true 
 to na.ture and good taste and filled with 
 the vivid imagination of the man, and all 
 showing his powers of observation and 
 striking ability to portray what he saw. 
 As a poet he is as much a painter as when 
 he was conveying some actual scene to 
 real canvas; and every picture is as vivid 
 as though the actual scene that inspired 
 it were there before our eyes. So true are 
 his descriptions of national customs and so 
 striking his local color sketches that the 
 newspapers of the capital find nothing 
 better, now, more than a decade since his 
 death, than to illustrate and reprint them 
 as leading articles on the occurrence of 
 some yearly festival, some characteristic or 
 curious church holiday, some historic event 
 or some celebration which has clustered 
 around it the curious local spirit emanating 
 from the obscure past of the Indian. At 
 all he is at home, vivid, striking, convinc- 
 ing, pleasing, unconventional and strangely 
 original in his pictures, his perspective and 
 even his language, which is ever made to 
 fit the occasion and the subject. 
 
 National Military Academy. See Acad- 
 emy, National Military. 
 
 National Museum, Mexico, occupies a 
 large part of the National Palace building 
 fronting on Moneda street, and east of the 
 old postoffice, the former quarters of the 
 National Mint. The Museum is rich in 
 archaeological remains of great interest, 
 some of which were inherited from the 
 University of Mexico which was closed in 
 1865; but the greater part of what is a very 
 large and varied collection has been made 
 within the past thirty years, the govern- 
 ment having shown especial activity in the 
 collection of antiquities of all kinds relating 
 to Mexico within the past decade. Although 
 considerable attention has been paid to the 
 Natural History Department of the Museum, 
 it is naturally much infericw to that of 
 archaeology proper. This is due to the fact 
 that Mexico is, archaeologically, one of the 
 richest' countries in the world, and the 
 interest awakened in the study of the 
 ancient remains of Mexico has benefited 
 greatly this department of the Museum. 
 
 As there are in the Museum literally thou- 
 sands of remains relating to the history of 
 the pre-Columbian tribes, races and nations 
 of Mexico, and as all are interesting, a 
 description of even the most important 
 would be impossible here. Suffice it to say, 
 however, that the Museum is, for the student, 
 the most interesting institution in Mexico, 
 showing, as it does, in a concrete manner, 
 the civilization of the ancient races of 
 Mexico; for there are to be met with objects 
 in abundance which show the advancement 
 made by the Aztecs, Colhouas, Toltecs, 
 Zapotecas, Mayas, and other more or less 
 known nations of ancient Mexico, in arts, 
 sciences, social and political organization, 
 tools, dress, warfare, customs, superstitions, 
 traditions , history, etc. ; for there , in fact , may 
 be met with the greatest collection of 
 remains of the primitive races and peoples 
 of the American continent. The Museum 
 is especially rich in pottery, sculptured 
 objects, some of them of immense dimen- 
 sions, picture writing and copper articles 
 belonging to the preconquest period in 
 Mexican history. 
 
 National Palace, The. See Palacio 
 Nacional. 
 
 National School of Fine Arts of Mexico, 
 The. See Academy, San Carlos. 
 
 Navarrete {nd'vd-rd'ta), Fray Manuel 
 (1768— 1809), a Franciscan monk who was 
 guardian of the famous convent of Tlalpu- 
 jahua, Mexico. So sweet run the lines of 
 his muse that he has been called the angel 
 poet of Mexico. His style is natural, with- 
 out the slightest appearance of affectation 
 and there is a depth of feeling in his poetry 
 and a cleanness which other writers of the 
 period in which he lived would have done 
 well to imitate. He had a considerable in- 
 fluence upon the poets who succeeded him 
 and to this influence, no doubt, is due the 
 fact that the better poetry of Mexico is 
 more simple and less filled with involved 
 phraseology than that of the mother country, 
 Spain. _^ 
 
 Norona y Silva {no-r5n'yd e sel'vd), 
 Fernando Alencastre, Duke of Linares 
 (1711-1716), 34th viceroy of New Spain, 
 was very popular on account of his sym- 
 pathetic and charitable tendencies. Out of 
 his own means he gave extensive aid to 
 the populace, hundreds of whom suft'ered 
 severely in an earthquake of half an hour's 
 duration, which took place in the first year 
 of his administration. In this same year 
 the first snowstorm mentioned in history 
 visited the Capital of New Spain, causing 
 the death of many of the half-clad Indians. 
 Three years later plague and famine fell 
 
NOVELLA 
 
 2276 
 
 O'DOXOJU 
 
 upon the land, causing great suffering and 
 loss of life. Again the viceroy used to the 
 limit his private purse to relieve the suffer- 
 ing and hunger of the stricken people. The 
 English government was granted, during 
 this administration, a monopoly of the 
 negro slave trade at Veracruz, the port of 
 entry on the Gulf of Mexico, and San 
 Felipe de Linares, in the state of Nuevo 
 Leon, was founded (17 15). 
 
 Novella Oio-vdl'yd), Francisco, 61st 
 viceroy of New Spain, who came into power 
 by the deposition of Apodaca (see Apodaca) 
 in 1 82 1. He had been chief of artillery to 
 the latter. Although he was a capable man, 
 he was_ handicapped by the fact that the 
 revolutionary party had become very 
 strong in Alexico, there was dissension 
 among the royalists, and he was looked 
 upon by it; any of them as a usurper. His 
 administration lasted but one month. 
 
 Nuevo Leon {nod-d'vd Id-on'), one of the 
 northern states of Mexico, surrounded by 
 Coahuila, Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosi, 
 Coahuila, Durango and bordering on the 
 
 United States, has an area of 25,000 square 
 miles. It presents two general slopes, one 
 toward the Gulf of Mexico and the ' other 
 stretching into the central tableland; there- 
 fore, its climate varies from temperate to 
 hot. The uplands are semi-arid, while the 
 lowlands are rich in tropical vegetation and 
 well watered, among the rivers traxersing 
 this region being the Salado, San Juan, 
 Sabinas, Hidalgo, Pilon, Linares and Potosi! 
 The chief industries are manufacturing, 
 agriculture and mining. The state has 
 excellent railway facilities, being traversed 
 by the National Railways of Mexico and 
 the International. The principal cities are: 
 Monterey, the capital and chief center of 
 manufactures, commerce and agriculture, 
 Montemorelos, Linares and Sabinas. Pop- 
 ulation 350,000. 
 
 Nunez de Haro y Peralta (nddn'ydsdd 
 dr'o _ e par dl'td) , Alonso, archbishop of 
 Mexico and 4gth viceroy of New Spain 
 (1787- ), governed the province for 
 three months. Nothing of note happened 
 during his administration. 
 
 o 
 
 Oaxaca. See p. 1368. 
 
 Obregon {ob'rd-gdn'), Luis Gonzalez 
 
 (1865- ), the most careful and con- 
 scientious of the younger historians of 
 Mexico. But he is more than a historian, 
 and his methods are distinctly different 
 from those of his predecessors. He takes 
 up characters, periods, incidents and gives 
 us elaborate pen pictures of each. He is 
 a deep student and has a very retentive 
 memory, a picturesque style and power of 
 portrayal which make his work extremely 
 interesting. He has been styled the topical 
 historian of Mexico. His best known book, 
 and undoubtedly his most interesting work, 
 is Old Mexico. He has also written two 
 intensely interesting biographies: Bernal 
 Diaz and Jose Joaqinn Fernandez de 
 Lizar di. 
 
 Oca {dk'a), Ignacio Monies de (1840- 
 ), bishop of San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 
 is one_ of the most learned men in the 
 Catholic church. He is a poet of note, a 
 delightful prose writer and a linguist of 
 more than ordinary ability. He was edu- 
 cated in England and Italy and so speaks 
 the languages of both these countries like 
 a native. In fact he was curate of Ipswich, 
 Enrland, and afterwards secret chancellor 
 to Pope Pius IX. During the French inter- 
 vention he served as chaplain to the Em- 
 
 peror Maximilian. Under the nom de plume 
 of "Ipandro Acaico," he has published six 
 large volumes of sermons, orations and 
 descriptive articles, and also three volumes 
 of poems, viz. : Pindar's Odes; Poetic Loiter- 
 iitgs and Greek Bucolic Poets. 
 
 Ocotlan {d-kdt-ldn'), The Shrine of, a 
 famous sanctuary about a mile from the 
 city of Tlaxcala, which is situated upon a 
 hill to the southeast. There is worshiped 
 the Virgin of Ocotlan, who is renowned 
 throughout the state of Tlaxcala. The 
 tradition of the founding of this shrine is 
 almost identical with that of Our Lady 
 of Guadalupe, the name of the Indian, 
 Juan Diego, to whom the virgin appeared, 
 being identical in both cases. See Our 
 Lady of Guadalupe. 
 
 O'Donoju (o'ddn-o-hdo'), Gen. Juan, the 
 last viceroy of New Spain (Aug. 3 to Sept. 
 27, 182 1), signed in behalf of Spain the 
 treaty of Cordoba, which acknowledged the 
 independence of Mexico. He died in "Mexico 
 on the 8th of October, 1821. He was a 
 mernber of the regency which go\'erned 
 Mexico upon the acknowledgment of the 
 independence of the country. To his tact 
 and skilful management is due the success 
 of the negotiations which brought about 
 the independence of New Spain and the 
 establishment of the provisional government. 
 
OFFICIAL RESIDENCE 
 
 2277 
 
 PACHECO Y OSORIO 
 
 Official Residence of the President of 
 Mexico. See Chapultepec Castle. 
 
 Orizaba (o're sa'vd) , a mountain and city 
 in the state of Veracruz. The mountain 
 (18,100 feet) is said to be the highest eleva- 
 tion in Mexico. As it is beautiful in form, 
 snow-capped the year round, and stands 
 out in bold relief from the valley in which 
 it is situated, so that it can be seen for 
 many miles, it is one of the sights of Mex- 
 ico. The town of Orizaba lies in a pretty 
 valley surrounded by bold and striking 
 mountains, almost in the shadow of the 
 great m.ountain of the same name. It is 
 a manufacturing center of importance, 
 though all the factories are situated with- 
 out the city limits, with the exception of 
 some small cigar and other industries. 
 Orizaba, formerly known as Aulicava, is 
 derived from the name of an ancient Chichi- 
 meca village, Ahauializapan (Joy of Waters) , 
 which existed there before the Spanish con- 
 quest. Population 20,000. 
 
 Ortega Montanes {or-ta'ga inon-tdn yds') , 
 Juan de, Bishop of Michoacan, 30th vice- 
 roy of New Spain (1696) and 32nd viceroy 
 (i 701— 1702). During his first administra- 
 tion he authorized the Jesuit fathers to 
 "reduce to submission at their own ex- 
 pense the distance province of California." 
 Thus began that invasion of missionaries 
 which lasted until the Jesuits were ex- 
 pelled from New Spain in 1767. During 
 his second administration the English laid 
 siege to San Agustin, Florida, but were 
 unable to take the place. 
 
 Ortiz (or-tes') , Luis Q. (183 5-1 894), poet 
 and novelist, who followed the Italian school 
 of poetry. He was a great admirer of 
 
 Petrarc, whose writings and manner of 
 thought he reflects very often in his own. 
 Yet for all this he shows a great deal of 
 originality, though his point of view is 
 often more Italian than Mexican. Through- 
 out the two volumes of poems which he 
 published during his lifetime the erotic pre- 
 dominates. He is also the author of several 
 novels which are more Mexican than his 
 poems. 
 
 Osorio Escobar y Llamas {o-sor'e-o 
 ds-ko-bdr' e lyam'ds), Diego, bishop of ] 
 Puebla, was viceroy of New Spain for four 
 months in 1664. During this time the 
 famous volcano, Popocatepetl (Mountain of 
 Smoke), which overlooks the Valley of 
 Mexico, was in eruption, causing great fear 
 to all the surrounding villages and to the 
 Capital of the republic. ' 
 
 Osorio, Rodrigo Pacheco y. See 
 Pacheco y Osorio. 
 
 Othon (o-ton'), Manuel Jose (185S- 
 1906), dramatist and lyrical and descriptive 
 poet who may be classed as one of the 
 best which Mexico , produced during the 
 last quarter of the 19th century. Among 
 his best known dramas, which have m.et 
 with success upon the stage are : A 
 Wounded Heart; The Shadow Upon the 
 Hearthstone; A Chain of Flowers; What 
 is There Behind Happiness?; Macbeth; 
 After Death and Victory. He is to be 
 classed with Mateos and Contreras as 
 the greatest of the modern Mexican dra- 
 matists, and like them, his dramas have 
 plenty of action, good plots and sustained 
 interest. 
 
 Our Lady of the Ball. See Ball, Our 
 Lady of the. 
 
 Pacheco, Diego Lopez. See Cabrera y 
 
 BOBADILLA. 
 
 Pacheco y Osorio {pd-chd'ko e o-sd're-o) , 
 Rodrigo, Marquis of Cerralvo, i6th vice- 
 roy of New Spain (1624-1635), arrived in 
 Mexico in company with Martin Carrillo, 
 the inquisitor, with full power to investigate 
 and punish the offenders of the previous 
 administration (see Mendoza y Pimentel). 
 The Prince of Nassau in 1624, with a Dutch 
 squadron, took possession of Acapulco, but 
 he soon retired before the threatening aspect 
 of the people of the country; a few years 
 later the Dutch succeeded in capturing a 
 rich Spanish fleet of convoys in the Bahama 
 straits, as it was going from Veracruz to 
 
 Spain with much precious me'cal from the 
 silver mines of Mexico. The Capital was 
 again inundated, this time with more dam- 
 age than on previous occasions, for the 
 water rose to the second story of many of 
 the buildings; and as the houses of the 
 masses were built of adobe (sundried bricks) 
 most of them were either completely de- 
 stroyed or rendered so dangerous that they 
 had to be pulled down and rebuilt. Three- 
 fourths of the Spanish population of the 
 City of Mexico perished, together with 30,- 
 000 Indians, in this inundation; for the city 
 was completely under water and the only 
 means of communication was by canoe 
 along the flooded streets. Divine service 
 
PACHUCA 
 
 2278 
 
 PALAFOX Y MEXDOZA 
 
 was held upon the fla\ roofs of the houses 
 and the law tribunals were closed. Those 
 whose houses were of one-story only were 
 forced to live upon the roof for many days. 
 Tb.e heat of the tropical summer days, the 
 cold and dampness of the nights in the 
 flooded city and the diseases arising from 
 this condition of things were the cause of 
 so many deaths in the stricken city. So 
 hopeless were the inhabitants of the cap- 
 ital of being able to overcome the constant 
 danger of inundation, that plans were 
 seriously considered of removing the city 
 to the higher ground of Tacubaya, some 
 two miles distant. In the meantime the 
 flood subsided, the Huehuetoca drainage 
 canal was comj^leted, and the scheme to 
 remove the Capital was laid aside. 
 
 Pachuca (pd-chod'kd), the capital of the 
 state of Hidalgo, -and one of the most im- 
 portant mining centers in Mexico, lies in 
 a small valley surrounded by mountains at 
 an elevation of 8,100 feet above sea level. 
 It is only 85 miles from Mexico City. The 
 town was founded shortly after the Spanish 
 conquest (1534), and owed its origin to the 
 discovery of rich silver mines in the vallej^ 
 There are close to three hundred mines in 
 the Pachuca district, nearly half of which 
 are in the immediate vicinity of the city. 
 Of the famous names of Pachuca mines are 
 Santa Gertrudis, Blanca, Xacal, Rosario, 
 Candado and Real del Monte. From the 
 Trinidad mine $40,000,000 were extracted 
 in ten years. Population 20,000. 
 
 Palacio (pd-ld' se-o) ,Qen. Vicente Riva 
 (1832-1896), son of Mariano Riva Palacio, 
 the great liberal leader, and Dolores Guer- 
 rero, daughter of one of the most famous 
 heroes of Mexican independence. He had 
 all the fire, impetuosity and intelligence of 
 his father and his more famous grandfather. 
 He was statesman, diplomat, warrior, poet, 
 dramatist and prose writer of superior ex- 
 cellence. In fact no name stands higher in 
 Mexican literature than his. As a literary 
 and political critic he was a power in his 
 day, and in this field he stands alone Avith 
 Manuel Gutierrez Najera. His works have 
 been _ published _ in part in all Spanish- 
 speaking countries. He was a member of 
 over thirty literary and scientific societies 
 in all parts of the world. His style is 
 brilliant, his insight keen, his criticism 
 logical and convincing and his familiarity 
 with his subject is ever evident. Among 
 his most popular novels are Calvario y 
 Tabor; Ntm and Married; Martin Garatuza; 
 The Pirates of the Gulf; The Two Immured 
 Women; Doctor Guillen de Lampart; the 
 Memoirs of an Imposter and The Zeros. 
 The latter is a series of humorous yet 
 delightfully interesting and kindly sketches 
 of his contemporary literary men, He also 
 wrote in conjunction with Peza, Payno and 
 Mateos and he furnished one of the volumes 
 of the monumental work, Mexico Throtigh- 
 
 otit the Centimes. His best known volume 
 of poems bears the title Pages in Verse. 
 
 Palacio was governor of the states of 
 Mexico and Michoacan, magistrate of the 
 supreme court of justice of Mexico, minister 
 of the department of Fomento (Encourage- 
 ment), and Mexican minister to Spain, 
 which latter post he held at the time of 
 his death, which took place in Madrid. 
 
 Palacio Nacional (pa-la' se-d nd'se-o-ndl') 
 (The National Palace), occupies the entire 
 eastern side of the Zocalo (Plaza Mayor) of 
 the City of Mexico, and is, therefore, one 
 of the largest buildings in the Capital. 
 Little by little the government has out- 
 grown this building, large though it is; but 
 it is still the headquarters for the army, 
 and there the president of the republic 
 has his offices and his reception rooms; but 
 the greater part of the departments of the 
 administration, which were housed there 
 some years ago, have been moved to other 
 government buildings throughout the city. 
 At one time there were housed in this 
 huge building nearly all the departments of 
 the federal government, including the cen- 
 tral postoffice and the Astronomical and 
 Meteorological bureaus. The building has 
 a frontage of 675 feet upon the Zocalo, 
 and a corresponding depth. 
 
 Historically the ground upon which the 
 Palacio Nacional stands is one of the most 
 interesting spots in Mexico; for upon it 
 there stood, at the time of the Spanish 
 conquest, one of the most famous palaces 
 of Moctezuma, the proud emperor of the 
 Aztecs, which was totally destroyed during 
 the protracted and bloody siege of the 
 City of Mexico in 1521. To Cortes, the 
 conqueror, fell this piece of ground, then 
 one of the most valuable in the conquered 
 city. He erected upon it a new palace, 
 which was destroyed in the riots of 1692. 
 In that same year the present palace was 
 begun; but its growth has been the history 
 of successive additions, more or less in the 
 same plain style, which have made of it 
 one of the architecturally most unattractive 
 buildings in the Capital. 
 
 In this building is the Hall of the Am- 
 bassadors, on the walls of which are some 
 excellent paintings, which include por- 
 traits of many of the noted leaders in the 
 revolutionary'- war against Spain. Among 
 these are portraits of Hidalgo, Juarez, 
 Iturbide, AUende, Matamoros, Guerrero, 
 Morelos and Arista. Above the facade of 
 this building facing on the Zocalo is the 
 famous bell, which Hidalgo, the father of 
 Mexican independence, rang on the night 
 of Sept. 15, 18 10, to call together the con- 
 spirators who had been working to over- 
 throw the power of Spain in Mexico. It 
 is known as the Liberty Bell of Mexico. 
 
 Palafox y Mendoza (pd'ld-fos' e mdn- 
 do'thd), Juan de, bishop of Puebla, who 
 had great political power in New Spain. 
 
PAREDES 
 
 2279 
 
 PERALTA 
 
 He was the founder of the famous Palafox 
 Library in Puebla and for five months in 
 1642 he held the office of i8th viceroy. 
 He had a bitter quarrel with the Jesuits 
 on account of which there was a none too 
 friendly feeling between the latter body 
 and the rest of the Catholic Church in New 
 Spain for years afterwards. 
 
 Paredes, Count of. See Cerda, Tomas 
 Antonio Manrique de. 
 
 Parish Church of Mexico. See Sag- 
 
 RARIO MeTROPOLITANO. 
 
 Patio Process. See Medina, Bar- 
 
 TOLOME DE. 
 
 Patzcuaro (pats' kwd-ro) (Place of De- 
 lights), a city of about 12,000 inhabitants, 
 in the state of Michoacan, Mexico, is con- 
 nected with the Capital of the republic, 
 275 miles distant, by the National Rail- 
 ways of Mexico. It is an important trad- 
 ing point between the hotlands of the 
 coast and temperate tableland. But it is 
 more noted as a wintering place for tour- 
 ists. The local market, which is very 
 Indian in character, is interesting, on 
 account of the variety of curious native 
 products there offered for sale. In the 
 valleys around Patzcuaro are some fifty 
 towns and villages, which trade with the 
 place. The principal building in Patzcuaro 
 is the parish church, which was originally 
 built as the state cathedral, when Patzcuaro 
 was the residence of the state bishops in 
 the 1 6th century. The place will hold 
 3,000 people. Patzcuaro is situated near 
 the shores of a very picturesque lake of 
 the same name, of clear fresh water, which 
 is about 25 miles long and 10 miles wide. An 
 extensive fishing business is carried on on 
 this lake, which is a favorite lounging ground 
 of pleasure-seekers and tourists from the Cap- 
 ital of the republic and from Guadalajara. 
 
 Payno {pt'no), Manuel (1822-1891), 
 statesman, diplomat, essayist and novelist, 
 held many important positions under the 
 Mexican government. He was secretary of 
 the treasury (finance minister) and while 
 in this office he reduced the national debt 
 to $20,000,000. Afterwards he became 
 Mexican consul-general to Spain. He was 
 a strong republican, and several times he 
 suffered imprisonment for his political 
 opinions. But it is as a novelist and essayist 
 that he will be longest remembered, although 
 he has written an excellent short history of 
 Mexico, many historical articles, biography 
 and political treatises. His style is clear, 
 his perspective good and his power of 
 description and characterization excellent. 
 Of his historical works, one of the most 
 interesting is The War Between Mexico and 
 the United States. His best novel is the 
 Devil's Scarf Pin. His imagination is vivid, 
 his descriptions accurate and his choice of 
 subjects generally happy. Considering the 
 active political life he led, he has left a 
 great amount of really excellent work. 
 
 Paz {pas'), Col. Ireneo (1836- ), 
 soldier, statesman, journalist, novelist, poet, 
 dramatist and publisher, in all of which 
 walks of life he has made his influence and 
 personality felt. For years he fought in 
 behalf of the independence of Mexico and 
 of liberal principles, and he even opposed 
 the great Juares because he thought that 
 statesman had not kept faith with the con- 
 stitution of Mexico. As a dramatist Paz is 
 one of the most successful writers of Mexico, 
 especially in the field of comedy. He was 
 several times imprisoned for his political 
 opinions, and twice his life was in danger. 
 He has been President of the Associated 
 Press of Mexico, senator, congressman and 
 director of public roads and parks for the 
 federal district. His published works would 
 form a small library in themselves; the 
 following are the most important: Some 
 Campaigns; Father Cohos; An Old Man's 
 Love; Love and Sacrifice; The Two Antonios; 
 Thistles and Violets (Poems and Dramas in 
 three large volumes) ; Dona Marina; Guad- 
 alupe; Prominent Men of Mexico; Historical 
 Legends; The Sacrificial Stone and Festive 
 Sonnets. His most successful dramas which 
 are to be found in the second _ volume .of 
 Thistles and Violets are: The Gift of Doing 
 Things the Wrong Way; On the Edge of the 
 Abyss; The Heroes of the Day After; The 
 Apple of Discord; Ready for the Festivals; 
 Your Money or Your Life and A Flood of 
 Englishmen. Of these the most successful 
 is The Apple of Discord. 
 
 Pedregal {pad' rd- gal'), The (Place of 
 Stones), a stretch of exceedingly rough, 
 lava-covered country lying to the south of 
 Coyoacan and San Angel in the Federal 
 District of Mexico, was once famous as the 
 home of robber bands who constantly, for 
 more than three centuries, threatened the 
 peace and commerce of the Capital. It was 
 there that Netcahualcoyotl, the famous 
 king of Texcoco (which see) found refuge 
 from his enemies and there he made his 
 famous wanderings that gave him his name 
 which signifies "Hungry Wolf." Reference 
 is found constantly in Mexican literature 
 and history to the Pedregal. 
 
 Peon y Contreras, Jose. See Con- 
 treras. 
 
 Peralta {pdr-dl'ta), Gaston de. Marquis 
 de Falces, 3rd viceroy of New Spain 
 (1566-1568). Before the arrival of Peralta 
 in New Spain an insurrection against the 
 government had broken out in the country, 
 headed by Martin Cortes, son of the con- 
 queror. Peralta found that the oidores, 
 who represented the Spanish king, had 
 acted with haste and passion in judging 
 many of those who took part in the upris- 
 ing, so he reversed many of their acts and 
 sent the accused to Spain for trial. The 
 viceroy was, in his turn, accused of par- 
 tiality and finally ordered by the king to 
 return to Spain, which he did. There he 
 
PESADO 
 
 2280 
 
 PRIETO DE LANDAZURI 
 
 was able to clear himself of all the charges 
 laid against him. 
 
 Pesado {pd-sd'lhd), Jose Joaquin (1801- 
 i86i), is looked upon as the best of the 
 classical poets of Mexico. His power of 
 imagery and his skill in accurate painting 
 have raised him above the poets of his own 
 time. His works have been reprinted 
 numerous times in Spain, and the Spanish 
 
 goets and critics have praised him highly, 
 ut he is so thoroughly under the influence 
 of the classical spirit that his poetry reflects 
 little or nothing of his own country, so that 
 his style, his choice of subjects and his 
 manner of execution have nothing national 
 about them. 
 
 Peza ipd'sd), Juan de Dios (1852- ), 
 medical man, statesman, journalist, poet, 
 dramatist and prose 
 writer, who is un- 
 doubtedly the best of 
 the living literary 
 men of Mexico. Of 
 all the American 
 writers he resembles 
 most Longfellow on 
 account of his sim- 
 plicity of style, his 
 choice of common 
 subjects, which he 
 ennobles while he 
 touches them with a 
 loving hand. His 
 dramas are : A Love 
 Affair; The True 
 Ho7ne and The Last 
 Days of Christopher 
 Columbus. The publication of the Songs 
 of the Hearthstone in his 24th year at once 
 made him one of the popular poets of 
 Mexico. Other publications have added to 
 his fame until now he is looked upon as 
 the literary leader of the republic. His 
 other works of note are : Home and Country; 
 Memories and Hopes; The Arrow of Love; 
 Mexican Traditions; Flowers of the Soul; 
 Monologties of Songs and Heroes; Legends 
 of the Streets of Mexico; The Mexican Lyre 
 and The Harp of Our Native Land. In his 
 patriotic and war poems Peza shows fire, 
 enthusiasm and a mastery of expression 
 and word painting that at once caught the 
 attention of his countrymen as no other 
 native writer, with the exception of Guil- 
 lermo Prieto, has ever done. 
 
 Pimentel, Mendoza y. See Mendoza 
 y Pimentel. 
 
 Place of Water. See Aztlan. 
 Popocatepetl. See Ixtaccihuatl. 
 Popotla ipd-poi'ld), a suburb of Mexico 
 City, with which it is connected by tram- 
 way. It was the capital of the ancient 
 kingdom of the Chichimecas. Later on it 
 was of iinportance as the end of the great 
 causeway which connected Tenochtitlan 
 (Mexico City) with the mainland to the 
 west. It was at Popotla that Cortes halted. 
 
 juan de dios 
 peza 
 
 GUILLERMO PRIETO 
 
 on the "Dismal Xight" after his disastrous 
 retreat fro.n Tenociititlan; and there tradi- 
 tion says he sat down under a cypress tree, 
 which is still pointed out to tourists, and 
 wept. 
 
 Portocarrero, Melchor. See Laso de 
 la Vega. 
 
 Prieto (pre-d'io), Guillermo (1818- 
 1897), journalist, poet, orator, statesman, 
 historian, essayist and 
 noted writer on poli- 
 tical economy and 
 kindred subjects. He 
 was a passionate re- 
 publican and his 
 political beliefs tinge 
 all his writings and 
 acts. He was min- 
 ister of finance and 
 he held other impor- 
 tant government 
 offices. But it is as 
 a poet of the ro- 
 mantic school that he 
 will be longest 
 remembered in Mex- 
 ico. In all that he 
 
 has written touching the life and events of 
 his day his vision has ever been Mexico 
 free, united, happy and great. For this he 
 struggled all his lifetime; and this is why 
 no other native poet has touched the hearts 
 of the people of Mexico as Guillermo Prieto 
 has done. His very attitude toward all 
 things Mexican, his passion, his force, his 
 mastery of word painting, his knowledge 
 of the people made him, without his know- 
 ing it or striving to become so, the real 
 father of Mexican poetry, that is, poetry 
 whose inspiration finds its origin in the 
 national life, its customs, manners of 
 thought, aspirations, greatnesses and little- 
 nesses. To the Mexican writers who labored 
 with him or have followed him he widened 
 the field of vision a hundredfold. His 
 National Romances is his most popular 
 work. 
 
 Prieto de Landazuri (pre-d'to da Idn- 
 dd' sod-re'), Isabel (i 833-1 876), is, next to 
 Sor Juana Inez de la Curz, the greatest 
 woman poet of Mexico, and one of the 
 greatest dramatists of the republic. As a 
 lyrical poet she is simple, direct, yet strongly 
 imaginative, with the power of depicting in 
 short, terse sentences most vivid iinages and 
 pictures. Her range of subjects and char- 
 acters is very large both in her Ij^rical and 
 descriptive poems and her dramas. As a 
 dramatist she was prolific, and her produc- 
 tions were received with great enthusiasni 
 in her day, both in Spain and in Mexico. 
 Hartsenbusch, the famous Spanish drama- 
 tist and critic, praised her dramatic work 
 highly. Among her long list of dramas the 
 following are worthy of note: Both Are 
 the Worst; Two Flowers; Tinsel aud Gold; 
 The School of Two Sisters-in-law; Penitence 
 
PROGRESO 
 
 2281 
 
 QUINTANA ROO 
 
 and Sin; Abnegation; A Lily Among Thorns; 
 The Angel of the Hearth; Carnival Night; A 
 Woman's Heart; Fairy and Seraphim; A 
 Type of the Day and The Thorns of Sin. 
 The best edition of her poetical works is 
 that published by Ireneso Paz, Mexico, 
 1883, and edited by Jose Maria Vigil, two 
 noted Mexican authors. 
 
 Prince of the Reeds. See Acam- 
 
 APITZIN. 
 
 Progreso (pro-grd' so) , the chief seaport 
 town of the state of Yucatan, is the recipient 
 of practically all the export trade of the 
 state, which is extensive. The port may be 
 said to have control of the henequen trade, 
 
 so far as it relates to Mexico. It is but a 
 short distance from Progreso to Merida, the 
 capital of the state. On account of the 
 extreme heat of the tropics, Progreso is 
 unhealthful for Americans and Europeans. 
 
 Puebla {pwd'vld), the third largest city 
 in the republic of Mexico. It is noted for 
 its many fine churches and the religious 
 zeal of its inhabitants. It was founded 
 shortly after the conquest, and was, for 
 many years, the most important religious 
 center in the republic. See p. 1559. 
 
 Puerto Real. See Terminos and Car- 
 men. 
 
 Pulque. See p. 1560. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quauhnahuac (kwd'od-nd'-wdk) (The 
 Valley of Flowers), the Indian name for 
 the present city of Cuernavaca, the capital 
 of the state of Morelos, Mexico. 
 
 Queretaro. See p. 15 14. 
 
 Queretaro. See p. 1574. 
 
 Quetzalcoatl {kets' dl-kwdtl') (the Fair 
 God), the Hiawatha of Mexico, figures 
 extensively in the legends of the Toltecs 
 and Aztecs. According to the stories told 
 of him, he was a tall man with a long 
 beard and fair complexion, who came from 
 a far distant land to teach the Toltecs. 
 Like Hiawatha, he taught them the arts 
 of war and peace, but especially the latter; 
 but he enjoined upon them that they should 
 live in peace with one another. When he 
 left them to return to the land from whence 
 he came, he promised to come back to then 
 some day and make them wiser and greater. 
 It was this legend with its promise that 
 made the valiant Moctezuma II a servile 
 coward in the presence of the adventurous 
 conqueror Cortes, whom he believed to be 
 Quetzalcoatl returning to claim his own; 
 and to this superstition may be accredited, 
 in part at least, the successful conquest of 
 Mexico by such a comparatively small band 
 of Spanish adventurers. Quetzalcoatl ap- 
 pears to have been a very successful leader 
 and teacher of the Toltec people, whom 
 time has raised into a demigod. In south- 
 
 ern Mexico, especially in Yucatan and 
 Campeche, the same legend is met with, 
 in substantially the same form. See 
 KuKULKAN, Cholula, Tegtihuacan, Hia- 
 
 WATHA. 
 
 Quiches (ke'chds) , one of the earlier races 
 of people who inhabited Mexico. The 
 greater part of their history is lost in the 
 mist of the past. This much, however, is 
 known. They were a civilized race, were 
 excellent builders, cultivated the soil with 
 success and understood the working of 
 mictals. They apparently came from the 
 north, and, after long wanderings, arrived 
 in Yucatan, where they now form part of 
 the great Maya-Quiche race. 
 
 Quintana Roo (ken-tdn'd ro'd) , the latest 
 formed district of Mexico, which was carved 
 out of the troublesome Mkya country of 
 Yucatan, lies between Yucatan, Campeche, 
 Guatemala and Belice. The population con- 
 sists chiefly of Indians, the greater part of 
 whom do not speak Spanish. On account 
 of the unexplored character of the country 
 the population and area have not been 
 recorded. The chief cities are Santa Cruz 
 de Bravo (the old Maya capital) and 
 Vigia Chico. The industries, such as they 
 are, are altogether agricultural, with 
 the exception of the native manufac- 
 tures of the Indians, which are all done by 
 hand. 
 
REAL DEL MONTE 
 
 2282 
 
 RIVERA 
 
 R 
 
 Real del Monte (ni-dl'ddl mdn'td), one 
 of the most famous mining towns in Mexico, 
 is but a short distance from Pachuca, by 
 which it is connected by an excellent high- 
 way built by the mining company of Real 
 del Monte years ago. The place was founded 
 in 1739 by a Spaniard, who began mining 
 there. Some !$5o,ooo,ooo have been taken 
 out of these mines. In the neighborhood 
 are other famous mines, but none so noted 
 as the Real del Monte. 
 
 Rebosada, La. See Malinche, La. 
 
 Reeds, Prince of the. See Acamapitzin. 
 
 Remedios {rd-md'de-os), Our Lady of, 
 at one time the most noted shrine in all 
 Mexico, is situated upon the high hill of 
 Totoltepec, close to the town of San Bartolo 
 Naocalpam, nine miles to the west of the 
 City of Mexico. Upon this hill, in Aztec 
 times, there existed a semi-fortress, semi- 
 temple dedicated to the God of the Streams 
 and Rivers and his sister, the Goddess of 
 the Waters that Descend from the Sky. It 
 was one of the most famous sanctuaries in 
 all Aztecland; but the saint got badly mixed 
 up in politics and she was unfortunate 
 enough to take the wrong side at the most 
 critical period in Mexican history. After 
 the famous battle of Las Cruces, 18 10, 
 when Hidalgo, the father of Mexican inde- 
 pendence, was threatening the Capital of 
 the republic with his victorious army, the 
 terrified officials of the City of Mexico sent 
 in haste for the little image of Our Lady 
 of los Remedios, its patron saint, which 
 was brought, with great ceremony, to the 
 capital and made the general in chief of 
 the armies of the king of Spain in New 
 Spain (Mexico). This act of the Spanish 
 authorities turned the Mexicans against 
 Our Lady of los Remedios, and they be- 
 stowed upon her the contemptuous name 
 of "La Gachupina" (the Spaniard). From 
 that day the shrine lost its popularity; 
 and an order was issued by the triumphant 
 republican government in 1821 to expel 
 from Mexico Our Lady of los Remedios; 
 however this order was never carried out. 
 
 The history of the shrine of los Reme- 
 dios is a very romantic one. One of the 
 soldiers of the conqueror, Hernan Cortes, 
 brought with him from Spain a little wooden 
 image about eight inches long, of Our Lady 
 of los Remedios. During the first visit of 
 Cortes to the City of Tenochtitlan (Mexico) , 
 permission was granted him by the emperor, 
 Moctezuma II, to set up an altar to the 
 Christian God in the great temple of the 
 Aztecs. As the most venerated thing in 
 the army of the conqueror, this image of 
 Our Lady of los Remedios was placed over 
 
 this the first altar of the Christian religion 
 erected in Mexico. When the Spaniards 
 were forced to retreat from the city of 
 Mexico shortly afterwards, the owner took 
 this image with him. Two days later he 
 was wounded to death in the attack which 
 the Spaniards made upon the sanctuary 
 upon the hill of Totoltepec. Twenty years 
 later (1540), this image was found by an 
 Indian chief, Cequauhtzin, who was out 
 hunting upon the hillside. He took it 
 home; but the next morning it was miss- 
 ing. Something told the chief that he 
 would find it on the hill of Totoltepec; ahd 
 he went to look for it and found it under 
 the same maguey plant where he had first 
 seen it. Again he took it home and put it 
 in a strong box and locked it in with an 
 iron padlock. But the following morning 
 the image had again disappeared. Again 
 it was found under the maguey plant. A 
 third attempt to keep it in the house of 
 the chief had a like result. Then the latter 
 went to the priest at Tacuba and told him 
 what had happened. The latter interpreted 
 these events to mean that the image wished 
 a shrine built upon the hill of Totoltepec, 
 which was done. It soon became the most 
 famous sanctuary in Mexico and the faith- 
 ful showered presents and wealth upon it 
 until it became as rich as it was famous. 
 But the reformers robbed it of its paint- 
 ings, its rich ornaments of gold and silver 
 and its other valuable possessions. For 
 twoscore years it remained a semi-neglected, 
 half-ruinous place; but lately the church 
 has made some attempt at restoring it; 
 though most of the renovations are in very 
 bad taste. The shrine is still v.ery much 
 reverenced by the Indians of the neighbor- 
 hood, as in the days when it was the chief 
 sanctuary in all Mexico of the Gods of 
 the Waters. 
 
 Revillagigedo, Count of. See Guemes 
 Pacheco de Padilla and also Guemes 
 
 DE HORCASITA. 
 
 Rivera (re-vdr'd), Agustin (1824- ), 
 lawyer, priest and attorney for the Eccle- 
 siastical Curia of Mexico is one of the most 
 voluminous writers of the present century, 
 his published works amounting to close upon 
 one hundred volumes, the best of which 
 are: History of Ancient Mexico; Principles 
 of Criticism; The Viccroyalty of New Spain 
 and the Philosophy of New Spain. As a 
 historical writer he'is one of the best Mexico 
 has produced. His power of criticism in 
 all literary matters is accurate and con- 
 vincing and his marshaling of historical 
 characters and his analysis of great events 
 powerful and masterly. 
 
RIVERA 
 
 2283 
 
 SALAZAR 
 
 Rivera, Enriquez de. See Enriquez 
 DE Rivera. 
 
 Roa Barcena, Jose Maria. See Barcena. 
 
 Ruiz {roo-es') , Eduardo (1832- ), his- 
 torian, poet and writer of delightful prose, 
 is most noted for his legends and folk-lore 
 stories. These latter comprise two books: 
 
 Traditions and Legends and Legends of 
 Michoacan. In these he shows his intimate 
 knowledge of the lives of the people of 
 Mexico, more especially of the middle and 
 lower classes. The History of the Inter- 
 vention in Michoacan is his best known his- 
 torical work. 
 
 Sacro Monte (sdk'ro mon'td). The, a 
 famous shrine on the hill of the same name, 
 close to the town of Amecameca, in _ the 
 state of Mexico. In this sanctuary _ is a 
 very much revered image of the Christ of 
 the Holy Sepulchre, of which the follow- 
 ing legend is related and believed by the 
 pious inhabitants of Amecameca and the 
 surrounding country. Here lived Fray 
 Martin de Valencia, one of the ''twelve 
 apostles" in the early days following the 
 conquest of Mexico by Cortes. He lived 
 upon the top of the Sacro Monte (Sacred 
 Hill) in a cave, which is now part of the 
 sanctuary. He was very much beloved by 
 the Indians whom he protected from their 
 cruel taskmasters. During one of his 
 parochial visits, he died and was buried at 
 Tlalmanalco. The Indians of Amecameca 
 claimed his body, but the people of Tlal- 
 manalco refused to deliver up the remains 
 of the saint which they claimed heaven had 
 sent to them; but the Indians rose in a 
 body from all over the valley and went 
 one night and took the dead saint and 
 buried him in the cave on the top of the 
 Sacro Monte, where he still rests. 
 
 Legend says that some Spanish mer- 
 chants were bringing from Veracruz to 
 Mexico City figures of saints for the churches 
 which were springing up all over the land 
 of New Spain shortly after the Spanish 
 conquest. One of the mules bearing these 
 strayed away from the others and presented 
 himself at the door of the cave of the good 
 Fray Martin de Valencia on the top of the 
 Sacro Monte, who took the image in and 
 set it up beneath an altar of its own. Since 
 that day it is accredited with working 
 scores of miracles. Thousands of pilgrims 
 visit this shrine annually, especially during 
 Holy Week, when a great fair is held in 
 the town, which on this occasion is always 
 overcrowded with people. On Ash Wednes- 
 day the sacred image of the Sacro Monte 
 is taken to the parish church in Amecameca, 
 from whence it is returned to the Sacro 
 Monte on Good Friday with great pomp 
 
 and much show of devotion and veneration. 
 Before the laws of reform prohibited religious 
 processions in pubHc, the return of the 
 image to the Sacro Monte was the occasion 
 of a most gorgeous religious procession. _ 
 
 Sagrario Metropolitano {sdg-rdr'e-d 
 mdt'rd-pol'e-tdn'o) (The Parish Church of 
 Mexico City), forms part of the huge pile 
 of buildings of which the Cathedral (which 
 see) forms the major part. It stands upon 
 the site of the great Aztec TeocalU or mam 
 temple of ancient Mexico at the time of 
 the conquest. Legend says it was founded 
 in 1 52 1, the year of the conquest, and was; 
 dedicated to Saint James, the patron saint. 
 of Spain. However, the present building: 
 was begun in 1749 and completed, with the 
 exception of the main altar, in 1770. The^ 
 latter was completed nearly 60 years later.. 
 It is one of the handsomest buildings in: 
 Mexico, being constructed in the most 
 elaborate Churrigueresque style. The gen- 
 eral plan is that of a Greek cross. This 
 church, like the Cathedral, contains many 
 fine paintings and much excellent wood 
 carvings. 
 
 Sahagun {sd' d-gddn') , Bernardo de, a 
 Spanish priest who arrived in Mexico- 
 shortly after the Spanish conquest, as a. 
 member of the Franciscan order. He was 
 naturally a student of a very observant 
 nature and he has left us the most authentic 
 history of native Mexican life of that time 
 that we have, under the title of General 
 History of Things of New Spain.^ During 
 30 years of incessant work and investiga- 
 tion, Sahagun collected together a wonder- 
 ful amount of information relative to the 
 customs, habits, and religious beliefs of the 
 ancient Mexicans, all of which he has incor- 
 porated into his work, which comprises 
 three large volumes. 
 
 Salazar (sdl'd-sdr'), Pedro Castro Fig- 
 ueroa, Duke of the Conquest and Marquis 
 of Garcia Real, 38th viceroy of New Spain 
 (i 740-1 741), fearing that the English, who 
 had been repulsed in an attack upon San 
 Agustin in Florida, would come south and 
 
SALTILLO 
 
 2284 
 
 SOLIS 
 
 sack Veracruz, marched with such forces as 
 he could muster to that port to put it in 
 a condition to resist the exi)ected mvaders. 
 While there he was attacked with yellow 
 fever. He was at once reinoved to Mexico 
 City, where he died shortly after his arrival. 
 
 Saltillo (sdl-tc'yo) , on the main line of 
 the national branch of the National Rail- 
 ways of Mexico, is the capital of the state 
 •of Coahuila. As it lies 5,200 feet above 
 sea level, the climate is temperate and 
 agreeable. Its chief manufactures are cot- 
 ton goods, zerapes and leather. It also 
 exports agricultural products and sheep and 
 goat skins. Saltillo was founded in 1586. 
 Population iS,ooo. 
 
 San Carlos (sd)i kd/los) Academy, offi- 
 cially known as the National School of 
 Fine" Arts. See Academy, San Carlos. 
 
 Sandoval, Caspar de la Cerda. See 
 
 SiLVA Y MeNDOZA. 
 
 San Fernando {siin' far-nan' do) Pantheon, 
 
 the most famous cemetery in Mexico, to the 
 east side of the church of the same name 
 in the Capital of the republic, is the burial 
 place of some of the most noted of Mexico's 
 dead. There may be seen the tombs of 
 Guerrero, Zaragoza, Miramon, Comonfort 
 and Juarez. The tomb of the latter is one 
 of the most elaborate and artistic in Mexico. 
 
 San Luis Potosi (san'ldd-es po'td-se') 
 (See p. 1673), one of the most important 
 of the states of Mexico bordering on Coa- 
 huila, Nueva Leon, Veracruz, Tamaulipas, 
 Hidalgo, Queretaro, Jalisco, Guanajuato 
 and Zacatecas, has an area of 25,300 square 
 miles and a population of 650,000. The 
 climate ranges from, temperate to exces- 
 sively warm. The northern part of the 
 state" is essentially mineral and the industry 
 mining, and the east agricultural. It is 
 crossed by two lines of the Mexican Na- 
 tional lines. 
 
 Santa Anna, Gen. Antonio Lopez de. 
 See jjp. 1672, 1675. 
 
 Sierra {se-dr'ra), Juste (1S4S- ), 
 educator, orator, novelist, historian, diplo- 
 mat, and poet, is one of the prominent 
 figures in the Capital of Mexico, where he 
 was, some few years ago, the leader of a 
 brilliant group of literary men and journal- 
 ists. He has left his mark on the literature 
 of his country decidedly for its good. For 
 some years past he has been minister of 
 education and fine arts, and as such he 
 has encouraged the literary, scientific and 
 educational development of the country. 
 He is considered one of the most forcible 
 and logical public speakers that Mexico has 
 produced. His style as a writer is elevated, 
 pure and imaginative. As minister of 
 education he has done more to advance 
 education in Mexico than any other man 
 who has held the office. For several years 
 past he has been a member of congress, 
 where he has distinguished himself for his 
 advocacy of progressive ideas. He is a 
 
 corresjwnding member of the Royal Spanish 
 Academy and of various other literary and 
 scientific societies, not only in Mexico but 
 in foreign lands. In addition to several 
 books of poems and a vast amount of 
 journalistic articles he has published the 
 following successful novels: The Angel of 
 the Future and The Confessions of a Pianist. 
 
 Sierra Mad re. See p. 1754. 
 
 Silao {se-ld'o), on the main line of the 
 Mexican division of the National railways 
 of Mexico, in the state of Guanajuato, is 
 the center of considerable trade. It has 
 several fine churches, some of them of con- 
 siderable age. The city was founded in 
 1553- Population 20,000. 
 
 Silva y Mendoza (sel'vd e man-do' tha) , 
 Gasper de la Cerda Sandoval, Count of 
 Galve, 29th viceroy of New Spain (1688— 
 1696), sent a strong expedition in 1695 to 
 attack the French colony on the island of 
 Hispaniola, which, according to a chron- 
 icler of that time, "covered itself with 
 glory;" for the Spaniards conquered all the 
 northern part of the island. In 1689 the 
 Tarahumares, Tepehuanes and other north- 
 ern tribes of Indians devastated the country 
 for many miles around, killing Mexicans 
 and Spaniards alike; among those who per- 
 ished being many Catholic priests. In 
 1 69 1 Texas was conquered and made a 
 province of New Spain. 
 
 During this administration there were 
 two famines, one in 1692 and another in 
 1694. On account of the former there was 
 an uprising of the populace, who burned 
 the city hall, the viceregal palace and the 
 stores on the Zocalo, the principal plaza 
 of Mexico City, causing a loss of over three 
 millions of dollars, an immense sum for 
 those days. 
 
 Sinaloa {se' nd-ld' a) , one of the Pacific 
 states of Mexico, l3ordering on Sonora, 
 Chihuahua, Durango and Tepic and facing 
 the Gulf of California, has an area of 36,- 
 100 square miles. It is quite mountainous, 
 its general slope being toward the west. 
 It contains plenty of small streams and 
 rivers, all rapid and generally unnavigable. 
 Principal cities: Mazatlan, the chief port; 
 Culiacan, the capital; Altata and Rosario 
 (a mining center) . Chief products : Brand}'', 
 cotton, sugar, corn, chick-peas, wheat, 
 tobacco, woods and fruit. The state pos- 
 sesses great mineral wealth, practically 
 undeveloped as yet for lack of proper 
 transportation facilities. Population 300,- 
 000. 
 
 Smoking Shield. See Chimalpopoca. 
 
 Solis {so-les'), Juan F. Molina (1850- 
 ), historian, educator, jurist and writer 
 on political and economic subjects. Among 
 a considerable amount of literary work he 
 has written two books which have become 
 authorities on the subjects of which they 
 treat: History of the Discovery and Con- 
 quest of Yucatan and A Summary of the 
 
SONORA 
 
 2285 
 
 TAMAULIPAS 
 
 Ancient History of the Pemnsula. These 
 two books show extensive research and a 
 comprehensive and accurate knowledge of 
 the subjects of which they treat. As 
 literary works they are far above the aver- 
 age of local and state histories written m 
 Mexico. ^ , ^ , 
 
 Sonora (sd-nd'rd), one of the west coast 
 states of Mexico, bordering on the United 
 States, Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Lower Cali- 
 fornia and the Gulf of California, has an 
 area of 77,000 square miles and a popula- 
 tion of 230,000. It may be said to com- 
 prise one great slope from the Sierra Madres 
 to the Gulf of California, all of which is 
 very mountainous and interspersed with 
 valleys, lakes and canons, watered by 
 numerous rivers and streams, the principal 
 of which are the Altar, Sonora, Yaqui and 
 Mayo The island of Tiburon forms part 
 of this state (which see). The climate 
 varies from extreme cold to extreme heat. 
 
 The chief industries of the state are cattle 
 raising, agriculture and mining, and the 
 chief products sugar, cotton, chick-peas, 
 brandy, corn, wheat, tobacco, , barley, fri- 
 joles (native brown and black beans), 
 mescal, potatoes, chili (native red pepper), 
 minerals and fruits. Chief cities, Her- 
 mosillo, the capital; Guaymas, principal 
 seaport; Cananea, Alamos, Arispe and 
 Ures. 
 
 Sotomayor {sd'to-md-yor'), Garcia bar= 
 miento, Count of Salvatierra, igth vice- 
 roy of New Spain (1642-1649). During his 
 administration the City of Mexico suffered 
 an inundation, the town of Salvatierra was 
 founded, a third expedition was sent to 
 California and a bitter quarrel arose be- 
 tween Bishop Juan Palafox of Puebla and 
 the Jesuits, which made the latter body 
 unpopular with the church in New Spain 
 for some years. 
 
 Strongbow. See Moctezuma I. 
 
 Tabasco (td-bds'ko), one of the southern 
 gulf states of Mexico, lying between Gua- 
 temala, Campeche, Veracruz and Chiapas, 
 has a population of 200,000 and an area of 
 10,000 square miles. It is a vast _ plain, 
 sloping gently from the mountains of 
 Chiapas and Tabasco to the Gulf of Mexico, 
 covered in many parts with dense tropical 
 forests and containing vast stores of valu- 
 able woods. Owing to the fiat nature of 
 the country it contains many deep and slow 
 rivers which are navigable for long distances. 
 Among these are the Grijalva and the 
 Usumacinta, with their many branches. 
 Agriculture, cattle raising and fishing, with 
 the exportation of valuable woods are the 
 chief industries of the state. Chief products : 
 Brandy, cacao, sugar, petroleum, coffee, 
 henequen, chicle (chewing gum), frijoles, 
 rubber, tobacco, corn and fruits. Chief 
 cities: San Juan Bautista, the capital and 
 chief commercial center, Tonala and Fron- 
 tera. 
 
 Tablado (tdv-ld' tho) , Jose Juan (187 1- 
 ), the most discussed of the younger 
 literary men of Mexico. He is little in 
 sympathy with the prevailing school, yet 
 he has many admirers among the foremost 
 literary men of the republic. In his color- 
 ing, his imagery and his manner pi pre- 
 senting his ideas he is oriental, daring and 
 original. Critics have classed him as a 
 degenerate in literature; but his is a degen- 
 
 eracy of fire and passion; He is an agnostic, 
 but one who tempers his beUef with beau- 
 tiful visions such as only the true poetic 
 temperament may see. Tablado has also 
 made his mark as a journalist. 
 
 Tacuba (td-kod'ha), a town a short dis- 
 tance to the west of Mexico City, with 
 which it is connected by tramway. It is 
 a very old town, having been, in pre- 
 Columbian days, the capital of the king- 
 dom of Tlacopan, which, later on, became 
 one of the three members of the famous 
 Aztec confederacy, which lasted, for nearly 
 one hundred years. The town contains a 
 very large and handsome church, and there 
 also is the country residence of the arch- 
 bishop of Mexico. 
 
 Talamanca, Miguel la Qrua. See Grua 
 Talamanca. 
 
 Tamaulipas {td-md' oo-le' pds) , the most 
 northern gulf state of Mexico, bordering 
 on the United States, San Luis Potosi, 
 Nuevo Leon and Veracruz, has an area of 
 32,000 square miles and a population of 
 250,000. It forms one general slope toward 
 the Gulf of Mexico and consists of numerous 
 plains, rich in vegetation and well watered 
 by numerous streams, and rivers, the most 
 important of which are the Bravo, Salado, 
 San Juan, Presas Soto la Marina, Tamesi 
 and Valles. The climate ranges from tem- 
 perate in the uplands to the west to exces- 
 sively warm and often unhealthful along 
 
TAMIAHUA 
 
 2286 
 
 TERMIXOS 
 
 ''-he coast. The principal industries of the 
 state are cattle raising and agriculture, and 
 the chief products corn, rice, sugar, cotton, 
 brandy, petroleum, frijoles (native brown 
 beans) and fruits. The most important 
 towns are Victoria, the capital, Tampico, 
 Matamoros, Laredo and Guerrero. 
 
 Tamiahua {id'me-d''wd). La Laguna de, 
 an extensive lagoon on the coast of the 
 state of Veracruz, Mexico, which forms an 
 inlet of the Gulf of Mexico, from which it 
 is almost cut off by a sand bar, the exten- 
 sion of which forms the wall between it 
 and the waters of the gulf. About the 
 center of this sand wall is a high, rocky 
 projection known as Cape Rojo. 
 
 Tampico {idm-pe'ko), in the state of 
 Tamaulipas, Mexico, is one of the two 
 greatest harbors on the Mexican Gulf Coast 
 of the republic. Originally the sand bar at 
 the mouth of the harbor made it unsafe; 
 but the Mexican government has lately 
 spent large sums of money upon this port, 
 thus fitting it for the reception of ocean- 
 going vessels. It now has as fine wharves 
 as any port in Mexico, and its trade has 
 increased so rapidly that it has become a 
 close rival of Veracruz, upon which the 
 Mexican government has also spent large 
 sums of money. See p. 1S68. 
 
 Tendilla, Count of. See Mendoza, 
 
 AXTONIO DE. 
 
 Tenochtitlan (td-nosh'tet-ldn') (the place 
 of the Sacred Nopal or cactus), the name 
 by which Mexico City was generally known 
 in Aztec times. It is related by legend that 
 the Aztecs, in their wanderings in the 
 Valley of Mexico, and probably before their 
 advent into that part of "Mexico, had 
 received the assurance of an oracle of great 
 renown that they would receive a sign 
 which they would at once recognize, which 
 would indicate to them where they should 
 end their w^anderings and begin to build a 
 great city, the metropolis of a future great 
 empire. This sign was given to them one 
 day, w^hen they beheld a great golden eagle, 
 "bright as the sun," struggling with a 
 huge serpent, which he finally mastered, 
 and flying across Lake Texcoco, alighted 
 upon one of a small group of islands, lying 
 some little distance from the shore. They 
 followed the eagle and found him seated 
 upon a cactus plant, the dead serpent still 
 in his claws. The Aztecs took this to 
 signify that the oracle wished to tell them 
 that their wanderings were over, and that 
 they would finally vanquish their enemies, 
 as the golden eagle had done. They at 
 once took possession of these islands, which 
 they fortified, defended and continued to 
 hold. In time they builded a city there, 
 which they called after the miraculous find- 
 ing of the place, Tenochtitlan. See Mexico 
 City. 
 
 Teotihuacan {td'o-te'wd-kdn'), San Juan, 
 the greatest of all the ruins of ancient 
 
 cities upon the upland plateaus of Mexico, 
 28 miles north of Mexico City on the line 
 of the Mexican Railway, was, in the latter 
 days of the Toltec dominion, the center of 
 a vast population, and the site of a great 
 city, whose remains can still be traced for 
 miles around the two great pyramids of the 
 "Sun" and the "Moon," the most con- 
 spicuous archaeological monuments of the 
 plateau upon which the ancient city was 
 built. On account of the vast size of these 
 pyramids, it is probable that they were the 
 work of various tribes and nations who 
 occupied the "Sacred City," one after an- 
 other, each of which felt it a religious duty 
 to increase the size of each of the pyramids. 
 The ancient city, judging from the ruins 
 still existing, was more than seven miles in 
 length by practically the same in width. 
 In the neighborhood are vast ancient 
 quarries, showing the enormous amount of 
 material that was used for the building of 
 the now ruined and partially buried City 
 of the Gods. The larger of the two great 
 pyramids, upon the tops of which rested 
 the sanctuaries of the most sacred gods of 
 the Toltecs, that of the "Sun," is colossal 
 in size, measuring 761 feet in length by 
 722 feet wide. Lately the greater part of 
 this ruined pyramid has been restored to 
 more or less its original form and appear- 
 ance by order of the Mexican government, 
 which is spending large sums of money on 
 archaeological explorations among the 
 remains of this once great city of the 
 Toltecs. The pyramid of the "Moon," 
 though considerably smaller than that of 
 the Sun, is still of vast extent, measuring 
 511 by 427 feet square. Its original height 
 cannot be ascertained, as much of the top 
 has been washed down by rains in the 
 course of the centuries, and the foot is 
 buried in ruins. 
 
 Tepic (td-pek'), a territory of Mexico, 
 lying on the Pacific Coast and bordering 
 on Sinaloa, Durango and Jalisco, has an 
 area of 12,000 square miles and a popula- 
 tion of 175,000, principally Indians. It is 
 excessively rough toward the east and in- 
 clined to be flat toward the coast. The 
 soil is generally rich and the mountains are 
 storehouses of undeveloped minerals, due 
 to the broken character of the country and 
 lack of railway and other classes of trans- 
 portation. Its chief rivers are the San 
 Pedro (Mesquital) and Grande (Santiago 
 Tololotlan) and its principal industries agri- 
 culture and cattle raising. Notwithstand- 
 ing the disadvantages of lack of trans- 
 portation the territory produces yearly 
 minerals to the value of $6,000,000. 
 
 Terminos {tdr'me-nos'), Lagunade, known 
 as the Lagoon of the Alligators, is a large 
 lagoon, or, more properly, a gulf, which is 
 cut off from the Gulf of Mexico by several 
 sand bars, which stretch across its exten- 
 sive mouth. Two of these bars, which are 
 
TERRAZAS 
 
 2287 
 
 TRES MARIAS 
 
 of considerable extent, are known as Car- 
 men and Port Royal Islands. 
 
 Terrazas {tdr-rds' as) , Francisco de, who 
 
 died about 1604, was the son of one of the 
 conquerors who came with Cortes to Mexico. 
 ?Ie was a poet of some note, the first which 
 New Spain produced, and various of his 
 compositions have survived, outliving the 
 record of his birth and the chief events of 
 his life. 
 
 Texcoco (tds-ko'ko), the largest lake in 
 the Valley of Mexico, which gave 'its name 
 to the Nahuatl (near to the water) nation 
 and to the kingdom of Texcoco. It was 
 originally much larger than at present, and 
 is said to have occupied, in Aztec times, 
 one-third of the valley. Around its shore 
 were waged many of the bloody wars which 
 make up the history of early Aztec struggles 
 and conquests. Upon the eastern shore of 
 this lake was the kingdom of Texcoco, the 
 farthest advanced in civilization of all the 
 Nahuatl tribes. At the time of the Spanish 
 conquest of Mexico, it was the center of 
 the highest culture then known to the 
 allied nations which formed the Aztec con- 
 federacy. The town of Texcoco still exists, 
 but it is but a comparatively unimportant 
 village. 
 
 Three Guarantees, The, which were the 
 principal clauses of the "Plan of Iguala," 
 published Feb. 24, 1820, by Agustin de 
 Iturbide, afterwards emperor of Mexico, 
 were as follows: That all other religions, 
 except that of the Roman Catholic, should 
 be excluded from Mexico; that Mexico 
 should be a limited monarchy, with some 
 member of the then reigning house of Spain 
 upon the throne, the absolute independence 
 of Mexico, with this one restriction of 
 monarchial rule, being recognized; the union 
 of Mexicans and Spaniards in the making 
 and ruling of the new kingdom of Mexico. 
 See Mexican Flag. 
 
 Tiburon {te'bdd-ron) , an island in the 
 Gulf of Lower California, lying close to the 
 coast of the state of Sonora, Mexico. Its 
 coast is high and rocky and elevated moun- 
 tains form its center. For this reason the 
 original Indian inhabitants have maintained 
 their independence and customs, which are 
 very primitive. The island belongs to 
 Mexico, but the inhabitants, who are sav- 
 ages, practically govern themselves. 
 
 Tizoc {te-sok'), seventh king of Mexico 
 (1477-1482), the elder brother of Axayacatl, 
 whom he succeeded, was like his prede- 
 cessors, a great conqueror. He is said to 
 have subdued fourteen important cities 
 during his short reign of five years. He 
 was grave and severe and made enemies by 
 his haughty bearing, one of whom, the 
 Prince of Ixtapalapa, poisoned him. The 
 latter was publicly executed on the great 
 plaza of Mexico for his crime. Tizoc began 
 the erection of the Great Temple upon the 
 site of the present Cathedral of Mexico. 
 
 TIaxcala {tlds-ka'ld) (see p. 462), the 
 once famous republic that held in check the 
 power of the Aztec confederacy, is now the 
 smallest of the Mexican states, having an 
 area of but 1,500 square miles and popula- 
 tion of about 200,000. It borders on 
 Hidalgo, Puebla and Mexico. Its chief in- 
 dustries are agriculture, cattle raising, 
 dairying and manufactures. It is sur- 
 rounded by high mountains, and the clirriate 
 in general is inclined to be cool. The culti- 
 vation of the maguey is carried on exten- 
 sively throughout the state. Chief towns, 
 TIaxcala, Apizaco and Huamantla. 
 
 TIaxcala (tlds-kd' Id) , the capital of the 
 state of the same name, a town of 6,000, 
 was once the center of the power of the 
 republic of TIaxcala, which defied the 
 strength of the Aztec confederacy in the 
 height of its power. The Tlaxcalans were 
 the first people of importance who threw in 
 their lot with the conqueror, Hernan 
 Cortes, in his march to the city of Tenochtit- 
 lan (Mexico) ; and it was principally'- through 
 their efficient help that he succeeded in 
 overthrowing the power of the confederacy. 
 See Tlaxcala, the state of. 
 
 Toledo {to-ld'tho), Sebastian de, i\Iar- 
 quis de Mancera, 24th viceroy of Xew 
 Spain (1664-1673), sent two expeditions 
 to California, neither of which accom- 
 plished much. During his administration 
 a plague of pirates troubled the coasts 
 of New Spain, and the viceroy was unable 
 to do anything to prevent their ravages and 
 exactions. 
 
 Toluca (td-look'd) , the capital of the state 
 of Mexico, on a branch of the National Rail- 
 ways of Mexico, is the center of an exten- 
 sive trade pertaining to the Valley of Toluca 
 and the lands stretching toward the Pacific 
 Ocean. On account of its high elevation, 
 8,600 feet above sea level, the climate is 
 always cool and generally agreeable, though 
 it becomes quite cold in winter. The city 
 possesses some of the finest state buildings 
 in the republic and many fine churches and 
 private residences. It was founded in 1533, 
 twelve years after the Spanish conquest, and 
 was part of a grant of land given by the 
 king of Spain to the conqueror, Hernan 
 Cortes. Population 25,000. 
 
 Topolobampo {to-pol-o-hdm'pd), a fine 
 natural port in the state of Sinaloa, 
 Mexico, which seems destined to become 
 one of the most important shipping points 
 of the republic, being the Pacific terminus 
 of the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient 
 Railway. This port is also known as Port 
 Stillwell. 
 
 Tres Marias {trds md-re'ds), a group of 
 islands in the Pacific Ocean, opposite the 
 mouth of the River Santiago, in the terri- 
 tory of Tepic, Mexico, which are at present 
 used as a penal colony by the Mexican 
 government. There are sent many convicts 
 every year, especially from the Capital of 
 
TULA 
 
 2288 
 
 VEGA 
 
 the republic. There are three principal 
 islands in the group, and upon one of these 
 is an excellent lighthouse. 
 
 Tula (ioo'ld) (the place of rushes), a 
 t< :vn of about ;,ooo upon the line of the 
 Mexican Central Railway, in the state of 
 Hidalgo, and about 50 miles north of Mexico 
 City. It is now of little importance; but it 
 
 was once the greatest city of the Toltecs; 
 and there exist there some very interesting 
 ruins of the Toltec period of occupation. 
 Tula was one of the three great cities of 
 the Toltecs, the others being Tollancingo 
 (Little, or probably .\ew Tollan or Tula) 
 and San Juan Teotihuacan (the City of 
 the Gods). 
 
 Ulua (dd-Iod'a), San Juan de, an old fort 
 of historical interest situated on a small 
 island in the harbor of Veracruz. At the 
 time of the conquest by Cortes the island 
 was used byj^the Aztecs, who then held the 
 coast land tributary, as a place of sacrifices. 
 It is said that when the Spaniards found 
 these sacrifices going on the priest. Father 
 Olmedo, who afterwards became famous on 
 account of his part in the conquest, asked 
 the natives who ordered them, to which the 
 answer was given "the Colhuas" (Strong 
 Arms), a name by which the Aztecs were 
 known to the coast people. This name be- 
 came corrupted into Ulua, to which was 
 prefixed San Juan, because that place was 
 reached on Saint John's day. The fort of 
 Ulua was begun in 1582, and the Spaniards 
 kept adding to it and strengthening it for 
 over two centuries, for it was considered the 
 key to Veracruz. It was captured several 
 times by pirates, by the French (1838), 
 Americans (1847) and the allied English 
 
 Spanish and French (1S65). It is now used 
 
 as a fortress and prison. 
 
 Urbina (dor-be' nd), Luis Q. (1868- ), 
 
 the best of the younger romantic poets of 
 Mexico. In the prom- 
 inent journals of the 
 capital his name fig- 
 ures more frequently 
 than that of any other 
 of the later poets. 
 His style is clear, his 
 imagery bold and he 
 shows a wonderful 
 mastery of the nice- 
 ties of the Spanish 
 language. Most of 
 his productions have 
 appeared in the press 
 of the Capital during 
 the past score of 
 years. 
 
 Ursula, Bucareli 
 See Bucareli y Ursula. 
 
 LUIS G. URBINA 
 
 Valero, Marquis of. See Zuniga Guzman. 
 Valladares {vdl-yd-ddr'ds), Jose Sar= 
 
 miento. Count of Moctezuma and Tula, 
 31st viceroy of Mexico (i 696-1701), whose 
 wife was a descendant of the ancient kings 
 of Mexico, made considerable efi'ort to relieve 
 the sufferings of the populace caused by an 
 extensive famine in New Spain. During his 
 administration the Jesuits, in conformity 
 with permission previously given them 
 (See Ortega Montanes), set out to con- 
 vert to Christianity the natives of Cali- 
 
 fornia, where they continued to labor until 
 they were expelled from all the Spanish 
 dominions in 1767. On Oct. 20, 1696, 
 Popocatepetl (Mountain of Smoke), the 
 giant volcano that overlooks the Valley of 
 Mexico, and whose snow-capped peak can 
 be seen distinctly from the Capital, burst 
 suddenly into eruption. 
 
 Vega, Francisco Cajigal de la. See 
 Cajigal; 
 
 Vega, Laso de la. See Laso de la 
 Vega. 
 
VELASCO 
 
 2289 
 
 VERAGUAS 
 
 Velasco {vd-lds'ko), Luis de, 2d vice- 
 roy of New Spain (i 550-1 564), v/as so 
 popular with Mexicans and Spaniards alike 
 that, out of love for him, they applied to 
 him the title of "father of the country." 
 He enforced to the letter the laws which had 
 been passed for the protection of the Indians, 
 and he set free 150,000 of the latter who had 
 been enslaved by the Spaniards. He sent a 
 military expedition to Florida, which rnet 
 with some success, he established a special 
 court for the prosecution of robbers and 
 thieves, inaugurated the University of Mex- 
 ico (1553), btiilt a hospital for the Indians 
 and in many other ways showed himself a 
 public spirited man. 
 
 Velasco {vd-lds'ko), Luis ds, 8th vice- 
 'roy of New Spain (1590-1595), was sonof 
 the second viceroy of New Spain. He in- 
 terested himself in the industrial develop- 
 ment of the country, established woolen 
 factories, sent missionaries among the In- 
 dians to the north to teach them the ways 
 of peace and the Christian religion, and he 
 fitted out an expedition which visited New 
 Mexico, which was then the fabled unknown 
 kingdom of great riches, to which the eyes 
 of the Spanish world constantly turned. 
 He made peace with the Chichimeca tribes 
 and sent settlers from other parts of Mexico 
 among them, thus thinking, by their pres- 
 ence and example, to insure the future 
 peace of the country. During his admin- 
 istration the Philippines were made a part 
 of the country of New Spain. 
 
 Velasco was promoted to the viceroyalty 
 of Peru; but he returned to New Spain, 
 where he occupied the post of iith 
 viceroy. During his second administration 
 the City of Mexico was flooded, which led 
 to a commission being appointed to study 
 the question of the drainage of the Valley 
 of Mexico. As a result, the drainage works 
 of Huehuetoca were begun, under the direc- 
 tion of a Jesuit priest by the name of San- 
 chez and a foreign engineer of note named 
 Martinez. Like his father, Velasco passed 
 laws for the protection of the Indians. 
 After having received the title of Marquis 
 of Salinas, Velasco was appointed president 
 of the Council of the Indies. 
 
 Venegas, {vd-nd'gds), Francisco Javier 
 de, 58th viceroy of New Spain (1810-1813), 
 was on his way from Veracruz to Mexico 
 City, to take possession of his office, when 
 the news was brought to him that a revolu- 
 tion had broken out under the leadership of 
 the patriot priest, Miguel Hidalgo of 
 Dolores; and he hastened his journey to 
 the Capital. On arriving there he at once 
 hurried to the theatre of the revolution the 
 troops quartered in Mexico City, and sent 
 after them military forces from other 
 cities. The total forces thus sent to put 
 down the revolution amounted to some 
 12,000 men. The inquisition and the church 
 in general throughout Mexico sided with 
 
 the viceroy and Spanish authority; and 
 Hidalgo and his followers were excom- 
 municated. The viceroy offered a reward 
 of $10,000 for the capture of the revolu- 
 tionary leader and his two principal officers, 
 Aldama and AUende, dead or alive. But 
 the torrent of the revolution was too 
 strong to be retarded or arrested in this 
 way. Plidalgo continued his triumphal 
 march; and more forces had to be collected 
 and sent against him. But hundreds of 
 new adherents came into the camp of the 
 revolutionists; and, after capturing Guan- 
 ajuato, the principal city in his march, 
 Hidalgo headed for Mexico City, with more 
 than 80,000 men under his command. At 
 the battle of Las Cruces, which took place 
 a short distance from the Capital, the forces 
 of the viceroy were defeated and fear 
 reigned in Mexico City. But Hidalgo did 
 not dare to attack the Capital, and shortly 
 afterwards began his retreat northward. 
 His defeat, capture and death form part of 
 the history of the revolutionary leader (see 
 Hidalgo). A plot was laid to seize the 
 viceroy (Aug. 11, 1811) in the Capital, 
 throw him into the hands of the revolu- 
 tionary leaders and force him to sign such 
 arrangements as they saw fit, but it was 
 discovered, and the leader, Ferrer and 
 others, were executed while many were 
 exiled. The Spanish court, in the Constitu- 
 tion of 181 2, guaranteed the liberty of the 
 press and the inviolability of municipal and 
 other elections. These concessions were 
 received with great joy by the liberal party 
 in Mexico, who saw in them the indepen- 
 dence of the country foreshadowed. But 
 Venegas, after trying the new laws, was 
 forced to suspend them, as they acted as 
 a breeze to the fire of revolution instead of 
 helping to quench it. The natural result 
 was more discontent than before. Matters 
 going badly at home, Venegas who was one ■ 
 of the first generals of Spain, was recalled to 
 the peninsula as one of the leaders of the 
 stru'T^^Iing Spanish cause. See Morelos. 
 
 Veracruz {vd'rd-krdds) (see, pp. 1303, 
 2001, 1 7 10 and 1675), the most important 
 of the gulf states of Mexico; bounded by 
 Tamaulipas, Puebla, Hidalgo, Oaxaca, San 
 Luis Potosi and Chiapas, has an area of 
 24,000 square miles and a population of 
 990,000. In general it is inclined toward 
 the Gulf of Mexico, is excessively warm 
 along the coast, temperate farther inland 
 and cold in the mountainous regions which 
 form the western side of the state. The 
 principal cities are Veracruz, Jalapa (the 
 capital), Orizaba, a manufacturing town of 
 considerable importance, Cordoba, Coatepec, 
 the center of the coffee industry, Coatza- 
 coalcos (Puerto Mexico), Minatitlan, Pap- 
 antla, Tuxpan, San Andres Tuxtla, Tlaco- 
 talpain and Alvarado. 
 
 Veraguas, Duke of. See Colon db 
 Portugal. 
 
VERDAD 
 
 2290 
 
 WATER RAT 
 
 Verdad {vdr-thaih') , Liccnciado, looked 
 upon as the first martyr to Mexican inde- 
 pendence, was very active during the 
 administration of the viceroy, Iturrigaray, 
 in propagating ideas of independence, and 
 he was, to a certain extent, protected by 
 the viceroy; but the latter was seized by the 
 Spanish faction in the Capital and shipped 
 back to Spain. Verdad was also seized 
 and imprisoned in the Archiepiscopal Palace, 
 where reports say that he was poisoned 
 by order of the new viceroy, Pedro de 
 Garibay. 
 
 Viga {vc'gd). Canal, a slow waterway 
 connecting Lake Xochimilco with Lake 
 Texcoco and passing through Mexico City. 
 All day it is teeming with native life, bear- 
 ing as it does the products of the garden 
 regions to the south of the city to the 
 Capital. The towns along its banks are 
 characteristically Indian, and a trip to 
 Santa Anita, about five miles out, is one 
 always offered to the tourist, as being as 
 typical of the life of the lower class of 
 Mexico as anything to be found so close 
 to the railways and centers of civilization. 
 The Viga lies along the old road to the 
 Hill of the Star (which see), and even be- 
 fore it was necessary to drain the lakes, 
 which were once all on nearly the sarne 
 level, it was the scene of the great pil- 
 grimages which were made to this famous 
 shrine in the days before the white man 
 had discovered the Americas. It is there- 
 fore one of the oldest landmarks in Mexico. 
 Once a year, on Thursday of Easter week, 
 a flower carnival, which is the direct descen- 
 dant of the feast of Quetzalcoatl, the Fair 
 God, of Toltec and Aztec times, is cele- 
 brated. The old heathen custom lasted an 
 Aztec week, and so did its successor; but 
 now it is observed only on one day. Like 
 the olden festival, it begins at sunset and 
 ends about ten o'clock in the morning. 
 See Flower Festival. 
 
 Vigil {ve-hel'), Jose Maria (1829-1909), 
 journalist, statesman, poet, scholar, editor, 
 publisher and dramatist of note, member of 
 various literary and scientific societies in 
 Mexico and Europe and one of the staunch 
 supporters of the republican cause in Mex- 
 ico. At the time of his death he was di- 
 rector of the National Library of the Repub- 
 lic, which he organized along modern lines 
 and made one of the greatest of its kind in 
 the New World. He was several times, in 
 revolutionary days, imprisoned for the out- 
 spoken manner in which he expressed his 
 political beliefs, and he suffered exile to the 
 United States for the same cause. While 
 there he published a revolutionary paper in 
 San Francisco called the "Nuevo Mundo." 
 
 He was editor of various journals in Mexico 
 during the years previous to his becoming 
 director of the National Library, and dur- 
 ing all this time he was a factor of much 
 importance in the politics of the country. 
 At the time of his death he was engaged in 
 writing a history of literature in Mexico, a 
 task for which he was especially well fitted, 
 for, as a literary critic, few ha\-e excelled 
 him in Mexico. His poems have been col- 
 lected into a large volume entitled Realities 
 and Illusions, and his most noted dramas 
 into another, Flowers of Aiiahuac. His best 
 critical work is. Literary Inipressions_ of 
 Lope de Vega; his best history is to be 
 found in the monumental work, Mexico 
 Throiighout the Centuries, of which it forms 
 the fifth volume. 
 
 Villa Manrique, Marquis de. See Man- 
 
 RIQUE. 
 
 Villalon, Agustin Ahumada y. See 
 
 Ahumada y Villalon. 
 
 Villena, Marquis of. See Cabrera y 
 
 BOBADILLA. 
 
 Vizarron y Eguiarreta {ve'sdr-ron'e 
 
 ge-dr-rd'td), Juan Antonio de (1734-1740), 
 37th viceroy of New Spain, was very char- 
 itable and gave untiring attention to the 
 Indians during the terrible plague which 
 visited the country during his administra- 
 tion and which carried oft", according to 
 Father Alegre, two-thirds of the natives. 
 N'ew missions were established in Texas, 
 New Mexico and California and a determined 
 effort made to convert the natives to Chris- 
 tianity. The output of the mines continued 
 to increase notably and new placer and 
 other mineral deposits were discovered in 
 northern Mexico and Arizona. Our Lady 
 of Guadalupe was declared patron saint of 
 the Mexican people. See Guadalupe. 
 
 Volador {vol' d-thor) , The, popularly 
 known as "The Thieves' Market," was, 
 some years ago, the largest market in Mex- 
 ico City, but is now degenerated into a 
 place for the sale of anything that the 
 merchant may care to buy and again dis- 
 pose of. But on account of its history this 
 place is of great interest. It originally was 
 part of the ground belonging to the new 
 palace of Moctezuma II. After the con- 
 qviest it fell to the share of the conqueror, 
 Cortes, in whose family it remained for 
 over 200 years, when it became the prop- 
 erty of the City of Mexico. For many years 
 after the conquest it was the scene of 
 popular bull fights and cock fights. It was 
 called the "TWeves' Market'' because there, 
 some years ago, many receivers of stolen 
 goods carried on their trade. This accounts 
 for the vast variety of articles that are 
 there offered for sale. 
 
 w 
 
 Water Rat. See Ahuizotl. 
 
XICACA 
 
 2291 
 
 CACATECAS 
 
 X 
 
 Xicaca (he-ka'kd), the goddess of the 
 waters (see Remedios). Near Cuatlenchan, 
 Mexico, is the huge prostrate form of what 
 is said to be the Goddess of the Waters. It 
 is over 18 feet in length and measures 13 
 feet in circumference. It is therefore noted 
 as being the largest statue of prehistoric 
 times known to exist in Mexico. 
 
 XicotencatI {he'kon-tdn'kdtl), a young 
 and very brave chief of the Tlaxcalans, who 
 fought valiantly in defense of his country 
 against the Spaniards under the conqueror, 
 Herando Cortes. The Tlaxcalans were de- 
 feated, but only after a desperate resistance 
 and they became the allies of the Spaniards 
 and their assistance contributed greatly to 
 the downfall of the Aztec empire. 
 
 Xochicalco {sd'che-kdl'kd),a,isiVcio\xs, ruin, 
 probably of Aztec times, a short distance 
 from Cuernavaca, Mexico. The remains 
 cover the top of an extensive hill, which has 
 been cut and terraced on a gigantic scale. 
 On the top of this is the remains of a large 
 building made of cut stone, literally covered 
 over with hieroglyphics, among these being 
 that of the water-rat, which would seem to 
 indicate that this building had either been 
 
 built or repaired during the reign of Ahuizotl. 
 See Ahuizotl. 
 
 Xochimilco (so-che-mel'kd), a lake and 
 town in the Valley of Mexico, which have 
 been the scenes of many stirring events. 
 The town is cut through with waterways, 
 and, as its inhabitants are principally In- 
 dians, who still dress in a primitive manner, 
 it presents a very interesting sight. During 
 the early wars of the Mexicans with the 
 neighboring nations and tribes, the Xochi- 
 milcans were at first opposed to the Aztecs, 
 but, being defeated, they became part of 
 the Aztec confederacy, to which they ren- 
 dered excellent service. 
 
 Xolotl {so-ldtV), a half legendary, half- 
 historical character who figures in early 
 Mexican history. He was the leader of the 
 Chichimecas in their wanderings from the 
 fabled city of Amaquemecan to the town 
 of Tula, Mexico. In mythology of the 
 Nahuatls he is credited with having been 
 the creator of woman. According to the 
 same tradition he espoused the woman of 
 his own creation, and they became the first 
 parents of the Mexican race. 
 
 /' 
 
 Yermo (ydr'mo), Gabriel, a rich sugar 
 planter who captured the viceregal palace 
 in Mexico City, in iSoS seized the viceroy, 
 Jose de Iturrigaray, and his family, put 
 them in prison, and later shipped them back 
 to Spain. This event is of importance be- 
 
 cause it may be said to be the beginning o 
 the revolution which ended in Mexico's 
 securing _ her independence of Spanish rule. 
 
 Yturbide. See Iturbide. 
 
 Yucatan. See pp. 2126 and 1217. 
 
 Zacatecas (sd'cd-td'kds) (see p. 2128), 
 one of the greatest mining states of Mexico, 
 bounded by Coahuila, San Luis Potosi, 
 Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Durango and Tepic, 
 has an area of 26,000 square miles and a 
 population of 500,000. Chief industries, 
 agriculture and mining. Principal cities. 
 
 Zacatecas, the capital and chief mining and 
 commercial center, Fresnillo, Pinos, Som- 
 brerete and Ciudad Garcia. The climate 
 ranges from temperate to cool. 
 
 Zacatecas (sd'cd-td'kds) (the place where 
 the zacate grows), the capital of the state 
 of the same name, is situated in a narrow 
 
ZARAGOZA 
 
 2292 
 
 ZUNIGA 
 
 canon, 8,100 feet above sea level. Owing 
 to its height it is never excessively warm, 
 and in winter it is quite cold. It is one of 
 the most noted mining centers in the re- 
 public, and one of the oldest silver dis- 
 tricts. Surrounding the city are vast 
 deposits of low-grade silver ore awaiting 
 modern mining methods to make of this 
 camp one of the most important in the 
 world. The Panuco, Veta Grande and 
 Zacatecas are three of the oldest and best 
 known mines in this district. Even in early 
 Spanish times Zacatecas was a center for 
 the pottery manufacturing trade; and it 
 still maintains this reputation. Being a 
 great mining center, Zacatecas has a num- 
 ber of important reduction works, most of 
 them, howe\'er, of ancient models and proc- 
 esses. The first discovery of sih-er in Zaca- 
 tecas was made in 1546, and two 3'ears 
 later the present city was founded. _ On 
 account of the great richness of the mines, 
 Zacatecas soon took rank with the foremost 
 mining districts in New Spain, a position it 
 continues to hold. Population 40,000. 
 
 Zaragoza (sd'ra-gos'd), Antonio (1855- 
 ), lawyer, journalist and poet of the 
 modern Romantic school. In Mexico he is 
 classed with Peza, Rosas, Flores and Acuna. 
 He has a fervid imagination and the power 
 of making common subjects take upon 
 themselves a strange beauty, which endears 
 him to the Mexican people. Most of his 
 literary work has appeared in various news- 
 papers and literary jovirnals. , 
 
 Zumarraga (sod-mdr'ni-gd'), Juan de, 
 first bishop and first archbishop of Mexico. 
 He arrived in Mexico in 1527, was elected 
 bishop in 1530 and archbishop in 1545- He 
 was noted for his religious zeal and his 
 
 fanaticism which made him destroy all the 
 manuscript of the Aztecs that he could get 
 his hands on. Of these he made great piles 
 and burned them on the public plaza of 
 Mexico City. Thus perished the most valu- 
 able records of the Aztec people, the means 
 by which we would, in all probability, have 
 been able to look more closely into their more 
 remote history. 
 
 Zuniga (sodn'ye-gd') y Acevedo, Gaspar 
 de, Count of Monterey, gth viceroy of 
 New Spain (1595-160;), adopted a very 
 despotic attitude toward the Indians, forc- 
 ing them, to live on lands in the country 
 and prohibiting them to live together in 
 towns or villages, as had been their custom, 
 thus bringing them to the verge of revolu- 
 tion and leaving a legacy of trouble to 
 future viceroys. He sent exploring ex])edi- 
 tions to California and New Mexico. Dur- 
 ing his administration Monterey in Mexico 
 and Monterey in California were founded 
 and named after the viceroy. 
 
 Zuniga, Alvaro Manrique de. See 
 Manrique. 
 
 Zuniga {sd5n'ye-gd) Guzman Sotomayor 
 y Mendoza, Baltasar de, Duke of Arion 
 and Marquis of Valero, ,35th viceroy of New 
 Spain (1716-1722). During this adminis- 
 tration a war broke out between France 
 and Spain (17 19); the former took Pen- 
 sacola and the Spanish fort in Texas, thus 
 forcing the priests to retreat to Coahuila; 
 but, on the withdrawal of the French, they 
 again entered the country, taking up their 
 headquarters at Espiritu Santo. Nicolas 
 Camacho, an Indian from San Juan del Rio, 
 attempted to assassinate the viceroy in the 
 streets of the Capital, but was unsuccess- 
 ful. 
 
FEB XV mQ 
 
One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
 
 ^^ n mm