Ti^.^*- v/.-*'-T- ^, .:, ... .. . X»..^ *••*•'>■'"• •''^.L •• ■ Jfp'-"-i.'.-:"-r ">;:.-- • ■•■■-'r'.r'.^r.;.. .- ,^■^?*!•^'';^'^■''■",,' .^x:•v plji^i'.^j '■■■ ,1. .1 1 :•.:■-■, ■ ; t* V ' 'Tj. ■ itt*- \ I'TiV:;^;:';. ;J-;' fc^'-tl:ir' 'H'ii^i^iji^;? ::f rx:'ni!^ti:i§l^' .^i^- Glass Book- r GAY'S SERIES OF STANDARD HISTORIES. FIRST SERIES. THREE GREAT MODERN NATIONS, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS TO 1884. \ ^ 'A * M. GUIZOTS Popular History of France, dr. david mullers History of the German People, CONDENSED, REVISED AND CONTINUED, BY J. H. BEALE, A.M., OUR GREAT REPUBLIC, AND THE EARLY DISCOVERIES, BY J. H. BEALE, A.M., ! WITH A BRIEF HISTORY OF tl GREECE AND ROME AS. AN AID TO THE STUDY OF MODERN HISTORY. CHARTS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, LITERATURE AND AUTHORS, CONTEMyO- RARY SOVEREIGNS, STEEL ENGRAVINGS, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES, INDEXES, MAP, ETC. EACH HISTORY COMPLETE IN ITSELF AJSn) SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION ONLY. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: ^^^a^-^ .■■^'^.'i^ WILLIAM GAY AND C0MPA:NY, SUCCESSORS TO GAY BROTHERS. E. B. SHELDON & CO.. Compositors and Electrotypers, New Haven, Conn. WILLIAM GAY & CO.. Printers and Binders, New Havf.n, Conn. THIE GREAT MODERN MM. 'HE nations which have made the impress of their national character and achievements the most deeply- felt upon the condition of the world in the nineteenth century, are those which speak languages derived from a common stock. Conspicuous among these are the four which may be rightly designated the " great nations," the two branches of the English-speaking family, the French and the " Deutsche." By the strength of their national life, the development of their highest national type, the establishment of their national literature, and the importance of their national commerce as well as their influence in the councils of the nations they have affected the destinies of the entire world. Those nations which collectively are termed Christendom have filled the world with the glory of their arms, whitened every sea with their peaceful, commerce, and encircled the globe with the strong" bond of international law. In science, art, literature, the elevation of manhood and the advancement of human thought, they have led the van of the nations in modern times. For this reason their separate histories blend in one to make the general and united history of all a well rounded picture of human progress. In this American work the revised and condensed history of the typiq'^l popular historian in each nation is presented to the intelligent reader, ar there can be no doubt that this presentation of the annals which blend in oi narration will give the mind a broader scope of vision than if the prejudice judgment of any one man in either nation were devoted to the work of general history. M. Guizot is a writer of liberal views, from a French stam; point, and Doctor David Miiller from a German, while "Our Great Republic " has been prepared by an American writer who has taken pains to presei t the salient points of our national history from a patriotic, but not a partiss standpoint. We do not hesitate to claim for this work an excellence attained by n other publication in these respects. There is a continued and uninterrupte_ line of history of each country presented, in the main, by the natives of those countries who are in the deepest sympathy with the common people of each, and who, at the same time, have recognized abilities as literary writers. This then is a popular history in the best sense of the word, impartial in its 4 INTRODUCTION. presentation of facts, accurate in its statements, and reliable in its chronology. The writers of each department are emphatically national without being bigoted or partisan, and for this reason their record is more trustworthy. French history is not distorted by the unkindly prejudice of German or English writers, nor exalted by the sympathy of an American, who naturally has kindly feelings toward that nation which aided his own in the early struggle for independence. The same is true of the others, and thus this work, when subjected to the critical examination of an intelligent mind, is the most valuable compendium of history ever presented within the compass of one volume. To all this there has been added by the American author a series of valuable chronological charts of historical events and of contempo- rary sovereigns, charts of American authors and literature, while many valuable tables and maps, make this a work unsurpassed by any and equaled by few historcal works presented to the American public, and therefore of inestimable value to the average reader and to the accurate student. Its excellence as a work of reference or for general reading is enhanced by the literary reputation of the several authors above mentioned, and in addition to these the classic essay of Lord Macaulay on " History," and the pages devoted to Greece and Rome, make this work in scope of design and method of execution superior to any so-called " History of the World " put upon the market at double the cost to the purchaser, and of less cost to the publisher, than this work. For it can be most readily seen that The History of the Three Great Modern Nations is so far interwoven with that of each and every other nation in existence during the period of their rise and development as to throw the intensest light upon the history of the world. It must also be borne in mind that this is the only history as yet published which brings the narration of national events to the present date. The above considerations, united with the efforts of the publishers ta make this series of histories attractive to the eye by first-class engravings oa steel and wood, and at the same time adapted to permanent use by superior paper, new type furnished especially for this book, substantial bindings and full and complete indexes of each history render this the most convenient, useful and reliable work of this kind yet put upon the American market. We therefore present this work to an intelligent public with full confidence that this effort to supply a line of popular histories, whose merit cannot fail to be duly appreciated, will meet with the success which it deserves. l.i^-a.'a- , ,r nj L E S (E CEl [E ^" ^a PRESIDLNTOFFRENCH'REPUBLICJ GAY'S SERIES OF STANDARD HISTORIES. FIRST SERIES. THREE GREAT MODERN NATIONS, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS TO 1884. M. GUIZOT'S POPULAR HISTORY OF FRANCE ABEIDGED, REVISED, AND CONTINUED BY J. H. BEALE. A.M., WITH COMPLETE INDEX, TABLES OF CHROTTOLOaiCAL EVENTS, PRINCIPAL FEATTTEES OP THE FEUDAL SYSTEM, AND GBO"W"TH OF THE FRENCH ARMY" TO THE TIME OF THE REVOLUTION. REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR, MAPS, CHARTS, ETC. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: WILLIAM GAY AND COMPANY, SUCCESSORS TO GAY BROTHERS. 3l .& M E. B. SHELDON & CO., r Compositors and Electrotypers, ' New Haven, Conn. WILLIAM GAY & CO., Printers and Binders, New Haven, Conn. CONTENTS. PAGE. . Introduction v Sketch of M. Guizot vi Chronological Table vii Growth of the French Army xxi Principal Features of the Feudal System '. xxii I. The Gauls and the Romans 23 II. Christianity in Gaul. — The Barbarians. — The Merovingian Dynasty. — Charlemagne 2& III. The Carlovingians. — Feudal France. — ^The Crusades 35 IV. The Kingship, the Commoners and the Third Estate 47 V. The Hundred Years' War 60 VI. Louis XL — Charles VIII. — Louis XII. (1461 — 151 5) 73 VII. The.Renaissance and the Reformation. — Francis I. and Henry II. (1515 — 1559). . 89 VIII. The Wars of Religion.— Francis II. (1559).— Henry III. (1589) 106 IX. Reign of Henry IV. (1589 — 1593). — Louis XIII., Richelieu and the Court 122 X. Richelieu and Mazarin 138 XL Louis XIV., His Foreign Policy, Successes and Reverses 155 XII. Louis XIV. — Home Administration. — Literature, the Court and Society 170 XIII. Louis XV., the Regency, Cardinal Dubois and Cardinal de Fleury (1715 — 1748)... 194 XIV. Louis XV. — The Colonies.— The Seven Years' War (1748 — 1774). Literature and Philosophy 216 XV. Louis XVI. (1778 — 1789). — Internal Policy. — France and America 248 Note on Revolutionary Kalendar 270 XVI. The Reign of Terror. — The Fall of Robespierre 272 XVII. The Directory 280 XVIII. The Consulate 284 XIX. The Empire.— Napoleon 1 288 XX. The Russian Campaign and the end of the Empire 295 XXI. The Hundred Days and Waterloo 302 XXII. Louis XVIII 308 XXIII. Charles X 312 XXIV. Louis Philippe 320 XXV. The Revolution of 1848 33^ XXVI. The Second Empire 337 XXVII. The New Republic 343 M. GtnZOT. INTRODUCTION. 'HE eminent French statesman and historian, M. GuiZOT, has become widely known to the EngHsh reading public through the translation of his many works into that language. His popular History of France to the Revolution of 1789 is taken as the ground work of this history. Indeed, it is in fact an abridgement of that remarkable work, and the most scrupulous pains have been taken not to deviate from the translation, except in a few instances where it appeared absolutely necessary for the purpose of con- ^ densation. In his original work, M. Guizot has given very copious extracts from the picturesque pages of contemporary historians in the various periods. It would be absolutely impos- sible, of course, to incorporate all these in a work of this size. It has been our aim to retain instead of these the valuable reflections and observations of M. Guizot himself, and this volume is therefore a translation of the work of that gifted writer. The continuation of this History from the Revolution of 1789 has been derived from the most authentic sources, and we have endeavored to present it in a manner that will interest the reader, and present a consecutive story of the French people to the present day. We present this volume to the reading public with the strong conviction that the close intimacy which has existed in the past between the American Republic and the French nation may be an inducement to the citizens of the former to study the remarkable phases in the history of that nation which gave the world a Napoleon Bonaparte and the United States a Lafayette. Long live the Republics on each side of the Atlantic. This History of France forms a companion volume to Charles Knight's History of England (abridged) and David Miiller's History of Germany (condensed), and these, taken with an authentic History of the United States, and each brought down to 1883, form a historical library of the four great modern nations in two volumes, that well supplies the demands of the American student and the reader of general history. A SHORT SKETCH OF M. GUIZOT. Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot, the great French statesman and historian, was born on the 4th of October, 1787, in Nimes, the capital of the department of Gard. He was the son of Protestant parents, in which faith he was educated. The father of M. Guizot perished on the scaffold April 8th, 1794, just before the end of that fearful reign of terror, which closed in July of that year with the fall of Robespierre. His mother escaped with her two sons to Geneva, where they were both educated. In 1805 young Guizot appeared in Paris, where he devoted himself to literature. His first work, Nouveau Dictionnaire Universal de Sy?ionymes de Langue Francaise (in two volumes), appeared four years after. In the introduction of this work he displayed a most methodical cast of mind, which at once placed him in the front rank. The succeeding seven years was passed in most laborious literary^ study. The part which he has taken in the government of France, from the time of the second restoration to the year of his death, has received ample notice in the body of this history. He was a man of strict rectitude and almost austere morals : he never enriched himself from the public funds, but he could not escape the charge of having allowed others to do so from political motives. His sympathetic and repressive policy made him unpopu- lar with the masses, since it was united with a cold and reserved personal manner. But wherever he went, to any of the capitals of Europe, he won the respect and esteem of those with whom he came in contact. He held the position of Lecturer on History at the Sarbonne, a celebrated academic body of Paris, until the government, in 1824, forbade his lectures. M. Guizot then betook himself once more to literature. In 1827 he was permitted to resume his lectures, which at once were attended by large and enthusiastic audiences. These lectures gave rise to quite a number of historical works of value. On the ist of March, 1829, he again took his place in the Council of State, and was elected by the town of Lisieux January, 1830, to a seat in the Chambers; after this date he became quite prominent in public affairs, until the cotip d'etat of December 2d, 1851, put an end to his political career. In 1837 he was entrusted by the government of the United fates to write a life of Washington, and this work — Vie, Correspondance et Ecrits de Washington — was published in 1839-40. This procured him the honor of having his portrait placed in the House of Representatives at Washington. He was a very voluminous writer, and a list of all his works would require too much space. The work which caused the most astonishment was a publication, in 1861, defending the temporal power of the pope, — a strange position for a Protestant. He was thrice married, the first two ladies being women of literary ability. He died September 12th, 1874. FRANCE-CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. b, d,_fl, stand respectively for bor7i, died zxidi flourished. 587 The Gauls in Germany and Italy. 340 The Gauls in Greece. 283 A Roman army destroyed by the Gauls at Arctium. 279 The Gauls near Delphi, 241 The Gauls attacked by Eumenes and Attains, 154 Marseilles calls in the assistance of the Romans. 122 Sextius founds Aquae Sextiae in Pro- vence. 118 Foundation of Narbo Martius, 102 Marius defeats the Teutons in two battles. 100 Birth of Julius Caesar. 58 Caesar obtains the government of Cisalpine Gaul for five years. Attacks the Helvetii. 51 Gaul made a Roman province. A.D. 70 Civilis surrenders, 79 Death of Sabinus and of his wife Eponina, 273 The Emperor Aurelian in Gaul. 273 Battle of Chalons-sur-Marne. 277 Probus goes on an expedition to Gaul, in which country the Franks settle about this time, 305 The Franks defeated by Constantius in Gaul. 355 The Franks take Cologne, and de- stroy it ; Julian named prefect of Transalpine Gaul, 357 Julian defeats six German kings at Strasburg. 413 The kingdom of the Burgundians begins under Gondicarius. 420 Pharamond supposed to begin the kingdom of the Franks. 426 Aetius defeats the Franks on the borders of the Rhine. 438 The Franks obtain a permanent footing in Gaul, 451 Battle of Chalons. 458 Childe'ric, king of the Franks, de- posed by his subjects, 462 The Ripuarian Franks take Cologne from the Romans. 463 Childe'ric recalled by the Franks. 477 Marseilles, Aries, and Aix occupied by the Visigoths, Merovingian Dynasty. 481 Death of Childeric ; his son Clovis- succeeds to the throne, 486 Battle of Soissons gained by Clovis against Siagrius, the Roman gen- eral in Gaul. 493 Marriage of Clovis with Clotilda. 496 Clovis, king of France, is baptized after the battle of Tolbiac, 501 Gondebaud, king of the Burgundians, publishes his code, entitled "La Loi Gombette." 507 Battle of Vouille', near Poictiers; Alaric is defeated and slain by Clovis. 509 Clovis receives the titles of Patrician and Consul 510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the French dominions, 511 Clovis dying, his dominions are divided among his children. 524 Battle of Voiron; Chlodomir, king of Orleans, is killed by Gondemar^ king of Burgundy, Vlll FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 531 Thierry, king of Metz, seizes Thurin- gia from Hermanfroi. 532 The kingdom of Burgundy ends, being conquered by Childebert and Clotaire, kings of Paris and Sois- sons. 556 Civil wars in France ; the dominions of Theodebald, king of Metz, are divided between Clotaire, king of Soissons, and Childebert, king of Paris. 558 Childebert dies, and is succeeded by his son Clotaire, who becomes sov- ereign of all France. 560 Chramn, natural son of Clotaire, defeated and burnt alive. 567 Death of Charibert, king of Paris ; his territories are divided among his brothers ; but the city of Paris is held by them in common. 577 Rivalry of the two queens, Brune- haut and Fredegonde. 612 Theodebert II., king of Austrasia, defeated and confined in a monas- tery by his brother, Thierry II., king of Orleans and Burgundy. 613 Clotaire, king of all France ; death of Brunehaut, widow of Sigebert, king of Austrasia. 628 Clotaire II., king of France, dies, and is succeeded by his son Dago- bert. 631 Childeric, son and successor of Charibert, poisoned by Dagobert, who remains sole monarch of France. 638 Dagobert, king of France, is suc- ceeded by his two sons, Sigebert II, in Austrasia, and Clovis II. in Neustria and Burgundy. The Maires du Palais begin to usurp the royal authority. 678 Death of Dagobert II., king of Neustria ; Martin and P^pin Heris- tal, mayors of the palace. Thierry III. is suffered to enjoy the title of king of Austrasia, A.D. 691 Clovis III. king. 715 Charles Martel, son of Pepin Heris- tal, governs as mayor of the palace. 717 Charles Martel defeats king Childe- ric II. and the Neustrians. 732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens. 735 Charles Martel becomes master of Aquitaine. 737 On the death of Thierry III., Charles Martel governs France, with the title of duke, for six years. 741 Charles Martel dies, and is succeeded by his sons, Carloman in Austrasia and Thuringia, and Pepin in Neus- tria, Burgundy and Provence. 742 Pepin places Childdric III. on the throne of Neustria and Burgundy. — Charlemagne b. Carlovingian Dynasty. 752 Pepin deposes Childeric, confines him in a monastery, and is conse- crated at Soissons. 754 Pepin's expedition into Italy. 758 Pepin reduces the Saxons in Ger- many. 768 Pepin dies at St. Denis, and is suc- ceeded by his sons Charles and Carloman. 771 Carloman dying in November,Charle- magne remains sovereign of all France. 772 Charlemagne begins the Saxon war, which continues thirty years. 773 Charlemagne defeats the troops of Didier, king of the Lombards, and and lays siege to Pavia. 774 Surrender of Pavia, and capture of Didier. 776 The abbey church of St. Denis, near Paris, founded. 778 Battle of Roucevaux. 784 Charlemagne defeats Witikind and the Saxons. 791 Charlemagne defeats the Avari, in Pannonia. FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. IX A.D. 793 800 806 813 814 817 840 841 843 844 877 879 880 887 911 987 996 The Saracens ravage Gallia Nar- bonnensis, where they are at length defeated by Charlemagne. Charlemagne crowned king of Italy and emperor of the West. Partition of the empire. Charlemagne associates his son Louis, surnamed the Debonnair, or the Pious, to the Western Em- pire. Charlemagne dies; succeeded as emperor and king by his son Louis. Louis divides his empire among his children. Louis the Debonnair dies ; his eldest son, Lothaire, has Italy, with the title of emperor ; Charles the Bald, the kingdom of France ; and Louis, that of Bavaria or Germany. Battle of Fontanet. New partition of the French domin- ions in an assembly at Thionville. Charles the Bald defeated in Aqui- taine by Pepin II. Charles the Bald poisoned. His son, Louis II., surnamed the Stam- merer, succeeds him. Louis the Stammerer dies, and is succeeded by his sons, Louis III. and Carloman. Boson seizes Dau- phiny and Provence, and begins the kingdom of Aries. The Normans invade France, and destroy several abbeys. Louis III., king of France, defeats the Normans at Saucourt. Louis III. of France dies, leaving his brother Carloman sole sover- eign. Hincmar d. Paris besieged by the Normans. On the death of Charles his domin- ions are divided into five kingdoms. A part of Neustria granted to Rollo, as Normandy, by Charles the Sim- ple. Hugh Capet king. Paris made the capital of all France. 1060 Philip I. (the Fair) king. 1 1 08 Louis VI., /e Gros (the Lusty), king. 1 135 Letters of franchise granted to cities and towns by Louis VI. " ^ 1 146 Louis VII. j6ins the Crusades. 1 180 Philip (Augustus) II. king. 1 2 1 4 Philip def 'ts the Germans at Bouvines. 1223 Louis VIII. king. 1224 Louis frees his serfs. 1226 Louis IX., called St. Louis, king. 1250 to 1270 St. Louis defeats King Hen- ry of England ; joins the Crusades ; captures the city of Damietta, in Syria; is made prisoner; finally dies before Tunis. 1266 Naples and Sicily conquered by Charles of Anjou. 1270 Philip III. (the Hardy) king. 1285 Philip IV. (the Fair) king. 1301-02 Philip quarrels with the pope. 1307-14 Philip suppresses the Knights Templar, and burns the Grand Master at Paris. 13 14 Union of France and Navarre. Louis X. king. 13 16 John I., a posthumous son of Louis X., king. Dies at the age of four days. 1316 Philip V. (called "the Long") king. 1322 Charles IV. king. 1328 Philip VI. (founder of the House of Valois) king. 1346 France invaded by the English. Philip defeated at Crecy by Edward III. 1347 Edward III. takes Calais. 1349 Dauphiny annexed to France. 1350 John II. king. 1356 John defeated at Poictiers by the English, made prisoner and carried to London, where he dies. 1364 Charles V. (called the Wise) king. 1380 Charles VI. king. 1407 The pope lays France under an interdict. 1 41 5 The English defeat the French at Afrincourt. FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. 1420 1422 1422 1423 1428 1428 1429 I43I 1435 1436 1437 1440 1444 1449 1450 1451 1453 1456 I461 1464 1465 1467 1468 1476 1477 Henry V., of England, acknowledged heir to the kingdom. Henry VI., of England, crowned at Paris, the duke of Bedford acting as regent. Charles VIII. king. The French, under the leadership of the Maid of Orleans, take up arms for their independence, in 1429. Battle of Crevant (June). The duke of Bedford defeats the French at Verneuil (August 16). The siege of Orleans begins on the 1 2th of October. Battle of Herrings (12th February). Joan of Arc obliges the English to raise the siege of Orleans. Trial and death of Joan of Arc. Treaty of Arras. Paris recovered by the French, on the 13th of April. Siege of Montereau. Charles VII. makes his solemn entry into Paris. The " Praguery." Truce between England and France signed at Tours. War renewed between England and France. Battle of Formigny gained over the English. Agnes Sorel d. The English evacuate Rouen and several places in France. Cam- paign in Guyenne. Talbot d. Jacques Coeur d. Louis XL king of France. The league against Louis XL of France, called " La Guerre du Bien Public." Treaties of Conflans and of Saint- Maur. Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy,^. Louis XL at Peronne. Revolt of the Lidgese. Charles, duke of Burgundy, defeated at Granson (20th of June). The duke of Burgundy slain at Nancy. 1479 Battle of Guinegate. 1483 Louis XL ^/. Rabelais/^. Luther^. Charles VI 11. king of France. 1484 The States-General convoked at Tours. 1488 Battle of St. Aubin ; the duke of Brittany is defeated and the duke of Orleans taken prisoner (28th of June). 1492 Brittany united to] the French crown. 1494 Charles VIIL, king of France, goes on an expedition into Italy. 1495 Battle of Fornovo between Charles VIIL and the Venetians (6th July). Clement Marot b. 1498 1499 1500 1501 1503 1504 1508 1509 1510 1512 1513 1514 Branch of Orleans, Death of Charles VIIL, king of France (April 7 th). Louis XII., king of France, takes possession of Milaness, and enters Milan on the 6th of October. Insurrection at Milan. Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand V. of Spain seize on the kingdom of Naples. The power of the French in Naples ends with the loss of the battles of Cerignola,Seminara, and Garigliano. Pope Alexander VI. d. Michel de I'Hospital b. Truce between France and Spain. The pope and the emperor join the king of France in the treaty of Cam- bray, against the Venetians. Battle of Agnadello (14th of May). Calvin b. Etienne Dolet b. Mar- tial d'Auvergne d. Cardinal d'Amboise d. Battle of Ravenna. Gaston de Foix d. The French defeated by the Swiss in the battle of Novarra. Jacques Amyot b. Pope Julius II. d. Anne of Brittanv d. Branch of AngouUme, 15 15 Battle of Melegnano between the FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XI A.D. French and Swiss. Louis XII. d. Ramus b. 15 1 6 Treaty of Noyons signed on the i6th of August. 1520 Interview between Henry VIII. of England and Francis I. of France (4th of June). Pierre Viret b. 152 1 League between the emperor Charles V. of Spain and Henry VIII. of England, against the king of France. 1523 League against Francis I. of France, by Pope Clement VII., the emperor, and the Venetians. Bayard d. The memoirs of Commines published. 1525 Francis I. taken prisoner in the battle of Pavia (24th of February), and sent to Madrid. 1526 Treaty of Madrid (14th of January). Francis is restored to liberty. The Holy League. 1527 Henri Estienne ^. Bran tome (^. 1529 Peace of Cambray, between Charles V. and Francis I. Louis de Ber- quin put to death. Etienne Pas- quier b. 1536 League between Francis I. of France and Solyman II., sultan of the Turks, against the emperor Charles V. Vanquelin de la Fresnaye b. 1543 Treaty of alliance between Sultan Solyman and Francis I. of France against the emperor Charles V. 1544 Battle of Cerisoles. Treaty of Crespy (i8th of September). Bonaventure des Periers d. Clement Marot d. Du Bartas b. 1545 Massacre of the Vaudois. Robert Garnier b. 1547 Henry II. king of France. 1548 Rebellion in the South of France. La Boetie writes his Contre un. First edition of the Salic law. 1556 Charles V. resigns the crown of Spain and all his other dominions and retires to the monastery of St. Just. Malherbe b. A. D. 1557 Battle of St. Quentin (loth of August). 1558 The French recover Calais from the English. Mellin de St. Gelais d. 1559 Henry II. d. Peace of Cateau-Cam- bre'sis. Edict of Ecouen. Amyot translates Plutarch. Anne Dubourg put to death. 1560 Conspiracy of Amboise. Francis II. d. Charles IX., king. Joachim du Bellay d. 1562 Massacre of Vassy. Battle of Dreux (19th December). 1563 The duke of Guise is assassinated by Poltrot (24th February). Peace of Amboise. 1567 The religious wars recommence in France ; battle of St. Denis, between the prince of Conde and the con- stable Montmorency, in which the latter is mortally wounded. 1569 The Huguenots defeated in the battles of Jarnac, on the 13th May, and of Moncontour, on the 3d October. 1572 Massacre of the Huguenots at Paris, on Sunday, the 24th August. Ra- mus d. Jean Goujon d. 1574 Charles IX. d. Hotman publishes his Franco- Gallia. 1576 Edict of pacification in France. 1584 The Cardinal de Bourbon proposed as eventual king of France. La Croix du Maine publishes his Bibliotheque Frangaise. 1587 Battle of Coutras (loth of October), the Duke de Joyeuse is defeated by Henry, king of Navarre, An Arabic lectureship is created at the college royal. 1588 The duke of Guise and his brother the cardinal murdered at Blois. Dynasty of the Bourbons. 1589 Henry III. of France murdered (22d of July). Henry IV. of Navarre succeeds to the vacant Xll FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1594 throne. Battle of Arques. Ron- sard, Hotman d. 1590 Battle of Ivry (4th of March). Germain Pilon, Jean Cousin, Du Bartas, Cujas, Ambrose Pare, Palissy d. The'ophile de Viaud b. 1 59 1 The pope excommunicates Henry IV. : the parliament of Paris oppose the sentence. Guy Co- quille's Liberies de Feglise de France published. La Noue d. 1593 Henry IV. abjures the Protestant religion, on Sunday, the 25th of July, at St. Denis. The Satire Menippee published. Amyot d. Henry IV. anointed at Chartres : attempt on his life (17 th December), Pierre Pithou fl. Balzac, St. Amand b. 1595 Battle of Fontaine- Frangaise. Des- marets de St, Sorlin b. 1598 Edict of Nantes (April). Peace of Vervins signed on the 22d of the same month. Voiture b. 1602 Marshal Biron's conspiracy detected and punished. 161 o Henry IV. assassinated by Ravaillac (4th of May). Louis XIII. king of France. Scarron, La Calpre- nede b. 1617 Murder of Concini. 162 1 The civil war renewed with the Huguenots in France, and continues nine years. The Benedictines of the congregation of St. Maur receive their statutes. La Fontaine b. 1628 Rochelle besieged and taken by Louis XIII. (i8th of October). 1629 Peace restored between France and England. Malherbe d. Corneille brings out Melite, his first play. 1630 Treaty of Cherasco. " Journee des Dupes." Hardy, Agrippa, d'Au- bigne d. 1632 Battles of Lutzen and of Castel- naudary. Flechier, Bourdaloue b. 1636 Treaty between Louis XIII. of France, and Christina, queen of Sweden (loth of March). Port Royal des Champs founded. Lc Cid brought out. Boileau b. 1642 Conspiracy of Cinq-Mars. Riche- lieu d. 1643 Louis XIII. d. (4th of May). The Duke d'Enghien, afterward prince of Condd, defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy (9th of May). St. Cyran d. 1648 The prince of Conde defeats the archduke at Sens (loth of August). Treaty of Munster (i4th of October) between France, Sweden and the empire. The civil war of the. Fronde breaks out in Paris. Mer- senne, Voiture d. La Sueur finishes his series of paintings illustrating the history of St. Bruno. 1659 Peace restored between France and Spain, by the treaty called the " Peace of the Pyrenees." Louis. XIV. marries the Infanta of Spain. Moliere and the Precieuses ridicules^ 1 66 1 Cardinal Mazarin d. Bossuet's first sermon before Louis XIV. 1667 War renewed between France and Spain. Moliere and TarUcffe. Ra- cine and Andromaque. 1668 A triple alliance between Great Brit- ain, Sweden, and the States-Gen- eral, against France (23d of Jan- uary.) Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle,. between France and Spain (2 2d of April). Racine and Les Plaideurs^ Moliere and VAvare. Le Sage b. 1672 War declared by England and France, against the Dutch. A treaty between the empire and Holland, against France (15th of July). Boi- leau and Le Lutrin. Molibre and Les Fenimes savantes. 1673 The English and French defeat the Dutch (28th of May) at Schonvelt ; again (4th of June), and (nth of August) in the mouth of the Texel. Louis XIV. declares war against FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xui A.l>, 1674 167s 1678 1681 1684 1685 1686 1689 1690 1691 1692 Spain (9th of October). Racine and Mithridate. Battle of Seneffe, in Flanders, be- tween the prince of Orange and the prince of Conde (ist of August). First settlement of the French at Pondicherry. Marshal Turenne defeats the Imperialists. Chapelain d. Racine and Iphigenie. Male- branche and the Recherche de la Verite. Conference for a peace held at Nim- eguen. Madame de la Valliere takes the veil. Peace of Nimeguen (31st of July). La Fontaine publishes his second series of fables. Ducange's Latin Glossary. The city of Strasburg submits to Louis XIV. Mabillon publishes his De re diplomatica. Luxemburg taken by Louis XIV. A truce between France and Spain concluded at Ratisbon (31st of July) and between France and the empire (5th of August). P. Corneille d. Louis XIV. revokes the edict of Nantes. Treaty of alliance between Germany, Great Britain, and Holland against France. Conde d. The French fleet defeated by the English and Dutch in Bantry Bay (ist of May). Racine and Esther. Battle of Fleurus ; Luxemburg de- feats the allies (21st of June). The allied English and Dutch fleets de- feated by the French off Beachy Head (30th of June). A congrest} at the Hague, in Jan. Mons taken by the French (30th of March). Louvois d. Racine and Athalie. Battle of La Hogue : the English defeat the French fleet (19th of May). Namur, in Flanders, be- sieged and taken by Louis XIV. (25th of May). Luxemburg de- feats the allies at Steinkirk (24th of July). 1693 The English and Dutch fleets de- feated by the French off Cape St, Vincent (i6th of June). The duke of Savoy defeated by Marshal Cat- inat, at Marsaglia (24th of Septem- ber). Pelisson, Bussy-Rabutin, Ma- dame de La Fayette, Mdlle. de Montpensier d. 1697 Peace of Ryswick (i ith of September) between Great Britain and France — France and Holland — France and Spain ; and on the 20th of October, between France and the empire. Santeuil d. The Abbe Prevost b. 1698 The first treaty of partition between Great Britain, France and Holland signed (19th of August) for the dis- memberment of Spain, to Charles II., king of that country, makes his will in favor of a prince of the house of Bourbon. Le Nain de Tillemont d. Charles II., king of Spain, d. (21st of October), The duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., succeeds by the name of Philip V. Battle of Luzzara, in Italy (4th of August) ; the Imperialists defeated by the French ; the French fleet destroyed in the port of Vigo, by the British and Dutch (12th of October). Jean Bart d. 1704 Battle of Hochstedt or Blenheim (2d of August). Bossuet, Bourda- loue d. 1706 Battle of Ramilies (12th of May); the French are defeated by the duke of Marlborough. 1708 Battle of Audenarde (30th of June), the French defeated by the duke of Mariborough and Prince Eugene. Regnard and Le Legataire universe!, Le Sage and Turcaret. 1709 Battle of Malplaquet (31st of Aug.), 1700 1702 XIV FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. the French defeated by the allies. Mons taken by the allies (21st of October). Port Royal des Champs destroyed. 17 10 Battle of Villa Viciosa (29th of No- vember), the Imperialists, under Count Stahremburg, are defeated by Philip V. 1 7 12 Negotiations for a general peace opened at Utrecht. Jean Jacques Rousseau b. 1 7 13 Peace of Utrecht, concluded by France and Spain, with England, Savoy, Portugal, Prussia, and Hol- land, signed on the 30th of March O.S. Fenelon publishes his Traits de V existence de Dieu. 1714 The bull " Unigenitus " received in France. 1 7 15 Louis XIV. d. (21st of August), suc- ceeded by his great-grandson, Louis XV., under the regency of the duke of Orleans. Malebranche, Fenelon d. Le Sage's Gil Bias. 17 17 Triple alliance between Great Brit- ain, France and Holland, signed at the Hague (24th of December). The memoirs of Cardinal de Retz published. Massillon's Petit Ca- reme preached. 1 7 18 Quadruple alliance between Ger- many, Great Britain, France, and Holland, for the maintenance of the treaties of Utrecht and Baden. Conspiracy of Cellamare. Great Britain declares war against Spain (nth of December). Voltaire and CEdipe, his first tragedy. 17 19 The Mississippi scheme at its height in France. Madame de Maintenon d. 1720 The French Mississippi company dissolved. The plague breaks out at Marseilles, and causes great dis- tress. 1723 Duke of Orleans d. Voltaire pub- lishes his Pohne de la Ligne (La Henriade). 1725 Treaty of Hanover, between Great Britain, France, and Russia, against Germany and Spain (3d of Sep- tember). 1733 Stanislaus proclaimed king of Po- land (5th of October). 1734 The ImperiaKsts defeated by the French and Piedmontese at Parma (i8th of June), and in the battle of Guastalla, by the king of Sardinia, and the Marshals Coigny and Brog- lie (8th of September). Montes- quieu's Grandeur et Dkadence des Romains. 1735 Treaty of Vienna (3d of October). Voltaire publishes his Lettresphilo- sophiques. 1740 The Emperor Charles VI. d. (9th of October). Voltaire publishes his Essai sur les mceurs. 1 741 The archduchess Maria Theresa crowned queen of Hungary at Presburg (25 th of June). 1743 Battle of Dettingen (i6th of June). Cardinal de Fleury d. Voltaire and Mkrope. 1745 Battle of Fontenoy ; the French de- feat the allies, commanded by the duke of Cumberland. 1746 (April 1 6th) Battle of Culloden. 1746 (September 30th) Count Saxe de- feats the allies at Raucoux. Vau- venargues and the Introduction a la connaissance de V esprit humain. 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, between Great Britain, France, Spain, Aus- tria, Sardinia, and Holland (7 th of October). Montesquieu's Esprit des lois. 1754 (April 17th) the French attack an English fort on Monongahela, and Logstown on the Ohio. General Braddock defeated and killed by the French (July 9th), near Fort Du Quesne, on the Ohio. 1756 May 29th, Admiral Byng defeat- ed by the French. The duke of FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XV A.r». I7S7 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1767 1769 1774 Richelieu takes Port Mahon (June 28th). Damien attempts to assassinate Lou- is XV. The French garrison 0/ Chandernugger surrenders to the British (March 23d), Battle of Hastenbeck, the French defeat the duke of Cumberland (July 26th). The marquis of Montcalm besieges Fort George (August 3d), the Eng- lish surrender on the 9th. Conven- tion of Closter-Seven, between Marshal Richelieu and the duke of Cumberland (September 8th). Bat- tle of Rosbach (November 5th). March 14th. The French garrison in Minden capitulates. The French defeated at Crevelt (June 23d). Helvetius publishes De VEsprit. Quesnay's Tableau economiqiie. (September 30th.) The British de- feated by the French in the East Indies, near Arcot. Rousseau's Noiivelle Helo'ise, (April 28th.) The English defeated by the French near Quebec. Mdme. de Souza b. (August 15th.) The family compact concluded between Louis XV. of France and Charles III. of Spain. Voltaire's L^ Tughiu. (August 6th.) The Jesuits suppressed in France. Treaty of peace signed at Fontainebleau, between France, Spain and Great Britain. Rous- seau's Emile. (February loth.) Peace of Paris, be- tween Great Britain, France and Spain, acceded to by Portugal. L'Abbe Prevost d. (May 15th.) Corsica ceded to France, by the Genoese. Benjamin Con- stant, Fievee, b. Napoleon Bonaparte, Cuvier, Cha- teaubriand, b. (May loth.) Louis XV. of France d. Succeeded by Louis XVI. A.D. 1778 1782 1783 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 (February 6th.) Treaty of alliance and defence between France and the Americans. Pondicherry taken by the British. Rousseau, Vol- taire, d. Buffon's Epoques de la nature. (April 1 2th.) Sir George Rodney defeats the French fleet under Count de Grasse, off Dominica. Another engagement near Trinco- malee, on the same day ; and a third in September. (January 20th.) Preliminaries of peace between Great Britain, France and Spain, by which the indepen- dence of America is confirmed. (November 6th.) The French nota- bles, convoked by Louis XVI., as- semble at Paris. Buffon d. Ber- nardin de St. Pierre's Paul et Vir- ginie. (May 4th.) The States-General of France assemble. The Bastille at Paris destroyed (July 14th). Che- nier's Charles IX. performed. Confederation of the Champs de Mars ; the king takes the oath to the constitution, July 14th. Death of Mirabeau, April 2d. Flight of the king and queen. They are arrested at Varennes, June 21st. Louis (now a prisoner) sanctions the National Constitution, Septem- ber 15 th. First coalition against France. Com- mencement of the great wars, June. Battle of Valmy ; the Prussians de- feated, and France saved from in- vasion, Sept. 20th. Attack on the Tuileries by the mob, Aug. loth. Massacres in the prisons of Paris, Sept. 2-5. Opening of the Nation- al Convention, Sept. 17th. The con- vention abolishes royalty ; declares France a republic, Sept. 20-22. Louis XVI. beheaded, Jan. 21st. War against England declared. XVI FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. Feb. I St. Insurrection in La Ven- dee begins, March. Proscription of the Girondists. Beginning of the Reign of Terror, May 31st. Charlotte Corday kills Marat, July 13th. Execution of Marie Antoin- ette, Oct. 1 6th. 1793 The Duke of Orleans, Philippe Ega- lite beheaded, Nov. 6th. Madame Roland executed, Nov. 8th. 1794 Danton and others guillotined, April 5th. Robespierre and seventy-one others guillotined, July 28th. Close of the Reign of Terror. 1795 The Dauphin (Louis XVII.) dies in prison. The Directory, Nov. ist. 1796 Bonaparte wins the victories of Mon- tenotte, Mondovi, and Lodi, in It- aly. 1796 The conspiracy of Baboeuf sup- pressed. 1797 Pichegru's conspiracy fails. 1797 Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt. Destruction of the French fleet near Alexandria by Nelson. 1799 Bonaparte returns from Egypt. De- poses the Council of Five Hun- dred, and is declared First Consul, Nov. loth. 1800 Battle of Marengo. Great victory by Bonaparte over the Austrians. Attempt to kill the consul by means of an infernal machine, Dec. 24th. 1802 Peace with England, Spain and Hol- land signed at Amiens, March 27th. Legion of Honor instituted. Bon- aparte made " consul for life," Aug 2d. 1803 Bank of France established. War with England. 1804 Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bonaparte fails. Execution of the Duke d'Enghien. The em- pire formed. Napoleon proclaimed emperor. May i8th. 1805 Napoleon crowned king of Italy, May 26th. Battle of Trafalgar. Destruction of the French fleet,, Oct. 2 1 St. Battle of Austerlitz. Austria humbled, Dec. 2d. 1806 Defeat of Prussians at Jena, Oct^ 14th. 1808 New nobility of France created. 1809 Divorce of the Empress Josephine. Napoleon defeated at Aspern and Essling. Victorious at Wagram. 18 10 Union of Holland with France. 1812 War with Russia. Napoleon in- vades Russia. Great victory of the French at Borodino, Sept. 7th. Disastrous retreat of the Frenck from Moscow. 1813 Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against Napoleon. Battle of Leipzig. Napoleon defeated, Oct. 16-18. The Allies invade France from the Rhine ; the Eng- lish from Spain. 18 14 Surrender of Paris to the Allies,. March 31. Abdication of Napo- leon, April 5. Napoleon goes to Elba, May 3. Louis XVIII. enters Paris May 3. The Bourbon Dy- nasty restored. The Constitutional Charter established, June 4th-ioth.. 1815 Napoleon leaves Elba; lands at Cannes, March ist, and proceeds to Paris. Is joined by all the army. The Allies form a league for his. destruction, March 25. Napoleon abolishes the Slave Trade, March 29. Leaves Paris for the army, June 12. Battle of Waterloo. Final over-throw of Napoleon, June 18. Napoleon reaches Paris June 20. Abdicates in favor of his son, June 22. Reaches Rochefort, where he intends to embark for America, July 3. Entry of Louis XVIII. into Paris, July 3. Napo- leon goes on board the " Bellero- phon " and claims the "hospitality" of England, July 15. Upon reach- ing England is transferred to the FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. xvii A.X). " Northumberland," and sent a prisoner to St. Helena, Aug. 8. Arrives at St. Helena, Oct. 15. Execution of Marshal Ney, Dec. 7. 1816 The family of Napoleon forever excluded from France. 1820 Assassination of the Duke de Berri, Feb. 13. 182 1 Death of Napoleon I., May 5. 1824 Death of Louis XVIII., Sept, 16. Charles X. king. 1827 National Guard disbanded. War with Algiers. Riots in Paris. Seventy-six new peers created. 1829 The Polignac administration organ- ized. 1830 Chamber of Deputies dissolved. May 16. Capture of Algiers, July 5. Revolution of July Flight and ab- dication of Charles X. Louis Philippe king. Polignac and the ministers of Charles X. sentenced to perpetual imprisonment. 1 83 1 The hereditary peerage abolished. 1832 Insurrection in Paris suppressed. 1833 Failure of the attempt of the Duch- ess de Berri. 1834 Death of Lafayette, May 20. 1835 Fieschi attempts to kill the king, July 28, and is executed, Feb. 6, 1836. 1836 Louis Alibaud fires at the king, June 25; is guillotined, July 11. Death of Charles X., Nov. 6. Prince Louis Napoleon attempts an insur- rection at Strasbourg, Oct. 30. Is sent to America, Nov. 13. The ministers of Charles X. set at lib- erty and sent out of France. Meu- nier attempts to kill the king. 1838 Death of Talleyrand, May 17. 1840 M. Thiers Prime Minister. Removal of the remains of the Emperor Napoleon I. from St. Helena to Paris. Prince Louis Napoleon, General Montholon, and others attempt an insurrection at Boulogne, Aug. 6. Prince Louis Napoleon 2 sentenced to imprisonment for life, and confined in the Castle of Ham, Oct. 6. Darmes attempts to shoot the king, Oct. 15. 1842 The Duke of Orleans, the heir to the throne, dies from the effect of a fall, July 13. 1843 Queen Victoria, of England, visits the royal family at the chateau d'Eu. Extradition treaty with England. 1846 Lecompte attempts to assassinate the king at Fontainebleau. Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham. Joseph Henri attempts to kill the king. 1847 Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile of thirty-two years. Death of the ex- Empress Marie Louise. 1848 Revolution of February 22d to 26th. Flight of the king and royal family. The Republic proclaimed, Feb. 26. The provisional government suc- ceeded by an executive commis- sion named by the assembly. May 7. Louis Napoleon elected to the assembly from the Seine and three other departments, June 13. Out- break of the Red Republicans. 1848 Severe fighting in Paris, June 23d to 26th ; 16,000 persons killed, includ- ing the Archbishop of Paris. Gen. Cavaignac at the head of the gov- ernment, June 28. Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the assembly, Sept. 26. The Constitution of the Re- public solemnly proclaimed, Nov. 12. Louis Napoleon elected pres- ident of the French Republic, Dec. II. Takes the oath of office, Dec. 20. 1850 Death of Louis Philippe at Clare- mont, in England, Aug. 26. Free- dom of the press curtailed. 185 1 Electric telegraph between England and France opened. The Coup d'Etat. Arrest of the National XVlll FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.I>. Assembly, Dec. 2. Severe fighting in Paris. The president crushes the opposition, Dec. 3, and 4. The Coup d'Etat sustained by the people at the polls, and Louis Napoleon re-elected president for ten years, Dec. 21, and 22. 1852 President Louis Napoleon occupies the Tuileries, Jan. i. The new constitution published, Jan. 14. The property of the Orleans family confiscated. The birthday of Na- poleon I., Aug. 15th, declared the only national holiday. Organiza- tion of the Legislative Chambers (the Senate and Corps Legislatif), March 29. The president visits Strasbourg. M. Thiers and the exiles permitted to return to France, Aug. 8. The Senate petitions the president for " the re-establishment of the hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte family," Sept. 13. The president visits the Southern and Western departments, Sept. and Oct. At Bordeaux utters his famous expression, '* The Empire is Peace." The president releases Abd-el-Kader, Oct. 16. Measures for the re-establishment of the empire inaugurated, Oct. and Nov. The empire re-established by the popular vote, Nov. 21 ; yeas, 75839.552 ; nays, 254,501. The president declared emperor ; he as- sumes the title of Napoleon III., Dec. 2. 1853 The emperor marries Eugenie, coun- tess of Teba, Jan. 29. The emper- or releases 4,312 political offenders, Feb. 2. 1853 Bread riots. Death of F. Arago, the astronomer, Oct. 2. Attempt to assassinate the emperor. 1854 Beginning of the Crimean war. 1855 Emperor and empress visit England in April. Industrial exhibition opened at Paris, May 15. Pianorl attempts to assassinate the emperor, April 28. Bellemarre attempts to assassinate the emperor, Sept. 8. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit France, August. 1856 Birth of the Prince Imperial, March 16. The treaty of Paris. Close of the Crimean war, March 30, Ter- rible inundations in the Southern Departments, June. 1857 The archbishop of Paris (Sibour} assassinated by a priest named Ver- ger. Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor detected, July 11. Visit of the emperor and empress to England. Death of Gen. Cavaig- nac, Oct. 28. The Emperor Napo- leon meets the emperor of Russia at Stuttgart, Sept. 25. 1858 Orsini and others attempt to kill the emperor by the explosion of three shells. Two persons killed and several wounded, Jan. i4» Passage of the Public Safety BilL 1858 The empire divided into five milita- ry departments. Republican out- break at Chalons crushed. Orsi- ni and Pietri executed for attempt- ing to assassinate the emperor. Visit of the queen of England to- Cherbourg. Conference at Paris re- specting the condition of the Danu- bian Principalities. 1859 The emperor warns the Austrian minister of his intention to espouse the Italian cause, Jan. i. France declares war against Austria, and sends an army to the aid of Italy, May. The empress declared regent. The emperor takes com- mand of the army in Italy. Ar- rives at Genoa, May 12. 1859 Battles of Montebello, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30th, 31st; Magenta, June 4 ; Malegnano, June 8, and Solferino, June 24 ; the allies vie- FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. XIX A.D. torious in each. Armistice arranged July 6, Meeting of the emperors of France and Austria at Villa Franca, July ii. Preliminary peace, July 12. The Emperor Napoleon returns to France, July 17. Peace conference meets at Zurich for arrangement of treaty between France and Sardinia and Austria. Peace signed, Nov. 12. i860 The emperor adopts a free trade policy. Commercial treaty with England signed Jan. 23. Annexa- tion of Savoy and Nice to France. The Emperor Napoleon meets the German sovereigns at Baden, June 15-17. Visit of the emperor and empress to Savoy, Corsica, and Algiers. The new tariff goes into operation, Oct. i. The public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and restrictions placed upon the issuing of pastoral letters. The emperor makes concessions to the Chambers in favor of freedom of speech. Important ministerial changes. The emperor advises the pope to give up his temporal possessions. 186 1 Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000,000 francs. Troubles with the church about the Roman question. The government issues a circular forbidding priests to meddle in politics, April 11. Commercial treaty with Belgium. France declares neutrality in the American conflict. France recog- nizes the kingdom of Italy, June 24. Meeting of the emperor and king of Prussia at Compiegne, Oct. 6. 1861 Convention between France, Great Britain, and Spain, concerning in- tervention in Mexico. Embarrass- ment in the government finances. Achille Fould made minister of finance. 1862 The Mexican expedition begun. The French conquer the province of Bienhoa, in Annam. Six prov- inces in Cochin China conquered, and ceded to France. I'he British and Spanish forces withdraw from the Mexican expedition. France declares war against Mexico. Peace with Annam. New commer- cial treaty with Prussia, Aug. 2. Great distress in the manufacturing districts in consequence of the civil war in the United States. 1863 Commercial treaty with Italy. Revolt in Annam crushed. Con- vention with Spain for the rectifi- cation of the frontier. Political troubles. Growing power of the opposition in the Chambers and throughout the country. The elec- tions result in the choice of many opposition deputies, including Thiers, Favre, and others. The emperor proposes a European con- ference for the settlement of the questions of the day, Nov. g. Eng- land declines to join the proposed conference, Nov. 25. 1863 The French army conquer Mexico, and occupy the capital. 1864 Treaty with Japan. Commercial treaty with Switzerland. Conven- tion with Italy respecting the evac- uation of Rome. Establishment of the Mexican Empire, with Max- imilian, of Austria, as emperor. 1865 The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's Encyclical in the churches. Treaty with Sweden. The plan of Minister Duruy for compulsory education rejected by the Assembly. Death of the Duke de Morny. Visit of the emperor to Algeria. The English fleet visits Cherbourg and Brest. The French XX FRANCE.— CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. 1867 1868 [869 1870 1870 fleet visi ts Portsmouth. The Queen of Spain visits the emperor at Biarritz. Students' riots in Paris, The emperor produces a feeling of alarm in Europe by declaring his detestation of the treaties of 18 15, May 6. He proposes a peace con- ference (in conjunction with Eng- land and Russia) for the settlement of the troubles between Prussia, Italy and Austria. Austria refuses to join in it, May-June. France declares a " watchful neutrality " as to the German-Italian war. The Emperor Napoleon demands of Prussia a cession of a part of the Rhine provinces. His demand is refused, Aug. Austria cedes Vene- tia to France, who transfers it to Italy. The French occupation of Rome terminated, Dec. 11. Settlement of the Luxemburg ques- tion by the London Conference. The great exposition at Paris, opened April i. Riots in Bordeaux in March ; in Paris in June. Great radical successes in the elec- tions. The emperor makes new concessions in favor of constitu- tional government. Celebration of the one hundredth birthday of Napoleon the Great. The Plebiscitum, May 8. Quarrel with Prussia. War with Prussia begins, July ig. The emperor takes command of the army. De- feat of the French at Woerth and Forbach, Aug. 6. Decisive battle of Gravelotte, Aug. 18. Bazaine's army shut up in Metz. Battle of Sedan, Sept. i. The Emperor Na- poleon and the French army made prisoners of war, Sept. 2. Revolution in Paris. Fall of the empire. Flight of the empress, Sept. 7. The republic proclaimed in Paris, Sept. 7. Paris invested. A.D. 1871 1872 1873 187s 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 I65I 1881 1883 Paris bombarded by the Germans. The armistice, Feb. 28. Meeting of the Assembly at Bordeaux. For- mation of a provisional government. Peace with Germany. Revolt of the commune. The second siege and capture of Paris. Reorganization of the government in France. A large part of the war indemnity paid. May 24. M. Thiers resigns the presidency. Marshal MacMahon chosen President of the Republic. Sept. Payment of the German debt. The legislative body reorganized — two Chambers created. Passage of a bill for the construc- tion of a tunnel under the English Channel. March 7. Meeting of the new Chambers. Sept. 3. Death of M. Thiers. International Exposition at Paris. Resignation of President MacMahon. M. Jules Grevy elected President. Mar. I. Prince Napoleon killed in Zulu land. Dec. 21. Resignation of Waddington ministry. Gambetta President of the Chambers. Religious orders suppressed. Financial Congress at Paris. Invasion of Tunis. April. Treaty signed May 12 giving France the protecterate. French troops enter Tunis, Oct. ID. Republicans gain twenty-two seats in the Senate. Jan. 3. Gambet- ta's ministry resigned. Aug. 7. Du- clerk forms ministry. Revolt of Arabi Pasha in Egypt. May. French and English fleet before Alexandria. French government declines to take part in the war against Arabi. Jan. I. Death of Gambetta buried Jan. 6. Death of General Chanzy, buried Jan. 8. Death of General Horise De Valdare, Jan. 8, by apoplectic fit on hearing of Chanzy's death. GROWTH OF THE FRENCH ARMY. A.D. II24 II91 1439 1445 1478 1496 1532 1544 1558 1563 1609 1619 162I First instance of a permanent mili- tary force established. The supreme command of the army given to the constable of France, who has under his orders two mar- shals, besides the grand-master of the cross-bowmen. The cavalry of the gens d'armes {coitipagnies a'ordojina?ice) instituted ; these companies, iifteen in number, are of 100 lances (600 men) each. The Fra?ics-archers or Francs-taupijis (infantry) instituted. The name taup'ms is derived from the Low Latin talparius^ meaning a man who works underground, like a mole. Scotch archers appointed as part of the king's body-guard The company of the gentilskonmies- a-bec-de-'Corbiji (infantry) organized. A body of Swiss soldiers, 127 m number, added to the king's house- hold troops. {Les cent hommes de guerre Suisses de la garde dii Roi?) Provincial legions instituted by Francis I, These corps, seven in all, are of 6000 men each. A colonel-general of the infantry appointed. Creation of a corps of carabms (light cavalry). — Marshal de Cossd- Brissac forms a regiment of dra- goons destined to light both on horse- back and on foot. The provincial legions formed into regiments. The most ancient of these corps are the regiments of Picardy, Champagne, Navarre, Pied- mont. Institution of the French guards. Appointment of a colonel-general of the Swiss and Grison troops in the French service. Gens d'armes of the king's body- guard instituted (cavalry). First nomination of a minister of war. The company of gray musketeers in- stituted. (Thus called from the color of their horses.) 1627 The office of constable of France suppressed. 1630 Formation of a body of chevau-legers (household troops, light cavalry). 163s The musketeers and carbineers formed into regiments. 1660 A company of black tnuskcteers insti- tuted. 1665 Generals of brigade appointed for the cavalry. 1666 Louvois, minister of war. 1668 Generals of brigade appointed for the infantry. 1670 Establishment of the gardes 7narifies at Brest, Rochefort and Toulon. 1 67 1 Foundation of the Hotel des Inva- lides. Introduction of the bayonet. Regiments of fusiliers formed. 1672 Companies of grenadiers introduced into each regiment. 1686 Grenadiers on foot and on horse- back raised as part of the house- hold troops. 1679-1707 Vauban reorganizes military engineering. 1682 Military schools established (ecoles de cadets^. 1 69 1 First company of hussars raised. 1693 The order of Saint-Louis created as a decoration for military services. 1734 Marshal de Saxe forms a body of 100 Uhlans (lancers). 1748 Engineering schools established at Mezieres. 175 1 A military school established at Paris. 1764 The Gardes Frangaises arranged into six battalions, each containing half a company of grenadiers (50 men), and five companies of fusiliers (120 men each). 1776 The cent-Suisses disbanded. Count de Saint Germain, minister of war, introduces many reforms. 1789 Reform of the army. — Creation of the national guard. _>p > 3 <1) to a s 43 T3 X! .J3 bO o •T) o s c'O W)0 aj t. -1-i aj P O ID :§^ •C— rt g »i B cj -w to en S S ■•^ S i^ fe ■" ^ -c "d -S - -5 >? -c x) s ^ C to .>--& . u G^ > S rt "^ t/; o 1! t>JO 2 "^ S s^tj-c , to e -Q to 3 1) " G to > <« ^ £ O G O ' +3 '^ (U O)- (1> u ^ iL ' ^ H H J3-G ■CI ^ I- - • „•'- u_. 5" P J-W to *" « IJ 0-.2 P e ^ "* to S^ >< 3 bh 6i fli o ffi )-^ .>al ./o^-^ §5^^ - ^ -G '' S s. +J wi O 0) ^ ^S S to i- iu 5J ^ t^ ■" 391 B.C.-305 A.D. Three or four centuries before the Christian era, on that vast territory com- prised between the ocean, the Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, the Alps, and the Rhine, Hved six or seven millions of men a bestial life, enclosed in dwellings dark and low, the best of them built of wood and clay, not inartistically com- posed of timber, earth, and stone, which surrounded and protected what they were pleased to call a town. Of even such towns there was scarcely any as yet, save in the most populous and least uncultivated portion of Gaul. In the north and the west were pal- try hamlets as transferable almost as the people themselves ; and on some islet amid the morasses, or in some 24 FRANCE.— GAUL AND THE ROMANS. [391 B.C. hidden recess of the forest, were huge entrenchments formed of the trees that were felled, where the population, at the first sound of the war-cry, ran to shelter themselves, with their flocks and all their movables. Gaul was not occupied by one and the same nation, with the same traditions and the same chiefs. In the south were Iberians or Aquitanians, Phoenicians and Greeks ; in the north and north-west Kymrians or Belgians ; everywhere else Gauls or Celts, the most numerous settlers, who had the honor of giving their name to the country. Who were the first to come, then? and what was the date of the first settlement? Nobody knows. The Iberians, whom Roman writers call Aquitanians, dwelt at the foot of the Pyrenees, in the territory comprised between the mountains, the Garonne, and the ocean. They belonged to the race which, under the same appellation, had peopled Spain, and which abides still in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, under the name of Basques; a peopkt distinct from all its neighbors in features, costume, and especially language. Beyond a strip of land of uneven breadth, along the Mediterranean, and save the space peopled toward the south-west by the Iberians, the country, which received its name from the former of the two, was occupied by the Gauls and the Kymrians: by the Gauls in the center, south-east, and east, in the highlands of modern France, between the Alps, the Vosges, the mountains of Auvergne and the Cevennes ; by the Kymrians in the north, north-west, and west, in the lowlands, from the western boundary of the Gauls to the ocean. Whether the Gauls and the Kymrians were originally of the same race, or at least of races closely connected; whether they were both anciently comprised under the general name of Celts ; and whether the Kymrians, if they were not of the same race as the Gauls, belonged to that of the Germans, the final conquerors of the Roman empire, are questions which the learned have been a long, long while discussing without deciding. Each of these races, far from forming a single people bound to the same destiny and under the same chieftains, split into peoplets, more or less independent, who foregathered or separated according to the shifts of circumstances, and who pursued each on their own account and at their own pleasure, their fortunes or their fancies. From the earliest times to the first century before the Christian era, Gaul appears a prey to an incessant and disorderly movement of the population ; they change ' settlement and neighborhood ; disappear from one point and reappear at another; cross one another; avoid one another; absorb and are absorbed. And the movement was not con- fined within Gaul ; the Gauls of every race went, sometimes in very numerous hordes, to seek far away plunder and a settlement. Spain, Italy, Germany, Greece, Asia Minor and Africa have been in turn the theater of those Gallic expeditions which entailed long wars, grand displace- ments of peoples, and sometimes the formation of new nations. 305A.D.] FRANCE.— GAUL AND THE ROMANS. 25 Nevertheless the fusion of the Gauls of Galatia with the natives always remained very imperfect ; for toward the end of the fourth century of the Christian era they did not speak Greek, as the latter did, but their national tongue, that of the Kymro-Belgians ; and St. Jerome testi- fies that it differed very little from that which was spoken in Belgica itself, in the region of Treves. The details of the struggle between the Gauls and the Romans belong specially to Roman history; they have been transmitted to us by Roman historians ; and the Romans it was who were left ultimately in possession of Italy. 1ST EPOCH. — Four distinct periods maybe recognized in this history; and each marks a different phase in the course of events, and, so to speak, an act of the drama. During the first period, which lasted forty-two years, from 391 to 349 B.C., the Gauls carried on a war of aggression and conquest against Rome. 2D EPOCH. — During this second period Rome was more than once in danger. In the year 283 B.C. the Gauls destroyed one of her armies near Arctium and advanced to the Roman frontier. 3D EPOCH. — In the third period of the struggle of Gauls and Romans the latter formed the resolution of no longer restraining them, but of subduing and conquering their territory. For thirty years (from 200 to 170 B.C.) she proceeded, by means of war, founding Roman colonies and sowing dissensions among the Gallic tribes. The Senate of Rome increased the number of its colonies in Gaul, treated the subjugated tribes with moderation, and named the whole Cisalpine Gaul, This was afterward changed to Gallia Togata, or Roman Gaul. In the year 123 B.C., at some leagues to the north of the Greek city, near a little river, then called the Coenus, and nowadays the Arc, the consul C. Sextius Calvinus constructed an enclosure, aqueducts, baths, houses, a town in fact, which he called after himself Aq2i(B Scxtics, the modern Aix, the first Roman establishment in Transalpine Gaul. As in the case of Cisalpine Gaul, with Roman colonies came Roman intrigue, and dissensions got up and fomented among the Gauls. The Gauls ran of themselves into the Roman trap. Two of their confederations, the ^duans, of whom mention has already been made, and the Allobrogians, who were settled between the Alps, the Isere, and the Rhone, were at war. A third confederation, the most powerful in Gaul at this time, the Arvernians, who were rivals of the ^duans, gave their countenance to the Allobrogians. The ^duans, with whom the Massilians had commer- cial dealings, solicited through these latter the assistance of Rome. A treaty was easily concluded. The yEduans obtained from the Romans the title friends and allies; and the Romans received from the ./Eduans that of brothers, which among the Gauls implies a sacred tie. In the year no B.C. the Cimbrians and the Teutons entered Gaul. Continuing their wanderings and ravages in Central Gaul they at last reached 26 FRANCE.— GAUL AND THE ROMANS. [391 B.C. the Rhone. Their four successive armies were defeated and slaughtered by the barbarians ; but at last Marius attacked them (102 B.C.) near Aix {Agues Sextics). The battle lasted two days ; the first against the Ambrons, the second against the Teutons. Both were beaten. There remained the Cimbrians, who had repassed the Helvetic Alps and entered Italy on the north-east, by way of the Adige. Marius marched against them in July of the following year, loi B.C., and defeated them in the Raudine Plains, a large tract near Verceil. The victories of Marius arrested the torrent of the invasion, but did not dry up its source. A greater man than Marius, Julius Caesar in fact, saw that to effectually resist these clouds of barbaric assailants, the country into which they poured must be conquered and made Roman. The. conquest of Gaul was the accomplishment of that idea, and the decisive steps toward the transformation of the Roman republic into a Roman empire. The Helvetians, a Gallic race in Switzerland, found themselves incessantly threatened, ravaged, and invaded by the German tribes which pressed upon their frontiers. After some years of perplexity and internal discord, the whole Helvetic nation decided upon abandoning its territory, and going to seek in Gaul, westward, it is said, on the borders of the ocean, a more tranquil settlement. Being informed of this design, the Roman Senate and Caesar, at that time consul, resolved to protect the Roman province and their Gallic aUies, the ^duans, against this inundation of roving neighbors. The Helvetians persisted in their plan. When they would have entered Gaul, Caesar was there to forbid them passing. Thus foiled, they attempted another route across the Saone, and marched thence toward Western Gaul. But while they were arranging for the execution of this movement, Caesar, who had up to that time only four legions at his disposal, returned to Italy, brought away five fresh legions, and arrived on the left bank of the Saone at the moment when the rear guard of the Helvetians was embarking to rejoin the main body, which had already pitched its camp on the right bank. Caesar cut to pieces this rear guard, crossed the river in his turn with his legions, pursued them without relaxation, and before the end of the year he had completely beaten them and driven them back. Several days in succession he offered battle: but Ariovistus remained within his lines. Caesar then took the resolution of assailing the German camp. The struggle was obstinate, and not without moments of anxiety and partial check for the Romans ; but the genius of Caesar and strict discipline of the legions carried the day. The rout of the Germans was complete. The expulsion of the Helvetian emigrants and of the German invaders left the Romans and Gauls alone face to face ; and from that moment the Romans were, in the eyes of the Gauls, foreigners, conquerors, oppressors. During nine years, from A.U.C. 696 to 705, and in eight successive campaigns, he carried his troops, his Heutenants, himself, and, ere long, war or negotia- tion, corruption, discord, or destruction in his path, among the different nations and confederations of Gaul. 305A.D.] FRANCE.— GAUL AND THE ROMANS. 27 After six years' struggling Caesar was victor ; he had successively dealt with all the different populations of Gaul ; he had passed through and subjected them all, either by his own strong arm, or thanks to their rivalries. In the year 702 A.u.c. Caesar was informed while in Rome that a young Gaul called Vercingetorix had risen against the Roman power. At the news of this great movement Caesar immediately left Italy, and returned to Gaul. Starting at the beginning of 702 A.U.C, he passed two months in traversing within Gaul the Roman province and its neighborhood. In less than three months he had spread devastation throughout the insurgent country ; he had attacked and taken its principal cities. Alesia taken, and her brave defender a prisoner, Gaul was subdued. Caesar, however, had in the following year (A.U.C. 703) a campaign to make to subjugate some peoplets who tried to maintain their local independence. From the conquest of Gaul by Caesar to the establishment there of the Franks under Clovis, she remained for more than five centuries under Roman dominion ; first under the Pagan, afterward under the Christian empire. On quitting conquered Gaul to become master at Rome, Caesar neglected nothing to assure his conquest and make it conducive to the establishment of his empire. He formed of all the Gallic districts that he had subjugated a special province, which received the name of Gallia Coinata (Gaul of the long hair), while the old province was called Gallia Togata (Gaul of the toga). Caesar caused to be enrolled among his troops a multitude of Gauls, Belgians, Arvernians, and Aquitanians, of whose bravery he had made proof. He even formed, almost entirely of Gauls, a special legion, called Alaiida (lark), because it bore on the helmets a lark with outspread wings, the symbol of wakefulness. At the same time he gave in Gallia Coniata, to the towns and families that declared for him, all kinds of favors, the rights of Roman citizenship, the titles of allies, clients, and friends, even to the extent of the Julian name, a sign of the most powerful Roman patronage. Gaul lived, during those five centuries, under very different rules and rulers. They may be summed up under five names : ist, the Caesars, from Julius to Nero (from 49 B.C. to A.D. 68) ; 2d, the Flavians, from Vespasian to Domitian (from A.D. 69 to 95) ; 3d, the Antonines, from Nerva to Marcus Aurelius (from A.D. 96 to 180); 4th, the imperial anarchy, from Commodus to Carinus and Numerian (from A.D. 180 to 284); 5th, Diocletian (from A.D. 284 to 305). Weary, however, of his burden, and disgusted with the imperfection of his work, Diocletian abdicated, A.D. 305. He was succeeded by Constantine the Great. Constantine, more clear-sighted and more fortunate than any of his predecessors, had understood his era, and opened his eyes to the new light which was rising upon the world. Far from persecuting the Christians, he had given them protection, countenance, and audience ; and toward him turned all their hopes. There is no knowing what was at that time the state of his soul, and to what extent it was penetrated by the first rays of Christian faith ; but it is certain that he was the first among the masters of the Roman world to perceive and accept its influence. With him Paganism fell, and 28 FRANCE.— CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL. [312 Christianity mounted the throne. With him the decay of Roman society stops, and the era of modern society commences. n. Christianity in Gadl -The Basbarians -The Merovingian DYNASTY.-GHARLEfflA&NE. HEN Christianity began to penetrate into Gaul, it encountered there two religions very different one from the other, and infinitely more different from the Christian religion ; these were Druidism and Paganism — hostile one to the other, but with a hostility polit- ical only, and unconnected with those really religious questions that Christianity was coming to raise. Druidism, considered as a religion, was a mass of confusion. A general and strong, but vague and incoherent, belief in the immor- tality of the soul was its noblest characteristic. But with the reli- gious elements, at the same time coarse and mystical, were united two facts of importance : the Druids formed a veritable ecclesiastical corporation ; and in the wars with Rome this corporation became the most faithful representatives and the most persistent defenders of Gallic independence and nationality. The Graeco-Roman Paganism was, at this time, far more powerful than Druidism in Gaul, and yet more lukewarm and destitute of all religious vitality. It was the religion of the conquerors and of the State, and was invested, in that quality, with real power ; but beyond that, it had but the power derived from popular customs and superstitions. Such were the two religions with which in Gaul nascent Christianity had to contend. Compared with them it was. to all appearance, very small and very weak ; but it was provided with the most efficient weapons for fighting and beating them, for it had exactly the moral forces which they lacked. It is impossible to assign with exactness the date of the first foot-prints and first labors of Christianity in Gaul. Lyons became the chief center of Christian preaching and association in Gaul. As early as the first half of the second century, there existed there a Christian congregation regularly organized as a church. It was under Marcus Aurelius, the most philosophical and most conscientious of the emperors, that there was enacted for the first time in Gaul, against nascent Christianity, that scene of tyranny and barbarity which was to be renewed so often and during so many centuries in the midst of Christendom itself ; for in the year 177 that is, only three years after the victory of Marcus Aurelius over the Germans there took place, undoubtedly SHOWlJNCj A (^UlNiNlieil^JJ HlbiUKY Ut int. WUKJLJJ 9—194 A.D. EGYPT (A Province of Rome). 171 — Revolt against Rome. ROME. 14-Deatli of AUGUSTUS; TIBERIUS the em- peror. 31— CALIGULA. 41— CLAUDIUS. 54— NERO. 68— GALEA and NERO. 69— OTHO, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN emperors. 79-TITUS. 81— DOMITIAN. 96— NERVA. 98— TROJAN. 1 1 T— HADRIAN emperor. 138— ANTONINUS PIUS emperor. 161— MARCUS AURELIUS and LUCIUS VERUS emperors. 169— VERUS dies. 180— COMMODUS. 185— ORIGEN born. 193— Disorders in Rome. 194— SEVERUS sole emperor. GREECE (A Province of Rome) 52— The Apostle PAUL in Athens ; Nero in Greece. 122— HADRIAN in Greece. Remained under the dominion of Rome until 476 (overthrow of the Western Empire). GAUL (France and Germany). 9 — VARUS and the Roman Legion destroyed by HERMAN, the German hero. 14-16— Campaigns of GERMANICUS successful. 70— CIVILIS surrenders. 79— Deatt of S ABINUS and his wife. The land occupied by over forty different TRIBES. BRITAIN. 43— CLAUDIUS in Britain. 47 — liOndon founded by the Romans. 61— Insurrection of BOADICEA. 78— AGRICOLA in Britain. 84— AGRICOLA sails around Britain 120— HADRIAN in Britain. 121— Hadrian's Wall built. 139— Conquest of LOLLIUS URBICUS in Britain ; Wall of ANTONINUS built. 183— Success of ULPIUS MARCELLUS. 202—298. IRELAND. During the first and second centuries Ireland is governed by native kings. There were four petty kingdoms, Ulster, Connaught, Munster, and Leinster. Over these there was a principal king who had his residence at Tara. The an- cient religion was Druidism. CHART III. FROM BIRTH OF CHRIST TO 600 A.D. 273— AURELIAN regains possession. 288— ACHILIUS revolts in Upper Egypt. 297— Alexandria captured by DIOCLETIAN, who subdues the revolt. 202— Christians persecuted. 211— CAR AC ALL A and GET A joint emperors. 2 12~G ETA murdered. 217— MACRINUS emperor. 218— ELAGABALUS. 222— ALEXANDER SEVERUS. 231— Persian war. 233— SEVERUS triumphs. 235— MAXIMIAN murders SEVERUS. 238— Four emperors. 244— GONDIAMUS murdered; PHILIP the Arabian. 249— DECIUS emperor. 250 — First invasion of the Goths. 251— GALLUS emperor. 254— VALERIAN. 259— GotllS take Trapesus. 260— GALLIENUS sole emperor. 268— CLAUDIUS emperor. 269— Defeats the Goths. 270— AURELIUS emperor ; defeats the Goths. 275— TACITUS emperor. 276-PROBUS. 277— Defeats the Alemanni. 282— CARUS. 284— DIOCLETIAN. [the empire. 292— CONSTANTINE and GALERIUS ; division of 298-^Defeat of NARSES. -The Goths invade Greece. -The Herculi invade Greece and are repulsed by DEXIPPUS. 262 267- 214— First contact of the Romans with the Germans of the Upper Rhine. 263— The Franks invade Gaul. 273— AURELIAN in Gaul ; battle of Chalons-sur- Marne. 277— PROBUS makes an expedition into Gaul; the Franks settle here about this time. 208— Expedition of SEVERUS to Britain. 21 1— SEVERUS dies at York. 296— Britain recovered by CONSTANTINE. 227— CORMAC ULLA king at Tara. 266— CORMAC ULLA abdicates the throne and is killed by the Druids for being in secret a Chris- tian. After him came a long line of little note. Designed for Gay's Standard Histories, by wlliLIAM GA IKNT AND MODERN, FROM )i^{){) B.C. TO 1884 A.D. 305—396. 79— Pagan worship prohibited and their famous tem- ples destroyed. 95— Becomes a province of the Eastern Empire. 06-CONSTANTINE the great emperor. 07-Kevolts of MAXENTIUS. 12-I>eatl» of MAXENTIUS and success of CON- STAXTINE. 23-CONSTANTINE sole emperor. 25— First genera! council of the Church at Nicea. 26— Ariaii controversy. 36— ARIUS dies. 37- CONSTANS and CONST ANTINE II. joint em- perors. 38-Death of EUSEBIUS. 47— Synod of Sardica. 61— JULIAN emperor. 62— Religious toleration. 63— JULIAN killed ; Persian war. 75— Invasion of the Huns. 90— Suppression of Paganism. 95— ALARIC I. invades Greece. 05— Tlie Franks defeated by CONSTANTIUS. 55 — Tlie Franks take Cologne ; JULIAN named pre- fect of Transalpine Gaul. 57 — JULIAN defeats six German kings. 70 — Tlie Sa.xons land in Gaul. 76— Huns settle in France. 82— ALARIC king of GauL 06-CONSTANTINE dies at York. 67-9— THEODOSIUS in Britain. 96— HONORIUS invited to Britain to fight the Scots and Picts. t22-FIACHA SRAEBHTINE slain by the three Col- las. He was succeeded by kings of no impor- tance. 178— CRIMTHAN poisoned by his sister ; NIAL.of the nine hostages, succeeds him, and after him DATHI, who was killed while crossing the Alps. 187-ST. PATRICK born in Gaul. GOTLAND. Occupied by the two Celtic races of Picts and Scots, the chief seat of the latter being Ireland. The Scots' original seat in Northern Britain was in Argyle, which they acquired by colonization or conquest before the end of the fifth century. 402—597. 410- 451- 475- 476- 489- 493- 529 552- 568 590 596 -Rome sacked by the Huns. ■The Ostrogoths overrun Italy. -THEODORIC the Ostrogoth lays waste Thessaly and Thrace. -ODOACER captures Rome and establishes the kingdom of Italy. -Ostrogotlis return. -THEODORIC founds the Ostrogothic kingdom of Italy, Hungary and South Germany. -Tlie Justinian Code promulgated. Ostrogotlis expelled. -NARSES, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards from Germany -GREGORY, the great pope of Rome. -Tlie Lombards overrun Italy. N. B. — Ancient Historv ends with the oveh- IHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE IN 476. 442 — ATTILA ravajges Thrace and Macedon. 475-THEODORIC, the Ostrogoth, lays waste Thessa- ly and Thrace. 502— Greece devastated by CHARBADES, the Per- sian. 581— Slavonians overrun Greece. 413— GONDICARIUS founds the kingdom of ■ Bur- gundy. 420— PH ARAMOND begins the kingdom of the Franks. 426— .i*:LIUS defeats the Franks on the Rhine. 438 — Tlie Franks get a permanent foothold. 451— Battle of Chalons. 458— CHILDERIC, king of the Franks, deposed. 462 — Tlie Ripurian Franks take Cologne. 463— CHILDERIC recalled by the Franks. 486— CLOVIS I. defeats the Romans. 496~Baptl8m of CLOVIS. 507— CLOVIS defeats and slays ALARIC II. and founds the kingjom of the Franks. 511 — CLOVIS died in Paris, leaving his kingdom to his four sons. 558 — CLOTAIRE, his son, unites the kingdom. 561 — CLOTAIRE dies ; the kingdom is again divided. 581 — Paris mostly destroyed by fire. 402-1 8— Tlie Romans gradually retire from Britain. 429-49 — The Saxons^ and Angles are called in to aid the natives in their wars. 45.5— The Angles drive the Britons into Wales. 457 — The Saxon Heptarchy. 477 — The second Saxon invasion. 491 — Tlie kingdom of Sussex. 495— The third Saxon invasion. 506-542— Reign of King ARTHUR (legendary). 519— The kingdom of Wessex established by CERDIC. ,527 — Kourth Saxon invasion ; Essex established. 547— Northuinbria established as a kingdom. 565— ETHELBERT king of Kent. 577 — AVest Saxons defeat the Britons. '586— K-lngdom of Mercia founded. 597— ST. .A^UGUSTINE arrives. 403— ST. PATRICK taken to Ireland as a prisoner, and after seven years is liberated. 432— He returns to convert the Irish people. 438 — He reforms the laws and customs ; the compilatic* of the Brehon Code. 493— Death of ST. PATRICK. 503— CONAIRE II. reigning in Ireland. 504— MUIRCHEATACH the first Christian king. .554— Destruction of Tara. 556-Oeath of DA.MAID. 566-93-Belgn of HUGH II. 503— FERGUS arrives in Scotland from Ireland and founds a kingdom. 562— ST. COLUMBA lands in Scotland; CONAL, great-grandson of FERGUS, king of the British Scots, succeeded by his nephew AIDEN. 56 Chapel St., New Haven, Conn. COPYKIGHT 1883. GAY'S CHROXOLOGICAL CHARTS, ' SHOWING A CONNECTED HISTORY OF THE WORLD, ANCIENT AND MODERN. FROM 2800 B.C. TO 1884 AD. t) 104 A.I). I'lGYFl (A Fkovi.nce oi- Ro.mk;. ITl— Kevole aKaindt Home. ROME. 14 I>«atli of A UO U.ST US; TIIiBKIUS the cm- 6'1-NBKO. .'jr (,Ai,if;t'i-A. 41 (;i,AU(jii;s, »H (; A (.If A and NKKO, TITUS. Sl-DOiMJTIAN, OO-.VIikVA. «H TKOJAN, 117 IIAOKIANompcror. 1 :iK ANI ONINUS l'IC;S ctnprror. Mil MAKCUS AUKKMUS and LUCIUS VERUS it>:t KM OKH.I'.N l.'.i SKVI'.KUSiio GREECE (A Pkovin( i;<)i Komk) «a Tim ApiJNtIc I'AUI.lii AiIiciib; Ncm in (Jrcccc. lit!) HADRIAN In (irrrin. HlininliKMl iiniliT [lie ilorninioii of Kiime until ^7(1 (ovmlirow of llie Woitcrii Kin|>lrci. GAUL (I'KANCK ANI) CiKKMANV). VAKUS 1111(1 llie Uoinuii I.cKlon dc-Hlroycd by lll'.UMAN. Ilir (iiTiniin hero, 14 1(1 4'iiiii|MiliriiMof (il'.KMANIC'USii'icccMful. 70 ( IVIMSslHMllllllN. 70 U«iitli of SAIlINUKiiml hU wife. TlIU I.ANU DCLlJI'mO IIV OVBK t'OKTV DIIM'IIKUNT riiiiiitH, ^Rl TAIN. 4:1 ClAI'lHliS in llriliiln. 47 IjOImIoii IoimkIi'iI I>v Ihr Unmann, 01 ■■INIillcctloii .iia|ii4 2:1 8 211 24!> 2u0 2'>l 2r.» 200 208 20» 270 27.'. 277 281 202 2U8 -Cltriatlan* f/crsetuicd. -f.AKACAI.LA and OETA loint ernperorii. f/KTA murdered. 217-MACRlNLS emperor. Kl, A'iA HAM'S. AI.KXANMKR SEVERfS. Prrnlan war. SKVIvKL'S triumphei.u». -(.AI.I-IK.NUS «>lc emperor, f I.AI'DM.'S emperor. lli'lrHlN the Goths. \ I, l< l,l,lt;S emperor ; defeats the Goths. I A( ITUS emper.ir. 276-l*ROBUS. -nd'cnta the Alemanni. 282-CARUS. l>IO( I.KTIAN. [the empire. ( ONS'I ANTINR and GALERIUS ; division of Drn^ut of .NARSES. 20'i Tin- (;oihs invade Greece. 207 The Hcrculi invade Greece and arc repulsed by UfcXIPl'US. 21 I I'lrnt ront.nci of the Romans with the Germans of the Uppei Rhine. 20:» TIm< I'Vanks invade (Jaul. 27:i AURELIA.V in (iaul ; battle of Chalons-sur- Marne. 277-I'R()m'S makes an expedition into Gaul; the ■'ranks settle here about this time. 208 Kxprdltlon of SEVERUS to Britain. 21 I MA llKl'Siliesat York. 2t>U-llrllulll recovered by CONSTANTINE. 227-(\)RM AC ULLA kinc at T.ira. 200 COR.MAC ULLA abdicates the throne .ind is killed by the Druids for beinji in secret a Chris- tian. After him came a long line of little note. :]0r)-39fi. 379 — Pasau worship prohibred and their famous tem- ples destroyed. 395— Becomes a province of the ELastem Empire. 306 -CONSTANTINE the great emperor. 307 KpvoKh of MAXENTIUS. 312 Dcalli of MA.XE.VTIUS and success of CON- STANTINE. 323-CO.NSTANTI.NE sole emperor. 325— FIrM genera! council of the Church at Nicea. 326— .iriaii controversy. 336-ARILS dies. 337-CONSTANS and CONSTANTINE II. joint em- perors. 338-Dcatliof EUSEBIUS. 347--Syiiod of Sardica. 361-JULIAN emperor. 362— KolisloaH toleration. 363-jrLIAN killed ; Persian war. 37.'i- Ilivaitloii ot the Huns. 390— ^iU|>prcitalofi of Paganism. 395— ALARIC I. invades Greece. 30.';-TIlo Fr.-inks dcfe.Med by CONSTANTIUS. 355— The Franks take Cologne ; Jl'LIA.N named pre- fect of Transalpine Gaul. 3,j7 JULIAN defeats si.x German kings. 370-Tho Sa.xons land in Gaul. 370— Iliiun settle in France. 382-ALARlC king of Gaul. 306-CONSTANTINE dies at York. 367 9-THEOIX)SIUS in Britain. 39«— HONORIUS invited to Britain to fight the Scots and Picts. 322-FIACHA SRAEBHTINE slain by the three Col- las. He wiis succeeded by kings of no impor- tance 378-CRIMTHAN poisoned by his sister ; NIAL.of the nine hostages, succeeds him, and after him D.\THI, who was killed while crossing the Alps. 387-ST. PATRICK b,jrn in Gaul. SCOTLAND. Occnpled by the two Celtic races of Pi«s and Scots, the chief seat of the l.ntter h^inir Ireland. TheScr: • ------- -v -u .._ ., in Atk-' or con: 402-597. 410- 451 475 489- 493- 529 552- 568 5»0 596- Ronir s.\ckevl by the Huns. The t>stro!^iths overrun Italy. THEimORIC the Ostrogoth lays wa.ste Thessaly and Thrace. -ODOjVCER captures Rome .uid establishes the kingdom of Italy. Ostrocotba return. THEODORIC founds the l>stroKolhic killKdoa of Italy, Hungary .ind Siuilh Germany, The ,lustini.\n C>xle promulgated. OatroKOtha e.\i>cllnl. N.\RSES, governor ot Italy, invites the I.omliards from Germany C.REGORY. the great pope ot Rome. -The Lomb.irds overrun Italy. N. U.— .-Vmiknt HisroKS knus wini thk ovkk- IMKOW OK rilK WliSTKKX EmI'IKK IN 476. 442 \TTI LA ravages Thrace and Macedon. 475 THKODORIC, the Ostrogoth, lays waste ThesM. Iv and Thrace. 502 «r««ece devastated by CHARBADES, the Per- sian. 5S I sliivoiilaiiM overrun Greece. 413 420 426 438 451 4 58 402 403 480 490 607 611- 658- 501 581- 4 02 429 455 45 7 477 491 495 506 519 627 647 665 577 '586 597 (lONDICARIUS founds the kingdom of Bur- gundy. PHARA.MONI) begins the kingilomof the I'"runkJ. .•V:i.IUS defeats the Franks on the Rhine. The I'r.mks get a iH-rinanent liMithold. Bailie ..I Cli.dons. ( llll.DI.KK . king of the Franks, deposed. The Uiiiiin.m Kr.inks take Cologne ( llll.liFKR recilKd by the Franks t I.OVIS I. defeats the Romans. Haptlauiof CLOVIS. CI.OVIS defeats and slays Al.ARK II. and founds the kingjom of the I'raiiks. -CLOVIS died In Paris, leaving his kingdom (o Ills four sons. -CLOTAIRE, his son, unites the kingdom. -(T.OTAIRE dies ; the kingdom is again divided. -Paria mostly destroyed by lire. I 8 The Romans gradually retire from Britain. 19 The Saxons; .-ind Angles arc called in to aid the natives in their wars. The Angles drive the Britons into Wales. The S.non Heptarchy. Thesc.rm.l Saxon invasion. The kingdom ol Sussex. The third Saxon invasiim. 542 Keluii of King ARTHUR {legendary) The kingdom ..f VVessex established byCKRDIC. Fourth Saii.n invasion ; Essex established. i\orlhuiiil>ria I'si.ibhsliril .is a kingdom. -KIHKI.HICK I king of Kent. -Wen! Saxons defeat the Britons. -Kllilldoin of .Mercia founded. -ST. At (VLSTINE arrives. ST. PATRICK taken to Ireland as a priwrticr, .ind .ifter seven years is liberated. lie returns to convert the Irish people. He reforms the laws and customs ; tile i ..f the Brehon Code. Death of SI PATRICK, CO.NAIRE II reigning in Ireland. MflRf lIEATAfTi the first < hristian king. impilatic* 432 438 493 603 50 I 5 .'> I 550 506 503— FERGUS arrives in Scotland from Ireland and founds a kingdom. -,«(•> ■^T (IlIIMltl I .n.l^ .r. 'i.,.tl;inr1 ( < I N A I . Di-Hlruetloil of Tara. Death .t DA.M MI) 93 lieisiioi HUGH U. Designed for Gay's Standivrd Histories, by "WTLIilAM GAY &Co.. 256 Chapel St.. Kew Haven. Conn. COPYKIGHT 1883. 8i3] FRANCE.— CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL. 29 by his orders, the persecution which caused at Lyons the first Gahic martyrdom. This was the fourth, or, according to others, the fifth great imperial persecution of the Christians. The martyrs of Lyons in the second century wrote, so to speak, their own history ; for it Avas their conrades, eye-witnesses of their sufferings and their virtue, who gave an account of them in a long letter addressed to their friends in Asia Minor, and written with passionate sympathy and pious prolixity, but bearing all the characteristics of truth. But Christian zeal was superior in perseverance and efificacy to Pagan persecution. St. Pothinus the Martyr was succeeded as bishop at Lyons by St. Irenjeus, the most learned, most judicious, and most illustrious of the early heads of the Church in Gaul. At the commencement of the fourth century their w^ork was, if not accomplished, at any rate triumphant ; and when, A.D. 312, Constantine declared himself a Christian, he confirmed the fact of the conquest of the Roman world, and of Gaul in particular, by Christianity. No doubt the majority of the inhabitants were not as yet Christians ; but it was clear that the Christians were in the ascendant and had command of the future. In 241 A.D. is the first appearance of the name of Franks in history, but it indicates no particular single people, only a confederation of German peoples, settled or roving along the right bank of the Rhine, from the Mayn to the ocean. The number and names of the tribes joined in this confederation are uncertain. From the middle of the third to the beginning of the fifth century the history of the Western Empire presents an almost uninterrupted series of these invasions on the part of the Franks, together with the different relationships established between them and the imperial government. After the commencement of the fifth century, from A.D. 406 to 409, it was no longer by incursions limited to certain points, and sometimes repelled with success, that the Germans harassed the Roman provinces. Then took place throughout the Roman empire, in the East, as well as in the West, in Asia and Africa as well as in Europe, the last grand struggle between the Roman armies and the barbarians. It was in Gaul that it was most obstinate and most promptly brought to a decisive issue, and the confusion there was as great as the obstinacy. No later than A.D. 412 two German nations, the Visigoths and the Burgundians, took their stand definitely in Gaul, and founded there two new kingdoms : the Visigoths, under their kings Ataulph and Wallia, in Aquitania and Narbonness ; the Burgundians, under their kings Gundichaire and Gundioch, in Lyonness, from the southern point of Alsatia right into Provence, along the two banks of the Saone and the left bank of the Rhone, and also in Switzerland. In 451 the arrival in Gaul of the Huns and their king Attila gravely complicated the situation. Attila, perceiving that a battle was inevitable, halted in a position for delivering it. " It was," says the Gothic historian Jornandis, " a battle which for atrocity, multitude, horror, and stubbornness, has not the like in the records of antiquity." Theodoric, Hng of the Visigoths, was killed. At this battle of Chalons in 451, he drove 30 FRANCE.— CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL. [312 the Huns out of Gaul and was the last victory in Gaul, gained still in the name of the Roman empire. Twenty-four years after, the very name of the Roman Empire disappeared with the last of the emperors. Thirty years after the battle at Chalons the Franks settled in Gaul were not yet united as one nation. Clovis was fifteen or sixteen years old when he became king of the Salian Franks of Tournay. Five years afterward his ruling passion, ambition, exhibited itself, together with that mixture of boldness and craft which was to characterize his whole life. He first attacked the Roman patrician Syagrius, and, after putting him to death, settled himself at Soissons. His marriage with Clotilde, niece of Gondebaud, then king of the Burgundians (493), was a great matter. Clovis and the Franks were still Pagans ; Gondebaud and the Burgundians were Christians, but Arians ; Clotilde was a Catholic Christian. The consequences of the marriage justified before long the importance which had on all sides been attached to it. In 496 the Allemannians crossed the river and invaded the settlements of the Franks, Clovis went to the aid of his confederation, and attacked the Allemannians at Tolbiac, near Cologne. The battle was going ill ; the Franks were wavering and Clovis was anxious. Before setting out he had, it is said, promised his wife that if he were victorious he would turn Christian. The tide of battle turned : the Franks recovered confidence and courage ; and the Allemannians, beaten and seeing their king slain, surrendered themselves to Clovis, saying, " Cease, of thy grace, to cause any more of our people to perish ; for we are thine." The baptism of Clovis took place in the Cathedral of Reims on Christmas Day, 496. Clovis Avas not a man to omit turning his Catholic popularity to the account of his ambition. He learned that Gondebaud, disquieted, no doubt, at the conversion of his powerful neighbor, had just made a vain attempt, at a conference held at Lyons, to reconcile in his kingdom the Catholics and the Arians. Clovis suddenly entered Burgundy with his army. Gondebaud, betrayed and beaten at the first encounter at Dijon, fled to the south of his kingdom, and went and shut himself up in Avignon. Clovis pursued and besieged him there ; and having reduced him to the humble position of a tributary, he transferred to the Visigoths of Aquitania and their king, Alaric II., his views of conquest. The king of the Visigoths prepared for the struggle, and the two armies met a few leagues from Poitiers. The battle was severe, but Alaric II. was beaten, and Clovis pursued his march to Bordeaux, and settled there for the winter. Then he marched on to Toulouse? which he occupied v/ithout opposition. There his course of conquest was destined to end, for he halted at Tours, and stayed there for some time to enjoy the fruits of his victories and establish his power. It appears that even the Britons of Armorica at this time tendered him their subordination and homage, if not their acutal submission. Anastasius, emperor of the East, with whom he had already had some communication, sent to him at Tours a solemn embassy, bringing him the titles and insignia of patrician and :Si3] FRANCE.— CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL. 31 ^consul. On leaving the city of Tours Clovis repaired to Paris, where he fixed the seat of his government. Paris was certainly the political center of his dominions, the intermediate ■point between the early settlements of his race and himself in Gaul and his new Gallic conquests ; but he lacked some of the possessions nearest to him and most naturally, in his own opinion, his. To the east, north, and south- west of Paris were settled some independent Prankish tribes, governed by chieftains with the name of kings. So soon as he had settled at Paris it was the one fixed idea of Clovis to reduce them all to subjection. He had conquered the Burgundians and the Visigoths ; it remained for him to conquer and unite together all the Franks. So Clovis remained sole king of the Franks when all the independent chieftains had disappeared. In 511, the very year of his death, the last act of Clovis in life was the convocation at Orleans of a council, which bound the Church closely to the State, and gave to royalty, even in ecclesiastical matters, great power. The bishops, on breaking up, sent these canons to Clovis, praying him to give them the sanction of his adhesion, which he did. A few months afterward, on the 27th of November, 511, Clovis died at Paris. From A.D. 511 to A.D. 752, — that is, from the death of Clovis to the accession of the Carlovingians — is two hundred and forty-one years, which was the duration of the dynasty of the Merovingians. During this time there reigned twenty-eight Merovingian kings. Five of these kings, Clotaire I., Clotaire II., Dagobert I., Thierry IV., and Childeric III., alone, at different intervals, united under their power all the dominions possessed by Clovis or his successors. The other kings of this line reigned only over special kingdoms, formed by virtue of divers partitions at the death of their general possessor. From A.D. 511 to 638 five such partitions took place. Then a new division of the Frankish dominions took place, no longer into three, but two kingdoms, Austrasia being one, and Neustria and Burgundy the other. This was the definitive dismemberment of the great Frankish dominion to the time of its last two Merovingian kings, Thierry IV. and Childeric III., who were kings in name only, dragged from the cloister as ghosts from the tomb, to play a motionless part in the drama. For a long time past the real power had been in the hands of that valiant Austrasian family which was to furnish the dominions of Clovis with a new dynasty and a greater king than Clovis. The last of the kings sprung from Clovis acquitted themselves too ill or not at all of their task ; and the inayors of the palace were naturally summoned to supply their deficiencies, and to give the populations assurance of more intelligence and energy in the exercise of power. The last years of the Merovingian line were full of their struggles ; but a cause far more general and more powerful than these differences and conflicts in the very heart of the Frankish dominions determined the definitive fall of that line and the accession of another dynasty ; we allude to the great invasions of barbarians which took place during the sixth century. The first chief of these mayors of the palace known in history was 32 FRANCE.— CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL. [312 Pepin, of Lauden, who died in 639. His son was inglorious, but his grandson, by his daughter Biga, Pepin of Heristal, was for twenty-seven years the real sovereign of Austrasia and all the Frankish dominions under the title of duke. On the death of this Pepin, December i6th, 714, his son Charles, then twenty- five, was proclaimed Duke of Austrasia. He was destined to be known as Charles Martel. He repelled an invasion of the Frisons and Saxons, and then turned against the Neustrians, whom he twice defeated. The invasion of the Arabs soon placed Aquitania and Vasconia within his grasp. Eudes, or Eudon, duke of these provinces, had twice made a gallant effort to repel the formidable soldiers of the crescen* ; at last he sought assistance of the Franks, and repaired in all haste to Charles Martel to invoke his aid against the common enemy, who, after having crushed the Aquitanians, would soon attack the Franks, and subject them in turn to ravages and outrages. Charles did not require solicitation. He took an oath of the duke of Aquitania to acknowledge his sovereignty and thenceforth remain faithful to him ; and then, summoning all his warriors, he set himself in motion tOAvard the Loire. It was time. The Arabs had spread over the whole country between the Garonne and the Loire. Abdel-Rhaman, their chief, fixed his camp between the Vienne and the Clain, near Poitiers ; or according to others, nearer Tours, at Mire, in a plain still called the Landes de Charlemagne. The Franks arrived. It was in the month of September or October, 732, and the two armies passed a week face to face, at one time remaining in their camps, at another deploying without attacking. At the breaking of the seventh or eighth day, Abdel-Rhaman, at the head of his cavalry, ordered a general attack ; and the Franks received it with serried ranks, astounding their enemies by their tall stature, stout armor, and their stern immobility. The Franks, finally, had the advantage ; a great number of Arabs and Abdel- Rhaman himself were slain. At the approach of night both armies retired to their camps. The next day, at dawn, the Franks moved out of theirs, to renew the engagement ; the Arabs had decamped silently in the night. Then the great duke of Austrasia strengthened his power by occupying Burgundy and Provence. After this, while making use, at the expense of the Church and for political interests, of material force, Charles Martel was far from misunderstanding her moral influence, and the need he had of her support at the very time he was incurring her anathemas. Not content with defending Christianity against Islamism, he aided it against Paganism. Charles Martel had not time to carry out effectually, with respect to the papacy, this policy of protection and at the same time of independence ; he died at the close of this same year, October 22d, 741, aged fifty-two. Five years after the death of Charles Martel, in 746 in fact, Carloman, already weary of the burden of power, and seized with a fit of religious zeal, abdicated his share of sovereignty, left his dominions to his brother Pepin, and withdrew into Italy to the monastery of Monte Cassino. Pepin, less enterprising than his father, but judicious, persevering and capable of discerning what was at the same time necessary and possible, was 8i5] FRANCE.— CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL. 33 well fitted to continue and consolidate what he would probably never have begun and created. Like his father, he, on arriving at power, showed pretensions to moderation, or, it might be said, modesty. He, as well as his brother, had taken only the title of Mayor of the Palace at first, but at the end of ten years he obtained the sanction of Pope Zachary, and in March, 752, he was proclaimed king of the Franks. After Pepin had settled matters with the Church, and the warlike questions remaining for him to solve, he directed all his efforts toward the two countries which he longed to reunite to the Gallo-Frankish monarchy, — this is, Sephinania, still held by the Arabs, and Aquitania, the independence of which was defended by Duke Eudes' grandson ; and soon the conquest of all Southern Gaul extended the power and territory of his monarchy further and higher than it had yet ever been, even under Clovis. In 753 Pope Stephen, threatened by Astolphus, king of the Lombards, repaired to Paris, and asked the assistance of Pepin and his warriors. The Franks crossed the Alps with enthusiasm, succeeded in beating the Lombards, and shut up in Pavia King Astolphus, who was eager to purchase peace at any price. He obtained it on two principal conditions: 1st, That he would not again make a hostile attack on Roman territory or wage war against the pope or people of Rome ; 2d, That he would henceforth recognize the sovereignty of the Franks, pay them tribute, and cede forthwith to Pepin the towns and all the lands belonging to the jurisdiction of the Roman Empire Avhich were at that time occupied by the Lombards. Pepin disposed of them forthwith, in favor of the Popes, by that famous deed of gift which comprehended pretty nearly what has since formed the Roman States, and which founded the temporal independence of the papacy, the guarantee of its independence in the exercise of the spiritual power. Pepin had thus completed in France and extended in Italy the work which his father, Charles Martel, had begun and carried on, from 714 to 741, in State and Church. He left France reunited in one and placed at the head of Christian Europe. He died at the monastery of St. Denis, September i8th, 768, leaving his kingdom and his dynasty thus ready to the hands of his son. Pepin the Short divided his dominion between his two sons, Charles and Carloman, but an unexpected incident, the death of Carloman three years after, in 771, re-established unity. This Charles is known in history as Charlemagne. A summary of the wars of Charlemagne will here suffice. From 769 to 813, in Germany and Western and Northern Europe, Charlemagne conducted thirty-one campaigns against the Saxons, Frisons, Bavarians, Avars, Slavons, and Danes ; in Italy, five against the Lombards ; in Spain, Corsica, and Sardinia, twelve against the Arabs ; two against the Greeks, and three in Gaul itself, against the Aquitanians and the Britons ; in all, fifty-three expeditions, among which those he undertook against the Saxons, the Lombards, and the Arabs were long and difficult wars. 3 34 FRANCE.— CHRISTIANITY IN GAUL. [312 In 772, being left sole master of France after the death of his brother Carloman, he convoked at Worms the General Assembly and decided to invade Saxony. The principal events of the war may thus be summarily enumerated : Compulsory baptism of a large number of the Saxons M^ho had been driven beyond the Weser (774) ; diet of Paderborn ; all the chiefs send in their submission except Wittikind {^"J']']) ; victories of Badenfield and of Buckholtz (780) ; slaughter of forty-five hundred rebels at Verden (782) ; submission of Wittikind, who embraced Christianity (785). The conqueror could only finish his work of subjection by removing forcibly from the country ten thousand families, which he disseminated throughout Brabant and Switzerland (803). The new king of the Lombards, Didier, and the new pope, Adrian I., had entered upon a new war; and Didier was besieging Rome. In 773 Adrian invoked the aid of the king of the Franks. Charlemagne tried to obtain what the Pope demanded. When Didier refused, he at once convoked the general meetings of the Franks at Geneva in the autumn of 773, gained them over to the projected Italian expedition,, and then commenced the campaign with two armies. He finally took Pavia, where his father-in-law, Didier, had shut himself up, received the submission of all the Lombard dukes and counts, save one, and entered France with King Didier as prisoner, whom he banished to a monastery, *' Three years afterward, in 'j'jj, the Saracen chief Ibn-al-Arabi," says Eginhard, " came to Paderborn in Westphalia, to present himself before the king. He had arrived from Spain, together with other Saracens in his train,, to surrender to the king of the Franks himself and all the towns which the king of the Saracens had confided to his keeping. With the coming of the spring of the following year, 778, he obtained the full assent of his chief warriors and started on his march toward the Pyrenees. The expedition, however, begun under the most brilliant auspices, came to a melancholy conclusion, the rear guard of the Franks' army being cut to pieces in the passes of Roncesvalles on their return home. This disaster, and. the heroism of the warriors who perished there, became, in France the object of popular sympathy and the favorite topic for the exercise of the popular fancy. Although continually obliged to watch, and often still to fight, Charle- magne might well believe that he had nearly gained his end. He had everywhere greatly extended the frontiers of the Frankish dominions, and subjugated the populations comprised in his conquests. He had proved that his new frontiers would be vigorously defended against new invasions or dangerous neighbors. He had pursued the Huns and the Slavons to the confines of the Empire of the East, and the Saracens to the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The center of the dominion was no longer in ancient Gaul ; he had transferred it to a point not far from the Rhine, in the midst and within reach of the Germanic populations, at the town of Aix-la-Chapelle, which he had founded, and which was his favorite residence ; but the principal parts of the Gallo-Frankish kingdom, Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy, were effectu- ally welded in one single mass. 8i4j FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. 35 In 799 he received, at Aix-la-Chapelle, news of serious disturbances at Rome, but he remained all the winter at Aix-la-Chapelle, spent the first months of the year 800 on affairs connected with Western France, then journeying toward Italy, he arrived on the 23d of November, 800, at the gates of Rome. Some days were spent in examining into the grievances which had been set down to the pope's account, and in receiving two monks arrived from Jerusalem to present to the king, with the patriarch's blessing, the keys of the Holy Sepulcher and Calvary, as well as the sacred standard. Lastly, on the 25th of December, 800, " the day of the Nativity of our Lord," says Eginhard, " the king came into the Basilica of the blessed St. Peter, apostle, to attend the mass. At the moment M-hen he knelt before the altar Pope Leo placed on his head a crown, and all the Roman people shouted, " Long life and victory to Charles Augustus, crowned by God, the great and pacific emperor of the Romans ! " Charlemagne died at Aix-la-Chapelle on Saturday, the 28th of January, 814, in his seventy-first year. If we sum up his designs and his achievements, we find an admirably sound idea and a vain dream, a great success and a great failure. He took in hand the work of placing upon a solid foundation the Frankish Christian dominion by stopping, in the north and south, the flood of barbarians and Arabs, Paganism and Islamism. In that he succeeded : the inundations of Asiatic populations spent their force in vain against the Gallic frontier. Western and Christian Europe was placed, territorially, beyond reach of attacks from the foreigner and infidel. No sovereign, no human being, perhaps, ever rendered greater service to the civilization of the world. in. ROM the death of Charlemagne to the accession of Hugh Capet that — is, from 814 to 987 — thirteen kings sat upon the throne of France. What became of the solid territorial foundation of the kingdom of Christian France L through efificient repression of foreign invasion, and of the unity of that vast empire wherein Charlemagne had attempted and hoped to resuscitate the Roman empire ? The fate of those two facts is the very history of France under the Carlovingian dynasty ; it is the only portion of the events of that epoch which has exercised any great and lasting influence on the general history of France. Attempts at foreign invasion of France were renewed very often ; it were tedious to relate or even enumerate all the incur- sions of the Northmen, with their monotonous incidents. How- ever, there are three on which it may be worth while to dwell particularly, by reason of their grave historical consequences. 36 FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. [814 In the middle and during the last half of the ninth century, a chief of the Northmen, named Hastenc of Hastings, appeared several times over on the coasts and in the rivers of France, with numerous vessels. When he appeared before Paris he consented to stop his cruising, to become a Christian, and to settle in the courtship of Chartres, which the king gave him as an hereditary possession, with all its appurtenances. In November, 885, under the reign of Charles the Fat, the Northmen resolved to unite their forces in order, at length, to obtain possession of Paris. The siege was prolonged through the summer, and when, in November, 886, Charles the Fat at last appeared before the city, with a large army, it was to purchase the retreat of the foe at the cost of a heavy ransom. Some months afterward Charles the Fat was deposed, and Arnulf, a natural son of Carlo- man, the brother of Louis III., was proclaimed emperor in his stead. At the same time Count Eudes, the gallant defender of Paris, was elected king at Compiegne and crowned by the Archbishop of Sens. Guy, duke of Spoleto, was declared king at Langres, but he soon abandoned the hopeless task. In the midst of this confusion the Northmen, though they kept at a dis- tance from Paris, pursued in Western France their cruising and plundering. In RoUo they had a chieftain far superior to his vagabond predecessors. When, in 898, Eudes was dead, and Charles the Simple, at hardly nineteen years of age, had been recognized sole king of France, the ascendency of Rollo became such that the necessity of treating with him was clea,r. In 91 1 Charles, by the advice of his councillors, sent to the chieftain of the Northmen, Franco, to offer him the cession of a considerable portion of Neustria and the hand of his young daughter Gisele, on condition that he became a Christian, and acknowledged himself the king's vassal. The treaty was made at St. Clair- sur-Epte ; henceforth the vagabond pirates had a country to cultivate and defend; the Northmen were becoming French. The invasions of the Saracens in the south of France were still continued from time to time ; but they did not threaten, as those of the Northmen did in the north, the security of the Gallo-Frankish monarchy, and the Gallo- Roman populations of the south were able to defend their national indepen- dence at the same time against the Saracens and the Franks. They did so successfully in the ninth and tenth centuries ; and the French monarchy, which was being founded between the Loire and the Rhine, had thus for some time a breach in it without ever suffering serious displacement. Sub- stantially France was founded. When Louis the Debonnair became emperor he began his reign by a reaction against the excesses of the preceding reign. He established at his court, for his sisters as well as his servants, austere regulations. In 817 Louis summoned the General Assembly and declared that he had resolved to share with his eldest son, Lothaire, the imperial throne. This son was, in fact, crowned emperor ; and his two brothers, Pepin and Louis, were crowned kings. After the death of Hermangarde, his lirst wife, Louis had married Judith of Bavaria. In 823 he had by her a son known as Charles the Bald. 987] FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. 37 This son became his mother's ruHng, if not exclusive passion, and the source of his father's woes. In 829, during an assembly held at Worms, Louis set. at naught the solemn act whereby, in 817, he had shared his dominions among his three elder sons, and took away from two of them some of the territories he had assigned to them and gave them to the boy Charles for his share. Lothaire, Pepin and Louis thereupon revolted. Court intrigues were added to family differences ; for ten years scenes of disorder kept repeating them- selves again and again ; rivalries and secret plots began once more between the three victorious brothers and their partisans. Louis speedily convoked at Worms, in 839, once more and for the last time, a General Assembly, whereat, leaving his son Louis of Bavaria reduced to his kingdon in Eastern Europe, he divided the rest of his dominions into two nearly equal parts, separated by the course of the Meuse and the Rhone. Between these two parts he left the choice to Lothaire, who took the eastern portion, promising at the same time to guarantee the western portion to his younger brother Charles. Louis the Germanic protested against this partition, and took up arms to resist it. His father, the emperor, set himself in motion toward the Rhine, to reduce him to submission ; but on arriving close to Mayence he caught a violent fever, and died on the 20th of June, 840, at the castle of Ingelheim, on a little island in the river. Charles the Bald was to succeed, Lothaire retaining the imperial dignity; as a matter of fact me three sons equally aspired to the throne. Charles and Louis, having united for the purpose of resisting the ambition of their elder brother, defeated him in a terrible battle near the village of Fontenailles, six leagues from Auxerre. The Austrasian influence, till then triumphant in Gaul, perished there forever (841). The victorious princes subsequently con- firmed their union by what is generally called the oatJis of Straslmrg, a docu- ment regarded as the oldest specimen of the French language. Finally, in August, 843, the three brothers assembling with their umpires, at Verdun, they at last came to an agreement about the partition of the Frankish empire, save the three countries which it had been beforehand agreed to except. Thus disappeared in 843, by virtue of the treaty of Verdun, the second of Charlemagne's grand designs, the resuscitation of the Roman Empire. None of his successors was capable of exercising on the events of his times, by virtue of his brain and his own will, any notable influence. Twenty-nine years after the death of Charlemagne — that is, in 843 — when, by the treaty of Verdun, the sons of Louis the Debonnair had divided among them his dominions, the great empire split up into three distinct and inde- pendent kingdoms, the kingdoms of Italy, Germany, and France. The splits did not stop there. Forty-five years later, at the end of the ninth century, this empire had begotten seven instead of three kingdoms, those of France, of Navarre, of Provence, or Cis-juran Burgundy, of Trans-juran Burgundy, of Lorraine, of Allemannia, and of Italy. The same work was going on in France. About the end of the ninth century there were already twenty-nine provinces, or fragments of provinces, 38 FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. [ 814 which had become petty States, the former governors of which under the names of dukes, counts, marquises, and viscounts, were pretty nearly real sover- eigns. Twenty-nine great fiefs, which have played a special part in French history, date back to this epoch. From the end of the ninth pass we to the end of the tenth century, to the epoch when the Capetians take the place of the Carlovingians. Instead of seven kingdoms to replace the empire of Charlemagne, there were then no more than four. Overtures had produced their effects among the great States ; but in the interior of the kingdom of France dismemberment had held on its course, and instead of the twenty-nine petty States or great fiefs observable at the end of the ninth century, we find, at the end of the tenth, fifty-five actually established. Now go back to any portion of French history, and stop where you will, and you will everywhere find the feudal system considered by the mass of the population a foe to be fought down at any price. At all times, whoever dealt it a blow has been popular in France. The reason for this fact is in the political character of feudalism ; it was a confederation of petty sovereigns, of petty despots, unequal among them- selves, and having, one toward another, certain duties and rights, but invested in their own domains, over their personal and direct subjects, with arbitrary and absolute power. But when we consider the masters, the owners of fiefs, and their relations one with another, we see liberties, rights and guarantees, which not only give protection and honor to those who enjoy them, but of which the tendency and effect are to open to the subject population an outlet toward a better future. It was, as it were, a people consisting of scattered citizens, of whom each, ever armed, accompanied by his following, or intrenched in his castle, kept watch himself over his own safety and his own rights, rely- ino" far more on his OAvn courage and his own renown than on the protection of the public authorities. The society of the future was not slow to sprout and grow in the midst of that feudal system so turbulent, so oppressive, so detested. No sooner was the feudal system in force than, with its victory scarcely secured, it was attacked in the lower grades by the mass of the people attempting to regain certain liberties, ownerships and rights, and in the highest by royalty laboring to recover its public character, to become once more the head of a nation. And from this moment the enfranchisement of the people makes way, in spite of the weakness, or rather nullity, of the regal power at the same epoch. From the end of the ninth to the end of the tenth century two families were, in French history, the representatives and instruments of the two sys-. tems thus confronted and conflicted at that epoch, the imperial, which was falling, and the feudal, which was rising. After the death of Charlemagne, his descendants, to the number of ten, from Louis the Debonnair to Louis the Sluggard, strove obstinately, but in vain, to maintain the unity of the empire and the unity of the central power. In four generations, on the other hand, the descendants of Robert the Strong climbed to the head of feudal France. 987] FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. 39 On the 29th or 30th of June, 987, Hugh Capet was crowned kuig by the grandees of Prankish Gaul assembled at Senlis, and the dynasty of the Cape- tians was founded under the double influence of German manners and feudal connexions. He was one of the greatest chieftains of feudal society, duke of the country which was already called France, and count of Paris, that city which Clovis had chosen as the center of his dominions. The Carlovingian, Charles of Lorraine, vainly attempted to assert his rights ; but, after some gleams of success, he died in 992, and his descendants fell, if not into obscur- ity, at least into political insignificance. In vain, again, did certain feudal lords, especially in Southern Prance, refuse for some time their adhesion to Hugh Capet. When he died, on the 24th of October, 996, the crown, which he hesitated, they say, to wear on his own head, passed without obstacle to his son Robert, and the course which was to be followed for eight centuries, under the government of his descendants, by civilization in France, began to develop itself. It is worth while noticing that, far from aiding the accession of the new dynasty, the court of Rome showed herself favorable to the old, and tried to save it without herself becoming too deeply compromised. Such was, from 985 to 996, the attitude of Pope John XVI., at the crisis which placed Hugh Capet upon the throne. In spite of this policy on the part of the Papacy, the French Church took the initiative in the event, and supported the ncAv king. From 996 to 1 108 the first three successors of Hugh Capet, his son Rob- ert, his grandson Henry I., and his great-grandson Philip I., sat upon the throne of France; and during this long space of 112 years the kingdom of France had not, sooth to say, any history. Parcelled out betwen a multitude of princes, independent, isolated, and scarcely sovereigns in their own domin- ions, the France of the eleventh century existed in little more than name. One single event, the Crusade, united, toward the end of the century, those scattered sovereigns and peoples in one common idea and one combined action. In A.D. 1000, in consequence of the sense attached to certain words in the Sacred Books, many Christians expected the end of the world. Other facts, some more lamentable, began about this time to assume a place in French history. Piles of fagots were set up for the punishment of heretics ; some more salutary, for we find, about this epoch, the first efforts to establish in different parts of France what is called God's peace, God's truce. King Robert always showed himself favorable to this pacific work ; and he is the first among five kings who were distinguished themselves for kindness and anxiety for the popular welfare. Though not so pious or so good as Robert, his son, Henry I., and grandson, Philip I., were neither more energetic nor more glorious kings. During their long reigns (the former from 103 1 to 1060, and the latter from 1060 to I108) no important and well prosecuted design distinguished their government. Their public life was passed at one time in petty warfare, without decisive results, against such and such vassals ; 40 FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. [looo at another, in acts of capricious intervention in the quarrels of their vassals among themselves. Their home life was neither less irregular nor conducted with more wisdom and regard for the public interest. In the France of the middle ages, though practically crimes and disorders, moral and social evils abounded, yet men had in their souls and their imaginations loftier and purer instincts and desires ; their notions of virtue and their ideas of justice were very superior to the practice pursued around them and among themselves. To Christianity it was that the middle ages owed knighthood, that institution which, in the midst of anarchy and barbarism, gave a poetical and moral beauty to the period. It was feudal knighthood and Christianity together which produced the two great and glorious events of those times, the Norman conquest of England and the Crusades. From the time of Rollo's settlement in Normandy, the communica- tions of the Normans with England had become more and more frequent and important for the two countries. The conquest of England by William of Normandy properly belongs to English history, and we refer the reader thereto. Among the great events of European history none was for a longer time in preparation or more naturally brought about than the Crusades. Christianity, from her earliest days, had seen in Jerusalem her sacred cradle ; it had been, in past times, the home of her ancestors, the Jews, and the center of their history ; and, afterward, the scene of the life, death, and resurrection of her Divine Founder. Jerusalem became more and more the Holy City. To go to Jerusalem, to visit the Mount of Olives, Calvary, and the tomb of Jesus, was, in their most evil days and in the midst of their obscurity and their martyrdoms, a pious passion with the early Christians. Events, however, soon rendered the pilgrimage to Jerusalem difficult, and for some time impossible ; the Mussulmans, khalifs of Egypt or Persia, had taken Jerusalem ; and the Christians, native inhabitants or foreign visitors, continued to be ojjfh'essed, harassed, and humiliated there. The raising of the first crusade and the events attending its progress will be found fully discussed in the history of England. In the month of August, 1099, the Crusades, to judge by appear- ances, had attained its object. Jerusalem was in the hands of the Chris- tians, and they had set up in it a king, the most pious and most disinterested of the crusaders. Close to this ancient kingdom were grow- ing up likewise, in the two chief cities of Syria and Mesopotamia, Antioch and Edessa, two Christian principalities, in the possession of two crusader chiefs, Bohemond and Baldwin. A third Christian principality was on the point of getting founded at the foot of Libanus, at Trip- olis, for the advantage of another crusader, Bertrand, eldest son of Count Raymond of Toulouse. The conquest of Syria and Palestine seemed accom- plished, in the name of the faith, and by the armies of Christian Europe ; and the conquerors calculated so surely upon their fixture that, during 1147] FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. 41 his reign, short as it was (for he was elected king July 23d, 1099, ^"d died July 1 8th, 1 100, aged only forty years), Godfrey de Bouillon caused to be drawn up and published, under the title of Assizes of Jerusalem, a code of laws, which transferred to Asia the customs and traditions of the feudal system, just as they existed in France at the moment of his departure for the Holy Land. Forty-six years afterward, in 1145, the Mussulmans, under the leader- ship of Zanghi, sultan of Aleppo and of Mossoul, had retaken Edessa. Forty-two years after that, in 11 87, Saladin (Salah-el Eddyn), sultan of Egypt and Syria, had put an end to the Christian kingdom of Jeru- salem ; and only seven years later, in 1194, Richard Coeur de Lion, king of England, after the most heroic exploits in Palestine, on arriving in sight of Jerusalem, retreated in despair, covering his eyes with his shield, and saying that he was not worthy to look upon the city which he was not in a condition to conquer, A century had not yet rolled by since the triumph of the first crusaders, and the dominion they had acquired by conquest in the Holy Land had become, even in the eyes of their most valiant and most powerful successors, an impossibility. Nevertheless, repeated efforts and glory, and even victories, Avere not then, and were not to be still later, unknoAvn among the Christians in their struggle against the Mussulmans for the possession of the Holy Land. In the space of a hundred and seventy-one years, from the coro- nation of Godfrey de Bouillon as king of Jerusalem in 1099 to the death of St. Louis wearing the cross before Tunis in 1270, seven grand crusades were undertaken with the same design by the greatest sovereigns of Europe, The fourth and fifth of these have no connection with French history. During a reign of twenty-nine years Louis VL, called the Fat, son of Philip L, did not trouble himself about the East or the Crusades, at that time in all their fame and renown. When Louis VH, came to the throne, he for a time paid no attention to the Crusaders but busied himself with the internal affairs of his government until by way of expiating an act of cruelty, Louis joined with the Emperor Conrad HL in carrying on the second crusade, which was preached at Vezelay by the abbot of Clairvaux, the celebrated St, Bernard. Having each a strength, it is said, of 100,000 men, the two monarchs marched by Germany and the Lower Danube. The Emperor Conrad and the Germans first, and then King Louis and the French arrived at Constantinople in the course of the summer of 1147. Manuel Comnenus, grandson of Alexis Comnenus, was reigning there. Conrad was the first to cross into Asia Minor, and whether it was unskillfulness or treason, the guides with whom he had been supplied by Manuel Comnenus led him so badly that, on the 28th of October, 1 147, he was surprised and shockingly beaten by the Turks, near Iconium. King Louis and the majority of his knights continued their march across Asia Minor, and gained in Phrygia, at the passage of the river Meander, so brilliant a victory over the Turks that, 42 FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. [1148 *' if such men," says the historian Nicetas, " abstained from taking Constan- tinople, one can not but admire tlieir moderation and forbearance." But the success was short, and, ere long, dearly paid for. On entering Pisidia, the French army split up into several divisions, which scattered and lost themselves in the mountains. The Turks attacked them, and before long there was nothing but disorder and carnage. But they continued their march pell-mell, king, barons, knights, soldiers, and pilgrims, uncertain day or night what would become of them on the morrow. At last they arrived in Pamphilia at Satalia, a little port on the Mediterranean. Here Louis embarked with his queen and principal kinghts, and toward the end of March, 1148, arrived at Antioch, having lost more than three- quarters of his army. On approaching Jerusalem, in the month of April, 1148, Louis VH. saw coming to meet him King Baldwin UL, and the patriarch and the people singing, "Blessed be he that cometh in the name of the Lord ! " At the same time arrived from Constantinople the Emperor Conrad, ^ almost alone and in the guise of a simple pilgrim. All the remnant of the crusaders, French and German, hurried to join them. They decided upon the siege of Damascus. At the first attack, the ardour of the assailants and the brilliant personal prowess of their chiefs, of the Emperor Conrad among others, struck surprise and consternation into the besieged ; but the Turks rallied and repulsed the crusaders, who finally raised the siege and returned to Jerusalem. The Emperor Conrad in disgust set out at once for Germany. Louis prolonged his stay for more than a year without any results. Urged at length by his minister Suger he embarked at St. Jean d'Acre in July, 1149, and reached France in October. Suger, the abbot of St. Denis, had been opposed to the crusade, and denounced it with a freedom unique for his times ; but after- ward, in the king's absence, had administered the government with tact, firmness and disinterestedness for his sovereign and established order over all France. Almost at the very moment when Suger was dying, a French council, assembled at Beaugency, was annulling, on the ground of prohibited consanguinity, and with the tacit consent of the two persons most concerned, the marriage of Louis VH. and Eleanor of Aquitaine. Some months afterward, at Whitsuntide in the same year, Henry Plantagenet, duke of Normandy and count of Anjou, espoused Eleanor, thus adding to his already great possessions Poitou and Aquitaine, and becoming, in France, a vassal more powerful than the king his suzerain. Twenty months later, in 1154, at the death of King Stephen, Henry Plantagenet became king of England. Little more than a year after Suger, on the 20th of April, 11 53, St. Bernard died also. The two great men, of whom one had excited and the other opposed the second crusade, disappeared together from the theater of the world. The crusade had completely failed. After a lapse of scarce forty years a third crusade began. ii9o] FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. 43 In the course of the year 1 187, Europe suddenly heard tale upon tale about the repeated disasters of the Christians in Asia. On the 3d and 4th of July, near Tiberias, a Christian army was surrounded by the Saracens, and also, ere long, by the fire which Saladin had ordered to be set to the dry grass which covered the plain. Four days after, on the 8th of July, 1187, Saladin took possession of St. Jean d'Acre, and, on the 4th of September following-, of Ascalon. Finally, on the i8th of September, he laid siege to Jerusalem, wherein refuge had been sought by a multitude of Christian families, driven from their homes by the ravages of the infidels throughout Palestine ; and the Holy City contained at this time, it is said, nearly one hundred thousand Christians. The capitulation soon followed, and all Christians, however, with the exception of Greeks and Syrians, had orders to leave Jerusalem within four days. After the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, the Christians of the East, in their distress, sent to the West their most eloquent prelate and gravest historian, William, archbishop of Tyre. At a parliament assembled at Gisors, on the 2ist of January, 1188, and at a diet convoked at Mayence on the 27th of March following, he so powerfully affected the knighthood of France, England, and Germany, that the three sovereigns of these three States, Philip Augustus, Richard Coeur de Lion, and Frederick Barbarossa, engaged with acclamation in a new crusade. The eldest, Frederick Baj-barossa, was first ready to plunge among the perils of the crusade. Starting from Ratisbonne about Christmas, 1189, with an army of one hundred and fifty thousand men. he traversed the Greek empire and Asia Minor, defeated the Sultan of Iconium, passed the first defiles of Taurus, and seemed to be approaching the object of his voyage, when, on the loth of June, 1190, having arrived at the borders of the Selef, a small river which throws itself into the Mediterranean close to Seleucia, he determined to cross it by fording, was seized Avith a chill, and, according to some, drowned before his people's eyes, but, according to others, carried dying to Seleucia, where he expired. His young son Conrad, duke of Suabia, was not equal to taking the command of such an army ; and it broke up. On the 24th of June, 1190, Philip Augustus went and took the oriflamme at St. Denis, on his way to Vezelai, where he had appointed to meet Richard, and whence the two kings, in fact, set out, on the 4th of July, to embark with their troops, Philip at Genoa and Richard at Marseilles. The exploits of Philip and Richard are given in the History of England. The third crusade ended in complete failure. The three armies, at the moment of departure from Europe, amounted to between five hundred thousand and six hundred thousand men, of whom scarcely one hundred thousand ever returned, and the only result of the third crusade was to leave as head over all the most beautiful provinces of Mussulman Asia and Africa, Saladin, the most illustrious and most able chieftain, in war and politics, that Islamry had produced since Mahomet. 44 FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. [1200 From the end of the twefth to the middle of the thirteenth century it is usual to count three crusades, but with two of them we have no dealing. At the beginning of the thirteenth century, while the enterprises which were still called crusades were becoming more and more degenerate in character and potency, there was born in France, on the 25th of April, 121 5, not merely the prince, but the man who was to be the most worthy representative and the most devoted slave of that religious and moral passion which had inspired the crusades. Louis IX., though born to the purple, a powerful king, a valiant warrior, a splendid knight, and an object of reverence to all those who at a distance observed his life, and of affection to all those who approached his person, was neither biassed nor intoxicated by any such human glories and delights ; he had an ambition to be, and was, to the measure of his age, a true Christian. This is the peculiar and original characteristic of St. Louis, and a fact rare and probably unique in the history of kings. In the first years of his government, when he had reached his majority, there was nothing to show that the idea of the crusade occupied Louis IX. 's mind; and it was only in 1239, when he was now four and twenty, that it showed itself vividly in him. Five years afterward, at the close of 1244, Louis fell seriously ill at Pontoise, and, having recovered, took the cross in consequence of a vow he had made to that effect. At last, in January, 1248, he took leave of his mother, Queen Blanche, whom he left a regent during his absence with fullest power. He took his wife. Queen Marguerite, of Provence, with him. In the early part of August he had assembled at Aigues-Mortes a fleet of thirty- eight vessels and a number of transports, which he had hired of the republic of Genoa to convey the troops and personal retinue of the king to the East ; he sent away nearly ten thousand bowmen, Genoese, Venetian, Pisan, and even French, whom he had at first engaged, and of whom, after inspection, he desired nothing further. The sixth crusade was the personal achievement of St. Louis, not the offspring of a popular movement, and he carried it out with a picked army. The Isle of Cyprus was the trysting-place appointed for all the forces of the expedition. Louis arrived there on the 12th of September, 1248, and reckoned upon remaining there only a few days ; for it was Egypt that he was in a hurry to reach. The French, however, left the island only in May, 1249, and, in spite of violent gales of wind, which dispersed a large number of vessels, they arrived on the 4th of June before Damietta, which was taken without the least difficulty. The Mussulmans had found time to recover from their first fright and to organize, at all points, a vigorous resistance. On the 8th of February, 1250, a battle took place twenty leagues from Damietta, at Mansourah {the city of victory), on the right bank of the Nile. The king's brother, Robert, count of Artois, marched with the vanguard, and obtained an early success. Elated by this result, he rushed forward into the town, where he found the Mussulmans numerous and perfectly rallied. In a GAY^S CHRON SHOWING A CONNECTED HISTORY OF THE WORLD GAUL (Germany and France). 656— CLOVIS II. king of France. 687— THIERY defeated by PEPIN. 681— MEBROUIN, the last of the Merovingian kings, 714 -CHARLES MARTEL duke of France. 7 3 jj— Battle of Poitiers; Franks gain victory over Saracens. 739 -Provence conquered by CHARLES MARTEL. 747— CARLOMaN abdicates the throne of France. 768— CHARLEMAGNE and CARLOMAN govern France and Germany. 771— CHARLEMAGNE sole ruler. 774— Italy annexed after defeating the Lombards. 778— Beginning of the age of chivalry ; CHARLE- MAGNE invades Spain. 78 5 -Saxons subdued ; embrace Christianity. 79y -CHARLEMAGNE subdues Avas. 800— CHARLEMAGNE crowned at Rome emperor of the West. ENGLAND. 603— Bernieia invaded by the Scots; invaders ex- pelled. 642— Mercians defeat Bernicians. 678— TJae Uf,i ,dng of the Britons. 685— Britons driven into Wales and Cornwall by the Saxons. 687 — Wessexand Sussex united. 694- Kent ravaged by West Saxons. 755— Insurrection in Mercia. 756— Bavina annexed to the see of Rome by PEPIN. 787 — Danes land in England. SCOTLAND. 685— Scots under some kind of subjection to the king of Northumbria ; recover independence on the defeat and death of King EGFRID in battle vsrith the Picts at Nechtansmere. IRELAND. 624— DONALD II. began to reign. 640— CONAL and KILLACT. 656— DERMID and BLATHMAC. 663— SHAN ASAGH. 669— KINFALA. 673— FINACTA. 693— LOINGSECT. 701— COMGAL. 708— FEARGHUL. 718— Battle of Almhaim ; king killed. 718-733-Tlireekings; Hugh V. 739— DONALD I. 759— NEAL FEARSAGH. 776-797— DONOGH I. 797— HUGH VI. OTHER NATIONS. 600— Italy overrun by Sclavonians. 611— Persian conquest in Syria, Egypt and Asia Mi- nor ; Rome besieged by thein. 612 — Persecution of Jews in Spain. 614— Jerusalem captured by Persians. 622— Mlediua entered by MOHAMMED ; the Hegira. 630— MOHAMMED acknowledged as prophet. 632 — He dies ; Mohammedanism spreads to Persia. 638— Saracens conquer Syria. 640— Alexandrian library burned. 6.53 — Tlie Saracens take Rhodes. [Italy. 666-CONSTANS II. defeated by the Lombards m 668 - Saracens besiege Constantmople. 672 -Saracens driven out of Spain. 678— Bulgaria founded in Northern Greece. 697— ANAFESTO first doge of Venice. [Bulgarians. 711 — Arabs invade Spain ; Eastern Empire ravaged by 712 — Aralts establish an empire in Spain. 716 — Ootltic monarchy founded in Greece. 720— Saracens defeated at Constantinople- 730— Emperor LEO excommunicated by Pope GREGORY II., who died 731. 791 — ALFONSE, the Chaste, reigns in Spain ; independ- ence of Christians established. 801—1001. GERMANY. 843 — Tlie treaty of Verdun ; the sons oi Louis divide the empire ; Germany a separate kingdom. 934— HENRY I. defeats the Danes. 951— OTHO invades Italy. 962— OTHO the Great emperor ; union with Italy. 982— OTHO III. defeated by Saracens and Greeks. 996— OTHO III. makes German empire elective. FRANCE. 830 — LOUIS, the Debonnair, imprisoned in France. 843 — A separate kingdom. 848— Independence of Brittany. 851- Northmen umive an incursion into France. 858— I4-ingdom of Navarre established. 87.5 — CH/iKLES the Bald becomes emperor. 888— Paris attacked by Northmen. 911— Deatlxof LOUIS the Child; extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty. [Normandy. 912— ROLLO, the Northman, created Robert, duke of 939— HUGH CAPET, of Paris, subdued by Louis IV. 978— OTHO II. invades France. 823- 825 827- 871- 878- 890- 901 920 937 979- 836- - Essex annexed to Wessex. Kent and Northumbria annexed to Wessex. -EGBERT becomes king of all England. -ALFRED defeated by the Danes at Merton. -ALFRED the Great driven out of England. -ALFRED the Great promulgates a code and fri'inds the University of Oxford. -Deatll of ALFRED. -Mercia annexed to Wessex by Edward. -A f HiiLSTANE becomes chief king. -EDWARD the Martyr murdered. -KENNETH, son of Alpine, descendant of FER- GUS and AIDEN, is king ; in Northern Britain Scots acquire predominance by a revolution. 881 — Danes overrun Scotland ; Picts and Scots grad- ually coalesce ^^SS'S^.^S^^m^W^^mms^--. 802-830— Kepeated raids of the Danes and Scandi- navians for plunder. 819— CORNORII. 833 — Dublin taken by Danes ; continual war. 845— MALaCHY I. 860-HUGHVII. 877-Ff.A\'N of Shannon. 883— NEAL III. 893— Dublin recovered by the I visa. 912— Invasion of the Northmen. 913— Dublin taken by them. 916— DONOGH, son of FLANN SINNA ; repeated repulses of the Danes. 942— CONGAL, who was killed by the Danes in 954 ; he was succeeded by DONNEL O'NEIL, and he by MALACHY II. 948— Danes converted to Christianity. [AN. 990-1001— War between MALACHY II. and BRI- 807 — War between Peloponnesians and slaves. 843-4 Spain ravaged by the Northmen. 846— Rome sacked by the Saracens. 850— RUSSIC establishes the Russian monarchy. 865 -Constantinople attacked by Russians. 867— Bassillian i..> nasty established at Constantino- ple. 869— 0— ilENRY IV, takes Mantua. J8 — War between France and England. 1100-1200. Medley AL History. 1 147— CONR.AD III. joins the crusades; army destro}\v:. 1154-1177— Wars between Italic republics auJ FREDERICK I. 11 62 -Milan dcstn.vcd by FREDERICK I. 1167— FREDERICK 'I. takes Rome; Italian league. 1176— FREDERICK I. (.Barbarosa) defeated by the Lombard leagrue. 1 190- Order of Teutonic Knights established ; death of K.xRBAROSA. 1 1 8 .» - Amiens and Valois annexed to France. 1 1 80 — Kngland, France and Germany unite in third crusade ; siege of Acre. 1191 — Artois annexed to France. 02 — Danes massacred in Englcnd. 03— ETHELRED flees to Normandy. 13— England conquered by SWEYN. 16— England divided between CAISfUTE and ED- MUND IRONSIDES. 17— CANUTE, the Dane, sole king. 42— The Sa-\on dynasty restored. 51— GODFREY of Kent rebels. 66— WILLIAM of Normandy conquers England ; bat- tle of Hastings. 70 — Feudal system introduced. 86 — Census completed ; Doomsday book. 33— ATHELSTANE of England ravages Scotland ; battle of Brunan-burh ; CONSTANTINE, the king, escapes • his son is killed. 68— CONSTANTINE dies; a portion of the Cambrian kingdom restored to MALCOLM by EDWARD of England. 39— MACBETH murders DUNCAN I. i41— Danes driven out. lOl— BRIATJ deposes MALACHY U. 1 10— Peace with the Danes. il2 — Another invasion of the Northmen. il3 — Defeat of the Northmen ; Danish power broken. lis — War of the succession, which lasted till the time of STRONGBOW. There were in this time seven crownless kings. 195— Pestilence in Ireland. >07— The Russians receive tribute from Constantino- ple. )88— VLADIMIR of Russia embraces Christianity. )1 5— Russia divided at death of VLADIMIR. )19 -Moors enter Spain. )26— Kingdom of Castile founded. )35 — K-Ingdom of Aragon founded. )37— IjCon a-id Castile united. )40— Eastern Empire regains Sicily and loses Servia. >43— Uussians defeated at Constantinople. [)6 5 -Turks capture Rome. [)9.5 — Portugal becomes a separate p)ower. 996— The first crusade begins. [)99-GODFREY DE BOUILLON takes Jerusalem. 1100— HENRY I. grants a charier restoring Saxon laws. 1106— HENRY defeats ROBERT .ind gains Normandy. 1135— Civil war between STEPHEN and Empress MAUDE, HENRY'S daughter. 1147 — M.*. UDE defeated and goes to France. 1154— HENRY 11. the first Phmtagenet. 1 1 62— Constitutions of Clarendon. 1170— THO;viA.S-A-BECKET murdered. 1 1 72— Ireland conquered. 1177 — For the administration of justice, England divid- ed in six circuits, 1181- Digest of English laws. 1189— Massacre of Jews in London. 1191— RICHARD loins the crusades. 1194— RICHARD Cceur de Lion imprisoned in Ger- many ; ransomed for three hundred thousand pounds. 1101— North of Ireland devastated by MORTOUGH. 1114— MORTOUGH resigns. 1118— RORY O'COXXOkdied. 1141— Massac i-ebv DERMOD MAC DURROUGH. 1166— DERMOIJ ill England to seek aid. 1169— English! and in Ireland ; marriage of STRONG- BOW with EVA. 1171— HENRY of England lands in Ireland. 1172— Ireland conquered by tiie English. 1175— The decree of the council of St. Michael ; Irish, king pays tribute to England. 1 104— Capture of Acre. 1 1 06— Mlla a free republic. 1 122— Trc^ity <>{ Worms between emperor and pope. 1 1 39— Porlia'gal becomes a kingdom. 1 143 — Moors r.oelled in Spain. 1146-8— Second crusade; France and Germany de- feated ; Greece plundered. 1 1 59— "IVars of Guelphs and Ghibellines. 1 1 72-Grcat conquests by SALADIN. 1183— Peace of Constance; free cities established in Italv. 1187— Jerusalem taken by SALADIN. 1191— Kingdom of Cyprus founded ; Acre capture:' ; Jerusalem open to pilgrims. CHART IV. FROM 600 TO 1200 AD. Gri. AY^S CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS, SHOWING A COInNECTED HISTORY OF THE WORLD,. ANflENT AND MODERN, FROM 2800 B.C. TO 1884 A.D. 600-800. GAUL (Germany and France). (;.',(■. «S7 «81 714 7:i'Z 747 70S 771 771 7/H 78.-, 71)1) 800 rr,OVIS II. kin»,' of Prance. -TIIII'.Ky defeated by I'liPIN MJ'.liHOUIN, tlie )a.stof the jMcrovingian kings, ,•, .■,;r,M.i;.ird, -CHAKI.I-.'. ;.] ARTEL duke of France, Itiilll)' "( l'"itier»; Franks gain victory over ,;: ,„,. rrrl byCHAKI.KS MARTEL. , ,i/ii. ,1, , ifie throne of France. ,1 \<, ,l', .ill. I CARLO.MA.N govern I'rovcii CAKI.'i .1 CMAKI.:. I'; ni MNli crowned at Rome emperor of the West. ENGLAND. 6011 B<'i-iilclii iiiv.idcd l)y the Scots; invaders ex- O'l'i 078 onr, «8 7 «))'! ' 7 ■IrltoiiN 1 (Kfeat Hernicians. II'' of tlie Hritons. In veil into Wales and Cornwall by H'cMHCV iiid Sussex united. Kciil i,iv;i;;iil by West Saxons. liiNiii-r<'<-ti<>il In Mcrcia. Kii villi! annexed to the .see of Rome by PEPIN. UaiiUN land in EnKland. ,,1 78 IJCOTLAND. *{ "-CSS tivnlH iiiulir some kind of subjection to the king ■ '' of Nortliumbria ; recover independence on the ; defeat ami death of King EflKRIU in battle with the Picts at Ncclitansmcre. IRELAND. Gil DONAl.l) 11. began foreign. (MO CONAl.aml KII.I.ACT. «r,« DI'.UMII) mid lU.ATHMAC. mi.t SIIANASACai. (i(il> KINl'Al.A. HT.t 1'1NA( TA. 4{)i:t I.(I1N(;SECT. 701 COMCAI.. 708 l'l',AR(;iIUL. 7 I 8 ItiiKlo of Ahnhaim ; king killed. 71S 7;t:i TlirookiiiKS; Hugh V. 7;i1» DDNAl.D I. 751) NICAI, I'-I'-.AKSAC.H. 770 71)7 l>ON()(;il 1. 707 iiu(;h VI. 0TH1':R NATIONS. 000- Italy overrun by Selavonians. 01 1 -Poriilan eomincst in Syria, Egypt i»nd Asia Mi- nor ; Rome lusieged by lliem. Cia-Porxofiillou of Jews in Spain. «ll ii-.ii , oas f 6 10 GOO oos Jfi-llwaloiii iipuired by Persians. ITItMliiiii \aii ('oiixtnntiliople attacked by Russians. 807— UaNsillian i .. .usty established at Constantino- 869— iiKtllullonNof Clarendon. 1 1 70 1 I lO.M \,s-A-liKCKET murdered. I 172 Brclaitd conquered. 1 177 — l''or ilie adininistration of justice, Engl.ind divid- id in si\ cireiiils. I I 8 1 - DltfONt oi iMiKlish laws. 1 189- Massaerc of jews in London. 1191-RlLHAK I) join's the crusades. 1194— RICHARD Ca-ur dc Lion imprisoned in Ger- many ; ransomed for three hundred Ihousand pounds. 1101- North of Ireland devast.iled by MORTOUGH. 1114 -MORl'OUC.Il resigns. 1 I 18 -RORY O'fOXNOR died. 1141 massacre I. V DICRMODMAC DURROUGH. 1100 DKKMOI) III ICngland to seek aid. 1109-l!:nu:llHlil nul ill Ireland ; marriage of STRONG- IKIW with EVA. 1171 I MCN RY of ICngland lands in Ireland. 1 1 72 Ireland cominered by the English. 1175-Tlie decree of the council of Si. Mieh.iel ; Irish. king pays tribute to England. 1 1 01-Capturc of Acre. 1 lOO-mila a free republic. 1 1 22 Tre'ity of Worms between emperor and pope. 1 1 39 - Porlii'^al becomes a kingdom. 1 143- moiMN i-.iielled in Spain. 1146-8 Srroiid crusade; France and Germany de- fe:ii'-(i ; (irecce plundered. 1 159-AVars of Guelplis and Ghibcllincs. 1 172 -Great conquests by SALADIN. 1183— Peaecof Constance; free cities cs'abljshed in Italv. 1187— Jerusalem t.ikcn by SALADIN. 1191— Kin^fdom of Cyprus founded ; Acre capture:! ; Jerusalem open to pilgrims. CHART IV. FROM 600 TO 1200 AD. Designed for Gay's Standard Historirs. by WTLUAM GAY & Co., 256 Chapel St., Kew Haven. Conn. COPYEIGHT 1883. AP\>- f :•;. % 1263] FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. 45 few moments the count of Artois fell pierced with wounds, and more than three hundred knights of his train, the same number of English, together with their leader, William Longsword, and two hundred and eighty Templars, paid with their lives for the senseless ardor of the French prince. The French rallied and drove off their foes. The battle-field was left that day to the crusaders ; but they were not allowed to occupy it as conquerors, for three days afterward, on the nth of February, 1250, the camp of St. Louis was assailed by clouds of Saracens. An attempt was made by the French king to negotiate with the enemy, but to no purpose, and on the 5th of April, 1250, the crusaders decided to retreat. But during this retreat, says Joinville, " there took place a great mishap. A traitor of a sergeant, whose name was Marcel, began calling to our people, ' Sir knights, surrender, for such is the king's command : cause not the king's death.' All thought that it was the king's command ; and they gave up their swords to the Saracens." Being forthwith declared prisoners, the king and all the rear guard were removed to Mansourah, the king by boat and his two brothers, the counts of Anjou and Poitiers, and all the other crusaders, drawn up in a body and shackeled, followed on foot on the river-bank. The advance guard and all the rest of the army soon met the same fate= A negotiation was opened between Louis and the Sultan Malek-Moaddam, Avho, having previously freed him from his chains, had him treated with a certain magnificence. The king was awaiting aboard his ship for the payment which his people were to make for the release of his brother, the count of Poitiers ; and when he saw approaching a bark on which he recognized his brother, " Light up ! light up ! " he cried instantly to his sailors ; which was the signal agreed upon for setting out. And leaving forthwith the coast of Egypt, the fleet which bore the remains of the Christian army made sail for the shores of Palestine. The king, having arrived at St. Jean d'Acre on the 14th of I\Iay, 1250, accepted, without shrinking, the trial imposed upon him by his unfortunate situation. Twice he believed he was on the point of accomplishing his desire — the recovery of the Holy Sepulcher from the Mussulmans, and the re- establishment of the kingdom of Jerusalem. At the commencement of the year 1253, at Sidon, he heard that his mother. Queen Blanche, had died at Paris on the 27th of November, 1252. This melancholy news induced him to return to Europe ; he embarked at St. Jean d'Acre, on the 24th of April, 1254, and arrived, after a stormy passage, on the 8th of July. Passing slowly through France he entered Paris the 7th of September, 1254. For seven years after his return to France, from 1254 to 1261, Louis seemed to be in a continual ferment of imagination and internal fever, ever flattering himself that some favorable circumstance would call him back to his interrupted work. In 1263, the crusade was openly preached ; taxes were levied, even on the clergy, for the purpose of contributing toward it ; and princes and barons bound themselves to take part in it. Louis was all approval and encouragement, without declaring his own intention. In 1267 a parliament was convoked at Paris. Next year, on the 9th of February, 46 FRANCE.— THE CARLOVINGIANS. [1270 a new parliament assembled at Paris ; the king took an oath to start in the month of May, 1270. Saint Louis left Paris on the i6th of March, 1270, a sick man almost already, but with soul content, and probably the only one without misgiving in the midst of all his comrades. It was once more at Aigues-Mortes that he went to embark. All was as yet dark and undecided as to the plan of the expedition. At last, on the 2d of July, 1270, he set sail without any one's knowing and without the king's telling any one whither they were going. It was only in Sardinia, after four days' halt at Cagliari, that Louis announced to the chiefs of the crusade, assembled aboard his ship, the Mountjoy, that he was making for Tunis, and that their Christian work would commence there. But on the 17th of July, when the fleet arrived before Tunis, the admiral, Florent de Varennes, probably without the king's orders, and with that want of reflection which was conspicuous at each step of the enterprise, immediately took possession of the harbor and of some Tunisian vessels as prize. Thus war was commenced at the very first moment against the Mussulman prince whom there had been a promise of seeing before long a Christian. On the 3d of August Louis was attacked by the epidemic fever, and obliged to keep his bed in his tent ; the illness soon took an unfavorable turn, and no hopes of recovery could be entertained. During the night of the 24th-25th of August he ceased to speak, all the time continuing to show that he was in full possession of his senses, and on Monday, the 25th of August, 1270, at 3 P. M., he departed in peace while uttering these last words : " Father, after the example of the Divine Master, into thy hands I commend my spirit ! " IV. T the first glance, two facts strike us in the history of the kingship in France. It was in France that it adopted soonest and most persistently maintained its fundamental principle, heredity ; only in France was there, at any time during eight centuries, but a single ^^ king and a single line of kings. Unity and heredity, those two essential principles of monarchy, have been the invariable characteristics of the kingship in France. A second fact, less apparent and less remarkable, but, nevertheless, not without importance or without effect upon the history of the kingship in France, is the extreme variety of character, of faculties, of intellectual and moral bent, of policy and personal conduct among the French kings. Absolute monarchical power in France Avas, almost in every successive reign, singularly modified, being at one time aggravated and at another alleviated, according to the ideas, sentiments, morals, and spontaneous instincts of the monarchs. Nowhere else, throughout the great European monarchies, has the difference between kingly personages exercised so much influence on government and national condition. In that country the free action of individuals has filled a prominent place and taken a prominent part in the course of events. Louis did not direct to a distance from home his ambition and his efforts ; it was within his own dominion, to check the violence of the strong against the weak, to put a stop to the quarrels of the strong among themselves, to make an end, in France at least, of unrighteousness and devastation, and to establish there some sort of order and some sort of justice, that he displayed his energy and his perseverance. Sometimes, when the people and their habitual protectors, the bishops, invoked his aid, Louis would carry his arms beyond his own dominions, by sole right of justice and kingship. " It is known," says Suger, " that kings have long hands." Twice, in 1 109 and in 11 16, he had war in Normandy with Henry I., king of England, and he therein was guilty of certain temerities resulting in a reverse, which he hastened to rapair during a vigorous prosecution of the campaign ; but, when once his honor was satisfied, he showed a ready inclination for the peace which the pope, Calixtus II., in council at Rome, succeeded in ■establishing between the two rivals. The war with the emperor of Germany, 48 FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. [1124. Henry V., in 1124, appeared, at the first blush, a more serious matter. France summoned the flower of her chivalry, and at the news of this mighty host, and of the ardor with which they were animated, the Emperor Henry V. advanced no farther, and, before long, " marching, under some pretext, toward other places, he preferred the shame of retreating like a coward to the risk of exposing his empire and himself to certain destruction. After this victory, which was more than as great as a triumph on the field of battle, the French returned every one to their homes." A marriage between Eleanor and Louis the Young, already sharing his father's throne, was soon concluded : it took place at Bordeaux, at the end of July, 1 137, and on the 8th of August following Louis the Young, on his way back to Paris, was crowned at Poitiers as duke of Aquitaine. He there learned that the king his father had lately died, on the ist of August. In spite of its long duration of forty-three years, the reign of Louis VII., called the Young, was a period barren of events and of persons worthy of keeping a place in history. So long as Suger lived the kingship preserved at home the wisdom which it had been accustomed to display, and abroad the respect it had acquired under Louis the Fat ; but at the death of Suger it went on languishing and declining without encountering any great obstacle. Philip II., to whom history has preserved the name of Philip Augustus, given him by his contemporaries, had shared the crown, been anointed, and married Isabel a year before the death of Louis VII. put him in possession of the kingdom. He soon let it be seen that he intended to reign by himself, and to reign with vigor. He made the extension and territorial connection of France the one chief aim of his life, and in that work he was successful. Out of the forty-three years of his reign, twenty-six at least were war years devoted to this purpose. Philip Augustus, once in possession of the personal power as well as the title of king, it was, from 1187 to 12 16, against three successive kings of England, Henry II., Richard Coeur de Lion, and John Lackland, masters of the most beautiful provinces of France, that Philip directed his persistent efforts. They were in respect of power, of political capacity, and military popularity, his most formidable foes ; he managed, however, to hold his own against them ; and when, after Richard's death, he had to do with John Lackland, he had over him, even more than over his brother Richard, immense advantages. He made such use of them that after six years' struggling, from 1199 to 1205, he deprived John of the greater part of his French possessions — Anjou, Normandy, Touraine, Maine, and Poitou. The king of France thus recovered possession of nearly all the territories which his father, Louis VII., had kept but for a moment. He added in succession other provinces to his dominions ; in such wise that the kingdom of France was much increased on all sides. In 1206 the territorial work of Philip Augustus was well nigh completed ; but his wars were not over. John Lackland when worsted kicked against the pricks, and was incessantly hankering, in his antagonism to the king of £153] FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. 49 France, after hostile alliances and local conspiracies, easy to hatch amono- certain feudal lords discontented with their suzerain. Being on intimate .terms with his nephew, Otho IV., emperor of Germany and the foe of Philip Augustus, he urged him to prepare for a grand attack upon the king of France, and the two aUies had won over to their coalition some of his most important vassals, among others, Renaud de Dampierre, count of Boulogne. The invasion of England, boldly attempted by Philip, proved a failure. On the 8th of April, 12 13, he convoked, at Soissons, his principal vassals or allies, explained to them the grounds of his design against the king of England, and they bound themselves to support him. Only one vassal refused to join him, Ferrand, count of Flanders. The war between Philip on one side and Ferrand and England on the other has already been chronicled in our history •of England. It ended by the battle of Bouvines, on Sunday, July 27th, 12 14, with a victory for the French. The victory of Bouvines marked the com- ^mencement of the time at which men might speak, and indeed did speak, by •one single name, of tJie French. The nation in France and the kingship in France on that day rose out of and above the feudal system. Philip Augustus was about the same time apprised of his son Louis' success on the banks of the Loire. The incapacity and swaggering insolence of King John had made all his Poitevine allies disgusted with him ; he had been obliged to abandon his attack upon the king of France in the provinces, and the insurrection, growing daily more serious, of the English barons and clergy for the purpose of obtaining Magna Charta, was preparing for him other reverses. He had ceased to be a dangerous rival to Philip. The organization of the kingdom, the nation, and the kingship in France was not the only great event and the only great achievement of that epoch. At the same time that this political movement was going on in the State, a religious and intellectual ferment was making head in the Church and in men's minds ; in the course of this active and salutary participation in the affairs of the world, the Christian clergy lost somewhat of their primitive and proper character. And, at the same time, in addition to this outburst of piety, igno- rance was decried and stigmatized as the source of the prevailing evils ; the function of teaching was included among the duties of the religious estate. Activity and freedom of thought were developing at the same time that fervent faith and piety were. The struggle of Abelard with the Church of Northern France and the crusade against the Albigensians in Southern France are divided by much more than diversity and contrast ; there is an abyss between them. In North- ern France, in spite of internal disorder and through the influence of its bishops, missionaries, and monastic reformers, the orthodox Church had obtained a decided superiority and full dominion ; but in Southern France, on the contrary, all the controversies, all the sects, and all the mystical or philo- sophical heresies which had disturbed Christendom from the second century to the ninth, had crept in and spread abroad. For half a century after the death of St. Bernard in 11 53 the orthodox 4 50 FRANCE.- -THE KINGSHIP. [1153 Church was several times engaged in crusades against the Albigensians of Southern France. Innocent III. at first employed against them only spiritual weapons, but after the murder of his legate, Peter de Castelnau, he began to proceed to extremities. The crusades against the Albigensians, which he sanctioned, were striking applications of two pernicious principles, denial of religious liberty to conscience and of political independence to States. It was by virtue of these two principles, at that time dominant, that Innocent III., in 1208, summoned the king of France, the great lords and the knights, and the clergy, secular and regular, of the kingdom to assume the cross and go forth to extirpate from Southern France the Albigensians — " worse than the Saracens." Through all France, and even outside of France, the passions of religion and ambition were aroused at this summons. Twelve abbots and twenty monks of Citeaux dispersed themselves in all directions preaching the crusade ; and lords and knights, burghers and peasants, laymen and clergy, hastened to respond. These crusaders were passionately ardent and persevering. The war lasted twenty-one years (from 1208 to 1229) and the two leading spirits, one ordering and the other executing. Pope Innocent III. and Simon de Montfort, neither saw the end of it. During these twenty-one years, in the region situated between the Rhone, the Pyrenees, the Garonne, and even the Dordogne, nearly all the towns and strong castles were taken, lost,, retaken, given over to pillage, sack and massacre, and burnt by the crusaders with all the cruelty of fanatics and all the greed of conquerors. Innocent III. had promised the crusaders the enjoyment of the domains they might win by conquest from princes who were heretics or protectors of heretics. After the capture, in 1209, of Beziers and Carcassonne, the sovereignty of these possessions was granted by the Pope to Simon, lord of Montfort, earl of Leicester. From this time forth the war in Southern France changed charac- ter, or, rather, it assumed a double character ; with the war of religion was openly joined a war of conquest. Finally, on the 25th of June, 1218, Simon de Montfort, who had been for nine months unsuccessfully besieging Tou- louse, which had again come into the possession of Raymond VI., was killed by a shower of stones under the walls of the place, and left to his son Amaury the inheritance of his war and his conquests. Fortune deserted him, for Amaury de Montfort was losing ground every day, and Raymond VI., when he died in August, 1222, had recovered the greater part of his dominions. His son, Raymond VII., continued the war for eighteen months longer, with enough of popular favor and of success to make his enemies despair of recov- ering their advantages; and, on the 14th of January, 1224, Amaury de Mont- fort, after having concluded with the counts of Toulouse and Foix a treaty which seemed to have only a provisional character, ceded to Louis VIII., then king of France, his rights over the domains which the crusaders had conquered. While this cruel war lasted Philip Augustus would not take any part in it. He received visits from Count Raymond VL, and openly testified good 1248] • FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. 51 will toward him. When Simon de Montfort was decisively victorious, and in possession of the places wrested from Raymond, Philip Augustus recognized accomplished facts, and received the new count of Toulouse as his vassal ; but when^ after the death of Simon de Montfort and Innocent III., the question was once more thrown open, and when Raymond VI. first, and then his son Raymond VII., had recovered the greater part of their dominions, Philip formally refused to recognize Amaury de Montfort as successor to his father's conquests ; nay, he did more, he refused to accept the cession of those con- quests, offered to him by Amaury de Montfort and pressed upon him by Pope Honorius III. In his political life he always preserved this proper mean, and he found it succeeded ; but in his domestic life there came a day when he suffered himself to be hurried out of his usual deference toward the pope ; and, after a violent attempt at resistance, he resigned himself to sub- mission. The circumstance we are alluding to is his repudiation of Ingeburga of Denmark, and his marriage with the Tyrolese princess Agnes of Merania, daughter of Bethold, marquis of Istria, whom, about 11 80, the emperor, Frederick Barbarossa, had made duke of Moravia. The pope threatened Philip with the interdict ; that is, the suspension of all religious ceremonies, festivals, and forms in the Church of France. The king resisted not only the threat, but also the sentence of the interdict, which was actually pronounced, first in the churches of the royal domain, and afterward in those of the whole kingdom. For four years the struggle went on. At last Philip yielded to the injunction of the Pope and the feeling of his people ; he sent away Agnes and recalled Ingeburga. He had for several months been battling with an incessant fever ; he was obliged to halt at Nantes, and there he died on the 14th of January, 1222, leaving the kingdom of France far more extensive and more compact, and the kingship in France far stronger and more respected than he had found them. His son, Louis VIII., inherited a great kingdom, an undisputed crown, and a power that was respected. He died on the 8th of November, 1226, after a reign of three years, adding to the history of France no glory save that of having been the son of Philip Augustus, the husband of Blanche of Castile, and the father of St. Louis. We have already pursued the most brilliant and celebrated among the events of St. Louis' reign, his two crusades against the Mussulmans. It is now of Louis in France and of his government at home that we have to take note. And in this part of his history he is not the only royal and really regnant personage we encounter ; for of the forty-four years of St. Louis' reign, nearly fifteen, with a long interval of separation, pertained to the gov- ernment of Queen Blanche of Castile rather than to that of the king her son. Louis, at his accession, in 1226, was only eleven ; and he remained a minor up to the age of twenty-one, in 1236, for the time of majority in the case of royalty was not yet specially and rigorously fixed. During those ten years Queen Blanche governed France ; not at all, as is commonly asserted, with the official title of regent, but simply as guardian of the king her son. It was not until twenty-two years had passed, in 1248, that Louis, on starting 52 FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. [1252 for the crusade, officially delegated to his mother the kingly authority, and that Blanche, during her son's absence, really governed with the title of regent, up to the 1st of December, 1252, the day of his death. The entrance of Louis IX. upon the personal exercise of kingly power produced no change in the conduct of affairs from the wise policy of his mother. Hugh de Lusignan, count of la Marche, had not only declined doing homage to the king's brother, Alphonso, count of Poitiers, whose vassal he was, but had also excited to rebellion certain powerful lords of la Marche, Saintonge, and Angoumois, and had called to his assistance Henry III., king of England, son of the countess of la Marche. " As my name is Louis," said the king, " the count of la Marche doth claim to hold land in such wise, land which hath been a fief of France since the days of the valiant King Clovis, who won all Aquitaine from King Alaric, a pagan without faith or creed, and all the country to the Pyrenean mount." And the barons promised the king their energetic co-operation. Near two towns of Saintonge, Taiblebourg and Saintes, at a bridge which covers the approaches of one, and in front of the walls of the other, Louis, on the 21st and 22d of July, fought two battles, in which the brilliancy of his personal valor and the affectionate enthusiasm he excited in his troops secured victory and the surrender of the two places. He entered into negotiations, successively, with the count of la Marche, the king of England, the count of Toulouse, the king of Aragon, and the various princes and great feudal lords who had been more or less engaged in the war; and in January, 1243, the treaty of Lorris marked the end of feudal troubles for the whole duration of St. Louis' reign. An obstinate civil war was raging between Henry III. and his barons. Neither party, in defending its own rights, had any notion of respecting the rights of its adversaries, and England was alternating between a kingly and an aristocratic tyranny. Louis, chosen as arbiter by both sides, delivered solemnly, on the 23d of January, 1264, a decision which was favorable to the English kingship, but at the same time expressly upheld the Great Charter and the traditional liberties of England. He concluded his decision with the following suggestions of amnesty : " We will also that the king of England and his barons do forgive one another mutually, that they do forget all the resentments that may exist between them by consequence of the matters submitted to our arbitration, and that henceforth they do refrain reciprocally from any offense and injury on account of the same matters." Five centuries afterward the great English historian, Hume, rendered him due homage in these terms: " Every time this virtuous prince interfered in the affairs of England, it was invariably with the view of settling differences between the king and the nobility. Adopting an admirable course of conduct, as politic probably as it certainly was just, he never interposed his good offices save to put an end to the disagree- ments of the English ; he seconded all the measures which could give security to both parties, and he made persistent efforts, though without success, to 1282] FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. 53 moderate the fiery ambition of the earl of Leicester." (Hume, " History of England," t. ii. p. 465.) One special fact in the civil and municipal administration of St. Louis deserves to find a place in history. After the time of Philip Augustus there was malfeasance in the police of Paris. The provostship of Paris, which comprehended functions analogous to those of prefect, mayor, and receiver- general, became a purchasable office, filled sometimes by two provosts at a time. The burghers no longer found justice or security in the city where the king resided. At his return from his first crusade, Louis recognized the necessity for applying a remedy to this evil ; the provostship ceased to be a purchasable office ; and he made it separate from the receivership of the royal domain. In 1258 he chose as provost Stephen Boileau, a burgher of note and esteem in Paris ; and in order to give this magistrate the authority of which he had need, the king sometimes came and sat beside him when he was administering justice at the Chatelet. Stephen Boileau justified the king's confidence, and maintained so strict a police that he had his own godson hanged for theft. For all his moral sympathy, and superior as he was to his age, St. Louis, nevertheless, shared and even helped to prolong two of its greatest mistakes ; as a Christian he misconceived the rights of conscience in respect of religion, and, as a king, he brought upon his people deplorable evils and perils for the sake of a fruitless enterprise. "iC St. Louis was succeeded by his son, Philip III., a prince, no doubt, of some personal valor, since he has retained in history the nickname of T/ic Bold, but not otherwise beyond mediocrity. His reign had an unfortunate beginning. He came to Paris on the 21st of May, 1271, bringing back with him five royal biers, that of his father, that of his brother, John Tristan, count of Nevers, that of his brother-in-law, Theobald, king of Navarre, that of his wife, and that of his son. The day after his arrival he conducted them all in state to the Abbey of St. Denis, and was crowned at Reims not until the 30th of August following. His reign, which lasted fifteen years, was a period ■of neither repose nor glory. He engaged in war several times over in Southern France and in the north of Spain, in 1272, against Roger Bernard, •count of Foix, and in 1275 against Don Pedro III., king of Aragon, attempting conquests and gaining victories, but becoming easily disgusted with his enterprises and gaining no result of importance or durability. It was in the reign of Philip the Bold that there took place in Sicily, on the 30th of March, 1282, that notorious massacre of the French which is known by the name of Sicilian Vespers, which was provoked by the unbridled excesses of Charles of Anjou's comrades, and through which many noble Frenclj families had to suffer cruelly. At the same time, the celebrated Italian admiral, Roger de Loria, inflicted, by sea, on the French party in Italy, the Provencal navy, and the army of Philip the Bold, reverses and losses. The government of Philip III. showed hardly more ability at home than in Europe; he was weak, credulous, very illiterate, and without penetration, foresight, or will. He fell 54 FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. [1282 under the influence of an inferior house servant, Peter de la Brosse, who had been a barber. In spite of the want of abihty and the weakness conspicuous in the government of Phihp the Bold, the kingship in France had in his reign better fortune than could be expected. A Flemish chronicler, a monk at Egmont, describes the character of Philip the Bold's successor in the following words: "A certain king of France, also named Philip, eaten up by the fever of avarice and cupidity." And that was not the only fever inherent in Philip IV., called The Handsome; he was a prey also to that of ambition, and above all, to that of power. When he mounted the throne, at seventeen years of age, he was handsome, as his nickname tells us, cold, taciturn, harsh, brave at need, but without fire or dash. Away from his own kingdom, in his own dealings with foreign countries, Philip the Handsome had a good fortune, which his predecessors had lacked, and which his successors lacked still more. In spite of frequent interruptions, the reign of Edward I. was on the whole a period of peace between England and France, being exempt, at any rate, from premeditated and obstinate hostilities. In Southern France, at the foot of the Pyrenees, Philip the Handsome was, during the first year of his reign, at war with the kings of Aragon, Alphonso III. and Jayme II.; but these campaigns were terminated by a treaty concluded at Tarascon, and have remained without any historical importance. At the time of Philip the Handsome's accession to the throne Guy de Dampierre, of noble Champagnese origin, had been for five years count of Flanders, as heir to his mother Marguerite II. He was a prince who did not lack courage, or, on a great emergency, high-mindedness and honor ; but he was ambitious, covetous, as parsimonious as his mother had been munificent. In 1293 he was secretly negotiating the marriage of Philippa, one of his daughters, with Prince Edward, eldest son of the king of England. Philip the Handsome, having received due warning, invited the count of Flanders to Paris, "to take counsel with him and the other barons touching the state of the kingdom." At first Guy hesitated ; but he dared not refuse, and he repaired to Paris with his sons John and Guy. The three princes were marched off at once to the tower of the Louvre, where Guy remained for six months. When he was released, Count Guy returned to Flanders and concluded a treaty with Edward I., and formally renounced his allegiance to Philip the Handsome. This meant war. And it was prompt and sharp on the part of the king of France, slow and dull on the part of the king of England, who was always more bent upon the conquest of Scotland than upon defending, on the Continent, his ally the count of Flanders. The French arms were at first crowned with success. In 1302 war again broke out, but it was no longer a war between Philip the Handsome and Guy de Dampierre ; it was a war between the Flemish communes and their foreign oppressors. Philip the Handsome precipitately levied an army 1297] FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. 55 of sixty thousand men, says Villani, and gave the command of it to Count Robert of Artois, the hero of Furnes. The forces of the Flemings amounted to no more than twenty thousand fighting men. The two armies met near Courtrai. Two grand attacks succeeded one another; the first under the orders of the Constable Raoul of Nesle, the second under those of the count of Artois in person. After two hours' fighting, both failed against the fiery national passion of the Flemish communes, and the two French leaders, the Constable and the count of Artois, were left both of them lying on the field of battle amid twelve or fifteen thousand of their dead. The news of this great defeat of the French spread rapidly throughout Europe, and filled with joy all those who were hostile to or jealous of Philip the Handsome. The wily monarch spent two years in negotiations, for the purpose of gaining time and of letting the edge wear off the Flemings' confidence. In the spring of 1304 the cry of war resounded everywhere. He had taken into his pay a Genoese fleet commanded by Regnicr de Grimaldi, a celebrated Italian admiral ; and it arrived in the North Sea, and blockaded Zierikzee, a maritime town of Zealand. On the loth of August, 1304, the Flemish fleet which was defending the place was beaten and dispersed. Philip hoped for a moment that this reverse would discourage the Flemings ; but it was not so at all. A great battle took place on the 17th of August between the two land armies at Mons-en-Puelle near Lille, and resulted in a Flemish defeat. Thus during ten years, from 1305 to 13 14, there was between France and Flanders a continual alternation of reciprocal concessions and retractions, of treaties concluded and of renewed insurrections without decisive and ascertained results. It was neither peace nor war. Philip the Handsome had been nine years king when Boniface VIII. became pope. On his accession to the throne, he had testified an intention of curtailing the privileges and powers of the Church. At the time of the crusades the property of the clergy had been subjected to a special tax of a tenth of the revenues, and this tax had been several times renewed for reasons other than the crusades. In 1296 Philip the Handsome, at war with the king of England and the Flemings, imposed upon the clergy two fresh tenths, and the order of Citeaux refused to pay them, and addressed to the pope a protest, with a comparison between Philip and Pharaoh. Boniface addressed to the king a bull called from its first two words Clcricis laicos. Philip was mighty wroth, but he did not burst out, though he contrived to show his displeasure by means of divers administrative measures. A year after the bull Clericis laicos he modified it by a new bull, which not only authorized the collection of two tenths voted by the French bishops, but recognized the right of the king of France to tax the French clergy with their consent and without authorization from the Holy See. An opportunity for a splendid confirmation of the pope's universal supremacy in the Christian world came to tempt him. A quarrel had arisen between Philip and the archbishop of Narbonne on the subject of certain dues claimed by both m that great diocese. Boniface was loud in his advocacy of the archbishop S6 FRANCE.— THE KINGSHIP. [1297 against the officers of the king; he sent to Paris, to support his words, Bernard de Saisset, whom he, on his own authority, had just appointed bishop of Pamiers. On arriving in Paris as the pope's legate, Saisset made use there of violent and inconsiderate language. Philip had at that time, as his chief councillors, lay-lawyers, servants passionately attached to the kingship. They, in their turn, rose up against the doctrine and language of the bishop of Famiers. He was arrested and committed to the keeping of the archbishop of Narbonne ; and Philip sent to Rome his chancellor Peter Flotte himself and William of Nogaret, with orders to demand the condemnation of the bishop of Pamiers. Boniface replied by changing the venue to his own personal tribunal in the case of Bernard de Saisset. On the 5th of December, 1301, he addressed to the king, commencing with the words, "Hearken, most dear Son'' {Aiiscitlta, carissivie fill), a long bull in which, with circumlocutions and expositions full of obscurity and subtlety, he laid down and affirmed, at bottom, the principle of the final sovereignty of the spiritual power, being of divine origin, over every temporal power, being of human creation. On the nth of February, 1302, this bull was burned at Paris in the presence of the king. On the 8th of April an assembly of the barons, bishops and chief ecclesiastics, with the deputies of the communes to the number of two or three from each city, was convoked by Philip. This assembly, which really met on the loth of April at Paris in the church of Notre-Dame, is reckoned in French history as the first " States-general." The king evidently had on his side the general feeling of the nation, and the publication, of a third bull, {Unam sanctani), which threatened him with excommunication, only the more irritated him ; he resolved to act speedily. Notification must be sent to the pope of the king's appeal to the future council. Philip could no longer confide this awkward business to his chancellor Peter Flotte ; for he had fallen at Courtrai in the battle against the Flemings. William of Nogaret undertook it, at the same time obtaining from the king a sort of blank commission, authorizing and ratifying in advance all that, under the circumstances, he might consider it advisable to do. Nogaret was bold, ruffianly, and clever. He repaired in haste to Florence to the king's banker, got a plentiful supply of money, established communications in Anagni, and secured, above all, the co-oper- ation of Sciarra Colonna. On the 7th of September, 1303, Colonna and his associates introduced Nogaret and his following into Anagni, with shouts of " Death to Pope Boniface ! Long live the king of France ! " The populace, dumbfounded, remained motionless. The pope, deserted by all, even by his own nephew, tried to touch the heart of Colonna himself, whose only answer was a summons to abdicate, and to surrender at discretion. Thus outraged in spite of his advanced years (he was seventy-five), Boniface maintained a dauntless attitude under the grossest insults, but died very shortly after. On the 22d of October, 1303, eleven days after the death of Boniface VIII. , Benedict XL, son of a simple shepherd, was elected at Rome to succeed him. Benedict XL exerted himself to eive satisfaction to the 13 14] FRANCE.— THE COMMUNES. 57 conqueror; Nogaret and the direct authors of the assault at Anagni were alone excepted from the general amnesty. The pope reserved for a future occasion the announcement of their absolution, when he should consider it expedient. But, on the 7th of June, 1304, instead of absolving them, he launched a fresh bull of excommunication against " certain wicked men who had dared to commit a hateful crime against a person of good memory, Pope Boniface.' A month after this bull Benedict XL was dead. The chroniclers of the time imputed this crime to William of Nogaret, to the Colonnas, and to their associates at Anagni. The king of France, who had gained the battle of Mons-en-Puelle, then took advantage of his success to procure the election of a pope who would be entirely and exclusively his creature. The archbishop of Bordeaux, Bertrand de Got, proclaimed under the title of Clement V., had to accept, in return, the harshest conditions, such as pronouncing the condemnation of Boniface VIII., transferring the Papal See from Rome to Avignon, authorizing the suppression of the order of the. Kights Templars, etc. The great wealth possessed by the order of the Temple was the true cause of Philip's hatred, but as some plausible cause was needed to procure their condemnation they were accused of heresy, immorality and sacrilege. The council of Vienne condemned them, but the grand master, Jacques Molay, protested of their innocence to the very last. " The grand master, seeing the fire prepared, stripped himself briskly. I tell just as I saw : he bared himself to his shirt, light-heartedly and with a good grace, without a whit of trembling, though he Avas dragged and shaken mightily. They took hold of him to tie him to the stake, and they were binding his hands with a cord, but he said to them, ' Sirs, suffer me to fold my hands awhile, and make my prayer to God, for verily it is time. I am presently to die ; but wrongfully, God wot. Wherefore woe will come, ere long, to those who condemn us without a cause. God will avenge our death.' " A popular rumor soon spread abroad that Jacques Molay, at his death, had cited the pope and the king to appear with him, the former at the end of forty days and the latter within a year, before the judgment seat of God. Clement V. actually died on the 20th of April, 13 14, and Philip the Handsome on the 29th of November, 13 14; the pope, undoubtedly uneasy at the servile acquiescence he had shown toward the king, and the king expressing some sorrow for his greed, and for the imposts with which he had burdened his people. Philip the Handsome left three sons, Louis X., called Ic Hutin {the Quarreler), Philip V., called tJie Long, and Charles IV., called the Handsome, who, between them, occupied the throne only thirteen years and ten months. Not one of them distinguished himself by his personal merits ; and the events of the three reigns hold scarcely a higher place in history than the actions of the three kings do. Louis the Quarreler had to keep up the war with Flanders, which was continually being renewed ; and in order to find, without hateful exactions, the necessary funds, he was advised to offer 58 FRANCE.— THE COMMUNES [1315 freedom to the serfs of his domains ; accordingly he issued, on the 3d of July, 13 1 5, an edict to that effect. Another fact which has held an important place in the history of France, and exercised a great influence over her destinies, likewise dates from this period ; and that is the exclusion of women from the succession to the throne, by virtue of an article, ill understood, of the Salic law. From the time of Hugh Capet heirs male had never been wanting to the crown, and the succession in the male line had been a fact uninterrupted indeed, but not due to prescription or law. Louis the Quarreler, at his death, on the 5th of June, +3i5T left only a daughter, but his second wife, Queen Clemence, was pregnant. On the 15th of November, 1316, the queen gave birth to a son, who was named John, and who figures as John I. in the series of French kings, but the child died at the end of five days, and on the 6th of January, 1 3 16, Philip the Long was crowned king at Reims. He forthwith sum- moned, there is no knowing exactly where and in what numbers, the clergy, barons, and third estate who declared, on the 2d of February, that " the laws and customs, inviolably observed among the Franks, excluded daughters from the crown." There was no doubt about the fact ; but the law was not established, nor even in conformity with the entire feudal system or with general opinion. But the measure was evidently wise and salutary for France as well as for the kingship ; and it was renewed, after Philip the Long died, on the 3d of January, 1322, and left daughters only, in favor of his brother Charles the Handsome, who died, in his turn, on the ist of January, 1328, and likewise left daughters only. The question as to the succession to the throne then lay between the male line represented by Philip, count of Valois, grandson of Philip the Bold through Charles of Valois his father, and the female line represented by Edward HL, king of England, grandson, through his mother Isabel, sister of the late king Charles the Handsome, of Philip the Handsome. A war of more than a century's duration between France and England was the result of this lamentable rivalry, which all but put the kingdom of France under an English king ; but France was saved by the stubborn resistance of the national spirit and by Joan of Arc inspired by God. This period was likewise the cradle of the French nation. That was the time when it began to exhibit itself in its different elements, and to arise under monarchical rule from the midst of the feudal system. The Communes, which should not be confounded with the Third Estate, are the first to appear in history. They appear there as local facts, isolated one from another, often very different in point of origin, though analogous in their aim, and in every case neither assuming nor pretending to assume any place in the government of the State. It is exactly then that the Third Estate comes to the front, and uplifts itself as a general fact, a national element, a political power. It is the successor, not the contemporary, of the Commimes; they contributed much toward, but did not suffice for its formation ; it drew upon other resources, and was developed under other influences than those which 1328] FRANCE.— THE THIRD ESTATE. 59 gave existence to the communes. When they succeeded, they obtained those treaties of peace called charters, which brought about in the condition of the insurgents salutary changes accompanied by more or less effectual guarantees. When they failed or when the charters were violated, the result was violent reactions, mutual excesses ; the relations between the populations and their lords were tempestuous and full of vicissitude ; but at bottom neither the political regimen nor the social system of the communes were altered. At the very time that the communes were perishing, and the kingship was growing, a new power, a new social element, the Third Estate, was springing up in France ; and it was called to take a far more important place in the history of France, and to exercise far more influence upon the fate of the French father- land than it had been granted to the communes to acquire during their short and incoherent existence. Taking the history of France in its entirety and under all its phases, the third estate has been the most active and determining element in the process of French civilization. If we follow it in its relation with the general gov- ernment of the country, we see it at first allied for six centuries to the king- ship. But, so soon as it had gained this victory and brought about this revolution, the third estate went in pursuit of a new one, attacking that single power to the foundation of which it had contributed so much, and entering upon the task of changing pure monarchy into constitutional monarchy. This fact is unique in the history of the world. We recognize in the career of the chief nations of Asia and ancient Europe nearly all the great facts which have agitated France ; but nowhere is there any appearance of a class which, starting from the very lowest, from being feeble, despised, and almost imperceptible at its origin, rises by perpetual motion and by labor without respite, strengthens itself from period to period, acquires in succession whatever it lacked, wealth, enlightenment, influence, changes the face of soci- ety and the nature of government, and arrives at last at such a pitch of predominance that it may be said to be absolutely the country. Not only is the fact new, but it is a fact eminently French, essentially national. Nowhere has burgherdom had so wide and so productive a career as that which fell to its lot in France. There have been communes in the whole of Europe, in Italy, Spain, Germany, and England, as well as in France, but there has not really been a victorious third estate anywhere except in France. V. THE HOMED EAES' f AE. N the fourteenth century a new and a vital question arose ; will the French dominion preserve its nationality? Will the kingship remain French or pass to the for- eigner? This question brought ravages upon France and kept her fortunes in suspense for a hundred years of war with England, from the reign of Philip of Valois to that of Charles VII.; and a young girl of Lorraine, called Joan of Arc, had the glory of communicating to France that decisive impulse which brought to a triumphant issue the independence of the French nation and kingship. Some weeks after his accession, on the 29th of May, 1328, Philip was crowned at Reims, in presence of a brilliant assemblage of princes and lords, French and foreign ; next year, on the 6th of June, Edward III., king of England, being summoned to fulfill a vassal's duties by doing homage to the king of France for the duchy of Aquitaine, which he held, appeared in the cathedral of Amiens, with his crown on his head, his sword at his side, and his- gilded spurs on his heels ; and on the 30th of March, 1 331, he recognized, by letters express, " that the said homage which we did at Amiens to the king of France in general terms, is, and must be understood as liege : and that we are bound, as duke of Aquitaine, and peer of France, to show him faith and loy- alty." The relations between the two kings were not destined to be for long so courteous and so pacific. The reader is referred to the History of England for a record of the con- tinued strife between Philip VI. and the English king, Edward III., the principal events of which are as follows : 1328 Philip VI., king of France, gains the battle of Cassel. 1336 Ed- ward III. of England supports the cause of the Flemings against Philip VI. of France. 1337 Froissart born. 1340 Edward III. defeats the French in a naval engagement near Sluys : truce of four years. 1341 Beginning of the war for the succession of Brittany, between Charles of Blois and John of Montfort. Petrarch crowned at the Capital. 1344 Edward III. renews the war with France. 1346 Battle of Cressy. 1347 Calais surrenders to Edward III. after a siege of eleven months and a few days. William of Ockham died. 1348 The black plague. The Jews persecuted. 1349 Cession of Vienness and of Montpelier to France. 1350] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 6i In the latter part of 1349 Philip of Valois himself, now fifty-eight years of age, took for his second wife Blanche of Navarre, who was only eighteen. She was a sister of that young king of Navarre, Charles H., who was soon to get the name of Charles tlic Bad, and to become so dangerous an enemy of Philip's successors. Seven months after his marriage, and on the 22d of August, 1350, Philip died at Nogent-le-Roi ill the Haute-Marne, strictly enjoining his son John to maintain with vigor his well ascertained right to»the crown he wore, and leaving his people bowed down beneath a weight " of extortions so heavy that the like had never been seen in the kingdom of France." His successor, John H., called the Good, on no other ground than that he w^as gay, prodigal, credulous and devoted to his favorites, did nothing but reproduce, with aggravations, the faults and reverses of his father. He compromised more and more seriously every day his own safety and that of his successor by vexing more and more, without destroying, his most dangerous enemy. He showed no greater prudence or ability in the govern- ment of his kingdom. And, nevertheless, King John's necessities were more evident and more urgent than ever: war with England had begun again. The truth is that, in spite of the truce still existing, the English, since the accession of King John, had at several points resumed hostilities. The disorders and dissensions to which France was a prey now offered strong inducements to the English king. The full account of the invasion of France and the battles which finally resulted in the capture of King John is given in the History of England. The dauphin Charles, aged nineteen, in spite of his youth and his any- thing but glorious retreat from Poitiers, took the title of lieutenant of the king, and had hardly re-entered Paris, on the 29th of September, when he summoned, for the 15th of October, the States-general of Languedoc, who met, in point of fact, on the 17th, in the great chamber of parliament. Fresh subsidies were granted, but only on very hard conditions. The deputies demanded of Charles " that he should deprive of their offices such of the king's councillors as they should point out, have them arrested, and confiscate all their property." A plot against the marshals, headed by Stephen Marcel, came to the apartments of the dauphin, and after some conversation Marcel said : " My lord duke, do not alarm yourself ; but we have somewhat to do here ;" and turned toward his fellows in the caps, saying, " Dearly beloved, do that for the which ye are come." The mob immediately massacred the Lord de Conflans, marshal of Champagne, and Robert de Clermont, marshal of Normandy, both at the time unarmed, so close to the dauphin that his robe was covered with their blood. The dauphin shuddered, and the rest of his officers fled. "Take no heed, lord duke," said Marcel; "you have naught to fear." He handed to the dauphin his own red and blue cap, and himself put on the dauphin's, which was of black stuff with golden fringe. The corpses of the two marshals were dragged into the courtyard of the palace, where they remained until evening. The king of Navarre was recalled from Nantes to 62 FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. [ 350 Paris, and the dauphin was obliged to assign to him, in the king's name, " as a make-up for his losses," 10,000 livres a year on landed property in Languedoc. On the 25th of March, the young prince succeeded in leaving Paris, and repaired first of all to Senlis, and then to Provins, where he found the estates of Champagne eager to welcome him. The insurrection of the Jacques Bonhonnne (or Jack Goodfellows) gave Marcel, as he thought, an opportunity to assert his power. The nobles, the dauphin, and the king of Navarre, a prince and a noble at the same time that he was a scoundrel, made common cause against the Goodfellows. In Beau- vaisis the king of Navarre, after having made a show of treating with their chieftain, William Karle or Callet, got possession of him, and had him beheaded. He then moved upon a camp of Goodfellozus assembled near Montidier, slew three thousand of them and dispersed the remainder. Marcel from that moment perceived that his cause was lost, and he gave himself up to his ov/n safety. He sought to betray France to the English, and would have succeeded if John Maillart, another burgher of Paris, had not put an end to his life July 31st, 1358. On the 2d of August the dauphin Charles re-entered Paris, accompanied by John Maillart. On being re-settled in the capital, he showed neither clemency nor cruelty. He let the reaction against Stephen Marcel run its course, and turned it to account without further excitino- it or prolonging it beyond measure. Marcel's widow even recovered a portion of his property ; and as early as the loth of August, ,1358, Charles published an amnesty, from which he excepted only " those who had been in the secret council of the provost of tradesmen in respect of the great trea- son ; and on the same day another amnesty quashed all proceeding for deeds done during the Jacqiiery, " whether by nobles or ignobles." Charles knew that in acts of rigor or of grace impartiality conduces to the strength and the reputation of authority. A reconciliation then took place between him and the king of Navarre, whose wife, Joan of France, was the dauphin's sister. " The town of Melun," says the chronicler, "was restored to the lord duke; the navi- gation of the river once more became free up stream and down; great was the satisfaction in Paris and throughout the whole country; and, peace being thus made, the two princes returned both of them home." The treaty of London and its rejection by the States-general, another invasion of France by Edward and his siege of Paris, the subsequent treaty and the release of King John, are all recorded in our history of England. The violation of the treaty upon which John had been released induced him to return to England. Shortly after his arrival in London he fell seriously ill, and died on the 8th of April, 1364, at the Savoy; France was at last about to have in Charles V. a practical and an effective king. In spite of the discretion he had displayed during his four years of reo-ency (from 1356 to 1360) his reign opened under the saddest auspices. In 1363, one of those contagious diseases, all at that time 1377] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 6 called the plague, committed cruel ravages in France. King Charles V. had a very difficult Avork before him. Between himself and his great rival, Edward HI., king of England, there was only such a peace a: was fatal and hateful to France. To escape some day from the treaty of Bretigny and recover some of the provinces which had been lost by it — this was what king and country secretly desired and labored for. Pending a favorable opportunity for promoting this highest interest, war went on in Brittany between John of Montfort and Charles of Blois, who continued to be encouraged and patronized, covertly, one by the king of England, the other by the king of France. Almost immediately after the accession of Charles V. it broke out again between him and his brother-in-law Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, the former being profoundly mistrustful and the latter brazen-facedly perfidious, and both detesting one another and watching to seize the moment for taking- advantage one of the other. Charles V. had recourse three times, in July, 1367, and in May and December, 1369, to a convocation of the States-general, in order to be put in a position to meet the political and financial difficulties of France. It was his good fortune, besides, to find among his servants a man to be the thunderbolt of war and the glory of knighthood of his reign ; w^e mean Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton gentleman, who had already distinguished himself on the field of battle. Having received the command of the royal troops, he inaugurated the new reign by the victory of Cocherel, when he defeated John de Grailly, capital of Buch, the best of the generals of the king of Navarre. Charles the Bad lost by this affair nearly all his possessions in Normandy Charles V., encouraged by his success, determined to take part like- wise in the war which was still going on between the two claimants to the duchy of Brittany, Charles of Blois and John of Montfort. Du Guesclin w^as sent to support Charles of Blois ; he entered at once on the campaign, and marched upon Auray, which was being besieged by the count of Montfort. The battle took place on the 29th of September, 1364, before Auray; Charles of Blois was killed and Du Guesclin was made prisoner. The cause of John of Montfort was clearly won ; and he, on taking possession of the duchy of Brittany, asked nothing better than to acknowledge himself vassal of the king of France and swear fidelity to him. The subsequent Spanish campaign, the death of the Black Prince and of his father, Edward HI., are recorded in the history of England. While England thus lost her two great chiefs France still kept hers. For three years longer Charles V. and Du Guesclin remained at the head of her government and her armies. A truce between the two king- doms had been twice concluded, between 1375 and 1377: it was still in force when the prince of Wales died, and Charles, ever careful to practice knightly courtesy, had a solemn funeral service performed for him. Having fallen sick before Chateauneuf-Randon, a place he was besieging in the Gevaudan, Du Guesclin expired on the 13th of July 64 FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. [1380 1380, at sixty-six years of age, and his last words were an exhortation to the veteran captains around him " never to forget that, in whatso- ever country they might be making war, churchmen, women, children, and the poor people were not their enemies." Two months after the constable's death, on the i6th of September, 1380, Charles V. died at the castle of Beaute-sur-Marne, near Vincennes, at forty-three years of age, quite young still after so stormy and hard- working a life. His contemporaries were convinced, and he was himself convinced, that he had been poisoned by his perfidious enemy, King Charles of Navarre. Charles V., taking upon his shoulders at nineteen years of age, first as king's lieutenant and as dauphin and afterward as regent, the government of France, employed all his soul and his life in repairing the disasters arising from the wars of his predecessors and preventing any repetition. No sovereign was ever more resolutely pacific ; he carried prudence even into the very practice of war. Scarcely was Charles V. laid on his bier when it was seen what a loss he was and would be to his kingdom. Discord arose in the king's own family. In order to shorten the ever critical period of minority, Charles V. had fixed the king's majority at the age of fourteen. His son, Charles VI. was not yet twelve, and so had two years to remain under the guardianship of his four uncles, the dukes of Anjou, Berry, Burgundy, and Bourbon ; but the last, being only a maternal uncle and a less puissant prince than his paternal uncles it was between the other three that strife began for temporary possession of the kingly power. The city of Ghent in particular joined complaint with menace, and in 1381 the quarrel became war; and in November of the following year the king of France and his army marched into Flanders in support of the count. Several towns, Cassel, Bergues, Gravelines, and Turnhout, hastily submitted to him ; and on the 28th of November the two armies found themselves close together at Rosebecque, between Ypres and Courtrai. The victory of Rosebecque was a great cause for satisfaction and pride to Charles VI. and his uncle, the duke of Burgundy. They had conquered on the field in Flanders the commonalty of Paris as well as that of Ghent ; and in France there was great need of such a success. Free at last from the surveillance of his uncles, Charles VI. married Isabel of Bavaria whose wantonness was destined to bring the kingdom to the verge of destruction. Now, yielding to the impetuous suggestions of his character, he prepared against England a gigantic armament, which the delays of the duke of Berry rendered useless. Matters were getting worse in France, when a serious misfortune came to destroy the already exhausted constitution of the king, and to give up the country to the unprincipled ambition of his uncles. On the 13th of June, 1392, the constable, Oliver de Clisson, was waylaid as he was returning home after a banquet given by the king at the hostel of St. Paul. The assassin 1409] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 65 was Peter de Craon, cousin of John IV., duke of Brittany. He believed De Clisson to be dead, and left him bathed in blood at a baker's door in the street called Culture-Sainte-Catherine. While preparing a war against the duke of Brittany to discover the assassin who had hidden there the king was struck with madness. A fair young Burgundian, Odette de Champdivers, was the only one among his many favorites who was at all successful in soothing him during his violent fits. For thirty ycar.s from 1392 to 1422, the crown remained on the head of this poor madman, while France was a victim to the bloody quarrels of the royal house, to national dismemberment, to hcentiousness in morals, to civil anarchy, and to foreign conquest. The dukes of Burgundy and Berry being thus in possession of power excercised it for ten years, from 1392 to 1402, without any great dispute between themselves, the duke of Burgundy's influence being predominant, or with the king, who, save certain lucid intervals, took merely a nominal part in the government. During this period no event of importance disturbed France internally. In 1393 the king of England, Richard II., son of the Black Prince, sought in marriage the daughter of Charles VI., Isabel of France, only eight years old. The contract was signed on the 9th of March, 1396. (See History of England.) Rivalries, intrigues and scandals of every kind surrounded the court of the mad king. His wife, Isabel of Bavaria, was far too intimate with his brother, the duke of Orleans. In the very midst of a court crisis Philip the Bold suddenly died of illness April 27th, 1404. John the Fearless, count of Nevers, his son and successor, was a man of violence, unscrupulous and indiscrete, full of jealousy and hatred, and capable of any deed and risk for the gratification of his passions. At his accession he made some popular moves ; he appeared disposed to prosecute vigorously the war against England, which was going on slug- gishly ; he testified a certain spirit of conciliation by going to pay a visit to his cousin, the duke of Orleans, lying ill at his castle of Beaute, near Vincennes. When the duke of Orleans was well again, the two princes took the communion together and dined together at their uncle's, the duke of Berry's ; and the duke of Orleans invited the new duke of Burgundy to dine with him the next Sunday. The Parisians took pleasure in observing these little matters, and in hoping for the re-establishment of harmony in the royal family. They were soon to be cruelly undeceived. On the 23d of November, 1407, the duke of Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris by rufifians hired for the purpose by the duke of Burgundy. who openly dared to justify the assassination. The duke of Burgundy's negotiations at Tours were not fruitless. The result was that on the 9th of March, 1409, a treaty was concluded and an interview effected at Chartres between the duke on one side, and on the other the king, the queen, the dauphin, all the royal family, the councillors of the crown, the young duke of Orleans, his brother, and a hundred knights of their B uo FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. [1410 house, all met together to hear the king declare that he pardoned the duke of Burgundy. From 1410 to 141 5 France was a prey to civil war between the Armag- nacs and Burgundians, and to their alternate successes and reverses, brought about by the unscrupulous employment of the most odious and desperate means. The Burgundians had generally the advantage in the struggle, for Paris was chiefly the center of it, and their influence was predominant there. Their principal allies there, says the chronicle, were the butchers. Both parties were anxious to secure the support of the king of England. The Armagnacs had promised the half of France to Henry, and thus induced him to espouse their quarrel. The duke of Burgundy, however, and Charles H., whom he had in his power, declared them enemies of the State, and besieged them in the city of Bourges (141 2). There a peace was concluded, but proved of very short duration. The death of Henry of Lancaster, by lessening the immediate chances of a foreign war, rendered the conflict at home much more terrible. This time, and after the useless assembly of the States-general in 141 3, the Cabochians committed such excesses in Paris that the citizens came to an understanding to expel them. The Armagnacs immediately entered the metropolis, and not only maintained themselves there, but, commanded by Charles VI., pursued their enemies as far as Arras. A peace of short dura- tion followed and then the war with England was renewed, for which see the History of England. The battle of Agincourt was fought October 23d, 141 5. The Parisian population was becoming every day more Burgiindian. In the latter days of May, 141 8, a plot was contrived for opening to the Bur- p-undians one of the crates of Paris. Perrinet Leclerc, son of a rich iron mer- Id- o chant, having influence in the quarter of St. Germain des Pres, stole the keys from under the bolster of his father's bed ; a troop of Burgundian men-at- arms came in, and they were immediately joined by a troop of Parisians. They spread over the city, shouting, "Our Lady of Peace! Hurrah for the king ! Hurrah for Burgundy ! Let all who wish for peace take arms and . follow us ! " The people swarmed from the houses and followed them accord- ingly. The Armagnacs were surprised and seized with alarm. Tanneguy Duchatel, a man of prompt and resolute spirit, ran to the dauphin's, wrapped him in his bedclothes, and carried him off to the Bastile, where he shut him up with several of his partizans. Henry of England negotiated with both parties; but though Burgundy and the queen, having possession of the person of the afflicted sovereign, carried the appearance of legal authority, every Frenchman who paid any regard to the true interests of his country adhered to the dauphin. From the enmity of the contending factions a circumstance occurred which facilitated Henry's views more readily than he could possibly have antici- pated. A simulated reconciliation having taken place between the duke of Burgundy and the dauphin, an interview was appointed on the bridge of the town of Montereau. The duke of Burgundy came to this meeting against the 1422] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 67 advice of his friends and was murdered by Tanneguy Duchatel, who told him that the time had come to expiate the murder of the duke of Orleans, which none of them had forgotten. This was on September loth, 1419. Henry V., king of England, as soon as he heard about the murder of D-uke John, set himself to work to derive from it all the advantages he anti- cipated. " A great loss," said he, " is the duke of Burgundy , he was a good and true knight and an honorable prince ; but through his death we are, by God's help, at the summit of our wishes. We shall thus, in spite of all Frenchmen, possess dame Catherine, whom we have so much desired." As early as the 24th of September, 1419, Henry V, gave full powers to certain of his people to treat "with the illustrious city of Paris and the other towns in adherence to the said city." On the 17th of October was opened at Arras a congress between the plenipotentiaries of England and those of Burgundy. On the 20th of November a special truce was granted to the Parisians, while Henry v., in concert with Duke Philip of Burgundy, was prosecuting the war against the dauphin. On the 2d of December the bases were laid of an agreement between the English and the Burgundians. The preliminaries of the treaty which was drawn up in accordance with these bases were signed on the 9th of April, 1420, by King Charles VI., and on the 20th communicated at Paris by the chancellor of France to the parliament and to all the religious and civil, royal and municipal authorities of the capital. After this communication, the chancellor and the premier president of parliament went with these prelimina- ries to Henry V. at Pontoise, whence he set out with a division of his army for Troyes, where the treaty, definitive and complete, was at last signed and promulgated in the cathedral of Troyes, on the 21st of May, 1420. Toward the end of August, 1422, Henry V. fell ill; and, too stout-hearted to delude himself as to his condition, he thought no longer of anything but preparing himself for death. He expired at Vincennes on the 31st of August, 1422, at the age of thirty-four. A great soul and a great king; but a great example also of the boundless errors which may be fallen into by the greatest men when they pursue with arrogant confidence their own views, forgetting the laws of justice and the rights of other men. On the 22d of October, 1422, less than two months after the death of Henry V., Charles VI., king of France, died at Paris in the forty-third year of his reign. As soon as he had been buried at St. Denis, the duke of Bedford, regent of France according to the will of Henry V., caused a herald to pro- claim, " Long live Henry of Lancaster, king of England and of France ! " The people's voice ;nade very different proclamation. It had always been said that the public evils proceeded from the state of illness into which the unhappy King Charles had fallen. It was only when he knew that, on the 27th of October, the parliament of Paris had, not without some httle hesitation and ambiguity, recognized, " as king of England and France, Henry VI., son of Henry V. lately deceased," that the dauphin Charles assumed, on the 30th of October, in his castle of 68 FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. [1428 Mehun-sur-Yevre, the title of king and repaired to Bourges to inaugurate in the cathedral of that city his reign as Charles VH. Six years later, on the 6th of January, 1428, at Domremy, a little village in the valley of the Meuse, between Neufchateau and Vaucouleurs, on the edge of the frontier from Champagne to Lorraine, the young daughter of simple tillers of the soil, " of good life and repute, herself a good,, simple, gentle girl, no idler, occupied hitherto in sewing or spinning with her mother or driving afield her parent's sheep, and sometimes even, when her father's turn came round, keeping for him the whole flock of the commune," was fulfilling her sixteenth year. It was Joan of Arc, whom all her neighbors called Joannette. Her early childhood was passed amid the pursuits charac- teristic of a country life ; her behavior was irreproachable, and she was robust, active, and intrepid. Her imagination becoming inflamed by the distressed situation of France, she dreamed that she had interviews with St. Margaret, St. Catherine and St. Michael, who commanded her, in the name of God, to go and raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct Charles to be crowned at Reims. Accordingly she applied to Robert de Baudricourt, captain of the neighboring town of Vaucouleurs, revealing to him her inspiration, and conjuring him not to neglect the voice of God, which spoke through her. This officer for some time treated her with neglect ; but at length, prevailed on by repeated impor- tunities, he sent her to the king at Chinon, to whom, when introduced, she said : " Gentle dauphin, my name is Joan the Maid. The King of heaven hath sent me to your assistance. If you please to give me troops, by the grace of God and the force of arms, I will raise the siege of Orleans, and conduct you to be crowned at Reims, in spite of your enemies." Her requests were now granted : she was armed cap-a-pie, mounted on horseback, and provided with a suitable retinue. Joan's first undertaking was against Orleans, which she entered without opposition on the 29th of April, 1429, on horseback, completely armed, pre- ceded by her own banner, and having beside her Dunois, and behind her the captains of the garrison and several of the most distinguished burgesses of Orleans, who had gone out to meet her. The population, one and all, rushed thronging round her, carrying torches, and greeting her arrival "with joy as great as if they had seen God come down among them." With admira- ble good sense, discovering the superior merits of Dunois, the bastard of Orleans, a celebrated captain, she wisely adhered to his instructions, and by constantly harassing the English, and beating up their intrenchments in various desperate attacks, in all of which she displayed the most heroic courage, Joan in a few weeks compelled the earl of Suffolk and his army to raise the siege, having sustained the loss of six thousand men. The proposal of crowning Charles at Reims would formerly have appeared like madness, but the Maid of Orleans now insisted on its fulfillment. She accordingly recommenced the campaign on the loth of June ; to complete the deliverance of Orleans an attack was begun upon the neighboring places, Jargeau, Meung and Beaugency ; thousands of the late dispirited subjects of Charles now / 1430] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 69 flocked to his standard, many towns immediately declared for him, and the English, who had suffered in various actions — at that of Jargeau, when the earl of Suffolk was taken prisoner, and at that of Patay, when Sir John Fastolfe fled without striking a blow — seemed now to be totally dispirited. On the i6th of July King Charles entered Reims, and the ceremony of his corona- tion was fixed for the morrow. It was solemn and emotional, as are all old national traditions which recur after a forced suspension. Joan rode between Dunois and the archbishop of Reims, chancellor of France. The air resounded with the Te Dciun, sung with all their hearts by clergy and crowd. " In God's name," said Joan to Dunois, "here is a good people and a devout; when I die, I should much like it to be in these parts." " Joan," inquired Dunois, "know you when you will die and in what place?" "I know not," said she, " for I am at the will of God." Then she added, " I have accomplished that which my Lord commanded me, to raise the siege of Orleans and have the gentle king crowned. I would like it well if it should please Him to send me back to my father and mother, to keep their sheep and their cattle and do that which was my wont." " When the said lords," says the chronicler, an eye-Avitness, " heard these words of Joan, who, with eyes toward heaven, gave thanks to God, they the more believed that it was somewhat sent from God and not otherwise." Historians and even contemporaries have given much discussion to the question whether Joan of Arc, according to her first ideas, had really limited her design to the raising of the siege of Orleans and the coronation of Charles VII. at Reims. However that may be, when Orleans was relieved and Charles VII. crowned, the situation, posture, and, part of Joan underwent a change. She no longer manifested the same confidence in herself and her designs. She no longer excercised over those in whose midst she lived the same authority. She continued to carry on war, but at hap-hazard, sometimes with and sometimes without success, just like La Hire and Dunois ; never discouraged, never satisfied, and never looking upon herself as triumphant. After the coronation, her advice was to march at once upon Paris, in order to take up a fixed position in it, as being the political center of the realm of which Reims was the religious. Nothing of the sort was done. She threw herself into Compiegne, then besieged by the duke of Burgundy. The next day (May 25th, 1430), heading a sally upon the enemy, she v/as repulsed and compelled to retreat after exerting the utmost valor; when, having nearly reached the gate of the town, an English archer pursued her, and pulled her from her horse. The joy of the English at this capture was as great as if they had obtained a complete victory. Joan was committed to the care of John of Luxembourg, count of Ligny, from whom the duke of Bedford purchased the captive for ten thousand pounds, and a pension of three hundred pounds a year to the bastard 70 FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. [1431 of Vendome, to whom she surrendered. Joan was now conducted to Rouen, where, loaded with irons, she was thrown into a dungeon, preparatory to appear before a court assembled to judge her. The trial lasted from the 21st of February to the 30th of May, 143 1. The court held forty sittings, mostly in the chapel of the castle, some in Joan's very prison. On her arrival there, she had been put into an iron cage ; afterward she was kept " no longer in the cage, but in a dark room in a tower of the castle, wearing irons upon her feet, fastened by a chain to a large piece of wood, and guarded night and day by four or five soldiers of low grade." She complained of being thus chained ; but the bishop told her that her former attempts at escape demanded this precaution, " It is true,'' said Joan, as truthful as heroic, " I did wish and I still wish to escape from prison, as is the right of every prisoner." At her examination, the bishop required her to take " an oath to tell the truth about everything as to which she should be questioned." '' I know not what you mean to question me about. Perchance you may ask me things I would not tell you. Touching my revelations, for instance, you might ask me to tell something I have sworn not to tell ; thus I should be perjured, which you ought not to desire." The bishop insisted upon an oath absolute and without condition. "You are too hard on me," said Joan ; " I do not like to take an oath to tell the truth save as to matters which concern the faith." The bishop called upon her to swear on pain of being held guilty of the things imputed to her. " Go on to something else," said she. And this was the answer she made to all questions which seemed to her to be a violation of her right to be silent. Wearied and hurt at these imperious demands, she one day said, " I come on God's business, and I have naught to do here ; send me back to God from whom I come." " Are you sure you are in God's grace ? " asked the bishop. " If I be not," answered Joan, "please God to bring me to it; and if I be, please God to keep me in it ! " The bishop himself remained dumbfounded. There is no object in following through all its sittings and all its twistings this odious and shameful trial, in which the judges' prejudiced servility and scientific subtlety were employed for three months to wear out the courage or overreach the understanding of a young girl of nine- teen, who refused at one time to lie, and at another to enter into discussion with them, and made no defense beyond holding her tongue or appealing to God, who had spoken to her and dictated to her that which she had done. In the end she was condemned for all the crimes of which she had been accused, aggravated by that of heresy, and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment, to be fed during life on bread and water. The English were enraged that she was not condemned to death. " Wait but a little," said one of the judges, " we shall soon find the means to ensnare her." And this was effected by a grievous accusation, which, though somewhat countenanced by the Levitical law, has been 1456] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. 71 seldom urged in modern times — the wearing of man's attire. Joan had been charged with this offense, but she promised not to repeat it. A suit of man's apparel was designedly placed in her chamber, and .her own garments, as some authors say, being removed, she clothed herself in the forbidden garb, and her keepers surprising her in that dress, she was adjudged to death as a relapsed heretic, and was condemned to be burnt in the market-place at Rouen (143 1). Four centuries have rolled by since Joan of Arc, that modest and heroic servant of God, made a sacrifice of herself for France. For four and twenty years after her death, France and the king appeared to think no more of her. However, in 1455, remorse came upon Charles VH. and upon France. Nearly all the provinces, all the towns were freed from the foreigner; and shame was felt that nothing was said, nothing done for the young girl who had saved everything. At Rouen, especially, where the sacrifice was completed, a cry for reparation arose. It was timidly demanded from the spiritual power which had sentenced and delivered over Joan as a heretic to the stake. Pope Calixtus HI. entertained the request preferred, not by the king of France, but in the name of Isabel Romee, Joan's mother, and her whole family. Regular proceedings were commenced and followed up for the rehabilitation of the martyr ; and, on the 7th of July, 1456, a decree of the court assembled at Rouen quashed the sentence of 143 1, together with all its consequences, and ordered "a general procession and solemn sermon at St. Ouen Place and the Vieux-Marche, where the said maid had been cruelly and horribly burned ; besides the planting of a cross of honor {crucis honestcB) on the Vieux-Marche, the judges ordered the official notice to be given of their decision throughout the cities and notable places of the realm." After the execution of Joan the war resumed its course, and we again refer the reader to the History of England for a narrative of the events. On certain conditions the capitulation of Bordeaux was concluded and signed on the 17th of October, 1453; the English re-embarked and Charles, without entering Bordeaux, returned to Touraine. The English had no longer any possession in France but Calais and Guines. The Hundred Years' War was over. And to whom was the glory due ? Charles VII. himself decided the question. When in 1455, twenty-four years after the death of Joan of Arc, he at Rome and at Rouen prosecuted her claims for restoration of character and did for her fame and her memory all that was still possible, he was but relieving his conscience from a load of ingratitude and remorse, which in general weighs but lightly upon men, and especially upon kings. La Pucelle, first among all, had a right to the glory, for she had been the first to contribute to the success. Next to Joan of Arc the constable De Richemont was the most elTcctive and the most glorious among the liberators of France and of the king. He was a strict and stern warrior, unscrupulous and pitiless toward his enemies, 72 FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR. [1456 severe in regard to himself, dignified in his manners, never guilty of swearing himself, and punishing swearing as a breach of discipline among the troops placed under his orders. Dunois, La Hire, Xaintrailles, and marshals De Boussac and De Lafayette were, under Charles VH., brilliant warriors and useful servants of the king and of France. Besides all these warriors we meet, under the sway of Charles VH., at first in a humble capacity and afterward at his court, in his diplomatic service and sometimes in his closest confidence, a man of quite a different origin and quite another profession, but one who, nevertheless, acquired by peaceful toil great riches and great influence ; we mean Jacques Coeur, born at Bourges at the close of the fourteenth century. This eminent man, after acquiring a large fortune by commercial transactions, rose to the post of argentier, or administrator of the royal exchequer. In this quality he was for twelve years associated with the most important government transactions, and he administered the finances with the greatest probity and uprightness. In whatever light it is regarded, the government of Charles VII. in the latter part of his reign brought him not only in France, but throughout Europe, a great deal of fame and power. When he had driven the English out of his kingdom he was called Charles the Victorious ; and when he had introduced into the internal regulations of the State so many important and effective reforms he was called Charles the Well-served. " The sense he had by nature," says his historian Chastellain, " had been increased to twice as much again in his straitened fortunes by long constraint and perilous dangers, which sharpened his wits perforce." " He is the king of kings," was said of him by the doge of Venice, Francis Foscari, a good judge of policy : " there is no doing without him.'' Nevertheless, at the close, so influential and so tranquil, of his reign, Charles VII. was in his individual and private life the most desolate, the most harassed, and the most unhappy man in his kingdom. The dauphin Louis, after having from his very youth behaved in a facetious, harebrained, turbulent way toward the king his father, had become at one time an open rebel, at another a venomous conspirator and a dangerous enemy. At his birth, in 1423, he had been named Louis in remembrance of his ancestor St. Louis, and in hopes that he would resemble him. In 1440, at seventeen years of age, he allied himself with the great lords, who were displeased with the new military system established by Charles VII., and allowed himself to be drawn by them into the transient rebellion known by the name of Praguery. In 1456, in order to escape from the perils brought upon him by the plots which 'he in the heart of Dauphiny was incessantly hatching against his father, Louis fled from Grenoble and went to take refuge in Brussels v/ith the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, who willingly received him, at the same time excusing himself to Charles VII. " on the ground of the respect he owed to the son of his suzerain," and putting at the disposal of Louis, " his guest," a pension of thirty-six thousand livres. At Brussels the dauphin remained impassive, waiting with scandalous indifference for the news of his father's 1465] FRANCE.— LOUIS XL 7i death. Charles sank into a state of profound melancholy and general distrust. At last, deserted by them of his own household and disgusted with his own life, he died on the 22d of July, 1461. VI. LOUIS 11. JHAELES M-LOUIS III. (1461-1515.) ENTLEMEN," said Dunois, on rising from table at the funeral-banquet held at the abbey of St. Denis in honor of the obsequies of King Charles VIL, "we have lost our master; let each look after himself." The old warrior foresaw that the new reign would not be like that which had just ended. At the accession of Louis XL the feudal system was still powerful. Against this the king began a desperate Avarfare, and the first decrees which he published were as much the expression of his hatred, as of his determination to do away with every reminiscence of his father's government. Thoroughly irritated by these measures, and by others besides, such as that which deprived the duke of Burgundy of the lieutenancy of Normandy, which had first been bestowed upon him, the o-reat malcontents formed together, at the end of 1464, an alliance " for to remonstrate with the king," says Commynes, " upon the bad order and injustice he kept up in his kingdom, considering themselves strong enough to force him if he would not mend his ways ; and this war was called the covimon zveal, because it was undertaken under color of being for the common weal of the kingdom, the which was soon converted into private weal." The number of the declared malcontents increased rapidly ; and the chiefs received at Paris itself, in the church of Notre Dame, the adhesion and the signatures of those who wished to join them. Louis XL had no sooner obtained a clear insight into the league of the princes than he set to work with his usual activity and knowledge of the world to checkmate it. Between the League of the Common Weal and Louis XL there was a question too great to be, at the very outset, settled peacefully. At the beginning Louis had, in Auvergne and in Berry, some successes which decided a few of the rebels, the most insignificant, to accept truces and enter upon parleys : but the great princes, the dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Berry, waxed more and more angry. The two armies met at Montlhery, on the i6th of July, 1465. Breze, who commanded the king's advance guard, immediately went into action and was one of the first to be killed. Louis came up to his assistance with troops in rather loose order ; the affair became hot and general ; the French for a 74 FRANCE.— LOUIS XL [1465 moment wavered, but soon the wavering was transferred to the Burgundians, and the advantage virtually remained on the side of the French. Negotiations for peace speedily followed. Tv\^o distinct treaties were concluded : one at Conflans on the 5th of October, 1465, between Louis and the count of Charolais ; and the other at St. Maur on the 29th of October, between Louis and the other princes of the league. By one or the other of the treaties the king granted nearly every demand that had been made upon him. Scarcely were the treaties signed and the princes returned each to his own dominions when a quarrel arose between the duke of Brittany and the new duke of Normandy. Louis, having his movements free, suddenly entered Normandy to retake possession of it as a province which, notAvithstanding the cession of it just made to his brother, the king of France could not dispense with. Evreux, Gisors, Gournay, Louviers, and even Rouen fell, without much resistance, again into his power. In order to be safe in the direction of Burgundy as well as that of Brittany, Louis had entered into negotiations with Edward IV., king of England, and had made him offers, which seemed to trench upon the rights of the duke of Burgundy to certain districts of Picardy. Duke Philip the Good, who had for some time past been visibly declinin.g in body and mind, was visited at Bruges by a stroke of apoplexy, soon discovered to be fatal. A few days after his death several of the principal Flemish cities, Ghent first and then Liege, rose against the new duke of Burgundy in defense of their liberties, already ignored or threatened. The intrigues of Louis were not unconnected with these seditions. But the new duke of Burgundy was speedily triumphant over the Flemish insurrections, and after these successes, at the close of the year 1467, he was so powerful and so unfettered in his movement that Louis might with good reason fear the formation of a fresh league among his great neighbors in coalition against him. He summoned the States-general to a meeting at Tours on the 1st of April, 1498, and obtained from them the annulment of the concessions he had made, more particularly with reference to Normandy, a province which was within so dangerous a proximity of England. Thus fortified Louis, by the treaty of Ancenis, signed on September lOth, 1468, put an end to his differences with Francis II., duke of Brittany, who gave up his alliance with the house of Burgundy, and undertook to prevail upon Duke Charles of France to accept an arbitration for the purpose of settling, before two years were over, the question of his territorial appanage in the place of Normandy. In the mean while a pension of sixty thousand livres was to be paid by the crown to that prince. Thus Louis was left with the new duke, Charles of Burgundy, as the only adversary he had to face. His advisers were divided as to the course to be taken with this formidable vassal. Accordingly he started for Noyon on the 2d of October, taking with him the constable, the cardinal, his confessor, and, for all his escort, four score of his faithful Scots and sixty men-at-arms. Duke Charles went to meet him outside the town ; they embraced one another and returned 1475] FRANCE.— LOUIS XI. 75 on foot to Pcronne, chatting familiarly, and the king with his hand resting on the duke's shoulder in token of amity. " King Louis, on coming to Peronne. had not considered that he had sent two ambassadors to the folks of Liege to excite them against the duke. The Liegese came and took by surprise the town of Tongres, wherein were the bishops of Liege and the lord of Humbercourt." The fugitives who reported this news at Peronne made the matter a great deal worse than it was ; they had no doubt, they said, but that the bishop and Sire d'Humbercourt had also been murdered ; and Charles had no more doubt about it than they. Exasperated by so glaring an act of treachery, Charles the Rash confined his sovereign within the tower Avhere Charles the Simple had died in 929, and there, through the happy mediation of Philip de Commynes, compelled him to sign the treaty of Peronne (146S). But the deliverance of Louis XI. and the new treaty which he had si"-ned were but temporary breaks in the struggle. Between 1468 and 1477, from the incident at Peronne to the death of Charles at the siege of Nancy, the history of the two princes was nothing but one constant alternation between ruptures and readjustments, hostilities and truces, wherein both were constantly changing their posture, their language, and their allies. In 1471 St. Ouentin opened its gates to Count Louis of St. Pol, constable of France. The next year (1472) war broke out. Duke Charles laid siege to Beauvais, and on the 27th of June delivered the first assault. The inhabitants were at this moment left almost alone to defend their town. A young girl of eighteen, Joan Fourquet, whom a burgher's wife of Beauvais, Madame Laisne, her mother by adoption, had bred up in the history, still so recent, of Joan of Arc, threw herself into the midst of the throng, holding up her little axe iJiacJicttc) before the image of St. Angadresme, patroness of the town, and crying, " O glorious virgin, come to my aid ; to arms! to arms ! " The assault was repulsed ; re-enforcements came up from Noyon, Amiens, and Paris, under the orders of the Marshal de Rouault. Charles remained for twelve days longer before the place, looking for a better chance ; but on the 12th of July he decided upon raising the siege, and took the road to Normandy. Some days before attacking Beauvais he had taken, not without difificulty, Nesle in the Vermandois. Between the two rivals in France, relations with England were a subject of constant maneuvering and strife. In spite of reverses on the Continent and civil wars in their own island the kings of England had not abandoned their claims to the crown of France ; they were still in possession of Calais ; and the memory of the battles of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt was still a tower of strength to them. The duke of Burgundy, as soon as he found out that the king of France had made peace for seven years with the king of England, saw that his attempts, so far, were a failure. Accordingly he lost no time in signing (on the 13th of September, 1475) a treaty with King Louis for nine years. Charles suddenly entered Lorraine, took possession of several castles, had the inhabitants who resisted hanged, besieged Nancy, which made a valiant 76 FRANCE.— LOUIS XL [1476 defense, and ended by conquering the capital as well as the country places, leaving Duke Rene no asylum but the court of Louis XL Scarcely two months after the capture of Nancy, Charles set out, on the nth of June, 1476, to avenge his client, prince of the house of Savoy, and wreak his haughty and turbulent humor upon these bold peasants of the Alps. In spite of the truce he had but lately concluded with Charles the Rash, the prudent Louis did not cease to keep an attentive watch upon him. A late occurrence had still further strengthened his position : his brother Charles, who became duke of Guienne, in 1469, after the treaty of Peronne, had died on the 24th of May, 1472. Louis was suspected of having poisoned his brother. At any rate this event had important results for him, for it restored to him the beautiful province of Guienne and many a royal client. Of the great feudal chieftains who, in 1464, had formed against him the League of the Common JVeal, the duke of Burgundy was the only one left on the scene and in a condition to put him in peril. The possessions of Charles consisted of the duchy and county of Bufgundy on the one side, and of the Netherlands on the other — feudal regime here, communal regime there. He wished to be a king, and with the hope of obtaining the creation of a kingdom of Belgian-Gaul he had courted the alliance of the Emperor Frederick III., promising to the Archduke Maximilian the hand of his daughter Mary. Nothing resulted from this scheme on account of the sudden death of the emperor. Charles the Rash, mad with fury, then turned against Germany and signed with Louis XL the peace of Soleure, which has been called Treve Marchande, on account of the stipulations it contained respecting the freedom of commerce between France, England, and the Netherlands. Charles started from Besancon on the 6th of February to take the field with an army of from thirty to forty thousand men, provided Avith a powerful artillery, and accompanied by an immense baggage- train. At the rumor of such an armament the Swiss attempted to keep off the war from their country. Charles, however, gave no heed, saw nothing in their representations but an additional reason for hurrying on his movements with confidence, and on the 19th of February arrived before Granson, a little town in the district of Vaud, where war had already begun. There he was tremendously beaten by the Swiss. During his two campaigns against them, the duke of Lorraine, Rene IL, whom he had despoiled of his dominions and driven from Nancy, had been wandering among neighboring princes and people in France, Germany, and Switzerland, at the courts of Louis XL and the Emperor Frederick III., on visits to the patricians of Berne and in the free towns of the Rhine. His partisans in Lorraine recovered confidence in his fortunes . the city of Strasbourg gave him some cannon, four hundred cavalry, and eight hundred infantry ; Louis XL lent him some money ; and Rene before long found himself in a position to raise a small army and retake the majority of the minor towns in Lorraine. Finally he attacked and defeated the Burgundians at Nancy on January the 5th, 1477. The duke was killed on the field of battle. Charles the Rash had left only a daughter, Mary of 1475] FRANCE.— LOUIS XI. ;; Burgundy, sole heiress of all his dominions. On the i8th of August, 1477, seven months after the battle of Nancy and the death of Charles the Rash, Archduke Maximilian, son of the Emperor Frederick III., arrived at Ghent to wed Mary of Burgundy. Next day, August 19th, the marriage was celebrated with great simplicity in the chapel of the Hotel de Ville ; and Maximilian swore to respect the privileges of Ghent. A few days afterward he renewed the same oath at Bruges, in the midst of decorations bearing the modest device, " Most glorious prince, defend us lest we perish." Not only did Louis XI. thus fail in his first wise design of incorporating with France, by means of a marriage between his son the dauphin and Princess Mary, the heritage of the dukes of Burgundy, but he suffered the heiress and a great part of the heritage to pass into the hands of the son of the German emperor. In vain, when the marriage of Maximilian and Mary was completed, did Louis XI. attempt to struggle against his new and dangerous neighbor. His campaigns in the Flemish provinces, in 1478 and 1479, ^^-^ no great result ; he lost, on the 7th of August, 1479, the battle of Guinegate, and before long, tired of war, he ended by concluding with Maximilian a truce at first, and then a peace, which, in spite of some conditionals favorable to France, left the principal and the fatal consequences of the Austro-Burgundian marriage to take full effect. This event marked the stoppage of that great national policy which had prevailed during the first part of Louis XL's reign. That was as salutary as it was glorious for the nation and the French kingship. At the death of Charles the Rash the work was accomplished . Louis XL was the only power left in France, without any great peril from without and with, out any great rival within ; but he then fell under the sway of mistaken ideas and a vicious spirit. Not only did he hunt down implacably the men who, after having served him, had betrayed or deserted him ; he reveled in the vengeance he took and the sufferings he inflicted on them. Note, for instance, his treatment of Cardinal Balue, whom he caused to be confined in a cage " eight feet broad," says Commynes, " and only one foot higher than a man's stature, covered with iron plates outside and inside, and fitted with terrible bars." In it the unfortunate prelate passed eleven years, and it was not until 1480 that he was let out at the solicitation of Pope Sixtus IV. He was still more pitiless toward Louis of Luxembourg, count of St. Pol, who had been from his youth up engaged in the wars and intrigues of the sovereigns and great feudal lords of Western Europe, France, England, Germany, Burgundy, Brittany and Lorraine. From 1433 to 1475 he served and betrayed them all in turn. Given up at last by the duke of Burgundy to the king he was beheaded on the 19th of December, 1475, in Paris, on the Place de Greve. It seemed as if Louis XI. ought to fear nothing now, and that the day for clemency had come. But such was not the king's opinion ; two cruel passions, suspicion and vengeance, had taken possession of his soul ; he had discovered traces and almost proofs of a design by the constable and his associates for seizing the king, keeping him prisoner, and setting his son, tlie 78 FRANCE.— LOUIS XL [1477 dauphin, on the throne, with a regency composed of a council of lords. Among the adherents of this project the king had found James d'Armagnac, duke of Nemours, the companion and friend of his youth, for his father, the count of Pardiac, had been governor to Louis, at that time dauphin. Arrested, sent to the Bastile, and tried on a charge of high treason, the Duke de Nemours was beheaded on the 4th of August, 1477. Louis XL rendered to France, four centuries ago, during a reign of twenty-two years, three great services. He prosecuted steadily the work of Joan of Arc and Charles VIL, the expulsion of a foreign kingship and the triumph of national independence and national dignity. By means of the provinces which he successively won, he caused France to make a great stride toward territorial unity within her natural boundaries. By the defeat he inflicted on the great vassals, the favor he showed the middle classes, and the use he had the sense to make of this new social force, he contributed power- fully to the formation of the French nation and to its unity under a national government. Louis XL proved the political weakness of feudal society, determined its fall, and labored to place in its stead France and monarchy. Herein are the great facts of his reign and the proofs of his superior mind. An unexpected event occurred at this time to give a little more heart to Louis XL Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Rash, died at Bruges on the 27th of March, 1482, leaving to her husband, Maximilian of Austria, a daughter, hardly three years of age. Princess Marguerite by name, heiress to the Burgundian-Flemish dominions which had not come into the possession of the king of France. Louis, as soon as he heard the news, conceived the idea and the hope of making up for the reverse he had experienced. He would arrange espousals between his son the dauphin, Charles, thirteen years old, and the infant princess left by Mary, and thus recover for the crown of France the beautiful domains he had allowed to slip from him. A negotia- tion was opened at once on the subject between Louis, Maximilian, and the estates of Flanders, and, on the 23d of December, 1482, it resulted in a treaty, concluded at Arras, which arranged for the marriage. In January, 1483, the ambassadors from the estates of Flanders and from Maximilian, who then, for the first time, assumed the title of archduke, came to France for the ratification of the treaty. On the 2d of June following, the infant princess. Marguerite of Austria, was brought by a solemn embassy to Paris first, and then, on the 23d of June, to Amboise, where her betrothal to the dauphin, Charles, was celebrated. Louis XL did not feel fit for removal to Amboise . and he would not even receive at Plessis-les-Tours the new Flemish embassy. Assuredly neither the king nor any of the actors in this regal scene foresaw that this marriage, which they with reason looked upon as a triumph of French policy, would never be consummated . that, at the request of the court of France, the pope would annul the betrothal ; and that, nine years after its celebration, in 1492, the Austrian princess, after having been brought up at Amboise under the guardianship of the duchess of Bourbon, Anne, eldest daughter of Louis XL, 1483] FRANCE.— CHARLES VIII. 7^ would be sent back to her father, Emperor Maximilian, by her affianced. Charles VIII., then king of France, who preferred to become the husband of a French princess with a French province for a dowry, Anne, duchess of Brittany. It was in March, 1481, that Louis XL had his first attack of that apoplexy which, after several repeated strokes, reduced him to such a state of weakness that in June, 1483, he felt himself and declared himself not in a fit state to be present at his son's betrothal. Two months afterward, on the 25th of August, St. Louis' day, he had a fresh stroke, and lost all consciousness and speech. On Saturday, August 30th, 1483, between seven and eight in the evening, he expired, saying, ''Our Lady of Embrun, my good mistress, have pity upon me ; the mercies of the Lord will I sing forever {miscricordias Domini in (Btermun cantabo)." Louis XL had by the queen, his wife, Charlotte of Savoy, six children ; three of them survived him: Charles VIII. , his successor ; Anne, his eldest daughter, who had espoused Peter of Bourbon, sire of Beaujeu ; and Joan, whom he had married to the duke of Orleans, who became Louis XII. At their father's death Charles was thirteen, Anne twenty-two or twenty-three, and Joan nineteen. According to Charles V.'s decree, Avhich had fixed four- teen as the age for the king's majority, Charles VI 1 1., on his accession, was very nearly a major; but Louis XL, with good reason, considered him very far from capable of reigning as yet. On the other hand, he had a very high opinion of his daughter Anne, and it was to her far more than to Sire de Beaujeu, her husband, that six days before his death and by his last instruc- tions he entrusted the guardianship of his son, to whom he already gave the title of king, and the government of the realm. Louis XL had not been mis- taken in his choice ; there was none more fitted than his daughter Anne to continue his policy under the reign and in the name of his successor. She began by acts of intelligent discretion. She tried, not to subdue by force the rivals and malcontents, but to put them in the wrong in the eyes of the public and to cause embarrassment to themselves by treating them with fearless favor. Her brother-in-law, the duke of Bourbon, was vexed at being only in appearance and name the head of his own house ; and she made him constable of France and lieutenant-general of the kingdom. Two of Louis XL's subordinate and detested servants, Oliver le Daim and John Doyac, were prosecuted, and one was hanged and the other banished ; and his doc- tor, James Coettier, was condemned to disgorge fifty thousand crowns out of the enormous presents he had received from his patient. At the same time that she thus gave some satisfaction to the cravings of popular wrath, Anne de Beaujeu threw open the prisons, recalled exiles, forgave the people a quarter of the taUiage, cut down expenses by dismissing six thousand Swiss whom the late king had taken into his pay, re-established some sort of order in the administration of the domains of the crown, and, in fine, whether in general measures or in respect of persons, displayed impartiality without pay- ing court and firmness without using severity. 8o FRANCE.— CHARLES VIII. [1484 The States-general were convoked at Tours for the 5th of January, 1484. The deputies had all at heart one and the same idea ; they desired to turn the old and undisputed monarchy into a legalized and free government. Two men, one a Norman and the other a Burgundian, the canon John Masselin and Philip Pot, lord of la Roche, a former counselor of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, were the exponents of this political spirit, at once bold and prudent, conservative and reformative. When the States-general had separated, Anne de Beaujeu, without diffi- culty or uproar, resumed, as she had assumed on her father's death, the government of France ; and she kept it yet for seven years, from 1484 to 149 1. During all this time she had a rival and foe in Louis, duke of Orleans, who was one day to be Louis XI I. This ambitious prince induced Fran- cois II., duke of Brittany, Richard III., king of England, Maximilian of Austria, and others, to take up arms against the regent. She vanquished Francois at Nantes, and sent to the gallows Landais, minister of that prince, and the original instigator of the league. In order to divert the attention of Richard ill., she gave her support to Henry Tudor, who ultimately gained the battle of Bosworth (1485) and ascended to the throne of England, under the title of Henry VII. To Maximilian she opposed with success the marshals d'Esquerdes and De Gie. The counts of Albret and of Comminges had espoused the cause of the duke of Orleans : they were defeated on their ov/n domains in the south of France. In July, 1488, Louis de la Tremoille came suddenly down upon Brittany, took one after the other Chateaubriant, Ancenis, and Fougeres, and on the 28th gained at St. Aubin-du-Cormier, near Rennes, over the army of the duke of Brittany and his English, German and Gascon allies, a victory which decided the campaign. It was a great success for Anne de Beaujeu. She had beaten her united foes. Two incidents that supervened, one a little before and the other a little after the battle of St. Aubin-du-Cormier, occurred to both embarrass the posi- tion, and at the same time call forth all the energy of Anne. Her brother-in- law, Duke John of Bourbon, the head of his house, died on the ist of April, 1488, leaving to his younger brother, Peter, his title and domains. Charles Vlil., moreover, having nearly arrived at man's estate, made more frequent manifestations of his own personal will ; and Anne, clear-sighted and discreet, though ambitious, was little by little changing her dominion into influence. But some weeks after the battle of St. Aubin-du-Cormier, on the 7th or 9th of September, 1488, the death of Francis II., duke of Brittany, rendered the active intervention of the duchess of Bourbon natural and necessary, for he left his daughter, the Princess Anne, barely eighteen years old, exposed to all the difficulties attendant upon the government of her inheritance and to all the intrigues of the claimants to her hand. Madame de Beaujeu immedi- ately sent into Brittany a powerful army, and compelled the young heiress to bestow herself upon the suzerain, Charles VIII. On the 7th of February, 1492, Anne was crowned at St. Denis; and next day, the 8th of February, she made her entry in state into Paris amid the joyful and 1495] FRANCE.— CHARLES VIII. 8i earnest acclamations of the public. A sensible and a legitimate joy; for the reunion of Brittany to France was the consolidation of the peace which, in this same century, on the 17th of September, 1453, had put an end to the Hundred Years' War. Charles VIII. was pleased with and proud of himself. He had achieved a brilliant and a difficult marriage. In Europe and within his own household he had made a display of power and independence. In order to espouse Anne of Brittany he had sent back Marguerite of Austria to her father. He had gone in person and withdrawn from prison his cousin Louis of Orleans, whom his sister Anne de Beaujeu had put there ; and so far from having n-ot embroiled with her he saw all the royal family reconciled around him. This was no little success for a young prince of twenty-one. He thereupon devoted himself with ardor and confidence to his desire of winnin"- back the kingdom of Naples which Alphonso I., king of Aragon, had wrested from the house of France, and of thereby re-opening for himself in the East and- against Islamy that career of Christian glory which had made a saint of his ancestor Louis IX. By two treaties concluded in 1493 [one at Barcelona on the 19th of January and the other at Senlis on the 23d of May], he gave up Roussillon and Cerdagne to Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Arragon, and Franche-Comte, Artois and Charolais to the house of Austria, and, after having at such a lamentable price purchased freedom of movement, he went and took up his quarters at Lyons to prepare for his Neapolitan venture. It were out of place to follow out here in all its details a war which belongs to the history of Italy far more than to that of France. Six principal States, Piedmont, the kingdom of the dukes of Savoy, the duchy of Milan, the republic of Venice, the republic of Florence, Rome and the pope, and the kingdom of Naples, co-existed in Italy at the end ot the fifteenth century. In August, 1494, when Charles VIII. started from Lyons on his Italian expedition, Piedmont Avas governed by Blanche of Mont- ferrat, in the name of her son Charles John Amadeo, a child only six years old. In the duchy of Milan the power was in the hands of Ludovic Sforza. The republic of Venice had at this period for its doge Augustin Barbarigo ; and it was to the Council of Ten that in respect of foreign affairs as well as of the home department tl^e power really belonged. Peter de' Medici, son of Lorenzo de' Medici, tJie fatJicr of the Muses, governed the republic of Florence. Rome had for pope Alexander VI. (Roderigo Borgia), a prince who would be regarded as one of the most utterly demoralized men of the fifteenth century only that he had for son a Cresar Borgia. Finall}-, at Naples, in 1494, three months before the day on which Charles VIII. entered Italy, King Alphonso II. ascended the throne. Such, in Italy, whether in her kingdoms or her republics, were the heads with whom Charles VIII. had to deal when he went, in the name of a disputed right, three hundred leagues away from his own kingdom in quest of a bootless and ephemeral conquest. On the 1st of January, 1495, Charles VIII. entered Rome with his army : the pope having retired at first to the Vatican and afterward to the castle of 6 82 FRANCE.— CHARLES VIII. [i495 St. Angelo. At last, on the 15th of January, a treaty was concluded which regulated pacific relations between the two sovereigns, and secured to the French army a free passage through the States of the Church, both going to Naples and also returning, and provisional possession of the town of Civita Vecchia, on condition that it should be restored to the pope Avhen the king returned to France ; and, on the 28th of January, Charles VIII. took solemn leave of the pope, received his blessing, and left Rome at the head of his army. There was the semblance of a fight at San-Germano, but the king of Naples, betrayed both by his army and by his subjects, was obliged to seek safety rn the island of Ischia, from whence he reached Sicily. Charles VIII. entered Naples on the 22d of February at the head of his troops. At the news hereof the disquietude and vexation of the principal Italian powers were displayed at Venice as well as at Milan and at Rome. On the 31st of March, 1495, a league was concluded between Pope Alexander VI., Emperor Maximihan I., as king of the Romans, the king of Spain, the Venetians, and the duke of Milan : " To three ends," says Commynes: " for to defend Christendom against the Turks, for the defense of Italy, and for the preservation of their estates." Charles VIII. remained nearly two months at Naples after the Italian league had been concluded, and while it was making its preparations against him was solely concerned about enjoyment, in his beautiful but precarious kingdom. On the 12th of May, 1495, all the population of Naples and of the neighboring country was a-foot early to see their new king make his entry in state as king of Naples, Sicily and Jeritsaleni, with his Neapolitan court and his French troops ; and only a week afterward, on the 20th of May. 1495, Charles VIII. started from Naples to return to France with an arm)^ at the most from twelve to fifteen thousand strong, leaving for guardian of his new kingdom his cousin Gilbert of Bourbon, Count de Montpensier, with eight or ten thousand men, scattered for the most part throughout the provinces. He took more than six weeks to traverse it, passing three days at Rome, four at Siena, the same number at Pisa, and three at Lucca, though he had declared that he would not halt anywhere. It was in the duchy of Parma, near the town of Fornovo, on the right bank of the Taro, an afifiuent of the Po, that the French and Italian armies met, on the 5th of July, 1495. The French army was nine or ten thousand strong, with five or six thousand camp- followers, servants or drivers; the Italian army numbered at least thirty thousand men, well supplied and well rested, whereas the French were fatigued with their long march and very badly off for supplies. The battle was very hotly contested, but did not last long, with alternations of success and reverse on both sides. Both armies might and did claim the victory, for they had, each of them, partly succeeded in their design. The Italian allies were triumphant, but without any ground of security or any luster ; the expedition of Charles 1499] FRANCE.— LOUIS XII. 83 VIII. was plainly only the beginning of the foreigner's ambitious projects, invasions and wars against their own beautiful land. Charles VIII. reigned for nearly three years longer after his return to his kingdom, and for the first two of them he passed time in indolently dreamino- of his plans for a fresh invasion of Italy and in frivolous abandonment to his pleasures and the entertainments at his court, which he moved about from Lyons to Moulins, to Paris, to Tours and to Amboise. The news which came to him from Italy was worse and worse every day. While still constantly talking of the war he had in view, Charles attended more often and more earnestly than he hitherto had done to the internal affairs of his kingdom. At the beginning of the year 149S, Charles VIII. was at Amboise, where considerable works had been begun under his direction by several excellent artists whom he had brought from Naples. When passing one day through a dark gallery, he knocked his forehead against a door with such violence that he died a few hours afterward (April 7th, 1498). He was only twenty-eight years old. With him the direct family of Valois became extinct, and was replaced by that of the Valois-Orleans. On ascending the throne Louis XII. reduced the public taxes and confirmed in their posts his predecessor's chief advisers, using to Louis de la Tremoille, who had been one of his most energetic foes, that celebrated expression, " The king of France avenges not the wrongs of the duke of Orleans." At the same time on the day of his coronation at Reims [May 27th, 1492], he assumed, besides his title of king of France, the titles of king of Naples and of Jerusalem and diike of Milan. By his policy at home, Louis XII. deserved and obtained the name of FatJier of the People ; by his enterprises and wars abroad he involved France still more deeply than Charles VIII. had in that mad course of distant, reckless, and incoherent conquests, for which his successor, Francis I., was destined to pay by capture at Pavia and by the lamentable treaty of Madrid, in 1526, as the price of his release. Outside of France Milaness [the Milanese district] was Louis XII.'s first thought, at his accession, and the first object of his desire. When Charles VIII. invaded Italy in 1494, " Now is the time," said Louis, " to enforce the rights of Valentine Visconti, my grandmother, to Milaness." And he, in fact, asserted them openly, and proclaimed his intention of vindicating them so soon as he found the moment propitious. Accordingly, in the month of August, 1499, the French army, with a strength of from twenty to five and twenty thousand men, of whom five thousand were Swiss, invaded Milaness. On the 6th of October, 1499, Louis made his triumphal entry into Milan amid cries of " Hurrah for France ! " After instituting a number of reforms he recrossed the Alps at the end of some weeks, leaving as governor of Milaness John James Trivulzio, the valiant Condottierc, who, four years before, had quitted the service of Ferdinand IL, king of Naples, for that of Charles VIII. Unfortunately Trivulzio was himself a Milanese, and of the faction of the Guelphs. A plot was formed in favor of the fallen tyrant, who 84 FRANCE.— LOUIS XII. [1500 was in Germany expecting it, and was recruiting, during expectancy, among the Germans and Swiss in order to take advantage of it. On the 25th of January, 1500, the insurrection broke out; and two months later Ludovic Sforza had once more become master of Milaness, where the French possessed nothing but the castle of Milan. Louis XIL, so soon as he heard of the Milanese insurrection, sent into Italy Louis de la Tremoille, the best of his captains, and the cardinal d'Amboise, his privy councillor and his friend ; the former to command the royal troops, French and Swiss, and the latter " for to treat about the reconciliation of the rebel towns, and to deal with everything as if it were the king in his own person." The campaign did not last long. The Swiss who had been recruited by Ludovic and those who were in Louis XII.'s service had no mind to fight one another, and the former capitulated, and surrendered the strong place of Novara. Betrayed into the hands of the enemy, Ludovic was sent to France, where he expired fourteen years after, a prisoner in the castle of Loches. The duchy of Milan then submitted to Louis XIL, and this prince made immediate preparations for attacking Naples. With this view he signed with Ferdinand the Catholic the secret treaty of Granada (November nth, 1500). On hearing of the approach of the French, the new king, Frederic, requested the Spaniards to defend him, and gave over to them his fortresses : this was surrendering to the enemy. Gonzalvo of Cordova, one of the most celebrated chieftains of the day, attempted to defend Barletta. The French suffered, in consequence, two defeats (Seminara, Cerignola), and lost nearly all their possessions in the kingdom of Naples (1503). Louis XII. hastened to levy and send to Italy, under the command of Louis de la Tremoille, a fresh army, for the purpose of relieving Gaeta and recovering Naples ; but at Parma La Tremoille fell ill, and the command devolved upon the marquis of Mantua, who marched on Gaeta. He found Gonzalvo of Cordova posted with his army on the left bank of the Garigliano, either to invest the place or to repulse re-enforcements that might arrive for it. The two armies passed fifty days face to face almost, with the river and its marshes between them, and vainly attempting over and over again to join battle. At length the French were defeated, and Gaeta fell into the hands of the Spaniards on the ist of January, 1504. At the news of these reverses the grief and irritation of Louis XII. were extreme. Not only was he losing his Neapolitan conquest, but even his Milanese was also threatened. The ill-will of the Venetians became manifest. Pope Alexander VI., who, willy nilly, had rendered Louis XII. so many services, died at Rome on the 12th of August, 1503. A four-weeks' pope, Pius III., succeeded him ; and when the Holy See suddenly became once more vacant, the new choice was Cardinal Julian della Rovera, Pope Julius XL, who soon became the most determined and most dangerous foe of Louis XIL, already assailed by so many enemies. In order to put off the struggle which had succeeded so ill for him in the 1509] FRANCE.— LOUIS XII. 85 kingdom of Naples, Louis concluded, on the 31st of March, 1504, a truce for three years with the king of Spain ; and on the 22d of September, in the same year, in order to satisfy his grudge on account of the Venetians' demeanor toward him, he made an alliance against them with Emperor Maximilian L and Pope Julius IL, with the design, all three of them, of wresting certain provinces from them. Louis repented of having in 1501, under the influence of his wife, Anne of Brittany, affianced his daughter Claude to Prince Charles of Austria, and of the enormous concessions he had made by two treaties, one of April 5th, 1503, and the other of September 22d, 1504, for the sake of this marriage. The latter of these treaties contained even the following strange clause : " If, by default of the Most Christian king or of the queen his wife, or of the Princess Claude, the aforesaid marriage should not take place, the Most Christian king doth will and con- sent, from now, that the said duchies of Burgundy and Milan and the count- ship of Asti, do remain settled upon the said Prince Charles, duke of Luxem- bourg, with all the rights therein possessed or possibly to be possessed by the Most Christian king." The States-general were convoked and met at Tours (1506) for the pur- pose of deliberating upon so important a step : the nation protested, through the voice of George d'Amboise, against the political arrangements made by Anne of Brittany, and the king seized the earliest opportunity of annulling by force what he would never have consented to, had the suggestion been offered to him while he was in the enjoyment of his usual health. From 1506 to 1515, between Louis XII.'s will and his death, we find in the history of his career in Italy five coalitions and as many great battles of a profoundly contradictory character. In 1508, Pope Julius II., Louis XII., Emperor Maximilian and Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Spain, form together against the Venetians the League of Cambrai. In 15 10 Julius II. , Ferdinand, the Venetians, and the Svv'iss make a coalition against Louis XII. In 1 5 12, this coalition, decomposed for awhile, reunites under the name of the League of the Holy Union, between the pope, the Venetians, the Swiss, and the kings of Aragon and Naples against Louis II., niiniis the Emperor Maximilian and phis Henry VIII., king of England. On the 14th of May, 1509, Louis XII., in the name of the League of Cambrai, gains the battle of Agnadello against the Venetians. On the nth of April, 15 12, it is against Pope Julius II. , Ferdinand the Catholic, and the Venetians that he gains the battle of Ravenna. On the 14th of March, 1513, he is in alliance with the Venetians, and it is against the Swiss that he loses the battle of Novara. In 1 5 10, 151 1 and 1 5 12, in the course of all these incessant changes of political allies and adversaries, three councils met at Tours, at Pisa, and at St. John Lateran, with views still more discordant and irreconcilable than those of all these laic coalitions. On the 14th of May, 1509, the French and the Venetians encountered near the village of Agnadello, in the province of Lodi, on the banks of the Adda. Louis XII. commanded his army in person: the Venetians were under the 86 FRANCE.— LOUIS XII. [1509 orders of two generals, the count of Petigliano and Barthelemy d'Alviano, both members of the Roman family of the Orsini, but not on good terms with one another. The great blow fell upon the Venetians' infantry, which lost, accord- ing to some, eight thousand men. The territorial results of the victory were greater than the numerical losses of the armies. Within a fortnight the towns of Caravaggio, Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, Cremona and Pizzighitone surren- dered to the French. Peschiera alone, a strong fortress at the southern extremity of the Lake of Garda, resisted and was carried by assault. Louis XII. committed the mistake of embroiling himself with the Swiss by refusing to add 20,000 livres to the pay of 60,000 he was giving them already, and by styling them " wretched mountain-shepherds, who presumed to impose upon him a tax he was not disposed to submit to," In October, 151 1, a league was formally concluded between the pope, the Venetians, the Swiss and King Ferdinand against Louis XII. The coalition thus formed was called the League of Holy Union. "I," said Louis XII., "am the Sara- cen against whom this league is directed." He had just lost, a few months previously, the intimate and faithful adviser and friend of his whole life ; Cardinal George d'Amboise, seized at Milan with a fit of the gout, during which Louis tended him with the assidu- ity and care of an affectionate brother, died at Lyons on the 25th of May, 1 5 10, at fifty years of age. He was one, not of the greatest, but of the most honest ministers who ever enjoyed a powerful monarch's constant favor, and employed it, we will not say with complete disinterestedness, but with a predominant anxiety for the public weal. "At last, then, I am the only pope ! " cried Julius II., when he heard that Cardinal d'Amboise was dead. But his joy was misplaced. War was rekindled, or, to speak more correctly, resumed its course after the cardinal's death. Julius 11. plunged into it in person, moving to every point where it was going on, living in the midst of camps, himself in military costume, besieging towns, having his guns pointed and assaults delivered under his own eyes. It was said that he had cast into the Tiber the keys of St. Peter to gird on the sword of St. Paul. His answer to everything was, " The barbari- ans must be driven from Italy." Louis XII. became more and more irritated and undecided. From 1 5 10 to 15 12 the war in Italy was thus proceeding, but with no great results, when Gaston de Foix, duke of Nemours, came to take the command of the French army. He was scarcely twenty-three, and had hith- erto only served under Trivulzio and La Palisse ; but he had already a char- acter for bravery and intelligence in war. Louis XII. loved this son of his sister Mary of Orleans, and gladly elevated him to the highest rank. Gaston, from the very first, justified this favor. Instead of seeking for glory in the field only, he began by shutting himself up in Milan, which the Swiss were besieging. They raised the siege and returned to their own country. The pope was besieging Bologna; Gaston arrived there suddenly with a body of troops whom he had marched out at night through a tempest of wind and 1513] FRANCE.— LOUIS XII. Zy snow, and he was safe inside the place while the besiegers were still ignorant of his movement. The siege of Bologna was raised. Gaston left it immcdi. ately to march on Brescia, v/hich the Venetians had taken possession of for the Holy League. He retook the town by a vigorous assault, gave it up to pillage, punished with death Count Louis Avogaro and his two sons, and gave a beating to the Venetian army before its walls. All these successes had been gained in a fortnight. Finally a decisive battle was fought at Ravenna (April nth), which cost the life of the heroic French commander. When the fatal news was known the consternation and grief were profound. At the age of twenty-three Gaston de Foix had, in less than six months, won the confidence and affection of the army, of the king, and of France. It was one of those sudden and undisputed reputations which seem to mark out men for the highest destinies. After this Julius II. won back all he had won and lost. Maximilian Sforza, son of Ludovicthe J:f(?^r, after twelve years of exile in Germany, returned to Milan to resume possession of his father's duchy. By the end of June, 15 12, less than three months after the victory of Ravenna, the domination of the French had disappeared from Italy. In 1 5 12 Ferdinand invaded Navarre, took possession of the Spanish portion of that little kingdom, and thence threatened Gascony. Henry VIII. , king of England, sent him a fleet which did not withdraw until after it had appeared before Bayonne and thrown the south-west of France into a state of alarm. In the north Henry VIII. continued his preparations for an expedi- tion into France, obtained from his parliament subsidies for that purpose, and concerted plans with Emperor Maximilian, who renounced his doubtful neutrality, and engaged himself at last in the Holy League. Louis XII. had in Germany an enemy as zealous almost as Julius II. was in Italy: Maxi- milian's daughter, Princess Marguerite of Austria, had never forgiven France or its king, whether he were called Charles VIII. or Louis XII., the treatment she had received from that court when, after having been kept there and brought up for eight years to become queen of France, she had been sent away, and handed back to her father, to make way for Anne of Brittany. The Swiss, on their side, became more and more pronounced against him, and haughtily styled themselves "■ vanquishers of kings and defenders of the holy Roman Church." And the Roman Church made a good defender of herself. Everywhere things were turning out according to the wishes and for the profit of the pope ; and France and her king were reduced to defending them- selves on their own soil against a coalition of all their great neighbors. On the 2 1 St of February, 15 13, ten months since Gaston de Foix, the victor of Ravenna, had perished in the hour of his victory. Pope Julius II. died at Rome at the very moment when he seemed invited to enjoy all the triumph of his policy. He died without bluster and without disquietude, disavowing naught of his past life and relinquishing none of his designs as to the future. The death of Julius II. seemed to Louis XII. a favorable oppor- tunity for once more setting foot in Italy, and recovering at least that which SS . FRANCE.— LOUIS XII. [1413 he regarded as his hereditary right,, the duchy of Milan. He commissioned Louis de la Trcmoille to go and renew the conquest. He had little difficulty in coming to an understanding with the Venetian senate ; and, on the 14th of May, 15 13, a treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, was signed at Blois between the king of France and the republic of Venice. Louis hoped also to find at Rome in the new pope, Leo X, [Cardinal John de' Medici, elected pope March nth, 1513], favorable inclinations; but they were at first very ambiguously and reservedly manifested. Louis had not and could not have any confidence in Ferdinand the Catholic ; but he knew him to be as prudent as he was rascally, and he concluded with him at Orthez, on the ist of April, 15 13, a year's truce, which Ferdinand took great care not to make known to his allies, Henry VIII., king of England, and the Emperor Maximilian. Conquerors at Novara, the Swiss drove the French from the duchy of Milan, which La Tremoille had reconquered ; in Burgundy they besieged Dijon ; in the north the combined troops of Maximilian and Flenry VIII. of England gained the battle of Guinegate. The truce of Orleans, followed by the treaty of Lo'ndon, put'a stop to these disasters, and the Italian question remained still undecided. When we consider this reign from this new point of view we are at once struck by two facts: ist, the great number of legislative and administrative acts that we meet with, bearing upon the general interests of the country, interests political, judicial, financial, and commercial ; the Recueil des Ordonnances dcs Rots de France contains forty-three important acts of this sort owing their origin to Louis XII.; it was clearly a government full of watchfulness, activity, and attention to good order and the public weal ; 2d, the profound remembrance remaining in succeeding ages of this reign and its deserts. Foreigners were not less impressed than the French themselves with the advance in order, activity, and prosperity which had taken place among the French community. Macchiavelli admits it, and, with the melancholy of an Italian politician acting in the midst of rivalries among the Italian republics, he attributes it above all to French unity, superior to that of any other State in Europe. Louis XII. 's private life also contributed to win for him, we will not say the respect and admiration, but the good-will of the public. Louis XII. was thrice married. His first wife, Joan, daughter of Louis XL, was an excellent and worthy princess, but ugly, ungraceful, and hump-backed. He had been almost forced to marry her, and he had no child by her. Louis married in 1499 his predecessor's widow, Anne, duchess of Brittany, twenty-three years of age, short, pretty, a little lame, witty, able, and firm. It was, on both sides, a marriage of policy. After a union of fifteen years, Anne of Brittany died on the 9th of January, 15 14, at the castle of Blois, nearly thirty-seven years old. Louis was then fifty-two. He seemed very much to regret his wife : but, some few months after her death, another marriage of policy was put, on his behalf, in course of negotiation. It was in connection with I5I5] FRANCE.— THE RENAISSANCE. 89 Princess Mary of England, sister of Henry VHL, on the 13th of August the Duke de Longueville, in his sovereign's name, espoused the Princess Mary at Greenwich ; and she, escorted to France by a brilHant embassy, arrived on the 8th of October at Abbeville, where Louis XH. was awaiting her. Mary Tudor had given up the German prince, who was destined to become Charles v., but not the handsome English nobleman she loved. The duke of Suffolk went to France to see her after her marriage, and in her train she had as maid of honor a young girl, a beauty as well, who was one day to be queen of England — Anne Boleyn. Less than three months after this marriage, on the 1st of January, 15 15, " the death-bell-men were traversing the streets of Paris, ringing their bells and crying, ' The good King Louis, father of the people, is dead.' " Louis Xn., in fact, had died that very day at midnight, from an attack of gout and a rapid decline. He died sorrowing over the concessions he had made from a patriotic sense of duty as much as from necessity, and full of disquietude about the future. vn. The Remissance and The Eeformation. 11. (1515-1559.) RANCIS L, his government and his times, commence the era of modern France, and bring* clearly to view the causes of her greatnesses and her weaknesses. When, on the ist of January, 15 15, he ascended the throne before he had attained his one and twentieth year, it was a brilliant and brave but spoilt child that became T^^ king. He had been under the governance of Artus "'*^ GoufRer, Sire de Boisy, a nobleman of Poitou, who had exerted himself to make his royal pupil a loyal knight well trained in the moral code and all the graces of knighthood, but without drawing his attention to more serious studies or preparing him for the task of government. The young Francis d'Angouleme lived and was molded under the influence of two women, his mother, Louise of Savoy, and his eldest sister, Marguerite, who both of them loved and adored him with passionate idolatry. The former princess gave her son neither moral principles nor a moral example. Of quite another sort were the character and sentiments of Marguerite de Valois. She was born on the nth of April, 1492, and was, therefore, only two years older than her brother Francis ; but her more delicate nature was • sooner and more richly cultivated and developed. She was brought up " with 90 FRANCE.— THE RENAISSANCE. [1515 strictness by a most excellent and most venerable dame, in whom all the virtues, at rivalry one with another, existed together." Marguerite learnt Latin, Greek, philosophy, and especially theology. Intellectual pursuits, however, were far from absorbing the whole of this young soul. " She," says a contemporary, " had an agreeable voice of touching tone which roused the tender inclinations that there are in the heart." Tenderness, a passionate tenderness, very early assumed the chief place in Marguerite's soul, and the first object of it was her brother Francis. The first acts of his government were sensible and of good omen. He confirmed or renewed the treaties or truces which Louis XII., at the close of his reign, had concluded with the Venetians, the Swiss, the pope, the king of England, and Archduke Charles and the Emperor Maximilian, in order to restore peace to his kingdom. At home Francis I. maintained at his council the principal and most tried servants of. his predecessor, among others the finance-minister, Florimond Robertet ; and he raised to four the number of the marshals of France, in order to confer that dignity on Bayard's valiant friend, James of Chabannes, lord of La Palice, who even under Louis XII. had been entitled by the Spaniards " the great marshal of France." At the same time he exalted to the highest offices in the State two new men, Charles, duke of Bourbon, who was still a mere youth but already a warrior of renown, and Anthony Duprat, the able premier president of the parliament of Paris ; the former he made constable, and the latter chancellor of France. These measures, together with the language and the behavior of Francis I. and the care he took to conciliate all who approached him, made a favorable impression on France and on Europe. The aged king of Spain, Ferdinand the Catholic, adopting the views of his able minister. Cardinal Ximenes, alone showed distrust and anxiety. It was announced at Rome that Francis I., having arrived at Lyons in July, 15 15, had just committed to his mother Louise the regency of the kingdom, and was pushing forward toward the Alps an army of sixty thousand men and a powerful artillery. It was clear that Francis I., though he had been but six months king, was resolved and impatient to resume in Italy, and first of all in Milanese, the war of invasion and conquest which had been engaged in by Charles VIII. and Louis XII. : and the league of all the States of Italy, save Venice and Genoa, with the pope for their half-hearted patron and the Swiss for their fighting men, were collecting their forces to repel the invader. On the 13th of September, 1515, the French encountered and defeated the Swiss at Melegnano, a town about three leagues from Milan ; this victory was the most brilliant day in the annals of this reign. The effect of the battle was great, in Italy primarily, but also throughout Europe. It was, at the commencement of a new reign and under the impulse communicated by a young king, an event which seemed to be decisive and likely to remain so for a long while. On the 14th of September, the day after the battle, the Swiss took the road back to their mountains. Francis I. entered Milan in triumph. Maximilian Sforza took refuge in the castle, and twenty days afterward, on I5i6] FRANCE.— THE RENAISSANCE. 91 the 4th of October, surrendered. Fifteen years afterward, in June, 1530, he died in oblivion at Paris. Francis I. regained possession of all Milaness, adding thereto, with the pope's consent, the duchies of Parma and Piacenza, which had been detached from it in 15 12. Two treaties, one of November 7th, 1515, and the other of November 29th, 1516, re-established not only peace but perpetual alliance between the king of France and the thirteen Swiss cantons, with stipulated conditions in detail. The pope guaranteed to France I. the duchy of Milan, restored to him those of Parma and Piacenza, and recalled his troops Avhich were still serving against the Venetians ; Francis I., on his side, guaranteed to the pope all the possessions of the Church, renounced the patronage of the petty princes of the ecclesiastical estate, and promised to uphold the family of Medici. In the course of an interview they had at Bologna, Leo X. obtained of Francis an agreement w^hich abolished the Pragmatic Sanction. Thus supported by the Holy See and by the Venetians, the king of France saw the road to Naples once more opened before his troops. The treaty of Noyon gave, during a short time, repose to Europe, and allowed the two rivals leisure for the preparing of a far more terrible war. Francis I. returned to Milan, leaving at Bologna, for the purpose of treating in detail the affair of the Pragmatic Sanction, his chancellor, Duprat, who had accompanied him during all his campaign as his adviser and negotiator. The Parliament of Paris was in its turn attacked, and Duprat having resolved to strike a great blow, an edict of January 31st, 1522, created within the parliament a fourth chamber, composed of eighteen councillors and two presidents, all of fresh and, no doubt, venal appointment, though the edict dared not avow as much. Francis I. could not have committed the negotiation with Leo X. in respect of Charles VII. 's Pragmatic Sanction to a man with more inclination and better adapted for the work to be accomplished. The Pragmatic Sanction had three principal objects : — 1. To uphold the liberties and the influence of the faithful in the government of the Church, by sanctioning their right to elect ministers of the Christian faith, especially parish priests and bishops. 2. To guarantee the liberties and rights of the Church herself in her relations with her head, the pope, by proclaiming the necessity for the regular intervention of councils and their superiority in regard to the pope. 3. To prevent or reform abuses in the relations of the papacy with the State and Church of France in the matter of ecclesiastical tribute, especially as to the receipt by the pope, under the name of annates, of the first year's revenue of the different ecclesiastical offices and benefices. The popes had all of them protested, since the days of Charles VII., against the Pragmatic Sanction as an attack upon their rights, and had demanded its abolition. The pope proposed that the Pragmatic, once for all abolished, should be replaced by a Concordat between the two sovereigns, and that this Concordat, while putting a stop to the election of the clergy by the faithful, should transfer to the king the right of nomination to bishoprics and 92 FRANCE.— THE RENAISSANCE. [1516 other great ecclesiastical offices and benefices, reserving to the pope the right of presentation of prelates nominated by the king. Francis I. and his chancellor saw in the proposed Concordat nothing but the great increment of influence it secured to them, by making all the dignitaries of the Church suppliants, at first, and then clients of the kingship. After some difficulties as to points of detail, the Concordat was concluded and signed on the i8th of August, 15 16. Seven months afterward it was registered, notwithstanding the opposition of the parliament and the university of Paris. The Concordat of 15 16 was not the only, but it was the gravest pact of alliance concluded between the papacy and the French kingship for the promotion mutually of absolute power. The death of Maximilian and the election of a new emperor were the proximate causes of the renewal of hostilities between Francis I. and Charles V. ; both these princes were candidates and by bestowing the imperial crown upon the latter, there is no doubt that the electors adopted the safest course ; but in doing so they gave the signal for a struggle of the most desperate and protracted character. Whatever pains were taken by Francis I. to keep up a good appearance after this heavy reverse, his mortification was profound and he thought of nothing but getting his revenge. He flattered himself he would find some- thing of the sort in a solemn interview and an appearance of alliance with Henry VHL, king of England, who had, like himself, just undergone in the election to the empire a less flagrant but an analogous reverse. It had already, in the previous year and on the occasion of a treaty concluded between the two kings for the restitution of Tournai to France, been settled that they should meet before long in token of reconciliation. The interview took place on the 31st of May, 1520, and is fully described in English history. A trial was made of Henry VIII. 's mediation and of a conference at Calais ; and a discussion was raised touching the legitimate nature of the protection afforded by the two rival sovereigns to their petty allies. But the real fact was that Francis I. had a reverse to make up for and a passion to gratify ; and the struggle recommenced in April, 1521, in the Low Countries. The campaign opened in the north, to the advantage of France, by the capture of Hesdin; Admiral Bonnivet, who had the command on the frontier of Spain, reduced some small forts of Biscay and the fortress of Fontarabia; and Marshal de Lautrec, governor of Milaness, had orders to set out at once to go and defend it against the Spaniards and Imperialists who were concentrating for its invasion. Lautrec was but little adapted for this Important commission, and did not succeed in preventing Milan from falling into the hands of the Imperialists, and, after an uncertain campaign of some months' duration, he lost at La Bicocca, near Monza, on the 27th of April, 1522, a battle, which left in the power of Francis I., in Lombardy, only the citadels of Milan, Cremona, and Novara. The funds for the payment of the army had been sent, but Louis of Savoy had kept them back out of hatred for Lautrec's sister, the duchess of SHOWING A CONNECTED HISTORY OF THE WORLD, 1200—1350. GERMANY. 1208 — OTHO crowned emperor at Rome. 17— Flftli crusade by Hungarians and Germans. 36 -Wai* with the Lombard league. 45— Hansiatic league formed. 73 -RUDOLF of Hapsburg emperor. 1310-HENRY VIL subdues Lombards. 13 -FREDERICK and LOUIS V. contend for the empire. , 22— LOUIS V. defeats FREDERICK at Muhldorf. 26— Turks invade Germany. FRANCE. 1209— Crusade against Albergeoise. 19— Germans defeated at Bovines. 29— Al berseolse defeated. 48— Eislitli crusade under LOUIS IX. .50— Saracens capture LOUIS ; ten years truce. 68— Nlntli crusade by LOUIS IX. and prince of Wales. 70-Deatli of LOUIS IX. at Carthage. 80— Massacre of Sicilians ; crusade against Aragon. 1302— First convocation of States-general. 28— House of Valvis begin to reign. 37— "War with Flanders. [Cressy. 46— AVar with England ; EDWARD victorious at 47 — Xlie English capture Calais. ENGLAND. 1204 — liossof Normandy. 8 — Papal interdict of England. 1 5 — Magna charta. 62-68— tVar of the barons. 65 — First regular parliament. 83— Union of England and Wales. 87— Jews banished. 1308, '15, '25— AVars with barons. 50— Order of the Garter. SCOTLAND. 1275— Wars of JOHN BALLIOL and ROBERT BRl^CE. 96— Scotland subdued by the English. 97- Scotland revolts ; days of \VALLACE. 99— Battle of Falkirk; Scots defeated by EDWARD I. 1303— EDWARD I. invades Scotland. 05— WILLIAM WALLACE executed in London. 14— EDWARD defeated by ROBERT BRUCE. 27— Independence of the Scots. 33— EDWARD defeats the Scots. 46— Battle of Dundee. IRELAND. 1201 — Munster laid waste by English barons. 10— Kins JOHN of England lands in Ireland. 13— HENRY DE LONDRES archbishop of Dublin. 77— THURLOUGH BRIAN treacherously slair. 81— Battle of Moyne. 16— Invasion of BRUCE. 1 6— Defeat of the Irish. 30-9— "Wars between the English. 34— Sir JNO. MORRIS sent to Ireland. 48— Black, death devastates the land. OTHER NATIONS. 1202— Fourth crusade. 3— donstantinople taken by crusaders. 4^Iiatlns 'ijvide Greece. 9— Inqnlsitlon established. 28— Sixth crusade. [stored. 29 — Ten years' truce with the sultan ; Jerusalem re- 35 — Mongolians invade Russia. [nada. 38— MOHAMMED I. founds Moorish kingdom of Gre- 39— Seventh crusade. 44 — Carismians seize Jerusalem. 50 — Egypt ruled by Mamelukes. 51 — Rise of the Medici family in Italy. 52— ALEXANDER I. reigns in Russia. 59— Pelcin built by KUBLA KHAN. 76 — House of Hapsburg founded in Austria. 91 — Acre taken by Mamelukes. 99 — Turkish Empire established. 1 300— Moscow capital of Russia. 8— Swiss revolt in Austria ; WILLIAM TELL. 21— DANTE died. 34— First doge of Genoa. 39 — The Colonna rise to power in Italy. 40 — "War in Spain ; Moors defeated. 47 — Democracy established by Rienzi. 1351—1450. 1356-The " Golden Bull " issued by CHARLES IV. 87— Division of the empire. 1410 — SIGISMUND of Hungary becomes emperor. . 15— JOHN HUSS burned at the stake. 16-19— "War with Prague. 35— Ii»vention of printing by Guttenberg. 38— Pragmatic sanction ; ALBERT, duke of Aus- tria, becomes emperor. 39 — Title of emperor to the house of Hapsburg. 40— i-KEDERICK III., who reigned from 1440-1493, was an avaricious and indolent prince, who neglected the interests of Germany for Austria. 1356— Battle of Poitiers; eight thousand English de- feat sixty thousand French : JOHN II. cap- tured by the " Black Prince. 68— Jacquerie insurrection. 60 — Peace of Brittany between England and France. 1415 — Battle of Agincourt; fifty thousand French de- feated by ten thousand English. 20— Paris captured by the English ; treaty of Troyes. 29— JOAN OF ARC raises siege of Orleans. 31— JOAN OF ARC burned at Rouen. 35 — Treaty of Arras with Burgiandy. 1356 — First book written in English. 62— English made the language of the realm. 80— Translation of the Bible by WYCLIFFE. 81— WAT TYLER'S insurrection put down. 85— Deathof JNO. WYCLIFFE, [English. 88— Battle of CHEVY CHASE between Scots and 97 — Iiollards or Wycliffites persecuted. 99— Order of the Bath. 1400— Death of CHAUCER and FROISSART. 1— Rebellion in Wales ; the PERCIESand GLEN- DOWERS defeated. [England. 22— HENRY VI. proclaimed long of France and 1371— ROBERT II. first of the Stuart line in Scotland. 141 1— liOW^landers defeat Highla* 37— JAMES I. murdered. 1367— Duke of Clarence viceroy. 77 — Earl of March viceroy. 94— RICHARD II. in Ireland. 1402— THOMAS, duke of Lancaster, vicei 4 — English defeated at Leix. 12— Ulster devastated by the O'NEILS. 25— EDWARD MORTIMER lord deputy. 46— Fearful plague. 1354- 65- 61 63- 67 69- 74- 75- 80- 90- 95- 96- 1402- 14- 22- 25- 30- 33 35- 45- -RIENZI slain. -Turks enter Greece. Italy overrun by the Free Lances. -Austria possesses the Tyrol. -Armenia conquered by Ihe Mamelukes. -Empire of TAMERLANE founded. -Death of Petrarch ; rebellion against the pope. -Death of BOCCACCIO. -The Tartars defeated by DIMITRI II. of Russia. -liOSS of power in Asia by the Eastern Empire. -Bussia invaded by Tartars. -Hungarian Christians defeated by Turks. -Turks defeated by Tartars ; BAJAZET I. cap- tured. -Pope JOHN XXIII. deposed ; council of Con- stance. -AMURATH II. reunites the Ottoman empire. -"War between Venice and Milan. -AMURATH II. conquers Macedonia. -liisbon capital of Portugal. Birth of COLUMBUS ; war between Venice and the Turks ; Sicily and Naples unite. -Birth of LEONARDO DA VINCI. Designed^op Say's Standard Histories, by ■WILLIAM GA" KJk ± V^jL X. JL-/ X X ^ X XV X w_^, [ENT AND MODERN, FROM 2800 B.C. TO 1884 A.D. 1451—1500. 92 — f nrks invade parts of Germany. 93— ]Peace with France ; German provinces restored. 99— Switzerland permanently separated from Ger- many. 53 — End of the French and English wars. 75— Invasion by EDWARD IV. 17 — Burgundy and Artois united to France. 93 — Treaty of Barcelona between France and Spain. 94— CHARLES VIII. invades Italy. 99— Frencto. seize Milan. 55 — "Wars of the Roses commenced. 81— HENRY VI. deposed by EDWARD IV. 11 — First printin? press established by WILLIAM CAXTON. 83— Murder of EDWARD V. in the Tower; RICH- ARD III. usurps the throne. 35— Death of RICHARD III. on Bosworth field : HENRY VII. succeeds. 87— Institution of Star Chamber. 92— HENRY VII. sells the sovereignty of France. 94— liOllards persecuted. 98— insurrection of Perkin Warbeck. 5»-JAMES II. murders DOUGLAS. 82— Earl of Desmond lord deputy ; battle of PiHtown. 67— Earl of Desmond beheaded 87— LAMBERT SIMNEL crowned at Dublin as ED- WARD VI. 92— WARBECK plot promulgated. MERICA. Inhabited by Indian tribes. 92— COLUMBUS discovers West Indies. 97— JOHN CABOT and son discover North America. 99— AMERIGO VESPUCCI discovers America. S3 — MOHAMMED conquers Constantinople ; end of Eastern Empire ; FREDERICK III. creates archduchy of Austria. 56— Hungarians repulse the Turks at the battle of Belgrade. 60— Greece conquered by the Turks. 62— Modern Russian Empire founded by IVAN the Great. 63— "War between Turks and Venice. 74— FERDINAND and ISABELLA reign in Spain; birth of MICHAEL ANGELO. 77— Hoi land annexed to Austria. 79— A R AGON and CASTILE unite. 80— Moiiffolian power in Russia overthrown. 84— Turks invade Spain. 88— "War between Sweden and Ru.ssia. 97— Passage to India discovered by PASCO DE GAMA. 1501—1550. 1517— Reformation under LUTHER begins. 19 — CHARLES V. of Spain made emperor. 21 — LUTHER excommunicated ; diet at Worms. 22— Bible and liturgy translated by LUTHER. 27— Rome captured. 29— Diet at Spires. 30— Au.sburg confession. fkald. 31— Frotestant princes form the league of Smal- 34— Anabaptrsts' war; Munster captured. 36— .\iiaba|>tist8 suppressed. 46- Ueatii of LUTHER. 46 52 AVar on the Protestants by CHARLES V., iht-y are assisted by HENR"/ II., of France, 1503— Spain invaded by LOUIS XII. 8 — League of Cambray. 11- Fope JULIUS II. forms the Holy League. 13— Euglisii invasion. 20—" Field of the Cloth of Gold." 25— Battle of Pavia ; defeat and capture of FRAN- CIS I. 29— Peace of Cambria. 32— Brittany annexed. 44— Englisli invasion. 46— Treaty of Peace with England. 15- FRANCIS I. invades Italy; defeats Germans, Swiss and Italians. 1509— HENRY VIII. marries CATHERINE of Aragon. 13— Invasion of England by JAMES IV. of Scot- land; Scots defeated. 29— Fall of Cardinal WOLSEY. 33— HENRY VIII. marries ANNE BOLEYN. 34 — Papal supremacy denied. 36— AN5fE BOLEYN executed; HENRY marries Lady JANE SEYMOUR. 37— liady JANE SEYMOUR dies. 38— Monasteries suppressed. 40— HENRY marries ANNE of Cleves : is divorced and marries CATHERINE HOWARD. 42— Execution of CATHERINE HOWARD. 43— HENRY marries CATHERINE PARR. 49— Execution of Lord SEYMOUR. 1540 — MARY proclaimed queen of Scots. 46— CARDINAL BEATON assassinated. 1534-FITZGERALD rebels. 42-HENRY VIII. of England takes the Utle of king of Ireland. 1513— BALBOA discovers the Pacific. 19 — Iianding of Cortez in Mexico. 24— Settlement of New France. 41 — Tlie Mississippi discovered by De Soto. 1500-2 — Spanish Moors suppressed and compelled to adopt Christianity. [eracy. -Basle and Schafthausen join the Swiss confed- >— Holland under CHARLES V. of Spain. )— Invasion of Russia by Tartars. t- Spain annexes Navarre. -First foothold in China by Europeans ; Egypi ;innexed to Ottoman Empire. -Italian league against France. -Hungarians defeated by Turkey ; Mogul dy- nasty founded in India ; Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria. ) — Turks overrun Austria for a long period. -CHARLES V. of Spain conquers Italy ; progress of the reformation in Switzerland. )— Ottoman power in Greece. -Oreat Tartar invasion repelled. -Confederacy joined by the Grison league. 1- 6- 10- 12- 17- 23- 26- 29- 30- 40- 41- 44- CHART V. FROM 1200 TO 1550 A.D. 56 Chapel St.. New Haven. Conn. COPYBIGHT 1883. GAY'S chrc:nOlogical charts, SHOWING A CONNECTED HISTORY OF THE WORLD, Ax\XIEXT AND MODERN, FROM ^SOO B.C. TO 1881 A.D. 1200-1350. GERMANY. J 208 OTHf; trown'fl (rciipcrr.r at Rome. 1 7 FlCtli ' rusadc by Hungarians and Germans. 30 U'ar wi-li ' .(• Lombard league. '15 IlHIiNlat:^ ieaKUf formed 7;{ i<()/jOM' of Hajmburi; emperor. 1310 -UENKV VII. subduCH Ix.mbards. !».- I'KKUKKICK and LOUIS V. contend for the aa I,o':''(s' V'. defeat* FRKUERICK at MUhldorf. 20 Til rk» invade Germany. FRAN'CE. I20f» l» 20 IN ■ 50 ON 70 NO ISO'i 2H :i7 40 47 (:rilNa:eoi»c. (ilcriiinnM defeated at Hovincs. ;i I >><• rtioolmi defeated. ICiirlilli ' n.sade under LOUIS IX. Hnriu-o.itM . a|iiM reign. War with I'l.inders. [Crcssy. War willj Knglaiid ; KOWARD victorious at 'I'Ik; iviiglisli capture Calais. KN(;LANn. 1204- l>OHHof Normandy. H— Papal inlerdiet of Kngland. 15 iriauiin I Ijarla. 02 OS «'ar..f tlie barons. 05 Ifli-Nl trioil.ir parliament. H» IHiloiiol I'.ii^'land and Wales. 87 .Ic\VNb.mi'.hed. 1S08, M5, '25 Warn with barons. 60 Ordor of the (iarter. SCOTLAND. 1275 Ward of JOHN HALLIOL and ROBERT IIUIMK. 00 Nl-otlaiKl subdued by tlic Kni'Iish. 07 NrodaiKl revolts; days of WAI. LACK. ■laUloof Kalkirk; Seoisdcfeated by KUWARD I. I'.KWAUI) I. invades Scotland. Willi AM W A I. LACK executed ni London. I'-.DWAKI) .lef< aieil by ROHKRT HkUCE. Iii|>i'iiiiIc t.tkcn by crus.tdcrs. l.iKliiN In ide Greece. 1ii<||||nIII(>ii established. Sl\lli ctus.ule. fstored. 1<>|| ve.iis iruce with the sultan ; Jerusalem re- nioiiu'ollaiiN invaile Russia. fnada Ml 1)1 \mmi.;d I. fiHinds Moorish kinirdomof Gre- -Sovoiilli inisade. riirlNiiilaiiN ■.ei.e lernsulcm. IC'iV|»< Mil.ai.v Mamelukes. Ulsr ol tlio Meo\viandcrN defeat Highla* 37— JAMES I. murdered. 1367— Dnke of Clarence viceroy. 77- Earl of M.trch viceroy. 94-RICHARD II. in Irel.ind. 1402 -THOMAS, duke of Lancaster, vicei 4— Kn;;llHli defeated at Leix. 1 2—1) letter devastated by the O'NEILS. 25-EDWARD MORTIMER lord deputy. 46— FcarAil plague. 1354-RIENZI slain. 56 - TiirkH enter Greece. 61 Italy overrun by the Free Lances. 03 — . I list r la possesses the Tyrol 67— .\rmenla conquered bv the .Mamelukes. OO-Kmplro of TAMERLANE founded. 74- Death of Petrarch ; rebellion against the pope. 75-Deatli of BOCCACCIO. 80— The Tartars defeated by DIMITRI II. of Russia. 90— L.OKM of power in Asia by the Eastern Empire. 95— Riisula inv.tded by Tartars. 96— Hiui'rarlan Christians defeated by Turks. 1402-Turk» defeated by Tartars ; B.MAZET I. cap- tured. 14-Pope JOHN XXIII. deposed ; council of Con- stance. 22— AMl'RATH II. reunites the Ottoman empire. 2.5 — War between Venice and Milan. SO— AMl'RATH II. conquers Macedonia. S3 -Lisbon capital of Portugal. 35- Birth of COLUMBUS; war between Venice and the Turks ; Sicily and Naples unite. 45-BirtIi of LEONARDO DA VINCI. 1451—1500. 1492-Tnrk8 invade parts of C»crmanv. 93— Peace with France : German provinces restored. 99— Switzerland permanently separated from Ger- many. 1453— End of the French and English wars. 75-Iiiva(iiouby EDWARD IV. 77— Burgundy and Artois united to France. 93 -Treaty of Barcelona between France and Spain. 94-CHARl.ES VIII. invades Italy. "^ 99— French seize Milan. 14.5.?— W^ars of the Roses commenced. 61 -HENRY VI. deposed by EDWARD IV. 71— First printing press established by WILLIAM CA.XTON. 83— Murder of EDWARD V. in the Tower; RICH- .AKD III. usurps the throne. 85-Death of RICHARD III. on Bosworth field • HENRY VII. succeeds. 87— IiiKtltiition of Star Chamber. 92— HENRY VII. sells the sovereignty of France. 94— Eiollards persecuted. 08— lusurrectiou of Pcrkin Warbeck. 145!t-JAMES 11. murders DOUGLAS. 1 462— Earl of Desmond lord deputy ; battle of PiHtown 67— Earl of Desmond beheacled 87-LAMBERT SIMNEL crowned at Dublin as ED. 92— WARBECK plot promulgated. AMERICA. Inhabited by Indian tribes. 1492-COLUMBUS discovers West Indies. 97— JOHN CABOT and son discover North America 99-AMERIGO VESPUCCI discovers America 1453— MOHAMMED conquers Constantinople- end of Eastern Empire; FREDERICK III. creates archduchy of .Austria. 66— Hiingariaun repulse the Turks at the battle of Belgrade. Greece conquered by the Turks. inudern Russian Empire founded by IVAN the Great. War between Turks and Venice. FERDINAND and ISABELLA reign in Spain: birth of MICHAEL ANGELO. Holland annexed to Austria. .A R AGON and CASTILE unite. Moiisolian power in Russia overthrown. TiirkH invade Spain. AVar between Sweden and Russia. Paosase to India discovered by PASCO DE GAMA. 60 62- 63- 74- 77 79 80 84 88- 97- 1501—1550. -Reroriuation under LUTHER begins. -L H.VKI.ES V. of S(viin lu.ule emperor. -I-l niKR excoiumunicateii ; diet at Worms. Bible .uid liturgy trai\slated by LUTHER. Konie captured. -Diet at Spirvs. .\ ii.x b II rs con fession. I kald ProlcMlHiit princes fonn the leagtie of Smal- \iiiil>M|ili.«|K< w.ir ; Munster captured. Aiiabaiitlst.ssunpiesstHl. Ueatii 01 l.l ITIER. 52 War on the Protestants bv Til VK 1 IS V., they aie assisted by llENKV U , ot I i.uioo, 1503 Spain invaded by LOl'lS XU. S ' League of Camhray. 1 I Pope U'l.U'S U. lorms the Holy Leagi 1517 19 21 22 27 29 30 :u :.a«ro ol l,.,Ti! DAKNI.I'.Y and MARY. (1(1 Kl/./.IO linii.li-iril hy DAKNI.I'.Y. 07- DARN I.I': V , .;.r.in.ir,l; iM A R Y marries HOTII- Wl''.l.l, ; '.li. .ili.li' .11. .; I';arl MURRAY re(,'ent. 68— MARY lirli Ml' 'I It I .'Ml ■.idc; escapes from pris- on; srik'. .li. Ii. I Ml l',ii(,'land. 70- ITHii-l'',/, founds St. Aupustine. 70 !• R01USIU';R at San Eranciseo bay. 70-DRAKE on the Pucilic coast. OTHER NATIONS. 1666 - PHILIP II. of S|.aiii eoven.s Holland. 02 Union of Kiissi.i .md Sweden apainst Poland. 70 T\v«>n«y-liv<- ilions.ind people massacred by IVAN the Ten il.le ol Russia. |of Lcpanlo. 71 Tartnrn burn Moscow ; I'urks defeated ; battle 72 Kobclllonof WILLIAM of Oranjre. 70 l*«>afO of Ghent. 79 l.oaa;iio of Utrecht. 80- IN>rtil«:al con.nurcil bv A1.V.\ of Spain. 8-1 WILLIAM of Or.in-e .iss.issinated. 86 I'rIiK'c of I'-.uin.i subdues southern provinces 87- rrliM'o MAURU'K siadl-holder. 08— Ncthorlainlx ceded to .Xustria. 00— Apciizcl joins Uie Swiss Cantons. CHART VL FROM 1551 TO 1719 A.D. 1600—1639. 1618— Thirty Years' War commenced. [Palatine. 20- Battle of Pratnie ; total overthrow of the elector 30 Invasion by GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS of Sweden. [PHUS at the battle of Lutzen. 32— Victory and death of GUSTAVUS ADOL- 1610-RAVAILAC a-ssassinates HENRY IV.; MA- RIA DE' .MEDICI regent. 20— Navarre annexed. 24— RICHELIEU'S administration. 28— RICHELIEU reduces Rochelle. 31— Treaty of Cherasco (Italy;. 34— luvaMiou by Spaniards. 1600— East India Company chartered. 1— Karl of Esse.x executed. 3-Deatli of Queen ELIZABETH. 5— tiunpowder Plot. 1 1— JAMES I. creates title of baronet. 14— Portiijriiene defeated in Rombay. 16-I»eatli of SHAKESPEARE. IS-lCxceutlon of Sir WALTER RALEIGH. 21 -l<<>rJ discovers Hudson River. Now York built by the Dutch (New Amster- dam). Introduction of slavery in Virginia. Purttanni land .at Plymouth. Settlement of New Hampshire. Settlenientof Delaware by Swedes and Dutch. French pos.sessions in Canada seized by Eng- lish ; Mas,sachusetts Bay Colony. BoHton founded. [to Lord BALTIMORE. <'anand alliance ac.unst France. 97— Ponce ol Ryswicii ends war with England, Hol- land, Germanv ,\nd Spain. 98— Spain cedes lerViiorv ; hr.st partition treaty. 1701-AlUaucc with Spain. 2— W'ar 01 ihe Sii.imsli .suceessiou— England, Aus* tri.i and Holland opposed to France and Spaioi 6— Battle of Ramilies ; French defeated. 7— War with Knghuid, Germany and Holland. i 13-Trcaty of Utrecht. 15-Moathof LOUISXlVJ 1683-Ryol Plot • Lord RUSSELL and ALGER. •o House plot ; Lord RUSS NON SIONkV executed. 85— MONMOU IMS rebellion .md execution. 88— Tlie seven bishops mod .md acquitted ; arrival of the prmoe ol Orange; JAMES II. abdicate* and llees 1,1 I'l.iiue. 89- W1LI.I.\M .md MARY proclaimed. 92— National delu lu-f^ins, [MAR'V. ,-5^"^~7,".i"''*^ '" Ennl.uid lonnded; death of OuccO 1704-6-9-MARl.KORCH.'t;H victorious. 7— Scon .\Ni> .\M> Knc.i.anii UNrrKii .\sGkkat Bkitaik, 8- French M|ii.uln.n routed by .'Vdmiral HYNG. 10 s»< liiveiiiirs II,, is. rr 14 Ha 11 overla II MK cession begins with GKORGB 15 Scolcli I rlielli. .11 suppressed. 19 -Ostciltl l';.isl India Company founded. 1685— Rebellion and execution of ARGYLB. 89— Clavcrhouso— rebellion suppressed. Designed for Gay's Stundard Histories, by "WTLLIAM GAY ii C!o., 256 Chapel St.. New Haven, Conn. COPYBIGHT 1883. 90— WILLIAM III. in Ireland -the battle of the Hoyoe and defeat of JAMES II. 91— Treaty of Limerick, which deprives JAMES o£ power and bestows amnesty to all his adhcr> 1704— Irisli " po|)ery " act jiasscd. lents, 14~Ireland loval to (JEORGE I. during the rebell- ion of JAMES HI., the Pretender. 1682-PENN settles Pennsylvania; LA SALLE on the Mississippi ; names Louisiana. 8 5 Texas colonized. 89- Klnu WILLIAM'S War; French and Indian wars; failure of Canadian exiiedilioii. 92-Salem wiihcraft. 1701- Detroit founded. 1702-Queen A.NNl'.'S war; treaty of p'rench with I' ive Nations ; Massachusetts frontier ravaged, 10— Port Royal i;iken .ind called Annapolis. ll-\Vr itself everywhere animated and excited by a breath of |a youth. There were congratulations on escaping from the well-known troubles of a regency ; the king's ingenuous inexperience, more- over, opened a vast field for the most contradictory hopes. The ^ philosophers counted upon taking possession of the mind of a good young sovereign, who was said to have his heart set upon his peo- Sl pie's happiness; the clergy and the Jesuits themselves expected everything from the young prince's pious education ; the old parliaments^ mutilated, crushed down, began to raise up their heads again, while the economists were already preparing their most daring projects. The painters, the sculptors and the architects of France were sufficient for her glory ; only Gretry and Monsiguy upheld the honor of that French music which was attacked by Grimm and by Jean Jacques Rousseau ; but it was at Paris that the great quarrel went on between the Italians and the Germans. Piccini and Gluck divided society, wherein their rivalry excited violent passions. Everywhere and on all questions, intellectual movement was becoming animated with fresh ardor , France was marching toward the region of storms, in the blindness of her confidence and joyance ; the atmosphere seemed purer since Madame Dubarry had been sent to a convent by one of the first orders of young Louis XVL Already, however, farseeing spirits were disquieted : scarcely had he mounted the throne, when the king summoned to his side, as his minister, M. de Maurepas, but lately banished by Louis XV., in 1749, on a charge of having tolerated, if not himself written, songs disrespectful toward Madame de Pompadour ; in the place of the duke of Aiguillon, who had the ministry of war and that of foreign affairs both together, the count of Muy and the count of Vergennes were called to power. Some weeks later, the obscure minister of marine, M. de Boynes, made way for the superintendent of the district {^generalite) of Limoges, M. Turgot. 1789] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 249 Intimately connected with the most esteemed magistrates and econo- mists, such as MM. Trudaine, Quesnay, and Gournay, at the same time that he was writing in the Encyclopedia, and constantly occupied in useful work, Turgot was not yet five-and-thirty when he was appointed superintendent of the district of Limoges. There, the rare faculties of his mind and his sincere love of good found their natural field ; the country was poor, crushed under imposts, badly intersected by roads badly kept, inhabited by an igno- rant populace, violently hostile to the recruitment of the militia. He encouraged agriculture, distributed the talliages more equitably, amended the old roads and constructed new ones, abolished forced labor {corv^es), provided for the wants of the poor and wretched during the dearth of 1770 and 1 77 1, and declined, successively, the superintendentship of Rouen, of Lyons, and of Bordeaux, in order that he might be able to complete the use- ful tasks he had begun at Limoges. It was from that district that he was called to a seat in the new cabinet. Scarcely had he been installed in the department of marine, and begun to conceive vast plans, when the late ministers of Louis XV. succumbed at last beneath the popular hatred ; in the place of Abbe Terray, M. Turgot became comptroller-general. The old parliamentarians were triumphant ; at the same time as Abbe Terray, Chancellor Maupeou was disgraced, and the judicial system he had founded fell with him. Unpopular from the first, the Maupeou parliament had remained in the nation's eyes the image of absolute power corrupted and corrupting. The suit between Beaumarchais and Councillor Goezman had contributed to decry it, thanks to the uproar the able pamphleteer had managed to cause ; the families of the former magistrates were powerful, numerous, esteemed, and they put pressure upon public opinion. Imper- turbable and haughty as ever, Maupeou retired to his estate at Thuit, near the Andelys, where he drew up a justificatory memorandum of his ministry, w^hich he. had put into the king's hands, without ever attempting to enter the court or Paris again ; he died in the country, at the outset of the revolution- ary storms, on the 29th of July, 1792, just as he had made the State a patri- otic present of eight hundred thousand livres. At the moment when the populace were burning him in efifigy in the streets of Paris together with Abbe Terray, when he saw the recall of the parliamentarians, and the work of his whole life destroyed, he repeated with his usual coolness : " If the king is pleased to lose his kingdom — well, he is master." Abb^ Terray had been less proud, and was more harshly treated. It was in vain that he sought to dazzle the young king with ably prepared memo- rials , he had to refund nearly nine hundred thousand livres to the public treasury. Being recognized by the mob as he was passing over the Seine in a ferry boat, he had some difficulty in escaping from the hands of those who would have hurled him into the river. After his first interview with the king, at Compicgnc, M. Turgot wrote to Louis XVI. :— " Your Majesty has been graciously pleased to permit me to place before your eyes the engagement you took upon yourself, to support 250 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 me in the executian of plans of economy which are at all times, and now more than ever, indispensable. I confine myself for the moment, sir, to reminding you of these three expressions : — First degree, No bankruptcies ; Second degree, No augmentation of imposts ; Third degree, No loans." M. Turgot set to work at once. While governing his district of Limoges, he had matured numerous plans and shaped extensive theories. He belonged to his times and to the school of the philosophers as regarded his contempt for tradition and history ; it was to natural rights alone, to the innate and primitive requirements of mankind that he traced back his principles and referred as the basis for all his attempts. Two fundamental principles regulated the financial system of M. Turgot, economy in expenditure and freedom in trade ; everywhere he ferreted out abuses, abolishing useless offices and payments, exacting from the entire administration that strict probity of which he set the example. Louis XVI. supported him conscientiously at that time in all his reforms : the public made fun of it. It was on account of his financial innovations that the comp- troller-general particularly dreaded the return of the old parliament with which he saw himself threatened every day. On the 12th of November, 1774, the old parliament was formally restored, subjected, however, to the same jurisdiction which had controlled the Maupeou parliament. The latter had been sent to Versailles to form a grand council there. The re- stored magistrates grumbled at the narrow limits imposed upon their authority ; the duke of Orleans, the duke of Chartres, the prince of Conti supported their complaints ; it was in vain that the king for some time met them with refusals ; threats soon gave place to concessions ; and the parlia- ments everywhere reconstituted, enfeebled in the eyes of public opinion, but more than ever obstinate and Fronde-like, found themselves free to harass, without doing any good, the march of an administration becoming every day more difficult. M. Turgot, meanwhile, was continuing his labors, preparing a project for equitable redistribution of the talliage and his grand system of a gradu- ated scale ijiier archie) of municipal assemblies^ commencing with the parish, to culminate in a general meeting of delegates from each province ; he threatened, in the course of his reforms, the privileges of the noblesse and of the clergy, and gave his mind anxiously to the instruction of the people, whose condition and welfare he wanted to simultaneously elevate and augment ; already there was a buzz of murmurs against him, confined as yet to the courtiers, when the dearness of bread and the distress which ensued in the spring of 1775 furnished his adversaries with a convenient pretext. Up to that time the attacks had been cautious and purely theoretical. M. Necker, an able banker from Geneva, for a long while settled in Paris, hand and glove with the philosophers, and keeping up, moreover, a great establishment, had brought to the comptroller-general a work which he had just finished on the trade in grain ; on many points he did not share M. Turgot's opinions. " Be kind enough to ascertain for yourself," said the banker to the minister, 1779] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 251 "whether the book can be pubhshed without inconvenience to the govern- ment." M. Turgot was proud and sometimes rude : " Publish, sir, pubHsh." said he, without offering his hand to take the manuscript, "the pubHc shall decide." M. Necker, out of piquc, published his book , it had an immense sale ; other pamphlets, more violent and less solid, had already appeared , at the same moment a riot, which seemed to have been planned and to be under certain guidance, broke out in several parts of France. Drunken men shouted about the public thoroughfares, " Bread ! cheap bread ! " Serious damage was done throughout France to property, and even to provisions ; barns were burnt, farm-houses plundered, wheat thrown into the river, and sacks of flour ripped to pieces before the king's eyes at Versailles. At last the troubles began to subside, and the merchants recovered their spirits; M. Turgot had at once sent fifty thousand francs to a trader whom the rioters had robbed of a boat full of wheat which they had flung into the river ; two of the insurgents were at the same time hanged at Paris on a gallows forty feet high, and a notice was sent to the parish-priests, which they were to read from the pulpit in order to enlighten the people as to the folly of such outbreaks, and as to the conditions of the trade in grain. Severities were hateful to the king ;. he had misjudged his own character, when, at the outset of his reign, he had desired the appellation of Lout's Ic Severe. " Have we nothing to reproach ourselves with in these measures?" he was incessantly asking M. Turgot, who was as conscientious, but more resolute, than his master. An amnesty preceded the coronation, Avhich was to take place at Reims on the nth of June, 1775. A grave question presented itself as regarded the king's oath : should he swear, as the majority of his predecessors had sworn, to exterminate heretics ? M. Turgot had aroused Louis XVI. 's scruples upon this subject : " Tolerance ought to appear expedient in point of policy for even an infidel prince," he said ; " but it ought to be regarded as a sacred duty for a religious prince." The clergy, scared by the minister's liberal tendencies, reiterated their appeals to the king against the liberties tacitly accorded to Protestants. " Finish," they said to Louis XVI., " the work which Louis the Great began, and which Louis the Well-beloved continued." The king answered with vague assurances ; already MM. Turgot and de Malesherbes were entertaining him with a project which conceded to Protestants the civil status. M. de Malesherbes, indeed, had been for some months past seconding his friend in the weighty task which the latter had undertaken. Called to the ministry in the place of the duke of La Vrilliere, his first care was to protest against the sealed letters ilettres de cachet — summary arrest), the application whereof he was for putting in the hands of a special tribunal ; he visited the Bastile, releasing the prisoners confined on simple suspicion. He had already dared to advise the king to a convocation of the States-general. Almost the whole ministry was in the hands of reformers ; a sincere desire to do good impelled the king toward those who promised him the happiness of his people. The Count de St. Germain, who succeeded M. <\c 252 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 Muy at the war-office, had conceived a thousand projects of reform ; he wanted to apply them all at once. He made no sort of case of the picked corps, and suppressed the majority of them, thus irritating, likewise, all the privileged. The enthusiasm which had been excited by the new minister of war had disappeared from among the officers ; he lost the hearts of the soldiers by wanting to establish in the army the corporal punishments in use among the German armies in which he had served. The feeling was so strong that the attempt was abandoned. Violent and weak both together, in spite of his real merit and his genuine worth, often giving up wise resolutions out of sheer embarrassment, he nearly always failed in what he undertook ; the outcries against the reformers were increased thereby ; the faults of M. de St. Germain were put down to M. Turgot. He had proposed to the king six edicts ; two were extremely important ; the first abolished jurorships [jurandes) and masterships {inaitriscs) among the workmen : " The king," said the preamble, " wishes to secure to all his subjects, and especially to the humblest, to those who have no property but their labor and their industry, the full and entire enjoyment of their rights, and to reform, consequently, the institutions which strike at those rights, and which, in spite of their antiquity, have failed to be legalized by time, opinion and even the acts of authority." The second substituted for forced labor on roads and highways an impost to which all proprietors were equally liable. This was the first step toward equal redistribution of taxes ; great was the explosion of disquietude and wrath on the part of 'the privileged ; it showed itself first in the council, by the mouth of M. de Miromesnil ; Turgot sprang up with animation. " The keeper of the seals," he said, " seems to adopt the principle that, by the constitution of the State, the noblesse ought to be exempt from all taxation. This idea will appear a paradox to the majority of the nation. The commoners {roturiers) are certainly the greatest number, and we are no longer in the days when their voices did not count." The king listened to the discussion in silence. " Come," he exclaimed abruptly, " I see that there are only M. Turgot and I here who love the people," and he signed the edicts. The comptroller-general was triumphant ; but his victory was but the prelude to his fall. Too many enemies were leagued against him, irritated both by the noblest qualities of his character, and at the same time by the natural defects of his manners. He fought single-handed. M. de Male- sherbes, firm as a rock at the head of the Court of Aids, supported as he was by the traditions and corporate feeling of the magistracy, had shown weakness as a minister. The two friends fell together. M. Turgot had espied the danger and sounded some of the chasms just yawning beneath the feet of the nation as well as of the king ; he committed the noble error of believing in the instant and supreme influence of justice and reason. Had he been longer in power, M. Turgot would still have failed in his designs. The life of one man was too short, and the hand of one man too weak, to modify the course of events ; fruit slowly ripened during so many centuries. It was 1789J FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 253 to the honor of M. Turgot that he discerned the mischief and would fain have apphed the proper remedy. He was often mistaken about the means, oftener still about the strength he had at disposal. He had the good fortune to die early, still sad and anxious about the fate of his country, without having been a witness of the catastrophes he had foreseen and of the sufferings as well as wreckage through which France must pass before touching at the haven he would fain have opened to her. The joy of the courtiers was great, at Versailles, when the news arrived of M. Turgot's fall ; the public regretted it but little ; the inflexible severity of his principles, which he never veiled by grace of manners, a certain disquietude occasioned by the chimerical views which were attributed to him, had alienated many people from him. His real friends were in con- sternation. A few months later M. de St. Germain retired in his turn, not to Alsace again, but to the Arsenal with forty thousand livres for pension. The first, the great attempt at reform, had failed ; a vain attempt had been made to establish the government on the soundest as well as the most moderate principles of pure philosophy ; at home a new attempt, bolder and at the same time more practical, was soon about to resuscitate for awhile the hopes of liberal minds ; abroad and in a new world there was already a commence- ment of events which were about to bring to France a revival of glory and to shed on the reign of Louis XVI. a moment's legitimate and brilliant luster. The Seven Years' War was ended, shamefully and sadly for France; M. de Choiseul, who had concluded peace with regret and a bitter pang, was ardently pursuing every means of taking his revenge. To foment disturb- ances between England and her colonies appeared to him an efficacious and a natural way of gratifying his feelings. " There is great difficulty in governing States in the days in which we live," he wrote to M. Durand, at that time French minister in London ; " still greater difficulty in governing those of America ; and the difficulty approaches impossibility as regards those of Asia. I am very much astonished that England, which is but a very small spot in Europe, should hold dominion over more than a third of America, and that her dominion should have no other object but that of trade. . . . As long as the vast American possessions contribute no subsidies for the support of the mother-country, private persons in England will still grow rich for some time on the trade with America, but the State will be undone for want of means to keep together a too extended power ; if, on the contrary, England proposes to establish imposts in her American domains, when they are more extensive and perhaps more populous than the mother- country, when they have fishing, woods, navigation, corn, iron, they will easily part asunder from her, without any fear of chastisement, for England could not undertake a war against them to chastise them." He encouraged his agents to keep him informed as to the state of feeling in America, welcoming 254 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 and studying all projects, even the most fantastic, that might be hostile to England. (See American history.) On the loth of January, 1776, three weeks before the declaration of inde- pendence, M. de Vergennes secretly remitted a million to M. de Beaumarchais ; two months later the same sum was entrusted to him in the name of the king of Spain. Beaumarchais alone was to appear in the affair and to supply the insurgent Americans with arms and ammunition. "You will found," he had been told, " a great commercial house, and you will try to draw into it the money of private individuals ; the first outlay being now provided, we shall have no further hand in it ; the affair would compromise the government too much in the eyes of the English." It was under the style and title of Rodrigo Hortalez and Co. that the first installment of supplies, to the extent of more than three millions, was forwarded to the Americans ; and, notwithstanding the hesitation of the ministry and the rage of the English, other installments soon followed. Beaumarchais was henceforth personally interested in the enterprise ; he had commenced it from zeal for the American cause and from that yearning for activity and initiative which characterized him even in old age. " I should never have succeeded in fulfilling my mission here without the indefatigable, intelligent and generous efforts of M. de Beaumarchais," wrote Silas Deane to the secret committee of Congress : " the United States are more indebted to him, on every account, than to any other person on this side of the ocean." The hereditary sentiments of Louis XVI. and his monarchical principles, as well as the prudent moderation of M. Turgot, retarded at Paris the nego- tiations which caused so much ill-humor among the English, and which Silas Deane and Franklin were endeavoring to bring to a satisfactory issue , M. de Vergennes still preserved, in all diplomatic relations, an apparent neutrality. " It is my line {inMer), you see, to be a royalist," the emperor Joseph II. had said during a visit he had just paid to Paris, when he was pressed to declare in favor of the American insurgents ; at the bottom of his he.art the king of France was of the same opinion ; he had refused the permission to serve in America which he had been asked for by many gentlemen : some had set off without waiting for it ; the most important as well as the most illustrious of them all, the marquis of La Fayette, was not twenty years old when he slipped away from Paris, leaving behind his young wife close to her confinement, to go and embark upon a vessel which he had bought, and which, laden with arms, awaited him in a Spanish port ; arrested by order of the court, he evaded the vigilance of his guards ; in the month of July, 1777, he disembarked in America. Washington did not like France, he did not share the hopes which some of his fellow-countrymen founded upon her aid ; he made no case of the young volunteers who came to enroll themselves among the defenders of indepen- dence and whom Congress loaded with favors. " No bond but interest attaches these men to America," he would say, '* and, as for France, she only lets us set our munitions from her because of the benefit her commerce derives from 1789J FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 255 it." Prudent, reserved and proud, Washington looked for America's salvation to only America herself ; neither had he foreseen, nor did he understand that enthusiasm, as generous as it is unreflecting, which easily takes possession of the French nation, and of which the United States were just then the object. M. de La Fayette was the first who managed to win the general's affection and esteem. A great yearning for excitement and renown, a great zeal for new ideas and a certain political perspicacity had impelled M. de La Fayette to America ; he showed himself courageous, devoted, more judicious and more able than had been expected from his youth and character. Washington came to love him as a son. The great and strong common sense of the Amer- ican general had enlightened him as to the conditions of the contest he had entered upon. He knew it was a desperate one, he foresaw that it would be 'a long one ; better than anybody he knew the weaknesses as well as the merits of the instruments which he had at disposal, he had learned to desire the alliance and the aid of France. She did not belie his hopes , at the very moment when Congress was refusing to enter into negotiations with Great Britain as long as a single English soldier remained on American soil, rejoic- ings and thanksgivings were everywhere throughout the thirteen colonies greeting the news of the recognition by France of the independence of the United States; the treaties of alliance, a triumph of diplomatic ability on the part of Franklin had been signed at Paris on the 6th of February, 1778. "Assure the English government of the king's pacific intentions," M. de Vergennes had written to the marquis of Noailles, then French ambassador in England. George IIL replied to these mocking assurances by recalling his ambassador. " Anticipate your enemies," Franklin had said to the ministers of Louis XVI., "act toward them as they did to you in 1755 ; let your ships put to sea before any declaration of war; it will be time to speak when a French squadron bars the passage of Admiral Howe, who has ventured to ascend the Delaware." The king's natural straightforwardness and timidity were equally opposed to this bold project ; he hesitated a long while ; when Count d'Estaing at last, on the 13th of April, went out of Toulon harbor to sail for America with his squadron, it was too late, the English were on their guard. When the French admiral arrived in America, hostilities had commenced between France and England, without declaration of war, by the natural pressure of circumstances and the state of feeling in the two countries. England fired the first shot on the 17th of June, 1778. From the day when the duke of Choiseul had been forced to sign the humiliating treaty of 1763, he had never relaxed in his efforts to improve the French navy. In the course of ministerial alternations, frequently unfortu- nate for the work in hand, it had nevertheless been continued by his success- ors. Counts d'Estaing and d'Orvilliers nobly maintained the honor of the fleur-de-lys against such men as Admiral Howe and Lord Keppel ; in England the commotion was great at the news that France and America in arms against her had just been joined by Spain. Charles III. felt no sort of sym- 256 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 pathy for a nascent republic ; he feared the contagion of the example it showed to the Spanish colonies ; he hesitated to plunge into the expenses of a war. His hereditary hatred against England prevailed at last over the dictates of prudence. He was promised, moreover, the assistance of France to reconquer Gibraltar and Minorca. The king of Spain consented to take part in the war, without however recognizing the independence of the United States or enter- ing- into alliance with them. The situation of England was becoming serious, she believed herself to be threatened with a terrible invasion. As in the days of the Great Armada, " orders were given to all functionaries, civil and military, in case of a descent of the enemy, to see to the transportation into the interior and into a place of safety of all horses, cattle and flocks that might happen to be on the coasts." " Sixty-six allied ships of the line plowed the Channel, fifty thousand men, mustered in Normandy, were preparing to burst upon the southern counties. A simple American corsair, Paul Jones, ravaged with impunity the coasts of Scotland. The powers of the North, united with Russia and Holland, threatened to maintain, with arms in hand, the rights of neutrals, ignored by the English admiralty-courts. Ireland awaited only the signal to revolt ; religious quarrels were distracting Scotland and England ; the authority of Lord North's cabinet Avas shaken in Parliament as weU as throughout the country, the passions of the mob held sway in London, and among the sights that might have been witnessed was that of this great city given up for nearly a week to the populace, without anything that could stay its excesses save its own lassitude and its own feeling of shame." [M. Cornells de Witt, Histoire de Washington^ Misfortune and disappointments are great destroyers of some barriers, prudent tact can overthrow others ; Washington and the American army would but lately have seen with suspicion the arrival of foreign auxiliaries ; in 1780, transports of joy greeted the news of their approach; M. de La Fayette, moreover, had been careful to spare the American general all painful friction. Count de Rochambeau and the French ofificers were placed under the orders of Washington, and the auxiliary corps entirely at his disposal. The delicate generosity and the disinterestedness of the French government had sometimes had the effect of making it neglect the national interests in its relations with the revolted colonies ; but it had derived therefrom a spirit of conduct invariably calculated to triumph over the prejudices, as well as the jealous pride of the Americans. " The history of the War of Independence is a history of hopes deceived," said Washington. He had conceived the idea of making himself master of New York with the aid of the French. The transport of the troops had been badly calculated ; Rochambeau brought to Rhode Island only the first division of his army, five thousand men about, and Count de Guichen, whose squadron had been relied upon, had just been recalled to France. Washington was condemned to inaction. '• Our position is not sufficiently brilliant," he wrote to M. de La Fayette, '' to justify our putting pressure upon Count de Ro- 1789] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 257 chambeau ; I shall continue our arrangements, however, in the hope of more fortunate circumstances." The American army was slow in getting organized, obliged as it had been to fight incessantly and make head against constantly recurring difHculties ; it was getting organized, however ; the example of the French, the discipline which prevailed in the auxiliary corps, the good under- standing thenceforth established among the officers, helped Washington in his difficult task. From the first the superiority of the general was admitted by the French as well as by the Americans ; naturally and by the mere fact of the gifts he had received from God, Washington was always and everywhere chief of the men placed within his range and under his influence. While the United States were celebrating their victory with thanksgivings and public festivities, their allies were triumphing at all the different points, simultaneously, at which hostilities had been entered upon. Becoming em- broiled with Holland, where the republican party had prevailed against the stadtholder, who was devoted to them, the English had waged war upon the Dutch colonies. Admiral Rodney had taken St. Eustache, the center of an immense trade ; he had pillaged the warehouses and laden his vessels with an enormous mass of merchandise ; the convoy which was conveying a part of the spoil to England was captured by Admiral La Motte-Piquet ; M. de Bouill(^ surprised the English garrison remaining at St. Eustache and recovered pos- session of the island, which was restored to the Dutch. They had just maintained gloriously, at Dogger Bank, their old maritime renown : " Officers and men all fought like lions," said Admiral Zouttman. The firing had not commenced until the two fleets were within pistol-shot. The ships on both sides were dismasted, scarcely in a condition to keep afloat ; the glory and the losses were equal, but the English admiral, Hyde Parker, was irritated and displeased; George UL went to see him on board his vessel: "I wish your Majesty younger seamen and better ships," said the old sailor, and he insisted on resigning. This was the only action fought by the Dutch during the war; they left to Adm.iral de Kersaint the job of recovering from the English their colonies of Demerara, Essequibo and Berbice on the coasts of Guiana. A small Franco-Spanish army was at the same time besieging Minorca ; the fleet was considerable, the English were ill-prepared ; they were soon obliged to shut themselves up in Fort St. Philip, and, finally, to surrender (February 4th, 1782). As early as 1778, even before the maritime war had burst out in Europe, France had lost all that remained of her possessions on the Coromandel coast. Pondicherry, scarcely risen from its ruins, was besieged by the English, and had capitulated on the 17th of October, after a heroic resistance of forty days' open trenches. Since that day a Mussulman, Hyder Ali, conqueror of the Carnatic, had struggled alone in India against the power of England ; it *was around him that a group had been formed by the old soldiers of Bussy, and by the French who had escaped from the disaster of Pondicherry. It was with their aid that the able robber-chief, the crafty politician, had defended and consolidated the empire he had founded against that foreign dominion 17 258 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 which threatened the independence of his country. He had just suffered a series of reverses, and he was on the point of being forced to evacuate the Carnatic, and take refuge in his kingdom of Mysore when he heard, in the month of July, 1782, of the arrival of a French fleet commanded by M. de Suffren. Hyder AH had already been many times disappointed. The preced- ing year Admiral d'Orves had appeared on the Coromandel coast with a squadron ; the sultan had sent to meet him, urging him to land and attack Madras, left defenseless ; the admiral refused to risk, a single vessel or land a single man, and he returned, without striking a blow, to Ile-de-France. Ever indomitable and enterprising, Hyder Ali hoped better things of the new- comers : he was not deceived. Six months, however, had scarcely elapsed when he died, leaving to his son Tippoo Sahib affairs embroiled and allies en- feebled. At this news the Mahrattas, in revolt against England, hastened to make peace, and Tippoo Sahib, who had just seized Tanjore, was obliged to abandon his conquest, and go to the protection of Malabar. Ten thousand men only remained in the Carnatic to back the little corps of French ; these had resumed the offensive and were preparing to make fresh sallies, when it was known at Calcutta that the preliminaries of peace had been signed at Paris on the 9th of February. The English immediately proposed an armis- tice. The Siirveillante shortly afterward brought the same news, with orders for Suffren to return to France. India was definitively given up to the English, who restored to the French Pondicherry, Chandernugger, Mahe and Karikal, the last strips remaining- of that French dominion which had for a while been triumphant throughout the Peninsula. The feebleness and the vices of Louis XV.'s government weighed heavily upon the government of Louis XVI. in India as well as in France, and at Paris itself. It is to the honor of mankind and their consolation under great reverses that political checks and the inutility of their efforts do not obscure the glory of great men. M. de Suffren had just arrived at Paris ; he was in low spirits ; M. de Castries took him to Versailles. There Avas a numerous and brilliant court. On entering the guards' hall, " Gentlem.en," said the minister to the officers on duty, " this is M. de Suffren." Everybody rose, and the body- guards, forming an escort for the admiral, accompanied him to the king's chamber. His career was over; the last of the great sailors of the ancicn regime died on the 8th of December, 1788- While Hyder Ali and M. de Suffren were still disputing India with England, that power had just gained in Europe an important advantage in the eyes of public opinion as well as in respect of her supremacy at sea ; we allude to the town and fortress of Gibraltar which, after being invested by the Franco-Spanish army for a considerable time, was relieved and revictualled by Lord Howe in 1782. Peace was at hand, however ; all the belligerents were tired of the strife, the marquis of Rockingham was dead ; his ministry, after being broken up, had re-formed with less luster under the leadership of Lord Shelburne ; Wil- liam Pitt, Lord Chatham's second son, at that time twenty-two years of age, 1789] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 259 had a seat in the cabinet. Already negotiations for a general peace had be- gun at Paris, but Washington, who eagerly desired the end of the war, did not yet feel any confidence. On the 5th of December, at the opening of parliament, George III. announced in the speech from the throne that he had • offered to recognize the independence of the American colonies. " In thus admitting their separation from the crown of this kingdom, I have sacrificed all my desires to the -wishes and opinion of my people," said the king. "I humbly pray Almighty God that Great Britain may not feel the evils which may flow from so important a dismemberment of its empire, and that America may be a stranger to the calamities which have before now proved to the mother-country that monarchy is inseparable from the benefits of constitu- tional liberty. Religion, language, interests, affections may still form a bond of union between the two countries, and I will spare no pains or attention to promote it." To the exchange of conquests between France and England was added the cession to France of the island of Tobago and of the Senegal river with its dependencies. The territory of Pondicherry and Karikal received some augmentation. For the first time for more than a hundred years the English renounced the humiliating conditions so often demanded on the subject of the harbor of Dunkerque. Spain saw herself confirmed in her conquest of the Floridas and of the island of Minorca. Holland recovered all her possessions, except Negapatam. France came out exhausted from the struggle, but relieved in her own eyes as well as those of Europe from the humiliation inflicted upon her by the disastrous Seven Years' War, and by the treaty of 1763. She saw triumphant the cause she had upheld, and her enemies sorrow-stricken at the dismemberment they had suffered. It was a triumph for her arms and for the generous impulse which had prompted her to support a legitimate but for a long while doubtful enterprise. A fresh element, however, had come to add itself to the germs of disturbance, already so fruitful, which were hatching within her. She had prompted the foundation of a repubhc based upon principles of absolute right^ the government had given way to the ardent sympathy of the nation for a people emancipated from a long yoke by its deliberate will and its indomitable energy. France felt her heart still palpitating from the efforts she had witnessed and shared on behalf of American freedom ; the unreflecting hopes of a blind emulation were already agitating many a mind. " In all states," said Washington, " there are inflammable materials which a single spark may kindle." In 1783, on the morrow of the American war, the inflammable materials everywhere accumulated in France were already providing means for that immense conflagration in the midst of which the country well-nigh perished, After a few inefificient and useless ministers, Necker had been called to the important post so ably filled by Turgot. Public opinion was favorable to him, his promotion was well received, it presented, however. 26o FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 great difficulties : he had been a banker, and hitherto the comptrollers- general had all belonged to the class of magistrates or superintendents; he was a Protestant, and, as such, could not hold any office. The clergy were in commotion ; they tried certain remonstrances. The opposition of the Church, however, closed to the new minister an important opening ; at first director of the treasury, then director-general of finance, M. Necker never received the title of comptroller-general, and was not admitted to the council. From the outset, with a disinterestedness not devoid of osten- tation, he had declined the salary attached to his functions. The courtiers looked at one another in astonishment. This was for awhile the feeling throughout France. " No bank- ruptcies, no new imposts, no loans," M. Turgot had said, and had looked to economy alone for the resources necessary to restore the finances. Bolder and less scrupulous, M. Necker, who had no idea of having recourse to either bankruptcy or imposts, made unreserved use of the system of loans. During the five years that his ministry lasted, the successive loans he contracted amounted to nearly five hundred million livres. There was no security given to insure its repayment to the lenders. The mere confidence felt in the minister's ability and honesty had caused the money to flow into the treasury. M. Necker did not stop there : a foreigner by birth, he felt no respect for the great tradition of French administration ; practised in the handling of funds, he had conceived as to the internal government of the finances theories opposed to the old system ; the superintendents established awhile ago by Richelieu had become powerful in the central administration as well as in the provinces, and the comptroller-general was in the habit of accounting with them ; they nearly all belonged to old and notable families ; some of them had won the public regard and esteem. The posts at court likewise underwent reform : the courtiers saw at one blow the improper sources of their revenues in the finan- cial administration cut off, and obsolete and ridiculous appointments, to which numerous pensions were attached, reduced. Their discontent was becoming every day more noisy, without as yet shaking the credit of M. Necker. He thought the moment had come for giving public opinion the summons of which he recognized the necessity; he felt himself shaken at court, weakened in the regard of M. de Maurepas, who was still powerful in spite of his great age and jealous of him as he had been of M. Turgot; he had made up his mind, he said, to iet the nation know how its affairs had been managed, and in the early days of the year 1781 he published his Compte rendu au roi. It was a bold innovation; hitherto the administration of the finances' had been carefully concealed from the eyes of the public as the greatest secret in the affairs of State ; for the first time the nation was called upon to take cognizance of the position of the public estate and, conse- quently, pass judgment upon its administration. The very reforms brought 1789] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 261 about by the minister rendered his fall more imminent every day. He had driven into coalition against him the powerful influences of the courtiers, of the old families whose hereditary destination was ofifice in the administration, and of the parliament everywhere irritated and anxious. He had lessened the fortunes and position of the two former classes, and his measures tended to strip the magistracy of the authority where of they were so jealous; obliged finally to send in his resignation (1781), he was replaced by M. de Calonne. It was court-influence that carried the day and, in the court, that of the queen, prompted by her favorite, Madame de Polignac. Tenderly attached to his wife, who had at last given him a son, Louis XVI., delivered from the predominant influence of M. de Maurepas, was yielding, almost unconsciously, to a new power. Marie Antoinette, who had long held aloof from politics, henceforth changed her part ; at the instigation of the friends whom she honored with a perhaps excessive intimacy, she began to take an important share in affairs, a share which was often exaggerated by public opinion, more and more hard upon her every day. In the home-circle of the royal family, the queen had not found any intimate friend: the king's aunts had never taken to her ; the crafty ability of the count of Provence and the giddiness of the count of Artois seemed in the prudent eye of Maria Theresa to be equally dangerous; Madame Elizabeth, the heroic and pious companion of the, evil days, was still a mere child ; already the duke of Chartres, irreligious and debauched, displayed toward the queen who kept him at a distance symptoms of a bitter rancor which was destined to bear fruit ; Marie Antoinette, accustomed to a numerous family, affectionately united, sought friends who could "love her for herself," as she used to say. An illusive hope, in one of her rank, for which she was destined to pay dearly. She formed an attachment to the young princess of Lamballe, daughter- in-law of the duke of Penthievre, a widow at twenty years of age, affectionate and gentle, for whom she revived the post of lady-superin- tendent, abolished by Mary Leczinska. The court was in commotion, and the public murmured ; the queen paid no heed, absorbed as she was in the new delights of friendship ; the intimacy, in which there was scarcely any inequality, with the princess of Lamballe, was soon followed by a more perilous affection ; the countess Jules de Polignac, who was generally detained in the country by the narrowness of her means, appeared at court on the occasion of a festival; the queen was pleased with her, made her remain and loaded her and her family, not only with favors but with unbounded and excessive familiarity. Finding the court-circles a constraint and an annoyance, Marie Antoinette became accustomed to seek in the drawing-room of Madame de Polignac amuse- ments and a freedom which led before long to sinister gossip. Those who were admitted to this royal intimacy were not always prudent or discreet, they abused the confidence as well as the general kindness of 262 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [i775 the queen ; their ambition and their cupidity were equally concerned in urging Marie Antoinette to take in the government a part for which she was not naturally inclined. M. de Calonne was intimate with Madame de Polignac ; she, created a duchess and appointed governess to the children of France (the royal children), was all-powerful with her friend the queen ; she dwelt upon the talents of M, de Calonne, the extent and fertility of his resources; M. de Vergennes was won over, and the office of comptroller-general, which had but lately been still discharged with luster by M, Turgot and M. Necker, fell on the 30th of October, 1784, into the hands of M. de Calonne. Discredited from the very first by a dishonorable action, he had invariably managed to get his vices forgotten, thanks to the charms of a brilliant and fertile wit. Prodigal and irregular as superintendent of Lille, he imported into the comptroller-generalship habits and ideas opposed to all the principles of Louis XVL "The reputation of M. de Calonne," says M. Necker in his memoires, " was a contrast to the morality of Louis XVL, and I know not by what argumentation, by what ascendancy such a prince was induced to give a place in his council to a magistrate who was certainly found agreeable in the most elegant society of Paris, but whose levity and principles were dreaded by the whole of France. Money was lavished, largesses were multiplied, there was no declining to be good-natured or complaisant, economy was made the object of ridicule, it was daringly asserted that immensity of expenditure, animating circulation, was the true principle of credit." If the first steps of M. de Calonne dismayed men of foresight and of experience in affairs, the public was charmed with them, no less than the courtiers. The dail des fernics was re-established, the Caisse d'escompte had resumed payment, the stock-holders {rentier's) received their quarters' arrears, the loan whereby the comptroller-general met all expenses had reached eleven per cent. The captivation was general, the blindness seemed to be so likewise ; a feverish impulse carried people away into all new-fangled ways, serious or frivolous. Mesmer brought from Germany his mysterious revelations in respect of problems as yet unsolved by science, and pretended to cure all diseases around the magnetic battery ; the adventurer Cagliostro, embellished with the title of count and lavishing gold by handfuls, bewitched court and city. At the same time splendid works in the most diverse directions main- tained at the topmost place in the world that scientific genius of France which the great minds of the seventeenth century had revealed to Europe. The ladies of fashion crowded to the brilliant lectures of Fourcroy. The princes of pure science, M. de Lagrange, M. de Laplace, M. Monge, did not disdain to wrench themselves from their learned calculations in order to second the useful labors of Lavoisier. Bold voyagers were scouring the world, pioneers of those enterprises of discovery which had appeared for a while abandoned during the seventeenth century, M, de Bougainville had just completed the round of the world, and the English captain, Cook, during 1789] FRANCE.-^LOUIS XVI. 263 the war which covered all seas with hostile ships, had been protected by generous sympathy. The name of another distinguished sailor, M. de La Peyrouse, must not be forgotten ; nor should we leave unnoticed the first attempts in aerial locomotion made by MM. de Montgolfier and Tilatre de Rozier. So many scientific explorations, so many new discoveries of nature's secrets were seconded and celebrated by an analogous movement in literature. Rousseau had led the way to impassioned admiration of the beauties of nature ; Bernardin de St. Pierre had just published his Etudes dc la NaUcrc ; he had in the press his Paul ct Virginie ; the Abbe Delille was reading his Jardin, and M. de St. Lambert his Saisons. In their different phases and according to their special instincts, all minds, scholarly or political, literary or philosophical, were tending to the same end and pursuing the same attempt. It was nature which men wanted to discover or recover: scientific laws and natural rights divided men's souls between them. Buffon was still alive, and the great sailors were every day enriching with their discoveries the Jardin du Roi ; the physicists and the chemists, in the wake of Lavoisier, were giving to science a language intelligible to common folks ; the juris-consults were attempting to reform the rigors of criminal legislation at the same time with the abuses they had entailed, and Beaumarchais was bringing on the boards his Maj'iage de Figaro. Figaro ridiculed everything with a dangerously pungent vigor ; the days were coming when the pleasantry was to change into insults. Already public opinion was becoming hostile to the queen : she was accused of having remained devoted to the interests of her German family; the people were beginning to call her tJic Austrian. This direful malevolence on the part of public opinion, springing from a few acts of imprudence, and fomented by a long series of calumnies, burst forth on the occasion of a scandalous and grievous occurrence ; we mean the affair of the diamond necklace, which led to the arrest of the cardinal De Rohan. M. de Calonne had taken little part in the excitement which the trial of Cardinal Rohan caused in court and city ; he was absorbed by the incessantly recurring difficulties presented by the condition of the Treasury; speculation had extended to all classes of society ; loans succeeded loans, everywhere there were formed financial companies, without any resources to speak of, "speculating on credit. Parliament began to be alarmed, and enregistcred no more credits save with repugnance. In view of the stress at the Treasury, of growing discontent^ of vanished 'illusions, the comptroller-general meditated convoking the Assembly of Notables, the feeble resource of the old French kingship before the days of pure monarchy, an expedient more insufficient and more dangerous than the most far-seeing divined after the lessons of the philosophers and the continuous abasement of the kingly majesty. The convocation of the notables brought about the views of the minister, who had staked his popularity upon it (1787); he was succeeded by Lomenie de Brienne, a minister who "had nothing but bad moves to make," says M. 264 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 Mignet. Three edicts touching the trade in grain, forced labor and the provincial assemblies were first sent up to the parliament and enregistered without any difficulty ; the two edicts touching the stamp-tax and equal assessment of the impost were to meet with more hinderance ; the latter at any rate united the sympathies of all the partisans of genuine reforms ; the edict touching the stamp-tax was by itself and first submitted for the approval of the magistrates : they rejected it, asking, like the notables, for a communi- cation as to the state of finance. At the same time the parliament demanded the impeachment of M. de Calonne ; he took fright and sought refuge in England. The mob rose in Paris, imputing to the court the prodigalities with which the parliament reproached the late comptroller-general. Sad symptom of the fatal progress of public opinion ! The cries heretofore raised against the queen under the name of Austrian were now uttered against Madame Deficit, pending the time when the fearful title of Madame Veto would give place in its turn to the sad name of the woman Capet given to the victim of October i6th, 1793. The king summoned the parliament to Versailles, and on the 6Lh of August, 1787, the edicts touching the stamp-tax and territorial subvention were enregistered in bed of justice. The parliament had protested in advance against this act of royal authority, which it called " a phantom of delibera- tion." On the 13th of August, the court declared " the registration of the edicts null and without effect, incompetent to authorize the collection of imposts opposed to all principles ; " this resolution was sent to all the seneschalties and bailiwicks in the district. It was in the name of the privilege of the two upper orders that the parliament of Paris contested the royal edicts and made appeal to the supreme jurisdiction of the States-general ; the people did not see it, they took out the horses of M. d'Espremesnil, whose fiery eloquence had won over a great number of his colleagues, and he was carried in triumph. On the 15th of August, the parliament was sent away to Troyes, to be, however, recalled a little more than a month later. M. de Brienne hoped thus to obtain a loan of 420,000,000, which was to be raised in the course of five years. The king held a bed of justice at Versailles, and insisted upon the registration of the necessary edicts ; notwithstanding the efforts of M. de Malesherbes and the duke of Nivernais, the parliament inscribed on the registers that it was not to be understood to take any part in the transcription here ordered of gradual and progressive loans for the years 1788, 1789, 1790, 1791 and 1792. In reply, the duke of Orleans was banished to Villers-Cotterets, while councillors Freteau and Sabatier, who had made themselves conspicuous by their opposition, were arrested and taken to a state-prison. The contest extended as it grew hotter; everywhere the parliaments took up the quarrel of the court of Paris ; the formation of the provincial assemblies furnished new centers of opposition ; the petty noblesse made alliance with the magistracy, the antagonism of principles became every day 17S9] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 265 more evident ; after the five months elapsed since the royal session, the parhament was still protesting against the violence done to it. The indiscretion of a printer made M. d'Espr^mesnil acquainted with the great designs which were in preparation; at his instigation the parliament issued a declaration as to the reciprocal rights and duties of the monarch and the nation. " France," said the resolution, " is a monarchy hereditary from male to male, governed by the king following the laws; it has for funda- mental laws the nation's right to freely grant subsidies by means of the States-general, convoked and composed according to regulation, the customs and capitulations of the provinces, the irremovability of the magistrates, the right of the courts to enregister edicts, and that of each citizen to be judged only by his natural judges, without liability ever to be arrested arbitrarily." "The magistrates must cease to exist before the nation ceases to be free," said a second protest. Bold and defiant in its grotesque mixture of the ancient principles of the magistracy with the novel theories of philosophy, the resolution of the parliament was quashed by the king. Orders were given to arrest M. d'Espr^mesnil and a young councillor, Goislard de Montsabert, who had played also an active part in the spirited resistance to the orders of the court. The former was taken to the island of St. Marguerite, and the latter imprisoned at Pierre Encise. Notwithstanding his promise to convoke the States-general for the 1st of May, 1789, M. de Brienne became more and more unpopular, and disturb- ances broke out in several points of the kingdom. Legal in Normandy, violent in Brittany, tumultuous in Beam, the parliamentary protests took a politic and methodical form in Dauphiny. An insurrection among the populace of Grenoble, soon supported by the villagers from the mountains, had at first flown to arms at the sound of the tocsin. The members of the parliament, on the point of leaving the city, had been detained by force, and their carriages had been smashed. The troops offered little resistance ; an entry was effected into the house of the governor, the duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, and, with an axe above his head, the insurgents threatened to hang him to the chandelier in his drawing-room if he did not convoke the parliament. Ragged rufifians ran to the magistrates, and compelled them to meet in the sessions-hall. The members of parliament succeeded with great difificulty in pacifying the mob. As soon as they found themselves free, they hastened away into exile. Other hands had taken up their quarrel. A certain number of members of the three orders met at the town hall, and, on their private authority, convoked for the 2 1st of July the special States of Dauphiny, suppressed awhile before by Cardinal Richelieu. The duke of Clermont-Tonnerre had been superseded by old Marshal Vaux, rough and ready. He had at his disposal twenty thousand men. Scarcely had he arrived at Grenoble when he wrote to Versailles, " It is too late," he said. The prerogatives of royal authority >vere maintained, however. The marshal granted a meeting of the States-provincial, but he 266 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [';;5 required permission to be asked of him. He forbade the assembly to be held at Grenoble. It was in the castle of Vizille, a former residence of the dauphins, that the three orders of Dauphiny met, closely united together in wise and patriotic accord. The archbishop of Vienne, Lefranc de Pompignan, brother of the poet, lately the inveterate foe of Voltaire, an ardently and sincerely pious man, led his clergy along the most liberal path ; the noblesse of the sword, mingled with the noblesse of the robe, voted blindly all the resolutions of the third estate ; these were suggested by the real head of the assembly, M. Mounier, judge-royal of Grenoble, a friend of M. Necker's, an enlightened, loyal, honorable man, destined ere long to make his name known over the whole of France by his courageous resistance to the outbursts of the National Assembly. Unanimously the three orders presented to the king their claims to the olden liberties of the province; they loudly declared, however, that they were prepared for all sacrifices and aspired to nothing but the common rights of all Frenchmen. The double representation of the third in the estates of Dauphiny was voted without contest, as well" as equal assessment of the impost intended to replace forced labor. Throughout the whole province the most perfect order had succeeded the first manifestations of popular irritation. Meanwhile the Treasury was found to be empty; all the resources were exhausted, disgraceful tricks had despoiled the hospitals and the poor ; credit was used up, the payments of the State were backward ; the discount-bank {caissc d' escompte) was authorized to refuse to give coin. A decree of August 8th, 1788, announced that the States-general would be convoked May ist, 1789 ; the re-establishment of the plenary court was suspended to that date. On the 25th of August, 1788, the king sent for M. Necker. For an instant his return to power had the effect of restoring some hope to the most far-sighted. On his coming into of^ce the treasury Avas empty, there was no scraping together as much as five thousand livres. The need was pressing, the harvests were bad; the credit and the able resources of the great financier sufficed for all ; the funds went up thirty per cent, in one day ; certain capitalists made advances, the chamber of the notaries of Paris paid six millions into the treasury, M. Necker lent two millions out of his private fortune. The great financial talents of the minister, his probity, his courage, had caused illusions as to his political talents ; useful in his day and in his degree, the new minister was no longer equal to the task. The distresses of the treasury had powerfully contributed to bring about, to develop the political crisis ; the public cry for the States-general had arisen in a great degree from the deficit ; but henceforth financial resources did not suffice to conjure away the danger ; the discount-bank had resumed payment, the State honored its engagements, the phantom of bankruptcy disappeared from before the frightened eyes of stockholders ; nevertheless the agitation did not subside, minds were full of higher and more tenacipus concernments. Every gaze was turned toward the States-general. Scarcely was M. Necker in power, when a royal proclamation, sent to the parliament returning to 1/89] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 267 Paris, announced the convocation of the Assembly for the month of January, 1789. The States-general themselves had become a topic of the most lively discussion. Amid the embarrassment of his government, and in order to throw a sop to the activity of the opposition, Brienne had declared his doubts and his deficiency of enlightenment as to the form to be given to the deliberations of that ancient assembly, always convoked at the most critical junctures of the national history, and abandoned for one hundred and seventy-five years past. In the wake of the king's appeal, a flood of tracts and pamphlets had inundated Paris and the provinces : some devoted to the defense of ancient usages ; the most part intended to prove that the consti- tution of the olden monarchy of France contained in principle all the political liberties which were but asking permission to soar ; some finally, bolder and the most applauded of all, like that of Count d'Entraigues', Note on the States-general, their rights and the manner of convoking them, and that of the Abbe Sieyes, What is the third estate f Sieyes' pamphlet had already sold to the extent of thirty thousand copies ; the development of his ideas was an audacious commentary upon his modest title. " What is the third estate ? " said the able revolutionist : " Nothing. What ought it to be ? Everything." It was hoisting the flag against the two upper orders. The whole of France was fever-stricken. The agitation was contra- dictory and confused, a medley of confidence and fear, joy and rage, everywhere violent and contagious. This time again Dauphiny showed an example of politic and wise behavior. The preparatory assemblies were tumultuous in many spots : in Provence as well aa in Brittany they became violent. In his province, Mirabeau was the cause or pretext for the troubles. Born at Bignon, near Nemours, on the 9th of March, 1749, well known already for his talent as a writer and orator as well as for the startling irregularities of his life, he was passionately desirous of being elected to, the States-general. "I don't think I shall be useless there," he wrote to his friend Cerruti. Nowhere, however, was his character worse than in Provence : there people had witnessed his dissensions with his father as well as with his wife. Public contempt, a just punishment, for his vices, caused his admission into the States-provincial to be unjustly opposed. The assembly was composed exclusively of nobles in possession of fiefs, of ecclesiastical digni- taries and of a small number of municipal oflficers. It claimed to elect the deputies to the States-general according to the ancient usages. Mirabeau's common sense, as well as his great and powerful genius, revolted against the absurd theories of the privileged ; he overwhelmed them with his terrible eloquence, while adjuring them to renounce their abuseful and obsolete rights ; he scared them by his forceful and striking hideousness. Mirabeau was shut out from the States-provincial, and soon adopted eagerly by the third estate. Elected at Marseilles as well as at Aix for the States-general, he quieted, in these two cities successively, riots occasioned by the dearness of bread. The people, in their enthusiasm, thronged upon him. 268 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 accepting his will without a murmur when he restored to theii* proper figure provisions lowered in price through the terror of the authorities. The petty- noblesse and the lower provincial clergy had everywhere taken the side of the third estate. Mirabeau was triumphant : " I have been, am, and shall be to the last," he exclaimed, " the man for public liberty, the than for the consti- tution." The day of meeting of the States-general was at hand. Almost every- where the elections had been quiet, and the electors less numerous than had been anticipated. We know what indifference and lassitude may attach to the exercise of rights which would not be willingly renounced ; ignorance and inexperience kept away from the primary assemblies many working men and peasants ; the middle class alone proceeded in mass to the elections. The irregular slowness of the preparatory operations had retarded the convoca- tions ; for three months the agitation attendant upon successive assemblies kept France in suspense. Paris was still voting on the 28th of April, 1789; the mob thronged the streets ; all at once the rumor ran that an attack was being made on the house of an ornamental-paper maker in the faubourg St. Antoine, named R^veillon. Starting as a simple journeyman, this man had honestly made his fortune ; he was kind to those who worked in his shops : he was accused, nevertheless, among the populace, of having declared that a journeyman could live on fifteen sous a day. The day before threats had been leveled at him ; he had asked for protection from the police ; thirty men had been sent to him. The madmen who were swarming around his house and stores soon got the better of so weak a guard, everything was destroyed ; the rioters rushed to the, archbishop's, there was voting going on there; they expected to find R6veillon, whom they wanted to murder. They were repulsed by the battalions of the French and Swiss guards. More than two hundred were killed. Money was found in their pockets. The parliament suspended its prosecutions against the ringleaders of so many crimes. The government, impotent and disarmed, as timid in presence of this riot as in presence of opposing parties, at last came before the States-general, but blown about by the contrary winds of excited passions, without any guide and with- out fixed resolves, without any firm and compact nucleus in the midst of a new and unknown Assembly, without confidence in the troops, who were looked upon, however, as a possible and last resort. The States-general were presented to the king on the 2d of May, 1789. It seemed as if the two upper orders, by a prophetic instinct of their ruin, wanted, for the last time, to make a parade of their privileges. Introduced without delay to the king, they left, in front of the palace, the deputies of the third estate to wait in the rain. The latter were getting angry, and already beginning to clamor, when the gates were opened to them. In the magnifi- cent procession on the 4th, when the three orders accompanied the king to the church of St. Louis at Versailles, the laced coats and decorations of the nobles, the superb vestments of the prelates easily eclipsed the modest cassocks of the country priests as well as the somber costume imposed by ceremonial 1789] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 269 upon the deputies of the third estate ; the bishop of Nancy, M. de la Fare, maintained the traditional distinctions even in the sermon he delivered before the king. The untimely applause which greeted the bishop's words was excited by the picture he drew of the misery in the country places exhausted by the rapacity of the fiscal agents. At this striking solemnity, set off with all the pomp of the past, animated with all the hopes of the future, the eyes of the public sought out, amid the somber mass of deputies of the third (estate) those whom their deeds, good or evil, had already made celebrated : Malouet, Mounier, Mirabeau, the last greeted wath a murmur which was for a long while yet to accompany his name. The opening of the session took place on the 5th of May. The royal T procession had been saluted by the crowd with repeated and organized shouts of '' Hurrah ! for the duke of Orleans ! " which had disturbed and agitated the queen. " The king," says Marmontel, " appeared with simple dignity, without pride, without timidity, wearing on his features the impress of the goodness which he had in his heart, a little affected by the spectacle and by the feclino-s which the deputies of a faithful nation ought to inspire in its kin-T." His speech was short, dignified, affectionate, and without political purport. With more of pomp and detail, the minister confined himself within the same limits. The mode of action corresponded with this insufficient language. Crushed beneath the burden of past defaults and errors, the government tendered its abdication, in advance, into the hands of that mightily bewildered Assembly it had just convoked. The king had left the verification of powers to the States-general themselves. M. Necker confined himself to pointing out the possibility of common action between the three orders, recommending the deputies to examine those questions discreetly. It was amid a chaos of passions, wills and desires, legitimate or culpable, patriotic or selfish, that there was, first of all, propounded the question of verification of powers. Prompt and peremptory on the part of the noblesse, hesitating and cautious on the part of the clergy, the opposition of the two upper orders to any common action irritated the third estate ; its appeals had ended in nothing but conferences broken off, then resumed at the king's desire, and evidently and painfully to no purpose. " By an inconceivable oversight on the part of M. Necker in the local apportionment of the building appointed for the assembly of the States-general, there was the throne-room, or room of the three orders, a room for the noblesse, one for the clergy, and none for the commons, who remained, quite naturally, established in the States-room, the largest, the most ornate, and all fitted up with tribunes for the spectators who took possession of the public boxes {logcs comvmncs) in the room. When it was perceived that this crowd of strangers and their plaudits only excited the audacity of the more violent speakers, all the consequences of this installation were felt. The want of foresight and the nervous hesita- tion of the ministers had placed the third estate in a novel and a strong situa- tion. Installed officially in the States-room, it seemed to be at once master of the position, waiting for the two upper orders to come to it. Mirabeau 270 FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. [1775 saw this with that rapid insight into effects and consequences which consti- tutes, to a considerable extent, the orator's genius. The third estate had taken possession, none could henceforth dispute with it its privileges, and it was the defense of a right that had been won which was to inspire the fiery orator with his mighty audacity, when on the 23d of June, toward evening, after the miserable affair of the royal session, the marquis of Dreux-Breze came back into the room to beg the deputies of the third estate to withdraw. The king's order was express, but already certain nobles and a large number of ecclesiastics had joined the deputies of the commons ; their definitive victory on the 27th of June and the fusion of the three orders were foreshad- owed ; Mirabeau rose at the entrance of the grand-master of the ceremonies : " Go," he shouted, " and tell those who send you, that we are here by the will of the people, and that we shall not budge save at the point of the bayonet." This was the beginning of revolutionary violence. On the 1 2th of June the battle began ; the calling over of the bailiwicks took place in the States-room. The third estate sat alone. At each province, each chief place, each roll {proccs-vcrbal), the secretaries repeated in a loud voice, " Gentlemen of the clergy ? None present. Gentlemen of the noblesse ? None present." Certain parish priests alone had the courage to separate from their order and submit their powers for verification. All the deputies of the third (estate) at once gave them precedence. The day of persecution was not yet come. Legality still stood, the third estate maintained a proud moderation, the border was easily passed, a name was sufficient. The title of States-general was oppressive to the new Assembly, it recalled the distinction between the orders as well as the humble posture of the third estate heretofore. " This is the only true name," exclaimed Abbe Si^yes : " Assembly of acknowledged and verified representatives of the nation." This was a contemptuous repudiation of the two upper orders. Mounier replied with another definition : " Legitimate assembly of the majority among the deputies of the nation, deliberating in the absence of the duly invited minority." The subtleties of metaphysics and politics are powerless to take the popular fancy. Mirabeau felt it : " Let us call ourselves representatives of the people f '' he. shouted. For this ever fatal name he claimed the kingly sanction : " I hold the king's veto so necessary," said the great orator, " that, if he had it not, I would rather live at Constantinople than in France. Yes, I protest, I know of nothing more terrible than a sover- eign aristocracy of six hundred persons who, having the power to declare themselves to-morrow irremovable and the next day hereditary, would end, like the aristocracies of all countries in the world, by swooping down upon everything." An obscure deputy here suggested during the discussion the name of National Assembly, often heretofore employed to designate the States-general ; Sieyes took it up, rejecting the subtle and carefully prepared definitions : " I am for the amendment of M. Legrand," said he, " and I propose the title of 1/89] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVI. 271 National Assembly^ Four hundred and ninety-one voices against ninety adopted this simple and superb title. In contempt of the two upper orders of the State, the national assembly was constituted. The decisive step was taken toward the French revolution. During the early days, in the heat of a violent discussion, Barrere had exclaimed, " You are summoned to recommence history." It was an arro- gant mistake. For more than eighty years modern France has been prose- cuting laboriously and in open day the work which had been slowly forming within the dark womb of olden France. In the almighty hands of eternal God a people's history is interrupted and recommenced never. Note : The history of M. Guizot ends at this point, and the succeeding chapters form a continua- tion of the line of history to the present time, prepared with much care from the most reliable sources. NOTE ON THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY KALENDAR. In reading the French historians of the period from the declaration of the Republic in 1792 to the end of 1805 we find the dates of events not given according to the common kalendar, l)ut according to the most puzzling of all systems of chronology, the Republican kalendar adopted by the Convention. In our own history we give the dates, thus found in French writers, according to the Gregorian Kalendar ; but it may be useful here to present a complete view of the Revolutionary Kalendar wliich view we adopt, with some abridgment, from "The English Cyclopedia of Arts and Sciences." The Convention decreed, on the 24th of November, 1793, that the common era should be abolished in all civil affairs: that the new French era should commence from the foundation of the Republic, namely, on the 22d of September, 1792, on the day of the true autumnal equinox, when the sun entered Libra at gh i8m 30s in the morning, according to the meridian of Paris; that each year should begin at the midnight of the day on which the true autumnal equinox falls ; and that the first year of the French Republic had begun on the midnight of the 22d of September and terminated on the midnight between the 2ist and 22d of September, 1793. To produce a correspondence between the seasons and the civil year it was decreed, that the fourth year of the Republic should be the first sextile, or leap year ; that a sixth complementary day should be added to it, and that it should terminate the first Franciade ; that the sextile or leap-year, which they called an Olympic year, should take place every four years, and should mark the close of each Franciade : that the first, second and third centurial years, namelv, 100, 200, and 300 of the Republic should be common, and that the fourth centurial year, namely, 400, should be sextile ; and that this should be the case every fourth century until the 40th, which should terminate with a common year. The year was divided into tv.'elve months of thirty days each, with five additional days at the end, which were celebrated as festivals, and which obtained the name of " Sansculottides." Instead of the months being divided into weeks, they consisted of three parts, called decades, of ten days each. It is, however, to be observed that the French Republicans rarely adopted the decades in, dating their letters, or in conversation, but used the number of the day of each month of their kalendar. The Republican kalendar was first used on the 26th of November, 1793, ^'^^ ^^''^s discontinued on the 3rst of December, 1805, when the Gregorian was resumed. The decrees of the National Convention, which fixed the new mode of reckoning, were both vague and insufficient. A French work, " Concordance des Calendriers Republicain et Gregorian," par L. Rondonneau, puts every day of every year opposite to its day of the Gregorian kalendar. It is to actual usage that we must appeal to know what the decrees do not prescribe — namely, the position of the leap-vears. The following list, made from the work above mentioned, must be used as a correction of tlie usual accounts, in which the position of the leap-years is not sufficiently regarded. Sept. An I. begins 22, 1792 II. " 22, 1793 Sext. III. " 22, 1794 IV. " 23, 1795 V. " 22, 1796 VI. " 22, 1797 Sext. VII. " 22, 1798 VIII. " 23, 1799 Se-xt. IX. begins X. Sext. XI. An XII. XIII. XIV. Sept. 23. 1800 23. iSoi 23. 1S02 24, 1803 23. 1804 2.3, 1805 ended 31st December, 1S05. XYI. rTHE EEIGN OF TEEEOS-EALL OF EOBESFIEREE. 'HE excitement was at its height when the National Assembly proceeded to repeal law after law, and reorganize the government of France. The bold declaration of the inviolability of its members by the Assembly led to measures of retaliation by the king. A large body of troops were ordered in readiness and • stationed in various parts of the city of Paris. The ministry was dissolved and Necker was banished. The hesi- tation of the king at the outset and the firm stand which he afterward took, changing again at the immense pressure brought to bear upon him, were all disastrous to the Royalists. The clamors of the National Assembly, urged on by the shouts of the infuriated mob, compelled Louis to recall his banished minister, Necker, but still the troops were under arms. The first blood shed was on the 12th of July. The insurrection now assumed the proportions of a revolution, and the eve of that fearful Reign of Terror which swept over France had come. Life and property were insecure for a moment. The rabble could not bear to wait. The National Guards were convoked on the 13th of July. All Paris was in the tumult of excitement. Whenever any one who was suspected of being unfavorable to the change made his appearance on the street the shout at once arose, *' Away to the lamp," and willing hands were ready to execute the sentence by hanging the poor victim to the nearest lamp-post. On the 14th the multitude, headed by the National Guard, rushed to the Bastile and completely demolished its walls. But few State prisoners were found there, for Louis XV. had released nearly all the prisoners held by his grandfather. The ranks of the National Guard were quickly filled with recruits from every grade of the third estate. The excitement rapidly spread to all the provinces, and very soon National Guards and revolutionary councils were convoked in them. The National Assembly began with a high hand, and on the 4th of : August the members passed an edict abrogating forever all feudal and 1794] FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION. 273 manorial rights, and they at the same time gave solemn expression of their declaration of equal rights. Whereupon the royal princes and all the nobles who could effect their escape did so. The royal family made an attempt to follow their example, but did not succeed, and then they tried to conciliate the people by a feigned assumption of republican principles. On the 5th of October the excited rabble, accompanied by numbers of the National Guard, surged up to the very gates of the palace at Versailles, that most splendid of palaces, upon which Louis XIV. had spent so much, and whose iron gates looked down the long avenue of trees leading from Paris, a memorial how little pity for their people the two last kings had had. It was the less wonder that the mob of Paris believed that Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette had the same hard hearts, and were willingly letting them starve. They came and filled the courts of the palace, shouting and yelling for the queen to show herself. She came out on the balcony, with her daughter of twelve years old and her son of six. " No children ! " they cried ; and she sent them back, and stood, fully believing that they would shoot her, and hoping that her death might content them. But no hand was raised, and night came on. In the night they were seized with another fit of fury, and broke into the queen's room, from which she had but just escaped, while a brave lady and two of her guards were barring the outer door. The next day the whole family were taken back into Paris, while the fishwomen shouted before them, " Here come the baker, his wife, and the little baker's boy ! " The king and his family were compelled to reside in Paris, whither the Assembly also came. Then followed two years of vacillation and hesitation, in which Louis XV. alternately made concession to the National Assembly and cherished hopes of escaping from its surveillance ; but month by month witnessed increased humiliation for himself, and arrogance on the part of those who surrounded him. In the mean time the Assembly were repeating the most solemn enactments and retraction of various constitutional schemes. Mirabeau had been active in the formation of the National Guard, but in some of the conflicts which followed he sacrificed his popularity in his efforts to maintain the throne. The more that the revolutionary frenzy seized the people the more decided was his progress of extreme measures, but he found it difficult to maintain constitutional liberty at the same time against the friends of the old regime and the extreme revolutionists. But Mirabeau was in a position which demanded recognition from the king. Louis was for a long time unwilling to enter upon negotiations with one so disreputable, but finally he was compelled to invite Mirabeau to enter his ministry. No sooner did this become known than a most violent opposition arose, and a combina- tion of the most opposite parties united in passing a decree through the National Assembly, November 7th, 1789, forbidding a deputy from receivmg an appointment as minister. From this time Mirabeau vamly strove to preserve the essential prerogatives of the crown. He contmued to struggle against the revolution and endeavored to reconcile the kmg and his revolu- 274 FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION. [1789 tionary subjects. He was nevertheless elected president of the club of the Jacobins in December, 1790, and in February, 1791, he was made president of the National Assembly. In both of these positions he displayed unusual activity and unceasing energy. But his boldness and personal exertions began to tell upon his strength, and he soon fell into a condition of physical and mental weakness from which he never rallied. He died April 2d, 1791, and his body was interred with great pomp in the church of St. Genevieve, the PantJieon, but it was afterward removed to make room for that of Marat. Jacobins : — This was a club composed originally of members of the States- general who were of revolutionary tendency, although holding very different . ■■ "dc" of opinion. The Jacobin^-began to acquire importance at the time the CCational Assembly was removed from Versailles. After this they met in a 'viH of the former Jacobin convent from which it took its name, which was at first a term of reproacH given by its enemies. The name which it had I 'opted for itself was that c Society of Friends of the Constitution. Persons not connected with the National Assembly were now admitted to the club. It came to exercise a great amount of influence in the agitation which had its head and life in the capital, and this was extended over the provinces by the aid of affiliated societies. Its power developed rapidly, until it grew to be greater than that of the Assembly. It had at one time twelve hundred branch societies in all parts of France. The National Assembly dissolved itself in September, 1791, and the Jacobins had great influence in the election of the Legislative Assembly, which succeeded the National. The great events which followed each other in such rapid succession were in a remarkable degree determined by the voice of this club. The people came at last to watch its proceedings with more interest than those of the Assembly. But in September, 1792, the Jacobins reached the zenith of their power. The agita- tion for the death of the king ; the downfall of the Girondists ; the excite- ment of the lower classes against the bourgeoisie, or middle classes, and the entire reign of terror over the whole of France were the work of this club. The fall of Robespierre on the 28th of July, 1794, gave the death-blow to the Jacobins : after this they sought in vain to regain their former prestige. The magic of the name was destroyed forever, but the law of October i6th forbade the affiliation of clubs, and November 9th of the same year saw the doors of the club closed for the last time. Soon after this their place of meeting was entirely demolished. Girondists : — This was the name given to the moderate republican party during this time. The Legislative Assembly met in October, 1 791 , and then the Girondists had chosen as their representatives the advocates Vergniaud, Gaudet, Gensonn^, Grangeuve, and a young merchant named Ducos, all of whom made their influence felt upon the Assembly by their historical power and political principles, which were based upon a hazy notion of Grecian republicanism. They were joined by the Brissot party and some members of the Center, so that they numbered a majority. Their first efforts were directed against the policy of the court, and such was their power that Louis was compelled to 1794] FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION. 275 invite the more moderate of the party, Roland, Dumouriez, Clavi6re and Servan to the ministry. But he afterward dismissed them, and this act led to the insurrection of June 20th, 1792. When the Jacobins came to power the Girondists were forced to take a conservative position, but their eloquence could not avail out of the Assembly to stay the fearful storm which culmi- nated in the massacres of September. All their efforts failed, and at last they tried to impeach Marat, who induced the various sections of Paris to demand the expulsion of the Girondists ; and the demand, backed up by one hundred and seventy pieces of artillery, could not be resisted. Thirty of them were arrested, but a majority had escaped to the provinces. There was an uprising of the people of Eure, Calvados and Brittary in their defense, and T!^ federal army, under command of General Wimpfen, was raised to rescue Paris from the hands of the mob. Movements in their behalf w^ere commenced in other provinces. The progress of this was, however, stopped by the activity and energy of the convention. July 20th, 1782, the revolutionary army took possession of Caen, the chief station of the insurgents, and forced the way into other towns. Then commenced an awful retribution ; Amar, the mouth- piece of the committee of public safety, accused them, before the convention on October ist, 1793, of conspiring with Louis XVL, the Royalists, the duke of Orleans, Lafayette and Pitt, and it was ordered that they be brought before the revolutionary tribunes. They Avere put on trial October 24th. The Girondists defended themselves so ably at the trial that the convention decreed the closing of the investigation on the 30th. Twenty-one of them were sentenced to death, and all except one — Valaze, who stabbed himself — per- ished by the guillotine. Nine others were afterward guillotined ; five others ascended the scaffold at Bordeaux ; two at Brives ; one each at Periguercx and Rochelle ; four committed suicide, viz., Rebecqui drowned himself, Petion and Buyot stabbed themselves, and Condorcet took poison. Sixteen months later, after the overthrow of Robespierre, the outlawed Girondists still living presented themselves in the convention. To return after this digression to the line of our narrative. The attempted flight of Louis XVL and his queen, Marie Antoinette, ended in their capture June 2ist, 1791, after which time all the acts of the king were done under compulsion of the National Assembly. He sanctions a national constitution September 15th, while a prisoner. The coalition against France was com- menced in 1792, and in June the war began and, as might be expected in the condition of the nation, the Prussians and their allies w^ere everywhere victori- ous. Their army under the command of the duke of Brunswick had captured Longroy and Verdun from the French and were advancing upon Paris, drivmg the army of Dumouriez before them. When Kellermann, who commanded the army of the Rhine, heard of the critical condition of this army he hastened to the relief of his comrade, and with a force of twenty-two thousand men arrested the attack of the Prussians at Valmy. The latter took possession of the heights of La Lune and at once opened a vigorous cannonade upon the French. There was not much gained on either side, but the moral effect 276 FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION. [1789 of the battle, or skirmish, was of more effect in arousing the spirits of the re- publicans than the immediate effects of the battle would seem to warrant. It was the first success of the republican forces with a foreign foe. General Kel- lermann was on allegation of treason against the republic ; he was imprisoned for ten months and only released by the fall of Robespierre. The repeated defeats of the French arms was visited upon poor Louis, who was at once confined with his family in the Temple. But in September the Convention, fearing the approach of the Prussians, who had advanced as far as Campagne, dissolved itself. All Paris was in a terrible state of excitement. In Decem- ber, the king was brought to trial and called to answer for repeated acts of treason against the republic. On the 20th of January, 1793, Louis XVI. was condemned to death and was beheaded the next day. At ten o'clock in the morning he was conducted to the guillotine, accompanied by an Irish cler- gyman, the Abbe Edgeworth, whom he charged to take care, if his family was ever restored to the throne, that no attempt should be made to avenge his death. Extensive preparation was made to prevent any attempt at rescue. As the executioner had bound him Louis burst away and exclaimed, " French- men, I die innocent ! I pray that my blood come not on France." The rolling of drums drowned his voice, but the abbe cried out, " Son of St. Louis, ascend to the skies." After the death of her husband, the widowed queen remained with her children in the Temple, cheered by the pity and kindness of Madame Elizabeth, until the poor little prince — a gentle, but spirited boy of eight — was taken from them, and shut up in the lower rooms, under the charge of a brutal wretch (a shoemaker) named Simon, who was told that the boy was not to be killed or guillotined, but to be "got rid of" — namely, tormented to death by bad air, bad living, blows, and rude usage. Not long after August 1st, Marie Antoinette was taken to a dismal chamber in the Conciergerie prison, and there watched day and night by National Guards, until she too was brought to trial, and sentenced to die October i6th, eight months after her husband. Gentle Madame Elizabeth was likewise put to death, and only the two children remained, shut up in separate rooms ; but the girl was better off than her brother, in that she was alone, with her little dog, and had no one who made a point of torturing her. After the death of the king in January, 1793, revolts broke out in all parts of France. On the ist of February war was declared against England, which entered into a second coalition with Holland, Spain, Napless, and the German States against the republic. An insurrection broke out in La Vendee at the same time under Cathelineau, Larochejacquelein, the Chouans and others. The second named signaled himself by many heroic acts and gained success against the republicans for some time, but was finally defeated December 13th, 1793, and escaped with diflEiculty. This insurrection was finally put down by General Hoche, who was able by moderate and prudent steps to suppress the revolt and gain the entire district. The proscription of the Girondists followed, as we have already related, and the reign of terror 1794] FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION. 277 began the 31st of May, 1793. Marat, Danton, and Robespierre were the bloody triumivrate who upheld this merciless and insatiable terrorism all over France. The human mind turns with a shudder from the fearful sights presented. Meanwhile the guillotine was every day in use. Cart-loads were carried from the prisons — nobles, priests, ladies, young girls, lawyers, servants, shop- keepers,- everybody whom the savage men who were called the Committee of PubHc Safety chose to condemn. There were guillotines in almost every town , but at Nantes the victims were drowned, and at L}'ons they were placed in a square and shot down with grape shot. Moreover, all churches were taken from the faithful. A wicked woman was called the Goddess of Reason, and carried in a car to the great cathedral of Notre Dame, where she was enthroned. Sundays were abolished, and every tenth day was kept instead, and Christianity was called folly and superstition ; in short, the whole nation was given up to the most horrible frenzy against God and man. The victims of the guillotine could be numbered by thousands. The leaders of the convention seemed to be insatiable, and each in turn became jealous of the others. We have already spoken of one, we will now devote a little space to the other two. Jean Paul Marat was one of the most detestable and infamous characters of this period. He was born in 1744. The Revolution brought him into prominence, and he had unbounded influence over the lower classes. It was owing to him that the massacre of September, 1792, was characterized with so much atrocity. In the midst of this he was elected to the Convention ; but when he first appeared he was met with expressions of abhorrence ; no one would sit near him, and when he rose to speak there was the utmost confusion. No falsehood was too monstrous and no deed too atrocious for him. His Journal which he had been publishing was now called the Jojirnal de la Repiiblique, and was more ferocious and blood-thirsty than ever. He demanded two hundred and seventy thousand heads, and defended his demand in the Convention, saying that if this was not granted he would demand more. He was most bitter against the king, and at his trial called upon the people to slay two hundred thousand of the adherents of the old regime, and to reduce the Convention to one-fourth its numbers. He obtained the enregister of the act by which four hundred thousand suspected persons were imprisoned. The rash, unscrupulous and bloody wretch was associated with his peers in crime. But he, the most vindictive and perhaps the basest of the three, was the first to fall , for on July 13th, 1 793. he was stabbed to the heart by a girl named Charlotte Corday, who hoped thus to end these horrors , but the other two continued their work of blood, till Robespierre grew jealous of Danton, and had him guillotined. This young lady was descended from a noble family, but she early imbibed revolutionary principles. Her soul revolted at the horrors which she saw enacted around her, and she resolved to rid France of one of the three leaders; she was undecided whether Robespierre or Marat. It is said that 278 FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION. [1789 while she was debating which one she should strike the latter issued his demand for more heads, and by this token she decided which should be her victim. After the deed she was at once arrested and dragged before the tribunal, where she boldly avowed the act and defended it. Of course she was condemned to death, and on the 17th of July sent to the guillotine. Her great beauty added to the interest which surrounded her heroic act. This event was followed by some of the Avorst atrocities which disgraced the French name ; streams of blood as it was said to the manes of Marat. His likeness, painted with gaping wounds, was hung up in the Convention, and his housekeeper, whom he had married " one fine day in the presence of the sun," was maintained at the expense of the State. His body was granted a place in the Pantheon, but was cast out again on November 8th, 1795, and his picture removed from the Convention. The remaining one of the infamous triumvirate was Georgies-Jacques Danton, who was born in 1759. When the revolution broke out he was an advocate, with no reputation except one for dissolute habits. The fierce, half-savage character of the man drew him at once into the vortex of the commotion ; Mirabeau quickly detected his genius and hastened to attach him to himself. The political role of Danton began with the flight of the king and his return. On the 17th of July he and others gathered the people in the Champ-de-Mars and goaded them on to demand the deposition of the king. Sometime after this he became prociireur-substihit for the city of Paris. The court found it could not frighten him and undertook to bribe him. With what success it is now impossible to say, but the weight of evidence points to his venality. However it was, he soon became the more implacable of royalty than before. Danton was the man whose harangues excited the rabble to their infuriated attack upon the Tuileries on the night of that fatal loth of August, and led to the butchery of the Swiss guard. He was immediately promoted to the office of minister of justice, which gave him such commanding influence. He was the incarnate spirit of the revolution, and manifested the same heroic audacity in the presence of danger from without and the same maniacal terror at the appearance of danger from within. It was his impassioned eloquence which restored their spirit to the panic-stricken populace when the Prussians were thundering at the very gates of Paris. He mounted the rostrum and in a speech of tremendous power stirred the very souls of his audience. In a few weeks no less than fourteen republican armies were raised, equipped, and ready to repel with unex- ampled bravery the entire allied forces. On the very evening on which Danton spoke, September 2d, was the beginning of the September mas- sacres. Danton thanked the assassins not as the minister of justice, but the minister of the revolution. When he was elected as one of the deputies of Paris he at once resigned his ofifice as minister and hastened to the trial of the king. He showed his character when he replied to 1794] FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION. 279 one of his friends in the convention, who said that they could not legally try the king. " You are right, so we will not try him but ivc kill himr On the loth of May he established "the extraordinary criminal tribunal," and was also president of the committee of public safety. He now set about the work of crushing the Girondists ; how wx-11 he succeeded we have already shown. For some strange reason he began after this to display some intimations of returning humanity: he disapproved of the guillotine, and some other gleams of feeling lost him the respect of the Jacobins. There came a clash between him and Robespierre ; an attempt was made to reconcile them, but after an interview they parted on worse terms than ever. He had become convinced that the revolution was a sham, and conscious of his inherent power he sank into apathy. He declared that his enemies dared not lift a finger against him. He was arrested on the night of the 3Cth of March, 1794, brought before the same tribunal he had instituted, and by them condemned to death. He was guillotined on the 5th of April. He foretold the down- fall of Robespierre and called him "an infamous poltroon," and said, " I was the only man who could save him." The duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, Avas tried before the tribunal in Marseilles with all the Bourbons, but was acquitted from the charge of high treason. He was at once seized and brought before the tribunal of Paris, by which he was condemned to death November 6th, 1793, and carried to the guillotine the same day. Madame Roland w^as arrested on the same night that her husband made his escape from Paris to Rouen and imprisoned in the Abbaye. A more dauntless and intrepid spirit never entered its enclos- ure. She was released on the 24th of June, but Avas at once re-arrested, with- out the shadow of accusation, and taken to Saint Pelagic. Thence she was summoned on the first of November — having been employed in the mean while in writing her memoirs — to the revolutionary tribunal and sentenced to the guillotine. The scaffold was erected at the foot of a statue of liberty, and she exclaimed, " Oh, Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy name ! ' ' With one other name we will come to the close of the reign of terror. He is the Count Barras, Paul-Jean-Frangois-Nicolas. He was a prominent character in the period of which we are writing. He was born in 1755- At the outbreak of the revolution he entered into the contest. He was a deputy for the third estate in that famous States-general of 1789. He took an active part in the assault upon the Tuileries, after which he received the appoint- ment of administrator of the department of war and then of the county of Nice. He promptly voted for the execution of the king and declared against the Girondists. The siege of Toulon and the triumph of the revolutionaiy party were in a great measure due to his activity. And after the victory he shared in all the bloody acts which were adopted. Robespierre and the other terrorists hated him, and it was he who contributed to their final overthrow more than any one other man. The Convention appointed him commander-in- chief and virtually made him dictator for the time being. It was while hold- 28o FRANCE.— THE DIRECTORY. [1794 ing this high office, and on the very day which beheld the fall of his rival, that he visited the Temple where the young prince Louis XVII. was confined and ordered his better treatment. Then he hurried to the Palais of Justice and suspended the execution of the prisoners who were there condemned to death. XYII. UT Robespierre was dead, and the reign of terror was over. The reaction had set in and already the eyes of France, if not of all Europe, were being dazzled by the brilliant exploits of the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte. He was born on the 15th of August, 1769, and at the age of ten entered the military school at Brienne, as a ^ king's pensioner. During the five years he remained here he displayed a wonderful aptitude for mathematics, history, and geography, but a decided disinclination for merely verbal and ornamental studies. He was taciturn and reserved in his manner, owing, doubtless, to the fact that he was a foreigner and learned French after he came to the school. He was also poor and unacquainted with French manners. In October, 1784, he went to the government military academy to complete his studies for the army, and in a year received his commission as a sub-lieutenant in the artillery regiment of de la Fh'e. Napoleon was serving in the garrison at Valence. He adopted the popular side in his usual quiet and undemonstrative manner. The boisterous enthusiasm and the noisy zeal of his associates were repulsive to him. Napoleon was in Paris with his friend Bourrienne when the riotous attack was made upon the Tuileries, on that infamous 20th of July. When the poor king Louis was forced to don the red cap, Bonaparte quietly remarked : " It is all over henceforth with that man." He went back to his lodgings more thoughtful and morose than usual. When the bloody scenes of the loth of August had been enacted he returned to his home at Corsica where General Paoli was in the chief command. This general revolted at the cruel September massacres, and in consequence threw off his allegiance and sought the aid of England. Napoleon, with others who were active but unsuccessful in opposing Paoli, were obliged to flee from Corsica. At this time he petitioned for employment by the Convention and was iSoo] FRANCE.— THE DIRECTORY. 2S1 appointed lieutenant-colonel of artillery, and sent to aid in the capture of Toulon. It was owing entirely to his genius and stratagem that the city capitulated on the 19th of December, 1793. In the following February he was promoted to brigadier-general and assigned to command of artillery in "the army of the South." He afterward went to Genoa to inspect the fortifications, and report upon the feeling of the inhabitants. At the opening of the year 1795 he was again in Paris seeking employment for his sword, and at one time seriously thought of offering his services to the sultan of Turkey, from sheer ennui at his long inactivity. A wide-spread reaction had taken hold of France after the death of Robespierre, and the people were becoming weary of the long-continued bloodshed, and there arose a new form of government. This consisted of a legislative organization, divided, into two bodies : ist, the council of five hundred, whose power was to frame the laws, and the council of the ancients, whose duty it was to pass them. The executive department of government was entrusted to five members chosen from these two councils, and had its seat at the Luxembourg. The five chosen were Lepeaux, Letourneur, Rewbel, Barras, and Carnot. This was the famous Directory, which came to power in a time of intensest peril for France. The country was at this time surrounded with most powerful enemies, and within distrust, malice, and discontent made the administration of govern- ment well nigh hopeless. She was saved from the greed of foreign powers by the matchless bravery of her soldiers, and if the Directory had all been as patriotic and firm as some of them were she might have been saved from internal spoliation by her own sons. Their policy at home was on the whole most lamentable. The same demoralization which had characterized the times of Danton and his co-operators prevailed at this time, and the effort of the honest minority to serve the country was futile. Barras was a fitting representative of the turpitude of the hour, and he set the example in all the excesses of the times. It became painfully evident that France could not be reconstructed by the fag-end of the revolution. There was now an imperative demand for a power and skill that had been disciplined away from the unhealthy atmosphere of the metropolis, to accomplish this herculean task. The thoughts of a patriot, Abbe Sieyes, were directed to the army, where a host of new and brilliant names were now rising, Hoche, Joubcrt, Brune, Kleber, Desaix, Massena, Moreau, Bernadotte, Augereau, and ]3onaparte. The abbe made known his plan for the overthrow of the Directory, and the establishment of a consulate, which was in fact only a monarchy under the thin disguise of a republican form of government. It was propounded first to Moreau, who was startled by its audacity, and then to Angereau, who could not comprehend it, and lastly to Bonaparte on his return from Egypt, who admired it and fell into the plan, with what success we shall hereafter see. The Directory was a government of weakness, immorality and intrigue. But under it there was a general amnesty, and the outward order of affairs was resumed, and upon the whole, after the reign of terror, it may have been the best under the circumstances. Peace was concluded in 1795 with Spain and 282 FRANCE.— THE DIRECTORY. [1794 Prussia. On the 13th of October, 1795, there was a rising of the arrondisse- ments of Paris, and there were thirty thousand troops ready to seize the Tuileries, in which the Convention held its meetings. The Directory had entrusted the defense of the Convention to Moreau, but he had failed to meet the exigency of the moment. Napoleon had seen the general march out to quell the insurgents, and as quickly flee in cowardice before the rabble. He hastened to the Tuileries, and with calm visage and undaunted heart watched the deliberations, if such they misfht be termed, of the terror-stricken Convention. Moreau had been dis- missed in dishonor. Resistance seemed to be useless. It was now eleven at night, and all was consternation. Barras rose and broke the awful stillness of that chamber. " I know the man who can defend us," he nervously said, " it is the young Corsican officer. Napoleon Bonaparte, whose military abilities I witnessed at Toulon. He is a man who will not stand upon ceremony." Napoleon was called down and asked, " Are you v/illing to undertake the de- fense of the Convention ? " "Yes," was the terse reply. They were surprised to see a small, slender, pale-faced youth of eighteen before them. Hesitating a moment, the president continued : " Are you aware of the magnitude of the undertaking?" With his eagle glance fixed full upon his questioner the young soldier said, " Perfectly ; and I am in the habit of accomplishing what I undertake! But I must be entirely untrammeled by the Convention." When the sun rose the next morning the Tuileries appeared like an entrenched camp. Artillery was placed to command every approach and defend the cap- ital from the attacks of the infuriated mobs. The armed warriors, black and threatening, poured down the narrow streets. The members sat in silent awe in their very seats, awaiting the attack upon whose issue so much depended. Five thousand against thirty thousand. Napoleon, with his guns loaded to the muzzle, was ready for the first fire, but he would not assume the respon- sibility of opening the contest. He did not wait long; the first volley opened upon the handful of defenders. It was the signal for the instantaneous dis- charge of all the artillery, which belched forth its slaughter and death till the pavements were filled with the dead and wounded. The day was won, and Napoleon had taken the first advance to fame. As unmoved as if he had done nothing extraordinary, he returned to the Tuileries. Was it luck? No, for Moreau had the same opportunity and failed. It was the fact that the Corsican had pluck as well as luck. Bonaparte was at once appointed commander of the army of the interior and was afterward sent to Italy, where he won the battles of Montenotte against the Austrians April 12th, 1796, and Mondovi April 22d, in which he defeated the Sardinians ; then followed the victory of Lodi over the Austrian army May loth. He was now justly regarded as the hero of Italy. Then Napoleon hastily entered the city of Milan and gave up all the northern part of Italy to the demands of his army. Then commenced a wholesale trans- portation of specimens of Italian art to satisfy the sight-seers of Paris. This appears to show the barbaric character of French warfare. The Directory i8oo] FRANCE.— THE DIRECTORY. 283 ordered that he should levy contributions on all the States that he had freed, and, according to his own account, he sent to France not less than fifty mill- ion florins. The Austrians made an attempt to dispossess Napoleon from the places he had taken. An army of sixty thousand compelled him to raise the siege of Mantua, but Marshal Wurmser was himself defeated near Castiglione on the 5th of August, and again at Bassano, September 8th. In consequence of these defeats the Austrian was forced to seek shelter in Mantua, with only sixteen thousand left of the sixty thousand with which he entered Italy. The Austrians then sent a third army in two divisions ; one of thirty thousand under Marshal Alvinzi and another of twenty thousand under General Davi- dowich. This was a terrible campaign for Napoleon, with his exhausted troops he was fronted by two fresh armies and was himself disheartened. At first the Austrians were successful, but after a severe fight of three days at Areola, November 17th, they were defeated by the French general. At this time his dispatches to the Directory show how thoroughly absorbed he was in the ma- terial welfare of France. A fourth army of fifty thousand began the cam- paign of 1797, but it was completely routed by Napoleon on January 14th, and but a little while after Admiral Wurmser was starved into surrender. A fifth army under the archduke Charles was forced to retreat before the hero, and Napoleon had a design of marching upon Vienna, and he actually ap- proached within eight days' march of that capital. The Austrians were thoroughly alarmed and made proposals for peace, which ended in the treaty of Campo Formio, which was signed on the 17th of October, 1796. It is generally conceded that his brilliant talent was never more remark- ably displayed in this entire campaign, and it is but just to him to record that he used his utmost endeavors to withstand the exorbitant demands of the Directory, and from all the vast amounts which he levied on the consigned States not one penny was devoted to his own use. The glory of the French arms was established abroad, but she was still suffer- ing under the distractions at home. The Directory had repudiated two-thirds of the public debt, and thus ruined the commerce of France as well as its foreign credit. In December, 1797, Napoleon returned to France, where he was enthusiastically received, and under a pretext of invading England a force of thirty thousand men was raised and he was appointed commander. But under this mask an expedition for Egypt was fitted out, and on June 29th he landed in Alexandria. At this period Turkey was at peace with France, and this invasion of a dependency of the sultan was unwarrantable and opposed to the policy of Europe. It reminds us of Eastern rather than Western warfare. Alexandria was cap- tured and the French army marched on Cairo. The Mamelukes prepared to resist the invasion, but at "the battle of the Pyramids" they were totally defeated and the French were masters of Egypt. Napoleon entered the capital and began to reorganize the civil and military government of 284 FRANCE.— THE CONSULATE. [1800 the country. But on the 2d day of August, Nelson, the EngUsh admiral, completely destroyed the fleet at Aboukir bay, and so cut off Napo- leon's communication with Europe. A month after the sultan declared war against him. He felt compelled to go elsewhere, and so marched his army of ten thousand men across the desert, and on the 9th of February, 1799, he stormed and carried Jaffa after a heroic resistance by the Turkish army. Then he marched northward and attacked Acre on the 17th. Here his victories ended and he was obliged to retire before the desperate bravery and obstinate valor of old Djezzer, assisted by Sir Sidney Smith with a small force of English sailors and marines. He then began his retreat to Egypt and re-entered Cairo, June 14th. In the mean time the sultan had raised an army of eighteen thousand at Aboukir, which was completely routed by the French commander July 25th. But the posi- tion of Napoleon was far from being comfortable, and he resolved to return to France. He had heard of the disasters in Italy and confusion in Paris, and therefore he hurried home. He barely escaped capture by an English fleet, but finally landed at Frejus on the 9th of October. XYin. THE CONSULATE. ^E entered at once into the movement against the Directory, and grasping the situation led the move- ment which overthrew the government. He, with Sieyes and Roger Ducos, succeeded in being nomi- nated as consuls. In the early part of 1800 the new Constitution was promulgated, which, though constitutional upon the face, in fact made Bonaparte the sole executive. He at once displayed a most 6np^^/0 consummate ability in reorganizing the government, to which he ^^^^ brought a systematic efficiency and a spirit of centralization c^(o&C)/Z) final- rnnc;tii-iited a thoroup-hlv Dractical administration. In a that constituted a thoroughly practical administration, single word the whole power was now in the hands of Napo- leon and the French nation perfectly idolized him. He caused the repeal of the most obnoxious laws of the Revolution ; reopened the churches and regulated the finances. At once the prosperity of the nation was insured. In the latter part of January, 1800, he moved to the Tuileries, where he took up his residence. The French were thoroughly tired of discord, confusion and revolution, and they therefore regarded his assumption of supreme power with entire satisfaction. But Napoleon was well aware that his genius was W(^^ i8o4] FRANCE.— THE CONSULATE. 285 especially adapted to military operations, so he remained but a short time in France. He left Moreau in command of the army of the Rhine, and crossed the Alps into Italy. He began this wonderful march May 13th, 1800, and before the Austrian Melas were aware of his presence he entered Milan, June 2d. In twelve days he fought the fiercely contested and decisive battle of Mcrango, which compelled the Austrians to retire for the second time from Lombardy. Later in the year hostilities recommenced, but the Austrians were beaten in. Germany by Moreau and in Italy by Bonaparte until they were glad to sue for peace. On the 24th of December an attempt was made upon Napoleon's life by the means of an infernal machine. The peace of Luneville was signed on the 9th of February, 1801, and France was put in possession of all the territory to the Rhine. England was the only country that refused to recognize the legality of the French conquests in Italy, and it was not until March 27th, 1802, that the peace of Amiens was concluded between France, Spain, Holland and England. This left Napoleon free to attend to schemes for the aggrandizement of France and — himself. These were nothing less than to make her the control- ing power of Europe and himself the powerful master and the founder of a new dynasty. He adopted measures to this end which were prudent, ener- getic and persistent ; the immediate results were salutary to France, but at the same time they were frequently unjust, unprincipled and criminal. When we consider them in the light of their ultimate effects we are forced to regard them as execrable. France was still bleeding from internal wounds, and it was, first of all, necessary that these should be healed and the scars of the conflict removed. This could only be done by a conciliatory policy which should unite all parties and antagonize none. The first consul had the tact and ability to do this. He first tranquilized and subjected all without offend- ing any. This was accomplished by treating all with equal favor and identi- fying himself with none. By this means Napoleon was able to gain the confidence and the gratitude of all the people. He busied himself in superin- tending the drafting of a civil code for France. All the ablest lawyers of the nation were brought together under the presidency of Cambreres. Napoleon took frequent part in their deliberations. The result of their work was con- tained in four volumes. The Civil Code of France, Code of Procedure, Code of Instruction in Criminal Law and Penal Code, all of which are vaguely termed "The Napoleon Code." Attention was given to education, manufac- tures and commerce, but he desired especially to have an energetic and active people. He brought to the government of France the same executive ability that he displayed in the army, and was already emperor in all but name. He would not consent to any independent power but his own, and muzzled the press. The Concordat between the Church and State was concluded at Paris, June 15th, 1 801, and ratified by the pope April 7th, 1802. By this the arch- bishops and bishops were compelled to vacate their sees. They were now and henceforth to be appointed by the first consul and receive their installa- tion from the pope. The curates were to be appointed by the bishops and 286 FRANCE.— THE CONSUTLATE. [1800 ratified by the government. No religious enactment, consecration festival or other ceremony could be performed except by permission of the government. The Sabbath was to be observed, and in all France there must be only one form of liturgy and of catechism. On the other hand the government was to pay for the support of the clergy. Napoleon was now ready to strike at the very central point of the revolu- tion, the idea of popular liberty and the equality of all classes. He established the " Legion of Honor," and at once constituted a privileged class. He was advancing with rapid strides to the object of his ambition. There arose some popular opposition, but the first consul now felt himself strong enough to defy all the popular clamor. He was made consul for life August 2d, 1802, after a plebiscite, and out of 3,577,379 votes all but eleven thousand were cast for the measure. Two days after (August 4th) there appeared a senatiis- consult, without any previous consultation with the legislative body, and upon the advice of the council of State changed the constitution again. This was effected without any show of resistance from the people. The peace between France and England did not long continue. The policy of Napoleon in Italy had continually irritated the English, and repeated remonstrances proving ineffectual the British government declared war against France May i8th, 1803. At once the navy of England began to scour the seas and completely paralyzed the commerce of France. Napoleon threatened an invasion of England, and for this purpose collected a large army at Bou^ logne. He so completely misunderstood the spirit and disposition of the English nation that he thought that he would be welcomed as the liberator of the people. But at this juncture the very dangerous conspiracy against him was discovered, and led to one of the most despicable acts, if not the blackest of his whole career — the murder of the Duke d'Enghien. This conspiracy of the Bourbon princes against Napoleon was headed by George Cadoudal. Pichegra and Moreau had succeeded in causing an uprising in Brittany. The Duke d'Enghien, the only son of Prince Henri Louis Joseph, had retired to the other side of the Rhine after the peace of Luneville. But when the discovery of the Bourbon conspiracy was made in Paris Napo- leon had him at once arrested on the pretense that he was knowing to the conspiracy, and although there was not the least evidence to that effect. The natural territory of Baden was invaded and the duke was overpowered by an armed band after attempting resistance on the night of May 17th, 1804. He was captured with a few friends and servants and taken to Strasburg and immediately conveyed to Vincennes ; three days later he was hastily tried and condemned to death ; in half an hour the sentence was executed. This cruel and audaciously criminal act has af^xed a lasting stigma to the name of Napoleon Bonaparte. The illegality of the trial and sentence was subse- quently acknowledged by the president of the court. General Hullin. Napo- leon endeavored in vain to excuse his action in the eyes of Europe. George Cadoudal was one of the leaders of the Chouan or Royalist war in Brittany. He was born in 1771, and all the while during the revolution and i804] FRANCE.— THE CONSULATE. 287 the career of Napoleon was a devoted Royalist. He was a distinguished char- acter in the conspiracy against the first consul in 1799, but had escaped to England after Napoleon had assumed the power. The latter at once recognized the ability and force of character of this man and offered to make him a lieutenant-general in his army, which he refused, as he also did another offer of a pension of one hundred thousand francs if he would only remain quiet. Subsequently, when George Cadoudal entered into the conspiracy of which we are speaking, he came to Paris, where he was arrested, tried, con. victed, and executed June 25th, 1804. He was a man of uncompromising integrity and dauntless resolution. Napoleon said of him, " His mind was cast in the true mold ; in my hands he would have done great things." Charles Pichegru had been a successful general of the republic and risen to the chief command of the army of the Rhine in 1793, where he gained repeated victories over the enemies of France, but on finding the anarchy which prevailed in Paris, he was led by the secret offers of the prince of Conde to favor the Bourbons. His conduct aroused the suspicions of the Directory and he was superseded in the command by Moreau, and subse- quently, on account of other intrigues, he was transported to Cayenne. He effected his escape in June, 1798, and entered heart and soul into the Bourbon conspiracy. The conspirators secretly came to Paris, bent upon taking the life of the first consul. An intimate friend of Pichegru betrayed liim to the government for a bribe of one hundred thousand crowns. He was surprised in his sleep and carried to the Temple, where he was afterward found dead in his bed. An attempt to fasten his death as a private assassination upon Napoleon lacks evidence, and the most general belief is, that he stran- gled himself. XIX. E I. 'HE conspiracy was crushed in its beginning, and Napo- leon used it as a pretext to advance his claims for the emperorship. The question of another change in government was submitted to the people, and out of a. vote of between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000, only three or four thousand were against the measure. But as munici- pal freedom was gone, but little value can be placed upon this expression of the popular will. On the i8th day of May Napoleon assumed the title of emperor, and was crowned, not by the pope, but in his presence, December 2d. When the pope was about to place the crown upon his head, he suddenly snatched it from the pope's hand and crowned himself with it. The pope had come to Paris for the purpose of crowning Napo- ^leon and his wife Josephine. Then there was created a new order of nobility, and all the relatives and friends of the new emperor were created kings, dukes, counts, and placed over the con- quered people which he had subdued. By the means of his- power over the weakened continental nations, he made an efficient blockade of the coast of England. His arms were everywhere victorious, with the one exception of the operations in the peninsula. His policy of aggrandizement began at this time to arouse the attention and jealousy of all the other powers, and especially Austria, who saw her territory in Italy seriously threatened. By the effort of England a coalition was formed in 1805 against France by- Austria, Russia, Sweden and England. The war broke out in September of that year, and Napoleon moved with his wonderful celerity. His forces,, which were scattered widely, were gathered as quickly at Mainz. A forward march across Bavaria compelled General Mack to surrender Ulm with twenty thousand men on October 17th, and Napoleon entered the Austrian capital on the 13th of November. The news of this electrified all France, but the rest of Europe was dumbfounded. This was only the prelude to a more wonder- ful success. The Russian emperor had already entered Moravia with a large army and joined the scattered Austrian troops. Hurrying northward the French emperor did not lose a moment, but met the allied armies at. Austerlitz on December 2d, 1805. The allied armies of Austria and Russia were under the immediate com- mand of their respective emperors, and they advanced in five columns to offer- battle to the French emperor. But the movements of these were ill- i8o5] FRANCE.— THE EMPIRE.— NAPOLEON I. 289 conducted, and evidently made without a knowledge of the strength of the French army. Napoleon had taken his head-quarters at Briinn. The strength of his army was fully eighty thousand men, but they were so carefully con- cealed under the tactics of their general as not to appear to be nearly so many. The engagement began at 7 o'clock in the morning, but the Russian line was quickly broken by the French. The left wing of the allied army suffered severely toward the close of the battle, and attempted to withdraw .across a frozen pond, but Napoleon ordered his artillery to fire upon the ice, which was thus broken and thousands of the troops were drowned. According to trustworthy accounts the allied armies lost thirty thousand men, and the French twelve thousand. Russian and French accounts make the number on ^each side respectively much less. This battle was followed by an armistice, the terms being dictated by the conquering emperor, and on the 26th of December, by the treaty of Presburg, Austria was completely humbled by this disaster. Prior to this decided victory the French navy had suffered a terrible defeat at Trafalgar. The French fleet was commanded by Villeneuve, and the Spanish fleet, allied with it, by two Spanish admirals. This combined fleet ■<:onsisted of thirty-three ships of the line, five frigates and two brigs. The British fleet opposed them with twenty-seven ships of the line, four frigates and two smaller vessels. The engagement resulted in an overwhelming ■defeat for the French, but the English lost their bravest and best admiral. Nelson. On the 27th of December Napoleon declared war against the king of Naples, because he had violated the treaty of neutrality by receiving an English and Russian army with friendship a few days before the battle of Austerlitz. A powerful army under Massena and Joseph Bonaparte had hastened to Naples to enforce the promulgation of Napoleon's annunciation, "The royal house of Naples has ceased to reign." The army reached the • capital of the kingdom February 15th, 1807, at whose approach the royal house fled in terror to Palermo. The emperor at once appointed his brother Joseph the hereditary king of that beautiful kingdom and made him a tribu- tary of the empire. The capture of Gaeta, July i8th, consummated this revolution. Shortly after Joseph Bopaparte had been seated on the throne of Naples a delegation from Batavia came to Paris and implored that Louis Napoleon should be appointed regent of that country. Immediately this prince was proclaimed king of Holland, upon the same conditions that his brother had been made king of Naples. The kingdom of Italy was now increased by the addition of all the States which had formed the States of Venice, and over this was placed the adopted son of the emperor. Eugene Beauhafnais, who had married the Princess Augusta of Bavaria, was seated on the throne of this kingdom, which now embraced all Italy except Hetruria and Rome. While Napoleon raised his large family of relatives to dignity and 19 290 FRANCE.— THE EMPIRE.— NAPOLEON I. [1804 renown he did not forget to reward his generals with dukedoms and provinces^ by which he could bestow emoluments without taxing France or taking from her territory. There was, in fact, a double empire, the direct and the indirect. The former consisted of France and her incorporated provinces under the immediate rule of Napoleon, the latter of 'the kingdoms and principalities, which were held by those who were French subjects and, at the same time^ dependent for their power upon the French emperor. The entire administration of internal affairs tended to the consolidatiork of the empire and the last vestige of freedom to the French. The restoration of the Gregorian Calendar in the place of the Republican^ the arrangement of the Church in its connection with the State and national system of education, all tended to make the people subservient to the will of a despot. Only one thing was wanting to concentrate in the person of the emperor alone all the relations of Church, education, commerce and the family^ the subjection of his own house. This was effected on the 30th of March, 1806, by the imperial family statute, by which he was able to rivet the chains more closely, not only about France itself, but around the allied States he had connected with her. By this his own family, although they occupied foreign thrones, were compelled into absolute dependence upon him. From the time he became consul for life his character underwent a most radical change in every particular. Before that the good of France may have been the sole object of his ambition, but thereafter his egregious personal ambition swallowed up every other consideration. It was Germany which suffered the heaviest from the treaty of Presburg. March 15th, 1806, Napoleon gave Cleves, with Berry as an hereditary duchy, ta his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, upon the usual condition. The imperial city of Frankfort was fallen upon by French troops, put under contribution, and presented to the electoral archchancellor on the 19th of September. The uncle of the great Napoleon was appointed his coadjutor May 28th. A union of sixteen German princes, under the control of the French emperor, was concluded at Paris, July 12th, 1806. These princes agreed by a treaty of alliance to raise a contingent of sixty-three thousand men for; all the wars which France might wage. Augsburg and Lindon were the places of rendezvous. The formation of this confederation was communicated with no delay by the French charge' d'affaires, Bucher, to the diet of the German empire, with the declaration that France no longer recognized the existence of a German empire. Thus passed away without noise or confusion an empire whrch Charles the Great had founded more than a thousand years before. The Confederation of the Rhine, as this union was styled, increased the territory of France by an area of between eleven and twelve thousand square miles, and added eight million souls to her population. It mattered not by what title he was called, whether emperor, king, prince, or protector, the great Napoleon was absolute master of all. Negotiations fot peace had been begun with Russia and England, but they were abruptly broken off October ist. Prussia began to arouse herself and shake off her blifidness to i8ii] FRANCE.— THE EMPIRE.— NAPOLEON I. 291 the situation, now she was thoroughly alive to the important crisis. War was declared by France on the 7th, and by Prussia on the 8th. Preparations were hurriedly made. Prussia collected an army of one hundred and twenty thousand men in the vicinity of Erfurt. It was a valiant army but poorly ofificered. Napoleon quietly, and with astonishing rapidity, broke through the Prussians and suddenly assailed them on the left flank. The engagement near Saalfeld October loth, in which the heroic Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia fell like a hero, was only the prelude to the fatal day of Jena and Auerstadt on the 14th. The Prussian power was overthrown on that bloody field. The pages of modern history do not record a defeat so total and irredeemable as this. The two Prussian armies were routed and dispersed in spite of many heroic exploits. Not less than fifty thousand Prussians fell on that day. The subsequent disasters were even more appalling. Two days after the battle, Erfurt surrendered with its strong citadels and fourteen thousand men. The day after this the entire reserve under the prince of Wurtemburg was beaten near Halle. The French crossed the Elbe and entered the fortified Sprandau on the 24th of October, and Berlin on the 25th. The end of disaster had not yet come; on the 28th the Prussian general, Hohenlohe, surrendered with seventeen thousand men, the next day six thousand cavalry also surrendered, Lubeck was stormed repeatedly on the 6th of November, and was surrendered by its valiant defender, Blucher, with ten thousand men. Other cities follow the same fate, and before the first of December all the country between the Rhine and the Oder with 9,000,000 inhabitants had surrendered to the victorious French emperor. All Northern Germany felt the scourge of the victor, and neutral territory was not spared. Of all Germany, Austria alone had taken no part in the war; but the suddeii fall of Prussia, although it might make their own overthrow less humiliating, was none the less an object of terror and grief. After the fall of the Prussian capital Napoleon hastened northward to meet the Russians, who were now coming to the aid of Prussia ; on his way he aroused the Poles to make a strike for liberty, but only with partial success. The French were twice beaten back, once at Pultask, December i8th, 1806, and again at Eyiau, February 8th, 1807; but after some months they received heavy re-enforce- ments, and on the 13th of June they fought and won the great battle of Friedland, which led to the treaty of Tilsit July 7th. At the same conference a secret treaty was signed, by which the Russians agreed to exclude the English from her ports. Just after this treaty the emperor removed the last vestige of popular government from the people by the abolition of the tribunate. In August the emperor created his brother Jerome, sovereign of Westphalia, and soon after declared war with Portugal on account of her refusing to keep the British ships out of her ports. In the month of March, 1808, occurred the extraordinary instance of trepanning at Bayonne, by which the royal family of Spain came into the hands of the French. In the following July the "dearly beloved brother" of Napoleon, Joseph, was ordered to exchange the throne of Naples for that of Spain and the Indies. 292 FRANCE.— THE EMPIRE.— NAPOLEON I. [1804 His successor in Naples was Joachim Marat. Spain at once arose in arms, and was aided by England under Sir John Moore. Napoleon invaded Spain, defeated their army, and entered Madrid December 4th. But he was urgently needed elsewhere, and he was obliged to leave Soult and other generals to conduct the war in the peninsula. Austria once more prepared for war, which began in the spring of 1809. The first great operations of the war gave no very decided advantage to Napoleon, although his bulletins spoke of partial victories as final triumphs. The battle of Eckmuhl on the 22d of April was followed by the entry of the French into Vienna on the 13th of May. But the archduke Charles had re-enforced his army, and was advancing rapidly along the left bank of the Danube, to prevent the enemy crossing from the right bank, on which Vienna is situated. In the great stream of the Danube is the island of Lobau, nearly three miles in length, and nearly two miles in breadth. To this island Napoleon determined to transport his army. This was an operation of no common difificulty ; but it was accomplished by incessant labor in constructing a great bridge upon boats, held in their places by anchors, or by the weight of cannon taken from the arsenal of Vienna. From Lobau there was a smaller stream to cross, by a similar bridge, before a landing could be effected on the open plain on the left bank. On the morning of the 21st of May, the army of the archduke Charles saw from wooded heights the army of Napoleon crossing the lesser branch of the river, and pouring into the great level called Marchfeld. As the French formed their line, the village of Aspern was on one flank ; the village of Essling on the other flank. On the 21st and 22d of May, the most sanguinary contest of the war here took place. "It was a battle," says Thiers, "without any result but an abominable effusion of blood." Never before was the all- conquering emperor in so dangerous a position as when the day closed upon this horrible carnage. He could not return to Vienna; for the river had risen, and the Austrians had floated down the main stream great balks of timber and numerous fire-ships, which swept away the boats and their bridge. Napoleon could only return to the island of Lobau. Here he retreated, carrying with him thousands of wounded soldiers. The place afforded small means for their cure or comfort ; and there was soon little difference between those who died in the battle-field and those who were borne from it to a lingering death. The inaction of mutual exhaustion was coming to an end. To Napo- leon inaction was generally insupportable. He appeared busily employed in constructing massive bridges from the island to the left bank of the Danube ; but he was secretly collecting the materials for another wxsrk. On the night of the 4th of July the whole of his army crossed the stream, by a bridge hastily thrown over an unguarded point. On the morning of the 5th the French mioved in order of battle toward the entrenched canfip of the Austrians, which was to resist the passage over the Danube so ostentatiously prepared. The archduke Charles quitted his entrenchments, abandoning the i8ii] FRANCE.— THE EMPIRE.— NAPOLEON I. 293 ■country between Enzensdorf and Wagram. He had lost the opportunity of attacking the French as they crossed the river in that one night, and confronted him as if by miracle. He now retired to a strong position on the elevated table-land of Wagram. From this locality the great battle of the 6th derives its name. The number of soldiers engaged in the work of mutual destruction was between three and four hundred thousand. The French historians claim to have killed or wounded twenty-four thousand Austrians ; and admit to have lost eighteen thousand in killed or wounded. But the sturdy resistance of Austria had deranged some of Napoleon's grandest plans of ambition. " He had renounced the idea of dethroning the house of Hapsburg, an idea which he had conceived in the first movements of his wrath." He would humiliate Austria by new sacrifices of territory and of money. The time was fast approaching when the conquering parvenu Avould demand a daughter of the house of Hapsburg in marriage, com- pleting the triumph of his proud egoism by divorcing the woman who had stooped from her rank to wed the Corsican lieutenant of artillery. Austria sued for an armistice ; and the armistice led to a peace. Two of the conditions of the peace of Vienna, which was signed on the 14th of October, were more degrading to Austria than the loss of territory. One was that she should give no succor to the Tyrolese who had so nobly fought for her independence. The other was, that she should unite with all the rest of the enslaved continent in the exclusion of the commerce of England, her ally, that was affording the most effectual co-operation by exertions in Spain ; and had attempted by a small expedition to Naples, and a vast expedition to the Scheldt, to divert the levies of France from going to the aid of the French armies that were fighting against Austria on the Danube and in Italy. England was ill-timed in her assistance ; she was unlucky ; but her good-will was not the less sincere. Napoleon returned to Paris, and left his marshals to put down the spirit in Germany which a humiliating peace could not compromise, and which the system of terror could not wholly extinguish. Fifty thousand French and Bavarians marched into the Tyrol ; hunted the peasantry from hill to hill ; set a price upon the head of Andrew Hofer ; and procured his arrest by treachery. He was tried by court-martial at Mantua, and condemned to death. The majority of French officers were averse to the sentence being executed. There was a respite ; but an order from Paris left no choice. He was shot on the 20th of February. The time had now come when Napoleon was about to commit the most contemptible act of his who^le life, and for which he ought to receive the curse of all decent men. The gentle Josephine, who had stooped from her rank to wed the young Corsican sub-lieutenant, had made him a true and noble wife. But she was childless, and he wished to ally himself to some royal family as well as to perpetuate his family. He therefore began proceedings for divorce. The act of divorcement was registered on the i6th of December, 1809, and Josephine was permitted to retain the title of empress. In less than three months he was married to Maria Louisa, arch- 294 FRANCE.— THE EMPIRE.— NAPOLEON I. [1804 duchess of Austria. He was now at the zenith of his power, but according to the old Greek beUef Nemesis was already on his track. The real cause of his downfall was the moral effect of that outrage on modern civilization contained in the Berlin decrees, by which Napoleon declared the whole of the British Isles in a state of blockade. On the 13th of December, 18 10, all Holland was added to the French empire, and created ten departments. The empire now consisted of one hundred and thirty departments, embracing forty-two million souls. The millions that were dependent upon the Avill of the mighty emperor — a godhead with some infatuated English, a " restless barbarian " with others not wholly given up to party — can scarcely be numbered. The kingdom of Italy, which was under his sway, contained six millions. The kingdom of Naples, in which his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, now ruled, contained five millions. The kingdom of Westphalia, of which his brother Jerome was the sovereign, submitted to the law that was enforced upon his other satel- lites, that " everything must be subservient to the interests of France." Pro- tector of the Confederation of the Rhine, he had at his feet the kings of Saxony, Bavaria, and Wiirtemburg, and a train of minor German princes. Prussia was wholly at his mercy. Denmark would obey any command of Napoleon since Copenhagen was bombarded and her fleet carried off. Mar- shal Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, had been elected by the States of Sweden as successor to the aged and childless Charles XIII., who had succeded the deposed Gustavus. The French marshal was installed crown prince on the ist of November, 18 10. There only wanted the entire posses- sion of Spain and Portugal, under his brother king, Joseph — Austria being his own by family ties, and Russia his ally, in the sworn friendship of her emperor — to make the world his own. England was to perish in the great league of Europe against her commerce ; and in the resistance of America to her maritime claims. " The English," says Thiers, " once expelled from Portugal, all would tend in Europe to a general peace. On the contrary, their situation consolidated in that country, Massena being obliged to retrace his steps, the fortune of the empire would begin to fall back before the fortune of Great Britain, to sink in the midst of an approaching catas- trophe." In his place in parliament, about this time, the marquis Wellesley proclaimed a great truth, which he repeated in 1813 : "As Bonaparte was probably the only man in the world who could have raised his power to such a height, so he was probably the only man who could bring it into imminent danger. His eagerness for power was so inordinate ; his jealousy of inde- pendence so fierce ; his keenness of appetite so feverish in all that touched his ambition even in the most trifling things, that he must plunge into desperate difficulties. He was of an order of mind that by nature made for themselves great reverses." On the loth of March, 181 1, Louise Maria presented the errtperor with a son, whom Napoleon in the joy of his heart saluted as king of Rome. The I8l2] FRANCE.— THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 295 infant prince was baptized June 6th, by the name of Napoleon Francois Charles Joseph. Russia and the other European powers found that they could not enforce the unrighteous decrees of Berlin and Milan, and at first began to evade them. The relations of England and the United States to the continental question are set forth in the respective histories of those countries. XX. iD OF ;HE eternal friendship between Napoleon and Alexander which had been sworn at Tilsit was threatened to be dissolved by causes of which the two emperors at first took little heed. Princes might submit to the continen- tal decrees of France, but nations were more difficult to persuade or to coerce. The Russian people, and especially the Russian landholders, who were deprived of the usual markets for the produce of their estates, compelled the government to issue a ukase, by which commodities were to be introduced into Russian ports unless they should appear' to belong to subjects of Great Britain. This restriction was easy to be evaded, and the trade between the two countries became really opened. Napoleon was haughty and indignant. But Alexander dared not impose any severer law upon his subjects ; and he had now the support of Bernadotte, the crown prince of Sweden, who also refused to submit to the dictator, who had seized and confiscated fifty Swedish merchantmen, on the ground of their contraband trade with England. In March, 1812, a treaty of alliance was signed between Russia and Sweden. Napoleon had been gradually collecting large bodies of troops on the Vistula. He had levied the conscription of 1812, although that of 181 1 was only just completed. It was clear that an offensive war was in preparation. At the beginning of May, the Russian minister at Paris presented an official note, to the intent that the differences between the governments might be easily settled if the French troops were withdrawn from Pomerania and the duchy of Warsaw, where they were evidently stationed to threaten the Russian frontier, Bonaparte said he would not be dictated to by any foreign sovereign, and he sent the ambassador his passports. On the 9th of May he left Paris, with his Austi'ian empress. At Dresden he received the homage of his tributary princes : and s 296 FRANCE.— THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. [1S12 there, too, came the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia, to offer their contingents for the invasion of Russia. Splendid were the ceremonials with which the vassals did fealty to their liege lord. The numbers of the confederated army which, on the 24th and 25th of June, passed the Niemen, the boundary of the Russian empire, have been variously stated. The lowest estimate places them at half a milHon of men. A detailed return, extant in the French War-office, gives the numbers as six hundred and fifty-one thou- sand three hundred and fifty-eight infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers; one' hundred and eighty-seven thousand one hundred and twenty-one horses, and one thousand three hundred and seventy-two pieces of ordnance. To meet this mighty force, the Russian armies only comprised two hundred and fifty-four thousand three hundred and fifty-six men. But there was some- thing stronger than these mighty masses of invaders, — the determination of the Russian people to resist to the last extremity. It was in this spirit that the officers and soldiers of Alexander's army held that to ruin the invader they must retire before him into the heart of Russia without giving battle, and, destroying everything before him in their retreat, to leave nothing but ravaged fields, so that the modern Pharaoh and his hosts should perish in the immensity of the void, as the ancient Pharaoh perished in the waters. The French armies entered Lithuania without encountering any op- position. They ravaged the country, feeding their horses on green corn ; and when the main bodies left it, entirely devastated, they left behind them a hundred thousand men, dead, or in hospitals, or marauding in scattered parties through the districts where the locusts who had passed over had left nothing to be consumed. On the i6th of August they were under the walls of Smolensk, about two hundred and eighty miles from Moscow. The Russians were there in force, and a great battle took place. When the French entered th? city it had been evacuated, and they found only burning ruins. The Russians continued their retreat toward Moscow, Napoleon following them. On the 7th of September was fought the sanguinary battle of Borodino. The sun had risen with extraordinary brilliancy, and Napoleon hailed it as the twin sun of Austerlitz. The fighting lasted two days. On each side there were forty thousand killed and wounded. Each army imagined itself lord of the field ; but the Russian army continued its retreat to Moscow. On the 14th of September before day dawn, the Russian troops com- menced filing through the city. They were soon accompanied by all the inhabitants and populace who could find any means of conveyance. " The incidents and the whole scene of the evacuation of a great capital may be conceived better than described. The Russians, however, have preserved so much of their nomad habits, that they were much more quickly packed and equipped for their emigration than the inhabitants of any other European city would have been. The army, indeed, since the first day's retreat from Smolensk, had been accompanied by a wandering nation. All the towns villages, and hamlets were abandoned as the columns appeared. The old and i8i4] FRANCE.— THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 297 infirm, the women and children were placed with the movable effects, and the ' Dii Penates,' on their kabitgas or telegas — one and two horse carts which no peasant is without." On the same day Napoleon arrived at Moscow with his guards, and was astounded at the solitude which reigned everywhere. " His feelings had been excited to the highest degree of pride and glowing expectation. He had anticipated his reception by a submissive magistracy and humbled people, imporing clemency ; and dreamt that in the palace of the czars he would have it in his power to promise pardon, protection, and peace to themselves and their sovereign." Napoleon took up hi.s residence in the suburb of Moscow. He had commanded his soldiers to bivouac outside the city, but at night many entered, and sought in plunder and riot some compensation for their long endurance of severe privations. That very night the alarm of fire was given in various quarters. The great bazaar with its ten thousand shops was in a blaae. The crown magazines, with vast stores of wine and spirits, were in a blaze. Not a fire-engine, not a bucket, could be procured. They had all been carried off. The next day the French emperor transferred his quarters to the Kremlin. Day after day the astonished soldiers saw the canopy of smoke and flame spreading over the city of a thousand domes and minarets. On the 2 1st, the Russian army was established within twenty-five miles of Moscow. They knew that the progress of their invader had been stayed. The conflagration went on till, of forty thousand houses in stone, only two hundred escaped ; of eight thousand in wood, five hundred only were stand- ing ; of sixteen hundred churches, eight hundred were consumed. The Kremlin itself, on the i6th, had become uninhabitable, and Napoleon left it to take up his quarters outside the city. A furious wind carried showers of sparks far and near. On the 20th, when Napoleon returned, a heavy rain had extinguished the flames, but only one-tenth of the city was left unconsumed. Only those provisions had escaped being burnt which were left in the cellafs of the houses. What was the cause of this terrible destruction ? Was it the resolved purpose of a patriotic devotion producing a havoc more awful than any event which history records, or was it accident ? There can be no doubt that it was part of the same determined system of resistance which had driven the whole population from the burning villages on the road from Smolensk, and had led forth the inhabitants of Moscow, with the exception of the miserable thousands who were unable to move, to seek for other shelter than in the homes of the devoted city. Rostopchin, the governor of Moscow, *' could neither deny nor adopt the act." But that he had a strong conviction of what was public virtue may be gathered from the fact that he afterward set fire with his own hands to his magnificent palace in the village of Woro- now, when a division of the French were approaching on the 4th of October, and that he afiixed upon a pillar these ominous words : " The inhabitants of this property, to the number of seventeen hundred and twenty, quit it at your approach, and I voluntarily set the house on fire that it may not be polluted by your presence. Frenchmen, I abandoned to you my two houses at 298 FRANCE.— THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. [1812 Moscow, with their furniture and contents, worth half a milHon of roubles. Here you will only find ashes." The French evacuated Moscow on the 19th •of October. Snow had begun to fall. An early winter was setting in. Adequately to describe the incidents of that terrible destruction of the French grand army, which occurred from the 19th of October to the 13th of December, when a miserable remnant re-crossed the Niemen, would require a volume — as indeed several separate volumes have been written on that fear- ful catastrophe. The march of the French was a succession of battles with the pursuing Russians. The troops were skillfully led ; their courage rarely failed, even when starving and perishing by the wayside with the extremity of cold. Clouds of Cossacks hung upon their path, leaving them not an hour's -safety. The most popular narrative, that of the Count de Segur, has been lield to contain many exaggerations. That of Sir Robert Wilson has many striking details of horror, amid a critical military view of the operations of the Russians in which he is not sparing of blame. There is a brief account by Desprez, the aide-de-camp of King Joseph, who was sent to Napoleon to propitiate his anger against his brother, and against Marmont, for the defeat at Salamanca. The emperor kept him at Moscow, and when the evacuation took place, he accompanied the division of Marshal Mortier, till it reached Wilna, where the French had staid till the i6th of December, when the Russians were coming upon them. The aide-de-camp, in a letter to King Joseph, dated from Paris on the 3d of January, says that the army when he 'quitted it was in the most horrible misery. For a long time previously the disorder and losses had been frightful ; the artillery and cavalry had ceased to exist. The different regiments were all mixed together ; the soldiers marching pell-mell, and only seeking to prolong existence. Thousands of ^wandering men fell into the hands of the Cossacks. The number of prisoners w^as very great, but that of the dead exceeded it. During a month there were no rations, and dead horses were the only resource. The severity of the climate rendered hunger more fatal. The truth could not be wholly hidden, even by Napoleon. He could not conceal that of four hundred thousand Frenchmen who had crossed the Niemen in May, with the persua- sion of their invincibility, not twenty thousand had returned to the Vistula. The destruction could not be concealed from the bereaved families who mourned their sons and their husbands. On the 3d of December, the em- peror issued his twenty-ninth and last bulletin, which made France and the 'world comprehend, in some degree, how the invasion of Russia had ended. For the first time he then spoke of his retreat ; he avowed such part of his misfortunes as he could not wholly deny; he attributes his calamities to the severity of the weather. On the 5th, in the middle of the night, he quitted his army at Smorgoni, traveling in a sledge, accompanied by Caulaincourt, a Polish interpreter, his mamlook Rustan, and a valet. He arrived in Paris on the night of the 18th of December. There is a description of the state of public feeling in Germany at the beginning of 181 3, which shows how the continent was awakening from its i8i4j FRANCE.— THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 299 torpor. The writer was a professor in the University of Breslau : " The 29th bulletin had appeared : every artful expression in it seemed to endeavor vainly to conceal the news of a total defeat. The vision of a Wonderful agitated future rose in every mind with all its hopes and terrors : it was breathed out at first in tones scarcely audible : even those Avho had believed that unbridled ambition would find its check in the land which it had deso- lated could not realize the horrible destruction of a victorious army, an army which had for fifteen years, with growing might, excited first the admiration, then the terror, and, lastly, the paralyzed dismay of all the continental nations, and which had at length been overtaken by a fearful judgment, more wonder- ful than its conquests. But the strange event was there ; reports no longer to be doubted crowded in upon us, — the distant voice approached, — the por- tentous words sounded clearer and clearer, — and at last the loud call to rise was shouted through the land. Then did the flood of feeling burst from hearts where it had been long pent up, — fuller and freer did it flow ; then the long-hidden love to king and countiy flamed brightly out, and the dullest minds were animated by the wild enthusiasm. Every one looked for a tre- mendous crisis, but the moment was not yet come for action, and while resting in breathless expectation, thousands and thousands became every hour stronger still to meet it." The passionate impulses of the people of Prussia were powerful enough to make their sovereign resolve to endure no longer his state of ignominious vassalage. He first made a proposal to Napoleon, with the consent of Alex- ander, whom he met at Breslau, that the French should evacuate Dantzic, and all the Prussian fortresses on the Oder, and retire behind the Elbe into Saxony. The Russian army should in that case remain behind the Vistula. Napoleon contemptuously spurned the proposition. Frederick-William and Alexander then concluded an alliance, offensive and defensive. Austria decided to remain neutral. Hostilities immediately began. The French quitted Berlin and Dresden. The old spirit of Germany, — the spirit of Arminius, which eighteen centuries before had driven the Roman legions beyond the Rhine, — had again awakened. Secret societies had cherished this spirit, and now it no longer needed to be secret. The preacher called upon his congregation to arm ; the professor told his class that they must now learn to fight. At nightfall in every city bands of young Germans shouted forth the songs of Arndt ; and every student and every apprentice could join in the chorus of '' Was ist der Deutschen Vaterland." In the mean time, France, weeping for her children, still crouched at the feet of her master. The senate were now called upon to place at the disposal of the emperor half a million of conscripts. He took the field in the middle of April. He could reckon upon collecting two hundred and fifty thousand troops before Russia and Prussia could concentrate an equal force. But of his forces four- fifths were young soldiers ; the other fifth were Germans. He left Erfurt to march upon Leipzig. On the 2d of May he fought the battle of Lutzen, and defeated the combined Russian and Prussian army. His victory gave him 300 FRANCE.— THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. [1812 possession of Leipzig and of Dresden. On the 20th and 21st of May the two armies renewed the struggle at Bautzen. The slaughter on each side was nearly equal. The allies retreated ; but Napoleon did not attempt to follow, up the success which he had achieved at a prodigious loss, which told him that such days as Austerlitz and Jena were not likely to recur. An armistice was agreed upon, to extend from the 5th of June to the 22d of July. Bona- parte spent this period in Berlin trying to deceive the powers by pretending to devote himself to ease and pleasure, but he was really preparing for the coming contest. The duke of Wellington gained a decided victory at Vittoria on the 19th of June, over Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jourdan. Then followed repeated victories over the French in Spain by the allied forces. The spirit of Europe was thoroughly aroused and the spell wa& broken. In all Europe and even in France the feeling was growing that the world had had " enough of Bonaparte." Prussia was burning to wipe out the disgrace of Jena and the bitter humiliation which followed. An alliance w^as formed between Prussia and the Emperor Alexander ; at first Austria stood neutral, but subsequently joined it. The exalted military genius of Napoleon never shone more brightly than in the campaign which resulted in his down- fall. The opening battles Avere successful : that at Lutzen, May 2d, at Baut- zen, May 2 1st, and Dresden, August 24th, 25th and 27th, but an invincible determination, which made these last victories well nigh fruitless, had seized the allied powers. They were thoroughly convinced that one grand victory by them would neutralize all the advantages gained by Napoleon. And the issue proved that they were correct. Napoleon had won his last victory. Then followed a series of disasters on the 26th of August in the battle of Katzbach, in which the French lost twenty-five thousand men, and then the defeat of Vandamme on the Zo. The Swedes, Prussians and Russians had won the field of Gross-Buren the 23d of August. General Ney was defeated at the battle of Denniwitz on September 3d. On the 8th of October the king of Bavaria was obliged to join the allies. Napoleon saw that these reverses were not transitory misfortunes that could easily be retrieved. When he heard of the defeat of Vandamme he exclaimed : "■ This is war : — high in the morning, low at night." The morning had now little sunshine. He determined to fight his way to the Rhine, though all Germany was rising against him. To Leipzig he directed his march. He arrived in its neighbor- hood on the 15th of October. The Russians and Prussians were advancing to the same point. On the i6th he was attacked at the village of Wachau, near Leipzig. The action was not decisive ; but for Napoleon not to win triumph- antly was in itself defeat. On that day Bernadotte had not come up. There was a doubt at the Prussian head-quarters whether the crown prince of Sweden would be staunch. The amateur soldier, Professor Steffens, was sent to search for him after the battle of the i6th had begun. " It was not till night," he says, " that I made him out at Landsberg, in miserable quarters, surrounded by Swedish officers. He lay on a mattress spread on the floor of a desolate, nearly empty room. The dark Gascon face, with the prominent i8i2] FRANCE.— THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN. 301 nose and the relaxing chin, was sharply relieved against the white bed-clothes -and the laced night-cap." Steffens explained the object of his mission. Bernadotte promised to march directly, and he kept his promise. On the 17th there was a pause. Napoleon had been secretly making propositions for an armistice. His father-in-law and Alexander returned no answer. The battle was fought on the i8th and decided the fate of Napoleon. The French were defeated and marched out of Leipzig on the morning of the 19th before daybreak. Then commenced the disastrous retreat toward Paris, closely followed by the allied forces. Napoleon won his last victory at Hannau on the 30th and 31st of October, 1813. His last fight on German soil resulted in a victory, but it could not stay his retreat. He crossed the Rhine November 22d. On the 14th of November the senate of France presented an address to Napoleon at the Tuileries. In his answer he said, "A year ago all Europe marched with us : now all Europe is marching against us. It is because the opinion of the world is formed by France or by England. We should have everything to fear but for the energy and power of the nation." The senate at once gave him three hundred thousand conscripts. In all, France had sacri- ficed, from September, 1805, to November 15th, 1813, no less than 2,103,000 of her sons. Two columns of the allies marched upon Paris. On the 20th of January, 1 8 14, the battle of Brienne was fought, but it decided nothing. By a rapid and daring movement Napoleon put himself in the rear of the allied forces. A hard battle was fought in the defense of the capital on March 30th, and on the 31st Paris capitulated. Napoleon abdicated and retired to the Island of Elba, but the allied powers recalled Louis XVIII., who entered Paris on the 3d of May amid the shouts of Vive le Roi. The king promised the French a constitutional crovernment. XXL THE HEED MYS-WATEELOO. 'HE diary of Mr. Abbot, the speaker of the British House of Commons, for the month of March, 1815, con- tains brief but remarkable entries, which may suggest some notion of the agitation of the pubhc mind when the news came of two most unexpected and untoward events. " March 8th. — News arrived this day of the failure of the attack on New Orleans ; and the loss of General Pakenham,, General Gibbs, and twenty-five hundred men killed and wounded." " March loth. — News arrived of Bonaparte having escaped from Elba, and landing at Antibes with one thousand men." The second startling piece of intelligence, following so close upon the announcement of a great defeat of the British army in America, might have suggested to many a belief that the treaty of peace and amity between Great Britain and the United States, signed at Ghent on the 24th of December, had not been ratified ; that the escape of Bonaparte had been anticipated by his democratic friends in America ; and that a war in both hemispheres would make the peace as- perishable as " The Temple of Concord," splendid with lamps and fireworks for a few hours, upon which the people had gazed in the Green Park on the night of the ist of August. The peace of Ghent had nevertheless been duly ratified. At four o'clock on the morning of the 2d of March, the troops, in number about eight hundred, with Napoleon at their head, attended by his old companions in arms, Bertrand, Drouet, and Cam- bronne, commenced their march north on the road to Grasse ; and possibly skirted Cannes on the east side, which quarter has been almost entirely built since 1815. This landing in the Gulf of St. Juan on the ist of March was the intro- ductory scene to the great drama called " The Hundred Days." These count from the 13th of March, when Napoleon assumed the government, to the 22d of June, when he abdicated. The secret departure from Elba was not known to the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia, and to the representatives of the other European powers assembled in congress at Vienna, till the 7th of March, when the duke of Wellington received a dispatch from Lord Burghersh, the British i8i5] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED DAYS.— WATERLOO. 303 minister at Florence, announcing the astounding fact. It was some days afterward before the landing near Cannes and the march toward Grasse were known at Vienna. Such was the slowness of communication that on the 5th of March it was not known in Paris that the ex-emperor had quitted the terri- tory all too narrow for his ambition. Let us, before proceeding to relate the progress and issue of this great adventure, take a retrospect of the events that had followed Napoleon's abdication on the 4th of April, 18 14 — eleven months of false confidence and hollow peace. The 4th of June, 1814, was an exciting day for Paris; an important day for the future tranquility of France and of Europe. A constitutional charter was that day to be promulgated by the restored king ; and, on the same day, the last of the allied troops were to quit the capital. Louis XVHL was to be left in the midst of his subjects, without the guarantee for his safety which some associated with the continued presence of the armed foreigners. The charter created a chamber of peers, of about one hundred and forty mem- bers, named for life by the king. These took the place of the servile flatter- ers of Napoleon, called the senate. The composition of this new body was an approach to impartiality in the union of members of the old noblesse with a remnant of the senate, and of generals of the army before the revolution, with marshals of the empire. By the charter, a representative body was also created, with very sufficient authority, and especially with the power of deter- mining the taxes to be levied on the people. The letter of the ancient feudal- ism had perished. But its spirit lingered in the very date of this charter. It was held that Louis XVIII. began to reign when Louis XVII., the unhappy son of Louis XVI., was released by death from his miseries. The charter " given at Paris in the year of grace 1814, in the nineteenth year of our reign," was an emanation of the royal bounty. The king was declared by the chan- cellor, in his speech of the 4th of June, to be " in full possession of his hered- itary rights," but that he had himself placed limits to the power which he had received from God and his fathers. The constitutional charter was in some degree the work of the king him- self, inasmuch as he had greatly modified a charter presented to him by the senate, which he found busy upon a constitution after Napoleon's abdication. The substance, and even the forms of liberty, having perished during the con- sulate and the empire, the change was great when freedom of speech and of writing were possible ; when a senate and a representative body could debate without reserve and vote without compulsion. When the powers who had signed the treaty of Paris assembled in congress at Vienna on the 30th of March they were informed of the escape of Napoleon and his entrance into France. They at once pub- lished a declaration which showed conclusively that there must be a renewed trial of strength more or less severe. The 4th of April the duke of Wellington arrived in Brussels to devise measures for the defense of the Netherlands. The ex-emperor had marched from Cannes to Grenoble and encountered no opposition. He had been in communication with 304 FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED DAYS.— WATERLOO. [1815 Labedoyere, who was an officer of the garrison at Grenoble, and this young colonel was ready with the men he commanded to hoist the tri-color. General Marchand, the governor of Grenoble, who was firm in his allegiance to the sovereign of the Restoration, sent out a detachment to observe the force that was approaching. Napoleon alone advanced to meet them, exclaiming, "I am your emperor; fire on me if you wish," The soldiers threw themselves on their knees, and amid shouts of " Vive rEinpereiir^'' joined his ranks. Labedoyere and his men swelled the number, and Napo- leon entered Grenoble amid the cheers of the soldiery and the citizens. On the 1 2th of March he was at Lyons, from which city he issued his decrees, which showed that he assumed supreme authority. On the 7th of March Marshal Ney had left the king, saying that he would bring the ex-emperor back in an iron cage, but on the 14th the marshal issued his orders at Auxerre in favor of Napoleon. On the 19th of March the king dissolved the chamber of deputies and on the 20th left the Tuileries. On the 21st Napoleon slept there, having been borne up the grand staircase by an enthusiastic crowd. On April 30th he issued a decree convoking the electoral college for the nom- ination of deputies. The greater number of people abstained from voting. In an assembly of two hundred thousand people of both sexes Napoleon announced that the wishes of the nation had brought him back to his throne and his whole thoughts were turned to the " founding our liberty on a consti- tution resting on the wishes and interests of the people." This constitution was called " Acte additionel aux Constitutions de I'Empire." It was a very literal copy of the charter of Louis XVIII. , and had been forced upon the emperor by a party who believed that a limited monarchy, with representative institutions, might be a successful experiment, whether under a Bourbon or a Bonaparte. Napoleon had addressed letters to the European potentates, professing his moderate and peaceful intentions. No faith could be placed in his professions, and his letters were unanswered. There could only be one solution of the question between Napoleon and the allied powers. In the Champ de Mai he exclaimed, " The princes who resist all popular rights are determined on war. For war we must prepare." The Chambers com- menced their functions, not in the old spirit of the empire, but as if they really trusted in his promises. But Napoleon would not wait the attack of his enemies. On June nth he left Paris after he had appointed a provisional government to act in concert with the Chambers. On the 13th he was at Avesnes, and on the 15th had crossed the frontier at the head of one hundred and twenty-two thousand men. The battle of Waterloo was fought on the i8th of June, 181 5, on the ground which we call the field of Waterloo (although the battle was fought about a mile and a half in advance of that village). Wellington had taken up his position, with a certain knowledge, derived from several previous examinations, of its capabilities for defense. '' He used to describe the line of ground between the farm of La Haye Sainte and Hougoumont as resembling the curtain of a bastion, with these two positions for its artgles." I8i5] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED DAYS.— WATERLOO. 305 The first care of the duke was to occupy with sufficient force these two angles, Hougoumont, near the Nivelles road, in front of the right center, and La Haye Sainte, close to the Genappe road, in front of the left center. The right of his position was thrown back to a ravine near Braine Merbes, which was occupied ; and its left extended to the chateau of Frichermont, situated on a height above the hamlet of La Haye. The undulated plain upon which the army of English, Belgians, and Germans looked from the ridge on which they stood on the evening of the 17th was covered with crops of grain, of potatoes, and of clover. It had rained incessantly through the day ; as night advanced the torrents of rain were accompanied with thunder and lightning. The troops had to bivouac upon the wet crops, while the generals and their staff obtained shelter in the adjacent villages. Wellington had his head-quarters in a house opposite the church at Waterloo. At three o'clock in the morning of the i8th be was writing to Sir Charles Stuart at Brussels, with a calm confidence in the result of the almost inevitable struggle of that day. " The Prussians will be ready again in the morning for anything. Pray keep the English quiet if you can. Let them all prepare to move, but neither be in a hurry or a fright, as all will yet turn out well." At the same hour he wrote a long letter in French to the Duke de Berri, in which he says, " I hope, and moreover I have every reason to believe, that all will go well." At the time of writing this letter, only a portion of the French army had taken up their ground on the opposite side of the valley, and he thought it possible that the main attack might be made at Hal, on the great road from Mons to Brussels. He had there stationed seven thousand men^ in addition to a large number of troops under the command of the prince of Orange. The possible success of the enemy there appeared to him " the only risk we run." His army was a little superior in number to that of Napoleon, but it was inferior in artillery. There was however a far greater disparity. Well- ington commanded an army of various nations, who had never before fought together ; and even some of his British troops were new levies. In the summer of 18 14, a large number of his famous Peninsular soldiers had been sent to America. Napoleon, on the contrary, had an army which he could wield with the most perfect assurance of unity of action, composed in great part of veterans who had returned to France at the peace. When Napoleon saw the English in position before the forest of Soignies, he exclaimed, "At last I have them ; nine chances to ten are in my favor." He was of opinion, in which his generals agreed with him, that it was contrary to the most simple rules of the art of war for Wellington to remain in the position which he occupied ; that having behind him the defiles of the forest of Soignies, if he were beaten all retreat would be impossible. Extensive and compact as that forest was, Wellington knew that there were many roads through it, all converging upon Brussels, most of which were practicable for cavalry and for artillery, as well as for infantry. " The duke," says Lord Ellesmere, " was of opinion that his troops could have retired perfectly well through the wood of Soignies, which, like other beech woods, is open at 20 3o6 FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED DAYS.— WATERLOO. [1815 bottom ; and he was still further satisfied that, if driven from the open field of Waterloo, he could have held the wood against all comers till joined by the Prussians, upon whose co-operation he throughout depended and relied." The greater number of military authorities agree that the position of Mont St. Jean was well chosen, and suitably occupied. The allied troops had won the victory, and Napoleon had received his crushing defeat. The allied armies lost twenty-four thousand six hundred and seventy-nine men, and the French, eighteen thousand five hundred killed and wounded, and seven thousand eight hundred prisoners. After that fatal night the defeated emperor hastened with all speed to Paris. The Chambers of Representatives met at noon on that day and declared itself permanent. It was now determined that he should abdicate. Louis Bona- parte urged the claims of his brother to the gratitude of France. The Marquis Lafayette replied that " during ten years three millions of Frenchmen had perished for a man who would still struggle against all Europe. We have done enough for him. Now our duty is to save our country." Napoleon was urged to abdicate, but he refused. He resisted for some time, but at last submitted, and dictated his abdication in favor of his son. He said, " My political life is ended." The government required him to leave France for the United States. He went to Rochefort, and, not finding a chance to escape, gave himself up to the captain of an English vessel, the Bellerophon, who took him to Plymouth. On the 31st of July the English government decided that the Island of St. Helena should be his future home. He protested that he was not a prisoner of war, and this question gave rise to grave discussion. Lord Campbell says : " I think Lord Eldon took a much more sensible view of the subject than any of them— which was, * that the case was not provided for by anything to be found in Grotius or Vattel ; but that the law of self-preservation would justify the keeping of him under restraint in some distant region, where he should be treated with all indulgence compatible with a due regard for the peace of mankind.'" The probability is, that if Napoleon had fallen into the hands of the Prussians, who were near Paris on the 29th of June, the question of his fate would have been disposed of in a much more summary way than could arise out of any discussion upon the law of nations. On the 28th of June, Wellington wrote to Sir Charles Stuart : " General has been here this day, to negotiate for Napoleon's passing to America, to which proposition I have answered that I have no authority. The Prussians think the Jacobins wish to give him over to me, believing that I will save his life. [Bliicher] wishes to kill him ; but I have told him that I shall remonstrate, and shall insist upon his being disposed of by common accord. I have likewise said, that, as a private friend, I advised him to have nothing to do with so foul a transaction ; that he and I had acted too distinguished parts in these transactions to become executioners ; and that I was determined that, if the sovereigns wished to put him to death, they should appoint an executioner, which should not be me." The Prussian General i8i5] FRANCE.— THE HUNDRED DAYS.— WATERLOO. 307 Muffling states in his " Memoirs," that having been appointed to obtain the concurrence of Wellington in the design of Bliicher, that Napoleon should be shot in the place where the Duke d'Enghien had been killed, Wellington had replied : " Such an act would disgrace our names in history, and posterity would say of us, ' They were not worthy to have been the conquerors of Napoleon.' " The prisoner of St. Helena repaid this conduct by bequeathing ten thousand francs to the man who had attempted to assassinate Wellington, during his residence in Paris as the commander of the army of occupation. French historians have attempted to justify this odious testamentary expression of Napoleon's hatred of his victor, by attributing to Wellington that he instigated the banishment to St. Helena. It is now known that, as €arly as May, 18 14, the plenipotentiaries at the congress of Vienna decided, in secret conference, that if Napoleon should escape from Elba, and should fall into the power of the allies, a safer residence should be assigned him, at St. Helena or at St. Lucia. On the 7th of July the English and Prussian armies entered Paris and took possession of all the principal points. Louis XVHL returned on the 8th. Wellington favored a firm moderation, but the Prussian General Bliicher was for revenge. When he had begun to mine the bridge of Jena, with the intention to blow it up, because that monument proclaimed a defeat of the Prussian arms, " the duke of Wellington," says a French historian, " interfered by placing an English sentinel on the bridge itself. A single sentinel. He was the British nation ; and if Bliicher had blown up the bridge, the act was to be held as a rupture with Great Britain." The definite treaty with France was signed on the 20th of November, 181 5. This left France with the same territory as the treaty of 18 14. The general peace of Europe had been settled previously. xxn. MIS m. 'HE peace of Europe was settled, as every former peace: had been settled, upon a struggle for what the conti- nental powers thought most conducive to their own advantage. The representatives of Great Britain mani- fested a praiseworthy abnegation of more selfish inter- ests. Napoleon, at St. Helena, said to O'Meara, " So silly a treaty as that made by your ministers for their- own country was never known before. You give up every- thing and gain nothing." We can now answer that we gained everything when we gained a longer period of repose than, our modern annals could before exhibit. Louis XVni. can scarcely be accused of blood-thirsti- ness ; yet his character would have stood better, not only with the French people, but with the British, had he not sanctioned the condemnation and capital punishment of three who had indeed betrayed the trust which the restored government had reposed in them, but who had some excuse in their inability to resist the fascinations of Napoleon. Talleyrand had been unable to accomplish by negotiation as favorable terms for France as. he had expected, and he resigned his office as president of the council. He was succeeded by the Due de Richelieu, who signed the treaty of the 20th of November. While Talleyrand remained in power he, as well as Fouche, was anxious that no capital punishments should be inflicted upon any of those who were proscribed by an ordinance of the 24th of July, for the part they had taken in the return of Napoleon in March. Ney, Labedoyere, and Lavalette were advised to place themselves in safety by leaving France. They were tardy and irresolute ; the friendly warning was useless. Labedoyere was tried by court-martial,' and was shot Lavalette, who had been condemned to death by the Cour d'Assise, escaped through a stratagem of his wife, who, having visited him in prison, was able to disguise her husband in her own dress, remaining herself as an object for the possible vengeance of the Royalists. Lavalette was assisted to pass the frontier by the generous friendship of three Englishmen, —Sir Robert Wilson, Mr. Bruce, and Mr. Hutchinson ; who were tried for this offense, and sentenced to three months' imprisonment. The proceeding: i824] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVIII. 309 which most commanded public attention in England was the trial and execu- tion of Ney ; for it was held to involve the honor of the duke of Wellington. While the trial was proceeding before the chamber of peers, Ney was advised to rely for his defense on the capitulation of Paris. His wife had an interviewwith Wellington, who had previously expressed his opinion in a let- ter to the Prince de la Moskwa, — to the effect that the capitulation related exclusively to the military occupation of Paris; that the object of the 12th article was to prevent the adoption of any measures of severity, under the military authorities of those who made it, toward any persons on account of the offices which they filled, or their conduct or their political opinions. " But it was never intended, and could not be intended, to prevent either the existing French government, under whose authority the French com- mander-in-chief must have acted, or any French government which should succeed to it, from doing in this respect as it might deem fit." The Holy Alliance was a league formed after the fall of Napoleon, by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia, nominally to regulate the state of Christianity in Europe, but really to preserve the power and influ- ence of the existing dynasties. Most of the other powers acceded to it, and the treaty was formally published in the Frankfort Journal, Februarys 6th, 18 16. It had really been concluded personally by the sovereigns without the countenance of their ministers at Paris, September 26th, 181 5. A special article of this treaty excluded forever the members of the Bonaparte family from any European throne. This alliance set up as the principle of conduct for the allied powers, " the precept of justice, Christian charity, and peace," promising to their nations a parental government, guaranteeing- fraternity and mutual assistance in all cases, and acknowledging all of the Christian name as one nation, united under the only supreme sovereign, Jesus Christ. The English army had remained for three years in France, to assist Louis XVIII. in case of any fresh outbreak. Almost everybody else was forgiven ; and Prince Talleyrand, one of the cleverest and most cunning men who ever lived, who had risen under Napoleon, worked on still with Louis XVIII. It was the saying in France that in their exile the Bourbons had learned nothing and forgotten nothing. This was not quite true of Louis XVIII., who was clever in an indolent way, and resolved to please the people enough to remain where he was till his death, and really gave them a very good charter ; only he declared he gave it to them by his free grace as their king, and they wanted him to acknowledge that they had forced it from royalty by the revolution. But his brother Charles, count of Artois, was much more strongly and openly devoted to the old ways that came before the revolution, and, as Louis had no children, his accession was dreaded. His eldest son, the duke of Angouleme, had no children ; and his second son, the duke of Berri, who was married to a Neapolitan princess, was the most amiable and hopeful person in the family; but on the 12th of February, 1820, he was stabbed by a wretch called Louvet, as he was leaving the opera, and died in a few hours. 3IO FRANCE.— LOUIS XVIII. [1820 His infant son, Henry, duke of Bordeaux, was the only hope of the elder branch of the Bourbons. France was worn out and weary of war, so that little happened in this reign, except that the duke of Angouleme made an expedition to assist the king of Spain in putting down an insurrection. The French nobility had returned to all their titles ; but many of them had lost all their property in the revolution, and hung about the court, much needing ofifices and employ- ments ; while all the generation who had grown up among the triumphs of Napoleon, looked with contempt and dislike at the attempt to revive the old manners of conduct and thought. The total evacuation of France by the English troops left France to recuperate from the great disasters under the revolution and the empire. The result of the elections of 1818 seemed to arouse the nation to more earnest war. Manuel, Grenier, Camille, Jordan, and Lafayette, were elected. A change in the cabinet followed. Great hopes were entertained by the Liberalists, but this cabinet was not free in its action and the session of 1819 produced no great result. The succeeding election turned out favorable to the constitutional party, and the government was alarmed and resolved to make a strike upon the constitution. They gained the king to their side. The liberal ministry was dismissed. The duke of Richelieu was placed anew at the head of the ministry. In 1820, laws of execution were passed which destroyed the liberty of the press and threatened to complete the abolition of representative government. On the 5th of May, 1821, died Napoleon Bonaparte. Six years had passed since, in the great festival of the Champ de Mai, he had announced that the people who had called him to the throne must prepare for war. The issue to himself was his imprisonment in this lonely island of the Atlantic, long suffering under a chronic disease, and suffering more from his total want of power to endure his fate with equanimity. A hurricane swept over the island as Napoleon was dying, shaking houses to their foundation, and tearing up the largest trees. To Napoleon the war of the elements seemed as if " the noise of battle hurtled in the air," and he died muttering the words, Ti'te d'Annee. The death of him who had so long filled the world with the terror of his name produced no great sensation in England or in Europe. The king of France, in opening the chambers at the end of January, 1823, left no doubt of the intentions of the French government. Louis XVIII. announced that he had recalled his minister at Madrid, and that a hundred thousand Frenchmen, commanded by a prince of his family, were ready to march to preserve the throne of Spain to a descendant of Henry the Fourth. He declared that hostilities should cease at the moment " that Ferdinand the Seventh should be free to give his people the institutions which they could not hold except from him." The French invaded Spain. England had taken her stand upon a principle, but that attitude did not involve the necessity of going to war, Mr. Canning declared in parliament that the king's government would abide by a system of neutrality, except under certain conditions. If 1 824] FRANCE.— LOUIS XVIII. 311 Portugal were to be attacked, such an assault would bring Great Britain into the field with all her force to support the independence of her ancient and faithful ally. The French armies marched to Madrid, which they occupied on the 24th of May. They overran Spain, they accomplished the release of Ferdinand who had been detained at Cadiz ; the cortes were overturned. Spain entered upon that long night of tyranny and superstition which left her among the feeblest and most degraded of nations. Such was the position of affairs at the close of 1823. On the 15th of August, a month only before the decease of Louis, the censorship of journals Avas re-established by a royal ordinance. The state of the king's health appeared to the minister, M. de Villele, to require that the government should have in its hands this power of controlling the press. The good sense of Louis XVIII. , and his desire to govern as far as possible in an enlightened and liberal spirit, preserved France during his reign from any popular convulsion. Under the charter the struggles of parties were of a constitutional character. There were great orators in the chamber of deputies who were opposed to the government ; there were bitter satirists in prose and verse, such as Courier and Beranger, who attacked the ultra-royalist party and the priestly party with unsparing ridicule ; nevertheless, the nation had not arrived at the belief that another vital change in its institutions was necessary, and was content to confide in the power of the charter gradually to repair its own deficiencies. PARIS — GARDEN OF THE TUILERIES. xxni. LESI OUIS XVIII. died September i6th. Charles X. came to the throne. The French saw the change with something like dread, for he was considered the representative of ultra-royahst opinions.. He at once manifested a soHcitude that the people should accept him as a constitutional king. His first act was fjf ^ * •«?»-''Uv'^ to abolish the censorship of the journals. He said to the peers and deputies that his great desire was to consolidate the charter for the happiness of his people. He promised to each religious body protection for its worship. The ceremony of consecrating the king at Reims was little in accordance with the spirit of the age, or the general character of the French. The people laughed and sneered when the "moniteur" said : — "There is no doubt that the holy oil which will flow on the forehead of Charles X. in the solemnity of his consecration, is the same as- that which, since the time of Clovis, has consecrated the French kings." Napoleon putting the crown upon his own head was a fitter type of popular sovereignty in France than Charles X. anointed in seven parts of his body by the archbishop of Reims. Nevertheless, the king had solemnly promised to maintain the charter, and the obsolete pageantries of his coronation were not imputed to him as a fault. The people had soon to learn how little dependence could be placed upon the professions, and even upon the liberal actions, of their new king, " Without false calculation or premeditated deceit, Charles X. wavered from contradiction to contradiction, from inconsistency to inconsistency, until the day when, given up to his own will and belief, he committed the error which cost him his throne." He was at heart '• a true emigrant and a submissive bigot." M. de Villele's career, as the chief minister of Louis XVIII. and Charles X., had been of a longer duration than might have been expected from the discordant elements by which he was surrounded. For six years he had been the presiding spirit of the government. When he entered upon power he said, " I am born for the end of revolutions." This belief had little of the spirit of prophecy, however the prudence and sagacity of this minister might have retarded that isolation of the ruler from the ruled, which is the beginning of revolutions. The elections of 1827 were unfavorable to the government ; and the minister, not having the cordial support of the whole 1830] FRANCE.— CHARLES X. 313 Royalist party, was compelled to retire from office. The dauphiness said to the king, " In abandoning M. de Villele, you have descended the first step of your throne." M. de Martignac became the head of the cabinet which replaced that of M. de Villele. His tendencies were liberal and consti- tutional ; his talents had not their proper influence either with the king or the chambers. He did what was in his power to prevent the measures of repression which one party desired, and to carry forward those measures of conciliation which he thought would retard a rupture between the throne and the nation. Lafayette characterized the policy of Martignac in a very significant sentence : " Three steps forward and two backward, we have the net product of one little step." To move forward at all, and not have the power of carrying the chambers in a retrogressive policy, was held at the Tuileries to be the fault of this minister. In August, 1829, a royal ordinance appeared changing the whole of the ministry, and finally appointing Prince Jules de Polignac president of the council. The prince had been ambassador to England ; and many of the French, and not a few of the English, chose to believe that he had been appointed to his post through the influence of the duke of Wellington, and that his subsequent measures were taken in concert with the English cabinet. Sir Robert Peel, on the 2d of November, 1830, emphatically denied that the government of his country, directly, or indi- rectly, had interfered in this appointment. In the choice of Polignac as his prime minister, " Charles X.," says M. Guizot, " had hoisted upon the Tuileries the flag of the counter-revolution." On the 2d of March, 1830, the chambers were opened. There was a half menace in the royal speech, which appeared to presage some exercise of arbitrary power. " If criminal maneuvers were to place obstacles in the way of my government, which I neither can, nor wish to foresee, I should find the power of surmounting them in a resolution to maintain the public peace, in the just confidence of the French people, and in the devotion which they have always demonstrated for their king." The address of the chamber of deputies, which was carried by a majority of 221 to 181, af^rmed that it was their duty to declare to the king that the charter supposed, in order to its working, a concurrence between the mind of the sovereign and the interests of his people ; that it was their painful duty to declare that such concurrence existed no longer, as the administration ordered all its acts upon the supposition of the disaffection of the people. The next day the chambers were prorogued till the rst of September. On the i6th of May they were dissolved. New elections were ordered for June and July, and the parliament so elected was to meet on the 3d of August. Most men saw clearly that a great struggle was at hand. The duke of Orleans, on the 31st of May, gave a fete in honor of his brother-in-law, the king of Naples, at the Palais Royal, at which Charles X. and the royal family were present. M. de Salvandy said to the duke of Orleans, " This is truly a Neapolitan festival; we are dancing on a volcano." The duke agreed with him, adding that he would not have to reproach himself with making no effort to open the eyes of the king. " What am I to do ? Nothing is 314 FRANCE.— CHARLES X. [1824 listened to. Heaven only knows where they will be in six months. But I well know where I shall be. Under any circumstances my family and I remain in this palace." On the 1 2th of July, during the progress of the French elections, the news arrived of the capture of Algiers. For two or three years the French government had been carrying on a small war against that barbarian power. On Monday morning, the 26th of July, while the population of Paris were quietly proceeding to their various duties or pleasures, Paris was shaken to its center as by a political earthquake. Before the doors of the Bourse were opened, the holders of stock were crowding thither to sell. More important than the operations of commerce were the proceedings of the journalists. The proprietors and editors of the chief opposition papers took a wise and prudent course in the first instance. They consulted the most eminent lawyers, who gave their opinion that the ordinances were illegal, and ought not to be submitted to. One of the judges of the Tribunal of First Instance authorized the Journal of Cojumerce to continue its publication provisionally, because the ordinances had not been promulgated in legal forms. Forty-four conductors of newspapers assembled at the office of the National, signed a protest in which they declared their intention to resist the ordinances as regarded their own interests, and invited the deputies to meet on the 3d of August as if no decree had gone forth for new elections. The government, said this protest, has this day lost that character of legality which commands obedience , we resist it as far as we are con- cerned ; it remains for France to judge how far it should carry its own resistance. On that Monday there was no appearance of popular insurrec- tion. There was occasionally a cry in the streets of " Long live the Charter ! — Down with the ministers ! " The next day a more ominous cry went forth — " Up with Liberty — Down with the Bourbons ! " The provisions of the decrees respecting the Press were to be carried through by naked force. Four of the most popular journals had been printed without the license which was required by the ordinance. Sentinels were placed around the offices to prevent their sales ; but copies of thd journals, which not only contained the ordinances, but the protest of the journalists, were thrown out of the windows, and were quickly circulated ^throughout Paris. The old scenes of the revolution of 1789 were rapidly developed. In the Palais Royal, and other public places, men mounted upon chairs read the ordinances and the bitter comments upon them to assembled crowds. The steps taken by the police to prevent the further issue of these papers were calculated to stimulate the excitement of the people into absolute fury. The doors of the offices where they were printed were broken open, and the presses rendered unserviceable. The printers thrown out of their employ joined the crowds in the streets ; and they are not a class to be injured without lifting up their voices against the wrong. In the course of that Tuesday the resistance to the acts of the government began to be transferred to men who might have been able to 1S30] FRANCE.— CHARLES X. 315 guide its course more safely than the declamation of the journalist or the passions of the populace. The deputies were beginning to arrive in Paris. M. Guizot describes how, on reaching the city on the morning of the 27th, he found a note from M. Casimir Perier, inviting him to a meeting of some of their colleagues. **A few hours before," he says, "and within a short distance of Paris, the decrees were unknown to me ; and, by the side of legal opposition, I saw on my arrival revolutionary and unchained insurrec- tion." He went to the meeting at the house of M. Casimir Perier and was selected with two others to draw up a protest in the name of the deputies against the decrees. This protest was adopted on the 28th and signed by sixty-three deputies. Then followed the fearful " three days of July." The people were aroused against the king. From daybreak multitudes had begun to assemble, armed with sticks and pikes, old guns and sabers. They unpaved the streets ; they .threw up barricades of timber and of carts filled with the paving-stones; they seized the Hotel de Ville ; they hoisted the tri-colored flag on its roof, and on the towers of Notre-Dame. The bells of the municipal palace and of the metropolitan church again called the citizens to arms as in the days of the first revolution. Terror was in every family now as then ; but there were no frightful excesses, no sanguinary scenes of popular vengeance, to make even the name of liberty hateful. The people stood prepared for the struggle with the regular troops that were coming upon them — for Paris, on that morning of the 28th, had been declared by the government to be in a state of siege. Marmont had not begun to act after receiving the ordinance, which thus declared that the military power was the sole arbiter, before the insurgents were in possession of the chief part of the capital. He finally formed his troops in four columns, which were directed upon different points. It was not long before the sanguinary conflict began. It would be beyond the object of this history, even if it were in the power of the writer, to furnish a clear detail in- a small compass of the struggles of this memorable day. Those who witnessed some of the many occurrences which were proceeding simulta- neously in distant parts of Paris felt this difficulty in the subsequent discharge of their official duty. " The events," said M. Martignac, in the defense of Polignac, "so press upon, jostle and confound each other, that the imagination can scarcely follow them, or the understanding range them in order." The first serious fighting appears to have taken place in the narrow street of St. Antoine, which was closed by barricades. From the houses approaching this street paving-stones, broken bottles, and even articles of furniture, were showered upon the heads of the unfortunate soldiery. The column which was ordered to force this street returned to the Tuileries where Marmont had his head-quarters. Another column had to sustain on obstinate fight about the Hotel de Ville. The general who commanded the troops obtained posses- sion of the place, but he was compelled to confine his resistance to the popu- lace to defensive operations. Another column lost many men at the March6 des Innocens. The fourth column sustained less loss. Night came on. The 3i6 FRANCE.— CHARLES X. [1824 firing was still continued ; the tocsin was rung from every church ; the lamps were extinguished in the streets. Neither mail nor diligence left Paris. The communication with the provinces by telegraph was cut off. During the afternoon five deputies headed by M. Lafitte had waited upon Marshal Marmont at the Tuileries to ask for a suspension of hostilities, that in the interval they might send a deputation to the king. The marshal said he could only dispatch a messenger to the king to inform him of the proceedings of the assembled deputies and of the state of affairs in Paris. His aide-de-camp received at St. Cloud a verbal answer directing Marmont to hold out, to collect his forces, and to act in masses. In conformity with these orders the column which had held the Hotel de Ville returned at midnight to the Tuil- eries, having left in the streets several hundred men killed or wounded. The king in his suburban palace had no conception of the magnitude of the danger ; but was passing his evening at cards, while the court routine went forward as if the distant boom of the cannon was a sound which should inspire no fear and awaken little sympathy. On the 28th the working classes had almost exclusively borne the burnt of the battle. On the morning of the 29th, hostilities had again commenced by seven o'clock. National Guards, young students, and even deputies, were now at the barricades. The stately Faubourg St. Germain was now as ready for battle as the dingy Faubourg St. Antoine. The posts of the Luxembourg were disarmed. At a very early hour several Royalists of high rank went to the Tuileries and had an interview with Marmont and Polignac. They urged the minister to recall the ordinances. He was calm and polite, but would promise nothing. He would consult his colleagues. They then suggested to Marmont that he should arrest the ministers. He seemed somewhat inclined to take their advice, when Peyronnet, one of the most obnoxious of the cabi- net, came in, and exclaimed, " What ! are you not gone yet ? " They had stated their intention to go to St. Cloud. They set out, but Polignac got there before them. According to M. Guizot, the Duke de Mortemart, Messrs. de S^monville, d'Argout, de Vitrolles, and de Sussy, were " the enlightened Royalists who attempted to give legal satisfaction to the country, and to bring about an arrangement between the inert royalty at St. Cloud and the boiling revolution at Paris. But when they demanded an audience of the king they were met by the unseasonable hour, by etiquette, the countersign, and repose." From Charles X., whose inconsistency in this trying hour of his destiny was as remarkable as in all his previous actions, they at last extorted a promise for the dismissal of the Polignac ministry, the appointment of the Duke de Montemart as president of the council, and for other appointments which would be a guarantee for constitutional government. Still the king lingered and delayed the proper signatures till late in the day to the necessary ordi- nances. The Duke de Mortemart, who set out on his return to Paris without a proper passport, met with a succession of interruptions from the royal guards. He had equal difficulty with the people in passing the barricades. The battle was raging all round Marmont at the Tuileries. The detachment i830] FRANCE.— CHARLES X. 317 at the Palais Bourbon was attacked, and the commander retired with his troops into the garden, and promised to be neutral. The Louvre was surrounded by masses of the populace, of whom a great number fell by the fire of the Swiss from the windows. At the Place Vendome two regiments of the line were stationed, and a remnant of the gendarmerie. They were surrounded by the people, who, manifesting no inclination to regard the soldiers as enemies, the whole body of the troops, with their officers, went over to the side of the insurgents. On a second attack the Swiss were driven from the Louvre. The defection of the army, which was beginning to spread, proclaimed to Marmont that it was impossible to continue this contest. The insurrection had become a revolution. He hastily quitted the Tuileries with his troops to repair to St. Cloud. The populace as quickly broke into the palace. The tri-color was hoisted on the staff where the white flag of the Bourbons had floated for fifteen years. The deputies who had met in the morning had determined to establish a provisional government. Lafayette, who had received from them the command of the forces in Paris, had, in the uniform of a National Guard, gone to take possession of the Hotel de Ville. Upon the news of the defection of the two regiments, and the capture of the Louvre and the Tuileries, a municipal commission that had been formed by ballot, with authority to take all measures that the public safety might require, installed themselves at the Hotel de Ville, surrounded by dead bodies heaped upon the Place. In a few hours the National Guard was organized ; the administration of finance was provided for ; the post-office was again set in action ; the mails and the diligences left Paris bearing the tri-color flag. Three of the Royalists who had been at St. Cloud arrived at ten o'clock at night with the ordinances already mentioned, and with a further ordinance, repealing those of the 25th of July, and appointing the chamber of deputies to meet on the 3d of August. The three Royalists from St. Cloud came to negotiate for the preservation of the crown to Charles X. They were inter- rupted by cries of " It is too late ! " The sovereignty of France had vanished from the grasp of the elder branch of the Bourbons. On the 30th of July the deputies who had held their previous meetings at private houses met more formally in the hall of the chamber of deputies, inviting their absent colleagues to join them there. They came to a resolu- tion of soliciting the duke of Orleans, who was at his country seat at Neuilly, to repair to the capital to assume the functions of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. Forty deputies signed this resolution. Three only declined being parties to it, considering this as a decisive step toward a change of dynasty. On the 31st the deputies so assembled published a proclamation which thus commenced : " France is free ! Absolute power elevated its standard ; the heroic population of Paris has beaten it down. Paris, under attack, has made the sacred cause triumph by arms which had succeeded already through the constitutional elections." The proclamation then announced that the depu- ties, in anticipation of the regular concurrence of the chambers, had invited a true Frenchman, one who had never fought but for France — the duke of 3i8 FRANCE.— CHARLES X. [1824 Orleans — to exercise the functions of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. "We shall secure to ourselves by law all the guarantees we require to render liberty strong and permanent." On the ist of August the duke of Orleans was at the Palais Royal, had accepted the office, and proceeded on horseback to the Hotel de Ville, as a mark of courtesy to the National Guard, and to their commander, Lafayette. M. Guizot relates that the deputies accom- panied the duke on foot across the barricades. Women and children sur- rounded them, dancing and singing the Marseillaise. Cries and questions of every kind burst incessantly from the crowd. Who was that gentleman on horseback? was he a prince? A hope was expressed that he was not a Bour- bon. " I was much more deeply impressed," says Guizot, "by our situation in the midst of that crowd, and their attitude, than even by the scene which followed a few moments after at the Hotel de Ville. What future perils already reveal themselves for that new-born monarchy ! " Lafayette, sur- rounded by his staff, advanced to the steps to meet the duke, who cordially embraced him. In the great hall the proclamation of the deputies was read, and received with cheers. The lieutenant-general of the kingdom advanced to the window, holding Lafayette by the hand and waving the tri-color flag. He then appointed provisional ministers, of whom M. Guizot was minister of the interior. Meanwhile it was known at St. Cloud that the king's authority was at an end. The crowd of courtiers quickly dropped off from him. Li his restlessness he went to Trianon and then to Rambouillet. He was still surrounded by a large body of soldiery. On the 2d of August he addressed a letter to the duke of Orleans, inclosing a formal act of abdication in favor of his grandson, the duke of Bordeaux. Remaining at Rambouillet with numerous soldiers around him, the provisional government began to be uneasy as to the possibility of another conflict. Three commissioners were sent to confer with Charles and to urge him to depart. Their recommendations were backed by the presence of six thousand of the National Guard, who marched to Rambouillet, accompanied by vast numbers of Parisians on foot and in vehicles of every description. The king consented to leave, and to proceed to Cherbourg, escorted by the garde-du-corps. Throughout his journey the unfortunate king and his family received no indignities from the people, but they saw on every steeple the tri-colored flag, and the tri-colored cockade in many a hat. They embarked for England on the i6th, and were carried to the coast of Devonshire, the king having decided that England should be his place of refuge. For a short time he resided at Lulworth castle. He subse- quently occupied Holyrood House. Some ultra-liberals in Edinburgh having shown an inclination to treat the fallen monarch with disrespect upon his arrival, Sir Walter Scott published a manly and touching appeal to the more honorable feelings of his fellow citizens. " If there can be any who retain angry or invidious recollections of late events in France, they ought to remark that the ex-monarch has, by his abdication, renounced the conflict into which, perhaps, he was engaged by bad advisers ; that he can no longer be the object 1830] FRANCE.— CHARLES X. 319 of resentment to the brave, but remains to all the most striking emblem of the mutability of human affairs which our mutable times have afforded." On the 3d of August the duke of Orleans opened the legislative session in the chamber of deputies. In that chamber during the next four days there was a partial opposition from the adherents of the fallen dynasty against the manifest tendency to a solution of the difficult question of a future government by the appointment of the duke of Orleans as king. The charter of Louis XVIIL received some alterations, and then it was declared by a large majority, that, subject to the acceptance of the modified charter, the universal and urgent interests of the French nation called to the throne the duke of Orleans. On the 9th of August the duke of Orleans in the chamber of deputies declared his acceptance of the crown with the title king of the French, and took this oath : " In the presence of God, I swear to observe faithfully the constitutional charter, with the modifications expressed in the declaration ; to govern only by the laws and according to the laws ; to cause good and true justice to be rendered to each according to his right ; and to act in all things only with a view to the interest, the happiness, and the glory of the French people." " While two American packets, escorted by two French men-of-war, rapidly conveyed the old king and his family from France, all France hastened to Paris." An English historian may add that no inconsiderable portion of the population of this kingdom were, as he himself witnessed, looking with intense interest upon the localities of the great events of the three days. Some were fraternizing with National Guards in the cafes ; others were mingling in a crowd of all nations at the evening receptions of General Lafayette ; a privileged few were banqueting at some shady guinguette with a great company of French, English, Belgian and Polish hberals, whose fervid eloquence seemed the prelude to a very unsettled future of European society. There was, however, so much to admire in the conduct of the French people, that although the traces of carnage were everywhere around — although men of education joined their voices in the common cry of '' death to the ministers," as an atonement for the blood of the slain whose graves were daily strewn with immortelles, — the old idea of revolution had lost something of its terrors. There had been more bold speaking at our elections for the new parliament than was considered in some quarters safe or decorous. Yet the sympathy of the British population with the revolution of France was not to be mistaken for an approbation of leveling and destructive doctrines, such as had led astray many enthusiasts among us in 1789. It was a "contrast to the first revolution ; " it " vindicated the cause of knowledge and liberty, showing how humanizing to all classes of society are the spread of thought and information, and improved political institutions." The sympathy was too manifest to be set at naught by the government of this country, even if it had been as much disposed to uphold " a royal rebellion against society," as it was the fashion unjustly to ascribe to the great warrior who was the head of the cabinet. He, it has been stated, was for a short time perplexed and undecided. " When 320 FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. [1830 nothing was known beyond the ordinances of July, some one asked the duke of Wellington, ' What are we to think of this ? ' ' It is a new dynasty,' answered the duke. ' And what course shall you take ?' inquired his friend. ' First, a long silence, and then we will concert with our allies what we shall say.' " A wiser and nobler policy than that was adopted. It was a speedy recognition of the new government. f'URING the six-years in which Louis Philippe was king of the French, his reign was exempted from solicitudes of a more painful nature than the ordinary cares of monarchs. In the first two years of his rule events had been in some degree propitious to him. The duke of Reichstadt, the son of Napoleon, died in 1832. His presence in France might at any time have raised up a host of Bonapartists, whose movements might have been exceedingly dangerous to the citizen king. The attempts of the duchess of Berri to excite an insurrection in favor of her son, the duke of Bordeaux, had signally failed. Freedom of debate in the chambers, and the liberty of the press, appeared the best guarantees for the security of the consti- tional government. But the unrestricted power of speaking and writing was not used with moderation. The license of the press, and the occasional hostility of the chambers, produced a counter-disposition on the part of the king to struggle against what he believed to be the evils of the representative system. There were constant changes of administration since Lafitte took the reins of government in November, 1830. In 1831 Lafitte was succeeded by Casimir Perier, who had a premiership of something more than a year and a half. From October, 1832, to September, 1836, there had been nine changes of ministry — Soult, Guizot ; Soult, Broglie ; Soult, Thiers ; Gerard ; Bassano ; Mortier ; Broglie, Humann ; Broglie, d'Argout ; Thiers. In September, 1836, the heads of the cabinet were Mole and Guizot. During these changes, and the consequent excitement of parliamentary conflicts, there had been more than one conspiracy of which the great object was to assassinate the king. The 28th of July, 1835, was the second day of the fetes to commemorate the revolution of 1830. Louis Philippe with his three sons and a splendid suite of military ofificers, was riding through the line of the National Guard, drawn up on the Boulevard du Temple, when an explosion, resembling a discharge of musketry took place from the window of a house overlooking the road. Fourteen persons, among whom were Marshal 1848] FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. 321 Mortier and General De Virginy, were killed upon the spot. A shower of bullets had been discharged by a machine consisting of twenty-five barrels, which, arranged horizontally side by side upon a frame, could be fired at once by a train of gunpowder. The king was unhurt. The police rushed into the house and seized the assassin, who was wounded by the bursting of one of the barrels. He proved to be a Corsican named Fieschi, who maintained that he had no object in this wholesale massacre but his desire to destroy the king. Another attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe was made in 1836, by a man of the name of Alibaud, who fired into the king's carriage, the queen and his sister being with him. A third attempt was made in the same year by another desperado, named Meunier. In the history of such fearful manifestations of wickedness or madness, there is nothing more remarkable than the extra- ordinary escapes of Louis Philippe, as if he bore a charmed life. More interesting at the present day than these brutal attempts at assassination was the failure of an enterprise which contemplated, without any apparent organization, the overthrow of a strong government by a young man of tv/enty-five, who relied only upon his name, his abilities, and his daring. Charles Louis Napoleon, the youngest son of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and of Hortense Eugenie, daughter of the Empress Josephine by her first husband, had so dwelt upon his boyish remembrances of his illustrious uncle, that when in 1832 the duke of Reichstadt died, and he became, according to a decree of 1804, heir to the throne, the natural course of his ambition was to assert his claim against one whom he regarded as a usurper. Louis Philippe was always apprehensive of the rivalry of this young man. He had refused him permission to return to France in 1830. He had further influenced the government of Rome to order him to quit the Papal territory. Escaping from Italy, he resided with his mother in the Chateau Arenenberg in Switzerland, where he devoted himself to the study of politics and of military science, and became known in Europe as a writer of diligent research and unquestionable ability. Whatever study he pursued and whatever ideas he promulgated had evidently some bearing upon what he implicitly believed would be his great future. The ordinary relations of the attempt of Louis Napoleon — availing himself of the general unpopularity of the king of the French, to risk the result of a popular commotion to overthrow the Orleans dynasty — have recently received a new interest from the ofificial revelations of M. Guizot. He relates that on the evening of the 31st of October the minister of the interior brought to him a telegraphic dispatch received from Strasbourg, dated on the evening of the 30th, which announced that about six o'clock that morning Louis Napoleon "traversed the streets of Strasbourg with a party of . . . ." A mist which enveloped the line of telegraph had left the remainder of the dispatch uncertain. Guizot and the minister of the interior repaired instantly to the Tuileries, where they found the whole cabinet assembled. All was conjecture. Instructions were drawn up founded upon many possible contingencies. The ministers remained with the king nearly the whole night, expecting news 322 FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. [1830 which came not. During those hours of suspense, the queen, the king's sister, the princes, entered again and again to ask if anything had transpired. " I was struck," says M. Guizot, " by the sadness of tlie king, not that he seemed uneasy or subdued, but uncertainty as to the seriousness of the event occupied his thoughts ; and these reiterated conspiracies, these attempts at civil war, repubHcan, legitimist, and Bonapartist, this continual necessity of contending, repressing, and punishing, weighed on him as a hateful burden. Despite his long experience and all that it had taught him of man's passions and the vicissitudes of life, he was, and continued to be, naturally easy, confiding, benevolent, and hopeful. He grew tired of having incessantly to watch, to defend himself, and of finding so many enemies on his steps. The next morning, the ist of November, an aide-de-camp of the com- mandant at Strasbourg brought to the perplexed king and his ministers a solution of the telegraphic mystery. Louis Napoleon, having the support of a colonel who commanded a battalion, had presented himself at the barrack of a regiment of artillery, and was received with shouts of " Long live the emperor." At another barrack the attempts of the prince upon the fidelity of the troops was repulsed ; and he and his followers were arrested by the colonel and other officers of the forty-sixth regiment of infantry. The affair was over in a few hours without bloodshed. One only of the known adherents of Louis Napoleon, M. de Persigny, his intimate friend, effected his escape. On ascertaining the result of this rash enterprise, queen Hortense, whose affection for her son was most devoted, hurried to France to intercede for him with the government. From Viry, near Paris, she addressed her supplications to the king and M. Mole. M. Guizot says, "She might have spared them. The resolution of not bringing Prince Louis to trial, and of sending him to the United States of America, was already taken. This was the decided inclination of the king, and the unanimous advice of the cabinet." The adventurer was brought from the citadel of Strasbourg to Paris, where he stayed only a few hours. He was then taken to L'Orient, where he embarked on the 14th of November in a frigate which was to touch at New York. The sub-prefect of L'Orient waited on the prince when he was on board, inquired whether he would find any resources when he arrived in the United States, and being told that none were at first to be expected, the prefect placed in his hands a casket containing fifteen thousand francs in gold, which the king had ordered him thus to appropriate. Louis Napo- leon remained in the United States till October, 1837, when, hearing of the illness of his mother, he encountered the risks of a return to Europe and was with Hortense at her death. The French government demanded his extradition from Switzerland. The Cantons refused to comply : but Louis Philippe enforced his demand by the irresistible argument of an army, and the prince withdrew to England. The fashionable circles of London regarded him merely as a man of pleasure, and he was popular in country houses from the spirit with which he could follow hounds in a fox-chase. His attempt at 1848] FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. 323 Strasbourg had only excited laughter here. He was not generally regarded as possessing any force of character that would justify a lofty ambition. The exclusion of France from the European alliance came very nearly precipitating France and England into a war. M. Thiers, then president of the council, showed no desire to calm the passion that had burst out in France in the belief that the nation had been insulted. The duke of Well- ington, with his usual strong sense, rightly interpreted the disposition of the people and of the government of this kingdom. In a private letter of the 5th of October he thus expressed himself: '• God send that we may preserve peace between these two great countries, and for the world I I am certain that there is no desire in this country on the part of any party, I may almost say of any influential individual, to quarrel with, much less to do anything offensive toward France. But, if we should be under the necessity of going to war, you will witness the most extraordinary exertions ever made by this or any country, in order to carry the same on with vigor, however undesirable we may think it to enter into it." Upon the conduct of Lord Palmerston, then secretary of state for foreign affairs, there was some diversity of opinion at home. Even members of the cabinet were not wholly in accord with his policy, and many of the public held that he was rash and obstinate. His policy was signally triumphant. Although the cry of the Parisians for a few months was, "Guerre aux Anglais," the French government found that their country was not in a condition to go to war, and that the popular cry for hostilities had some association with revolutionary tendencies. After the lapse of twenty-one years, M. Guizot had published his Memoirs of that stirring time, when he- was ambassador in England. His intelligent and candid revelations may present to those who are curious to trace the move- ments and counter-movements of two such adroit players in the great game of politics as M. Thiers and Lord Palmerston, a juster view of the causes of this temporary interruption of the friendly feelings between the two govern- ments and of the policy of the British minister for foreign affairs, than they could otherwise derive from the contemporary expressions of opinion either in England or in France. The resolutions of the four powers upon which the treaty of the 15th of July was founded had become known in London on the 23d. At the anni- versary of the 28th of July, when sixty thousand men were under arms in Paris, the popular desire for war was shown in the most marked manner. M. Guizot was perplexed by the contrast of the uneasiness of Lord Melbourne and Lord John Russell with the decided language of Lord Palmerston. In answer to the ambassador's dispatches, M. Thiers had only one word to reply — ''tcnez ferine,'' but the warlike minister invited him to a meeting with the king and himself at the Chateau d'Eu on the 7th of August. Guizot left London for this interview on the 6th. While he was crossing the channel to Calais another person was crossing the channel to Boulogne, to be the hero of what was then described as " a wild attempt to excite civil war 324 FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. [1830 made by a maniac of the Bonaparte family." The maniac of 1840 became the emperor of 1852. On the 7th of July the French frigate La Belle Poule, commanded by the Prince de Joinville, had sailed for the purpose of receiving at St Helena, and transporting to France, the remains of the Emperor Napoleon. To this somewhat strange request of the government of Louis Philippe made by M. Guizot, the English cabinet accorded its consent, Lord Palmerston giving a courteous reply to the demand, while he was unable to conceal a passing smile. At this time Prince Louis Napoleon was residing at Carlton Gardens, in London, and M. Guizot had been required to keep an eye on his move- ments. The ambassador described the refugee as being constantly in the park ; as frequently also at the opera, where aides-de-camp stood behind him in his box. In public they were bragging and ostentatious. Their private life was idle and obscure. In spite of their tall talk M. Guizot thought there was little of reality in their boastful projects. The French foreign ofifice, however, believed that some attempt would be made by this party of Bonapartists, although their action would be confined to a very narrow circle. On the 4th of August a steam packet, the City of Edinburgh, which had been hired as for a party of pleasure, left the port of London, bearing Prince Louis Napoleon, Count Montholon, and about forty officers and attendants. Arms and ammunition, military uniforms, horses and carriages and a large quantity of specie, had been previously taken on board; with. a tame eagle that the prince had taught to feed out of his hand. The steam-packet dropped down the river, took a French pilot on board at Gravesend, and made for the French coast, where it arrived on the evening of the 5th. Between two and three miles to the north of Boulogne is the miserable village of Wimereux, around which, in 1803,- a camp was formed of a portion of the Grand Army for the invasion of England. The country here is barren, and a few hovels lie betAveen the sand hills on the shore. Here, at the mouth of a petty stream, Napoleon caused a port to be formed, which at the end' of six months was capable of containing a hundred and seventy vessels. It is now choked up and altogether decayed. Here, then, sur- rounded by associations with the memory of the great emperor — in the harbor whioh his army had dug out of the sands, and in view of the column which they had raised to his glory — the nephew landed with his followers at four o'clock on the morning of the 6th. Those of military rank had exchanged their ordinary dress for the uniform then worn by French officers. The invading band, who had been joined from Boulogne by a young lieu- tenant of the 42d, named Aladenise, and three soldiers, marched toward the town, bearing a tri-colored flag surmounted by an eagle. There were few persons about at that hour except two or three officers of the customs, who were compelled to march with them. Upon arriving at the guard-house in the Place d'Anton, an attempt to seduce the soldiers failed, and the party marched to the Quai de la Caserne. The barrack there, now given up to peaceful purposes as a vast storehouse, was occupied by the 42d regiment. 1848] FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. 325 The officers slept out of the barrack, and had not arrived at five o'clock, when Lieutenant Aladenise called up the soldiers, ordering them to take their arms, and march with the nephew of the emperor to Paris ; Louis Philippe, he told them, had ceased to reign. The proposed march was, however, interrupted by the arrival of Captain Puygelier and two other officers. To the splendid offers that were made to the captain and his companions they turned a deaf ear. The captain was as unmoved by the threats of some of his men as by the promises of the adventurers. To the shouts of Vive Ic Prince Louis he replied Vive Ic Roi. A scuffle ensued, when a shot was fired from a pistol which Louis Napoleon had in his hand, by which a grenadier was wounded. The prince was not absolutely charged v.-ith a murderous inten- tion in thus discharging his pistol, but it was implied that this part of the affair was an accident, or at least unpremeditated. Immediately after this the barrack-yard was cleared of the intruders, and they marched to the Haute Ville, distributing proclamations and throwing about money. They fancied they could seize arms in the old chateau for the purpose of arming the population, but their course was stopped by the sub-prefect of Boulogne, who in the name of the king commanded them to disperse. He was answered by a blow on the head with the eagle which one of the officers carried. They tried to force the door of the chateau. During- this time the rappel had called out the National Guard, who marched out toward Wimereux, to do battle with a large force which they were told had landed there. It was now six o'clock. Failing in the attempt to force the chateau, unsupported by any portion of the population, there was nothing left to the adventurers but flight to the place of their debarkation. With a mad move- ment of defiance they marched on the Calais road, and then stopped at the Napoleon column, instead of proceeding over the hill to Wimereux. The first stone of the column had been laid by Marshal Soult in 1804. Left unfinished under the empire, it had been proceeded with under Louis XVIII., " as a monument of peace." Louis Philippe, whose doubtful policy was to revive the national appetite for glory which belonged to the memory of Napoleon, was in 1840 finishing this column. But the statue of the great emperor by which it is crowned was not placed there till 1841. The prince and his party surrounded the monument, while the eagle-bearer entered the column to plant the standard on its summit. He was left to mount the dark stairs while his leader and his companions made a hasty retreat before the large force that Avas now coming against them. The soldiery, commanded by Captain Puygelier, with the National Guards and gendarmerie under the orders of the sub-prefect and the mayor, rendered resistance vain. Some fled into the fields. Louis Napoleon and five or six others got down to the sands to the north of the harbor. The prince threw himself into the sea and swam to a little boat. The National Guard fired upon the fugitives, of whom one man was killed and another dangerously wounded. An inhabitant of Cologne, who had been one of the National Guard in 1840, expressed to us the indifination which he felt at beholding men who were swimming for their 326 FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE, [1830 lives being fired upon when their power of doing mischief was at an end, Louis Napoleon swam back and surrendered himself. He was taken to the duno-eon of the chateau, where he remained two days before being conveyed to Paris. The trial of the prince and of nineteen other conspirators took place on the 6th of October before the chamber of peers. Louis Napoleon main- tained a bold front upon his trial. In the speech which he addressed to his judges he said, " I represent before you a principle, a cause, a defeat ; the principle, it is the sovereignty of the people ; the cause, that of the empire ; the defeat, Waterloo. The principle you have recognized ; the cause you have served : the defeat you desire to avenge." He was sentenced to impris- onment for life ; his companions to various terms of confinement. The prison of Louis Napoleon was the fortress of Ham in the department of Aisne. The six years of solitude which he there passed were not unprofit- ably employed in study. In 1846 he escaped in the dress of a workman, and again found a refuge in England. The Paris press of 1840 teemed with denunciations against the ministers of Queen Victoria, maintaining that they had encouraged the prince in his project, being angry with the government of Louis Philippe. It was asserted that Lord Palmerston had made a visit to Louis Napoleon, or had been visited by him, previous to his departure. Lord Palmerston found it necessary to assure upon his honor le Baron de Bourqueney, who represented the French embassy in the absence of M. Guizot, that neither he nor Lord Melbourne had seen Louis Napoleon for two years, nor any one of the adventurers who had accompaied him. The conferences at the Chateau d'Eu were soon terminated. The king of the French went to Boulogne to express his thanks to the inhabitants for their loyalty on the 6th of August. To a deputation of the English he said that affairs between France and England were taking a favorable turn. M. Guizot returned to England, and was satisfied by the cordiality of his recep- tion by the authorities and populace of Ramsgate that the English people bore no ill-will toward France. Arrived in London, he found an invitation from the queen to visit her at Windsor, where he met the king and queen of the Belgians, Lord Melbourne and Lord Palmerston. Looking at the execution of the treaty of the 15th of July, M. Guizot frankly acknowledges the errors of the policy of the French government. " We had attached to this question an exaggerated importance ; we had regarded the interests of France in the Mediterranean as more associated than they really were with the fortunes of Mehemet Ali." France had, he says, believed that Mehemet Ali would have been able to resist all the efforts of the four powers united, when it was finally shown that an English squadron would be sufficient to subdue him. These errors, he continues, were public, national, everywhere spread, and maintained in the chambers as well as in the country, in the opposition as well as in the government. " The hour of disappointment was come, and it was the cabinet over which M. Thiers presided which had to bear the burden." Louis Philippe 1S48] FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. 327 refused his assent to the warlike speech which. M. Thiers proposed for the opening of the chambers. The ministry resigned, and Souk and Guizot were tlieir successors. The belligerent spirit which had been called forth in France by these differences between the English and French governments were not likely to subside into cordial friendship under the influence of a pageant which recalled the glories and the humiliations of the empire. The population of Paris had the gratification of a magnificent spectacle on the 15th of December, when the remains of Napoleon were interred in the church of the Invalides. The procession has been described as wearing more of a triumphant than a funeral air. Long cavalcades of troops were succeeded by a few mourning coaches ; grenadiers of the Old Guard and Mamelukes followed the splendid car on whicn was placed the body. Imperial eagles veiled with crape were carried by eighty-six non-commissioned officers. Even to the sword and the hat of the emperor, which were laid upon the coffin, the whole solemnity was calculated to call up remembrances of the past \\hich were not favorable to the security of the reigning family. There was no tumult ; but there were demonstrations of popular feeling which showed that the pacific policy of the king and of his new ministry was not so welcome to the populace as M. Thiers and war with Europe. Again there was a threatened rupture between France and England in 1844, growing out of the action of a missionary consul in the island of Tahiti, but it was settled by the kindly offices of M. Guizot and Sir Robert Peel. Louis Philippe visited the queen at Windsor Castle, where he was entertained for a week. Louis negotiated a marriage between his third son, the Prince de Join- ville, and the princess of Brazil, and by this match he gained an immense dowry with the bride. His matrimonial scheme in regard to a Spanish alliance is thus discussed by Justin McCarthy in his " History of Our Times." " In an evil hour for themselves and their fame, Louis Philippe and his minister believed that they could obtain a virtual ownership of Spain by an ingenious marriage scheme. There was at one time a project, talked of rather than actually entertained, of marrying the young queen of Spain and her sister to the Due d'Aumale and the Due de Montpensier, both sons of Louis Philippe. But this would have been too daring a venture on the part of the king of the French. Apart from any objections to be entertained by other States, it was certain that England could not " view with indifference," as the diplomatic phrase goes, the prospect of a son of the French king occupying the throne of Spain. It may be said that after all it was of little concern to England who married the queen of Spain. Spain was nothing to us. It would not foUow that Spain must be the tool of France because the Spanish queen married a son of the French king, any more than it was cer- tain in a former day that Austria must link herself with the fortunes of the great Napoleon because he had married an Austrian princess. Probably it would have been well if England had concerned herself in no wise with the 328 FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. [1830 domestic affairs of Spain, and had allowed Louis Philippe to spin what igno- ble plots he pleased, if the Spanish people themselves had not wit enough to see through and power enough to counteract them. At a later period France brought on herself a terrible war and a crushing defeat because her emperor chose to believe, or allowed himself to be persuaded into believing, that the security of France would be threatened if a Prussian prince were called to the throne of Spain. The Prussian prince did not ascend that throne ; but the war between France and Prussia went on ; France was defeated ; and after a little the Spanish people themselves got rid of the prince whom they had consented to accept in place of the obnoxious Prussian. If the French emperor had not interfered, it is only too probable that the Prussian prince would have gone to Madrid, reigned there for a few unstable and tremulous months, and then have been quietly sent back to his own country. But at the time of Louis Philippe's intrigues about the Spanish marriages^ the states- men of England were by no means disposed to take a cool and philosophic view of things. The idea of non-intervention had scarcely come up then, and the English minister who was chiefly concerned in foreign affairs was about the last man in the world to admit that anything could go on in Europe or elsewhere in which England was not entitled to express an opinion, and to make her influence felt. The marriage, therefore, of the young queen of Spain had been long a subject of anxious consideration in the councils of the English government. Louis Philippe knew very well that he could not venture to marry one of his sons to the young Isabella. But he and his minister devised a scheme for securing to themselves and their policy the same effect in another way. They contrived that the queen and her sister should be married at the same time — the queen to her cousin, Don Francisco d'Assis, duke of Cadiz , and her sister to the Duke de Montpensier, Louis Philippe's son. There was reason to expect that the queen, if married to Don Francisco, would have no children, and that the wife of Louis Philippe's son, or some of her children, would come to the throne of Spain. " On the moral guilt of a plot like this it would be superfluous to dwell. Nothing in the history of the perversions of human conscience and judgment can be more extraordinary than the fact that a man like M. Guizot should have been its inriiiring influence. It came with a double shock upon the queen of England and her miinisters, because they had every reason to think that Louis Philippe had bound himself by a solemn promise to discourage any such policy. When the queen paid her visit to Louis Philippe at Eu, the king made the most distinct and spontaneous promises to her majesty and Lord Aberdeen. " The objection of England and other powers was from first to last an objec- tion to any arrangement which might leave the succession to one of Louis Philippe's children or grandchildren. For this reason the king had given his word to Queen Victoria that he would not hear of his son's marriagewith Isa- bella sister until the difficulty about the succession had been removed by Isa- bella's herself being married and having a child. Such an agreement was abso- 1848] FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. 329 lutely broken when the king arranged for the marriage of his son to the sister of Queen Isabella at the same time as Isabella's own marriage, and when, there- fore, it was not certain that the young queen would have any children. The. political question, the question of succession, remained then open as before. All the objections that England and other powers had to the marriage of the Due de Montpensier stood out as strong as ever. It was the question of the birth of a child, and no child was born. The breach of faith was made infinitely more grave by the fact that in the public opinion of Europe, Louis Philippe was set down as having brought about the marriage of the queen of Spain with her cousin Don Francisco in the hope and belief that the union would be barren of issue, and that the wife of his son would stand on the next step of the throne. " The excuse which Louis Philippe put forward to palliate what he called his " deviation " from the promise to the queen was not of a nature calculated to allay the ill-feeling which his policy had aroused in England. Pie pleaded in substance that he had reason to believe in an intended piece of treachery on the part of the English government, the consequences of which, if it were successful, would have been injurious to his policy, and the discovery of which, therefore, released him from his promise. He had found out, as he declared, that there was an intention on the part of England to put forward, as a candi- date for the hand of Queen Isabella, Prince Leopold of Coburg, a cousin of Prince Albert. There was so little justification for any such suspicion that it seems hardly possible a man of Louis Philippe's shrewdness can really have entertained it. The English government had always steadfastly declined to give any support whatever to the candidature of this young prince. Lord Aberdeen, who was then foreign secretary, had always taken his stand on the broad principle that the marriage of the queen of Spain was the business of Isabella herself and of the Spanish people, and that so long as that queen and that people were satisfied, and the interests of England were in no wise in- ovlved, the government of Queen Victoria would interfere in no manner. The candidature of Prince Leopold had been in the first instance a project of the dowager queen of Spain, Christina, a woman of intriguijig character, on whose poHtical probity no great reliance could be placed. The English government had in the most decided and practical manner proved that they took no share in the plans of Queen Christina, and had no sympathy with them. But while the whole negotiations were going on the defeat of Sir Robert Peel's ministry brought Lord Palmerston into the foreign ofifice in place of Lord Aberdeen. The very name of Palmerston produced on Louis Philippe and his minister the effect vulgarly said to be wrought on a bull by the display of a red rag. Louis Philippe treasured in bitter memory the unexpected success which Palmerston had won from him in regard to Turkey and Egypt. At that time, and especially in the court of Louis Philippe, foreign politics were looked upon as the field in which the ministers of great powers contended against each other with brag and trickery and subtle arts of all kinds , the plain prin- ciples of integrity and truthful dealing did not seem to be regarded as prop- 330 FRANCE.— LOUIS PHILIPPE. [1850 erly belonging to the rules of the game. Louis Philippe probably believed in good faith that the return of Lord Palmerston to the foreign ofifice must mean the renewed activity of treacherous plans against himself. This at least is the only assumption on which we can explain the king's conduct, if we do not wish to believe that he put forward excuses and pretexts which were willful in their falsehood. Louis Philippe seized on some words in a dispatch of Lord Palmerston's, in which the candidature of Prince Leopold was simply mentioned as a matter of fact ; declared that these words showed that the English government had at last openly adopted that candidature, professed himself relieved from all previous engagements, and at once hurried on the marriage between Queen Isabella and her cousin, and that of his own son with Isabella's sister. On October loth, 1846, the double marriage took place at Madrid ; and on February 5th following, M. Guizot told the French chambers that the Spanish marriages constituted the first great thing France had accomplished completely single-handed in Europe since 1830. Every one knows what a failure this scheme proved, so far as the objects of Louis Philippe and his minister were concerned. Queen Isabella had children. Montpensier's wife did not come to the throne ; and the dynasty of Louis Philippe fell before long, its fall undoubtedly hastened by the posi- tion of utter isolation and distrust in which it was placed by the scheme of the Spanish marriages and the feelings which it provoked in Europe. The fact with which we have to deal, however, is that the friendship between England and France, from which so many happy results seemed likely to come to Europe and the cause of free government, was necessarily interrupted. It would have been impossible to trust any longer to Louis Phihppe." XXY. THE MOLDTION OF 1818. HE overthrow of 1848 was approaching. It is not compatible with the hmits of our work to enter into any minute detail of the revolution of February. The leg- islative session had opened on the 28th of December. 1847. The king's speech contained an allusion to the agitation for "electoral and parliamentary reform," — which words had become a toast at several provincial banquets. Petitions for reform had been presented to the chamber of deputies. On the opening of the session there had been discussions in the chamber on the legality of peaceful and unarmed political meetings. On the 22d of February there was to have been a reform banquet in the twelfth arro7idissenient j>r- of Paris — a quarter where the materials for disorder were abun- li^ dant. The minister of the interior forbade the meeting, as the committee for the banquet had proposed a procession of National Guards in uniform, and of students. The uniform of 'g) the National Guards had almost disappeared from public view. They were no longer favored and flattered by the government. The principal leaders of the parliamentary opposition now announced that the banquet was adjourned, in consequence of the declaration of the minister of the interior. The postponement was loudly murmured at by the democratic journalists. On the morning of the 22d the streets were crowded at an early hour. About noon a crowd surrounded the chamber of deputies ; and a cry was raised of " Down with Guizot ; " but in the evening the city was quiet. Not so during the night. The government was collecting troops, and the people were raising barricades. The rappcl was again heard calling out the National Guard at seven in the morning of the 23d. Some firing soon took place between the populace and the Municipal Guards. But the National Guards had come to an agreement among themselves to act the part of conciliators rather than that of the opposers of the people ; and their presence in consequence prevented any attempt of the regular troops to disperse the multitudes assembled in various quarters. Soon the cry of Vive la R^forme was heard among groups of the citizen soldiers. The royal occupants of the Tuileries began to be seriously alarmed. A council was hastily summoned, when M. Guizot, finding that the cabinet could not rely upon the firmness of the king, expressed his determination to retire. He 332 FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. [1848 himself announced his resignation to the chamber of deputies. There was joy that night in Paris, for it was thought that the cause of reform had gained a victory. Houses were illuminated as if the crisis were passed. But a band of republicans bearing a red flag had come forth, and gathering together before the Hotel of Foreign Affairs occupied by M. Guizot, where a battalion of infantry was stationed, a shot fired from the mob was answered by a volley from the soldiery, and fifty fell, killed or wounded. A procession was immediately formed. The bodies of the dead were carried by torchlight through the streets, amid the frantic cries of excited crowds demanding vengeance. The opportunity of restoring tranquillity by the exercise of force had passed away. During the night the king had reluctantly decided for concession. He had sent for M. Thiers and offered him the formation of a ministry. As the condition of his acceptance M. Thiers stipulated that M. Odillon Barrot should be a member of the cabinet. This was entirely to yield upon the question of reform, and wholly to change the policy of the government. But there was no alternative for the perplexed king. The change of administration was announced by placards in the morning. The command of the troops had been given to Marshal Bugeaud during the night ; and it is probable that he would have adopted no half measures to support the crown. His command was superseded by the new ministers, who judged that the danger of insurrection Was passed. They were deceived. About noon the populace attacked the Palais Royal, and sacked the apart- ments. The Tuileries was next to be assailed. The king left the palace with his queen. The mob broke in. The throne was carried along the Boulevards, and was burnt at the foot of the column of July. The chamber of deputies met at half-past twelve, when M. Dupin announced the abdication of Louis Philippe. M. Dupin also announced that the king had abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Paris, appointing the duchess of Orleans regent. The duchess, leading her two sons by the hand, entered the chamber, accompanied by the Duke de Nemours. She said, " I have come here with all I have dear in the world." Some repugnance was manifested at the presence of royal strangers, but the duchess appearing unwilling to retire, a stormy discussion began. By a law of 1842 it was declared that during the minority of the Comte de Paris, in the event of the demise of the king, the Duke de Nemours should be regent. The debate turned upon this difficulty. It was soon interrupted by the rush of a crowd that filled all the passages of the chambers and swarmed into the hall. The mother and her children were surrounded by armed men ; but still she resolved to remain. She heard the demand for a provisional govern- ment ; she heard the assertion that a regency could not be created. Amid clamors and threats she was forced by her attendants out of the hall. The deputies were scarcely free agents, as, with the applauses or the hisses of the fierce republicans who were now in command of the situation, the members of a provisional government were nominated. Seven deputies were finally appointed to this responsibility. In the mean time another provisional i852] FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. 333 government had been formed at the Hotel de Ville. The members chosen by the chamber were Lamartine, Marie, Ledru-Rolhn, Cremieux, Dupont de I'Eure, Arago, and Gamier Pages. The provisional government of the Hotel de Ville consisted of Marrast, Flocon, Louis Blanc and Albert. The seven proceeded to the Hotel de Ville, and there, after violent altercation, came to a compromise with the four. Liberty and Equality shook hands. There was to be a republic; but a republic in which the principles of socialism should be the paramount element. At the top of the stairs of the Hotel de Ville, Lamartine proclaimed the republic to the populace below. The provisional government of eleven declared that the chamber of deputies was dissolved ; that a national assembly should be convoked, the members •of the "ex-chamber of peers" being forbidden to assemble. On the 25th ''a proclamation," signed by Gamier Pages and Louis Blanc, declared that the provisional government undertook to secure the existence of the work- man by labor ; to guarantee labor to all citizens. On the 26th the members presented themselves to the people assembled before the Hotel de Ville ; and there Lamartine proclaimed the abolition of royalty and the establish- ment of the republic, with the exercise of their pohtical right by the people. ■The prospect of universal suffrage was made still more agreeable by the announcement of the opening of national workshops for the unemployed workmen. The peace of Europe then occupied the attention of the provisional government, and measures were taken to provide a more permanent govern- ment. A national assembly was elected on the 27th of April, and on the 4th of May it met at Paris. The provisional government now ended its existence, and instead there was an executive commission chosen by the assembly as the visible governing power. On this commission Lamartine was placed. But his popularity was already on the wane. The 13th of June Louis Napoleon was elected a member of the assembly from three departments of the Seine. The insurrections of the red republicans broke out on the 22d of June. The immediate cause of this was the disbanding of the national workshops. The large number of idle operatives were too much for the government to bear. The workmen saw their political and social hopes vanishing, and they were in open revolt to overthrow the new government. But the assembly was now prepared for battle. The army was brought up and placed in command of General Cavaignac, an ofificer of great boldness and experience, and moreover a very ardent but practical republican. The insurgents fortified themselves in the quarter where they resided, and for awhile resisted with success all efforts to dislodge them. The streets of Paris ran with blood for three days, and fully one half of this time the issue was uncertain. But in the end the army of the assembly w^as victorious, and its authority maintained at the loss of from three thousand to five thousand lives. The popularity of Lamartine before on the wane was now entirely obscured, and his statesmanship despised. The opposition to him was so decided that 334 FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. [184& he and his associates resigned, and General Cavaignac was virtually dictator. Relieved from the fear of an insurrection, the assembly changed the constitution again. Under this there was a single representative body and a president for four years. This went into force in December, 1848, and Louis Napoleon was elected president, taking the oath of office on the 20th of that month. The new president proved himself strongly conservative, and went so far as to send an army to aid the pope against the republicans of Italy. This revolution against the pope was put down in 1849, ^^^ Rome was left in the hands of the French troops. There were frequent quarrels, between the president of France and the legislature, the latter being convinced that Louis Napoleon had his eye not so much on the good of the republic as on his own. The deposed king, Louis Philippe, died in England on the 26th of August, 1850. In the mean while, Louis Napoleon was gradually drawing the lines of absolute power about the press and all the liberty of the people. In the midst of the anarchy he held steadfast to his purpose, and at last put an end to it by the famous or infamous — from whichever standpoint you regard it — coup d'etai on December 2d, 185 1. The principal actors in this drama were Louis Napoleon, M. de Morny, M. de Maupas and General St. Arnaud. The circumstances attending it were necessarily atrocious and violent. Prepara- tions were made for destroying all authority but his own. The ministers were compelled to resign, and he made an appeal to the people stating his desire to be elected to the presidency for ten years. Very many arrests were made, and troops were placed in readiness. On the 4th of December blood- shed was commenced. The boulevards were swept by troops, artillery was placed in position, and wherever a group of people was seen they were fired upon, and the soldiers having been ordered to show no quarter, so in two or three days all was quiet, and the election came on. Napoleon was elected president for ten years by a vote of seven millions. In just one year the republic was transformed into an empire, and Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III. He shortly after married the Mile, de Montig, countess of Teba, who bore him a son March 14th, 1856. Mr. Justin McCarthy, in his " History of Our Times," thus describes the state of feeling in England at this time : " All the earlier part of the year had witnessed the steady progress of the prince president of France to an imperial throne. The previous year had closed upon his coup d'etat. He had arrested, imprisoned, banished or shot his principal enemies, and had demanded from the French people a presidency for ten years, a ministry responsible to the executive power — himself alone — and two political chambers to be elected by universal suffrage. Nearly five hundred prisoners, untried before any tribunal, even that of a drum-head, had been shipped off to Cayenne. The streets of Paris had been soaked in blood. The president instituted d. plebiscite, or vote of the whole people, and of course he got all he asked for. There was no arguing with the commander of twenty legions, and of such legions as those that had operated 1852] FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION OF 184S. 335 with terrible efficiency on the Boulevards. The first day of the new year saw the religious ceremony at Notre Dame to celebrate the acceptance of the ten years' presidency by Louis Napoleon. The same day a decree was published in the name of the president declaring that the French eagle should be restored to the standards of the army, as a symbol of the regenerated military genius of France. A few days after, the prince president decreed the confiscation of the property of the Orleans family and restored titles of nobility in France. The birthday of the Emperor Napoleon was declared by decree to be the only national holiday. When the two legislative bodies came to be sworn in, the president made an announcement which certainly did not surprise many persons, but which nevertheless sent a thrill abroad over all parts of Europe. If hostile parties continued to plot against him, the president intimated, and to question the legitimacy of the power he had assumed by virtue of the national vote, then it might be nece'ssary to demand from the people, in the name of the repose of France, ' a new title which will irrevocably fix upon my head the power with which they have invested me.' There could be no further doubt. The Bonapartist empire was to be restored. A new Napoleon was to come to the throne. " ' Only the devil knows what he means,' indeed. So people were all saying throughout England in 1852. The scheme went on to its develop- ment, and before the year was quite out Louis Napoleon was proclaimed emperor of the French. Men had noticed as a curious, not to say ominous, coincidence that on the very day when the duke of Wellington died the Moniteur announced that the French people were receiving the prince president everywhere as the emperor-elect and as the elect of God ; and another French journal published an article hinting not obscurely at the invasion and conquest of England as the first great duty of a new Napoleonic empire. The prince president indeed, in one of the provincial speeches which he delivered just before he was proclaimed emperor, had talked earnestly of peace. In his famous speech to the Chamber of Commerce of Bordeaux on October 9th, he denied that the restored empire would mean war. ' I say,* he declared, raising his voice and speaking with energy and emphasis, * the empire is peace.' But the assurance did not do much to satisfy Europe. Had not the sarhe voice, it was asked, declaimed with equal energy and earnestness the terms of the oath to the republican constitution ? Never, said a bitter enemy of the new empire, believe the word of a Bonaparte, unless when he promises to kill somebody. Such was indeed the common sentiment of a large number of the English people during the eventful year when the president' became emperor, and Prince Louis Napoleon was Napoleon the third. " It would have been impossible that the English people could view all this without emotion and alarm. But they could not see with indifference the rise of a new Napoleon to power on the strength of the old Napoleonic legend. The one special characteristic of the Napoleonic principle was its hostility to England. The life of the Great Napoleon in its greatest days had Sz€ FRANCE.— THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. [1848 been devoted to the one purpose of humiliating England. His plans had been foiled by England. Whatever hands may have joined in pressing him to the ground, there could be no doubt that he owed his fall principally to England. He died a prisoner of England, and with his hatred of her embittered rather than appeased. It did not seem unreasonable to believe that the successor who had been enabled to mount the imperial throne simply because he bore the name and represented the principles of the first Napoleon would inherit the hatred to England and the designs against England. Everything else that savored of the Napoleonic era had been revived ; why should this, its principal characteristic, be allowed to lie in the tomb of the first emperor ? The policy of the first Napoleon had lighted up a fire of hatred between England and France which at one time seemed inextinguishable. There were many who regarded that international hate as something like that of the hostile brothers in the classic story, the very flames of whose funeral piles refused to mingle in the air ; or like that of the rival Scottish families, whose blood, it was said, would never commingle though poured into one dish. It did not seem possible that a new emperor Napoleon could arise without bringing a restoration of that hatred along with him. " When the C021J' d'etat came and was successful, the amazement of the English public was unbounded. Never had any plot been more skillfully and more carefully planned, more daringly carried out. Here evidently was a master in the art of conspiracy. Here was the combination of steady caution and boundless audacity. What a subtlety of design ; what a perfec- tion of silent self-control ! How slowly the plan had been matured ; how suddenly it was flashed upon the world and carried to success. No haste, no delay, no scruple, no remorse, no fear ! And all this was the work of the dull dawdler of English drawing-rooms, the heavy, apathetic, unmoral rather than immoral haunter of English race-courses and gambling-houses ! What new surprise might not be feared, what subtle and daring enterprise might not reasonably be expected from one who could thus conceal and thus reveal himself, and do both with a like success ! " Louis Napoleon, said a member of his family, deceived Europe twice : first when he succeeded in passing off as an idiot, and. next when he succeeded in passing off as a statesman. The epigram had doubtless a great deal of truth in it. The coup d'etat was probably neither planned nor carried to success by the cleverness and energy of Louis Napoleon. Cooler and stronger heads and hands are responsible for the execution at least of that enterprise. The prince, it is likely, played little more than a passive part in it, and might have lost his nerve more than once but for the greater resolution of some of his associates, who were determined to crown him for their own sakes as well as for his. But at the time the world at large saw only Louis Napoleon in the whole scheme, conception, execution, and ah. The idea was formed of a colossal figure of cunning and daring — a Brutus, a Talleyrand, a Philip of Spain, and a Napoleon the first all in one. Those who detested him most admired and feared him not the least. Who can 1852] FRANCE.— THE SECOND EMPIRE. 337 doubt, it was asked, that he will endeavor to make himself the heir of the revenges of Napoleon? Who can believe any pledges he may give. How enter into any treaty or bond of any kind with such a man ? Where is the one that can pretend to say he sees through hjm and understands his schemes ? "There were five projects with which public opinion all over Europe specially credited Louis Napoleon when he began his imperial reign. One was a war with Russia. Another was a war with Austria. A third was a war with Prussia. A fourth was the annexation of Belgium. The fifth was the invasion of England. Three of these projects were carried out. The fourth we know was in contemplation. Our combination with France in the first probably put all serious thought of the fifth out of the head of the French emperor. He got far more prestige out of an alliance with us than he could ever have got out of any quarrel with us ; and he had little or no risk. We do not count for anything the repeated assurances of Louis Napoleon that he desired peace with England. A change in circumstances at any time might have induced an altered frame of mind. The very same assurances were made again and again to Russia, to Austria, and to Prussia. The pledge that the empire was peace was addressed, like the pope's edict, urbiet orbi^ xxYin. APOLEON HL made his government an absolutism under which France made rapid advances in material strength and prosperity. The city of Paris was em- bellished and fortified as never before. The emperor steadily maintained his policy and announced himself as the adjuster of the wrongs of nations. The Crimean war began in 1853. The French and Russian governments had taken sides in the controversy between the Greek and Latin, or Roman Catholic, churches, in regard to the occupancy of the sacred places around Jerusalem and vicinity. The czar sent Prince Menshikoff as envoy extra- ordinary to Constantinople, February 22d, 1853. He also made certain demands respecting the protection of Christians in Turkey. In regard to the first of these questions the sultan referred it to a mixed commission, but refused to entertain the second. Two weeks later, after the envoy was recalled, the sultan acceded to all the demands of the czar and appealed to his allies. In June the French and English fleets appeared on the scene. About the middle of September, 1853, four of this fleet passed the Darda- 22 338 FRANCE.— THE SECOND EMPIRE. [1852 nelles, and on the 5th of October the sultan declared war agahist Russia, and struck the first blow. Now the Russian czar declared war, and then followed a series of battles in and around the Crimea which lasted for twenty- six months. The chief of them followed in this order : Alma, September 20th, 1854, the English under Lord Raglan and the French under Marshal St. Arnaud routed the Russians; September 25th, the allies took Balaklava; October 17th they began an unsuccessful siege of Sevastopol. The battle of Balaklava, in which was made the famous charge of the Light Brigade, was fought on October 25th. On the 8th day of September, 1855, the French carried Malakoff by storm, and the Russians, sinking their fleet in the mouth of the harbor, left Sevastopol. There was but little fighting after this, and peace was concluded March 30th, 1856, and the allies left the Crimea on the 9th of July. The French lost about sixty-three thousand five hundred men ; the English, twenty-six thousand eight hundred and seventy- three from killed and wounded.* In April, 1855, the emperor and empress of France visited Queen Victo- ria at Windsor castle, and were sumptuously entertained by the queen and her royal consort. Prince Albert returned the visit in August of the same year. The Industrial Exhibition was opened at Paris, May 15th, 1855, and far surpassed the World's Fair in Hyde Park. An attempt was made on the life of the emperor on the 28th of April by Pianori, and another by Bellemarre on the 8th of September, the same year. The birth of the prince imperial, March i6th, 1856, has been already noticed. There was nothing of public interest after the close of the Crimean war. In the early part of the year 1857 the archbishop of Paris, Sibour, was assassinated by a parish priest named Verger. A conspiracy against the life of the emperor was discovered July nth, 1857, and, later in the year, he and the Empress Eugenie again visited England. The brave General Cavaignac, who had steadily refused to give his adherence to the emperor, was still permitted to reside in France without molestation. He died very suddenly at his country seat near Tours, October 28th, 1857. Unlike most of his countrymen he was calm, sober and moderate in debate, but of firm principle and unimpeached morality. Louis Napoleon and the Russian emperor, Alexander II., had an interview at Stutt- gart, September 25th. Another attempt upon the emperor's life was made in Paris, on the 14th of January, 1858, by a man named Orsini, who, with his accomplices, threw three shells at the emperor and the empress. One hundred and fifty persons were killed and wounded by the explosion, but the emperor escaped unharmed. The assassm Orsini was traced by the blood from the wound inflicted by his own bomb. This is fully discussed in the History of England. In this same year the empn-e was divided into five military departments. A republican outbreak at Chalons was suppressed with much violence. The queen of England and consort return the visit of the emperor. On the first day of January, 1859, Louis Napoleon announced his inten- *A full account of this war will be found in the History of England. i870] FRANCE.— THE SECOND EMPIRE. 339 tion of aiding the Italian cause, under Victor Emanuel. In the early part of this year Victor Emanuel proclaimed his intention of aiding to free the popu- lace of Italy from the Austrian yoke. Sardinia and France united in a war against Austria, and in April, 1859, the war commenced. The victories of Magenta and Solferino were quickly followed by the inconclusive treaty of Villafranca, July nth, by which a confederation of all the Italian States was formed under the protectorate of the pope. All Italy indignantly rejected this, and early in i860 the various States declared in favor of annexation to the kingdom of Piedmont. March i8th, Parma, Modenaand the Emilean provinces were incorporated with Sardinia, and the grand duchy of Tuscany followed on the 22d. Victor Emanuel was proclaimed king of Italy, March 7th. Nice and Savoy were ceded to France on the 24th. Garibaldi, with a thousand volun- teers, led a successful and bloodless revolution in the Sicilies. He then liber- ated the whole southern part of the peninsula and presented it to Victor Emanuel, who entered Naples November 7th. The French emperor had taken the field himself, and arrived at Genoa May 12th. The Italians sus- pected the French influence in the cabinet, and were present at the subse- quent battles. The Empress Eugenie was left as regent in France. The Emperor Napoleon and the emperor of Austria met at Villafranca July nth, and Napoleon returned to France the 17th. A treaty Avas signed between Austria, France and Sardinia on the 12th of November, 1859. In i860 the principal public events are hastily given as follows : January 23d, the emperor adopts a free trade policy with England. The annexation of Nice and Savoy has been mentioned. The Emperor Napoleon meets the German sovereign at Baden-Baden, June 1 5-1 7th. The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica and Algiers in the summer. The new tariff goes into operation on October ist. The collection of Peter's pence is prohibited, and the issuing of pastoral letters very much restricted. The freedom of the press is partially restored, and many important ministerial changes are made, and finally the emperor advises the pope to give up his temporal possessions. In the year 1861 France purchases the principality of Monaco for four million francs. There followed trouble with the Roman Church, and the French government issues a circular forbidding Romish priests from interfering with secular politics, April nth. A commercial treaty is made with Belgium. The French government declares neutrality in the American civil war. The kingdom of Italy is recognized June 24th. The French emperor and king of Prussia meet at Compiegne October 6th. The finances of France were in a fearful condition, and Achille Fould, who had been removed in December^ i860, was recalled to be minister of finance ; his great ability and system enabling him to extricate matters. In the latter part of 1861 there was a convention entered into between France, Spain and England, in regard to the government of Mexico. Using the pretext of the disordered state of matters in that country they ventured, in defiance of the avowed policy of the United States, when that country was in the midst of a gigantic civil war, to set up a monarchy on the southern border of that republic. The expedition 340 FRANCE.— THE SECOND EMPIRE. [1852 was begun in 1861, and a fleet of French, Spanish and EngHsh ships of war- entered the gulf of Mexico. In December the British minister left Mexico, and the Spanish landed at Vera Cruz, and took possession before the arrival of the allied fleet. The three commanders of the alHed fleet issued a proclamation to the people, but received no response; then they began to advance on the capital. The provisional government asked for an armistice, pending negotiations for a treaty. The treaty was accepted by Spain and England, but not by France. The French troops remained in possession of the country. War was declared against the government of Juarez, but the Mexicans did not take well to the French occupation. The French captured several important places and entered the city of Mexico on June loth, 1862. A provisional government was formed, and an " assembly of notables " was called June 24th, to form the best kind of a government. They decided that a limited monarchy with a Catholic sovereign was the best, and resolved to offer the crown to the archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria. The Mexicans can not have had much real spirit in this if we may judge of it in the light of subsequent events. Maximilian accepted the crown offered to him and came to Mexico in May, 1864. He entered his capital June I2th. The Imperialist army of France had gained possession of every State, and Juarez had fled to the United States before the summer was- gone. There were still small bands of republicans left in the country, which kept up a guerilla warfare. Maximilian issued a proclamation on the 25th of October, 1865, menacing all who were found in arms with death. In accord- ance with this two generals were afterward shot. The French emperor became weary of this expensive and although successful yet unprofitable expedition, and he gradually withdrew his troops and left Maximilian to his fate. In February, 1867, the last French troops were removed, and at once Juarez returned and resumed the government of the republic. Maximilian, at the head of a few troops of his own remaining in the country, was over- come, captured and shot by the Mexicans. His poor wife, Charlotte, became insane from grief. And thus Napoleon's scheme fell through. To return to the year 1862. The French conquered the province of Bienhoa in Anam, and six provinces in Cochin China. These have been ceded to France by treaty. A new commercial treaty was formed with Prussia August 2d. There was much suffering in the manufacturing dis- tricts of Southern France on account of the scarcity of cotton, owing to the civil war in America. In 1863 we notice th'ese events : Commercial treaty with Italy. Revolt in Anam crushed. The Spanish frontier was established by treaty. The emperor proposes a conference of the European powers on the questions of the day, November 9th, but England refuses to join, November 25th. There is a growing opposition to the government all the while, and many liberal members are elected to the legislature. In 1864 we record a treaty with Japan; a commercial treaty with Switzer- land ; a convention with Italy in regard to the evacuation of Rome. The iS/o] FRANCE.— THE SECOND EMPIRE. 341 Mexican empire was established with Maximihan of Austria as its head. In the year 1865 a treaty was made with Sweden, the emperor Louis Napoleon made a visit to Algeria, and the British fleet came upon a friendly visit to Cl^rbourg and Brest. A return visit was made by the French fleet to Ports- mouth, and the Spanish queen visited the emperor at Biarritz. An extensive feeling of alarm was produced in Europe in 1866, by the declaration of Louis Napoleon that he detested the treaties of 181 5. He then proposed a peace conference with England and Russia, aiming at a settlement of the difficulties between Austria and Italy, but Russia refused to join it. France declares a watchful neutrality as to the German-Italian war. The Emperor Napoleon demanded of Prussia a cession of a part of the Rhine provinces, and was refused in August. Austria cedes Venetia to France, who transfers it to Italy. The French occupation of Rome terminated December nth. The great exposition of Paris was opened April ist, 1867, and consisted of the industrial arts of all nations. Many foreign visitors were present, and the awards were distributed by the emperor. By a treaty adopted at London, 1867, the fortress at Luxemburg was demolished and the Prussian troops were removed. Extensive riots broke out in Bordeaux and Paris during the months of March and June, 1868, but they were quickly suppressed. In the year of 1869 the elections resulted in returning a large number of radical members. Louis Napoleon granted to his people several concessions, but the great national event of the year was the one hundredth anniversary of the birth of Napoleon Bonaparte, which was celebrated in great splendor in all parts of the empire August 15th. The result of an appeal to the French nation in a plebiscitum, May 8th was not altogether satisfactory to the emperor, and the presence of fifty thousand dissenting votes in the army was especially indicative of danger. The emperor saw at once that he must find some great foreign question to unite the people or he would hold his power upon them by £i very slight tenure. The Franco-Prussian war was therefore inaugurated, and an easy pretext was found. The French had ill-brooked the growing German power, and had not forgotten the former defeats at her hands. Napoleon therefore rushed rashly into a war for which, he ivas not prepared, to find that his antagonist was fully ready to cope with him and choose his own ground. The long threatened rupture came in 1870. On the 4th of July of that year the provisional government of Spain had elected Prince Leopold of Hohenzol- lern, a relation of William of Prussia, to fill the vacant throne. The French press claimed to see in this that they were threatened with a re-establishment of the empire of Charles V. in favor of Prussia. Leopold resigned ; but this did not satisfy the French, and the government demanded an assurance that Prussia should at no future time sanction his claims. King William refused to give this assurance, and France declared war. Contrary to general expec- tation, the southern German States united with Prussia and the northern States, and placed their armies at the disposal of Prussia. At once the two armies began to gather. Napoleon lost two weeks of 342 FRANCE.— THE SECOND EMPIRE. [1870 August in delays after the declaration of war. His army was not so thoroughly organized as he thought, and so instead of marching on to Berlin lie never crossed the Rhine. August 2d the French gained some trifling success at Saarback, but a brilliant victory of the crown prince of Prussia at Weisenburg on the 4th was followed by another victory of Werth over the French two days later, in which MacMahon lost four thousand prisoners and was driven toward Metz. Another French force was defeated on the same day at Specheren and lost twenty-five hundred prisoners. The Prussians occupied Nancy on the 14th, and on the i6th the French, under Bazaine, were driven back on Mars-la-Tour. The king of Prussia commanded in person at the battle of Gravelotte on the i8th, and although the German army suffered very heavily it was finally victorious, and Bazaine was shut up in Mentz. In three days the French had lost, in killed alone, twelve thousand men. Napoleon and Marshal MacMahon in vain attempted to come to the relief of Bazaine. They were surrounded and defeated at Sedan with heavy loss. The emperor surrendered with his whole army of about ninety thousand men, and was sent a prisoner to Germany September 2d. The Prussian army reached Paris on the 19th, and began a vigorous siege. After a severe bombardment, Strasburg surrendered on the 27th. The next day Bazaine surrendered the city of Metz with his army of six thousand ofificers and one hundred and seventy-three thousand men, four hundred pieces of artillery, one hundred mitrailleuses, and sixty eagles. Verdun capitulated on November 8th, Thornville on the 24th, and several other places of lesser importance followed. From these triumphs and reverses of military heroes we turn to one who has only achieved the victories of peace and gladly give him a place of mention. Ferdinand de Lesseps was born at Versailles in 1805, the son of Baron de Lesseps. When twenty years old he was appointed attache' to the French consulate in Lisbon. His commission to negotiate for the construction of the Suez Canal was given in 1854, but not until 1856 was the Compagnie International formed for this purpose. The years between them and 1864 were spent in collecting money for his great project, and in the overcoming of other dif^culties than the financial one ; but in July, 1864, the final and favorable decision of Napoleon III. was gained and work on the canal fairly begun. It was opened in 1869, the year witnessing the FERDINAND DE LESSEPS. Completion of perhaps the greatest piece of engineering of modern times, and the highest triumph of the indefatigable man who had constructed it. XXVIII. THE NEW EEPUBLIC. fHE provisional government of France made great efforts to raise armies and relieve Paris, but with the exception of a little success on the Loire they met with nothing but defeat. In the battles in the forest of Orleans and that of Le Muns January 12th, the Prussians took thirty thousand prisoners. Finally Paris surrendered on January 29th. The French army of the east, eighty thousand strong, was obliged to retire to Switzerland on the 31st. The peace was declared, but France was compelled to pay an indemnity awarding $1,000,000,000, and cede the province of Alsace and the German part of Lorraine to Prussia. One great result of the war was the confederation of the German States and the elevation of King William to be 'I emperor of Germany. In January, 1871, the united efforts of the " provisional government of defense," respectively installed at Paris and Tours, brought about an armistice after Paris had been invested four months. The French nation now proceeded to a general election of representatives to provide for the exigencies of the case. The first assembly met at Bordeaux in February. They secured the resignation of the pro- visional government and began at once to form a republic. M. Thiers was nominated chief of the executive power of the State with the title of president. The responsibility rested with the assembly. The enormous war indemnity was finally liquidated in September, 1873, and then the last remnant of foreign troops was removed from the soil of France. In the spring of 1871 the peace of Paris was seriously threatened by a suc- cessful outbreak of the communists, and a great amount of bloodshed and grievous damage was done to public and private property. But this insurrec- tion was put down by the regular army, which had taken the side of the gov- ernment, and May 20th order was completely restored in Paris. France at once began to recuperate, and gradually the disasters of the war were obliter- ated. Commerce, manufactures and agriculture revived, and an era of national prosperity set in. The ex-emperor died at Chiselhurst, England, in March, 1872. On the 24th day of May, 1873, M. Thiers resigned his office, and Marshal MacMahon was elected in his stead. The new president soon after had the 344 FRANCE.— THE NEW REPUBLIC. [iS/r power conferred on him for seven years. His sympathies were conservative^ and in 1877 he was suspected of revolutionary designs. But during his term of office the repubhcan form of government was greatly consolidated, and secured more and more the confidence of the nation and the world. In 1875, the legislative body was reorganized and two chambers were appointed. The same year a charter was granted for the construction of a tunnel under the Channel. The legislature of two chambers began its session March 7th, 1876. M. Thiers died September 3d, 1877. There was an extensive international exposition in Paris in 1878 which was very successful. In January, 1879, Mar- shal MacMahon resigned the presidency of the republic, and was succeeded by M. Grevy, a thoroughgoing but not extreme republican : he had never been a blind partisan, and consequently enjoyed the respect and confidence of the nation. He was born at Vandrez in the Jura August 15th, 1813 ; he adopted the profession of law and became an advocate in Paris. He was engaged in the- revolution of 1830 and in 1848 was a member of the constituent assembly. In 1852 he retired from politics and resumed the practice of law, but returned, to the political arena in 1868. The prince imperial, Eugene Louis Jean Joseph, son of Louis Napoleon, escaped from Sedan at the time of his father's capture and went to England. When the Zulu war broke out in 1879 he volunteered to go to South Africa, and was shot there while with a reconnoitering party, by a band of Zulus in. ambush, in July of that year. This melancholy incident made the war memorable, not only to England, but to Europe. The young French prince, Louis Napoleon, who had studied in English military schools, felt a strong desire to vary the somewhat mournful monotony of his life by taking part in the campaign. He was- influenced in some measure by a desire to fight under the English flag ; but it must be owned that he was influenced much more strongly by a wish to- play to a French popular audience. He persuaded himself that it would greatly increase his chances of recovering the throne of France if he could exhibit himself to the eyes of the French public as a bold and brilliant young soldier. ^ He therefore seized the opportunity of the Zulu campaign to offer his services, and attach himself as a volunteer to Lord Chelmsford's staff. During one of the episodes of the war he and some of his companions were surprised by a body of Zulus. Others escaped, but Prince Louis Napoleon Avas killed. The news of his death created a great shock in England. Every one was sorry for the young gallant life so uselessly thrown away. Still more deep was the regret felt for the position of the bereaved mother. Hardly has any history a tale more tragic than hers. So sudden and splendid an elevation, so brilliant a career, so complete a fall, such an accumulation of sorrow, is hardly equaled even in the story of Marie Antoinette. Now, in the autumn of her life, she was left absolutely alone. Youth, beauty, imperial throne, husband, son, all were gone. It was natural that considera- tions such as these should throw a halo of melancholy romance round the fate 1884] FRANCE.— THE NEW REPUBLIC. 345 of the young prince, Louis Napoleon, and should rouse in that country an amount of sympathy which harsher critics condemned as sentimental, and even as maudlin. It must be admitted that the poor young prince fell in a quarrel which was not his, in which he had neither right nor duty to interfere, and which he had taken on himself with a purely personal and political motive. Princes in exile have many times borne arms in quarrels not their own. It is one of the privileges and one of the consolations of exile thus to be enabled to lend a helping hand to a foreign cause. But then the cause must be great and just ; it must have some noble principle to inspire it. When the Orleanist princes fought under the flag of the United States, they w^ere contending for a principle dear to the lovers of freedom in every country in the world, a principle which it is the part of a Frenchman as well as an American to sustain. But the Zulu war was not in any sense a war of principle. It was not even a national English war. It was not a war with which the English people had any sympathy whatever. It was not even a war of which the English government approved. For it is a strange peculiarity of this chapter of her history that the policy of Sir Bartle Frere and the war in Zululand were condemned by no one more strongly than by the members of her majesty's government in England. The dispatches sent out to Sir Bartle Frere were constantly dispatches of remonstrance and complaint, even of condemnation. When Prince Louis Napoleon, therefore, thrust himself into this quarrel, he with- drew himself from any just claim to general sympathy. Regret for the sudden extinction of a young life of promise was but natural, and that regret was freely given ; but the verdict of the public remained unaltered. He had thrown away his life uselessly in a quarrel which brought no honor, and for a motive which was not unselfish and was not exalted. The death of the young prince imperial occurred June 1st. The ministry t)f M. Waddington resigned December 21st, 1879, and M. De Freycinet at once formed a new cabinet. In the early part of 1 880, France lost by death two of its renowned men. The first was Due de Gramont. He had been a successful diplomat, and in 1870 he was minister of foreign affairs in the cabinet of Ollivier, but when M. Ollivier resigned he retired to private life. In 1873 he was made general of division under the republic, and in 1877 he became a commander in the legion of honor. The second man was Jules Favre, a French advocate and minister. He was born at Lyons on March 21st, 1809. He was prominent in the revolution of 1848, but when Napoleon HI. executed his coup d'tftaf in 1852 he retired from public life. In September, 1870, he became minister of war under the provisional government and carried on the negotiations with Bismarck, but he resigned his office in July, 1871, and resumed the practice of law. He was remarkable in political repartee, and had long been accustomed to public strife. At the session of the chambers in 1880 M. Gambetta was elected president of the chamber of deputies. The celebrated Ferry's education bill introduced into the chamber of deputies was rejected March 346 FRANCE.— THE NEW REPUBLIC. £1871 9th, 1880, but the decree to expel the Jesuits from France was passed by an overwhelming majority. Many protests to this decree were made from all parts of the republic and from Rome, but it was rigidly executed on June 30th of the same year. The religious orders were also suppressed by law. A general amnesty bill for all political offenses was passed the chambers July 3d. A new ministry was formed in September, 1880, with M. Jules Ferry at its head. In the beginning of 1881 the municipal elections were favorable to the government, and a loan of forty million pounds sterling received bids for more than three times that amount. There was a long and heated discussion in the chambers upon the scriitin de liste, which began March 21st, and resulted in its rejection May 9th. The army of the republic invaded Tunis in April of this year, and on May 12th a treaty was signed with the bey, which gave France the virtual suzerainty of that country. Much excitement over this was manifested, especially in Italy, but the French senate ratified the treaty on the 23d of May. A grand reception was tendered to M. Gambetta at Cahors, May 25th. The autumn elections resulted in very large gains to the Republican party. The French troops occupied Tunis on October loth, and in consequence of this and the popular elections M. Jules Ferry resigned, and a new ministry was formed with M. Gambetta as prime- minister. A financial conference of all the powers was held in Paris to decide upon the monetary value of the precious metals for coin, in 1881. France was in the midst of her struggle with Tunis, with the English commercial treaty unsettled, and a general election just over. Troops were hurried into North Africa as soon as the elections were closed. After much suffering and further horrible massacres, the French at length occupied Kairwan, which proved the turning-point in the campaign, and the whole country was afterward gradually subjected to French arms. The result has been by no means altogether satisfactory, and the Enfida case, involving a question of disputed ownership between a French and English subject, was treated in the most overbearing manner, but by the firmness and tact of Lord Granville finally ended in a purchase by the French claimant on fair terms. In December, howeve*-, Europe may be said to have had its moral revenge. M. Rochefort having published the most disgraceful charges against M. Roustan, of acting under most questionable mercenary considera- tions, the latter was forced to bring an action for slander, which, on Decem- ber 15th, resulted in his utter failure to obtain a verdict, and ultimately in his recall from Tunis, of which all Frenchmen had become heartily sick. The fate of the treaty is inextricably mixed up with the shifting of French politics generally. After the elections, M. Gambetta was, by the voice of the country at large, called to the premiership. Under the free trade auspices of M. Gambetta hopeful progress was made ; but when the French session again opened, on January loth, Gambetta was already becom- ing unpopular. A few days later he submitted a programme for revising the French constitution under certain limitations by the chamber and senate in i884] FRANCE.-^THE NEW REPUBLIC 347 congress. He proposed to adopt his old project of scriitin dc listc for the chamber, giving to it also more, and the senate less, control over expend- iture ; also to modify the life-senatorships and widen the electoral basis of the senate. These propositions made enemies on all sides, and chiefly under the dread of a Gambetta dictatorship they were twice defeated at the end of January by heavy majorities, and M. Freycinet formed a new ministry, with M. Tirard as minister of commerce. The pronounced protectionism of the new minister brought concession to a standstill ; it was found impossible to obtain any such reductions from the prohibitory French tariff as made a treaty worth having, and on February 23d M. Tirard finally announced that negotiations were broken off, and introduced a bill, giving to England simply the treatment of the most favored nation. Still worse evils were to follow from the shifty character of French poli- tics. So far back as February, 1881, an Egyptian colonel, named Achmet el Ourabi — later known as Ourabi, or Arabi Bey — had been imprisoned for insubordination, and rescued by his troops, the revolutionary offense being injudiciously let pass. On September loth, Arabi, who had been sent away from Alexandria, ordered his regiment there, in defiance of orders. Cheriff Pasha, being then premier in Egypt, promised to disperse the mutinous troops, but failed ; and a Turkish civil commission only led to Arabi again leaving the city, with an ovation and with many threats. At Christmas the Khedive opened the chamber of notables, and was well received ; and on January 8th a joint dispatch was presented to him by the English and French representatives, stating that the two nations were resolved to main- tain his authority. There is no doubt that M. Gambetta had formed a true view of the situation, and was disposed to act energetically with England to maintain order. Urged on by Arabi, the chamber began to dispute with the Anglo-French control, and the mutinous colonel got himself made under- minister of war; the porte added to the disorder by protesting against the joint note. In February Cheriff was forced to resign, and a new ministry formed under Mahmoud Sahmi, which at once made a large increase in the army and proclaimed a "constitution." The French controller resigned, and European officials were dismissed wholesale ; and early in April, under pre- tense of a plot against himself, Arabi got all the Circassian officers in the army who opposed his influence condemned to death, procuring false evidence by torture. They were sent to Turkey instead by the combined influence of England and the porte, and the chamber disn^issed ; but later on, May loth, the notables were again convened by Arabi, without the consent of the Khedive and against the law. Meantime the change of government in France had apparently paralyzed Anglo-French interference. A fidgety ner- vousness had taken the place of M. Gambetta's clear policy, and France would neither adopt any policy of her own nor consent to invoke the interference of Turkey as suzerain, which appeared to England and other powers the best solution of the difficulty. At length things became intolerable. On May 15th the French and English fleets were ordered to Alexandria, and ten days 348 FRANCE.— THE NEW REPUBLIC. [1871 later an identical note was handed in by the two powers, demanding that the military leaders should leave the country, allowing them, however, rank and pay. This was met by defiance as before ; but England was still hampered by the reluctance of France either to act or allow Turkey to act ; and when the latter sent Dervish Pasha as a commissioner on June 7th, there was a general hope that this measure would be successful. It turned out, however, that Dervish had brought an Ottoman decoration for Arabi ; and on June nth occurred savage anti-Christian riots in Alexandria, stirred up by Arabi and his prefect, in which over a hundred Europeans were killed. This helped to bring matters to a crisis, and England and France jointly proposed a European conference, which Turkey for long refused to join. It met without her on June 23d, but meantime, constant and fresh armaments by Arabi, in defiance of repeated prstests and of the Sultan's own express commands, com- pelled Admiral Seymour to bombard the forts, when Arabi evacuated the town under cover of a flag of truce, intrenching himself some miles distant at Kafr- Dawar, and liberating the convicts already in jail for the massacre of a month before, to again massacre the Christians and fire the town, which was done with the utmost ferocity. Alexandria was now perforce occupied by Eng- land, and preparations for war were hurried on by the British government, while Arabi was formally deposed by proclamation of the khedive, now under British protection. Urged on by fear of impending British action, the porte on July 24th entered the conference, and accepted, though in an evasive manner, the invitation to interfere by force of arms, attempting, with no success, to make it a condition that England should retire. Meantime France had retired more and more from all action, till finally, at the end of July, M. Freycinet was actually refused by the chamber a small credit of ;^376,ooo for guarding the Suez Canal. This led to the downfall of the ministry, and France was left without a government for more than a week, when a cabinet was formed by M. Duclerc August 7, 1882. On the 27th of November the French steamer Cambromie was sunk in the British Channel by a collision, and fourteen lives were lost. On the 9th of December, Jean Joseph Louis Blanc, historian and radical, died at Cannes aged sixty-seven years. He was born at Madrid, October 28th, 1813, and before the revolution of 1848 had gained a European reputation as a radical writer ; Louis Philippe said of his " Revolution Francaise : Histoire de Dix Alls, 1830-1840," that "it acted like a battering ram against the bulwarks of loyalty in France." It seemed as if he was to take a prominent '. M. Ferry assumed the post of minister of foreign affairs ; M. Martin Feuille, minister of the interior ; M. Waldeck Rosseau, minister of justice ; M. Tirard, minister of finance; General Thibaudin, minister of war; M. Rayna), minister of public works ; and M. Cochery, minister of posts and telegraphs. The republican union resolved to support a cabinet determined to use the existing laws against all pretenders. 352 FRANCE. — THE NEW REPUBLIC. [1884 In the spring of 1883 the French government became embroiled in comph- cations both in Asia and Africa, which led to hostilities with the natives in both instances. An influential foothold had been gained in Cochin China, dating back to the time of the empire. In June, 1874, Phra Norodon was crowned as independent sovereign of Cambodia under the protectorate of France, and he acceeded to that country the right to establish a colony on the Makiang River, at a point where its four tributaries unite before entering into the China Sea. After this the French came to have considerable influence in the province, and regarded their colony as especially valuable. The king of Cochin China acknowledged the suzerainty of the emperor of China, but his vassalage was scarcely more than nominal. The monarch of this country, which had been increased by the addition of the province of Tonquin on the north, made a treaty with the French in 1874, by which three ports were opened to the commerce of Europe, and the integrity of Cochin China was assured. On the 20th of March four thousand Annamite or Chinese troops attacked Hanoi, the capital of Tonquin, but were repulsed by the French, who had entered under the claim that the inability of the king of Annam to assure the security of Tonquin compelled France to definitely establish herself there. A letter from President M. Grevy advised the king not to resist the demand, but recognize the protectorate of France and its guarantee. Re-enforcements were dispatched from France, and two thousand troops set sail from Toulon for Tonquin in the early part of May. On the 26th of this month, as Captain Riviere was reconnoitering on the coast with a party of four hundred men, about two hundred and fifty miles from Hanoi, preparatory to landing other parties, he was attacked by a superior force, chiefly composed of pirates, and driven back with a loss of twenty-six killed and over fifty wounded. The troops subsequently reoccupied the positions. Additional troops Avere hurried forward from Saigon. M. de Brun, minister of marine, sent a telegram order- ing the governor of Cochin China to notify the French troops that the cham- ber of deputies has unanimously passed the Tonquin credit, and that France will avenge her glorious children. Two additional iron-clads and a cruiser were ordered to proceed East directly. A dispatch from Hong Kong, dated May 27th, stated that China had taken a conciliatory attitude on the Tonquin question, but would maintain its right of suzerainty over Tonquin. The complication in Africa arose from a demand for the payment of sums due the French government from the kingdom of Madagascar. To accom- plish this the French troops, in the latter part of May, bombarded Majunga, and after an engagement lasting six hours landed and carried several military posts which had been erected by the Hovason Sakalava territory in defiance of French rights. Admiral Pierre also occupied the Custom House at Ma- junga, thus securing the road and waterway leading to Tananarivo, the capital of the island. In Senegal a French column under Colonel Desbordes suc- ceeding in driving the hostile natives back a distance of thirty-eight miles, and tranquillity was established on the left bank of the Niger. INDEX. ABDEL-RHAMAN. Abdel-Rhaman, 32. Abclard, a Freethinker, his struggles with the Church, 49. Academy, the French, founded by Richelieu, US.* , the (see also French Acadcjny), and Corneille's Czd, 149; and Racine, 186. of Sciences, the, 187 ; and Fontenelle, 238. Acadia, French colony of, and M. de Monts, 221 ; and the Treaty of Utrecht, 221. Acadians, Emigration of, 223. Adrets, Baron, no. yEduans, the, 25. Agincourt, the battle of, Oct. 25, 141 5, 66. Agnadello, the battle of, between the French under Louis XII. and the Venetians, 1509, 85. Aguesseau, Chancellor d', 196. Aigues-Mortes, meeting at, 97. Aiguillon, the duke of, 229, 233. Aix-la-Chapelle, residence of Charlemagne, 35 ; the Peace of, 1668, 157 ; Peace Congress and Treaty of 1748, 215. Alais, the Peace of, 143. Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 30. Alauda, the, Julius Csesar's " Wakeful " Gallic Legion, 27. Albemarle, the duke of, 169. Alberoni, 200 ; fall of, 201 Albigensians, the, crusade against, 50. Albret, Jeanne d', 105, 112. Alencon, the Duke d', 1 14. Alesia, the town of, taken, 27. Alexander VI., Pope, 81 ; and Louis XII., 84. AUemanians, the, invade the settlements of the Franks, a.d. 496, 30. Allobrogians, the, 25. Almanza, the battle of, 1707, 165. Alphonso II., king of Naples, and Charles VIII., 81. Alps, the, crossed by Francis I. and his army, 90. Alsace, 150; restored to France, 160. Alviano, Barthelemy d', at the battle of Agna- dello, 85. Amadeo, Victor, duke of Savoy, 161, 164, 165. Amboise, Cardinal d', 85 ; death and character, 86. , the Peace and Edict of, 1563, 108, 1 1 1. Ambrons, the, and Teutons, the, defeated by ARRAS. the Romans under Marius at the rampi Putridi, 102 B.C., 26. American Independence, the Declaration of, July 4, 1776, 254. Colonies, the, independence of recog- nized by England, 259. •War of Independence, the, 254 ^?/ j-^y. Amsterdam, gallant defense of, against Louis XIV., 158. Amyot, James, 146. Anastasius, emperor of the East, 30. Ancenis, the treaty of, 1468, 74. Ancre, Marshal d' (see also Concim), death of, 133. 134- Anjou, the duke of, and Charles VI., 64. »-, Henry, duke of, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 114; elected king of Po- land, 116; recalled from Poland to the crown of France as Henry III., 117. , the duke of, becomes Philip V. of Spain by the will of Charles II., 163. Anne of Austria and Louis XIII., 134; and the Broussel affair, 151. Anne de Beaujeu, government of, 79, 80. Anne of Brittanv, marriage of, with Charles VIII., 80; wife'of Louis XII., 85. Anne, queen of England, and the duke of Marlborough, 167. Antioch and the Crusaders, 40. Antoinette, Marie, and Louis XVI., 261 ; and court intrigues, 261 ; growing unpopularity of, 262 ; increase of the popular feeling against, 264. Aqute Sexti^e, battle near, 26. Aquitania conquered by the Visigoths, 32. Aquitanians, the, 24. Arabs, incursions of the, in Southern Gaul, 32. Argenson, Marquis d', and the Orleans Re- gency, 197; and M. de Lally, 219; dismissed by Louis XV., 226. Arians, the, 30. Ariovistus is defeated by Julius Caesar, 26. Armagnac, Count James d', and Louis XL, "]%. Armagnacs and Burgundians, civil war between the,"66. Arnaulds, the, and M. de St. Cyran, 178, 179. Arnulf, 36. Aroet, Francois Marie, see Voltaire. Arques, battle of, gained by Henr)^ IV., 123. Arras, treaty at, in 14S2, between Louis XL and Maximilian of Austria, 78. ;54 INDEX. ARTOIS. Artois, Count Robert of, commands the army of Philip IV. raised to subdue the revolt in Flanders, and is defeated and killed at the battle of Courtrai, 55. Arvernians, the, 25. Assas, Chevalier d', heroic death of, 230. Assembly of Notables, convocation of the, proposed by M. de Calonne (1787), 263. Ass/zes of Jerusale7n, Godfrey de Bouillon's Code of Laws, 41. Ataulph, king of the Visigoths, 29. Attila, the famous Hun King, 29. Audenarde, the battle of, 165. Augsburg, the league of, 1686, 161. Augustus, sole master of the Roman world, 27. HI. of Poland, death of, 205. , Stanislaus, of Poland, 205. Auneau, the battle of, 1 1 9. Auray, battle of, costs Charles of Blois his life and the countship of Brittany, 63. Aurelius, Marcus, persecutes the Christians, 28. Austrasia, kingdom of, 31. Austria and France, commencement of the rivalry between, 'j'j. and Henry IV., 144. '-, Margaret of (see also Margaret), 78. , Anne of, wife of Louis XIII., 150. Avaux, M. d', 150. Avignon, chosen as the papal residence by Clement V., 57. Baldwin III., king of Jerusalem, and Louis VIII., 42. Balue, Cardinal de la, JJ. Balzac, 148. Barbarigo, doge of Venice, and Charles VIII., 81. Barbarossa, Frederic, 43. Barbezieux, 173. Barbier, Advocate, 233. Barri, Godfrey de, lord of Renaudie, 108. Barricades in Paris in 1648, 151. Bart, John, a corsair of Dunkerque, exploits of, 159. Bartholomew, St., the Massacre of, events which led to, 113; commencement of the Massacre of, by the murder of Admiral Co- ligny, 113. Basques, the, 24. Baudricourt and Joan of Arc, 68. Bavaria, the duke of, gives his daughter Isabel in marriage to Charles, 64. , Judith of, becomes the wife of Louis the Debonnair, 36. -, the elector of, and the battle of Blenheim, 164; claims to the empire, 208 made lieutenant-general of the armies of France, 205 ; proclaimed emperor as Charles VII., 209. Baville, Lamoignon de, 177. Bayard, Peter du Terrail, the Chevalier de, wounded near Romagnano ; death of that BONIFACE. " gentle knight, well-beloved of every one," 93- Beaujeau, Anne de, government of, 80. Beaumarchais aids the Americans against Eng- land, 254. Marriage de Figaro, 161 Beaumont, Christopher de, archbishop of Paris, 226. Beauvais, siege of, by Charles the Rash, 75. ■, the bishop of, and the trial of Joan of Arc, 70. Beauvilliers, the duke of, 180. Bedford, the duke of, regent of France, 67. Belgian province, the, of Roman Gaul, 27. Belgians, the, 24. Belle-Isle, Count, 208. , Marshal, coldly received at Paris, 210; death of, 229. • Belzunce, Monseigneur de, heroic self-sacrifice and benevolence of, during the plague in Marseilles, 202. Benedict XL, Pope, and Philip IV. of France, 56, 57- Bentinck, earl of Portland, 162. Bergen-op-Zoom, captured 1747, 215. Bergerac, the peace of, in 1577, 118. Berlin, captured and pillaged by the Russians, 230. Bernard, Sam.uel, 174. Bernard, St., 41 ; duke of Saxe-Weimar, 143. Bernis, Abbe de, 225 ; dismissed by Louis XV., 229. Berquin, Louis de, burnt as a heretic, 100. Bertrand du Guesclin, 63. Berry, the duke of, and Charles VI., 65. , the duchess of, death of, 202. Berulle, Cardinal, 140. Berwick, Marshal, and Philip V. of Spain, 165 ; gains the victory of Almanza, 165 ; com- mences the campaign of 1734 against Aus- tria, and is killed, 206. Beziers, capture of, 50. Biron, Marshal de, conspiracy against Henry IV., 132. Black Plague, the, 1 347-1 349, 63. Blanche, queen of Castile, character of ; moth- er of St. Louis, 57. Blenheim, the battle of, 1704, 163. Blois, Charles of, war with John of Montfort, 63. •, treaty of, between Louis XII. and Venice, 85. Boileau, 186. -, Stephen, provost of Paris, 53. Bolingbroke, Lord (see also St. Jolni), and Voltaire, 239. Bologna, meeting of Francis I. and Pope Leo II., 91 ; siege of, raised by Gaston de Foix, Boniface VIII., Pope, St. Louis, claims temporal as well as spiritual power in the affairs of Christendom, 55; and his bull, "Hearken, most dear son ;" death of, 56. INDEX. 355 BONNIVET. Bonnivet, Admiral, entrusted by Francis 1. with tiie conduct of the war in Italy, 92. Bordeaux, 71 ; revolt of, againt the Salt Tax, 1548, 102. Borgia, Caesar, 81. Bossuet, and the works of Madame Guyon, 180 ; and Fenelon, 180 ; head of the great French Catholic party, 1 80 ; the revocation of the edict of Nantes; death of, iSi. Bouchain, captured by Villars and the French, 169. Boufflers, Marshal, 162 ; defends Lille against Marlborough and Eugene, 165 ; at Malpla- quet, 166. Bougainville, M. de, world circumnavigator, 262. Bouillon, the duke of, arrested for conspiring with Cinq Mars, 137. Bourbon, Francis of. See Count d' EiigJiicn. , Charles, duke of, and Francis I., 90. , Charles II., duke of, revolt of, 93 ; lays-siege to Marseilles, 94; is repulsed, and has to fall back on Italy, 94. , Cardinal Charles de, 122. , the duke of, and the legitimized prmces, 198. -, French colony, 216. Bourdaloue, Father, death and character of, 183. Bourges besieged by the Burgundians, 66. Bouteville, M. de, executed for dueling, 136. Bouvines, battle of, won by the French under Philip II., 49. Breda, peace of, between England and Hol- land, 156. Brescia, captured by Gaston de Foix, 87. Bretigny, the treaty of, between the English and French, 63. — — , Sire de, 93. Brigonnet, William, 100. Brienne and Louis XIV., 155. , Lomenie de, 266. Brissac, Charles de, 103, 128. Brittany, the parliament of, 224. , Francis II. of, and Louis XL, 74. , Anne of, wife of Louis XII., 81. Broglie, Marshal, 230. , the duke of, defeated at Minden, 229. Broussel, arrest of, 151. Brunswick, Grand Duke Ferdinand of, defeats Count Clermont at Crevelt, 228 ; defeats the French at Minden, 229. Brussels, captured by Marshal Saxe, 212. Buffon, 243, 244. , Count de, death of, in the Revolu- tion, 244. Burgundy, kingdom of, 29. — , the dukes of, and Charles VI., 65. , Philip the Bold, duke of, and Charles VI., 65. , Duke John the Fearless of, murders the duke of Orleans, 65 ; returns and be- comes master of Paris, 66. CATHERINE. Burgundy, Charles the Rash, duke of, and Louis XL, 73 ; and the siege of Beauvais, 75 ; and the English in France, 75 ; defeated by the Swiss at Morat, 76 ; defeated and killed at the battle of Nancy, TJ. , the duke of, takes command of the French army in Flanders, 165 ; death of, 167. -, the duchess of, and Louis XIV., 190. Burgundians, the, 29 ; and Armagnacs, civil war between the, 66 ; obtain possession of Paris, 66. Bussy, M. de, 218, 219. Bute, Lord, and Mr. Pitt, 230 ; demands the destruction of Dunkerque, 231. C.BSAR Borgia, 81. , Julius, and the conquest of Gaul ; de- feats the Helvetians, B.C. 58, 26 ; defeats the Germans who had invaded Gaul under Ariovistus, 26 ; defeats the Gauls under Ver- cingetorix, 27 ; encloses eighty thousand Gallic insurgents under Vercingetorix in the town of Alesia, 27. Calais captured from the English by Duke de Guise, 1558, 62; and the treaty of Cateau- Cambresis, 104. Calas, 241 ; the persecution of the, and Voltaire, 204. Calixtus III., Pope, rehabilitates Joan of Arc, 71- Calonne, M. de, made comptroller-general by Louis XVI., 261 ; extravagant measures of, 262 ; proposes to convoke the assembly of notables, 263. Calvin, loi ; Christia7i Institutes, loi, 146. Cambrai, the league of, 85 ; the peace of, 1529, 100 ; captured, 159. Camisards, revolt of the, 178, 179. Canada, early French settlements in, 220 ; and the treaty of Utrecht, 222 ; abandoned by France, 223. Canadians, the French, 221 ; character of, 221 ; devotion and courage of, 222. Canals, the, of Languedoc and Orleans, 171. Cape Breton, captured by the English, 1745, 222. Capet, Hugh, and feudal France, 39 ; has his son Robert crowned with him, death of, A. D. 996, 39. Captal of Buch, capture of, 63. Carcassonne, 50. Carloman, son of Pepin the Short, 33. Carlovingian line, fall of the, a.d. 937, 39. Carnatic, the, 11. Cartier, James, 220. Cassel, 60, 159. Castelnaudary, battle of, 137. Castries, Marshal de, 230, 258. Cateau-Cambresis, treaty of, 1559, 104. Catherine de Medici. See Medici. ; Princess, daughter of Charles VI., of- fered in marriage to Henry V. of England, 67. 356 INDEX. CATHERINE. Catherine II. of Russia, 232 ; and Voltaire, 241 Catholics, the, and the edict of Nantes, 129. Catinat, 161, 163. Cauchon, Peter, bishop of Beauvais, and Joan of Arc, 70. Cavalier, the Camisard, 178. Cellamare's conspiracy, 198, 199. Celts, the, 24. Ceresole, victory of the French over the imperial forces at, 1544, 98. Cerignola, battle of, between the French and Spaniards, 1503, 84. Cevennes, ruins in the, 178. Chabannes, Philip of. Count de Dampmartin. See Dampmartm. Chalais, count of, 136. Chalons, the battle of, between the Franks and Huns, in which the latter are defeated, 29. Chalotais, M. de la, 233 Chamillard, 163, 166, 174. Champagne, Philip of, 188. Champlain, Samuel de, 221, 222. Chandernugger, French colony, 219; restored to the French, 223. Charlemagne, sole king of the Gallo-Franco- Germanic monarchy, a.d. 771, 31 ; sum- mary of the wars of, 33 ; invades Lombardy, 34 ; enters Rome, a.d. 800, 45 ; invades Spain, 34; death of, on Jan. 28, 814, 35. Charles III. of Austria, 165. of Blois, 63. the Bald, son of Louis the Debon- nair, yj. the Dauphin re-enters Paris, 62. the Fat, 36, 37. , son of Pepin the Short, 33. the Rash. See Burgundy, the Simple, a.d. 898, 36. II. of Spain and the claimants to his kingdom, 163. III. of Spain and Louis XV., treaty between, 1761, 231. IV., called the Handsome, 58. V. of France, 62 ; the Fifth's brothers and sisters, 63 ; death of, 1380, 64; character of, 170, 64. v., emperor of Germany, and Francis I., 92 ; and the commencement of the war with France, 92 ; and Charles II. of Bourbon, 92 ; and his prisoner Francis I., 95 ; demands the duchy of Burgundy of Francis I., 96 ; and the Holy League, 98 ; and the treaty of Cam- brai, 97 ; enters Provence with fifty thousand men in 1536, 97; and Francis I., treaty and meeting between, 1 538, 97 ; and Henry VIII. of England, treaty between, 1 543, 97 ; and Francis \., renewal of war bet-ween, 1 542-1 544, 97; invades France, and forces terms on Francis I., 97 ; and the Protestant princes of Germany, 97 ; at the siege of Metz, 103 ; captures Therouanne, 103; abdication of, 103; and the capture of Saint Quentin, 104. VI. and the duke of Burgundy; minority ; CINQ-MARS. of France invades Flanders ; enters Paris ; and the Princess Isabel of Bavaria, 64 ; and the civil war between the Armagnacs and Bur- gundians, 66 ; and Odette, 65 ; by the treaty of Troyes, leaves the crown of France to Hen- ry V. of England ; death of, 67. Charles VII., 67 ; and Joan of Arc, 68 ; coro- nation of, at Reims, 69; remorse for the death of Joan of Arc, 71 ; renders tardy hom- age to the memory and fame of Joan of Arc, 71; and Jacques Coeur, character of, 72; troubles with his son, 71 ; death of, 73. Emperor, 169 ; death of, 208. VIII., 78; and the States-General of 1484, Zo\ and duke Louis of Orleans, 81; marriage of, which Anne of Brittany, 81 ; prepares to win back the kingdom of Naples, 81 ; enters Italy, 81 ; and Pope Alexander VI., 81 ; enters Rome 1495, and Naples, 81 ; league of the Italian princes against, 81 ; starts to return to France ; wins the battle of Fornovo and returns to France, 82 ; government of, death of, 83. IX. and the religious wars, 1560- 1574, accession of, 109; and the St. Barthol- omew, 114; and the battle of Dreux, no; and the Huguenots, 112; and the marriage of Marguerite de Valois and the prince of Navarre, 113; and Coligny, 113; the Guises and Coligny, 114 ; and the murder of Coligny, 114 ; and Michel de I'Hospital, 115 ; and the fourth religious war, 115; and the peace of La Rochelle, 116; death of, 1574, 116. Charolais, Count Charles of, and Louis XL, 74- Chastel, John, attempts to murder Henry IV., Chatelet, Madame du, and Voltaire, 211. Chatham, Lord (see also Pitt), 230. Chevert, 210. Chevreuse, the duke of, 180. Childeric, king of the Franks, 31. Chiverny, Chancellor de, 127. Choiseul, the duke of, ministry of, 229; attempt to invade England defeated, 229; and the Family Pact, 230 ; dismissed by Louis XV., 232._ Christian zeal superior to pagan persecution, 28. Christianity, establishment of, in Gaul, 27 ; rise of, 28 ; influence of, on the order of knight- hood, and, through it, on civilization in gen- eral, 40. Christians, persecution of, by Marcus Aurelius. A.D. 177, 28, 29; the, expected the end of the world a.d. iooo, 39. Church and State in the time of Louis XIII. , and Richelieu, 140. Cimbrians, or Kymrians, the, and the Teutons driven from their homes on the shores of the Baltic ; invade Gaul by the way of Belgica, no B.C., 25. Cinq-Mars, M. de, favorite of Louis XIII., 137. INDEX. 357 CITEAUX. Citeaux, twelve abbots and twenty monks of Citeaux disperse themselves in ail directions, preaching the crusade against the Albigen- sians, 50. Claude, the princess, of France, daughter of Louis XII., and Charles of Austria, 85. Clement, James, stabs King Henry III., 121. v., Pope, and Philip IV. abolish the order of the Templars ; death of, 57. VII., Pope, 97. VIII., Pope, absolves Henry IV., 129 ; annuls the marriage of Henry IV. with Mar guerite of Valois, 131. Clermont, Count, beaten at Crevelt, 228. Clive, " a heaven-born general," 217 ; his early successes against the French and their Indian allies ; returns to India and conquers Bengal, 218. Closter-Severn, the convention of 1757, 227. Clotairel. of Soissons, 31. II. of Soissons, 31. Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, and Clotilde, marriage of ; at the battle of Tolbiac ; baptism of, 30 ; makes Paris the center of his domin- ions, 31 ; death of, in a.d. 511, 31. Clovis III., 31. Code Michati, 140. Coeur de Lion, Richard, in the HotyLand, 41,43. , Jacques, a great merchant and states- man, 72. Cognac, Francis I. at, in 1527, 96. Colbert, M., 155 ; and Louis XIV., able adminis- tration of, 171, 172 ; literary taste and work of, 187. Coligny, Admiral de, and the Reformation, 102; influence with Charles IX., iii; at- tempted murder of, 113, 114. College Royal, the, 99. Collona, Sciarra, and Pope Boniface VIII., 56. Common weal, war of the, against Louis XL, 73. Communes, and the third estate, rise of the, 5«. 59- Commynes, Philip de, quoted, 72 ; and Louis XL, 75- Compagnie des Indes, Law's, 197. Concini, Concmo, 132; stQ Afars/ial d'Ancre. Concordat, the, between Pope Leo X. and Francis I., 91. Conde, Prince Louis de, 105, 108 ; trial of, sen- tenced to death, loS ; taken prisoner at Dreux, no; death of, at Jarnac, 112. , the duke of Enghien, prince of, at the, 157; and the Frondeurs, 152, 153; ar- rested; taken back to favor by Louis XIV., and to all his honors, 1 54 ; placed by Louis XIV. in command of the army to be employ- ed in the reduction of the Netherlands, com- mands the French army in Holland ; gains the bloody battle of Seneffe over the prince of Orange, 1674, 158; and Bossuet, 182. Conflans, Lord de, assassinated, 61. , the marquis of, defeated by Admiral Hawke, 229. DENIS. Conflans, treaty of, between Louis XL and the count of Charolais. 74. Conquest of England by the Normans, 40. Conrad III., emperor of Germany, arrives at the Holy City almost alone, 42. Constantine, the emperor, 27, 29. Constantinople, in danger from the Crusaders, 41- Contades, the marquis of, 229. Cook, Captain, and the generous attitude of the French toward his mission, 262. Coote, Colonel, captures Bussy, 219; captures Pondicherry, 220. Corneille, Peter, 186; and Richelieu, 149; his Cid, 149; works of, 185 Corsica, and Pascal Paoli, 235. Cosse, Marshal de, 199. Courtrai, battle of, in which the French are de- feated by the Flemings, 55. Coysevox, 1S8. Crequi, Marshal de, subdues Lorraine, 160. Crevelt, battle of, 228. Cromwell, Oliver, and Mazarin, treaty between, and English aid to France, 1 53. Crusade, the, of Godfrey de Bouillon, 40 ; of Richard Coeur de Lion, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederic Barbarossa of Ger- many, 43 ; end of the third great, 43 ; the sixth, the personal achievement of St. Louis, 44; of St. Louis, end of, 46. Crusaders and Saladin, 43. Culloden, battle of, 213. Dagoeert I., 31. D'Aguesseau, character of ; appointed chancel- lor, 196. D'Aiguillon, the duke of, 229, 233. D'Alembert, 243. Damiens attempts to assassinate Louis XV., 226. Damietta captured by St. Louis, 44. Dampierre, Guy de, count of Flanders, 54. Dantzick, siege of, 206. D'Argenson, M., 197. D'Asfeldt, Count, and the campaign of 1734, 206. D'Aubign^, Theodore Agrippa ; character of, 131- Daun, General, defeats the Prussians at Hoch- kirch, 228. Dauphin, the, and Edward III., and the Eng- lish, 61. , the, son of Charles VI., assumes the title of regent, 61. -, the, son of Louis XV., cha.racter and death of, 235. Dauphiny, the parliament of, 266. D'Emery, 151. Deffand, Madame du, 244. De Luynes, Constable, 135, 136. Denain, captured by Villars and the French ; effects of the battle of, 169. Denis, Saint, 127. 358 INDEX. D'EPERNON. ] D'Epernon, 128, 133. De Richemont, the Constable, his character and part in the successes of France at the close of the one hundred years' war, 71, 72. Descartes, Rene, life, character, and works of, 147. Desmarets, 174. De Thou, 115, 121, 128, 137. Dettingen, the battle of, 110. Diderot, 242, 243. Didier, king of Lombardy, 34. Domremy, native place of Joan of Arc, 68. Douai, captured by Villars and the French, 169. Dreux, results of the battle of, 1 10. Dreux-Breze, the marquis of, 270. Druidism, the national religion of the Gauls, 28. Dubarry, Madame, and Louis XV., 234 ; and the fall of the French parliament, 234 ; grow- ing contempt of her by the people, 234. Dubois, Abbe, character of, 199; and Lord Stanhope, 199; how he became archbishop of Cambrai, 202 ; elected Cardinal, 202 ; becomes premier minister of the Orleans regency ; death and character, 202 ; and the Protestants, 204. Dubourg, A. De, martyrdom of, 107. Duels, severe ordinance against, 136. Dunkerque, destruction of, demanded by Pitt, and by Lord Bute, 231. Dunois and the maid of Orleans, 69. Dupleix, Joseph, 216. Duplessis Guenegaud and Louis XIV., 155. Du Plessis-Mornay, 130, 133. Duprat, Anthony, and Francis L, 90 ; and the Concordat, 91 ; death of, 97. Duquesne and Admiral Ruyter, 159; bom- bards Algiers and Genoa, 161. Duras, Marshal, 161. Dutch, the, declare war against England, 257. ECOUEN, the edict of, 106. Edict chamber, the, 129. of Nantes, the (see also Nantes), is- sued by Henry IV., 129; revoked by Louis XIV., 1685, 161, 175. of Grace, the, signed at Alais, 143. of Union, the, 151. of 1 724, the, against the Protestants, 204. Edward the Black Prince, death of, 63. III. of England, 58 ; war with Philip VI. of France, 60 ; and his prisoner. King John of France, 62 ; again invades France, declares war with Charles V., 61 ; death of, 63. • IV. of England's claims on France, 74. FERDINAND. England, conquest of, by William the Bastard, 1066, 40. and Flanders in the 13th century, 48 ; Elizabeth, queen of England, and the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, 104; death of, 130. , Madame, and Marie Antoinette, 261. Encyclopaedists, the, 242, 243. Enghien, Francis of Bourbon, Count d', 98. , the duke of, and the relief of Rocroi, 150. and France, origin of the Hundred Years' War between, 58 ; and France, outbreak of war between, in 15 12, 87; and the revolt of La Rochelle, 115; and Holland, alliance between, at the marriage of William of Orange and the Princess Mary, 1677, 159; and France declare war with Spain, 171 9, 201 ; and the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, 205 ; rise of her power in America, and decline of that of France, 222 ; and France, war between, in 1756, 225 ; French attempt to invade, in 1759, defeated by Admiral Hawke, 229 ; declares war with Spain, 1762; and the partition of Poland, 1772, 236 ; and the American War of Independence, 253 et seq. ; and France, com- mencement of war between, 1778, 255 ; threatened invasion of, by France and Spain, 256; at war with France, Spain, and Amer- ica, declares war against Holland, 257. English, the, and Marcel, 61 ; defeated by Joan of Arc, raise the siege of Orleans, 68 ; evacuate Paris, 71 ; and France under Louis XL, 74; invade France under Henry VIIL, and take Boulogne, 87 ; and Philip II. of Spain invade France ; expedition against La Rochelle defeated, 142 ; and the battle of Fontenoy, 212. Epernon, the duke of, 122, 133. Epinay, Madame d', and Rousseau, 245. Escurial, the, 129. Espremesnil, M. d', 265. Estates-General, assembled at Paris, 56. , the three, of 1468, 58. Estaing, Count d', commands the French fleet sent to aid the Americans, 255. Estelle, Sheriff, and the plague in Marseilles, 202. Estienne, Robert (Stephanus), 146. Estrees, Gabrielle d', 131. •, Marshal d', commander of the French army at the commencement of the Seven Years' War, repulses the duke of Cumberland, 226. Eudes, duke of Aquitania, 32. , count of Paris, defends Paris against the Northmen, 36. Eugene, Prince, of Savoy-Carignano, 161 ; and Marlborough, 163; and Villeroi, 163, 164; and the battle of Malplaquet, 166; and the campaign of 1734, 206. Family Pact, the, between France and Spain, 1761, 231. Farel, William, 100. Farnese, Alexander. See Parma. Fenelon, Bossuet, and Madame Gu^'on, 175 ; birth of, 165 1, and early life of, 183; made preceptor of the duke of Burgundy, his Tele- maque, 183; death of, 183. Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain and Louis XII., 86, 87, 90. INDEX. :39 FERDINAND. Ferdinand II. of Naples and Charles VIII., Si. Feria, duke of, leaves Paris Avith the Spanish troops, 128. Feudal France and Hugh Capet, 39. sj^stem, the essential elements of the, society and Louis XL, j-^. Feudalism in France, 38. Flanders submits to Philip IV., 54 ; and Charles IX. of France, 113. Fleet, the French, and Colbert, 128; under Louis XV., 225. Fleix, the peace of, in 1580, 118. Fleurus, battle of, 1690, 162. Fleury's, Cardinal, ministry, 1 723-1 748, 205 ; commencement of his fostering administra- tion, 206 ; concludes the peace of Vienna, 1735, 207; and the parliament of Paris, 207 ; death and character of, 210. Fleury, M. Joly de, 246. Florence, the republic of, and Charles VI I L, Si. Floridas, the, confirmed to Spain, 223. Foix, Gaston de, duke of Nemours, takes command of the French army in Italy, 1512, 86 ; death of, at the victory of Ravenna, 87. Fontaine, La (see also La Fontai7ie), 186. Fontaine Frangaise, encounter at, 129. Fontainebleau, peace of, 1762, 231. Fontenelles, battle of, 37. Fontenelle, character and works of, 238. Fontenoy, the battle of, 212. Fontrailes, Viscount de, 137. Fornovo, the battle of, 1495, in which Charles VIII. of France defeats the army of the Ital- ian league, 82. Fouquet, Superintendent, and Louis XIV., 155, 170. France, kingdom and histor}'' of, really com- menced with Clovis, A.D., 481, 30; and Eng- land, origin of the "rivalry" between, 60; the kingship in, 47-56 ; and England, orig- in of the Hundred Years' War between, 58 ; and England, end of the Hundred Years' Vx'ar between, 71 ; under Charles VII., 72; and Austria, commencement of the rivalry between, 85 ; invaded, 88 ; and England, renewal of the war between, 1512, 87; the sittiation of, in 1513, 88; and the Renais- sance, 90-99 ; and the nascent reformation, 99; and the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, 104; state of, at the commencement of the reign of Henry III., 107 ; condition of, after Henry IV.'s abjuration, 127; and England, treaty between, in 1697, 162 ; and sufferings of, dur- ing the reign of Louis XI V., 1 72 ; and England declare war with Spain, 1719, 201 ; and the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, 215 ; inability of, to turn her discoveries in foreign lands to her own profit, 222 ; leaves Canada to her fate, 223 ; position of, at the end of the Seven Years' War, 235 ; and the partition of Poland, 1772, 236 ; the effects of Voltaire's writings on, 242 ; and the American War of Independ- FREDERICK. ence, 253; and England and the American War of Independence, 254 ; recognizes the in- dependence of the United States, 1778, and declares war with England, 255 ; and the peace between England and America, 1783, 259 ; on the eve of the Revolution, 264. Francis I., 89 ; and Charles V., 90 ; the era of modern France commences with his govern- ment and times, 89 ; made king, 89 ; prepares to invade Italy, 90; and his army cross the Alps, and the battle of Melegnano, 90 ; regains pos- session of Milaness, 91 ; Pope Leo X., the Pragmatic Sanction, 91, 92; and the Con- cordat, and the parliament of Paris' refusal, to acknowledge the Concordat, 92 ; and the vacant throne of the Emperor Maximilian, 92 ; and Charles of Austria, commencement of the struggle between, 92 ; nieets Henry VIII. of England at The Field of the Cloth of Gold, 92 ; commences war with Charles V. 92 ; and Charles II. of Bourbon, 93 ; and the conspiracy of Charles II. of Bourbon, 93 ; entrusts the conduct of the war in Italy to Admiral Bonnivet, 93 ; loses Milaness for the third time, 94 ; advances to the relief of Marseilles, 94; enters Italy, 1524,95; brav- ery and capture at the battle of Pavia, 95 ; his letters to his mother after his defeat and capture at Pavia, 95 ; carried prisoner to Spain, 95 ; refuses to accede to the terms of Charles V. of Germany, 96 ; set at liberty, enters into the Holy League, 96 ; and Henry VIII. of England renew their alliance, 96; makes peace with Charles V. at Cambria, 97 ; and Duprat, 97 ; and Henry VIII., meeting and treaty between, 1532, 97; and Soliman, II., treaty between, 98 ; and Charles V., war renewed between, from 1 542 to 1 544, 98 ; forced to terms by Charles V. of Germany, 98 ; and the Renaissance, 98 ; and the Col- lege Royal, or College dc Ff-ance, 99 ; and the Reformation, 99 ; and the reformers, 100 ; and the Protestants of Germany, loi ; and the massacre of the Vaudians, loi ; and Calvin, loi ; death of, 1547, 101 ; and the salt-tax at Rochelle, 102. Francis I., emperor of Germany 212. II. and Mary Stuart, marriage of, 104; ascends the throne, 1 06 ; and the reformers, 107, 108 ; and the Guises, 107 ; and the king of Navarre, 108 ; death of, and the Guises 109. Franks, the, first mention of in history 29. Frederick Barbarossa (Redbeard), joins in a new crusade, 43 ; drowned in the Selef on his way to the Holy Land, 43. the Great, 208 ; commences the Silesian campaign, 1740, 208 ; signs a new treaty with France, 1744, 208; and the battle of Fon- tenoy, 212; and Louis XV., 212; and the treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle, 215 ; England, and the Franco- Austrian alliance, 225 ; victori- ous at Prague, and defeated at Kolin 226 ; 360 INDEX. FRENCH. reverses of, 227 ; gains the battle of Rosbach 228 ; defeats the Austrians at Lissa, 228 ; gains the battle of Zorndorf, and loses that of Hochkirch, 228 ; reverses of, in 1760, 230 ; finds an ally in Peter III. of Russia, 231 ; and the end of the Seven Years' War, 232 ; and the partition of Poland, 236 ; invites Voltaire to Berlin, 240. French, the, rise out of and above the feudal system, 49 ; and English, commencement of hostilities between, in 1292, 54. Communes, the, 57-59. civilization, The Third Estate, the most active and determined element in the process of French civilization, 59. nationality accomplished, 60. langxiage, the, and the Renaissance, 99. Academy, early days of the, 148 ; and Montesquieu, 237 ; elects Buffon, 244. reformers, the, and Louis XIV., 177. court, demoralization of, under Louis XV^., 203. pioneers, the earliest in North America, 220, 221. Guiana, 235. Fronde, the, 151; of the princes of France and of the people, 152; the army of, fighting between, and the royal troops ; defeat of, 153- Frondeurs, the, 152, 153. Gabel, or the salt-tax, 102. Gaeta, siege of, 1504, 84. Galatians, the, 25. Galigai, Leonora, 133. Gallia Comata, 27. Togata, or Roman Gaul, 27. Galilean confession, the, 105. Garonne, the river, 24. Gaul, 23 ; conquered by Julius Csesar, 26, 27 ; under Roman dominion, 25. Gauls, the, 24; and Greeks of Asia Minor in subjection, 25 ; commence their four hundred years' war with Rome, B.C. 391,25; defeat the Romans at Aretium, 283 B.C., 25. Genoa, defense of, by the duke of Boufflers, 214; cedes Corsica to France, 1768, 235. George I. of England and Dubois, 200. II. of England and the Pragmatic Sanction, 209 ; and the war with France, 1744., 210; death of, 1760, 230. III. of England, 230, 255, 257, 259. Geoffrin, Madame, 244, Germans, the ancient, first became a nation in Gaul, 29. Germany joins in the Crusades, 41. Ghent, alliance at, in 1340, between the Flem- ish Communes and Edward III. of England, 60 ; insurrection of the burghers of, under Philip Van Artevelde, 74 ; captured bv Louis XIV., 159. Gibraltar, 258. Girardon, 188. HELVETIANS. God's Peace, God's Truce, 39. Godeheu, M., supersedes Dupleix, 21 8. Godfrey de Bouillon (see Bouillon), duke of Lorraine, accepts the office of king of Jeru- salem, 41. Gondebaud, 30. Gontran of Orleans and Burgundy, 31. Gonzalvo of Cordova, the great captaijt of Ferdinand of Spain, 84. Goodfellows, the, 62. Gordes, the Count de, 115. Goths, the, under Alaric II., beaten by Clovis near Poitiers, a.d. 507, 30. Graeco-Roman paganism, 28. Grailli, John de, called the captal of Buch, 63. Grand Alliance, the, against France and Louis XIV., 159, 164. Grand Monarqtce, 190. Great Britain and the American declaration of independence, 1776, 255. Mogul, the, 217. Gregory XIV., Pope, 123. Gretry, musician, 248. Grignan, Madame de, and Madame de Sevigne, 184, 185. Grisons, the, 144.. Guastalla, the battle of, 207. Gueschn, Bertrand du, 63 ; death of, 64. Guinegate, battle of, 'jj. Guise, 106, , Francis de Lorraine, duke of, 102 ; and the siege of Metz, 103 ; recalled from Italy by Henry II. to repel the Spaniards, 104; cap- tured Calais, 104; Conde, 105; and the Huguenots of Vassy, 109 ; assassination of, no. Duke Henry de, 117; obtains his name of Tlie Scarred, while putting down the Protestant revolt, ii8; becomes master of Paris, 119; murdered by order of Henry, 120. Guises, the, and the death of Francis II., 109; and the Catholic party declare war against Conde and the Protestants, r 10 ; and Coligny, 113; and the murder of Coligny, 114; and Philip II. of Spain, 118. Guiton, John, burgess of La Rochelle at the time of the siege by Louis XIII., [42. Gustavus Adolphus and Richelieu, 144, 145. Guyon, Madame, teachings and works of, 175, 176. Harlay, Francis de, and Innocent XL, 181. Haro, Don Louis de, ambassador to France, of Philip IV. ot Spain, 154. Hastence of Hastings, chieftain of the North- men, ravages France, 36. Hautefort, Marie d', and Louis XIII., 137. Hawke, Admiral, 229. Helvetians, abandon their territory, 58 B.C., but are thwarted in their project of settling in Gaul by Julius Csesar, and defeated and driv- en back by him, 26. INDEX. 361 HENRIETTA. Henrietta of England, 157. of France and Charles of England, 144- Henry I., grandson of Hugh Capet, 39. H. of France, 1547- 15 59, 102 ; and the revolt against theo-a/?^:/ or salt-tax, 102 ; and the treaty, prepares for war with Charles V. of Germany, 103 ; and Mary of England, war declared between, 104; and the Spanish in- vasion of France ; and the treaty of Cateau- Cambresis, 104; and the Reformation, 104; accidentally mortally wounded by the Count de Montgomery, death of, 105. III. of France and the religious wars, 1 574-1 589, 115; disappointment caused by his first acts as king ; and the league ; dif- ficulties of his government, 117; and Henry of Navarre, 117 ; and Duke Henry de Guise, T18; escapes from Paris and the Duke de Guise, 119; at the States-General of Blois, 119; and the murder of Guise, 120; and Henry of Navarre, 120; stabbed by a monk, 121 ; death of, 1589, 114. IV. of France, 122 ; policy of, 122 ; and the Cardinal de Bourbon, 1 22 ; defeats the duke of Mayenne at Arques, 123; at the battle of Ivry, 124; besieges Paris, 124; and the duke of Parma, 124; and the siege of Rouen, 125 ; decides to turn Cathohc, 126; besieges Dreux, 126; turns Catholic, 126; anointed at Chartres, 127; enters Paris, 1594, 128; at- tempted murder of, 128; declares war with Philip II. of Spain, 128; gallant conduct at the encounter of Fontaine-Frangaise, 129; makes peace with Spain at Vervins, issues the edict of Nantes, 129 ; foreign policy of, 130; his ministers,. 130, 131 ; and Mar- guerite of Valois, annulment of their marriage, 131 ; and Biron's conspiracy, 132; assassin- ated, 132. Henry V., emperor of Germany, declines battle with Louis VI., 48. V. of England, the battle of Agincourt, 66 ; resumes his campaign in France, 67 ; death of, at Vincennes, 67. VI. of England, 67 ; crowned at Paris, 143 1, 6^ VIII. of England and the league of the Holy Union, 1511,85; sends a fleet to aid Ferdinand of Spain, 87 ; makes peace with Louis XII., 88 ; and European affairs in 15 19, 92 ; meets Francis I. at The Field of the Cloth of Gold, 92 ; and the Holy League, 96 ; and Charles V. of Germany, treaty between, 1543, 97 ; invades France, 97 ; and the Reformation, 100. Plantagenet, duke of Normandy, count of Anjou, marries Eleanor of Aquitaine, and on the death of Stephen, in 11 54, he becomes king of England, 42. Hochkirch, the battle of, 228. Hochstett, the battle of. 1704, 163, 164. Holland, liberty and prosperity of, secured by JANSENISM. Heinsius, at the expense of her political posi- tion in Europe, 162; joins England against Louis XV., 210. Holy City, the, 40. League, 86, 96. — Sepulcher, 40. Honorius III., Pope, 51. Hospital, Chancellor de 1', 107, 109, 112, 115. Hotel des Invalides and Louvois, 173. Howe, Lord, revictuals Gibraltar during the three years' siege, 258. Huguenots, the, persecution of, 108 ; and the fall of La Rochelle, 142; and Richelieu, 143; and Louis XI\'., 175. Hunie, History of Enoiand, -quoted, 50. Hundred Yea'rs' War^ the, 58 ; Charles V., and the, 62; Charles VII., Joan of Arc, 1422- 146 1, and the, 68 ; Joan of Arc's, the glory of bringing to an end the, 7 1 . Huns, the, arrival of, in Gaul, under their king, Attila, A.D. 451, 29 , driven out of Gaul, 29. Huss, John, 99. Hyder Ali and the struggle against the English in India, 218, 257. Ibarra, Don Diego d', 128. Iberians, the, 24. Ibn-al-Arabi, Saracen chief, 34. ' He de France, colony of, 216. India company, the French, 216. companies, the, rivalry between the French and English, 216-220. , the French in, 216. lost to France, 231. Ingeburga, Princess, of Denmark, wife of Philip Augustus, 51. Innocent III., Pope, summons France to ex- tirpate the Albigensians ; and Simon de Montfort, 50; death of, 57 ; and the conjugal irregularity of Philip Augustus, 50. XL, Pope, and the Augsburg League against Louis XIV., 161. XIII., Pope, makes Dubois a cardinal. Irenajus. St., second bishop of Lyons, a.d. 177 -202, 29. Iron mask, the, 1 89. Iroquois, the, 222. Islamism, the tide of, rolled back by the wars of the Crusades, 32. Italian League, the, and Charles VIII., 81. Italy, the wars of, and Charles VIII. , 81 ; the wars in, and Louis XII., 82, 83. Ivr}', the battle of, 1590, 124. Jacobite rising, the Scottish, of 1745, 213. Jacquery, the, 62. facgues, Bofihoiniiie. 62. James 1. of England and the marriage of his son Prince Charles, 144. Jansenism in France, 174; Louis XIV.'s last blow at, 175 \fansenism and Mme. de Main- tenon, 175. 362 INDEX. JANSENISTS. Jansenists, the, set at liberty, 195. Jansenius and his teaching, 179. Jardin des Plaiites, Le, and Richelieu, 149 ; and Buffon, 244. Jarnac, the battle of, 1569, 112. Jeannin, President, 115. Jerome of Prague, 99. Jerusalem, the cradle of Christianity, 40; be- sieged by the Mussulmans, siege and capture of, by the Crusaders, 40 ; under Christian rule, I loo-i 186, 41 ; the fall of the Christian kingdom of, causes great consternation throughout Christendom, 41. Jesuits, the, 128, 221 ; the Portuguese, under Louis XV., 232, 233 ; the Order of, dissolved by Rome, 233 ; the Society of the, suppressed in France by the edict of 1764, 233 ; expelled from Spain, 233. Joan Hachette, 75. of Arc, 68, 69, 70. John Lackland, king of England, and Philip IL of France, 47. L of France, 58. IL, king of France, called the Good, 61 ; defeated and taken prisoner at the battle of Poictiers, his captivity in England, 61 ; his ransom ; set at liberty and escorted to France ; voluntarily returns to captivity in England, and dies in London, 1364, 62. Judith, the Empress, 36. Julius II. , Pope, 85 ; and the Venetians ; his j oy at the death of Cardinal Amboise, 86 ; death of, 87. Karikal, 217 ; restored to the French, 259. Karle, or Callet, William of, 62. Keith, Lord, and Voltaire, 241, Keppel, Admiral, 255. Kersaint, Admiral de, 257. Khevenhuller, General, 209. Kingship, the, in France, decay of, 223, 232. Kolin, battle of, 226. Kymrians, the, 24. Kymro-Belgians, 25. La Bourdonnais, 216. La Bruyere, character and works of, 185. Ladies' peace, the, 97. La Fayette, Louis de, and Louis XIII., 137. , Madame de, and Rochefoucauld, 184. lands in America, 1777, 254; and Washington, 255. La Fontaine, 186. Lagrange, 262. Lally-Tolendal, Count ; sails with a French fieet to avenge the French reverses in India, 219; accused of treason and beheaded, 220. Languedoc, the estates of, and the Chancellor Duprat, 91. Canal, the, 171. , persecution of the Protestants of, under Louis XIV., 178. Lannoy, viceroy of Naples, 95, 96. LOUIS THE GERMANIC. La Peyrouse, M. de la, 263. Laplace, M. de, 262. La Rochelle, obstinate resistance of the citi- zens of; capitulation of, to Louis XIIL. 1628, 142. Latin paganism, 28. La Tremoille, 122. Lautrec, Marshal de, 92 ; death of, 96. Lauzun, M. de, 189. La Valliere, Mdlle. de, and Louis XIV., 189. Lavoisier, 262. Law, John, the Scottish adventurer ; birth, character and schemes of, 196-200. Lawfeldt, the battle of, 214. League of the Holy Union, against Louis XII., 87. League, the, of the sixteenth century, and Henry III., 117; and Henry IV., 123. , the Spanish, 125. the French, 125, 126, 127. Leaguers, the, and the murder of Guise, 120; defeated b}^ Henry IV. at Arques, 123. Leake, Admiral, captures Sardinia, Minorca, and Port Mahon, 165. Lebrun, Charles, 188. Leclerc, John, first French martyr of the Re- formation, 100. Leckzinska, Mary, and Louis XV., 235. Lens, the victory of, 150. Leo X., Pope, and Louis XII. of France, 88 ; and Francis I., 91 ; and the battle of Melegna- no, 9.2 ; and the Concordat with. Francis I., 92. Le Poussin and Louis XIV., 188. Le Ouesnoy, captured by Villars and the French, 169. Lerida, captured 1707, 165. Lesdiguieres, 126. Lespinasse, Mdlle., 244. L'Estoile, quoted, 116. Lesueur, Eustache, and Poussin, 188. Lettres Persanes, the, 237. Liege, the siege of, by Louis XL and Charles the Rash, 75. Lille captured, 1707, by Eugene and Marlbor- ough, 165. Lionne, De, and Louis XIV., 156. Lissa, the battle of, 228. Literature, French, of the Renaissance, 99 ; tempo Richelieu, 146, 150. Lombards, the, 33. Longueville, the Duke de, 152, 157 Longjumeau, the peace of, 112. Lorraine, 159, 160, 163. , Cardinal Louis of, 102. Prince Charles of, 211 ; and the battle of Raucoux, 213; defeated at Lissa by Frederick the Great, 228. -, Francis de, duke of Guise, 102, 103. Lothaire, emperor of the Franks, a.d. 817, 37. Louis the Debonnair, or, Louis the Pious, 36 ; divides his kingdom between his sons, 36 ; death of, 37. the Germanic, 37. INDEX. >^3 LOUIS, PRINCE. Louis, Prince, son of Philip Augustus, 51. v., the Sluggard, 38, VI., the Fat, energ)^ and efficiency of, and expeditions against his rebel subjects, 47. VII., the Young, his unimportant but long reign, 41, 48 Vfll. of France, 49. IX., or St. Louis. See Sf. Louis. X.. called the Quarreler, 57, 58. XL, youth of, 72 ; and the rebel barons, 73 ; and the count of Charolais, 74 ; and Charles the Rash of Burgundy, 74 ; held by Charles the Rash, 75 ; accompanies Charles the Rash to the siege of Liege, 75 ; and Edward IV. of England, 75 ; and the death of his brother Charles, 76 ; the death of Charles the Rash, T'j ; failure of the main policy of, "j^ ; his three great services to France, 78 ; death of, 1483, 79 ; the family of, 79- XII., crowned at Reims, 83 ; foreign policy and home government of, 88 ; charac- ter of, private life of, 88 ; marries Princess Mary, sister of Henry VI II., 89 ; death of, 89, XIII. , youth of, 133 ; and the murder of D'Ancre, 133; and Anne of Austria, 134; and Richelieu, 134; and Luynes, 134; Mary de' Medici, civil war between, 134; Duke Henry of Montmorency beheaded, 136, 137; Richelieu and foreign affairs, 144 ; illness and death of, 146 ; Richelieu and literature, 146- 150. XIV., and the policy of Richelieu, 152 ; the government of Cardinal Mazarin, 1643- 1661, 153; and the great Conde, 154; mar- riage of, with the infanta of Spain, 1 54 ; the council of, 155; and Fouquet, 155; the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668, 157; war with Holland, 157 ; reduces Franche-Comte, 157; concludes peace with Holland, 159; declares war against Holland and the empire, 158 ; effects of his revocation of the edict of Nantes, 161 ; the grand alliance against; his wars and the partition of the king of Spain's dominions, 163 ; answerable for the religious persecutions of his reign, 181 ; and literature and art, 182-188; egotism of, 190; his will, 192 ; death bed of, 190; death of, 191. XV., character of his reign, 194; de- moralization of his court, 203 ; and the ministry of Cardinal Fleury, 1 723-1 748, 205 ; he declares war against England and Maria Theresa, 210; joins the army in person, 210; the battle of Fontenoy, 212; returns in tri- umph to Paris, 213 ; and the treaty of Ai.x-la- Chapelle, 215; France in the colonies, 1745- 1763, 216-224; declares war with England, 1755, 225 ; and the Franco-Austrian alliance, 1756, 225 ; and the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, 226 ; and the Family Pact with Spain, 231 ; and the annexation of Corsica, 235 ; death, and character of, 1774, 236; the philosophers of his time, 236. MARCHE. Louis XVI., and Marie Antoinette, 248; the coronation of, 251 ; France abroad — United States War of Independence, 1775-1783, 253; his aid to the Americans, 254; France at home — ministry of M. Necker 1 776-1 781, 260 ; convocation of the States-general, 17S7- 1789, 263 ; and the protest of the French par- liaments, 264; recalls M. Necker, 266; and the third estate, 267 ; and the States-general of, 1789, 267. Louisbourg, surrendered to France, 215. Louise of Savoy, 89; death of, 1531, 97. Louvois, Marquis de, and Turenne, 1 58 ; and the successes of Louis XIV., 160; harsh pol- icy of, in the palatinate, 161 ; death of, 173. Ludovic the Moor, duke of Milan, 84. Luther, Martin, 99. Luxembourg, John of, captures Joan of Arc, 69. , Louis of, and Louis XL, TJ. ; Marshal, 162, defeats William III. of England, 162 ; death of, 162. Luynes, Albert de, 133; and Richelieu, 135; and Louis XIII., 135. Lynar, Count, 227. Lyonness, conquered by the Burgundians, 29. Lyons the chief center of early Christianity in Gaul, 28, 29. Machault, M. de, 224, 226. Madras, captured by the French, 217 ; restored to the English, 218. Madrid, treaty of, between Francis I. and Charles V., 96. Maestricht invested, 1748, 215. Magna Charta, upheld by St. Louis, 52. Mahe, 217. Maillart and Marcel, 62. Maillebois, Marshal, 208. Maine's, the duke of, 194; and the Orleans regency, 198. , the duchess of, 198 ; arrested i( ~ Maintenon, Madame de, and Louis XIV., 175, 190; and the persecution of the Reformers. 161; and Racine, 186; and the death of Louis, 193 ; death of, 194. Maisonneuve, Paul de, 222. Malagrida burnt as a heretic, 233. Malebranche, 183. Malesherbes, L. de, called to the ministry by Turgot, 251 ; Malherbe, 147; his account of the assassina- tion of Henry IV., 132. Malouet, and the convocation of the States- general, 1789, 268. Malplaquet, the battle of, 1709, 166. Man with the iron mask, the, 189. Mansard, 188. Mantes, the conference of, 126. Marcel, Stephen, provost of the tradesmen of Paris, 61, 62. Marche, Count de la, defeated by St Louis, 52. 3^4 INDEX. MARCUS AURELIUS. Marcus Aurelius, account of, 28. Marguerite of Austria betrothed to the Dau- phin Charles, 78 ; removed from France 78- of Provence, wife of St. Louis IX., 44. de Valois beautiful character of, 89 ; the writings of, 99 ; death of, 102. Maria Theresa, 151, 156. Marriage dc Figaro, the, and its effects, 263. Marie Antoinette, 261. See Aiitoinetie. Marillac, Francis de, 136, 176. Marlborough, the duke of, and Blenheim, 163 ; checked by Villars, 164; and the battle of Ramilies, 164; defeats Vendome at Auden- arde, 165 ; and the battle of Malplaquet, 166; dismissed by Queen Anne, 167. Marsaglia, battle of, 161. Marsin, Marshal, at the battle of Blenheim, 164. Martel, Charles, 32. Martyrs, the, of Lyons, 29. Mary, Queen, of England, and Philip IL of Spain, 104. of Burgundy weds the Archduke Maxi- milian, ']']. Masselin, John, character of, 80. Massillon, 183. Maupeou, M. de. Chancellor, and the fall of the parliament of Paris, 233, 234 ; dismissal and death of, 249. Maurepas, M. de, recalled by Louis XVL, 248. Maximilian, Archduke, weds Mary of Burgundy at Ghent, T] ; of Austria, and Anne of Brit- tany, 85. L, Emperor, and Louis XIL, 84; joins the Holy League, 85 ; and Henry VHL of England in France, death of, 92. Mayenne, the duke of, defeated by Henry IV. at Arques, 123; at Paris, 124; joins Henry IV., 127. Mayors, the, of the palace, 31. Mazarin, Cardinal, 145 ; recommended by Rich- elieu, 146 ; denounced by the parliament of Paris, 151 ; defeated and obliged to leave France, 152; his state-stroke, 153; becomes all-powerful, 153; concludes the peace of the Pyrenees, 154; death of, 155. Medici, Peter de', 81. , Queen Catherine de', 97, 106 ; character of, 109; and the St. Bartholomew, 112; and the death of Charles IX., 116 ; and the duke de Guise, 117. , Ferdinand de', 126. , Queen Mary de', marries Henry IV., 131; regency of, 1610-1617, 133; her flight from Blois, 134; and Louis XIII., civil war between, 135. Mediterranean, pirates of the, 97. Melegnano, the battle of, 90. Mello, Don Francisco de, 150. Merovingian kings, 30, 31. Mesmer, 262. Messina gives herself up to France, 1 59. NAVARRE. Metz, the siege of, in 1552, 103; restored to France, 160. Mignard, 188. Milan, the duchy of, and Charles VIII., 83 ; siege of, raised by Gaston de Foix, 86. Milaness and Louis XIL, 83. Minden, the battle of, 1759, 229. Minorca captured by Admiral Leake, 165 ; cap- tured from the English, 1782, 257. Mirabeau, birth and character of, 267 ; and the revolution, 267 ; and M. Necker, 269 ; and the title of the States-general, 270. Missionaries, the first Christian, in Gaul, 28. Mississippi, the scheme of Law, 197. Molay, James de, grand master of the Templars, 57. Mole, President, 151. Moliere, 187. Moncontour, battle of, 1569, 112. Monge, M., 262. Mons captured by Louis XIV., 162. Monseigneur, Grand Dauphin, 167. Monsieur s Peace, 1576, 118. Monsigny, musician, 249. Montaigne, Michael de, 146, 147. Montauban, siege of, 1621, 143. Montcalm, the marquis of, 223. Montecuculli, General, 159. Montespan, Madame de, and Louis XIV., 189. Montesquieu, 237 ; the works of, 237, 238. Montfort, John of, his war with Charles of Blois, Montgolfier, MM. de, 262. Montgomery, Count de, by accident mortally wounds King Henry IL, 105. Montlhery, engagement at, 73. Montluc, Blaise de, 103, no. Montmorency, Marshal de, death of, 237. , the Constable Anne de, 97, 102 ; wound- ed and captured at St. Quentin, 104. -, Henry, duke of, executed, 137, Montpensier, the duchess of, 127. , Mdlle. de, called the Great Mademoi- selle, and the Fronde, 152, 153. Montreal, capitulation of, 1760, 223. Monts, M. de, appointed viceroy of Acadia, 221. Montsabert, M. de, arrest of, 265, Morat, defeat of Charles the Rash at, 'jS. Mornay, Du-Plessis, 121. Motte, Admirable de la, 257. Mounier, M., 266 ; and the Third Estate, 270. Miilhausen, fight of, 158. Nancy, defeat and death of Charles the Rash, 75- Nantes, the edict of, 129; revoked by Louis XIV., 161 ; in 1685, 176. Naples and Louis XIL, 84. National Assembly, adopted as the style of the States-general, 270. Navarre, Anthony de Bourbon, king of, 108; death of, no. INDEX. 365 NAVARRE. Navarre, Charles the Bad of, 62. , Henry of, and Marguerite de Valois, 113; and Henry HI., 117; becomes heir to the French throne, 118; and the murder of Henry HI., 120. -, Jeanne d'Albret, queen of, 112. Navy, the, and Richelieu, 140 ; the French, under Louis XV., 222, 225, 235. Necker, M., director-general of finance under Louis XVL, 260 ; financial administration of, 260; resigns, 261 ; recalled by Louis XVL, 266 ; in the States-general of 1789, 269. Nerac, the peace of, in 1579, 118. Neustria. kingdom of, 31. Nevers, Duke de, 145. Newfoundland, 222. New France, and Cardinal Richelieu, 220. Newton, 239. Nicopolis, battle of, 42. Nimeguen, the peace of, 160. Noailles, Cardinal de, and the Orleans regency, 195. , Marshal, and the campaign of 1734, 206; at Dettingen, 210. -, the duke of, and Law's schemes, 196. Nogaret, WiUiam de, 56. Norman, the, conquest of England, 40. Normandy, completely won back to France, 74 ; the revolt of, against the taxation of Louis Xni., 139 ; emigration of persecuted reform- ers, 177. Normans, the, and the discovery of America, 220. North, Lord, 257. Northmen, the, 36. Notables, assembly of the, 263. Novara, battle of, 151 3, 88. Noyon, treaty of, 91. Nu-pieds, revolt of the, 1 39. Olier, M., 222. Omar captures Jerusalem, 43. Orange, William, the prince of, and Louis XIV., 158; and the battle of Mons, 160; and the deputies of the estates, 1 59. Orders, the three, composing the States-general, 58. 59- Orleans, the maid of (see Joan of Arc) ; the siege of, raised through the maid of Orleans, 68 ; tribute of, to the memory of Joan of Arc, , Louis, duke of, death of, 65. Duke Gaston of, and Richelieu, 137 ; submission, retirement, and death of, 153. -, the regency of the duke of, 195 ; declares war with Spain, 1719, 200. - the regent, and the Scotch adventurer Law, 196; and the duchess of Maine's plot, 198 ; and Dubois, 199; and Dubois as arch- bishop of Cambria, 202 ; and Belzunce, 202 ; death and character of, 203. -, the duke of, and Louis XVL, 250 ; and PHILIP VI. Ornano, Alphonso Corso d', 135. Ossat, Arnauld d'. 131. Otho IV., emperor of Germany, 49. Paderborn, Saxons baptized at, by Charle- magne, 34. Paganism, fall of, 29. Painters of the reign of Louis XIV., 187, 188. Palatinate, the, devastated by the French in 1689, 161. Paoli, Pascal, the hero of Corsica, 235. Pare, Ambrose, 116. Paris, ancient name of, see Lutctia, 31, 53 ; the parliament of, and the concordat between Francis I. and Leo X., 92 ; revolt of the popu- lace of, 1588, 119; siege of, by Henry III., 119; the parliament of, and the Bourbon pretender, 122 ; besieged by Henry IV., 123 ; N:he parliament of, and the edict of Nantes, 129; and Louis XIIL, 138; and Mazarin, 151; and the Fronde, 151, 152 ; the parlia- ment of, and its struggles with Fleury, 207 ; and Louis XV., 226, 233 ; the peace of, 1762, 232 ; the parliament of, and the Jesuits, 233. Paris-Duverney, 204. Parker, Admiral Hyde, 257. Parliament, the, of Paris banished by Louis XV., 233 ; recalled by Louis XVL, 249 ; ar- rest of members of the, 1788, 264; protests of the, 264. Parma annexed by Francis I., 91. , Duke Alexander of, 124. •, the battle at, 207, Pascal, Blaise, 179, 182. Patay, the battle of, 69. Paul, St. Vincent de, 141. Pavia, the battle of, 100. People's Battle, the, of Bounnes, 49. Pepin of Landen, called The Ancictit, 32. of Heristal, his death, 32. the Short, 33. Peronne, treaty of, 75. Perrault, 188. Pescara, the marquis of, 94, 95. Peschiera, capture of, by Louis XIL, 86. Peter de la Brosse and Philip III., 54. the Great and Madame de Maintenon, 193- Petigliano, Count, at the battle of Agnadello, 86. Philip I., 39. II., or Philip Augustus of France, joins in a new crusade, 43 ; at the battle of Bouvines, 49; and Agnes of Merania, 51; administrative acts of, 49 ; death of, 51. III. of France, surnamed the Bold, 53, the States-general of, 1789, 270. 54- IV., called the Handsome, character of, 54; and Pope Boniface VIIL, 55, 56, 57; death and character of, 57 ; the three sons of, 57. v., called the Long, 58. VI., or Philip of Valois, 60 ; death of, 1350, 61. 366 INDEX. PHILIP II. Philip II., of Spain, 103, 104, 118, 128; death of, 129. IV,, of Spain, and the peace of the Pyrenees, 154. ■ V. of Spain, 168 ; refuses to abdicate, Philosophers, the, of the reign of Louis XV., 237-247. Phoenicians, the, 24. Piacenza annexed by Francis I., 91. Piedmont, and Charles VIII. of France, 81. Pitt, WilUam, returns to office, 228, 231. Plague of Florence, or the Black Plague, 162. , the, in France in 1719, 202. Plelo, Count, killed at Dantzic, 206. Plessis Mornay, Philip du. See Du Plessis-Mor- nay, Poitiers, battle near, A.D. 507, 30 ; great battle at, A.D. 732, 32. Poitou, 102. Poland, the crown of, offered to the duke of Anjou, 116; events preceding the partition of, 206 ; the partition of, 236. Policists, the, 125. Polignac, Madame de, 261. Poltrot, John, no. Ponts de Ce, engagement of, 135. Port-Royal des Champs, 141, 142, 179. Pothinus, St., first bishop of Lyons, 29. Pragmatic Sanction, its three principal objects, 91. Praguery, the, 72. Protestants, the, after the massacre of St. Bar- tholomew, 115; persecutions of, under Louis XIV., 175, 180; under the Orleans regency, 195. Protestantism in Louis XIV.'s reign, 176-180. Pyrenees, peace of the, 1659, 154. OuESNEL, Father, 179. Quietism, 174; and Madame de Maintenon, 173. Rabelais, Francois, 146. Racine, 186. Rambouillet, Hotel, meetings of the literati at, 147. Ramus, Peter la Ramee, 146. Ravenna the battle of, 15 12, 87. Raymond VI.,. of Toulouse, 50. VII., of Toulouse, 51. Reformation, the, and Francis I., 99 ; state of the, in France in 1561, 105. Religious wars in France, outbreak of the, 107. War, outbreak of the Fourth, 1572, 115. Renaissance, the age of the, 98. Rene, II,, king of Lorraine, and Louis XL, 76, Retz, Cardinal de, 185. Richard Coeur de Lion, in the Holy Land, 41, 43. Richelieu, Armand John du Plessis de, bishop of Lucon (afterward cardinal), birth and early life of, 134; foreign policy of, 144; and SEPOYS. Gustavus Adolphus, 144 ; seventy-four treaties concluded by, 144 ; death of, 145 ; and Louis XIII, and literature, 146-150; his monument, and Peter the Great, 200. Richelieu, Marshal, captures Minorca, 229. Rigaud, 188. Robais, Van, 171. Robert, son of Hugh Capet, 39. Robertet, Florimond, and Francis L, 90. Rohan, Duke Henry of, 142 ; death of, 143, , the duchess of, and the siege of La Rochelle, 142, -, the Camisard, 178, Rolf (or Rollo), the Northman, 36, Roman Empire, final dissolution of, 30. customs and mianners forced on the Gauls, 27. States, the, settled on the popes, 33. victories over the Gauls, 27. Romans defeat the Gauls, 25. Rome plants colonies among the Gauls, 25. Ronsard, 146, 147. Rosbach, the battle of, 228, Rosebecque, battle of, 64, Rouault, Marshal Joachim, 75. Rouen, siege of, by Henry IV., 125. Rousseau, birth, character, and works of, 244. Roze, Chevalier, 202. Russia and the partition of Poland, 1772, 235. Ruyter, Admiral, 159. Ryswick, the peace of, 1697, 162, 163, 169, Saint Andre, Marshal de, 104 ; killed at the battle of Dreux, no. Saint Bartholomew, the massacre of, 114, 115. Saint Cyran, M, de, character and work of, 141, 179- Saint Germain-en-Laye, the peace of, 112. Saint Germain, the duke of, 251. Saint Louis, or Louis IX., 44-52. Saint Omer kept by France, 159. Saint-Ouentin, captured by Philip II. of Spain, 104. Saint Pierre, Bernardin de, Paul and Virginia, 262. Saladin, Sultan, 42, Sales, St. Francis de, 147, Salic law, the, 58. Saracens, their invasion of Southern Gaul, 36. Sardinia, captured by Admiral Leake, 165. Savoy, Duke Charles of, and Charles VIII., 81. Saxe, Marshal, character of, 212. Saxons, the, defeated by Charlemagne, 34. Saxony, Augustus II., 206. , conquered by Frederick the Great, Schomberg, Marshal, 177. Scudery and the Cid, 149. Seignelay, M. de, 174, Semblangay, Baron de, 93. Senegal settlements, the, ceded to France, 159. Sepoys, the, 217. INDEX. 367 SEVEN YEARS' WAR. Seven Years' War, outbreak of the, 226 ; end of the, 231. Sevigne, Madame de, 184. Sieyes, Abbe, and the Third Estate, 267, 270. Simon, count of Montfort I'Amaury, or Simon de Montfort, 50, 51. Sixteejt, the commitee of, 120, 125. Sluggard kings, the, 38. Soliman II., Sultan, 98. Sorbonne, the, and the reformation, 100 ; and Henry III., 120, 149 ; and Buffon, 243. Soubise, the duke of, captures the French fleet, 142. , prince of, defeated at Rosbach, 228. Spain and France, treaty between, 231. Spinola, celebrated Spanish general, 145. -Stahrenberg, Count von, 167. Stafarde, battle of, 1698, 161. Stanhope, Lord, and the fall of Alberoni, 201. Stanislaus, King, 205 ; and the national party in Poland defeated, 207. States-general (see also estates-general), the first in French history, 56; assembled, 1367, 63; convoked at Tours, Jan. 5, 1484, 80; convoked at Tours by Louis XII., 1506, 85 ; meeting of the, at Paris, 1527, 96; of 1560, 108; meeting of the, at Blois, 1588, 118; of the League, 120; and Louis XIII., 134; of 1789, 267. Strasburg captured by Louis XIV., 160, 162. Stuart, Mary, and Francis II., marriage of, 104. Suffren, Peter Andrew de, and French suc- cesses in the East Indies, 257, 259. Suger, Abbot of St. Denis, 42. Sully, character of, 130 ; and Mary de' Medici. 133- Swiss, the, defeat Charles the Rash at Morat. 76 ; defeated at Melegnano by the French, 90. Taillebourg, battle of, 113. Tallard, Count de, defeated 163. Talleyrand, Henry de, 136. Tavannes, Marshal de, and the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 115. Taxation in France, tejnp. Louis XIV., 170; reforms of the Orleans regency, 196. Teligny, 114. Tellier, Le, and Louis XIV., 176. Tende, Count de, 115. Terray, Abbe, 234 ; dismissed by Louis XVI., 248. Theresa, Maria (see also Maria), 208, 209, 212. Thierr}^ IV., 31. Third Estate, the, and the Communes, 58 ; and French civilization, 59 ; and Louis XVL, 267. Thirty Years' War, end of the, 151. Thou, Nicholas de, executed, 137, 138. Tippoo Sahib, 258. Tobago, ceded to France, 259. Tolbiac, battle of, 30. Tremoille, Louis de la, and Anne de Beaujeu, 80,84 VOYSIN. Trianon, the Manor-House of, 261. Triple Alliance, the, signed at the Hag^e, 1 56, 199. Trivulzio, John James, and Louis XII., 83. Truce of God, the, 39. Tuileries, the, and Louis XIV., 172. Turckheim, fight of, 158. Turenne, Viscount de, 150, 158. , M. de, and Louvois, 172. Turgot, M., the ministry of, and Louis XVL, 249 ; acts of his ministry, 250, 251 ; dismissed by Louis XVL, 253. Turin, the siege of, 1706, 164. Tuscany, the grand duke of, proclaimed Em- peror as Francis I., 209. Ultramontanes, the, 141. Unigenitus, the bull, 180. Uftioft, the, of the sixteenth century, 117. United Provinces, the, and Richelieu, 142. United States of America, and the War of In- dependence, 254, 259. Ursins, the Princess des, 191. Utrecht, the treaty of, 1712, i6i. Uzes, 178. Valenciennes, capture of, 159. Valois, Joan of, 75. , Prince Henry of, son of Francis I., 97. •, Marguerite de. Valteline, the war in the, 143, 144. Vauban, the celebrated engineer, his work and Louis XIV., 156, 162, 164, 173. Vaudians, massacre of the, loi. Vaux, Marshal, 265. Vendome, the duke of, 163 ; defeated by Marl- borough, 165 ; sent to the aid of Philip V. of Spain, 166. Venetians, the, and Louis XII., 85 ; defeat of, 85. Ventadour, Madame de, 195. Vercingetorix 27. Verdun, the treaty of, 37. Vergennes, M. de, 254, 255. Versailles, the palace of, built by Louis XIV., 172. Ver\ans, peace of, between France and Spain, 129. Vienna, the peace of, 1735, 207. Villars, Andrew de Brancas, lord of, 127. , Marshal, 164, 165 ; and the battle of Malplaquet, 165 ; and the battle of Denain, 169 ; and the revolt of the Camisards, 178. Villeroi, Nicholas de Neufville, lord of, charac- ter of, 127, 131. •, Marshal, 163, 164 ; defeated by Marl- borough, 164. Visigoths, the, 29. Viterbo, the treaty of, between Francis I. and Pope Leo X., 92. Vivonne, the duke of, 159. Voltaire, 226, 238, 241, 242. Voysin, Chancellor, 166, 174, 196. 368 INDEX. WALDENSIANS. Waldensians. See Vaudians. Walpole, Robert, and Fleury, 205. Warsaw, the treaty of, 235. Washington, his mistrust of French aid to America, 254 ; and La Fayette, 255. Westphalia, the peace of, and its consequences, 151, 160. William of Normandy, the conqueror, 41. William the Silent, prince of Orange, 104. III. of England, and the treaty of Rys- wick, 162. Witt, John and Cornelius van, assassinated, 158. ZEALAND. Wolfe, General, and the siege of Quebec, 223, World, end of the, expected, a.d. iooo, 39. Worms, general assembly, a.d. 839, 36. XiMENES and Francis L, 90. Ypres, taken by Louis XIV., 159. Zachary, Pope, 33. Zwingle, 99, 100. Zealand, a Genoan fleet arrives at, 55. INDEX TO THE CONTINUATION TO THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. ABBOTT. Abbot, Speaker, entries in diary of, 302. Aboukir, naval battle of, 284. , land battle of, 284. Acre, Napoleon I. at, 284. Alexander of Russia and Napoleon at Tilsit, 291 ; Russian campaign, 293, 301 ; alliance vi'ith Frederick William, 299. Alexandria, Napoleon in, 283. Algiers, capture of, 314. Ali, Mehemet, 326. Alliance, the Holy, 309. Allied pow^ers' treaty with France, 307. Alma, the battle of, 338. Alvinzi, Marshal, 283. Amar, 275. Amiens, treaty of, 1802, 285. Angouleme, Duke de, 309. Antoinette, Marie, 273, 274. Arabi Bey, 248. Areola, battle of, 283, Aumale, Due d', 327, Auerstadt, battle of, 291. Austerlitz, battle of, 288, 289. Austria prepares for war, 292 ; joins the alliance against France, 300. Balaklava, battle of, 338. Barras, Count Paul Jean Francois Nicolas, 279 ; and the Directory, 281 ; and Napoleon, 282. Barrot, M. OdiUion, 332. Bassano, battle of, 283. Bastile, destruction of, 272. Bautzen, battle of, 300. Bavaria, Augusta of, the wife of Eugene Beau- harnais, king of Italy, 289; the king of, joins the alliance against France, 300. Beauharnais, Eugene, 289. Berlin decrees, 291, 294, 295 ; Napoleon in,300. Bernadotte, Marshal, and Sweden, 294 ; crown prince of Sweden at Lausberg, 300. Beranger, 311. CHRISTIANITY. Berri, duke of, 309. Bienhoa conquered, 340. Billermarri, attempt on life of Napoleon III.,. 338. Blanc, Louis, 333 ; death of, 348. Blucher at Lubeck, 291 ; desires to kill Napoleon,. 306, 307 ; in Paris, 307. Bonaparte, family of, 289 ; excluded from the. Holy Alliance, 309. Bonaparte, Joseph, king of Naples, 289 ; ex- changes Naples for Spain, 291. Bonaparte, Jerome, king of Westphalia, 291. Bordeaux, duke of, 310 ; riots in, 341. Bourguency, Baron de, 326. Bourrienne and Napoleon I., 280. Brienne, battle of, 303. Brissot party, 274. Brunswick, duke of, victorious, 275. Bugeaud, Marshal, 332. Bugot, 275. Caln taken by revolutionists, 275. Cadoudal, George, 286. Cambronne sunk, 346. Campbell, Lord, on Napoleon I., 306. Campo Formio, treaty of, 283. Cannes, Napoleon I. lands at, 302. Canzy, General, 349. Carnot and the Directory, 281. Cassock and the French, 298. Cathelemeau, 276. Cavaignac, General, 333 ; declared dictator,. 334 ; and Napoleon I., 338 ; death of, 388. Censorship of the press under Louis XVIII.,. 311- Chalons outbreak suppressed, 338. Charles, archduke of Austria, retreat of, 283 ?, the war with Napoleon I., 292. Charles, count of Artois, 309. Charles X., 312, 313, 314, 315, 318, 319. Christianity in the Reign of Terror, 277. INDEX. CHRISTINA. Christina, queen of Spain, 329. Chouans, the, 276. Cochin China, six provinces of, conquered, 340. Code, the Napoleon, 285. Commerce of France destroyed, 286. Communists of 1871, 343; demands of in 1883, 351- . Concordat, the, 285. Concord, the temple of, 302. Condorcet, 275. Confederation of the Rhine, 290, 294. Consul for life, 286. Consulate, the, 284. Convention, the, 277, 279, 280. Corday, Charlotte, murders Murat, 277 ; death of, 278. Courier, 311. Crimean War, 337, 338, 339. Danton, Georgies-Jacques, 279. Davidowich, General, 283. Days, the hundred, from March 13, to June 20, 181 5, 302-307. Denis, M., minister of justice, 351. Denmark and Napoleon I., 294. Dennewitz, battle of, 300. Deputies, chambers of, and Charles X., 313. Directory, the, its character and acts, 281-284. Dore, Gustave, death of, 350. Dresden taken by Napoleon, 300. Ducos, 274. Dumouriez driven by the Prussians, 375. ECHMUHL, battle of, 292. Egyptian War, 247, 248. Elba, Napoleon sent to, 300; escaped from, 301. Elizabeth, Madam, and Marie Antoinette, 276. Enghien, duke of D', murdered, 286. England, declares war against the Republic, 276 ; threatened invasion of, 286 ; threatened war with Louis Philippe, 303 ; objects to Spanish marriages, 328 ; feeling of at the coup d'etat of Napoleon III., 334-337. "Enough of Bonaparte," 300. Erfurt, surrender of, 291. Eugenie, Empress, regent, 339 ; return to Paris, 350- Eugene, Prince, death of, 344. Eylau, battle of, 291. Falliers, M., bill of, 350. Family statute of Napoleon, 290, Favre, Jules, 345. Ferry, Jules, education bill of, 345 ; resigns, 346; forms new ministry, 351. Ferdinand VII. restored to the throne of Spain, 310, 311. Feudal and manorial rights abolished, 272. Fieschi's attempt to kill the king, 321. Fould, Achille, removed, 339. France, first coalition against, 275 ; second coa- lition, 276; position of in 1802, 285; under KAIRWAN. the consulate, 384-387 ; commerce destroy 286; third coalition, 288; condition in ' 310; evacuated by English, 310; inv of Spain, 310. Franco-Prussian War, battles of, 341-342. Frederick William and Napoleon I., 299. Freycinet, 247. Friedland, battle of, 291. Funeral of Napoleon I., 327. Gaeta, capture of, 289. Gambetta, president of the chambers, 345 ; prime minister, 346 ; and the Egyptian War, 348 ; death of, 348 ; cause of death, 349. Garibaldi, 339. Gaudet, 274 ; proscribed, 276. Gensonne, 274. Germany, the empire not recognized by Napo- leon, 290 ; feeling in at the close of Russian campaign, 298, 299 ; all Germany rises against France, 300. Ghent, treaty of, 302. Girondists, 274-275. Goddess of Reason, 277. Gramont, Due de, 345. Granveuve, 274. Granville, Lord, 346. Grevyr, President, 344, 349, 351. Gross-Buren, battle of, 300. Guillotine, victims of, 277. Guizot, M., on Polignac, 313; and Casimer Perier, 315 ; in the cabinet of Louis Philippe, 320; and Napoleon III., 322; ambassador to England, 323 ; return to France, 323 ; and Napoleon III., 324; return to England, 326; and the treaty of July 15, 326 ; return to the cabinet, 327 ; and Sir Robert Peel, 327 ; and the Spanish marriages, 328 ; and the revolu- tion of 1848, 331 ; retires from the cabinet, 331- Halle, battle of, 291. Hoche, General, 276. Hohenlohe, General, 291. Hofer, Andrew, execution of, 293. Industrial Exhibition of 1855, 338; of 1867, 341. Internal administration of the empire, 290. Isabella of Spain, 330. Italy, kingdom of, 189 ; treaty of France with, 340 ; convention with, 341. Jacobins, 274. Japan, treaty with, 340. Jenna, battle of, 291. Jesuits, e.xpulsion of the, 347. Josephine crowned, 288 ; divorced, 293. Joseph Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, before the tribunal of Paris. 279. Journal de la Republique, 2^7. Kairwan occupied, 346. INDEX. ZBACH. 300. e army of the Rhine, 275 ; a£ joins Napoleon III., 304; escape uiayette on Napoleon III., 306 ; elected to the chambers, 309 ; and Martignac, 313 ; and the three days of July, 317. Lafitte and Marshal Marmont, 316; removed, 320. La Lune, battle of, 275. Lamartine, his popularity on the wane, 333, Larochjacquelein, 276. La Vendee, insurrection in, 276. Leipzig taken by Napoleon III., 300. Legion of Honor established, 286. Legislative assembly, 274. Leopold of Hohenzollern and the Spanish mar- riage, 330; and Spain, 341. Lepeaux and the Directory, 281. Lesseps, De, and his achievements, 342. Letourmeue and the Directory, 281. Lobau, battle of, 292. Lodi, battle of, 282. Longroy, capture of, 275. Louis XVI., 273, 274, 275, 276. Louis XVII. and Barras, 280. Louis XVIII., 301, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312. Louise, Maria, of Austria, marries Napoleon I., 293 ; birth of Napoleon II., 293. Louis Ferdinand, prince of Russia, killed, 291. Louis Philippe, 319, 320, 321, 325, 327, 328, 329. 331. 332. Louvet, 309, Lubeck surrendered, 291. Luneville, treaty of, 285, Lutzen, battle of, 299. Mac Mahon, President, 343 ; resigns, 343. Madrid occupied by Napoleon I., 292. Malakoff, battle of, 338. Mamelukes, defeat of, 283. Mantua, siege of, raised, 283. Marat, Paul Jean, 277. Marchaud, General, joins Napoleon I., 304. Marmont, Marshal, and Lafitte, 316 ; and Polig- nac, 316. Martignac, De, and Charles X., 313 ; and Polig- nac, 315. Massina in Naples, 289. MaximiHan, king of Mexico, 340 ; death of 340. McCarthy, Justin, extracts from, 327, 334, Marengo, battle of, 285. Mexico and France, 339, 340. Milan, Napoleon I. in, 282 ; occupied, 285, Mirabeau, 273, 274, 278. Mondiridi, battle of, 282. Montenotte, battle of, 282. Montig, Mdlle. de, marries Napoleon I., 334. Montpensier, Due de, 327. Moore, Sir John, in Spain, 292. PROVISIONAL. Moreau in Paris, 282 ; army of the Rhine, 285. Mortier killed, 321. Moscow, the Russians retreat to, 296 ; Napo- leon I. arrives at, 297 ; burning of, 297 ; Na- poleon retires from the city, 297 ; evacuated by the French, 298. Murat, Joachim, given Cleves, 290 ; appointed king of Naples, 294. Naples, war against, 289 ; Joseph Bonaparte, kmg of, 289 ; Joachim Murat, king of, 294. Napoleon Bonaparte, birth of, 280 ; his career, 280-307; death of, 310; civil government oi, 285 ; consul for life, 286 ; his opinion of the treaty, 308 ; his remains removed to France, 324; interred in the church of the Invalides, 327- Napoleon II., birth of, 294 ; death of, 320. Napoleon III., 321-343; absolutism, 337; Cri- mean War began, 337. Napoleon column, 325. National assembly, acts of, 272 ; removed to Paris and dissolved, 274. National Guard convoked, 272 ; and Louis Na- poleon, 325 ; and the revolution of 1848, 331. Necker recalled by Louis XVI., 272. Nelson, Admiral, death of, 289. Ney, Marshal, at battle of Dennewitz, 300; joins the emperor, 303 ; executed, 309. New Orleans, battle of, 302. O'Meara and Napoleon I., 308. Orleans, duke of, Louis Philippe Joseph, execu- tion of, 279. Orleans, duke of, and Charles X., 313 ; and De Salvandy, 313 ; called to the government by the deputies, 317; accepts the crown, 319. See Louz's Philippe. Orleans, Duchess, regent, 332. Orsini's attempt on life of Napoleon III., 338. Palais Royal sacked, 332. Palmerston, Lord, and Thiero, 323 ; visit to Na- poleon III., 326 ; return to the cabinet, 330. Paoli, General, 280. Paris, rising of the arrondissements of, in 1795 ; 282; the allies before, 301 ; occupied by the allied armies, 307; the revolution of 1848, 333; and Charles X., 314, 315; fight in the streets of, 315. Pages, Garnier, 333. Peel, Sir Robert, 313. Petion, 275. Piamri's attempt on the life of Napoleon III., 338. Pechegru, Charles, 287. Plon-Plon, Prince Napoleon, 350 ; in London, 351- Pohgnac, Jules de, president of the council, 313; and Martignac, 315. Presburg, treaty of, its effect on Germany, 290. Proclamation of July 31, 1830, 317. Provisional government of 1871, 333. INDEX. i7i PRUSSIA. Prussia and France declare war, 291 ; fall of Prussia, 291 ; renewal of public spirit in, 299; alliance with Russia against Napoleon I., 300; refusal of the demands of Napoleon III., 341 ; war with France and its pretext, 341 ; South German States unite in the war, 341 ; results of the war, 342. Public safety, committee of, 277. Priggelier, Captain, 325. Putlask, battle of, 291. Pyramids, battle of, 283. Reign of Terror, 276 ; close of, 279. Republican armies defeat the allies, 278. Republican Kallender, note on, 271 ; replaced by Gregorian, 290. Republic, the new, 343-351. Revolution of 1848, 331-337. Rewbel and the directory, 281. Richelieu, duke of, recalled to the ministry, 310. Rochefort and Roustan, 346. Robespierre and the Jacobins, 274, 277, 279, 280. Roland, Madame, execution of, 279. Rome, king of. Napoleon II., his birth, 294. Rome evacuated, 341. Rostopchin, governor of Moscow, 297. Roustan and Rochefort, 346. Russia and Napoleon I., 291 ; secret treaty at Tilsit, 291 ; treaty with Sweden, 295 ; war with France begins, 295 ; ambassador at Paris dismissed, 295 ; spirit of the army, 296 ; retreat to Moscow, 296 ; burning of the city and retreat of the French, 297 ; alliance with Prussia, 300. Saalfield, battle of, 291. Sardinia and France unite against Austria, 339. Scrutin de liste, 346, 347. Sebour, bishop of Paris, assassinated, 338. Senatus consultus, 286. Sevastopol, battle of, 338. Sieyes, Abbe, and the Directory, 281. Smolensk, battle of, 296. Spain and France, peace of 1795, 285 ; French defeated in, 300 ; Spanish marriages, 327. Sprandau fortified by the Prussians, 291. Stephens, Professor, and Bernadotte, 300, 301 ; and the French marriages, 327. Sweden, treaty with, 341. Tahiti, difficulty between France and Eng- land over, 326. Talleyrand at the council, 308 ; against capital punishment, 308 ; and Louis XVIII., 309. Terror, reign of, begins, 277. ZULU WAR, Thiers quoted, 294 ; president of council, and England, 323; return to the cab 332 ; president of Republic, 343 ; resigi.^ 343 ; death of, 344. Tilsit, treaty of, 291. Toulon, siege of, by revolutionists, 279. Trafalgar, French defeat at, 289. Tribunate abolished, 291. Tuileries, defended by Napoleon, 282 ; Napo- leon's return to, 304; assailed in 1848, 332. Tunis and France, 346. Tyrol, the French in the, 293. Ukase, the, of Alexander, 295. Ulm, surrender of, to Napoleon, 295 United States and the treaty of Ghent, 302 ; and the Mexican expedition, 339. Valaze, 275. Valdau, General Horise de, 350. Valmy, the Prussian advance arrested at, 275. Vandamme defeated, 300. Venetia ceded to France, 341. Verginy, De, killed, 321. Verniaud, 274. Verdun, capture of, 275. Victor Emanuel and Napoleon III., 339. Victory, Queen, 327, 328, 329, 338. Vienna occupied by Napoleon, 292 ; treaty of, 293- Villafranca, treaty of, 339. Ville, Hotel de, 333. Villele, De, 311; his career under Louis XVIII. and Charles X., 312; character of, 313. Villeneuve, 289. Wachau, battle of, 300. Wagram, battle of, 293. Waterloo, battle of, 304, 305. Wellesly, Marquis, quoted, 294. Wellington and Waterloo, 304, 305 ; first learns of Napoleon's escape, 302 ; at Brussels, April 4th, 1815,303; at Waterloo, 304, 305; the influence of, saves the life of Napoleon I., 306; interview of the wife of General Ney with, 309 ; influence in the French cabinet, 313 ; and the new revolution, 320. Westphalia, kingdom of, 291 ; submits to Na- poleon I., 294. Wimphen, General, and the mob, 275. Wimereaux, fiasco at, 325. Woronow, burned by the governor of Moscow> 297. Wurmser defeated, 283. 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