UNCLE SAM'S OF THE V7" f5^ \ \ v \ ' m&m 'mmm^imm!r C. S. HAMMOND & COMPANY, Inc. PUBLISHERS 30 CHURCH STREET NEW YORK CITY 1918 x. -= ^ 1 rJSgoW K cV * rVl -^f 5i"J r" ;^ ( •"^o ^'1 EUROPE ENGLISH STATUTE MILES loo 200 300 155 53o KILOMETERS 100 200 3UU iUO 500 660 760 UNITED STATES ARI .^4, «&^. ^Cj,, •O^r I ( Mo N r A tf N. D A K O T A 0^ tl^ /■& / Id A fj B 'in •"-J. -& ^/ J? ^Wt Wi 4d N o Jtf I -N-Q -W Air ^OLOfiADo — S. D AK OTr^ "^\ N E B R A 0. E N 1 ska! T 1 « ! I 1 K A N S a CANTONMENTS FOR THE NATIONAL ARMY Ayer, Mass. Wrightstown, N. J. Atlanta. Ga. AmericaQLaUe, Wash. Columbia, S. C. Chillicothe, Ohio Little Rock, Ark. Louisville, Ky. Battle Creek, Mich. San Antonio, Tex. Ft. Riley, Kans. Des Moines. la. Yaphank, N. Y. Annapolis June. Md. Petersburg, Va- Roektord, 111. AUentown, Pa. Ft. Ben. Harrison, Ind, Ft. Des Moines, la. Ft. Oglethorpe, 6a. Ft. Eiley, Kans. 4 R r S 2 A' A / ^- M Exi^^ " ^ *f' E R ^ / D E 1 NATIONAL GTTAED TENT CAMPS a Ft. Worth, Tex. b Waco, Tex. c Houston, Tex. d Ft. Sill, Okla. 1 e Deming, N. M. 11 f San Diego, Cal- III S Greenville, S. C. IV h. Spartanburg, S. C. V i Augusta, Ga. TI j Macon, Ga. YIl k Mineola, N. Y. VIII 1 Montgomery, Ala, IX m Anniston, Ala. X n Charlotte, N. C. XI o Hattiesburg, Miss. XII p Alexandria, La. XIII OKLA P A R T M ] T E X A OFFICBES' TRAINING CAMPS^ Plattsburg Barracks, N . ¥. Madison Barracks, N. Y. Ft. Niagara, N. Y. Ft Myer, Va. Ft Oglethorpe, Ga. Ft. Mc Pherson, Ga. Ft. Benjamin Harrison, iTid' Ft. Sheridan, 111. Ft. Logan H. Roots, Ark. Ft. Snelling, Minn. Ft. Kiley, Kans. Leon Springs, Tex. Presidio of San Francisco, CaL [l~c MAP LEGEND Departmental Headquarters f Coast Artillery Headquarters ^ State Bouudary . _ Army Department Cantonment Division - — SIGNAL COEP AVIATION FIELDS m Field. Wichita Falls, Tex. llington Field Houston, Tex. elly Field, San Antonio, Tex. 5ve Field, Dallas, Tex. ich Field, Waco. Tex. »mp Taliaferro, Ft. Worth, Tex. tiandler Field, Essington, Fa. Gerstner Field, Lake Charles, La. Hazelhurst Field, Mineola, N. Y. Park Field, Memphis, Tenn. Post Field, Ft. Sill, Okla. Rockwell Field, San Diego, Cal. Selfridge Field, Mt. Clemens, Mieli. Scott Field. Belleville, 111. SPECUL ARMY SCHOOIS Aviation Training Camps: A Mineola, N. Y. B Mt. Clemens, Mich. C Garfield, Ohio D Rantoul, III. E East St. Louis, 111. F Ashburn, 111. 6 San Diego, Cal. H San Antonio, Tex. 1 Bellville, 111. Schools of Military Aeronautics: J Massachusetts Institute of Technology K Cornell University L Ohio State University M University of Illinois N University of Texas O University of California P Georgia School of Technology Princeton University Reserve Engineers' Training Camps: R Bel voir, Ta. S American University, D. C. T Ft. Leavenworth, Eans. U Vancouver Carracks, Wash. C.S.HAMMOND .1 CO.,H-Y^ FLAGS OF THE ALLIES ^UNITED STATES NATIONAL DOM. CANADA BELGIUM MERCHANT SERBIA MERCHANT CUBA NATIONAL CHINA BRIT. EMPIRE ROYAL STANDARD AUSTRALIA FEDERAL FLAG JAPAN IMPERIAL STANDARD RUSSIA ENSIGN PORTUGAL MERCHANT MONTENEGRO NATIONAL FRANCE MERCHANT c ^ GREECE r fc-^- MERCHANT ROUMANIA MERCHANT UNCLE SAM'S FACT BOOK OF THE WORLD WAR Containing A THOUSAND AND ONE FACTS WORTH KNOWING Concerning The Struggle For Democracy Including Army and Navy Organization, Insignia of Rank, Pay Rolls, Branches of the Service, Regulating Laws, Classification under and Official Record of Drafts, Etc. A Brief History of the War with Chronology and a new Dictionary of Races of Europe and Asia Minor Illustrated with Maps in colors Large Indexed maps of the WESTERN FRONT and ITALIAN FRONT and smaller maps of all other Battle-fields NEW YORK C. S. 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TohehinC I BUSSIAN FffOlH' DURIM THE CONFERENCE XT BREST OTOWSKI HOW^ THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA A Statement by the Public Information Committee GEORGE CREEL, Chairman Ih the years when this Republic was still struggling for existence, in the face of threatened encroachments by hostile monar- chies over the sea, in order to make the New World safe for democracy our forefathers established here the policy that soon came to be known as the Monroe doctrine. Warn- ing the Old World not to interfere in the political life of the New, our Government pledged itself in return to abstain from in- terference in the political conflicts of Europe; and history has vindicated the wis- dom of this course. We were then too weak to influence the destinies of Europe, and it was vital to mankind that this first great experiment in government of and by the people should not be disturbed by foreign attack. Reenforced by the experience of our ex- panding national life, this doctrine has been ever since the dominating element in the growth of our foreign policy. Whether or not we could have maintained it in case of concerted attack from abroad, it has seemed of such importance to us that we were at all times ready to go to war in its defense. And though since it was first enunciated our strength has grown by leaps and bounds, although in that time the vast in- crease of our foreign trade and of travel abroad, modern transport, modern mails, the cables and the wireless, have brought us close to Europe and have made our isola- tion more and more imaginary, there has been, until the outbreak of the present con- flict, small desire on our part to abrogate or even amend the old familiar tradition which has for so long given us peace. In both conferences at The Hague, in 1899 and 1907, we reaffirmed this policy. As our delegates signed the first convention in re- gard to arbitration, they read into the minutes this statement: "Nothing contained in this convention shall be so construed as to require the United States of America to depart from its traditional policy of not intruding upon, in- terfering with, or entangling itself in the political questions or policy or internal ad- ministration of any foreign State; nor shall anything contained in the said convention be construed to imply a relinquishment by the United States of America of its tradi- tional attitude toward purely American questions." At The Hague we pledged ourselves, in case we ever went to war, to observe certain broad general rules of decency and fair fighting. But at the same time we cleared ourselves from any responsibility for forcing other nations to observe similar pledges. And in 1906, when our delegates took part in the Algeciras Conference, which was to regulate the affairs of the distracted Kingdom of Morocco, they followed the same formula there. While acquiescing in the new regime which guaranteed the inde- pendence and integrity of Morocco, we ex- plicitly announced that we assumed no police responsibility for the enforcement of the treaty. And if any honest doubt was left as to our attitude in regard to the en- forcement of Old World agreements, it was dispelled five years later, when our Gov- ernment refused to protest against the over- throw of the Acte d'Algeeiras. We declined to be drawn into quarrels abroad which might endanger in any way our traditional policy. Our second great tradition in interna- tional relations has been our persistent ef- fort to secure a stable and equitable agree- ment of the nations upon such a maritime code as would assure to all the world a just freedom of the seas. This effort was born of our vital need. For although it was possible for the Re- public to keep aloof from the nineteenth century disputes that rent the Continent of Europe, we could not be indifferent to the way in which war was conducted at sea. In those early years of our national life, when we were still but a few communities ranged along the Atlantic coast, we were a seafaring people. At a time when our frontiersmen had not yet reached the Mis- , sissippi, the fame of our daring clipper ships had spread to all the Seven Seas. So while we could watch the triumphant march and the tragic countermarch of Napoleon's grand army with detached indifference, his Continental Blockade and the British Orders HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA in Council at once affected the lives of our citizens intimately and disastrously. So it was in the case of the Barbary pirates. We had no interest in the land quarrels and civil wars of the Barbary States, but \'/e fought them for obstructing the freedom of the seas. And in the decades ever since, although the imagination of our people has been en- grossed in the immense labor of winning the West, our Department of State has never lost sight of the compelling interest that we have upon the seas, and has con- stantly striven to gain the assent of all na- tions to a maritime code which should be framed and enforced by a joint responsi- bility. Various watchwords have arisen in this long controversy. We have urged the inviolability of private property at sea, we have asked for a liberal free list and a narrow definition of contraband. But our main insistence has not been on any such details. One salient idea has guided our diplomacy. The law of the sea must be founded not on might but on right and a common accord, upon a code binding all alike, which can not be changed or set aside by the will of any one nation. Our idea has been not a weakening but a strengthen- ing of legal restraint by the free will and agreement of all. We have asked nothing for ourselves that we do not ask for the whole world. The seas will never be free, In our American meaning, until aU who sail thereon have had a voice in framing sea laws. The just governance of the seas must rest on the consent of the governed. No other question of international polity has foimd the great powers more divided. But in our insistence on this fundamental principle, we have been strengthened by the support of many other countries. At times we have had the support of Great Britain. No one of our Secretaries of State has more clearly defined our ideal than has Viscount Grey, recently British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. None of our statesmen has ever gone so far as he in advocating limitation of the rights of belligerents on the sea. It was on his initiative that the international naval conference was sum- moned to London in 1909, and it was under his guidance that the eminent international lawyers and diplomats and admirals who gathered there drew up the Declaration of London. While there were in that Declaration sec- tions that did not quite meet our approval and that we should have liked to amend. the document was from our point of view a tremendous step in advance. For al- though, like any effort to concisely formu- late the broad principles of equity, it did not wholly succeed in its purpose, it was at least an honest attempt to arrive at an agreement on a complete international code of sea law, based upon mutual consent and* not to be altered by any belligerent in the heat of the conflict. But the Declaration of London was not ratified by the British Parliament, for the point of view prevailing then in England was that a power dependent almost wholly upon its navy for protection could not safely accept further limitations upon action at sea unless there were compensating limitations on land powers. And this latter conces- sion Germany consistently refused to make. The conference therefore came to naught. And the London Declaration having been rejected by the strongest maritime power, its indorsement was postponed by all the other countries involved. Our motives, however, remained unchanged ; and our Gov- ernment persisted in its purpose to secure a general ratification either of this declara- tion or of some similar maritime code. There has been in our diplomacy one more outstanding aspiration. We have constantly sought to substitute judicial for military "settlement of disputes between nations. The genesis of this idea dates from the discussions over the Federal organization of our 13 origtaal States, which were almost as jealous of their sovereignties as are the nations of Europe to-day. The first great step toward the League of Honor, which we hope will at last bring peace to the world, was taken when our 13 States agreed to disarm and submit all their disputes to the high tribunal of the new federation. And this idea of an interstate court, which except at the time of our Civil War has given this Nation internal peace, has pro- foundly influenced our foreign policy. Of our efforts to bring others to our way of thinking, an historical resume, was pre- sented by our delegates at the First Hague Conference. A project was submitted there for the formation of a world court. And a few years later Mr. Root, our Secretary of State, in instructing our delegates to the Second Conference at The Hague, laid es- pecial emphasis on this same international ideal. We have taken a particular pride in be- ing in the vanguard of this movement for HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA the peaceable settlement by process of law of all disputes between nations. And these efforts have not been without success. For although the last few decades have seen this principle time and again put under a ter- rific strain, no nation has dared to go to war against the award of a court of arbi- tration. The stupendous possibilities that lie in arbitration for solving international problems, promoting liberal principles, and safeguarding human life had been amply demonstrated before the present war began. But in the discussions at The Hague, largely through the resistance of the Ger- man Empire and its satellites, the efforts of our delegates and those of other Gov- ernments to BMng about a general treaty of compulsory arbitration had failed. And therefore this nation, having been thwarted in its attempt to secure a general agree- ment, began negotiations with all those na- tions which like our own preferred the methods of law and peace, with the purpose ol effecting dual arbitration treaties. And before the end of 1914 we had signed far- reaching treaties with 30 nations, 20 of which had been duly ratified and proclaimed. But in this work, too, we were made to feel the same opposition as at The Hague. For while Great Britain, France, Russia and Italy cordially welcomed our overtures, the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires were noticeably absent from the list of those nations who desired by specific agree- ments in advance to minimize the danger of war. On the eve of the present conflict, our position toward other nations might have been summarized under three heads: I. The Monroe Doctrine. — We had pledged ourselves to defend the New World from European aggression, and we had by word and deed made it clear that we would not intervene in any European dispute. II. The freedom of the seas. — In every naval conference our influence had been given in support of the principle that sea law to be just and worthy of general re- spect must be based on the consent of the governed. III. Arbitration. — ^As we had secured peace at home by referring interstate dis- putes to a federal tribunal, we urged a similar settlement of international contro- versies. Our ideal was a permanent world court. We had already signed arbitration treaties not only with great powers which might conceivably attack us, but even more freely with weaker neighbors in order to show our good faith in recognizing the equality of all nations both great and small. We had made plain to the nations our pur- pose to forestall by every means in our power the recurrence of wars in the world. The outbreak of war in 1914 caught this Nation by surprise. The peoples of Europe had had at least some warnings of the com- ing storm, but to us such a blind, savage onslaught on the ideals of civilization had appeared impossible. The war was incomprehensible. Either side was championed here by millions living among us who were of European birth. Their contradictory accusations threw our thoughts) into disarray, and in the first chaotic days we could see no clear issue that affected our national policy. There was no direct assault on our rights. It seemed at first to most of us a purely European dis- pute, and our minds were not prepared to take sides in such a conflict. The President's proclamation of neutrality was received by us as natural and inevitable. It was quickly followed by his appeal to "the citi- zens of the Republic." "Every man who really loves America will act and speak in the true spirit of neu- trality," he said, "which is the spirit of impartiality and fairness and friendliness to all concerned. * * *It will be easy to excite passion and difficult to allay it." He expressed the fear that our Nation might become divided in camps of hostile opinion. "Such divisions among us * * * might seriously stand in the way of the proper performance of our duty as the one great nation at peace, the one people hold- ing itself ready to play a part of impartial mediation and speak counsels of peace and accommodation, not as a partisan, but as a friend." This purpose — the preservation of a strict neutrality in order that later we might be of use in the great task of mediation — dominated all the President's early speeches. "We are the mediating Nation of the world," he declared in an address on April 20, 1915. "We are compounded of the na- tions of the world ; we mediate their blood, we mediate their traditions, we mediate their sentiments, their tastes, their pas- sions ; we are ourselves compounded of those things. We are, therefore, able to under- stand them in the compound, not separately as partisans, but unitedly as knowing and comprehending and embodying them all. It HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA is in that sense that I mean that America is a mediating Nation." American neutrality, in those first months of the great war, was beyond any question real. But the spirit of neutrality was not easy to maintain. Public opinion was; deeply stirred by the German invasion of Belgium and by reports of atrocities there. The Royal Belgian Commission, which came in September, 1914, to lay their country's cause for complaint before our National Govern- ment, was received with sympathy and re- spect. The President in his reply reserved our decision in the affair. It was the only course he could take without an abrupt de- parture from our most treasured traditions of noninterference in Old World disputes. But the sympathy of America went out to the Belgians in their heroic tragedy, and from every section of our land money con- tributions and supplies of food and clothing poured over to the Commission for Relief in Belgium, which was under the able man- agement of our fellow countrymen abroad. Still, the thought of taking an active part in this European war was very far from most of our minds. The Nation shared with the President the belief that by maintain- ing a strict neutrality we could best serve Europe at the end as impartial mediators. But in the very first days of the war our Government foresaw that complications on the seas might put us in grave risk of being drawn into the conflict. No neutral nation could foretell what violations of its vital interests at sea might be attempted by the belligerents. And so, on August 6, 1914, our Secretary of State dispatched an identical note to all the powers then at war, calling attention to the risk o^ serious trouble aris- ing out of this uncertainty oif neutrals as to their maritime rights and proposing that the Declaration of London be accepted by all nations for the duration of the war. But the British Government's response, while expressing sympathy with the pur- pose of our suggestion and declaring their "keen desire to consult so far as possible the interests of neutral countries," an- nounced their decision "to adopt generally the rules of the Declaration in question, sub- ject to certain modifications and additions which they judge indispensable to the effi- cient conduct of their naval operations." The Declaration had not been indorsed by any power in time of peace, and there was no legal obligation on Great Britain to accept it. Her reply, however, was disap- pointing, for it did nothing to clarify the situation. Great Britain recognized as bind- ing certain long accepted principles of in- ternational law and sought now to apply them to the peculiar and unforeseen condi- tions of this war. But these principles were often vague and therefore full of dangerous possibilities of fri(jtion. Controversies soon arose between Great Britain and this Nation. In practice their ruling sometimes seemed to our Government inconsistent with the spirit of international law, and especially with the established precedents which they invoked. But painful as this divergence of opinion sometimes was, it did not seriously threaten our position of neutrality, for the issues that arose in- volved only rights of property and were amply covered by the arbitration treaty signed only a short time before, by Great Britain and the United States. And this controversy led to a clearer understanding on our part of the British attitude toward our ideal of the freedom of the seas. They were not willing to accept our classification of the seas as being dis- tinct from the Old World. We had con- fined our interest to matters affecting rights at sea and had kept carefully aloof from issues affecting the interests of European nations on land. The British were inter- ested in both. They explained that they had participated in the London naval con- ference in the hope that it would lead to a sound and liberal entente in the interest of the rights of all nations on the sea and on the land as well, and that they had refused to ratify the London Declaration because no compensating accord on the Continent had resulted. They could not afford to decrease the striking power of their navy unless their powerful neighbors on ld:nd agreed to de- crease their armies. That this attitude of England deeply im- pressed our Government is shown by the increasing attention given by the United States to the search for ways and means of insuring at the end of the war, a lasting peace for all the world. The address of our President, on May 27, 1916, before the League to Enforce Peace was a milestone In our history. He outlined the main prin- ciples on which a stable peace mu^t rest, principles plainly indicating that this Na- tion would have to give up its position of isolation and assume the responsibilities of a world power. The President said: "So sincerely do we believe these things that I am sure that I speak the mind and HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA wish of the people of America when I say that the United States is willing to become a partner in any feasible association of na- tions formed in order to realize these ob- jects and make them secure against Tiola- tion." It was a new and significant note in our foreign policy. But the mind of America had learned much in the long bitter months of war. Future historians wUl make charts of this remarkable evolution in our public opinion: the gradual abandonment of the illusion of isolation; the slow growth of a realization that we could not win freedom on sea — for us a vital interest — unless we consented to do our share in maintaining freedom on land as well, and that we could not have peace in the world — the peace we loved and needed for the perfection of our democracy — unless we were willing and pre- pared to help to restrain any nation that willfully endangered the peace of the whole world family. Had this address of the President come before the war, there would have arisen a storm of protest from all sections of the land. But in May, 1916, the Nation's re- sponse was emphatic approval. In the meantime, although our neutral rights were not brought into question by Germany as early as by England, the Ger- man controversy was infinitely more serious. For any dissensions that might arise, no arbitration treaty existed between the United States and the German Government. This was from no- fault of ours. We had tried to establish with Germany the same treaty relations we had with Great Britain and 19 other nations. But these overtures had been rejected. And this action on the part of the Imperial German Government was only one example of its whole system of diplomacy. In both conferences at The Hague it had been the German delegates who were the most active in blocking all projects for the pacific settlement of dis- putes between nations. They had preferred to limit international relations to the old modes of diplomacy and war. It was there- fore obvious from the first that any con- troversy with the German Government would be exceedingly serious ; for if it could not be solved by direct diplomatic conversa- tions, there was no recourse except to war. From such conversations there is small hope of satisfactory results unless the good faith of both sides is profound. If either side lacks good faith, or reveals in all its actions an insidious hostility, diplomacy is of no avail. And so it has proved in the present case. In the first year of the war the Govern- ment of Germany stirred up among its people a feeling of resentment against the United States on account of our insistence upon our right as a neutral nation to trade in munitions with the belligerent powers. Our legal right in the matter was not seri- ously questioned by Germany. She could not have done so consistently, for as re- cently as the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 both Germany and Austria sold munitions to the belligerents. Their appeals to us in the present war were not to observe inter- national law, but to revise it in their in- terest. And these appeals they tried to make on moral and humanitarian grounds. But upon "the moral issue" involved, the stand taken by the United States was con- sistent with its traditional policy and with obvious common sense. For if, with all other neutrals, we refused to sell munitions to belligerents, we could never in time of a war of our own obtain munitions from neu- trals, and the nation which had accumu- lated the largest reserves of war supplies in time of peace would be assured of vic- tory. The militarist state that invested its money in arsenals would be at a fatal ad- vantage over the free people who invested their wealth in schools. To write into inter- national law that neutrals should not trade in munitions would be to hand over the world to the rule of the nation with the largest armament factories. Such a policy the United States of America could not accept. But our principal controversy with the German Governmentj, and the one which rendered the situation at once acute, rose out of their announcement of a sea zone where their submarines would operate in violation of all accepted principles of inter- national law. Our indignation at such a threat was soon rendered passionate by the sinking of the Lusitania. This attack upon our rights was not only grossly illegal; it defied the fundamental concepts of human- ity. Aggravating restraints on our trade were grievances which could be settled by litigation after the war, but the wanton murder of peaceable men and of innocent women and children, citizens of a nation with which Germany was at peace, was a crime against the civilized world which could never be settled in any court. Our Government, however, inspired still HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA by a desire to preserve peace if possible, used every resource of diplomacy to force the German Government to abandon such attacks. This diplomatic correspondence, which has already been published, proves beyond doubt that our Government sought by every honorable means to preserve faith in that mutual sincerity between nations which is the only basis of sound diplomatic interchange. But evidence of the bad faith of the Im- perial German Government soon piled up on every hand. Honest efforts on our part to establish a firm basis of good neighborli- ness with the German people were met by their Government with quibbles, misrepre- sentat'ons, and counter accusations against their enemies abroad. And meanwhile in this country official agents of the Central Powers — protected from criminal prosecu- tion by diplomatic immunity — conspired against our internal peace, placed spies and agents provocateurs throughout the length and breadth of our land, and even in high positions of trust in departments of our Government. While expressing a cordial friendship for the people of the United States, the Government of Germany had its agents at work both in Latin America and Japan. They bought or subsidized papers and supported speakers there to rous6 feel- ings of bitterness and distrust against us in those friendly nations, in order to em- broil us in war. They were inciting to in- surrection in Cuba, in Haiti, and in Santo Domingo; their hostile hand was stretched out to take the Danish Islands; and every- where in South America they were abroad sowing the seeds of dissension, trying to stir up one nation against another and all against the United States. In their sum these various operations amounted to direct assault upon the Monroe doctrine. And even if we had given up our right to travel on the sea, even if we had surrendered to Ger- man threats and abandoned our legitimate trade in munitions, the German offensive in the New World, in our own land and among our neighbors, was becoming too serious to be ignored. So long as it was possible, the Govern- ment of the United States tried to believe that such activities, the evidence of which was already in a large measure at hand, were the work of irresponsible and mis- guided individuals. It was only reluct- antly, in the face of overwhelming proof, that the recall of the Austro-Hungarian am- bassador and of the German military and naval attaches was demanded. Proof of their criminal violations of our hospitality was presented to their Governments. But these Governments in reply offered no apologies nor did they issue reprimands. It became clear that such intrigue was their settled policy. In the meantime the attacks of the Ger- man submarines upon the lives and property of American citizens had gone on ; the pro- tests of our Government were now sharp and ominous ; and this Nation was rapidly being drawn into a state of war. As the President said in Topeka, on February 2, 1916: "We are not going to invade any nation's right. But suppose, my fellow countrymen, some nation should invade our rights. What then ? * * * I have come here to tell you that the difficulties of our foreign policy * * * daily increase in number and intricacy and in danger, and I would be derelict to my duty to you if I did not deal with you la these matters with the utmost candor, and tell you what it may be necessary to use the force of the United States to do." The next day at St. Louis, he repeated his warning: "The danger is not from within, gentlemen, it is from without; and I am bound to tell you that that danger is con- stant and immediate, not because anything new has happened, not because there has been any change in our international rela- tionships within recent weeks or months, but because the danger comes with every turn of events." The break would have come sooner if our Government hsid not been restrained by the hope that saner counsels might still prevail in Germany. For it was well known to us that the German people had to a very large extent been kept in ignorance of many of the secret crimes of their Government against us. And the pressure of a faction of German public opinion less hostile to this country was shown when their Government acquiesced to some degree in our demands, at the time of the Sussex outrage, and for nearly a year maintained at least a pretense of observing the pledge they had made to us. The tension was abated. While the war spirit was growing in some sections of our Nation, there was still no widespread desire to take part in the con- flict abroad; for the tradition of noninter- ference in Europe's political affairs was too deeply rooted our national life to be easily overthrown. Moreover, two other considera- tions strengthened our Government in its 4 now THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA efforts to remain neutral in this war. The first was our traditional sense of responsi- bility toward all the republics of the New World. Throughout the crisis our Govern- ment was in constant communication with the countries of Central and South America. They, too, preferred the ways of peace. And there was a very obvious obligation upon us to safeguard their interests with our own. The second consideration, which had been so often developed in the President's speeches, was tlje hope that by keeping aloof from the bitter passions abroad, by preserving un- troubled here the holy ideals of civilized intercourse between nations, we might be free at the end of this war to bind up the wounds of the conflict, to be the restorers and rebuilders of the wrecked structure of the world. All these motives held us back, but it was not long until we were beset by further com- plications. We soon had reason to believe that the recent compliance of the German Government had not been made to us in good faith and was only temporary; and by the end of 1916 it was plain that our neutral status had again been made unsafe through the ever-increasing aggressiveness of the German autocracy. There was general agree- ment here with the statement of our Presi- dent, on October 26, 1916, that this conflict was the last great war involving the world in which we could remain neutral. It was In this frame of mind, fearing we might be drawn into the war if it did not soon come to an end, that the President be- gan the preparation of his note, asking the belligerent powers to define their war alms. But before he had completed it, the world was surprised by the peace move of the German Government — an identical note on behalf of the German Empire, Austria-Hun- gary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, sent through neutral powers on December 12, 1916, to the governments of the Allies, proposing nego- tiationsi for peace. While expressing the wish to end this war— "a catastrophe which thousands of years of common civilization was unable to prevent and which Injures the most precious achievements of human- ity" — the greater portion of the note was couched in terms that gave small hope of a lasting peace. Boasting of German con- quests, "the glorious deeds of our armies," the note implanted in neutral minds the belief that it was the purpose of the Im- perial German Government to insist upon such conditions as would leave all Central Europe under German dominance and so build up an Empire which would menace the whole liberal world. Moreover, the German proposal was ac- companied by a thinly veiled threat to all neutral nations ; and from a thousand sources, oflBcial and unofficial, the word came to Washington that unless the neutrals used their influence to bring the war to an end on terms dictated from Berlin, Germany and her allies would consider themselves henceforth free from any obligations to re- spect the rights of neutrals. The Kaiser ordered the neutrals to exert pressure on the Entente to bring the war to an abrupt end, or to beware of the consequences. Clear warnings were brought to our Government that if the German peace move should not be successful, the submarines would be un- leashed for a more intense and ruthless war upon all commerce. On the 18th of December, the President dispatched his note to all the belligerent powers, afeking them to define their war aims. There was still hope in our minds that the mutual suspicions between the war- ring powers might be decreased, and the menace of future German aggression and dominance be removed, by finding a guar- anty of good faith in a League of Nations. There was a chance that by the creation of such a league as part of the peace negotia- tions, the war could now be brought to an end before our Nation was involved. Two statements Issued to the press by our Secre- tary of State, upon the day the note was dispatched, threw a clear light on the seriousness with which our Government viewed the crisis. From this point, events moved rapidly. The powers of the Entente replied to the German peace note. Neutral nations took action on the note of the President, and from both belligerents replies to this note were soon in our hands. The German reply was evasive — in accord with their traditional preference for diplo- macy behind closed doors. Refusing to stafe to the world their terms, Germany and her allies merely proposed a conference. They adjourned all discussion of any plan for a league of peace until after hostilities should end. The response of the Entente Powers was frank and in harmony with our principal purpose. Many questions raised in the state- ment of their aims were so purely European in character as to have small interest for us ; but our great concern in Europe was the lasting restoration of peace, and it was HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA Clear that this was also the chief interest of the Entente Nations, As to the wisdom of some of the measures they proposed to- ward this end, we might differ in opinion, but the trend of their proposals was the establishment of just frontiers based on the rights of all nations, the small as well as the great, to decide their own destinies. The aims of the belligerents were now becoming clear. From the outbreak of hos- tilities the German Government had claimed that it was fighting a war of defense. But the tone of its recent proposals had been that of a conqueror. It sought a peace based on victory. The central empires as- pired to extend their domination over other races. They were willing to make liberal terms to any one of their enemies, in a sepa- rate peace which would free their hands to crush other opponents. But they were not wUling to accept any peace which did not, all fronts considered, leave them victors and the dominating imperial power of Europe. The war aims of the Entente showed a de- termination to thwart this ambition of the Imperial German Government. Against the German Peace to further German growth and aggression the Entente Powers offered a plan for a European Peace that should make the whole continent secure. At this juncture the President read his address to the Senate, on January 22, 1917, in which he outlined the kind of peace the United States of America could join in guar- anteeing. His words were addressed not only to the Senate and this Nation but to people of all countries. "May I not add that I hope and believe that I am in effect speaking for liberals and friends of humanity in every nation and of every program of liberty? I would fain be- lieve that I am speaking for the silent mass of mankind everywhere who have as yet had no place or opportunity to speak their real hearts out concerning the death and ruin they see to have come already upon the per- sons and the homes they hold most dear." The address was a rebuke to those who still cherished dreams of a world dominated by one nation. For the peace he outlined was not that of a victorious emperor, it was not the peace of Caesar. It was in behalf of all the world, and it was a Peace of the People. "No peace can last, or ought to last, which does not recognize and accept the principle that governments derive all their just powers from the consent of the gov- erned, and that no right anywhere exists to to hand people about from sovereignty sovereignty as if they were property," "I am proposing, as it were, that the na- tions should with one accord adopt the doc- trine of President Monroe as the doctrine of the world ; that no nation should seek to extend its policy over any other nation or people, but that every people should be left free to determine its own polity, its own way of development, unhindered, unthreat- ened, unafraid, the little along with the great and powerful." "I am proposing that all nations hence- forth avoid entangling alliances which would draw them into competitions of power, catch them in a net of intrigue and selfish rivalry and disturb their own affairs with influences intruded from without. There is no en- tangling alliance in a concert of power When all unite to act in the same sense and with the same purpose, all act in the common interest and are free to live their own lives under a common protection." "I am proposing government by the con- sent of the governed; that freedom of the seas which in international conference after conference representatives of the United States have urged with the eloquence of those who are the convinced disciples of lib- erty; and that moderation of armaments which makes of armies and navies a power for order merely, not an instrument of ag- gi-ession or of selfish violence," "And the paths of the sea must, alike in law and in fact, be free. The freedom of the seas is the sine qua non of peace, equal- ity, and cooperation." It is a problem closely connected with the limitation of naval armament and the co- operation of the navies of the world in keep- ing the seas at once free and safe. And the question of limiting naval armaments opens the wider and perhaps more diflScult ques- tion of the limitation of armies and of all programs of military preparation. * * * There can be no sense of safety and equality among the nations if great preponderating armaments are henceforth to continue here and there to be built up and maintained." "Mere agreements may not make peace se- cure. It will be absolutely necessary that a force be created as a guarantor of the permanency of the settlement so much greater than the force of any nation now engaged or any alliance hitherto formed or projected that no nation, no probably com- bination of nations, could face or withstand it. If the peace presently to be made is to HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA endure, it must be a peace made secure by the organized major force of mankind." If there were any doubts in our minds as to which of the great alliances was the more in sympathy with these ideals, it was re- moved by the popular response abroad to this address of the President. For while exception was taken to some parts of it in Britain and France, it was plain that so far as the peoples of the Entente were con- cerned the President had been amply justi- fied in stating that he spoke for all forward looking, liberal-minded men and women. It was not so in Germany. The people there who could be reached, and whose hearts were stirred by this enunciation of the prin- ciples of a people's peace, were too few or too oppressed to make their voices heard in the councils of their nation. Already, on January 16, 1917, unknown to the people of Germany, Herr Zimmerman, their Secretary of Foreign Affairs, had secretly dispatched a note to their minister in Mexico, informing him of the German intention to repudiate the Sussex pledge and instructing him to offer to the Mexican Government New Mexico and Arizona if Mexico would join with Japan in attacking the United States. In the new year of 1917, as through our acceptance of world responsibilities so plainly indicated in the President's utter- ances in regard to a league of nations, we felt ourselves now drawing nearer to a full accord with the powers of the entente; and as on the other hand we found ourselves more and more outraged at the German Gov- ernment's methods of conducting warfare, and their brutal treatment of people in their conquered lands; as we more and more un- covered their hostile intrigues: against the peace of the New World; and above all, as the sinister and antidemocratic ideals of their ruling class became manifest in their manoeuvers for a peace of conquest — the Im- perial German Government abruptly threw aside the mask. On the last day of January, 1917, Count Bernstorff handed to Mr. Lansing a note in which his Government announced its pur- pose to intensify and render more ruthless the operations of their submarines at sea, in a manner against which our Government had protested from the beginning. The German Chancellor also stated before the Imperial Diet that the reason this ruthless policy had not been earlier employed was simply because the Imperial Government had not then been ready to act. In brief, under the guise of friendship and the cloak of false promises, it had been preparing this attack. This was the direct challenge. There was no possible answer except to hand their ambassador his passports and so have done with a diplomatic correspondence which had been vitiated from the start by the often proved bad faith of the Imperial Govern- ment. On the same day, February 3, 1917, the President addressed both Houses of our Congress and announced the complete sever- ance of our relations with Germany. The reluctance with which he took this step was evident in every word. But diplomacy had failed, and it would have been the hollowest pretense to maintain relations. At the same time, however, he made it plain that he did not regard this act as tantamount to a declaration of war. Here for the first time the President made his sharp distinction be- tween government and people in undemo- cratic lands: "We are the sincere friends of the Ger- man people," he said, "and earnestly desire to remain at peace with the Government which speaks for them. * * * God grant we may not be challenged by acts of willful in- justice on the part of the Government of Germany." In this address of the President, and in its indorsement by the Senate, there was a solemn warning; for we still had hope that the German Government might hesitate to drive us to war. But it was soon evident that our warning had fallen on deaf ears. The tortuous ways and means of German official diplomacy were clearly shown in the negotiations opened by them through the Swiss legation on the 10th of February. In no word of their proposals did the German Government meet the real issue between us. And our State Department replied that no minor negotiations could be entertained until the main issue had been met by the with- drawal of the submarine order. By the 1st of March it had become plain that the Imperial Government, unrestrained by the warning in the President's address to Congress on February 3, was determined to make good its threat. The President then again appeared before Congress to report the development of the crisis and to ask the approval of the Representatives of the Na- tion for the course of armed neutrality upon which, under his constitutional authoritv, he had now determined. More than 500 of the 531 members of the two Houses of Congress HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA showed themselves ready and anxious to act; and the Armed Neutrality Declaration would have been accepted if it had not been for the legal death of the Sixty-fourth Con- gress on March 4. No "overt" act, however, was ordered by our Government until Count BernstorfC had reached Berlin and Mr. Gerard was in Washington. For the German ambassador on his departure had begged that no irre- vocable decision should be taken until he had had the chance to make one final plea for peace to his sovereign. We do not know the nature of his report to the Kaiser; we know only that, even if he kept his pledge and urged an eleventh-hour revocation of the Bubmarihe order, he was unable to sway the policy of the Imperial Government. And so, having exhausted every resource of patience, our Government on the 12th of March finally issued orders to place armed guards on our merchant ships. < With the definite break in diplomatic re- lations there vanished the last vestige of cordiality toward the Government of Ger- many. Our attitude was now to change. So long as we had maintained a strict neu- trality in the war, for tlie reason that cir- cumstances might arise in which Europe would have need of an impartial mediator, for us to have given oflBcial heed to the ac- cusation of either party would^ have been to prejudge the case before all ' the evidence was in. But now at last, with the breaking of friendly relations with the German Gov- ernment, we were relieved of the oppressive duty of endeavoring to maintain a judicial detachment from the rights and wrongs in- volved in the war. We were no longer the outside observers striving to hold an even balance of judgment between disputants. One party by direct attack upon our rights and liberties was forcing us into the conflict. And, much as we had hoped to keep out of the fray, it was no little relief to be free at last from that reserve which is expected of a judge. Much evidence had been presented to us of things so abhorrent to our Ideas of humanity that they had seemed incredible, things we had been loath to believe, and with heavy hearts we had sought to reserve our judgment. But with the breaking of relations with the Government of Germany that duty at last was ended. The perfidy of that Government in its dealings with this Nation relieved us of the necessity of striv- ing to give them the benefit of the doubt in regard to their crimes abroad. The Govern- ment which under cover of profuse profes- sions of friendship had tried to embroil us in war with Mexico and Japan could not expect us to believe in its good faith in other matters. The men whose paid agents dy- namited our factories here were capable of the infamies reported against them over the sea. Their Government's protestations, that their purpose was self-defense and the free- ing of small nations, fell like a house of cards before the revelation of their "peace terms." And judging the German Government now in the light of our own experience through the long and patient years of our honest attempt to keep the peace, we could see the Great Autocracy and read her record through the war. And we found that rec- ord damnable. Beginning long before the war in Prussian opposition to every effort that was made by other nations and our own to do away with warfare, the story of the Autocracy has been one of vast prepara- tions for war combined with an attitude of arrogant intolerance toward all other points of view, all other systems of government, all other hopes and dreams of men. With a fanatical faith in the destiny of German kultur as the system that must rule the world, the Imperial Government's actions have through years of boasting, double deal- ing, and deceit tended toward aggression upon the rights of others. And if there still be any doubt as to which nation began this war, there can be no uncertainty as to which one was most prepared, most exultant at the chance, and ready instantly to march upon other nations — even those who had given no offense. The wholesale depredations and hideous atrocities in Belgium and in Serbia were doubtless part and parcel with the Imperial Government's purpose to terrorize small nations into abject submission for generations to come. But in this the Autoc- racy has been blind. For its record in those countries, and in Poland and in northern France, has given not only to the Allies but to liberal peoples throughout the world the conviction that this menace to human liber- ties everywhere must be utterly shorn of its power for harm. For the evil it has effected has ranged far out of Europe — out upon the open seas, where its submarines in defiance of law and the concepts of humanity have blown up neutral vessels and covered the waves with the dead and the dying, men and women and children alike. Its agents have conspired HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA 11 against the peace of neutral nations every- wliere, sowing the seeds of dissension, cease- lessly endeavoring by tortuous methods of deceit, of bribery, false promises, and in- timidation, to stir up brother nations one against the other, in order that the liberal world might not be able to unite, in order that the Autocracy might emerge triumphant from the war. All this we know from our own experi- ence with the Imperial Government. As they have dealt with Europe, so they have dealt with us and with all mankind. And so out of these years the conviction has grown that until the German Nation is di- vested of such rulers democracy cannot be safe. There remained but one element to con- fuse the issue. One other great autocracy, the Government of the Russian Czar, had long been hostile to free institutions; it had been a stronghold of tyrannies reaching far back into the past; and its presence among the Allies had seemed to be in disaccord with the great liberal principles they were upholding in this war. Russia had been a source of doubt. Repeatedly during the con- flict liberal Europe had been startled by the news of secret accord between the Kaiser and the Czar. But now at this crucial time for our Na- tion, on the eve of our entrance into the war, the free men of all the world were thrilled and heartened by the news that the people of Russia had risen to throw off their Government and found a new democracy; and the torch of freedom in Russia lit up the last dark phases of the situation abroad. Here indeed was a fit partner for the League of Honor. The conviction was finally crys- tallized in American minds and hearts that this war across the sea was no mere con- flict between dynasties but a stupendous civil war of all the world; a new campaign in the age-old war, the prize of which is lib- erty. Here at last was a struggle in which all who love freedom have a stake. Further neutrality on our part would have been a crime against our ancestors, who had given their lives that we might be free. "The world must be made safe for democracy." On the 2d of April, 1917, the President read to the new Congress in his message, in which he asked the Representatives of the Nation to declare the existence of a state of war, and in the early hours of the 6th of April the House by an overwhelming vote accepted the joint resolution which had al- ready passed the Senate: "Whereas the Imperial German Government has committed repeated acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States of America : Therefore be it "Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. That the state of war between the United States and the Imperial German Government which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared ; and that the President be, and he is hereby, authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial German Government ; and to bring the conflict to a successful termination all the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States." Neutrality was a thing of the past. The time had come when the President's proud prophecy was fulfilled : "There will come that day when the world will say, 'This America that we thought was full of a multitude of contrary counsels now speaks with the great volume of the heart's accord, and that great heart of America has behind it the' supreme moral force of righteousness and hope and the lib- erty of mankind.' " ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, DELIVERED TO THE SENATE OF THE UNITBD STATES, JANUARY 22. 1917. Gentlemen of the Senate: On the eighteenth of December last I addressed an identic note to the governments of the nations now at war requesting them to state, more definitely than they had yet been stated by either group of belligerents, the terms upon which they would deem it possible to make peace. I spoke on behalf of humanity and of the rights of all neutral nations like our own, many of whose most vital interests the war puts in constant jeopardy. The Central Powers united in a reply which stated merely that they were ready to meet their antagonists in conference to discuss terms of peace< The Entente Powers have replied much more definitely and have stated, in general terms, indeed, but with sufficient definiteness to imply details, the arrangements, guarantees, and acts of reparation which they deem to be the in- dispensable conditions of a satisfactory settlement. We are that much nearer a definite discussion of the peace which shall end the present war. We are that much nearer the discussion of the in- ternational concert which must _ thereafter hold the world at peace. In _ every discussion of the peace that must end this war it is taken for granted that that peace must be followed by some definite concert of power which will make it virtu- HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA ally impossible that any such catastrophe should ever overwhelm us again. Every lover of mankind, every sane and thougbtful man must take that for granted. I have sought this opportunity to address you because I thought that I owed it to you, as the council associated with me in the final determina- tion of our international obligations, to disclose to you without reserve the thought and purpose that have been taking form in my mind in regard to the duty of our Government in the days to come when it will be necessary to lay afresh and upon a new plan the foundations/ of peace among the nations. It is inconceivable that the people of the United States sliould play no part in that great enterprise. To take part in such a service will be the oppor- tunity for which they have sought to prepare them- selves by the very principles and purposes of their polity and the approved practices of their Govern- ment ever since the days when they set up a new nation in the hi§:h and honourable hope that it might in all that it was and did show mankind the way to liberty. They cannot in honour withhold the service to which they are now about to be challenged. They do not wish to withhold it. But they owe it to themselves and to the other nations of the world to state the conditions under which they will feel free to render it. That service is nothing less than this, to add their authority and their power to the authority and force of other nations to guarantee peace and jus- tice throughout the world. Such a settlement can not now be long postponed. It is right ■ that before it comes this Government should frankly^ formulate the conditions upon which it would feel justified in asking our people to approve its formal and solemn adherence to a League for Peace. I am here to attempt to state those conditions. The present war must first be ended ; i making. On the third of February last I officially laid before you the extraordinary announcement of the Imperial German Government that on and after the first day of February it was its purpose to put aside all restraints of law or of humanity and use its submarines to sink every vessel that sought 14 HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA to approach either the ports of Great Britain and Ireland or the western coasts of Europe or any of the ports controlled by the enemies of Germany within the Mediterranean. That had seemed to be the object of the German submarine warfare earlier in the war, but since April of last year the Im- perial Government had somewhat restrained ihe commanders of its undersea craft in conformity with its promise then given to us that passenger boats should not be sunk and that due warning would be given to all other vessels which its sub- marines might seek to destroy, when no resistance was offered or escape attempted, and care taken that their crews were given at least a fair chance to save their lives in their open boats. The pre- cautions taken were meagre and haphazard_ enough, as was proved in distressing instance after insistance in the progress of the cruel and unmanly business, but a certain degree of restraint was observed. The new policy has swept every restriction aside. Ves- sels of every kind, whatever their flag, their char- acter, their cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board, the vessels of friendly neutrals along with those of belligerents. Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved and stricken people of Belgium, though the latter were provided with safe conduct through _ the pro; scribed areas by the German Government itseli_ and •were distinguished by unmistakable marks of iden- tity, have been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle. I was for a little while unable to believe that such things would in fact be done by any govern- ment that had hitherto subscribed to the humane practices of civilized nations. International law had its origin in the attempt to set up some law which would be respected and observed upon the seas, where no nation had right of dominion and where lay the free highways of the world. By painful stage after stage has that law been built up, with meagre enough results, indeed, after all was accomplished that could be accomplished, but always with a clear view, at least, of what the heart and conscience of mankind demanded. This minimum of right the German Government has swept aside under the plea of retaliation and necessity and because it had no weapons which it could use at sea except these which it is impossible to employ as it is em- ploying them without throwing to the winds all scruples of humanity or of respect for the under- standings that were supposed to underlie the_ inter- course of the world. I am not now thinking of the loss of property involved, immense and serious as that is, tut only of the wanton and wholesale destruction of the lives of non-combatants, men, women, and children, engaged in pursuits which have always, even in the darkest periods of modern history, been deemed innocent and legitimate. Prop- erty can be paid for ; the lives of peaceful and in- nocent people cannot be. The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind. It is a war against all nations. American ships have been sunk, American lives taken, in ways which it has stirred us very deeply to learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral and friendly na- tions have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the same way. There has been no dis- crimination. Thai challenge is to all mankind. Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it. The choice we make for ourselves must be made with a moderation of counsel and a temperateness of judgment befitting our character and our motives as a nation. We must put excited feeling a\vay. Our motive will not be revenge or the victorious assertion of the physical might of the nation, but only the vindication of right, of human right, of which we are only a single champion. When I addressed the Congress on the twenty- sixth of February last I thought that it would suffice to assert our neutral rights with arms, our right to use the seas against unlawful interference, our right to keep our people safe against unlawful violence. But armed neutrality, it now appears, is impracticable. Because submarines are in effect out- laws when used as the German submarines have been used against merchant shipping, it is impos- sible to defend ships against their attacks as the law of nations has assumed that merchantmen would defend themselves against privateers or cruisers, visible craft giving chase upon the open sea. It is common prudence in such circumstances, grim neces- sity indeed, to endeavor to destroy them before they have shown their own intention. They must be dealt with upon sight, if dealt with at all. The German Government denies the right of neutrals to use arms at all within_ the areas of the sea which it has proscribed, even in the defense of rights which no modem publicist has ever before questioned their right to defend. The intimation is conveyed that the armed guards which we have placed on our merchant ships will be treated as beyond the pale of law and subject to be dealt with as pirates would be. Armed neutrality is ineffectual enough at best ; in such circumstances and in the face of such pretensions it is worse than ineffectual: it is likely only to produce what it was meant to prevent; it is practically certain to draw us into the war with- out either the rights or the effectiveness of bellig- erents. There is one choice we cannot make, we are incapable of making: we will not choose the path of submission and suffer the most sacred rights of our nation and our people to be ignored or violated. The wrongs against which we now array ourselves are no common wrongs; they cut to the very roots of human life. With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of the step I am taking and of the grave resiponsibilities which it involves, but in tinhesitating obedience to what I deem my consti- tutional duty, I advise that the Congress declare the recent course of the Imperial Government to be in fact nothing less than vvar against the govern- ment and people\of the United States ; that it for- mally accept the status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it ; and that it take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more thorough state of defense but also to exert all its power and employ all its resources to bring the Government of the German Empire to terms and end the war. What this will involve is clear. It will involve the utmost practicable cooperation in counsel and action with the governments now at war with Ger- many, and, as incident to that, the extension to those governments of the most liberal financial cred- its, in order that our resources may so far as pos- sible be added to theirs. It will involve the or- ganization and mobilization of all the material re- sources of the country to supply the materials of war and serve the incidental needs of the nation in the most abundant and yet themost economical and efficient way possible. It will involve the immediate full equipment of the navy in all respects but par- ticularly in supplying it with the best means of dealing with the enemy's submarines. It will in- volve the immediate addition to the armed forces of the United States already provided for by law in case of war at least five hundred thousand men, who should, in my opinion, be chosen upon the principle of universal liability to service,^ and also the authorization of subsequent additional increments of equal force so soon as they may be needed and can be handled in training. It will involve also, of HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA IS course, the granting of adequate credits to the Gov- ernment, sustained, I hope, so far as they can equitably be sustained by the present generation, by well conceived taxation. ■ , . i. .. I say sustained so far as may be equitable hy tax- ation because it seems to me that it would be most unwise to base th« credits which will now be necessary entirely on money borrowed. It is our duty, I most respectfully urge, to protect our people so far as we may against the very serious hardships and evils which would be likely to arise out of the inflation which would be produced by vast loans. In carrying out the measures by which these things are to be accomplished we should keep con- stantly in mind the wisdom of interfering as little as possible in our own preparation and in tne equipment of our own military forces with tne duty,— for it will be a very practical duty,— ot supplying the nations already at war with Germany with the materials which they can obtain only from us or by our assistance. They are m the field ana we should help them in every way to be effective I^^shali take the liberty of suggesting, through the several executive departments of the Government, for the consideration of your committees, measures for the accomplishment of the several objects 1 have mentioned. I hope that, it will be your pleasure to deal with them as having been framed after very careful thought by the branch of the poyer^^nf^i upon which the responsibility of conducting the war and safeguarding the nation will most directly • fall While we do these things, these deeply moment- ous things, let us be very clear, and make very clear to all the world what our motives and our objects are. My own thought has not been driven from its habitual and normal course by the un- happy events of the last two months, and I do not believe that the thought of the nation has been al- tered or clouded by them. E have exactly the same things in mind now that I had m mind wben 1 ad- dresied the Senate on the twenty-second of Jan- vary last; the same that I had in mind when 1 addressed the Congress on the third of^ February and on the twenty-sixth of February.. Our object now, as then, is to vindicate the principles 9f peace and justice in the life of the world as against sel- fish and autocratic power and to set up amongst the really free and self-governed peoples of the world such a concert of purpose and of action .as. will henceforth ensure the observance of those principles. Neutrality is no longer feasible or desirable where the peace of the world is involved and the freedom of its peoples, and the menace to that peace and freedom lies in the existence of autocratic govern- ments backed by organized force which is controlled wholly by their will, not by the will .of their people. We have seen the last of neutrality m such circum. stances. We are at the ^ beginning of an age in which it will be insisted that the same standards of conduct and of responsibility for wrong done shall fee observed among nations and their governments that are observed among the individual citizens of civilized states. . . . , ^ „t wr^ We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feeling towards them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse that their government acted in entering this war. It was not with their previous knowledge or approval. It was a war determined upon as wars used to be determined upon in the old, unhappy, days when peoples were nowhere consulted by their rulers and wars were provoked and waged in the interest of dynasties or of little groups of ambitious men who were accustomed to use their fellow men as pawris and tools. Self-governed nations do not till their neighbour states with spies or set the course of intrigue to bring about some critical posture of affairs which will give them an opportunity to strike and make conquest. Such designs can be successfully worked out only under cover and where no one has the right to ask questions. Cunningly contrived plans of deception or aggression, carried, it may be, from generation to generation, can be worked out and kept from the light only within the privacy of courts or behind the carefully guarded confidences of a narrow and privileged class. They are happilly impossible where public opinion com- mands and insists upon full information concerning all the nation's affairs. A steadfast concert for peace can never be main- tained except by a partnership of democratic na- tions^ No autocratic government could be trusted to keep faith within it or observe its convenants. It must be a league of honour, a partnership of opin- ion Intrigue would eat its vitals away; the plot-, tings of inner circles who could plan what they would and render account to no one would be a corruption seated at its very heart. Only free peo- ples can hold their purpose and their honour steady to a common end and prefer the interests of man- kind to any narrow interest of their own. Does not every American feel that assurance has been added to our hope for the future peace of the world by the wonderful and heartening things that have been happening within the last few weeks in Russia? Russia was known by those who knew it best to have been always m fact democrat- ic at heart, in all the vital habits of her thoughts, in all the intimate relationships of her people that spoke their natural instinct, their habitual attitude towards life. The autocracy that crowned the sum- mit of her political structure, long as it had stood and terrible as was the reality of its power, was not in fact Russian in origin, character, or purpose ; and now it has been shaken off and the great, generous Russian people have been added in all their naive majesty and might to the forces that are fighting for freedom in the world, for justice, and for peace. Here is a fit partner for a League of Honour. . , , ^ . _ One of the things that has served to convince us that the Prussian autocracy was not and could never be our friend is that from the very outset of the present war it has filled our unsuspecting com- munities and even our offices of government with spies and set criminal intrigues everywhere afoot against our national unity of counsel, our peace within and without, our industries and our com- merce. Indeed it is now evident that its spies were here even before the war began; and it is unhappily not a matter of conjecture but a fact proved m our courts of justice that the intrigues which have more than once come perilously near to disturbing the peace and dislocating the industries of the country have been carried on at the instigation, with the support, and even under the personal di- rection of official agents of the Imperial Govern- ment accredited to the Government, of the United States. Even in checking these things and trying to extirpate them we have sought to put the most generous interpretation possible upon. them because we knew that their source lay, not m any hostile feeling or purpose of the German people towards us (who were, no doubt as ignorant of them as we ourselves were), but only in . the selfish designs of a government that did what it pleased and told its people nothing. But they have payed their part in serving to convince us at last that that govern- ment entertains no real friendship for us and means to act against out peace and security at its con- venience. That it means to stir up enemies against us at our very doors the intercepted note to the German Minister at Mexico City is eloquent evi- dence. HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA We are accepting this challenge of hostile pur- pose because we know that in such a government, following such methods, we «an never have a frj'end, and that in the presence of its organized power, always lying in wait to accomplish we know not what purpose, there can be no assured se- curity for the democratic governments of the world. We are now about to accept gauge of battle with this natural foe to liberty and shall, if necessary, spend the whole force of the nation to check and nullify its pretensions and its power. We are glad, now that we see the facts -with no veil of false pretence about them, to fight thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peo- ples, the German peoples included: for the rights of nations great and small and the privilege of m«n everywhere to choose their way of life and oi obedience. The world must be made safe for democ- racy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundations of political liberty. We have no sel- fish end^ to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the sacrifices we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind. W* shall be satisfied when those rights have been made as secure as the faith and the freedom of nations can make them. Just because we fight without rancour and with- out selfish obj-ect, seeking nothing for ourselves but what we shall wish to share with all free peoples, we shall, I feel confident, conduct our operations as belligerents without passion and our- selves observe with proud punctilio the principles of right and of fair play we profess to be fighting for. I have said nothing of the governments allied with the Imperial Government of Germany because they have not made war upon us or challenged us to defend our right and our honour. The Austro- Hungarian Government has, indeed, avowed its un- qualified endorsement and acceptance of the reckless and lawless submarine warfare adopted now without disguise by the Imperial German Government, and it has therefore not been possible for this Govern- ment to receive Count Tarnowski, the Ambassador recently accredited to this Government by the Im- perial and Royal Government of Austria-Hungary, but that Government has not actually engaged m warfare against citizens of the United States on the seas, and I take the liberty, for the present at least, of postponing a discussion of our relations with the authorities at Vienna. We enter this war only where we are clearly forced into it because there are no other means of defending our rights. It will be all the easier for us to conduct our- selves as belligerents in a high spirit of right and fairness because we act without animus, not _ m enmity towards a people or with the desire tO' bring any injury or disadvantage upon them, but only m armed opposition to an irresponsible government which has thrown aside all considerations of human- ity and of right and is running amuck. We are, let me say again, the sincere friends of the German people, and shall desire nothing so inuch as the early reestablishment of intimate relations of mu- tual advantage between ws, — however hard it may be for them, for the time being, to believe t.hat this is spoken from our hearts. We have borne w ith their present government through all these bitter months because of that friendship, — exercising _ a patience and forbearance which viould otherwise have been impossible. We shall, happily, still have ar opportunity to prove that friendship in our daily attitude and actions towards the millions of men and women of German birth and native sympathy who live amongst us and share our life, and we shall be proud to prove it towards all who are in fact loyal to their neighbours and to the Govern- ment in the hour of test. They are, most of them, as true and loyal Americans as if they had never known any other fealty or allegiance. They will be prompt to stand with us in rebuking and restraining the few who may be of different^ mind and purpose. If there should be disloyalty, it will be dealt with with a firm hand of stern repression ; but, if it lifts its head at all, it will lift it only here and there and without countenance except from a lawless and malignant few. It is a distressing and oppressive duty. Gentlemen of the Congress, which I have performed in thus addressing you. There are, it may be, many months of fiery trial and sacrifice ahead of us. It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful people into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself seeming to be in the balance. But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the things which we have always carried nearest our hearts, — for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own governments, for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a universal do- minion of right by such a concert of free peoples as shall bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last free. To such a task we can dedicate our lives and our fortunes, every- thing that _we are and everything that we have, with the pride of those_ who know that the day has come when America is privileged _ to spend her blood _ and her might for the principles that gave her birth and happiness and the peace which she has treasured. God helping her, she can do no other. ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, DELIVERED AT WASH- INGTON, FLAG DAY, JUNE 14, 1917. My Fellow Citizens: We meet to celebrate Flag Day because this flag which we honour and under which we serve is the emblem of our unity, our power, our thought and purpose as a nation. It has no other character than that which we give it from generation to genera- tion. The choices are ours. It floats in majestic silence above the hosts that execute those choices, whether in peace or in war. And yet, though silent, it speaks to us, — speaks to us of the past, of the men and women who went before us and of the records they wrote upon it. We celebrate the day of its birth ; and from its birth until now _ it has witnessed a great history, has floated on high the symbol of great events, of a great plan of life worked out by a great people. We are about to carry it into battle, to lift it where it will draw the fire of our enemies. We are_ about to bid thousands, hundreds of thousands, it may be mil- lions, of our men, the young, the strong, the capable men of the nation, to go forth and die beneath it on fields of blood far away, — for what ? For _ some unaccustomed thing? For something for which _ it has never sought the fire before? American armies were never before sent across the seas. Why are they sent now? For some new purpose, for which this great flag has never been carried before, or for some old, familiar, heroic purpose for which it has seen men, its own men, die on every battlefield upon which Americans have borne arms since the Revolution ? These are questions which must be answered. We are Americans. We in our turn serve America, and can serve her with no private purpose.^ We must use her flag as she has always used it. We are accountable at the bar of historjr and must plead in utter frankness what purpose it is we seek to serve. It is plain enough how we were forced into the war. The extraordinary insults and aggressions of HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA 17 the Imperial German Government left us no self- respecting choice but to take up arms in defense of our rights as a free people and of our honour as a sovereign government. The military masters of Ger- many denied us the right to be neutral. They filled our unsuspecting communities with vicious spies and conspirators and sought to corrupt the opinion of our people in their own behalf. When they found that they could not do that, their agents diligently spread sedition amongst us and sought to draw our own citizens from their allegiance, — and some_ pi those agents were men connected with the official Embassy of the German Government itself here in our own capital. They sought by violence to de- stroy our industries and arrest our commerce. They tried to incite Mexico to take up arms against us and to draw Japan into a hostile alliance with her, — and that, not by indirection, but by direct sugges- tion from the Foreign Office in Berlin. They impudently denied us the use of the high seas and repeatedly executed their threat that they would send to their death any of our people who ven- tured to approach the coasts of Europe. And many of our own people were corrupted. Men began to look upon their own neighbours with suspicion and to wonder in their hot resentment and surprise whether there was any community in which, hostile intrigue did not lurk. What great nation in such circumstances would not have taken up arms? Much as we had desired peace, it was denied us, and not of our own choice. This flag under which we serve would have been dishonoured had we withheld our hand. „, , But that is only part of the story. We know now as clearly as we knew before we were ourselves engaged that we are not the enemies of the German people and that they are not our enemies. They did not originate or desire this hideous war or wish that we should be drawn into it; and we are vaguely conscious that we are fighting their cause, as they will some day see it, as well as our own. They are themselves in the grip of the same sinister power that has now at last stretched its ugly talons out and drawn iblood from as. The ■whole world is at war because the whole world is in the grip of that power and is trying out the great battle which shall determine whether it is to be brought under its mastery or fling itself free. The war was begun by the military masters of Germany, who proved to be also the masters of Austria-Hungary. These men have never regarded nations as peoples, men, women, and children oi like blood and frame as themselves, for whom gov- ernments existed and in whom governments had their life. They have regarded them merely as service- able organizations which they could by force or intrigue bend or corrupt to their own purpose. They have regarded the smaller states, in particular, and the peoples who could be overwhelmed by force, as their natural tools and instruments of domination. Their purpose has long been avowed. The statesmen of other nations, to whom that pur- pose was incredible, paid little attention; regarded what German professors expounded in their class- rooms and German writers set forth to the world as the goal of German policy as rather the dream of minds detached from practical affairs, as preposter- ous private conceptions of German destiny, than as the actual plans of responsible rulers; but the rulers of Germany themselves knew all the while what concrete plans, what well advanced intrigues lay back of what the professors and the writers were saying, and were glad to go forward unmolested, filling the thrones of Balkan states with German princes, putting German officers at the service of Turkey to drill her armies and make interest with her government, developing plans of sedition and rebellion in India and Egypt, setting their fires in Persia. The demands made by Austria upon Serbia were a mere single step in a plan which compassed Europe and Asia, from Berlin to Bag- dad. They hoped those demands might not arouse Europe, but they meant to press them whether they did or not, for they thought themselves ready for the final issue of arms. Their plan was to throw a broad belt of German hiilitary power and political control across the very centre of Europe and beyond the Mediterranean in- to the heart of Asia; and Austria-Hungary was to be as much their tool and pawn as Serbia or Bulgaria or Turkey or the ponderous states of the East. Austria-Hungary, indeed was to become part of the central German Empire, absorbed and domin- ated by the same forces and influences that had originally cemented the German states themselves. The dream had its heart at Berlin. It could have had a heart nowhere else! It rejected the idea of solidarity of race entirely. The choice of peoples played no part in it at all. It contemplated bind- ing together racial and political units which could be kept together only by force, — Czechs, Magyars, Croats, SerbSy Roumanians, Turks, Armenians, — the proud states of Bohemia and Hungary,^ the stout little commonwealths of the Balkans, the indomitable Turks, the subtle peoples of the East. These peo- ples did not wish to be united. They ardently desired to direct their own affairs, would be satis- fied only by undisputed independence. They could be kept quiet only by the presence or the constant threat of armed men^ They would _ live ubder a, common power only by sheer compulsion and await the day of revolution. But the German military statesmen had reckoned with all that and were ready to deal with it in their own way. And they have actually carried the greater part of^ that amazing plan into execution ! Look how things stand. Austria is at their mercy. It has acted, not upon its own initiative or upon the choice of its own people, but at Berlin's dictation ever since the war began. Its people now desire peace, but cannot have it until leave is granted from Berlin. The so-called Central Powers_ are in fact but _ a single Power. Serbia is at its mercy, should its hands be for a moment freed. Bulgaria has con- sented to its will, and Roumania is overrun. The Turkish armies, which Germans trained, are serv- ing Germany, certainly not themselves, and the guns of German warships lying in the harbour at Con- stantinople remind Turkish statesmen every day that they have no choice but to take their orders from Berlin. From Hamburg to the Persian Gulf the net is spread. Is it not easy to understand the eagerness for peace that has been manifested from Berlin ever since the snare was set and sprung? Peace, peace, peace has been the talk of her Foreign Oflfice for now a year and more; not peace upon her own initiative, but upon the initiative of the nations over which she now deems herself to hold the ad- vantage. A little of the talk has been public, but most of it has been private. Through all sorts of channels it has come to me, and in all sorts of guises, but never with the terms disclosed which the German Government would be willing to ac- cept. That government has other valuable pawns in its hands besides those I have mentioned. It still holds a valuable part of France, though with slowly relaxing grasp, and practically the whole of Belgium. Its armies press close upon Russia and overrun Poland at their will. It cannot go further; it dare not go back. It wishes to close its bargain before it is too late and it has little left to offer for the pound of flesh it will demand. The military masters under whom Germany it bleeding see very clearly to what point Fate hai brought them. If they fall back or are forced HOW THE WAR CAME TO AMERICA back an inch, their power both abroad and at home will fall to pieces like a house of cards. It is their power at home they are thinking about now more than their power abroad. It is that power which is trembling under their very feet ; and deep fear has entered their hearts. They have but one chance to perpetuate their military power or even their controlling political influence. If they can secure peace now with the immense advantages still in their hands which they have up to this point apparently gained, they will have justified themselves before the German people: they will have gained by force what they promised to gain by it: an im- mense expansion of German power, an immense enlargement of German industrial and commercial opportunities. Their prestige will be secure, and with their prestige their political power. If they fail, their people will thrust them aside; a govern- ment accountable to the people themselves will be set up in Germany as it has been in England, in the United States, in France, and in all the great countries of the modern time except Germany. If they succeed they are safe and Germany and the world are undone; if they fail Germany is saved and the world will be at peace. If they succeed, America will fail within the menace.. We and all the rest of the world must remain armed, as they will remain, and must make ready for the next step in their aggressions; if they fail, the world may unite for peace and Germany may l)e of the union. . Do you not now understand the new intrigue, the intrigue for peace, and why the masters of Germany do not hesitate to use any agency that promises to effect their purpose, the deceit of the nations? Their present particular aim is to deceive all those who throughout the world stand for the rights of peoples and the self-government of na- tions; for they see what immense strength the forces of justice and of liberalism are gathering out of this war. They are employing liberals in their enterprise. They are using men, in Germany and without, as their spokesmen whom they have hither- to despised and oppressed, using them for their own destruction, — socialists, the leaders of labour, the thinkers they have hitherto sought to silence. Let them once succeed and these men, now their tools, will be grround to powder beneath the weight of the great military empire they will have set up; the revolutionists in Russia_ will be cut off from all succour or cooperation in western Europe and a counter revolution fostered and supported; Ger- many herself will lose hjgr chance of freedom; and NATIONS AT WAR At war with Germany or her allies: Serbia, Russia, France, Great Britain, Montenegro, Japan, Belgium, Italy, San Marino, Portugal, Roumania, Greece, Cuba, Panama, Siam, Liberia, China, United States and Brazil. Diplomatic relations broken with Germany: Bolivia, Haiti, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Declarations of war made: Austria v. Belgium, August 28, 1914. Austria v. Montenegro, August 9, 1914. Austria v. Russia, August 6, 1914. Austria v. Serbia, July 28, 1914. Brazil v. Germany, October 26, 1917. Bulgaria v. Serbia, October 14, 1915. China v. Austria, August 14, 1917. China t. Germany, August 14, 1917. Cuba V Germany, April 7, 1917. France v. Austria, August 12, 1914. France i Bulgaria, October 18, 1915. France v. Germany, August 3, 1914. Germany v France, August 3, 1914. Germany v. Portugal, March 9, 1916, Germany v Russia, August 1, 1914. Great Britain v Austria, August 12, 1914. ^ all Europe will arm for the next, the final struggle. The sinister intrigue is being no less actively con- ducted in this country than in Russia and in every country in Europe to which the agents and dupes of the Imperial German Government can get access. That government has many spokesmen here, in places high and low. They have learned discretion. They keep v/ithin the law. It is opinion they utter now, not sedition. They proclaim the lib- eral purposes of their masters ; declare this a for- eign war which can touch America with no danger to either her lands or her institutions ; set England at the centre of the stage and talk of her ambition to assert economic dominion throughout the world; appeal to our ancient tradition of isolation in the politics of the nations; and seek to undermine the government wth false professions of loyalty to its principles. But they will make no headway. The false be- tray themselves always in every accent. It ia only friends and partisans of the German Govern- ment whom we have already identified who utter these thinly disguised disloyalties. The facts are patent to all the world, and nowhere are they more plainly seen than in the United States, where we are accustomed to deal with facts and not with sophistries ; and the great fact that stands out above all the rest is that this is a Peoples' War, a war for freedom and justice and self-government amongst all the nations of the world, a war to make the world safe for the i)eoples who live upon it and have made it their own, the German people thenjselves included ; and that with us rests the choice to break through all these hypocrisies and patent cheats and masks of brute force and help set .the world free, or else stand aside and let it be dom- inated a long age through by sheer weight of arms and the arbitrary choices of self-constituted mas- ters, by the nation which can maintain the biggest armies and the most irresistible armaments, — a pow- er to which the world has afforded no parallel and in the face of which political freedom must wither and perish. For us there is but one choice. We have made it. Woe be to the man or group of men that seeks to stand in our way in this day of high_ res- olution when every principle we hold dearest is to be vindicated and made secure for the salvation of the nations. We are ready to plead at the bar of history, and our flag shall wear a new lustre. Once more we shall make good with our lives and for- tunes the great faith to which we were born, and a new glory shall shine in the face of our people. WITH GERMANY Great Britain v. Bulgaria, October 16, 1915. Great Britain v. Germany, August 5, 1914. Great Britain v. Turkey, November 5, 1914. Greece (provisional government) v. Bulgaria, November 28, 1916. Greece (provisional government) v. Germany, November 28, 1916. Greece v. Bulgaria, July 2, 1917. Greece v. Germany, July 2, 1917. Italy V. Austria, August 21, 1915. Italy V. Bulgaria, October 19, 1914. Italy V. Germany, August 28, 1916. Japan v. Germany, August 23, 1914. Liberia v. Germany, August 4, 1917. Montenegro v. Austria, August 10, 1914. Panama v. Germany, April 7, 1917. Roumania v. Austria, August 27, 1916. Serbia v. Turkey, December 2, 1914. Siam ti. Austria, July 21, 1917. Siam V. Germany, July 21, 1917. Turkey v. Allies, November 23, 1914. Turkey v Roumania, August 29, 1916. United States v. Germany, April 6, 1917. POPE BENEDICT'S APPEAL POPE BENEDICT'S APPEAL TO HEADS OF BELLIGERENT NATIONS. On Aug. 17, 1917, the Department of State announced receipt through the British for- eign office of the following communication from His Holiness the Pope: "To the rulers of the belligerent peoples: "From the beginning of our pontificate, in the midst of the horrors of the awful war let loose on Europe; we have had of all things three in mind: To maintain perfect impartiality toward all the belligerents as becomes him who is the common father and loves all his children with equal affection; continually to endeavor to do them all as much good as possible, without exception of person, without distinction of nationality or religion, as is dictated to us by the univer- sal law of charity as well as by the supreme spiritual charge with which we have been intrusted by Christ; finally, as also required by our mission of peace, to omit nothing, as far as it lay in our power, that could con- tribute to expedite the end of these calami- ties by endeavoring to bring the peoples and their rulers to more moderate resolutions, to the serene deliberation of peace, of a 'just and lasting' peace. "Whoever has watched our endeavors in these three grievous years that have just elapsed could easily see that while we re- mained ever true to our resolution of abso- lute impartiality and beneficent action, we never ceased to urge the belligerent peoples and Governments again to be brothers, al- though all that we did to reach this very noble goal was not made public. "About the end of the first year of the war we addressed to the contending nations the most earnest exhortations and in addi- tion pointed to the path that would lead to a stable peace honorable to all. Unfortu- nately our appeal was not heeded and the war was fiercely carried on for two years more with all its horrors. It became even more cruel and spread over land and sea and even to the air, and desolation and death were seen to fall upon defenseless cities, peaceful villages, and their innocent popula- tions. And now no one can imagine how much the general suffering would increase and become worse if other months or, still worse, other years were added to this san- guinary triennium. Is this civilized world to be turned into a field of death and is Eu- rope, so glorious and flourishing, to rush, as carried by a universal folly, to the abyss and take a hand in its own suicide? "In so distressing a situation, in the pres- ence of so grave a menace, we who have no personal political aim, who listen to the sug- gestions or interests of none of the bellig- erents, but are solely actuated by the sense of our supreme duty as the common father of the faithful, by the solicitations of our children who implore our intervention and peace-bearing word, uttering the very voice of humanity and reason, we again call for peace and we renew a pressing appeal to those who have in their hands the destinies of the nations. But no longer confining our- selves to general terms, as we were led to do by circumstances in the past, we will now come to more concrete and practical pro- posals and invite the Governments of the belligerent peoples to arrive at an agreement on the following points, which seem to offer the base of a just and lasting peace, leaving it with them to make them more precise and complete: "First, the fundamental point must be that the material force of arms give way to the moral force of right, whence a just agree- ment of all upon the simultaneous and recip- rocal decrease of armaments, according to rules and guarantees to be established, in the necessary and sufficient measure for the maintenance of public order in every State; then, taking the place of arms, the institu- tion of arbitration, with its high pacifying function, according to rules to be drawn in concert and under sanctions to be deter- mined against any State which would decline either to refer international questions to ar- bitration or to accept its awards. "When supremacy of right is thus estab- lished, let every obstacle to ways of com- munication of the peoples be removed by in- suring, through rules to be also determined, the true freedom and community of the seas, which, on the one hand, would eliminate many causes of conflict and, on the other hand, would open to all new sources of pros- perity and progress. "As for the damages to be repaid and the cost of the war, we see no other way of solv- ing the question than by setting up the gen- eral principle of entire and reciprocal con- donation which would be justified by the immense benefit to be derived from disarm- ament, all the more as one could not under- stand that such carnage could go on for mere economic reasons. If certain particu- lar reasons stand against this in certain cases, let them be weighed in justice and equity. "But these specific agreements, with the immense advantages that flow from them, , 20 POPE BENEDICT'S APPEAL are not possible unless territory now occu- pied is reciprocally restituted. Therefore, on the part of Germany, total evacuation of Belgium, with guarantees of its entire polit- ical, military and economic independence to- ward any power whatever; evacuation also of the French territory; on the part of the other belligerents a similar restitution of the German colonies, "As regards territorial questions as, for instance, those that are disputed by Italy and Austria, by Germany and France, there is reason to hope that in consideration of the immense advantages of durable peace with disarmament, the contending parties will examine in a conciliatory spirit, taking into account as far as is just and possible, as we have said formerly, the aspirations of the population, and if occasion arises adjusting 'private interests to the general good of the great human society. "The same spirit of equity and justice must guide the examination of the other territorial and political questions, notably those relative to Armenia, the Balkan States, and the territories forming part of the old Kingdom of Poland, for which, in particular, its noble historical traditions and the suf- fering particularly undergone during the present war, must win, with justice, the sym- pathies of the nations. "These, we believe, are the main bases upon which must rest the future reorgan- ization of the peoples. They are such as to make the recurrence of such conflicts Im- possible and open the way for the solution of the economic question which is so im- portant for the future and the material wel- fare of all of the belligerent states. And so, in presenting them to you who, at this tragic hour, guide the destinies of the bel- ligerent nations, we indulge a gratifying hope that they will be accepted and that we shall thus see an early termination of the terrible struggle which has more and more the appearance of a useless massacre. Everybody acknowledges on the other hand that on both sides the honor of arms is safe. Do not, then, turn a deaf ear to our prayer, accept the paternal invitation which we ex- tend to you in the name .of the Divine Re- deemer, Prince of Peace, Bear in mind your very grave responsibility to God and man; on your decision depend the quiet and joy of numberless families, the lives of thou- sands of young men, the happiness, in a word, of the peoples to whom it is your im- perative duty to secure this boon. May the Lord inspire you with decisions conforma- ble to His very holy will. May Heaven grant that in winning the applause of your con- temporaries you will also earn from the future generations the great titles of pacific cators. "As for us, closely united in prayer and penitence with all the faithful souls who yearn for peace, we implore for you the di- vine spirit, enlightenment, and guidance. Given at the Vatican, August 1, 1917. "BENEDICTUS P. M. XV." PRESIDENT WILSON'S REPLY TO POPE BENEDICT. August 27, 1917, To His Holiness Benedictus XV, Pope: In acknowledgment of the communication of Your Holiness to the belligerent peoples, dated August 1, 1917, the President of the United States requests me to transmit the following reply: Every heart that has not been blinded and hardened by this terrible war must be touched by this moving appeal of His Holi- ness the Pope, must feel the dignity and force of the humane and generous motives which prompted it, and must fervently wish that we might take the path of peace he so persuasively points out. But it would be folly to take it if it does not in fact lead to the goal he proposes. Our response must be based upon the stern facts and upon noth- ing else. It is not a mere cessation of arms he desires ; it is a stable and enduring peace. This agony must not be gone through with again, and it must be a matter of very sober judgment what will insure us against it. His Holiness in substance proposes that we return to the status quo ante bellum, and that then there be a general condonation, disarmament, and a concert of nations based upon an acceptance of the principle of arbi- tration; that by a similar concert freedom of the seas be established; and that the ter- ritorial claims of France and Italy, the per- plexing problems of the Balkan States, and the restitution of Poland be left to su.ch conciliatory adjustments as may be possible in the new temper of such a peace, due re- gard being paid to the aspirations of the peoples whose political fortunes and affilia- tions will be involved. It is manifest that no part of this pro- gram can be successfully carried out unless the restitution of the status quo ante fur- nishes a firm and satisfactory basis for it. The object of this war is to deliver the free peoples of the world from the menace and the actual power of a vast military estab- lishment controlled by an irresponsible gov- ernment which, having secretly planned to PRESIDENT WILSON'S REPLY TO POPE 21 dominate the world, proceeded to carry the plan out without regard either to the sacred obligations of treaty or the long-established practices and long-cherished principles of international action and honor; which chose its own time for the war; delivered its blow fiercely and suddenly; stopped at no barrier either of law or of mercy; swept a whole con- tinent within the tide of blood — not the blood of soldiers only, but the blood of innocent women and children also and of the helpless poor; and now stands balked but not de- feated, the enemy of four-fifths of the world. This power is not the German people. It is the ruthless master of the German people. It is no business of ours how that great peo- ple came under its control or submitted with temporary zest to the domination of its pur- pose; but it is our business to see to it that the history of the rest of the world is no longer left to its handling. To deal with such a power by way of peace upon the plan proposed by His Holiness the Pope would, so far as we can see, Involve a recuperation of its strength and a renewal of its policy; would make it necessary to create a permanent hostile combination of nations against the German people, who are its instruments; and would result in aban- doning the new-born Russia to the intrigue, the manifold subtle interference, and the certain counter-revolution which would be attempted by all the malign influences to which the German Government has of late accustomed the world. Can peace be based upon a restitution of its power or upon any word of honor it could pledge in a treaty of settlement and accommodation? Responsible statesmen must now every- where see, if they never saw before, that no peace can rest securely upon political or economic restrictions meant to benefit some nations and cripple or embarrass others, upon vindictive action of any sort, or any kind of revenge or deliberate injury. The American people have suffered intolerable wrongs at the hands of the Imperial Ger- man Government, but they desire no re- prisal upon the German people, who have themselves suffered all things in this war, which they did not choose. They believe that peace should rest upon the rights of peoples, not the rights of governments — the rights of peoples great or small, weak or powerful — their equal right to freedom and security and self-government and to a par- ticipation upon fair terms in the economic opportunities of the world, the German peo- ple of course included if they will accept equality and not seek domination. The test, therefore, of every plan of peace is this: Is it based upon the faith of all the peoples involved or merely upon the word of an ambitious and intriguing gov- ernment, on the one hand, and of a group of free peoples, on the other? This is a test which goes to the root of the matter; and it is the test which must be applied. The purposes of the United States in this war are known to the whole world, to every people to whom the truth has been permit- ted to come. They do not need to be stated again. "We seek no material advantage of any kind. We believe that the intolerable wrongs done in this war by the furious and brutal power of the Imperial German Gov- ernment ought to be repaired, but not at the expense of the sovereignty of any peo- ple — rather a vindication of the sovereignty both of those that are weak and of those that are strong. Punitive damages, the dis- memberment of empires, the establishment of selfish and exclusive economic leagues, we deem inexpedient and in the end worse than futile, no proper basis for a peace of any kind, least of all for an enduring peace. That must be based upon justice and fair- ness and the common rights of mankind. We can not take the word of the present rulers of Germany as a guarantee of any- thing that is to endure, unless explicitly supported by such conclusive evidence of the will and purpose of the German people them- selves as the other peoples of the world would be justified in accepting. Without such guarantees treaties of settlement, agreements for disarmament, covenants to set up arbitration in the place of force, ter- ritorial adjustments, reconstitutions of small nations, if made with the German Govern- ment, no man, no nation could now depend on. We must await some new evidence of the purposes of the great peoples of the Central Powers. God grant it may be given soon and in a way to restore the confidence of all peoples everywhere in the faith of nations "and the possibility of a covenanted peace. ROBERT LANSING, Secretary of State AVIATION The best-known types of air planes are the scouting machine, which goes out to get information by flying over the enemy's lines; the bombing machine, which goes out to do as much damage as possible to the enemy's military works; and the swift fighting ma- chine, which attacks enemy air planes and protects the slower scouting and bombing machines. The United States Government has adopt- ed as the distinguishing insignia for all its aircraft a white star with red center on a circular background of blue. All American aeroplanes, seaplanes, paptive balloons, and dirigibles will bear this star of the Flying Corps, which combines the red, white and blue of the national flag. GERMAN EMPEROR'S MESSAGE GERMAN EMPEROR'S PERSONAL MESSAGE TO PRESIDENT WILSON On Aug. 14, 1917, the Department of State made public the following communication: Berlin via Copenhagen, Dated August 14, 1914, Reed. August 15, 7:30 P. M. Secretary of State, Washington: The following was communicated person- ally to me by the Emperor in writing: "Private and confidential. "For the President personally. "One. The Royal Highness P .'ince Henry was received by His Majesty King George V in London, who empowered him to trans- mit to me verbally that England would re- main neutral if war broke out on the conti- nent involving Germany and France, Aus- tria and Russia. This message was tele- graphed to me by my brother from London after his conversation with His Majesty the King and repeated verbally on the 29th July. "Two. My ambassador in London trans- mitted a message from Sir Edward Grey to Berlin saying that only in case France was likely to be crushed England would in- terfere. "Three. On the 30th my ambassador in London reported that Sir Edward Grey, in the course of a private (sic) conversation, told Him that if the conflict remained local- ized between Russia — not Servia — and Aus- tria, England would not move, but if we mixed in the fray she would take quick deci- sions and grave maneuvers; in other words, if I left my ally, Austria, in the lurch to fight alone England would not touch me. "Four. This communication being direct- ly counter to the King's message to me, I telegraphed to His Majesty on the 29th or 30th thanking him for kind message through my brother and begging him to use all his power to keep France and Russia, his allies, from making any warlike preparations cal- culated to disturb my work on mediation, stating that I was in constant communica- tion with His Majesty the Czar. In the even- ing the King kindly answered that he had ordered his Government to use every possi- ble influence with his allies to repudiate tak- ing any provocative military measures.' At the same time His Majesty asked me I should transmit to Vienna the British pro- posal that Austria was to take Belgrade and a few other Servian towns and a strip of country as a main mise (sic) to make sure that the Servian promises on paper should be fulfilled in reality. This proposal was in the same moment telegraphed to me from Vienna for London quite in conjunction with the British proposal; besides I had tele- graphed to His Majesty the Czar the same as an idea of mine before I received the two communications from Vienna and London. As both were of the same opinion, I imme- diately transriiitted the telegrams vice versa to Vienna and London. I felt that I was able to tide the question over and was happy at the peaceful outlook. "Five. While I was preparing a note to His Majesty the Czar the next morning to inform him that Vienna, London, and Berlin were agreed about the treatment of affairs, I received the telephone message from his excellency the chancellor that in the night before, the Czar had given the order to mo- bilize the whole of the Russian army, which was of course also meant against Germany; whereas up till then the southern armies had been mobilized against Austria. "Six. In a telegram from London my am- bassador informed me he understood British Government would guarantee neutrality of France and wished to know whether Ger- many would refrain from attack. I tele- graphed to His Majesty the King personally that mobilization being already carried out could not be stopped, but if His Majesty could guarantee with his armed forces the neutrality of Prance I would refrain from attacking her, leave her alone, and employ my forces elsewhere. His Majesty answered that he thought my offer was based on a misunderstanding, and as far as I can make out Sir Edward Grey never took my offer into serious consideration. He never an- swered it. Instead he declared England had to defend Belgian neutrality, which had to be violated by Germany on strategical grounds, news having been received that France was already preparing to enter Bel- gium and the King of the Belgians having refused my petition for a free passage un- der guarantee of his country's freedom. I am most grateful for the President's mes- sage. Welhelm." GERARD. American Charge d'Affaires. CAMOUFLAGE The art of protective and deceptive coloring and construc- tion. In official English, the camoufleur "practices the art of military concealment," but a more literal translation of the French music-hall phrase, for that is what it is, proves him to be a "fakir." Camouflage is to the modern soldier what the handiest bush was to the American Indian. Fighting from cover first developed from that savage warfare and now has developed to a point where specialists in all manner of devices for concealing the whereabouts and designs of our troops from the eyes of the enemj; are grouped together in rnilitary units. Wherever a machine is set up, or a trench is taken and re- versed, or a battery of artillery goes into action, or a new road is opened, or a new bridge is built, or a sniper climbs an old building, or an officer creeps out into an advanced post to hear and to observe, there must go the camouflage man to spread bis best imitation of the magic veil of invisibility. THE ESPIONAGE LAW 23 THE ESPIONAGE LAW An act to punish acts of interference with the foreign relations, the neutrality, and the foreign commerce of the United States, to punish espoinage, and better to enforce the criminal laws of the United States, was approved by President Wilson on June IS, 1917. Following are the important sections of the law: ESPIONAGE Sec. 1. (a) Whoever, for the purpose of obtaining information respecting the national defense with intent or reason to believe that the information to be obtained is to be used to the injury of the United States, or to the advantage of any foreign nation, goes upon, enters, flies over, or otherwise obtains information concerning any vessel, navy yard, canal, railroad, arsenal, or other place connected with the national defense, or any place in which any vessel, aircraft, arms, munitions, or other materials for use in time of war are being made, repaired, or stored, under any contract or agreement with the United States, or any pro- hibited place within the meaning of section six of this title; or (b) whoever for the purpose aforesaid, and with like intent, copies, obtains, attempts, or aids another to copy, any sketch, photograph, plan, map, model, appliance, document, or note of anything connected with the national defense; or (c) whoever, for the purpose aforesaid, receives, attempts, induces or aids another to receive or obtain from any source whatever, any- thing connected with the national defense, knowing or having reason to believe, at that time that it has been or will be ob- tained, taken, made or disposed of by any person contrary to the provisions of this title; or (d) whoever, lawfully or unlaw- fully having possession of, access to, control over, or being in- trusted with anything relating to the national defense, willfully or attempts to, communicate or transmit the same to any person not entitled to receive it, or willfully retains the same and fails to deliver it on demand to the officer or employee of the United States entitled to receive it; or (e) whoever, being intrusted with or having lawful possession or control of any document, code or signal book, sketch, photograph, plan, map, model, note, or information, relating to the national defense, through gross negligence permits the same to be removed from its proper place of custody or delivered to anyone in violation of his trust, or to be lost, stolen, or destroyed, shall be punished by a fine of not more than $10,000, or by imprisonment for not more than two years, or both. Sec. 2. (a) Whoever, with intent or reason to believe that it is to be used to the inju'ry of the United States or to the ad- vantage of a foreign nation, transmits, or attempts to, or aids or induces another to, communicate, deliver, or transmit, to any foreign government, or to any faction or party or military or naval force within a foreign country, whether recognized or unrecognized by the United States, or to any representative, officer, subject, or citizen thereof, either directly or indirectly, anything relating to the national defense, shall be punished by imprisonment for not more than twenty years. Whoever shall violate the provisions of subsection (a) of this section in time of war shall be punished by death or by imprisonment for not more than thirty years; and (b) whoever, in time of war, with intent that the same shall be communicated to the enemy, shall collect, record, publish, or communicate, or attempt to elicit any information with respect to the movement, numbers, de- scription, condition, or disposition of any of the armed forces, ships, aircraft, or war materials of the United States, or with respect to the plans or conduct, or supposed plans or conduct of any naval or military operations, or with resfject to any works or measures undertaken for or connected with, or intended for the fortification or defense of any place, or any other information relating to the public defense, which might be useful to the enemy, shall be punished by death or by imprisonment for not more than thirty years. Sec. 3. Whoever, when the United States is at war, shall willfully make or convey false reports or statements with intent to interfere with the operation or success of the military or naval forces of the United States or to promote the success of its enemies and whoever shall willfully cause or attempt to cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty, in the military or naval forces of the United States, or shall willfully obstruct the recruiting or enlistment service of the United States, to the injury of the service or of the United States, shall be punished by a fine of not more than $10,000 or imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or both. ' Sec. 5. Whoever harbors or conceals any person who he knows, or has reasonable grounds to believe or suspect, has committed, or is about to commit, an offense under this title shall be punished by a fine of not more than $10,000 or by imprisonment for not more than two years, or both. Sec. 6. The President in time of war or in case of national emergency may by proclamation designate any place other than those set forth in subsection (a) of section one hereof in which anything for the use of the Army or Navy is being pre- pared or constructed or stored as a prohibited place for the purposes of this title: Provided, That he shall determine that information with respect thereto would be prejudicial to the national defense. Sec. 7. Nothing contained in this title shall be deemed to limit the jurisdiction of the general courts-martial, military commissions, or naval courts-martial. Sec. 8. The provisions of this title shall extend to all Terri- tories, possessions, and places subject to the jurisdiction of the United States whether or not contiguous thereto, and offenses under this title when committed upon the high seas or elsewhere within the admiralty and maritime jurisdiction of the United States and outside the territorial limits thereof shall be punish- able hereunder. VESSELS IN PORTS OF THE UNITED STATES _ Sec. 1. Whenever the President by proclamation or Execu- tive order declares a national emergency to exist by reason of actual or threatened war, insurrection, or invasion, or distur- bance or threatened disturbance of the international relations of the United States, the Secretary of the Treasury may make, subject to the approval of the President, rules and regulations governing the anchorage and movement of any vessel, foreign or domestic, in the territorial waters of the United States, may inspect such vessel at any time, place guards thereon, and, lif necessary in his opinion in order to secure such vessels from damage or injury, orto prevent damage or injury to any harbor or waters of the United States, or to secure the observance of the rights and obligations of the United States, may take, by and with the consent of the President, for such purposes, full possession and control of such vessel and remove therefrom the officers and crew thereof and all other persons not specially authorized by him to go or remain on board thereof. Within the territory and waters of the Canal Zone the Governor of the Panama Canal, with the approval of the Presi- dent, shall exercise all the powers conferred by this section on the Secretary of the Treasury. Sec. 2. If any owner, officer, or person in charge, or any member of the crew of any such vessel fails to comply with any regulation or rule issued or order given by the Secretary of the_ Treasury or the Governor of the Panama Canal, or obstructs or interferes with the exercise of any power conferred by this title, the vessel, together with her tackle, apparel, furniture, and equipment, shall be subject to seizure and forfeiture to the United States in the same manner as merchandise is forfeited for violation of the customs revenue laws; and the person guilty of such failure, obstruction, or interference shall be fined not more than $10,000, or imprisoned not more than two years, or both. Sec. 3. It shall be unlawful for the '^ner or master or any other person in charge or command of a,\ private vessel, foreign or domestic, or for any member of the "ew or other person, within the territorial waters of the Unite! States, willfully to cause_ or permit the destruction or injury of such vessel or knowingly to permit said vessel to be used as a place of resort \ for any person conspiring with another or preparing to commit any offense against the United States, or in violation of the treaties of the United States, or to defraud the United States, or knowingly to permit such vessels to be used in violation of the rights and obligations of the United States under the law of nations; and in case such vessel shall be so used«i with the knowledge of the owner or master or other person in charge or command thereof, the vessel, together with her tackle, apparel, furniture, and equipment, shall be subject to seizure and for- feiture to the United States in the same manner as merchandise is forfeited for violation of the customs revenue laws; and who- ever violates this section shall be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than two years, or both. INJURING VESSELS ENGAGED IN FOREIGN COMMERCE Sec. 1. Whoever shall set fire to any vessel of American or foreign registry, entitled to engage in commerce with foreign 24 THE ESPIONAGE LAW nations, or to the cargo of the same, or shall tamper with the motive power or instrumentalities of navigation of such vessel, or shall place bombs or explosives in or upon such vessel, while within the jurisdiction of the United States, or, if such vessel is of American registry, while she is on the high sea, with intent to injure or endanger the safety of the vessel or of her cargo, or of persons on board, whether the injury or danger is so intended to take place within the jurisdiction of the United States, or after the vessel shall have departed therefrom; or whoever shall attempt or conspire to do any such acts with such intent, shall be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than twenty years, or both. INTERFERENCE WITH FOREIGN COMMERCE BY VIOLENT MEANS Sec. I. Whoever, with intent to prevent, interfere with, or obstructor attempt to prevent, interfere with, or obstruct the exportation to foreign countries of articles from the United States shall injure or destroy, by fire or explosives, such articles or the places where they may be while in such foreign commerce, shall be fined not more than $10,000, or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both. ENFORCEMENT OF NEUTRALITY Sec. 1. During; a war in which the United States is a neutral nation, the President, or any person authorized by him, may withhold clearance from or to any vessel, domestic or foreign, or to forbid its departure from port or from the jurisdiction of the United States, whenever there is reasonable cause to believe that such vessel, whether requiring clearance or not, is about to carry fuel, arms, ammunition, men, supplies, dispatches, or information to any warship, tender, or supply ship of a foreign belligerent nation in violation of the laws, treaties, or obliga- tions of the United States under the law of nations; and it shall thereupon be unlawful for such vessel to depart. Sec. 2. The President, or any person authorized by him, may also detain any armed vessel owned wholly or in part by American citizens, or any vessel, domestic or foreign (other than one which has entered the ports of the United States as a public vessel), which is manifestly built for warlike purposes or has been converted or adapted from a private vessel to one suitable for warlike use, until the owner or master, or person having charge of such vessel, shall furnish proof satisfactory to the President, or to the person duly authorized by him, that the vessel will not be employed to cruise against or commit or attempt to commit hostilities upon the subjects, citizens, or property of any foreign country, with which the TJnited States IS at peace, and that the said vessel will not be sold or delivered to any belligerent nation, or to an agent, oflBcer, or citizen of such nation, by them or any of them, within the jurisdiction of the United States, or upon the high seas. Sec. 4. During a war in which the United States is a neutral nation, every master or person having charge or command of any vessel, domestic or foreign, and the owners, shippers, or consignors of the cargo, whether requiring clearance or not, before departure of such vessel from port shall deliver tothe collector of customs for the district a statement _duly_ verified by oath, that the cargo or any part of the cargo is or is not to be delivered to other vessels in port or to be transshipped on the high seas and, if it is to be so delivered or transshipped, stating the kind and quantities and the value of the total quantity of each kind of article so to be delivered or trans- shipped, and the name of the person, corporation, vessel, or government, to whom same is to be made. Sec. S. Whenever it appears that the vessel is not entitled to clearance or whenever there is reasonable cause_ to believe that the additional statements under oath required in the fore- going section are false, the collector of customs for the district in which the vessel is located may, subject to review by the Secretary of Commerce, refuse clearance to any vessel, and by formal notice served upon the owners, master, or person in command or charge of any domestic vessel for which clearance is not required by law, forbid the departure of the vessel from the port or from the jurisdiction of the United States; and it shall thereupon be unlawful for the vessel to depart. Sec. 6. Whoever, in violation of any of the provisions of this title, shall take, or attempt or conspire to take, or authorize the taking of any such vessel, out of port or from the jurisdiction of the United States, shall be fined not more than_ $10,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both; and, in addition, such vessel, her tackle, apparel, furniture, equipment, and her cargo shall be forfeited to the United States. Sec. 7. Whoever,- being a person belonging to the armed land or naval_ forces of a belligerent nation or belligerent faction of any nation and being interned in the United States, in acr cojdance with the law of nations, shall leave or attempt to leave said jurisdiction, or the limits of internment in which freedom of movement has been allowed, without permission from the proper official of the United States in charge, or shall willfully overstay a leave of absence granted by such official, shall be subject to arrest by any marshal or deputy marshal of the United States, or by the military or naval authorities thereof, and shall be returned to the place of internment and there con- fined and safely kept for such period of time as the official of the United States in charge shall direct; and whoever, within the jurisdiction of the United States and subject thereto, shall aid or entice any interned person to escape or attempt to escape from the jurisdiction of the United States, or from the limits of internment prescribed, shall be fined not more than $1 ,000 or imprisoned not more than one year, or both. Sec. 8. Whoever, within the territory ori jurisdiction of the United States or of any of its possessions, knowingly begins, provides or prepares a means for or furnishes the money for, or who takes part in, any military or naval expedition or enter- prise to be carried on from thence against the territory or dominion of any foreign country with whom the United States is at peace, shall be fined not more than $3,000 or imprisoned not more than three years, or both. SEIZURE OF ARMS AND OTHER ARTICLES INTENDED FOR EXPORT Sec. 1. Whenever an attempt is made to export or take out of the United States, any arms or munitions of war, or other articles, in violation of law, or whenever there shall be known or cause to believe the same, the several collectors, naval officers, and marshals, and deputy marshals of the United States, and every other person duly authorized for the purpose by the President, may seize and detain any articles or munitions of war about to be exported, or taken out of the United States, in violation of law, and the vessels or vehicles containing the same, and retain possession thereof until_ released or disposed of as hereinafter directed. If upon due inquiry, the property seized shall appear to have been about to be so unlawfully ex- ported, or taken out of the United States, the same shall be forfeited to the United States. Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the person making any seizure under this title to apply, with due diligence, to the judge of the district court of the United States, or of the Canal Zone, or to the judge of a court of first instance in the Philippine Islands, having jurisdiction over the place within which the_ seizure is made, for a warrant to justify the further detention of the property so seized, which warrant shall be granted only on oath or affirmation showing that there is known or probable cause to believe that the property seized is being or is intended to be exported or taken out of the United States in violation of law; and if the judge refuses to issue the warrant, or_ application therefor is not made by the person making the seizure within a reasonable time, not exceeding ten days after the seizure, the property shall forthwith be restored to the owner or person from whom seized. If the judge is satisfied that the seizure was justified and issues his warrant accordingly, then the' property shall be detained by the person seizing it until the President, who is hereby expressly authorized so to do, orders it to be restored to the owner or claimant, or until it is discharged in due course of law on petition of the claimant, or on trial of condemnation proceedings. Sec. 3. The owner or claimant of any property seized may, at any time before condemnation proceedings have been in- stituted, file his petition for its restoration in the district court of the United States, or of the Canal Zone, or the court of first instance in the Philippine Islands, having jurisdiction over the place in which the seizure was made, whereupon thecourt shall advance the cause for hearing and determination with all pos- sible dispatch, and, after causing notice to be given to the United States attorney for the district and to the person making the seizure, shall proceed to hear and decide whether the prop- erty seized shall be restored to the petitioner or forfeited to the United States. Sec. 4. Whenever the person making any seizure applies for and obtains a warrant for the detention of the property, and (a) upon the hearing and determination of the petition of the owner or claimant restoration is denied, or fb) the owner or claimant fails to file a petition for restoration within thirty days after the seizure, the United States attorney for the district. THE ESPIONAGE LAW 25 upon direction of the Attorney General, shall institute libel proceedings in the United States district court or of the Canal Zone or the court of first instance of the_ Philippine Islands having jurisdiction over the place wherein the seizure was made, against the property for condemnation; and if, after trial and hearing of the issues involved, the property is con- demned, it shall be disposed of by sale, and the proceeds thereof, less the legal costs and charges, paid into the Treasury. Sec. 5. The proceedings in such summary trials upon the petition of the owner or claimant of the property seized, as well as in the libel cases, shall conform to the proceedings in admiralty, except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact joined in such libel cases, and all such pro- ceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name of the United States. Upon the paj^ment of the costs and legal expenses of both the summary trials and the libel proceedings, and the execution and delivery of a good and sufficient bond in an amount double the value of the property seized, conditioned that it will not be exported or used or employed contrary to the provisions of this title, the court, in its discretion, may direct that it be delivered to the owners thereof or to the claimants thereof. _ Sec. 6. Except in those cases in which the_ exportation of arms and munitions of war or other articles is forbidden by proclamation or otherwise by the President, nothing herein contained shall be construed to extend to, or interfere with any trade in such commodities, conducted with any foreign port or place wheresoever, or with any other trade which might have been lawfully carried on before the passage of thistitle, under the law of nations, or under the treaties or conventions entered into by the United States, or under the laws thereof. Sec. 7. Upon payment of the costs and legal expenses incurred in any such summary trial for possession or libel proceedings, the President is hereby authorized, in his discretion, to order the release and restoration to the owner or clainlant of any property seized or condemned. CERTAIN EXPORTS IN TIME OF WAR UNLAWFUL Sec. 1. Whenever during the present war the President shall find that the public safety shall so require, and shall make proclamation thereof, it shall be unlawful to export from or take out of the United^ States to any country named, any article or articles mentioned in such proclamation, except at such time, and under such regulations and orders, and subject to such limitations and exceptions as the President shall prescribe, until otherwise ordered by the President or by Congress. No preference shall be given to the ports of one State over those of another. Sec. 2. Any person who shall export, or take out, or deliver or attempt to deliver for export, shipment, or taking out, any article in violation of this title, or of any regulation or order made hereunder, shall be fined not more than $10,000, or, if a natural person, imprisoned for not more than two years, or both; and any such article shall be seized and forfeited to the United States; and any officer, director, or agent of a corpora- tion who participates in any such violation shall be liable to like fine or imprisonment, or both. Sec. 3. Whenever there is reasonable cause to believe that any vessel, domestic or foreign, is about to carry out of the United States any article or articles in violation of the provi- sions of this title, the collector of customs for the district is hereby authorized and empowered, subject to review by the Secretary of Commerce, to refuse clearance to any such vessel, for which clearance is required by law, and by formal notice served upon the owners, master, or person or persons in com- mand or charge of any domestic vessel for which clearance is not required by law, to forbid the departure of such vessel from the port, and it shall thereupon be unlawful for such vessel to depart. Whoever violates any of the provisions of this section shall be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than two years, or both; and, in addition, such vessel, her tackle, apparel, furniture, equipment, and her forbidden cargo shall be forfeited to the United States. DISTURBANCE OF FOREIGN RELATIONS Sec. 1. Whoever, in relation to any dispute or controversy between a foreign government and the United States, shall willfully and knowingly make any untrue statement, either orally or in writing, under oath before any person authorized and empowered to administer oaths, which the affiant has knowledge or reason to believe will, or may be used to influence the measures or conduct of any foreign government, or of any officer or agent thereof, to the injury of the United States, or with a view or intent to influence any measure of or action by the Government of the United States, or any branch thereof, to the injury of the United States, shall be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both. Sec. 2. Whoever within the jurisdiction of the United States shall falsely assume or pretend to be a diplomatic or consular, or other official of a foreign government duly accredited as such to the Government of the United States with intent to defraud such foreign government or any person, and shall take upon himself to act as such, or in such pretended character shall demand or obtain, or attempt to obtain from any person or from said foreign government, or from any officer thereof, any money, paper, document, or other thing of value, shall be fined not more than $5,000, or imprisoned not more than five years, or both. Sec. 3. Whpever, other than a diplomatic or consular officer or attach^, shall act in the United States as an agent of a foreign government without prior notification to the Secretary of State shall be fined not more than $5,000, or imprisoned not more than five years, or both. Sec. 5. If two or rnore persons within the Jurisdiction of the United States conspire to injure or destroy specific property situated within a foreign country and hnelonging to a foreign Government or to any political subdivision thereof with which the United States is at peace, or any railroad, canal, bridge, or other public utility so situated, and if one or more of such per- sons commits an act within the jurisdiction of the United States to effect the object of the conspiracy, each of the parties to the conspiracy shall be fined not more than $5,000, or imprisoned not more than three years, or both. PASSPORTS Sec._ 1. Before a passport is issued to any person by or under authority of the United States such person shall subscribe to and submit a written application duly verified by_ his oath before a person authorized and empowered to administer oaths, which said application shall contain a true recital of each and every matter of fact which may be required by law or by any rules authorized by law to be stated as a prerequisite to the issuance of any such passport. Clerks of United States courts, agents of the Department of State, or other Federal officials authorized, or who may be authorized, to take passport applications and administer oaths thereon, shall collect, for all services in connec- tion therewith, a fee of $1, and no more, in lieu of all fees pre- scribed by any statute of the United States, whether the applica- tion is executed singly, in duplicate, or in triplicate. Sec. 2. Whoever shall willfully and knowingly make any false statement in an application for passport with intent to induce or_ secure the issuance of a passpwrt under the authority of the United States, either for his own use or the use of another, contrary tothe laws regulating the issuance of passports or the rules prescribed pursuant to such laws, or whoever shall willfully and knowingly use or attempt to use, or furnish to another for use, any passport the issue of which was secured in any way by reason of any false statement, shall be fined not more than $2,000 or imprisoned not more than five years or both. Sec. 3. Whoever shall willfully and knowingly use, or at- tempt to use, any passport issued or designed for the use of another than himself, or whoever shall willfully and knowingly use or attempt to use any passport in violation of the conditions or restrictions therein contained, or of the rules prescribed pur- suant to the laws regulating the issuance of passports, which said rules shall be printed on the passport; or whoever shall will- fully and knowingly furnish, dispose of, or deliver a passport to any person, for use by another than the person for whose use it was originally issued and designed, shall be fined not more than $2,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both. Sec. 4. Whoever shall falsely make, forge, counterfeit, muti- late, or alter, with intent to use the same, or with intent that the same may be used by another; or whoever shall willfully or knowingly use, or attempt to use, or furnish to another for use any such false, forged, counterfeited, mutilated, or altered passport or instrument purporting to be a passport, or any passport validly issued which has become void by the occur- rence of any condition therein prescribed invalidating the same, shall be fined not more than $2,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both. COUNTERFEITING GOVERNMENT SEAL Sec. 1. Whoever shall fraudulently or wrongfully affix or impress the seal of any executive department, or of any bureau, 26 THE ESPIONAGE LAW commission, or ofl5ce of the United States, to or upon any certificate, or paper of any description; or whoever, with knowl- edge of its fraudulent character, shall with wrongful or fraudu- lent intent use, buy, procure, sell, or transfer to another any such certificate, instrument, commission, document, or paper, to which or upon which said seal has been so fraudulently affixed or impressed, shall be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both. Sec. 2. Whoever shall falsely make, forge, counterfeit, muti- late, or alter the seal of any executive department, or any bureau, commission, or office of the United States, or shall willingly assist in falsely doing the same, or whoever shall knowingly use, affix, or impress any such fraudulently made seal to or upon any certificate, instrument, commission, docu- ment, or paper, of any description, or whoever with wrongful or fraudulent intent shall have possession of any such seal, knowing the same to have been so falsely made, forged, counter- feited, mutilated, or altered, shall be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more than ten years, or both._ Sec. 3. Whoever shall falsely make, forge, counterfeit, alter, or tamper with any naval, military, or official pass or permit, issued by or under the authority of the United_ States, or with wrongful or fraudulent intent shall use or have in his possession any such pass or permit, or shall personate or falsely represent himself to be or not to be a person to whom such pass or permit has been duly issued, or shall willfully allow any other person to have or use any such pass or permit, issued for his use alone, shall be fined not more than $2,000 or imprisoned not inore than five years, or both. SEARCH WARRANTS Sec. 1. A search warrant may be issued by a judge of a United States district court, or by a judge of a State or Terri- torial court of record, or by a United States commissioner for the district wherein the property sought is located. _ Sec. 2. A search warrant may be issued under this title upon either of the following grounds: 1. When the property was stolen or embezzled in violation of a law of the United States; in which case it may be taken on the warrant from any house or other place in which it is con- cealed, or from the possession of the person by whom it was stolen or embezzled, or from any person in whose possession it may be. 2. When the property was used as the means of committing a felony; in which case it may be taken on the warrant from any house or other place in which it is concealed, or from the possession of the person by whom it was used in the commission of the offense, or from any person in whose possession it may be. Sec. 3. A search warrant can not be issued but upon probable cause, supported by affidavit, naming or describing the person and particularly describing the property and the place to be searched. Sec. 4. The judge or commissionermust, before issuing the warrant, examine on oath the cornplainant and any witness he may produce, and require their affidavits or take their deposi- tions in writing and cause them to be subscribed by the parties making them. Sec. 6. If the judge or commissioner is thereupon satisfied of the existence of the grounds of the application or that there is probable cause to believe their existence, he must issue a search warrant, signed by him with his name of office, to a civil officer of the United States duly authorized to enforce or assist in enforcing any law thereof, or to a person so duly au- thorized by the President, stating the particular grounds or probable cause for its issue and the names of the persons whose affidavits have been taken in support thereof, and commanding him forthwith to search the person or place named, for the property specified, and to bring it before the judge or com- missioner. Sec. 8. The officer may break open any outer or inner d9or or window of a house, or any part of a house, or anything therein, to execute the warrant, if, after notice of his authority and purpose, he is refused admittance. Sec. 9. He may break open any outer or inner door or window of a house for the purpose of liberating a person who, having entered to aid him in the execution of the warrant, is detained therein, or when necessary for his own liberation. Sec. 10. The judge or commissioner must insert a direction in the warrant that it be served in the daytime, unless the affi- davits are positive that the property is on the person or in the place to be searched, in which case he may insert a direction that it be served at any time of the day or night. Sec. 11. a search warrant must be executed and returned to the judge or commissioner who issued it within ten days after its date; after the expiration of this time the warrant, unless executed, is void. Sec. 12._ When the officer takes property under the warrant, he must give a copy of the warrant together with a receipt for the property taken (specifying it in detail) to _the_ person from whom it was taken by him, or in whose possession it was found; or, in the absence of any person, he must leave it in the place where he found the property. Sec. 14. The judge or commissioner must, if required, de- liver a copy of the inventory to the person from whose possession the property was taken and to the applicant for the warrant. Sec. 15. If the grounds on which the warrant was issued be controverted, the judge or commissioner must proceed to take testimony in relation thereto, and the testimony of each witness must be reduced to writing and subscribed by each witness. Sec. 16. If it appears that the property or paper taken is not the same as that described in the warrant or that there is no probable cause for believing the existence of the grounds on which the warrant was issued, the judge or commissioner must cause it to be restored to the person from whom it was taken; but if it appears that the property or paper taken is the same as that described in the warrant and that there is probable cause for believing the existence of the grounds on which the warrant was issued, then the judge or commissionershall order the same retained in the custody of the person seizing it or to be otherwise disposed of according to law. Sec. 17. The judge or commissioner must annex the affi- davits, search warrant, return, inventory, and evidence, and if he has not power to inquire into the offense in respect to ■which the warrant was issued he must at once file the same, together with a copy of the record of his proceedings, with the clerk of the court having power to so inquire. Sec. 18. Whoever shall knowingly and willfully obstruct, resist, or oppose any such officer or person in serving or at- tempting to serve or execute any such search warrant, or shall assault, beat, or wound any such officer or person, knowing him to be an officer or person so authorized, shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than two years. Sec. 20. A person who maliciously and without probable cause procures a search warrant to be issued and executed shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than one year. Sec. 21. An officer who in executing a search warrant will- fully exceeds his authority, or exercises it with unnecessary severity, shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than one year. Sec. 22. Whoever, in aid of any foreign Government, shall knowingly and willfully have possession of or control over any property or papers designed or intended for use or which is used as the means of violating any penal statute, or any of the rights or obligations of the United States under any treaty or the law of nations, shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than two years, or both. USE OF MAILS Sec. 1. Every letter, writing, circular, postal card, picture, print, engraving, photograph, newspaper, pamphlet, book, or other publication, matter or thing, of any kind, in violation of any of the provisions of this Act is hereby declared to be non- mailable matter and shall not be conveyed in the_ mails or de- livered from any post office or by any letter carrier. Nothing in this Act shall be so construed as to authorize any person other than an employe of the Dead Letter Office, duly authorized thereto, or other person upon a search warrant authorized by, law, to open any letter not addressed to himself. Sec. 2. Every letter, writing, circular, postal card, picture, print, engraving, photograph, newspaper, pamphlet, book, or other publication, matter or thing, of any kind, containing any matter advocating or urging treason, insurrection, or forcible resistance to any law of the United States, is hereby declared to be nonmailable. Sec. 3. Whoever shall use or attempt to use the mails or Postal Service of the United States for the transmission of any matter declared by this title to be nonmailable, shall be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more than five years, or both. Any person violating any provision of this title may be tried and punished either in the district in which the unlawful matter or publication was mailed, or to which it was carried by mail for delivery according to the direction thereon, or in which it was caused to be delivered by mail to the person to whom it was addressed. CONTROL OF EXPORTS ON FOOD, FUEL AND WAR SUPPLIES 27 PRESIDENT WILSON'S PROCLAMATION FOR THE CONTROL OF EXPORTS ON FOOD, FUEL AND WAR SUPPLIES. Whereas, The public safety requires that succor shall be pre- vented from reaching the enemy; Now, Therefore, I, Woodrow Wilson, President of the United States of America, do hereby proclaim to all whom it may concern that, except at such time or times under such regulations, and orders and subject to such limitations and exceptions as the President shall prescribe, until otherwise ordered by the President or by Congress, the following articles, namely: Coal, coke, fuel oils, kerosene, and gasoline, including bunkers, food grains, flour and meal therefrom, fodder and feeds, meat and fats; pig iron, steel billets, ship plates and structural shapes, scrap iron and scrap steel; ferromanganese, fertilizers, arms, ammunitions and explosives, shall not, on and after the fifteenth day of July, 1917, be carried out of or exported from , the United States or its territorial possessions to Abyssinia, Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, her colonies, possessions or protectorates, Bolivia, Brazil, Bul- garia, China, Chile,_ Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Denmark, her colonies, possessions or protectorates, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, France, her colonies, possessions, or pro- tectorates, Germany, her colonies, possessions or protectorates. Great Britain, her colonies, possessions, or protectorates, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Italy, her colonies, possessions or protectorates, Japan, Liberia, Leichtenstein, Luxemburg, Mexico, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Nepal, Nicaragua, the Netherlands, her colonies, possessions or protectorates, Norway, Oman, Panama, Paraguay, Persia, Peru, Portugal, her colonies, possessions or protectorates, Rumania, Russia, Salvador, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, Spain, her colonies, possessions or protec- torates, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, Venezuela, or Turkey. The orders and regulations from time to time prescribed will be administered by and under the authority of the Secretary of Commerce, from whoni licenses, in conformity with the said orders and regulations, will issue. In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the City of Washington, this 9th day of July, in the year of our Lord One Thousand Nine Hundred and Seventeen, and of the independence of the United States of America the One Hundred and Forty-first. WOODROW WILSON. By the President: Frank L. Polk, Acting Secretary of State. HOW TO OBTAIN LICENSES FOR EXPORT First-;-Applications for licenses may be made to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Division of Export Li- censes, 1,435 K Street, Washington, D. C, or to any of the branches of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce — New York, Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, San Francisco, and Seattle, and also in Philadelphia, Norfolk, Charleston, Savannah, Galveston and Los Angeles. Second — In applying for a license to export any of the com- modities_ covered by the President's proclamation, applicants should give the following information in triplicate form: (a) Quantity; (b) description of goods; (c) name and address of consignee; (d) name and address of consignor. Third — The license will be good for only sixty days and at the expiration of that time must be renewed, and if not shipped within that time, a new application must be made. Fourth — The various branch offices of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce have .been given full instructions as to the disposition of all applications for licenses. It is the desire of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com- merce to minimize the exporter's difficulties as much as possible, and therefore, wherever practicable, the district offices will be authorized to issue the licenses. Many of the applications may, however, have to be forwarded to Washington for decision. _ In case exporters desire, they may telegraph their applications direct to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Division of Export Licenses. WAR FINANCE LAW Congress passed a law which was introduced by Representa- tive Kitchin, and approved by President Wilson on April 24, 1917, authorizing an issue of bonds to meet expenditures for the national security and defense, and for the purpose of as- sisting in the prosecution of the war, and to extend credit to foreign governments. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United Slates of America in Congress assembled, That the Secre- tary of the Treasury, with the approval of the President, is hereby authorized to borrow, from time to time, on the credit of the United States for the purposes of this Act, and to meet expenditures authorized for the national security and defense and other public purposes authorized by law not exceeding in the aggregate $5,000,000,000, exclusive of the sums authorized by section four of this Act, and to issue therefor bonds of the United States. The bonds herein authorized shall be in such form and subject to such terms and conditions of issue, conversion, redemption, maturities, payment, and rate and time of payment of interest, not exceeding three and one-half per centum per annum, as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe. The principal and interest thereof shall be payable in United States gold coin of the present standard of value and shall be exempt, both as to principal and interest, from all taxation, except estate or in- heritance taxes, imposed by authority of the United States, or its possessions, or by any State or local taxing authority; but such bonds shall not bear the circulation privilege. The bonds herein authorized shall first be offered at not less than par as a popular loan, under such regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury as will give all citizens of the United States an equal opportunity to participate therein; and any portion of the bonds so offered and not subscribed for may be otherwise disposed of at not less than par by the Secretary of the Treasury; but no commissions shall be allowed or paid on any bonds issued under authority of this Act. Sec. 2. That for the purpose of more effectually providing for the national security and defense and prosecuting the war by establishing credits in the United States for foreign govern- ments, the Secretary of the Treasury, with the approval of the President, is hereby authorized, on behalf of the United States, to purchase, at par, from such foreign governments then en- gaged in war with the enemies of the United States, their obligations hereafter issued, bearing the same rate of interest and containing in their essentials the same terms and conditions as those of the United States issued under authority of this Act; to enter into such arrangements as may be necessary or desir- able for establishing such credits and for purchasing such obligations of foreign governments and for the subsequent pay- ment thereof before maturity, but such arrangements shall provide that if any of the bonds of the United States issued and used for the purchase of such foreign obligations shall thereafter be converted into other bonds of the United States bearing a higher rate of interest than three and one-half per centum per annum under the provisions of section five of this Act, then and in that event the obligations of such foreign governments held by the United States shall be, by such foreign governments, converted in like manner and extent into obligations bearing the same rate of interest as the bonds of the United States issued under the provisions of section five of this Act. For the pur- poses of this section there is appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $3,000,000,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary: Provided, That the authority granted by this section to the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase bonds from foreign gov- ernments, as aforesaid, shall cease upon the termination of the war between the United States and the Imperial German Government. Sec. 3. That the Secretary of the Treasury, under such terms and conditions as he may prescribe, is hereby authorized to receive on or before maturity payment for any obligations of such foreign governments purchased on behalf of the United States, and to sell at not less than the purchase price any of such obligations and to apply the proceeds thereof, and any pay- ments made by foreign governments on account of their said obligations to the_ redemption or purchase at not more than par and accrued interest of any bonds of the United States issued under authority of this Act; and if such bonds are not available for this purpose the Secretary of the Treasury shall redeem or purchase any other outstanding interest-bearing obligations of the United States which may at such time be subject to call or which may be purchased at not more than par and accrued interest. Sec. 4. That the Secretary of the Treasury, in his discretion; 28 WAR FINANCE LAW is hereby authorized to issue the bonds not already issued heretofore authorized by section thirty-nine of the Act approved August fifth, nineteen hundred and nine, entitled "An Act to provide revenue, equalize duties, and encourage the industries of the United States, and for other purposes"; section one hundred and twenty-four of the Act approved June third, nine- teen hundred and sixteen, entitled " An Act for making further and more effectual provision for the national defense, and for other purposes"; section thirteen of the Act of September seventh, nineteen hundred and sixteen, entitled "An Act to establish a United States shipping board for the purpose of encouraging, developing, and creating a naval auxiliary and a naval reserve and a merchant marine to meet the requirements of the commerce of the United States with its Territories and possessions and with foreign countries, to regulate carriers by water engaged in the foreign and interstate commerce of the United States, and for other purposes"; section four hundred of the Act approved March third, nineteen hundred and seven- teen, entitled "An Act to provide increased revenue to defray the expenses of the increased appropriations for the Army and Navy and the extensions of fortifications, and for other pur- poses"; and the public resolution approved^ March fourth, nineteen hundred and seventeen, entitled, "Joint resolution to expedite the delivery of materials, equipment, and munitions and to secure more expeditious construction of ships,"_ in the manner and under the terms and conditions prescribed in section one of this Act. That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized to borrow on the credit of the United States from time to time, in addition to the sum authorized in section one of this Act, such additional amount, not exceeding $63,945,460 as may be necessary to redeem the three per cent, loan of nineteen hundred and eight to nineteen hundred and eighteen, maturing August first, nineteen hundred and eighteen, and to issue therefor bonds of the United States in themanner and_ under the terms and conditions prescribed in section one of this Act. Sec. S. That any series of bonds issued under authority of sections one and four of this Act may, under such terms and conditions as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, be convertible into bonds bearing a higher rate of interest than the rate at which the same were issued if any subsequent series of bonds shall be issued at a higher rate of interest before the termination of the war between the United States and the Imperial German Government, the date of such termination to be fixed by a proclamation of the President of the United States. Sec. 6. That in addition to the bonds authorized by sections one and four of this Act, the Secretary of the Treasury is au- thorized to borrow from time to time, on the credit of the United States, for the purposes of this Act and to meet public WOUNDED The whole conception of governmental and national responsi- bility for caring for the wounded has undergone radical change during the months of study given the subject by experts serving with the Meaical Officers' Reserve Corps and others consulting with them. Instead of the old idea that responsibility ended with the return of the soldier to private life with his wounds healed and such pension as he might be given, it is now consid- ered that it is the duty of the Government to equip and re- educate the wounded man, after healing his wounds, and to return him to civil life ready to be as useful to himself and his country as possible. To carry out this idea plans are well under way for building " reconstruction hospitals " in large centers of populations. These hospitals will not be the last step in the return of the wounded soldiers to civil life. When the soldiers are able to take up industrial training, further provision will be ready. The injured man may be retrained to his previous occupation to conform with his handicapped condition or retrained for a new industry compatible with that condition. Additional education will be given to those fitted for it, and men may in some cases be returned to more valuable work than that from which they were called to war. Workshops will be provided at the hospitals, but arrangements will also be made with out- expenditures authorized by law, such sum or sums as, in his judgment, may be necessary, and to issue therefor certificates of indebtedness at not less than par in such form and subject to such terms and conditions and at such rate of interest, not exceeding three and one-half per centum per annum, as he may prescribe; and each certificate so issued shall be payable, with the interest accrued thereon, at such time, not exceeding one year from the date of its issue, as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe. Certificates of indebtedness herein authorized shall not bear the circulation privilege, and the sum of such certificates outstanding shall at no time exceed in the aggre- gate $2,000,000,000, and such certificates shall be exempt, both as to principal and interest, from all taxation, except estate or inheritance taxes, imposed by authority of the United States, or its possessions, or by any State or local taxing authority. Sec. 7. That the Secretary of the Treasury, in his discretion, is hereby authorized to deposit in such banks and trust com- panies as he may designate the proceeds or any part thereof arising from the sale of the bonds and certificates of indebted- ness authorized by this Act, or the bonds previously authorized as described in section four of this Act, and such deposits may bear such rate of interest and be subject to such terms and conditions as the Secretary of the Treasury majr prescribe: Provided, That the amount so deposited shall not in any case exceed the amount withdrawn from such bank or trust com- pany, and invested in such bonds or certificates of indebtedness plus the amount so invested by such bank or trust company, and such deposits shall be secured in the manner required for other deposits by Section 5153, Revised Statutes, and amend- ments thereto; Provided further, That the provisions of Section 5191 of the Revised Statutes as amended by the Federal Re- serve Act and the amendments thereof, with reference_ to the reserves required to be kept by national banking institutions and other member banks of the Federal Reserve System, shall not apply to deposits of public monies by the United States in designated depositaries. Sec. 8. That in order to pay all necessary expenses, including rent, connected with any operations under this Act, a sum not exceeding one-tenth of one per centum of the amount of_ bonds and one-tenth of one per centum of the amount of certificates of indebtedness herein authorized is hereby appropriated, or as much thereof as may be necessary, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to be expended as the Secretary of the Treasury may direct: Provided, That, in addi- tion to the reports now required by law, the Secretaryof the Treasury shall, on the first Monday in December, nineteen hundred and seventeen, and annually thereafter, transmit to the Congress a detailed statement of all expenditures under this Act. SOLDIEBS side industries whereby more elaborate methods of training may be carried on. An employment bureau will be established to place men so trained in different parts of the United States. Arrangements have been made by the department of military orthopedics to care for soldiers, so far as orthopedics (the pre- vention of deformity) is concerned, continuously until they are returned either to active service or civil life. Orthopedic sur- geons will be attached to the medical force near the firing line and to the different hospitals back to the base orthopedic hos- pital, which will be established within 100 miles of the firing line. In this hospital, in addition to orthopedic surgical care, there will be equipment for surgical reconstruction work and "curative workshops" in which men will acquire ability to use injured members while doing work interesting and useful in itself. This method has supplanted the old and tiresome one of prescribing a set of motions for a man to go through with no purpose than to reacquire use of his injured part. It is not the intention that men able to go back to the firing line shall be returned to this country unless their convalescence will extend over a period of a considerable number of months. Soldiers unable to return to duty will be sent to the reconstruc- tion hospitals in the United States. THF WAR TAX OF 1917 29 THE WAR REVENUE ACT OF 1917 An Act — ^To provide revenue to defray war expenses, and for other purposes. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. Individual Normal "War Income tax Tate. War Surtaxes on individual incomes. Rates of sur taxes. TITLE I.— WAR INCOME TAX Section 1. That in addition to the normal tax imposed by subdivision (a) of section one of the Act entitled "An Act to increase the revenue, and for other purposes," approved Sep- tember eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid a hke normal tax of two per centum upon the income of every individual, a citizen or resident o| the United States, received in the calendar year nineteen hundred and seventeen and every calendar year thereafter. Sec. 2. That in addition to the additional tax imposed by subdivision (6) of section one of such Act of September eighth nineteen hundred and sixteen, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid a like additional tax upon the income of every individual received in the calendar year nineteen hvmdred and seventeen and every calendar year thereafter, as follows: One per centum per annimi upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $5,000 and does not exceed $7,500; Two per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $7,500 and does not exceed $10,000; Three per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $10,000 and does not exceed $12,500; Four per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $12,500 and does not exceed $15,000; > Five per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $15,000 and does not exceed $20,000; Seven per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $20,000 and does not exceed $40^000; Ten per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $40,000 and does not exceed $60,000; Fourteen per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $60,000 and does not exceed $80,000; Eighteen per centum per annum upon the amovmt by which the total net income exceeds $80,000 and does not exceed $100,000; Twenty-two per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceed $100,000 and does not exceed $150,- 000; Twenty-five per centum per annum upon the amoimt by which the total net income exceeds $150,000 and does not exceed $200,000; Thirty per centum per annum upon the amoimt by which the total net income exceeds $200,000 and does not exceed $250,000; Thirty-four per centum per annum upon- the amount by which the total net income exceeds $250,000 and does not exceed $300,000; Thirty-seven per centum per annum upon the amoimt by which the total net income exceeds $300,000 and does not exceed $500,000; Forty per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $500,000 and does not exceed $750,000. Forty-five per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $750,000 and does not exceed $1,000,000. Fifty per centum per annum upon the amount by which the total net income exceeds $1,000,000. Sec. 3. That the taxes imposed by sections one and two of How computed* thig Act shall be computed, levied, assessed, collected, and paid THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Exemptions from war income tax. Withholding nor- mal tax at source. upon the same basis and in the same manner as the similar taxes imposed by section one of such Act of September eighth, nine- teen hundred and sixteen, except that in the case of the tax imposed by section one of this Act ( ) the exemptions of $3,000 and $4,000 provided in section seven of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as, amended by this Act, shall be, respectively, $1,000 and $2,000, and (6) the returns required under subdivisions (b) and (c) of section eight of such Act, as amended by. this Act, shall be required in t^he case of net incomes of $1,000 or over, in the case of unmarried persons, and $2,000 or over in the case of married persons, instead of $3,000 or over, as therein provided, and (c) the provisions of subdivision (c) of section nine of such Act, as amended by this Act, requiring the normal tax of individuals on income derived from interest to be deducted and withheld at the source of the income shall not apply to the new tw^o per centum normal tax prescribed in section one of this Act until on and after January first, nineteen hundred and eighteen, and thereafter only one two per centum normal tax shall be deducted and withheld at the source under the provisions of such subdivision (c), and any further normal tax for which the recipient of such income is liable under this Act or such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as amended by this Act, shall be paid by such recipient. Sec. 4. That in addition to the tax imposed by subdivision (a) of section ten of such Act of September eighth, nineteen him- dred and sixteen, as amended by this Act, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid a like tax of four per centum upon the income received in the calendar year nineteen hundred and seventeen and every calendar year thereafter, by every corpora- tion, joint-stock company or association, o* insurance company, subject to the tax imposed by that subdivision of that section, except that if it has fixed its own fiscal year, the tax imposed by this section for the fiscal year ending during the calendar year nineteen hundred and seventeen shall be levied, assessed, col- lected, and paid only on that proportion of its income for such fiscal year which the period between January first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, and the end of such fiscal year bears to the whole of such fiscal year. The tax imposed by this section shall be computed, levied, assessed, collected, and paid upon the same incomes and in the same manner as the tax imposed by subdivision (a) of section ten of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and six- teen, as amended by this Act, except that for the purpose of the tax imposed by this section the income embraced in a return of a corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insurance company, shall be credited with the amoimt received as dividends upon the stock or from the net earnings of any other corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insurance company, which is taxable upon its net income as provided in this title. Sec. 5. That the provisions of this title shall not extend to Porto Rico or the Philippine Islands, and the Porto Rican or Philippine Legislature shall have power by due enactment to amend, alter, modify, or repeal the income tax laws in force in Porto Rico or the Philippine Islands respectively. Corporation W a r Income tax rate. Where fiscal year has been fixed, tax- proportioned. How computed. Credit allowed. Porto Rico or Philippines not affected. Definitions. "Corporation" "Domestic" "Foreign" TITLE II.— WAR EXCESS PROFITS TAX Sec. 200. That when used in this title — the term "corporation" includes joint-stock companies or associations and insurance companies; The term "domestic" means created under the law of the United States, or of any state, territory, or district thereof, and THE WAR TAX OF 1917 31 "United States" "Taxable year" First taxable year. Returns covering fiscal year. "Prewar period.' the term "foreign" means created under the law of any other possession of the United States or of any foreign covmtry or gov- ernment; The term "United States" means only the States, the Territories of Alaska and Hawaii, and the District of Columbia; The term "taxable year" means the twelve months ending December thirty-first, excepting in the case of a corporation or partnership which has fixed its own fiscal year, in which case it means such fiscal year. The first taxable year shall be the year ending December thirty-first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, except that in the case of a corporation or partnership which has fixed its own fiscal year, it shall be the fiscal year ending during the\ calendar year nineteen himdred and seventeen. If a cor- poration or partnership, prior to March first, nineteen hundred and eighteen, makes a return covering its own fiscal year, and includes therein the income received during that part of the fiscal year falling within the calendar year nineteen hundred and sixteen, the tax for such taxable year shall be that proportion of the tax computed upon the net income during such full fiscal year which the time from January first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, to the end of such fiscal year bears to the full fiscal year; and, The term "prewar period" means the calendar year nineteen himdred and eleven, nineteen hundred and twelve, and nine- teen hundred and thirteen, or, if a corporation or partnership was not in existence or an individual was not engaged in a trade or business during the whole of such period, then as many of such years during the whole of which the corporation or partnership was in existence or the individual was engaged in the trade or business. The terms "trade" and "business" include professions and occupations. The term "net income" means in the case of a foreign cor- poration or partnership or a nonresident alien individual, the net income received from sources within the United States. Sec. 201. That in addition to the taxes under existing law and under this Act there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid for each taxable year upon the income of every corporation, partnership, or individual, a tax (hereinafter in this title referred to as the tax) equal to the following percentages of the net income; Twenty per centum of the amoimt of the net income in excess of the deduction (determined as hereinafter provided) and not in excess of fifteen per centum of the invested capital for the taxable year; Twenty-five per centum of the amount of the net income in excess of fifteen per centum and not in excess of twenty per centum of such capital; Thirty-five per centum of the amount of the net income in excess of twenty per centum and not in excess of twenty-five per centum of such capital; ^ Forty-five per centum of the amount of the net income in excess of twenty-five per centum and not in excess of thirty-three per centum of such capital; and Sixty per centum of the amount of the net income in excess of thirty-three per centum of such capital. For the purpose of this title every corporation or partnership not exempt under the provisions of this section shall be deemed to be engaged in business, and all the trades and businesses in which it is engaged shall be treated as a single trade or business, and all its income from whatever source derived shall be deemed "Trade." "Net Income" Payable by. Rates of war excess profits tax. Business of one company or partner- ship. 32 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Affected. Exempt from tax. to be received from such trade or business. This title shall apply to all trades or businesses of whatever description, whether continuously carried on or not, except — (a) In the case of oflBcers and employees imder the United States, or any state, territory, or the District of Columbia^ or any local subdivision thereof, the compensation or fees received by them as such officers or employees; (6) Corporations exempt from tax under the provisions of Section Eleven of Title I of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as amended by this Act, and partnerships and individuals carrying on or doing the same business, or coming within the same description; and (c) Incomes derived from the business of life, health, and accident insurance combined in one policy issued on the weekly premium payment plan. Sec. 202. That the tax shall not be imposed in the case of the trade or business of a foreign corporation or partnership or a nonresident alien individual, the net income of which trade or business during the taxable year is less than $3,000. Sec. 203. That for the purposes of this title the deduction shall be as follows, except as otherwise in this title provided — ■ (a) In the case of a domestic corporation, the sum of (1) an amount equal to the same percentage of the invested capital for the taxable year which the average amount of the annual net income of the trade or business during the prewar period was of the invested capital for the prewar period (but not less than seven or more than nine per centum of the invested capital for the taxable year), and (2) $3,000; (b) In the case of a domestic partnership or of a citizen or resident of the United States, the sum of (1) an amount equal to the same percentage of the invested capital for the taxable year which the average amoimt of the annual net income of the trade or business during the prewar period was of the invested capital for the prewar period (but not less than seven or more than nine per centum of the invested capital for the taxable year), and (2) $6,000; (c) In the case of a foreign corporation or partnership or of a nonresident alien individual, an amount ascertained in the same manner as provided in subdivisions (A) and (B), without any ex- emption of $3,000 or $6,000; (d) If the Secretary of the Treasury* is imable satisfactorily to determine the average amount of the annual net income of the trade or business during the prewar period, the deduction shall be determined in the same manner as provided in section two hun- dred and five. Sec. 204. That if a corporation or partnership was not in existence^ or an individual was not engaged in the trade or busi- ness, durmg the whole of any one calendar year during the prewar period, the deduction shall be an amount equal to eight per cen- tum of the invested capital for the taxable year, plus in the case of a domestic corjjoration $3,000, and in the case of a domestic partnership or a citizen or resident of the United States $6,000. A trade or business carried on by a corporation, partnership, or individual, although formally organized or reorganized on or after January second, nineteen himdred and thirteen, which is substantially a continuation of a trade or business carried on prior to that date, shall, for the purpose of this title, be deemed to have been in existence prior to that date, and the net income and in- vested capital of its predecessor prior to that date shall be deemed to have been its net income and invested capital. Sec. 205. (a) That if the Secretary of the Treasury, upon Foreign. Deduction allowed. Domestic corpo- ration. Domestic partner- ship, citizen or resi- dent of U. S. Foreign deduction. Difficulty in determining. If not in business during prewar period "Domestic" When substantially a continuation o f business. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 complaint finds either (1) that during the prewar period a domes- tic corporation or partnership, or a citizen or resident of the United States, had no net income from the trade or business, or (2) that during the prewar period the percentage, which the net income was of the invested capital, was low as compared with the percentage, which the net income during such period of repre- sentative corporations, partnerships, and individuals, engaged in a like or similar trade or business, was of their invested capital, then the deduction shall be the sum of (1) an amount equal to the same percentage of its invested capital for the taxable year which the average deduction (determined in the same manner as provided in section two hundred and three, without including the $3,000 or $6,000 therein referred to) for such year of repre- sentative corporations, partnerships, or individuals, engaged in a like or similar trade or business, is of their average invested capital for such year, plus (2) in the case of a domestic corporation $3,000, and in the case of a domestic partnership or a citizen or resident of the United States $6,000. The percentage which the net income was of the invested capital in each trade or business shaU be determined by the com- missioner of internal revenue, in accordance with regulations prescribed by him, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury. In the case of a corporation or partnership which has fixed its own fiscal year, the percentage determined for the calendar year ending during such fiscal year shall be used. (6) The tax shaU be assessed upon the basis of the deduction determined as provided in section two himdred and three, but the taxpayer claiming the benefit of this section may at the time of makmg the return file a claim for abatement of the amount by which the tax so assessed exceeds a tax computed upon the basis of the deduction determined as provided in this section. In such event, collection of the part of the tax covered by such claim for abatement shall not be made until the claim is decided, but if in the judgment of the commissioner of internal revenue, the interests of the United States would be jeopardized thereby he may require the claimant to give a bond in such amoimt and with such smreties as the commissioner may think wise to safeguard such interests, conditioned for the payment of any tax found to be due, with the interest thereon, and if such bond, satisfactory to the commissioner, is not given within such time as he prescribes, the full amount of tax assessed shall be collected and the amoimt overpaid, if any, shall upon final decision of the application be refunded as a tax erroneously or illegally collected. Sec. 206. That for the piirposes of this title the net income of a corporation shall be ascertained and returned (a) for the calendar years nineteen hundred and eleven and nineteen himdred and twelve upon the same basis and in the same manner as provided in section thirty-eight of the Act entitled "An Act to provide revenue, equalize duties, and encourage the industries of the United States, and for other purposes," Approved August fifth, nineteen himdred and nine, except that income taxes paid by it within the year imposed by the authority of the United States shall be included; (6) for the calendar year nineteen hundred and thirteen upon the same basis and in the same manner as provided in Section II of the Act entitled "An Act to reduce tariff duties and to provide revenue for the Government, and for other pur- poses," approved October third, nineteen hundred and thirteen, except that income taxes paid by it within the year imposed by the authority of the United States shall be included, and except that the amounts received by it as dividends upon the stock or kom the net earnings of other corporations, joint-stock companies No net income dur- ing prewar period. Low percentage compared with representative business. Percentages determined by commissioner. Taxpayer claiming benefit may file claim for abatement. Bond may be re- quired. How net income of corporations ascer- tained and returned for prewar period. Deductionst 34 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 or associations, or insurance companies, subject to the tax im- posed by Section II of such Act of October third, nineteen hundred and thirteen, shall be deducted; and (c) for the taxable year upon the same basis and in the same manner as provided in Title I of the Act entitled "An Act to increase the revenue, and for other purposes," approved September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as amended by this Act, except that the amounts re- ceived by it as dividends upon the stock or from the net earnings of other corporations, joint-stock companies or associations, or insurance companies, subject to the tax imposed by Title I of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, shall be deducted. The net income of a partnership or individual shall be ascer- tained and returned for the calendar years nineteen himdred and eleven, nineteen himdred and twelve, and nineteen hundred and thirteen, and for the taxable year, upon the same basis and in the same manner as provided in Title I of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, aa amended by this Act, except that the credit allowed by subdivision (b) of Section Five of such Act shall be deducted. There shall be allowed (a) in the case of a domestic partnership the same deductions as allowed to individuals in subdivision (a) of Section Five of such Act of , September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as amended by this Act; and (6) in the case of a foreign partnership the same deductions as allowed to individuals in subdivision (a) of Section Six of such Act as amended by this Act. Sec. 207. That as used in this title the term "invested capital" for any year means the average invested capital for the year, as defined and limited in this title, averaged monthly. As used in this title "invested capital" does not include stocks, bonds (other than obligations of the United States), or other assets the income from which is not subject to the tax imposed by this title, nor money or other property borrowed, and means, subject . to the above hmitations: (a) In the case of a corporation of partnership: (1) Actual cash paid in, (2) the actual cash value of tangible property paid in other than ca^, for stock or shares in such corporation or partnership, at the time of such payment (but in case such tangible property was paid in prior to January first, nineteen hundred and fourteen, the actual cash value of such property as of January first, nineteen himdred and fourteen, but in no case to exceed the par value of the original stock or shares specifically issued therefor), and (3) paid in or earned surplus and undivided profits used or employed in the business, exclusive of undivided profits earned during the taxable year: Provided, that (a) the actual cash value of patents and copyrights paid in for stock or shares in such corporation or partnership, at the time of such payment, shall be included as invested capital, but not to exceed the par value of such stock or shares at the time of such payment, and (6) the good will, trade marks, trade brands, the franchise of a corporation or partnership, or other intangible property, shall be included as invested capital if the corporation or partnership made payment bona fide therefor specifically as such in cadi or tangible property, the value of such good will, trade-mark, trade brand, franchise, or intangible property, not to exceed the actual cash or actual cash value of the tangible property paid therefor at the time of such payment; but good wiU, trade-marks, trade bands, franchise of a corporation or partnership, or other intangible property, bona fide purchased, prior to March third, nineteen hundred and seventeen, for and with interests or shares in a partnership or for and with shares in the capital stock of a For taxable year. Deductions. Partnerships and individuals. Deductions. Invested capital defined. Does not include. Corporations and partnerships "invested capital." Patents and copyrights. Good will, trade marks, etc. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 corporation (issued prior to March third, nineteen hundred and seventeen), in an amount not to exceed, on March third, nine- teen hundred and seventeen, twenty per centum of the total interests or shares ia the partnership or of the total shares of the capital stock of the corporation, shall be included in invested capital at a value not to exceed the actual cash value at the time of such purchase, and in case of issue of stock therefor not to ex- ceed the par value of such stock; (6) In the case of an individual, (1) actual cash paid into the trade or business, and (2) the actual cash value of tangible property paid into the trade or business, other than cash, at the time of such payment (but in case such tangible property was paid in prior to January first, nineteen himdred and fourteen, the actual cash value of such property as of January first, nineteen hundred and fo'urteen), and (3) the actual cash value of patents, copyrights, good wiU, trade-marks, trade brands, franchises, or other intangible property, paid into the trade or business, at the time of such payment, if payment was made therefor specifically aa such in cash or tangible property, not to exceed the actual cash or actual cash value of the tangible property bona fide paid therefor at the time of such payment.^ In the case of a foreign corporation or partnership or of a nonresident ahen individual the term "invested capital" means that proportion of the entire invested capital, as defined and limited in this title, which the net income from sources within the United States bears to the entire net income. Sec. 208. That in case of the reorganization, consoHdation, or change of ownership of a trade or business after March third, nineteen hundred and seventeen, if an interest or control in such trade or business of fifty per centum or more remains in control of the same persons, corporations, associations, partnerships, or any of them, then iu ascertaining the invested capital of the trade or business no asset transferred or received from the prior trade or business shall be allowed a greater value than would have been allowed under this title in computing the invested capital of such prior trade or business if such asset had not been so transferred or received, unless such asset was paid for specifically as such, in cash or tangible property, and then not to exceed the actual cash or actual cash value of the tangible property paid therefor at the time of such payment. Sec. 209. That in the case of a trade or business having no invested capital or not more than a nominal capital there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid, in addition to the taxes under existing law and under this Act, in Heu of the tax imposed by Section Two Hundred and One, a tax equivalent to eight per centum of the net income of such trade or business, in excess of the following deductions: In the case of a domestic corporation, $3,000, and in the case of a domestic partnership, or a citizen or resident of the United States, $6,000, in the case of aU other trades or business, no deduction. Sec. 210. That if the Secretary of the Treasury is unable in any case satisfactorily to determine the invested capital, the amount of the deduction shall be the sum of (1) an amount equal to the same proportion of the net income of the trade or business re- ceived during the taxable year as the proportion which the average deduction (determined in the same manner as provided in Section Two Hundred and Three, without including the $3,000 or $6,000 therein referred to) for the same calendar year of representative corporations, partnerships, and individuals, engaged in a hke or similar trade or business, bears to the total net income of the trade or business received by such corporations, partnerships, Individual "invested capital." Patents, copyrights, good will, etc. Foregin "invested capital." Reorganization consolidation, or change of ownership. "Invested capital." If no invested capital or only nominal capital. Rate of war excess profits tax. Deduction when unable to determine invested capital. 36 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Proportion determined by commissioner. Returns required of partnerships. Administrative provisions. and individuals, plus (2) in the case of a domestic corporation $3,000, and in the case of a domestic partnership or a citizen or resident of the United States $6,000. For the purpose of this Section the proportion between the deduction and the net income in each trade or business shall be determined by the commissioner of internal revenue in ac- cordance with regulations prescribed by him, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury. In the case of a corporation or partnership which has fixed its own fiscal year, the proportion determined for the calendar year ending during such fiscal year shall be used. Sec. 211. That every foreign partnership having a net income of $3,000 or more for the taxable year, and every domestic part- nership having a net income of $6,000 or more for the taxable year, shall render a correct return of the income of the trade or business for the taxable year, setting forth specifically the gross income for such year, and the deductions allowed in this title. Such returns shall be rendered at the same time and in the same manner as is prescribed for income-tax returns under Title I of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as amended by this Act. Sec. 212. That aU administrative, special, and general pro- visions of law, including the laws in relation to the assessment, remissioii, collection, and refund of internal-revenue taxes not heretofore specifically repealed, and not inconsistent with the provisions of this title, are hereby extended and made apphcable to all the provisions of this Title and to the tax herein imposed, and aU provisions of Title I of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as amended by this Actj relating to retm-ns and payment of the tax therein imposed, mcluding penalties, are hereby made applicable to the tax imposed by this title. Sec. 213. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasmy, diall make all necessary regulations for carrying out the provisions of this title, and may require any corporation, partnership, or in- (ividual, subject to the provisions of this title, to furnish him with such facts, data, and information as in his judgment are necessary to collect the tax imposed by this title. Sec. 214. That title II (sections two hundred to two hundred and seven, inclusive) of the Act entitled "An Act to provide increased revenue to defray the expenses of the increased ap- propriations for the army and navy, and the extensions of fortifi- cations, and for other purposes," approved March third, nineteen hundred and seventeen, is hereby repealed. Any amount heretofore or hereafter paid on account of the tax imposed by such title II, shall be credited toward the payment of the tax imposed by this title, and if the amount so paid exceeds the amoimt of such tax the excess shall be refimded as a tax erroneously or illegally collected. Subdivision (1) of section three hundred and one of such Act of September eighth, nineteen himdred and sixteen, is hereby amended so that the rate of tax for the taxable year nineteen hundred andseventeen shall be ten per centum instead of twelve and one-half per centum, as therein provided. Subdivision (2) of such section is hereby amended to read as foUows: "(2) This section shall cease to be of eflfect on and after January first, nineteen hundred and eighteen." Regulations. Excess profits tax law of March 3, 1917, repealed. Amounts paid credited. Munition manufacturers, rate of tax changed. Ceases to act. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 37 Distilled spirits. Amount of war tax. Imported Perfumes containing distilled spirits. Importation of distilled spirits. TITLE III.— WAR TAX ON BEVERAGES Sec. 300. That on and after the passage of this Act there shall be levied and collected on all distilled spirits in bond at that time or that have been or that may be then or thereafter produced in or imported into the United States, except such distilled spirits as are subject to the tax provided in section three hundred and three, in addition to the tax now imposed by law, a tax of $1.10 (or, if withdrawn for beverage purposes or for use in the manu- facture or production of any article used or intended for use as a beverage, a tax of $2.10) on each proof gallon, or wine gallon when below proof, and a proportionate tax at a like rate on all fractional parts oi such proof or wine gallon, to be paid by the distiller or importer when withdrawn, and collected under the provisions of existing law. That in addition to the tax under existing law there shall be levied and collected upon all perfumes hereafter imported into the United States containing distilled spirits, a tax of $1.10 per wine gallon, and a proportionate tax at a like rate on all fractional parts of such wine gallon. Such tax shall be collected by the collector of customs and deposited as internal-revenue collec- tions, under such rules and regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe. Sec. 301. That no distilled spirits produced after the passage of this Act shall be imported into the United States from any foreign country, or from the West Indian Islands recently ac- quired from Denmark (unless produced from products the growth of such islands, and not then into any State or Territory or Dis- trict of the United States in which the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquor is prohibited), or from Porto Rico, or the Phihppine Islands. Under such rules, regulations, and bonds as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, the provisions of this section shaU not apply to distilled spirits imported for other than (1) beverage purposes or (2) use in the manufactm-e or pro- duction of any article used or intended for use as a beverage. Sec. 302. That at registered distilleries producing alcohol, or other high-proof spirits, packages may be filled withch su spirits reduced to not less than one hundred proof from the receiving cisterns and tax paid without being entered into bonded warehouse. Such spirits may also be transferred from the re- ceiving cisterns at such distilleries, by means of pipe lines, direct to storage tanks in the bonded warehouse and may be warehoused in such storage tanks. Such spirits may be also transferred in tanks or tank cars to general bonded warehouses for storage therein, either in storage tanks in such warehouses or in the tanks in which they were transferred. Such spirits may also be transferred after tax payment from receiving cisterns or ware- house storage tanks to tanks or tank cars and may be transported in such tanks or tank cars to the premises of rectifiers of spirits. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, is hereby empowered to prescribe all necessary regulations relating to the drawing off, transferring, gauging, storing and transporting of such spirits; the records to be kept and returns to be made; the size and kind of packages and tanks to be used: the marking, branding, munbering and stamping of such packages and tanks; the kinds of stamps, if any, to be used; and the time and manner of paying the tax; the kind of bond and the penal sum of same. The tax prescribed by law must be paid before such spirits are removed from the distillery' premises, or from general bonded warehouse in the case of spirits transferred thereto, except as otherwise provided Removal from re- gistered distilleries. Regulations. Tax payable. 3S THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Drawn from receiv- ing cisterns. Ethyl and denatured alcohol. by law. Under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe, distilled spirits may hereafter be drawn from receiving cisterns and deposited in distillery warehouses without having affixed to the packages containing the same distillery warehouse stamps, and such packages, when so deposited in warehouse, may be withdrawn therefrom on the original gauge where the same have remained in such warehouse for a period not exceeding thirty days from the date of deposit. Under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe, the manufacture, warehousing, withdrawal, and shipment, imder the provisions of existing law, of ethyl alcohol for other than (1) beverage pm-poses or (2) use in the manirfacture or production of any article used or intended for use as a beverage, and denatured alcohol, may be exempted from the provisions of section thirty-two hundred and eighty-three, Revised Statutes of the United States. Under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe, manufacturers of ethyl alcohol for other than beverage pm-poses may be granted permission imder the pro- visions of section thirty-two hundred and eighty-five, Revised Statutes of the United States, to fill fermenting tubs in a sweet- mash distillery not of tener than once in forty-eight hours. Sec. 303. That upon aU distilled spirits produced in or im- ported into the United States upon which the tax now_ imposed by law has been paid, and which, on the day this Act is passed, are held by a retailer in a quantity in excess of fifty gallons in the aggregate, or by any other person, corporation, partnership, or association in any quantity, and which are intended for sale, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid a tax of $1.10 (or, if intended for sale for beverage purposes or for use in the manufacture or production of any article used or intended for use as a beverage, a tax of $2.10) on each proof gallon, and a proportionate tax at a hke rate on all fractional parts of such proof gallon: Provided, That the tax on such distilled spirits in the custody of a court of bankruptcy in insolvency proceedings on June first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, shall be paid by the person to whom the court dehver such distilled spirits at the time of such dehvery, to the extent that the amoiint thus dehv- ered exceeds the fifty gallons hereinbefore provided. Sec. 304. That in addition to the tax now imposed or imposed by this Act on distilled spirits there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid a tax of 15 cents on each proof gallon and a proportionate tax at a like rate on all fractional parts of such proof gallon on all distiUed spirits or wines hereafter rectified, purified, or refined in such manner, and on all mixtures hereafter produced in such manner, that the person so rectifying, purifying, refining, or mixing the same is a rectifier within the meaning of section thirty-two hundred and forty-four, Revised Statutes, as amended, and on aU such articles in the possession of the rectifier on the day this Act is passed : Provided, That this tax shall not apply to gin produced by the redistillation of a pure spirit over juniper berries and other aromatics. When the process of rectification is completed and the tax prescribed by this section has been paid, it shall be unlawful for the rectifier or other dealer to reduce in proof or increase in volume such spirits or wine by the addition of water or other substance; nothing herein contained shall, however, prevent a Regulations governing manufacturers. Excess stock of tax- paid distilled spirits. Amount of war tax. War tax on distilled spirits or wines rectified. Gin. Unlawful to dilute. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 39 W^ar tax does not apply. rectifier from using again in the process of rectification spirits already rectified and upon which the tax has theretofore been paid. The tax imposed by this section shall not attach to cordials or Kqueiu-s on which a tax is imposed and paid imder the Act en- titled "An Act to increase the revenue, and for other purposes," approved September eighth, nineteen himdred and ^ixteen, nor to the mixing and blending of wines, where such blending is for the sole purpose of perfecting such wines according to commercial standards, nor to blends made exclusively of two or more pure straight whiskies aged in wood for a period not less than four years and without the addition of coloring or flavoring matter or any other substance than pure water and if not reduced below ninety proof: Provided, That such blended whiskies shall be exempt from tax under this section only when compounded imder the immediate supervision of a revenue oflBcer, in such tanks and tmder such conditions and supervision as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe. AU distilled spirits taxable imder this section shall be subject to imiform regulations concering the use thereof in the manu- facture, blending, compounding, mixing, marking, branding, and sale of whisky and rectified spirits, and no discrimination whatso- ever shaU be made by reason of a difference in the character of the material from which same may have been produced. The business of a rectifier of spirits shall be carried on, and the tax on rectified spirits shall be paid, under such rules, regulations, and bonds as may be prescribed by the Coipmissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury. Any person violating any of the provisions of this section shall be deemed to be guilty of a misdemeanor and, upon conviction shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than two years. He shall, in addition, be liable to double the tax evaded, together with the tax, to be collected by assessment or on any bond given. Sec. 305. That hereafter collectors of internal revenue shall not furnish wholesale liquor dealer's stamps in lieu of and in exchange for stamps for rectified spirits unless the package cov- ered by stamp for rectified spirits is to be broken into smaller packages. The Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, is authorized to discontinue the use of the following stamps whenever in his judgment the interests of the Government will be subserved thereby: Distillery warehouse, special bonded warehouse, special bonded rewarehouse, general bonded warehouse, general bonded re- transfer, transfer brandy, export tobacco, export ciga-rs, export oleomargarine and export fermented hquor stamps. Sec. 306. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, is hereby author- ized to require at distilleries, breweries, rectifying houses, and wherever else in his judgment such action may be deemed advisable, the installation of meters, tanks, pipes, or any other apparatus for the purpose of protecting the revenue, and such meters, tanks, and pipes and all necessary labor incident thereto shall be at the expense of the person, corporation, partnership, or association on whose premises the installation is required. Any such person, corporation, partnership, or association refusing or neglecting to install such apparatus when so required by the commissioner shall not be permitted to conduct business on such When blended whiskies exempt. Unifo rm regfulations. Business of recti- fier. Penalties for violations. Exchange of stamps. Use of stamps may be discontinued. Installation apparatus. of premises. Sec. 307. That on and after the passage of this Act there shall 46 The war tax of ml Beer, lager beer, ale, porter, etc. War Tax. Fermented liquors conveyed. Removal supervised Still wines, ver- muth, champagne. Excess stocks taxed. Grape brandy or wine spirits. Sweet wine pro- ducers. Additional tax. be levied and collected on all beer, lager beer, ale, porter, and other similar fermented liquor, containing one-half per centum or more of alcohol, brewed or roanufactured and sold, or stored in warehouse, or removed for consumption or sale, within the United States, by whatever name such liquors may be called, in addition to the tax now imposed by law, a tax of $1.60 for every barrel containing not more than thirty-one gallons, and at a like rate for any other quantity or for the fractional parts of a barrel authorized and defined by law. Sec. 308. That from and after the passage of this Act taxable fermented Uquors may be conveyed without payment of tax from the brewery premises where produced to a contiguous industrial distillery of either class established imder the Act of October third, nineteen hundred and thirteen, to be used as distilling material, arid the residue from such distillation, con- taining less than one-half of one per centum of alcohol by volume, which is to be used in making beverages, may be manipvdated by cooling, flavoring, carbonating, settling, and filtering on the distillery premises or elsewhere. The removal of the taxable fermented liquor from the brewery to the distUlery and the operation of the distillery and removal of the residue therefrom shall be under the supervision of such officer or officers as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue shall deem proper, and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, is hereby author- ized to make such regulations from time to time as may be necessary to give force and effect to this section and to safeguard the revenue. Sec. 309. That upon all still wines, including vermuth, and upon all champagne and other sparkling wines, liqueurs, cordials, artificial or imitation wines or compounds sold as wine, producea in or imported into the United States, and hereafter removed from the customhouse, place of manufacture, or from bonded !)remise3 for sale or consumption, there shall be levied and col- ected, in addition to the tax now imposed by law upon such articles, a tax equal to such tax, to be levied, collected, and paid under the provisions of existing law. Sec. 310. That upon all articles specified in section three hundred and nine upon which the tax now imposed by law has been paid and which are on the day this Act is passed held in excess of twenty-five gallons in the aggregate of such articles and intended for sale, there shall be levied, collected, and paid a tax equal to the tax imposed by such section. Sec. 311. That upon all grape brandy or wine spirits with- drawn by a producer of wines from any fruit distillery or special bonded warehouse under subdivision (c) of section four himdred and two of the Act entitled "An Act to increase the revenue, and for other purposes," approved September eight, nineteen hundred and sixteen, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid in addition to the tax therein imposed, a tax equal to double such tax, to be assessed, collected, and paid under the provisions of existing law. Sec. 312. That upon all sweet wines held for sale by the pro- ducer thereof upon the day this Act is jjassed there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid an additional tax equivalent to 10 cents per proof gallon upon the grape brandy or wme spirits used in the fortification of such wine, and an additional tax of 20 cents per proof gallon shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid upon all grape orandy or wine spirits withdrawn by a producer of sweet wines for the purpose of fortifying such wines and not BO used prior to the passage of this Act. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 41 Sec. 313. That there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid — (a) Upon all prepared sirups or extracts (intended for use in the manufacture or production of beverages, commonly known as soft driaks, by soda fountains, bottling estabhshments, and other similar places) sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer thereof, if so sold for not more than $1.30 per gallon, a tax of 5 cents per gallon; if so sold for more than $1.30 and not more than $2 per gallon, a tax of 8 cents per gallon; if so sold for more than $2 and not more than $3 per gallon, a tax of 10 cents per gallon; if so sold for more than $3 and not more than $4 per gal- Ion, a tax of 15 cents per gallon; and if so sold for more than $4 per gallon, a tax of 20 cents per gallon; and (6) Upon all unfermented grape juice, soft drinks or artificial nadneral waters (not carbonated), and fermented Hquors contain- ing less than one-half per centum of alcohol, sold by the manu- facturer, producer, or importer thereof, in bottles or other closed containers, and upon all ginger ale, root beer, sarsaparilla, pop, and other carbonated waters or beverages, manufactured and sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer of the carbonic acid gas used in carbonating the same, a tax of 1 cent per gallon; and (c) Upon all natural mineral waters or table waters, sold by the producer, bottler, or importer thereof, in bottles or other closed containers, at over 10 cents per gallon, a tax of 1 cent per gallon. Sec. 314, That each such manufacturer, producer, bottler, or importer shall make monthly returns under oath to the collector of internal revenue for the district in which is located the principal place of business, containing such information necessary for the assessment of the tax, and at such times and in such manner, as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation prescribe. Sec. 315. ^ That upon all carbonic acid gas in drums or other containers (intended for use in the manufacture or production of carbonated water or other drinks) sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer thereof, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid a tax of 5 cents per pound. Such tax shall be paid by the purchaser to the vendor thereof and shall be collected, retiuTled, and paid to the United States by such vendor in the same manner as provided in section five hundred and three. TITLE IV.— WAR TAX ON CIGARS, TOBACCO, AND MANUFACTURES THEREOF. Sec. 400. That upon cigars and cigarettes, which shalL be manufactured and sold, or removed for consumption or sale, there shall be levied and collected, in addition to the taxes now imposed by existing law, the following taxes, to be paid by the manufacturer or importer thereof; (a) on cigars of all descriptions made of tobacco, or any substitute therefor, and weighing not more than three pounds per thousand, 25 cents per thousand; (6) on cigars made of tobacco, or any substitute therefor, and weighing more than three pounds per thousand, if manufactured or imported to retail at 4 cents or more each, and not more than 7 cents each, $1 per thousand; (c) if manufactured or imported to retail at more than 7 cents each and not more than 15 cents each, $3 per thousand; (d) if manufactured or imported to retail at more than 15 cents each and not more than 20 cents each, $5 per thou- sand; (e) if manufactured or imported to retail at more than 20 cents each, $7 per thousand: Provided, That the word "retail" as used in this section shall mean the ordinary retail price of a single cigar, and that the Commissioner of Internal Revenue may, by regulation, require the manufacturer or importer to affix to Prepared sirups or extracts. Unfermented grape juice, soft drinks, etc. Mineral or table waters. Monthly returns. Carbonic acid gas. Amount of tax. Cigars and cigar- ettes. Amount of war tax on cigars. "Retail" defined. 42 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 each box or container a conspicuous label indicating by letter the clause of this section under which the cigars therein contained have been tax-paid, which must correspond with the tax-paid stamp on said box or container; (/) on cigarettes made of tobacco, or any substitute therefor, made in or imported into the United States, and weighing not more than three poimds per thousand, 80 cents per thousand; weighing more than three pounds per thousand, $1.20 per thousand. _ Every manufacturer of cigarettes (including small cigars weighing not more than three pounds per thousand) shall put up all the cigarettes and such small cigars that he maniif actures or has manufactured for him, and sells or removes for consumption or use, in packages or parcels containing five, eight, ten, twelve, fifteen, sixteen, twenty, twenty-four, forty, fifty, eighty, or one himdred cigarettes each, and shall secm-ely affix to each of said packages or parcels a suitable stamp denoting the tax thereon, and shall properly cancel the same prior to such sale or removal for consumption or use under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe; and all cigarettes imported from a foreign country shall be packed, stamped, and the stamps can- celed in a hke manner, in addition to the import stamp indicating inspection of the custom-house before they are withdrawn there- from. Sec. 401. That upon all tobacco and snuff hereafter manu- factured and sold, or removed for consumption or use, there shall be levied and collected, in addition to the tax now imposed by law upon such articles, a tax of 5 cents per pound, to be levied, col- lected, and paid under the provisions of existing law. In addition to the packages provided for under existing law, manufactured tobacco and snuff may be put up and prepared by the manufacturer for sale or consumption, in packages of the following description: Packages containing one-eighth, three- eighths, five-eighths, seven-eighths, one and one-eighth, one and three-eighths, one and five-eighths, one and seven-eighths, and five ounces. Sec. 402. That sections four hundred, four htmdred and one, and four hundred and four, shall take effect thirty days after the passage of this Act: Provided, That after the passage of this Act and before the expiration of the aforesaid thirty days, cigarettes and manufactured tobacco and snuff may be put up in the pack- ages now provided for by law or in the packages provided for in sections four hundred and four hundred and one. Sec. 403, That there shall also be levied and collected, upon all manufactured tobacco and snuff in excess of one him(i"ed pounds or upon cigars or cigarettes in excess of one thousand, which were manufactured or imported, and removed from factory or custom-house prior to the passage of this Act, bearing tax-paid stamps affixed to such articles for the payment of the taxes there- on, and which are, on the day after this Act is passed, held and intended for sale by ^ny person, corporation, partnership, or association, and upon aU. manufactiued tobacco, snuff, cigars, or cigarettes, removed from factory or customs-house after the pas- sage of this Act but prior to the time when the tax imposed by section four hundred or section four hundred and one upon such articles takes effect, an additional tax equal to one-half the tax imposed by such sections upon such articles. Sec. 404. That there shall be levied, assessed, and collected upon cigarette paper made up into packages, books, sets, or tubes, made up in or imported injto the United States and intended for use by the smoker in making cigarettes the following taxes: Cigarettes. Amount of war tax. Packages cigarettes and small cigars. Stamps and can- cellation. Imported cigarettes. Tobacco and snuff. War Tax. Additional packages provided for. Effective. Excess stock taxed. Rate of war tax. Cigarette papers and tubes. THE WAR TAX OF ,1917 Freight tTanspor« tation. Rate of tax. Tax on Express shipments. On each package, book, or set contaming more than twenty-five but not more than fifty papers, one-haff of 1 cent; containing more than fifty but nor more than one hundred papers, 1 cent; contaiaiQg more than one hundred papers, 1 cent for each one hundred papers or fractional part thereof; and upon tubes, 2 cents for each one himdred tubes or fractional part thereof. TITLE v.— WAR TAX ON FACILITIES FURNISHED BY PUBLIC UTILITIES AND INSURANCE. Sec. 500. That from and after the first day of November, nineteen hundred and seventeen, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid (a) a tax equivalent to three per centum of the amount paid for the transportation by rail or water or by any form of mechanical motor power when in competition with carriers by rail or water of property by freight consigned from one point in the United States to another; (6) a tax of 1 cent for each 20 cents or fraction thereof, paid to any person, corporation, partnership, or association, engaged in the business of transporting parcels or packages by express over regular routes between fixed terminals, for the transportation of any package, parcel, or shipment by express from one point in the United States to another: Pro- vided, That nothing herein contained shall be construed to require the carrier collecting such tax to list separately in any bill of lading, freight receipt, or other similar document, the amount of the tax herein levied, if the total amount of the freight and tax be therein stated; (c) a tax equivalent to eight per centum of the amount paid for the transportation of persons by rail or water, or by any form of mechanical motor power on a regular estabhshed line when in competition with carriers by rail or water, from one point in the United States to another or to any point in Canada or Mexico, where the ticket therefor is sold or issued in the United States, not including the amount paid for commutation or season tickets for trips less than thirty miles, or for transportation the fare for which does not exceed 35 cents, and a tax equivalent to ten per centum of the amount paid for seats, berths, and state- rooms in parlor cars, sleeping cars, or on vessels. If a mileage book used for such transportation or accommodation has been purchased before this section takes effect, or if cash fare be paid, the tax imposed by this section shall be collected from the person presenting the mileage book, or paying the cash fare, by the con- ductor or other agent, when presented for such transportation or accommodation, and the amount so collected shall be paid to the United States in such manner and at such times as the Commis- sioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe; if a ticket (other than a mileage book) is bought and partially used before this section goes into effect it shall not be taxed,, but if bought but not so used before this section takes effect, it shall not be valid for passage imtil tne tax has been paid and such payment evidenced on the ticket in such manner as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation prescribe; {d) a tax equivalent to five per centum of the amount paid for the transportation of oil by pipe line; (e) a tax of 5 cents upon each telegraph, telephone, or radio, dispatch, message, or conversation, which originates within the United States, and for the transmission of which a charge of 15 cents or more is imposed: Provided, That only one payment of such tax shall be required, notwithstanding the hnes or stations of one or more persons, corporations, partnerships, or associations shall be used for the transmission of such dispatch, message, or conversation. Sec. 501. That the taxes imposed by section five hundred Rate of tax for passenger transpor- Exempt from tax. Rate for seats, berths, etc. Mileage book or cash fare. Tickets partially used or not used. Oil by pipe lines. Tax on telegraph, telephone or radio messages. By whom payable. 44 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Carrier owning commodity trans- ported. Rates or tariffs. Tax does not apply. Exempt from tax. Monthly returns. shall be paid by the person, corporation, partnership, or associa- tion paying for the services or f acihties rendered. In case such carrier does not, because of its ownership of the commodity transported, or for any other reason, receive the amount which as a carrier it would otherwise charge, such carrier shall pay a tax equivalent to the tax which woifla be imposed upon the transportation of such commodity if the carrier received payment for such transportation: Provided, That in case of a carrier which on May first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, had no rates or tariffs on file with the proper Federal or State authority, the tax shall be computed on the basis of the rates or tariffs of other carriers for hke services as ascertained and deter- mined by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue: Provided further, That nothing in this or the preceding section shall be con- strued as imposing a tax (a) upon the transportation of any com- modity which is necessary for the use of the carrier in the conduct of its business as such and is intended to be so used or has been so used; or (6) upon the transportation of company material trans- ported by one carrier, which constitutes a part of a railroad sys- tem, for another carrier which is also a part of the same system. Sec. 502. That no tax shaU be imposed imder section five hundred upon any payment received for services rendered to the United States, or any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia. The right to exemption imder this section shall be evidenced in such manner as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation prescribe. Sec. 603. That each person, corporation, partnership, or asso- ciation receiving any payments referred to in section five hundred shall collect the amoimt of the tax, if any, imposed by such section from the person, corporation, partnership, or association making such payments, and shall make monthly returns under oath, in dupUcate, and pay the taxes so collected and the taxes imposed upon it under paragraph two of section five hundred and one to the collector of internal revenue of the district in which the principal office or place of business is located. Such returns shall contain such information, and be made in such manner, as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation prescribe. Sec. 504. That from and after the first day of November, nineteen himdred and seventeen, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid the following taxes on the issuance of insur- ance pohcies: (a) Life insurance: A tax equivalent to 8 cents on each $100 or fractional part thereof of the amount for which any life is in- sured under any pohcy of insurance, or other instrument, by whatever name the same is called: Provided, That on all pohcies for life insurance only by which a life is insured not in excess of $500, issued on the industrial or weekly payment plan of insurance, the tax shall be forty per centum of the arnount of the first weekly premium: Provided further, That policies of rein- surance shall be exempt from the tax imposed by this subdivision; (&) Marine, inland, and fire insurance: A tax equivalent to 1 cent on each dollar or fractional part thereof of the premium charged under each poHcy of insurance or other instrument by whatever name the same is called whereby insurance is made or renewed upon property of any description (including rents or profits), whether against peril by sea or inland waters, or by fire orhghtningjorother peril: Provided, That pohcies of reinsurance shall be exempt from the tax imposed by this subdivision. (c) Casualty insurance: A tax equivalent to 1 cent cm each Effective. Life insurance. Marine, inland and fire insurance. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 45 dollar or fractional part thereof of the premium charged under each policy of insurance or obligation of the nature of indemnity for loss, damage, or liability (except bonds taxable under sub- division two of schedule A of Title VIII) issued or executed or renewed by any person, corporation, partnership, or association, transacting the business of employer's habihty, workmen's compensation, accident, health, tornado, plate glass, steam boiler, elevator, burglary, automatic sprinkler, automobile, or other branch of insurance (except life insurance, and insurance de- scribed and taxed in the preceding subdivision): Provided, That poUcies of reinsurance shall be exempt from the tax imposed by this subdivision; (d) Pohcies issued by any person, corporation, partnership, or association, whose income is exempt from taxation under Title I of the Act entitled "An Act to increase the revenue, and for other purpo^es," approved September eighth, nineteen hun- dred and sixteen, shall be exempt from the taxes imposed by this section. Sec. 505. That every person, corporation, partnership, or association, issuing poUcies of insurance upon the issuance of which a tax is imposed by section five hundred and four, shall, within the first fifteen days of each month, make a return tmder oath, in dupUcate, and pay such tax to the collector of internal revenue of the district in which the principal office or place of business of such person, corporation, partnership, or association is located. Such returns shall contain such information and be made in such manner as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regu- lation prescribe. TITLE VI.— WAR EXCISE TAXES. Sec. 600. That there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid — (o) Upon all automobiles, automobile trucks, automobile wagons, and motorcycles, sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer, a tax equivalent to three per centum of the price for which so sold; and (6) Upon all piano players, graphophones, phonographs, talk- ing machines, and records used in connection with any musical instrument, piano player, graphophone, phonograph, or talking machine, sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer, a tax equivalent to three per centum of the price for which so sold; and (c) Upon all moving-picture filins (which have not been ex- posed) sold by the manufacturer or importer, a tax equivalent to one-fourth of 1 cent per linear foot ; and (d) Upon all positive moving-picture films (containing a pic- ture ready for projection) sold or leased by the manufacturer, f)roducer, or importer, a tax equivalent to one-half of 1 cent per inear foot; and (e) Upon any article commonly or commercially known as jewelry, whether real or imitation, sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer thereof, a tax equivalent to three per cen- tum of the price for which so sold; and (jO Upon all tennis rackets, golf clubs, baseball bats, lacrosse sticks, balls of all kinds, including baseballs, foot balls, tennis, golf, lacrosse, bilUard and pool balls, fishing rods and reels, biUiard and pool tables, chess and checker boards and pieces, dice, games and parts of games, except playing cards and children's toys and gaines, sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer, a tax equivalent to three per centum of the price for which so sold; and {g) Upon aU perfumes, essences, extracts, toilet waters, cos- Casualty insurance. Exempt from tax. Monthly returns. Automobiles. Motorcycles. Musical instruments. Moving picture films. Jewelry. Tax on Sporting goods. Exceptions. 46 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Perfumes, cos- metics, etc., for toi- let purposes. Proprietary medi- cines, etc. Chewing gum. Cameras. Monthly returns. Floor stocks. Rate of tax. metics, petroleum jellies, hair oils, pomades, hair dressings, hair restoratives, hair dyes, tooth and mouth washes, dentifrices, tooth pastes, aromatic cachous, toilet soaps and powders, or any similar substance, article, or preparation by whatsoever name known or distinguished, upon all of the above which are used or applied or intended to be used or appUed for toilet purposes, and which are sold by the manufacturer, importer, or producer, a tax equivalent to two per centum of the price for which so sold; and (h) Upon all pills, tablets, powders, tinctures, troches or lozenges, sirups, medicinal cordials or bitters, anodynes, tonics, plasters, hniments, salves, ointments, pastes, drops, waters (except those taxed under section three hundred and thirteen of this Act), essences, spirits, oils, and aU medicinal preparations, compounds, or compositions whatsoever, the manufacturer or producer of which claims to have any private formula, secret, or occult art for making or preparing the same, or has or claims to have any exclusive right or title to the making or preparing the same, or which are prepared, uttered, vended, or exposed for sale under any letters patent, or trade-mark, or which, if prepared by any formula, published or unpubhshed, are held out or recommended to the pubhc by the makers, venders, or proprietors thereof as proprietary medicines or medicinal pro- prietary articles or preparations, or as remedies or specifics for ■ any disease, diseases, or affection whatever affecting the human or animal body, and which are sold by the manufacturer, pro- ducer, or importer, a tax equivalent to two per centum of the price for which so sold; and (i) Upon all chewing gum or substitute therefor sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer, a tax equivalent to two per centum of the price for which so sold; and (j) Upon all cameras sold by the manufacturer, producer, or importer, a tax equivalent to three per centum of the price for which so sold. Sec. 601. That each manufacturer, producer, or importer of any of the articles enumerated in section six hundred shall make monthly returns under oath in duphcate and pay the taxes imposed on such articles by this title to the collector of internal revenue for the district in which is located the principal place of business. Such returns shall contain such information and be made at such times and in such manner as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulations prescribe. Sec. 602. That upon aU articles enumerated in subdivisions («), (b), (e), (/), (gr), (/i), (i),or (j) of section six hundred, which on the day this Act is passed are held and intended for sale by any person, corporation, partnership, or association, other than (1) a retailer who is not also a wholesaler, or (2) the manufacturer, producer, or importer thereof, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid, a tax equivalent to one-half the tax imposed by each such subdivision upon the sale of the articles therein, enumerated. This tax shall be paid by the person, corporation, partnersnhip, or association so holding such articles. The taxes imposed by this section ,shaU be assessed, collected, and paid in the same manner as provided in section ten hundred and two in the case of additional taxes upon articles upon which the tax imposed by existing law has been paid. Nothing in this section shall be construed to impose a tax upon articles sold and dehvered prior to May ninth, nineteen hundred and seventeen, where the title is reserved in the vendor THE WAR TAX OF 1917 47 Yachts, pleasure, power and motor boatSo as security for the payment of tKe purchase money. Sec. 603. That on the day this Act takes effect, and thereafter on July first in each year, and also at the time of the original pur- chase of a new boat by a user, if on any other date than July first, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid, upon the use of yachts , pleasure boats, power boats, and saiUng boats, of over five net tons, and motor boats with fixed engines, not used exclusively for trade or national defense, or not built ac- cording to plans and specifications approved by the Navy De- partment, an excise tax to be based on each yacht or boat, at rates as follows: Yachts, pleasure boats, power boats, motor boats with fixed engines, and saiUng boats, of over five net tons, length not over fifty feet, 60 cents for each foot, length over fifty feet and not over one hundred feet, $1 for each foot, length over one hundred feet, $2 for each foot ; motor boats of not over five net tons with fixed engines, $5. In determining the length of such yachts, pleasure boats, power boats, motor boats with fixed engines, and sailing boats, the measurement of over-all length shall govern. In the case of a tax imposed at the time of the original pur- chase of a new boat on any other date than July first, the amount to be paid shall be the same number of twelfths of the amount of the tax as the number of calendar months, including the month of sale, remaining prior to the following July first. TITLE VII.— WAR TAX ON ADMISSIONS AND DUES Sec. 700. That from and after the first day of November, nine- teen hundred and seventeen, there shall be levied, assessed, col- lected, and paid (a) a tax of 1 cent for each 10 cents or fraction thereof of the amoimt paid for admission to any place, including admission by season ticket or subscription, to be paid by the person paying for such admission: Provided, That the tax on admission of children under twelve years of age where an ad- mission charge for such children is made shall in every case be 1 cent; and (&) in the case of persons (except bona fide em- ployees, municipal officers on official business, and children under twelve years of age) admitted free to any place at a time when and under circumstances vmder which an admission charge is made to other persons of the same class, a tax of 1 cent for each 10 cents or fraction thereof of the price so charged to such other persons for the same or similar accommodations, to be paid by the persons so admitted; and (c) a tax of 1 cent for each 10 cents or fraction thereof paid for admission to any public per- formance for profit at any cabaret or other similar entertain- ment to which the charge for admission is wholly or in part in- cluded in the price paid for refreshment, service, or merchandise; the amount paid for such admission to be computed under rules prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, such tax to be paid by the person paying for such refreshment, service, or merchandise. In the case of persons having the permanent use of boxes or seats in an opera house or any place of amusement or a lease for the use of such box or seat in such opera house or place of amusement there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid a tax equivalent to ten percentum of the amount for which a similar box or seat is sold for performance or exhibition at which the box or seat is used or reserved by or^for the lessee or holder. These taxes shall not be imposed in the case of a place the maximum charge for Taxes not imposed admission to which is 5 cents, or in the case of shows, rides, and other amusements, (the maximum charge for admission to which is 10 cents) within outdoor general amusement parks, or in the Length determined. Tax proportioned. Amount of tax on admissions. Children's admission. Cabarets or simlar entertainment. Permanent use boxes or seats. of 48 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Religious, educa ti onal or charitable pur- poses. de- case of adloissions to such parks. No tax shall be levied under this title in respect to any admis- sions all the proceeds of which inure exclusively to the benefit of religious, educational, or charitable institutions, societies, or organizations, or admissions to agricultural fairs, none of the profits of which are distributed to stockholders or members of the association conducting the same. The term "admission" as used in this title includes seats and tables, reserved or otherwise, and other similar accommodations, and the charges made therefor. Sec. 701. That from and after the first day of November, nine- ten hundred and seventeen, there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid, a tax equivalent to ten per centum of any amoimt paid as dues or membership fees (iacluding initiation fees) to any social, athletic, or sporting club or organization, where such dues or fees are in excess of $12 per year; such taxes to be paid by the person paying such dues or fees: Provided, That there shall be exempted from the provisions of this section all amounts paid as dues or fees to a fraternal beneficiary society, order, or association, operating under the lodge system or for the exclusive benefit of the members of a fraternity itseK operating imder the lodge system, and providing for the payment of life, sick, accident, or other benefits to the members of such society, order, or associa- tion or their dependents. Sec. 702. That every person, corporation, partnership, or association (a) receiving any pajmaents for such admission, dues, or fees, shall collect the amount of the tax imposed by section seven hundred or seven hundred and one from the person making such payments, or (6) admitting any person free to any place for admission to which a charge is made shall collect the amoimt of the tax imposed by section seven hundred from the person so admitted, and (c) in either case shall make returns and payments of the amounts so collected, at the same time and in the same manner as provided in section five hundred and three of this Act. " Admission fined. Dues or member- ship fees. Exempt. Returns. Date effective.' Bxemptfrom tax. Penalty for in- sufficient tax or uncancelled stamps. TITLE VIII.— WAR STAMP TAXES. Sec. 800. That on and after the first day of December, nineteen hundred and seventeen, there shall be levied, collected, and paid, for and in respect of the several bonds, debentures, or certificates of stock and of indebtedness, and other documents, instruments, matters, and things mentioned and described in Schedule A oi this title, or for or in respect of the vellum, parchment, or paper upon which such instruments, matters, or thmgs, or any of them, are written or printed, by any person, corporation, partnership, or association who makes, signs, issues, sells, removes, consigns, or ships the same, or for whose use or benefit the same are made, signed, issued, sold, removed, consigned, or shipped, the several taxes specified in such schedule. Sec. 801. That there shaU not be taxed under this title any bond, note, or other instrument, issued by the United States, or by any foreign Government, or by any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, or local subdivision thereof, or municipal or other corporation exercising the taxing power, when issued in the exercise of a strictly governmental, taxing, or municipal function; or stocks and bonds issued by co-operative building and loan asso- ciations which are organized and operated exclusively for the benefit of their members and make loans only to their share- holders, or by mutual ditch or irrigating companies. Sec. 802. That whoever (a) Makes, signs, issues or accepts, or causes to be made, signed^ issued, or accepted, any instrument, document, or paper of any kmd or description whatsoever without THE WAR TAX OF 1917 49 the full amount of tax thereon being duly paid; (6) Consigns or ships, or causes to be consigned or shipped, by parcel post any parcel, package, or article without the full amount of tax being duly paid; (c) Manufactures or imports and sells, or offers for sale, or causes to be manufactured or imported and sold, or offered for sale, any playing cards, package, or other article without the ^ full amount of tax being duly paid; (d) Makes use of an adhesive stamp to denote any tax imposed by this title without canceling or obhterating such stamp as prescribed in section eight hundred and four; Is guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall pay a fine of not more than $100 for each offense. Sec. 803. That whoever — (a) Praudulentlj^ cuts, tears, or removes from any vellum, Misuse of stamps, parchment, paper, instrmnent, writing, package, or article, upon which any tax is imposed by tnis title, any adhesive stamp or the impression of any stamp, die, plate, or other article provided, made, or used in pm-suance of this title; (6) Fraudulently uses, joins, fixes, or places to, with, or upon any vellum, parchment, paper, instrmnent, writing, package, or article, upon which any tax is imposed by this title, (1) any adhesive stamp, or the im- pression of any stamp, die, plate, or other article, which has been cut, torn, or removed from any other veUum, parchment, paper, instrument, writing, package, or article, upon which any tax is imposed by this title or (2) any adhesive stamp or the im- pression of any stamp, die, plate, or other article of insufficient value; or (3) any forged or counterfeit stamp, or the impression of any forged or counterfeited stamp, die, plate, or other article; (c) Wilfully removes, or alters the cancellation, or defacing marks of, or otherwise prepares, any adhesive stamp, with intent to use, or cause the same to be used, after it has been already used, or knowingly or wilfully buys, sells, offers for sale, or gives away, any such washed or restored stamp to any person for use, or knowingly uses the same. (d) Knowingly and without lawful excuse (the burden of proof of such excuse being on the accused) has in possession any washed, restored, or altered stamp, which has been removed from any vellum, parchment, paper, instrument, writing, package, or article, Is guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by a fine of not more than $1,000, or by imprisonment for not more than five years, or both, in the discretion of the court, and any such reused, canceled, or counterfeit stamp and the vel- lum, parchment, document, paper, package, or article upon which it is placed or impressed snail be forfeited to the United States. Sec. 804. That whenever an adhesive stamp is used for denoting, any tax imposed by this title, except as hereinafter provided, the person, corporation, partnership, or association, using or affixing the same shall write or stamp or cause to be written or stamped thereupon the initials of his or its name and the date upon which the same is attached or used, so that the same may not again be used: Provided, That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue may prescribe such other method for the cancellation of such stamps as he may deem expedient. Sec. 805. (o) That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue shall cause to be prepared and distributed for the payment of the taxes prescribed in this title suitable stamps denoting the tax on the document, articles, or things to which the same may be affixed, and shall prescribe such method for the affixing of said stamps in substitution for or ia addition to the method provided in this Penalties. Method of cancell- ing stamps. Preparation of stamps. 50 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 By contract. Assessment and collection. Stamps furnished postmasters. title, as he may deem expedient. (6) The Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, is authorized to procure any of the stamps provided for in this title by contract whenever such stamps can not be speedily prepared by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing; but this authority shall expire on the first day of January, nineteen hundred and eighteen, except as to imprinted stamps furnished imder contract, authorized by the Com- missioner of Internal Revenue. (c) All internal-revenue laws relating to the assessment and col- lection of taxes are hereby extended to and made a part of this title, so far as apphcable, for the purpose of collecting stamp taxes omitted through mistake or fraud from any instrument, docu- ment, paper, writing, parcel, package, or article named herein. Sec. 806. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue shall furnish to the Postmaster General without prepayment a suitable quanitity of adhesive stamps to be distributed to and kept on sale by the various postmasters in the United States. The Postmaster General may require each such postmaster to give additional or increased bond as postmaster for the value of the stamps bo fm:- nished, and each such postmaster shall deposit the receipts from the sale of such stamps to the credit of and render accounts to the Postmaster General at such times and in such form as he may by regulations prescribe. The Postmaster General shall at least once monthly transfer aU collections from this source to the Treasury as internal-revenue collections. Sec. 807. That the collectors of the several districts shall furnish without prepayment to any assistant treasurer or designated depositary of the United States located in their respective collec- tion districts a suitable quantity of adhesive stamps for sale. In such cases the collector may require a bond, with ?uflBcient sureties, to an amount equal to the value of the adhesive stamps so furnished, conditioned for the faithful return, whenever so re- quired, of all quantities or amoimts undisposed of, and for the payment monthly of all quantities or amoimts sold or not re- maining on hand. The Secretary of the Treasury may frona time to time make such regulations as he may find necessary to insure the safe-keeping or prevent the illegal use of all such adhesive stamps. Sale of stamps. Bonds of indebted- ness. Indemnity and surety bonds. SCHEDULE A.— STAMP TAXES 1. Bonds of indebtedness: Bonds, debentures, or certificates of indebtedness issued on and after the first day of December, nineteen hundred and seventeen, by any person, corporation, partnership, or association, on each $100 of face value or fraction thereof, 5 cents: Provided, That every renewal of the foregoing shall be taxed as a new issue: Provided further. That when a bond conditioned for the repayment or payment of money is given in a penal sum greater than the debt secured, the tax shall be based upon the amount secured. 2. Bonds, indemnity and surety: bonds for indemnifying any person, corporation, partnership, or corporation who shall have become bound or engaged as surety, and all bonds for the due execution or performance of any contract, obHgation, or require- ment, or the duties of any office or position, and to account for money received by virtue thereof, and all other bonds of any description, except such as may be required in legal proceedings, not otherwise provided for in this schedule, 50 cents: Provided, That where a premium is charged for the execution of such bond the tax shall be paid at the rate of one per centum on each dollar or fractional part thereof of the premium charged : Provided fur- THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Capital stock issue. Capital stock, sales or transfers. Amount of tax. Tax not irt^posed. ther, That policies df reinsurance shall be exempt from the tax imposed by this subdivision. ^ 3. Capital stock, issue: On each original issue, whether on organization or reorganization, of certificates of stock by any association, company, or corporation, on each $100 of face value or fraction thereof, 5 cents: Provided, That where capital stock is issued without face value, the tax shall be 5 cents per share, unless the actual value is in excess of $100 per share, in which case the tax shall be 5 cents on each $100 of actual value or frac- tion thereof. The stamps representing the tax imposed by this subdivision shall be attached to the stock books and not to the certificates issued. 4. Capital stock, sales or transfers : On aU sales, or agreements to sell, or memoranda of sales or deUveries of, or transfers of legal title to shares or certificates of stock in any association, company, or corporation, whether made upon or shown by the books of the association, company, or corporation, or by any assignment in blank, or by any delivery, or by any paper or agreement or memorandum or other evidence of transfer or sale, whether entithng the holder in any manner to the benefit of such stock or not, on each $100 of face value or fraction thereof, 2 cents, and where such shares of stock are without par value, the tax shall be 2 cents on the transfer or sale or agreement to sell on each share, unless the actual value thereof is in excess of $100 per share, in which case the tax shall be 2 cents on each $100 of actual, value or fraction thereof: Provided, That it is not in- tended by this title to impose a tax upon an agreement evidencing a deposit of stock certificates as collateral security for money loaned thereon, which stock certificates are not actually sold, nor upon such stock certificates so deposited: Provided further, That the tax shall not be imposed upon dehveries or transfers to a broker for sale, nor upon dehveries or transfers by a broker to a customer for whom and upon whose order he has purchased same, but such deUveries or transfers shall be accompanied by a certificate setting forth the facts: Provided further, That in case of sale where the evidence of transfer is shown only by the books of the company the stamp shall be placed upon such books- and where the change of ownership is by transfer of the certifi- cate the stamp shall be placed upon the certificate; and in cases of an agreement to sell or where the transfer is by dehvery of the certificate assigned in blank there shall be made and delivered by the seller to the buyer a bill or memorandum of such sale, to which the stamp shall be affixed; and every bill or memoran- dum of sale or agreement to sell before mentioned shall show the date thereof, the name of the seller, the amount of the sale, and the matter or thing to which it refers. Any person or per- sons liable to pay the tax as herein provided, or anyone who acts in the matter as agent or broker for such person or persons who shall make any such sale, or who shaU ia pursuance of any such sale deHver any stock or evidence of the sale of any stock or biQ ■ or memorandum thereof, as herein required, without having the proper stamps affixed thereto with intent to evade the foregoing provisions shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall pay a fine of not exceeding $1,000, or be imprisoned not more than six months, or both, at the discretion of the court. 5. Produce, sales of, on exchange: Upon each sale, agreement of sale, or agreement to sell, including so-called transferred or scratch sales, any products or merchandise at any exchange, or board of trade, or other similar place, for future deUvery^ for Stamps to be affix- ed. Penalties for not us- ing stamps. Sales of produce on exchange. 52 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Evidences of sale. Transfer of con- tracts. Data to be indicat- ed. Penalties for not us- ing stamps. each $100 in value of the merchandise covered by said sale or agreement of sale or agreement to sell, 2 cents, and for each additional $100 or fractional part thereof in excess of $100, 2 cents: Provided, That on every sale or agreement of sale or agree- ment to sell as aforesaid there shaU be made and deUvered by the seller to the buyer a bill, memorandum, agreement, or other evidence of such sale, agreement of sale, or agreement to sell, to which there shall be affixed a lav?ful stamp or stamps in value equal to the amount of the tax on such sale: Provided further. That sellers of commodities described herein, having paid the tax provided by this subdivision, may transfer such contracts to a clearing house corporation or association, and such transfer shall not be deemed to be a sale, or agreement of sale, or an agreement to sell within the provisions of this Act, provided that such trans- fer shall not vest any beneficial interest in such clearing house association but shall be made for the sole purpose of enabling such clearing house association to adjust and balance the accounts of the members of said clearing house association on their several contracts. And every such bill, memorandimi, or other evidence of sale or agreement to sell shall show the date thereof, the name of the seller, the amount of the sale, and the matter or thing to which it refers; and any person or persons liable to pay the tax as herein provided, or anyone who acts in the matter as agent or broker for such person or persons, who shall make any such sale or agreement of sale, or agreement to seU, or who shaU, in pursuance of any such sale, agreement of sale, or agreement to sell, dehver any such products or merchandise without a bill, memorandum, or other evidence thereof -as herein required, or who shall dehver such bill, memorandum, or other evidence of sale, or agreement to sell, without having the proper stamps affixed thereto, with intent to evade the foregoing provisions, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall pay a fine of not exceeding $1,000, or be imprisoned not more than six months, or both, at the discretion of the court. That no biU, memorandum, agreement, or other evidence of such sale, or agreement of sale, or agreement to sell, in case of cash sales of products or merchandise for immediate or prompt deUvery which in good faith are actually intended to be dehvered shall be subject to this tax. 6. Drafts or checks payable otherwise than at sight or on demand, promissory notes, except bank notes issued for circula- tion, and for each renewal of the same, for a sum not exceeding $100, 2 cents; and for each additional $100 or fractional part thereof, 2 cents. 7. Conveyance: Deed, instrument, or writing, whereby any lands, tenements, or other realty sold shall be granted, assigned, transferred, or otherwise conveyed to, or vested in, the purchaser or purchasers, or any other person or persons, by his, her, or their direction, when the consideration or value of the interest or prop- erty conveyed, exclusive of the value of any hen or encumbrance remaining thereon at the time of sale, exceeds $100 and does not exceed $500, 50 cents; and for each additional $500 or frac- tional part thereof 50 cents: Provided, That nothing contained in this paragraph shall be so construed as to impose a tax upon any instrument or writing given to secure a debt. 8. Entry of any goods, wares, or merchandise at any custom- house, either for consumption or warehousing, not exceeding $100in value, 25 cents; exceeding $100 and not exceeding $500 in value, 50 cents; exceeding $500 in value, $1. 9. Entry for the withdrawal of any goods or merchandise from customs bonded warehouse, 50 cents. Cash sales exempt. Promissory notes, etc. Conveyance. Amount of tax. Custom-house entries. Withdrawals. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 S3 10. Passage ticket, one way or round trip, for each passenger, sold or issued in the United States for passage by any vessel to a port or place not in the United States, Canada, or Mexico, if costing not exceeding $30, $1; costing more than $30 and not exceeding $60, $3; costing more than $60, $5: Provided, That such passage tickets, costing $10 or less, shall be exempt from taxation. 11. Proxy for voting at any election for officers, or meeting for the transaction of business, of any incorporated company or association, except rehgious, educational, charitable, fraternal, or Uterary societies, or pubUc cemeteries, 10 cents. 12. Power of attorney granting authority to do or perform some act for or in behalf of the grantor, whichauthority is not otherwise vested in the grantee, 25 cents: Provided, That no stamps shall be required upon any papers necessary to be used for the collection of claims from the United States or from any State for pensions, back pay, bounty, or for property lost in the military or naval service or upon powers of attorney required in bankruptcy cases. 13. Playing Cards: Upon every pack of playing cards con- taining not more than fifty-four cards, manufactured or imported, and sold, or removed for consumption or sale, after the passage of this Act; a tax of 5 cents per pack in addition to the tax im- posed under existing law. 14. Parcel-post packages: Upon every parcel or package transported from one point in the United States to another by parcel post on which the postage amounts to 25 cents or more, a tax of 1 cent for each 25 cents or fractional part thereof charged for such transportation, to be paid by the consignor. No such parcel or package shall be transported until a stamp or stamps representing the tax due shall have been affixed thereto. TITLE IX.— WAR ESTATE TAX. Sec. 900. That in addition to the tax imposed by section two hundred and one of the Act entitled "An Act to increase the revenue, and for other purposes," approved September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, as amended — • (a) A tax equal to the following percentages of its value is hpreby imposed upon the transfer of each net estate of every decedent dying after the passage of this Act, the transfer of which is taxable under such section (the value of such net estate to be determined as provided in Title II of such Act of September eighth, nineteen htmdred and sixteen): One-half of one per centum of the amount of such net estate not in excess of $50,000; One per centum or the amount by which such net estate ex- ceeds $50,000 and does not exceed $150,000; One and one-half per centum of the amount by which such net estate exceeds $150,000 and does not exceed $250,000; Two per centimi of the amount by which such net estate ex- ceeds $250,000 and does not exceed $450,000; Two and one-half per centum of the amount by which such net estate exceeds $450,000 and does not exceed $1,000,000; Three per centum of the amount by which such net estate exceeds $1,000,000 and does not exceed $2,000,000; Three and one-half per centum of the amount by which such net estate exceeds $2,000,000 and does not exceed $3,000,000; Four per centum of the amount by which such net estate ex- ceeds $3,000,000 and does not exceed $4,000,000; Four and one-half per centum of the amount by which such net estate exceeds $4,000,000 and does not exceed $5,000,000; Foreign passage tickets. Proxies. Power of attorney. Playing cards. When effective. Rate of tax. 54 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Does not apply. Imports from West Indian Islands. Exports to. Assessment and ad- ministration. When additional taxes imposed. Collection of taxes. Penalties. Five per centum of the amount by which such net estate ex- ceeds $5,000,000 and does not exceed $8,000,000; Seven per centum of the amount by which such net estate exceeds $§,000,000 and does not exceed $10,000,000; and Ten per centum of the amount by which such net estate ex- ceeds $10,000,000. Sec. 901. That the tax imposed by this title shall not apply to the transfer of the net estate of any decedent dying while serving in the military or naval forces of the United States, dur- ing the continuance of the war in which the United States is now engaged, or if death results from injuries received or disease con- tracted in such service, within one year after the termination of such war. For the purposes of this section the termination of the war shall be evidenced by the proclamation of the President. TITLE X.— ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS. Sec. 1000. That there shall be levied, collected, and paid in the United States, upon articles coming into the United States from the West Indian Islands acquired from Denmark, a tax equal to the internal-revenue tax imposed in the United States upon like articles of domestic manufacture; such articles shipped from said islands to the United States shall be exempt from the payment of any tax imposed by the internal-revenue laws of said islands: Provided, That there shall be levied, collected, and paid in said islands, upon articles imported from the United States, a tax equal to the internal-revenue tax imposed in said islands upon like articles there manufactured; and such articles going into said islands from the United States shall be exempt from payment of any tax imposed by the internal-revenue laws of the United States^ Sec. 1001. That all administrative, special, or stamp pro- visions of law, including the law relating to the assessment of taxes, so far as applicable, are hereby extended to and made a part of this Act, and every person, corporation, partnership, or associa- tion liable to any tax imposed by thia Act, or for the collection thereof, shall keep such records and render, under oath, such statements and returns, and shall comply with such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may from time to time prescribe. Sec. 1002. That where additional taxes are imposed by this Act upon articles or commodities, upon which the tax imposed by existing law has been paid, the person, corporation, partnership, or association required by this Act to pay the tax shall within thirty days after its passage, make return under oath in such form and under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe. Payment of the tax shown to be due may be extended to a date not exceeding seven months from the passage of this Act, upon the fihng of a bond for payment in such form and amount and with such sureties as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may prescribe. Sec. 1003. That in all cases where the method of collecting the tax imposed by this Act is not specifically provided, the tax shall be collected in such manner as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe. All administrative and penalty provisions of Title VIII of this Act, in so far as apphcable, shall apply to the collec- tion of any tax which the Commissioner of Internal Revenue determines or prescribes shall be paid by stamp. Sec. 1004. That whoever fails to make any return required by THE WAR TAX OF 1917 55 Enforcement. Use of stamps on hand. Prior contracts. this Act or the regulations made under authority thereof withm the time prescribed or who makes any false or fradulent return, and whoever evades or attempts to evade any tax imposed by this Act or fails to collect or truly to account for and pay over any such tax, shall be subject to a penalty of not more than $1,000, or to imprisonment for not more than one year, or both, at the discre- tion of the court, and in addition thereto a penalty of double the tax evaded, or not collected, or accounted for and paid over, to be assessed and collected in the same manner as taxes are assessed and collected, in any case in which the punishment is not other- wise specifically provided. Sec. 1005. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, is hereby author- ized to make all needful rules and regulations for the enforcement of the provisions of this Act. Sec. 1006. That where the rate of tax imposed by this Act, payable by stamps, is an increase over previously existing rates, stamps on hand in the collector's offices and in the Bureau of Internal Revenue may continue to be used until the supply on hand is exhausted, but shall be sold and accounted for at the rates provided by this Act, and assessment shall be made against manufacturers and other taxpayers having such stamps on hand on the day this Act takes effect for the difference betweenthe amount paid for such stamps and the tax due at the rates provided by this act. Sec. 1007. That (a) if any person, corporation, partnership, or association has prior to May ninth, nineteen hundred and seventeen, made a bona fide contract with a dealer for the sale, after the tax takes effect, of any article (or, in the case of moving- picture films, such a contract with a dealer, exchange, or exhibitor, for the sale or lease thereof) upon which a tax is imposed under Title III, IV, or VI, or under subdivision thirteen of Schedule A of Title VIII, or imder this section, and (b) if such contract does not permit the adding of the whole of such tax to the amount to be paid under such contract, then the vendee or lessee shall, in Ueu of the vendor or lessor, pay so much of such tax as is not so permitted to be added to the contract price. The taxes payable by the vendee or lessee under this section shall be paid to the vendor or lessor at the time the sale or lease is consummated, and collected, returned, and paid to the United States by such vendor or lessor in the same manner as provided in section five himdred and three. The term "dealer" as used in this section includes a vendee who purchases any article with intent to use it in the manufacture or production of another article intended for sale. Sec. 1008. That in the payment of any tax under this Act not payable by stamp a fractional part of a cent shall be dis- regarded imles^ it amounts to one-half cent or more, in which case it shall be increased to one cent. Sec. 1009. That the Secretary of the Treasury, under rules and regulations prescribed by him, shall permit taxpayers liable to income and excess profits taxes to make payments in advance in installments or in whole of an amount not in excess of the estimated taxes which will be due from them, and upon determin- ation of the taxes actually due any amount paid in excess shall be refunded as taxes erroneously collected: Provided, That when payment is made in installments at least one-fourth of such estimated tax shall be paid before the expiration of thirty days after the close of the taxable year, at least an additional one- fourth within two months after the close of the taxable year, at least an additional one-fourth within four months after the close Taxes payable by. "Dealer" defined. Fraction of a cent. Advance install- ments of income and excess profits taxes. 56 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Payments by certifi- cates of indebtedness Uncertified checks. First class mail. Letters of soldiers and sailors. Second class matter. Rates. Portion devoted to advertisements. of the taxable year, and the remaindfer of the tax due on or be- fore the time now fixed by law for such payment: Provided fur- ther, That the Secretary of the Treasury, under rules and regula- tions prescribed by him, may allow credit against such taxes BO paid in advance of an amount not exceeding three per centum per annum calculated upon the amoimt so paid from the date of such payment to the date now fixed by law for such payment; but no such credit shall be allowed on payments in excess of taxes determined to be due, nor on payments made after the expiration of four and one-half months after the close of the taxable year. AU penalties provided by existing law for failiu-e to pay tax when due are hereby made appUcable to any failure to pay the tax at the time or times required in this section. Sec. 1010, That under rules and regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury, Collectors of Internal Revenue may re- ceive, at par and accrued interest, certificates of indebtedness issued under section six of the Act entited "An Act to authorize an issue of bonds to meet expenditures for the national security and defense, and, for the purpose of assisting in the prosecution of the war, to extend credit to foreign governments, and for other pxuijoses," approved April twenty-fourth, nineteen hundred and seventeen, and any subsequent act or acts, and uncertified checks in pay- ment of income and excess profits taxes, during such time and under such regulations as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasiuy, shall prescribe; but if a check so received is not paid by the bank on which it is drawn the person by whom such check has been tendered shall remain Uable for the payment of the tax and for aU legal penal- ties and additions the same as if such c'lteck had not been tendered. TITLE XL— POSTAL RATES. Sec. 1100. That the rate of postage on aU mail matter of the first class, except postal cards, shall thirty days after the passage of this act be, in addition to the existing rate, 1 cent for each ounce or fraction thereof : Provided, That the rate of postage on drop letters of the first class shall be 2 cents an ounce or fraction thereof. Postal cards, and private mailing or post cards, when complying with the requirements of existing law, shall be trans- mitted through the mails at 1 cent each in addition to the exist- ing'rate. That letters written and mailed by soldiers, sailors, and marines assigned to duty in a foreign country engaged in the present war may be mailed free of postage, subject to such rules and regula- tions as may be prescribed by the Postmaster General. Sec. 1101. That on and after July first, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the rates of postage on publications entered as second-class matter (including sample copies to the extent of ten per centum of the weight of copies mailed to subscribers during the calendar year) when sent by the publisher thereof from the post office of pubHcation or other post office, or when sent by a news agent to actual subscribers thereto, or to other news agents for the purpose of sale: (a) In the case of the portion of such pubUcation devoted to matter other than advertisements, shall be as foUows: (1) on and after July first, nineteen hvmdred and eighteen, and until July first, nineteen hundred and nineteen, 134 cents per pound or fraction thereof; (2) on and after July first, nineteen himdred and nineteen, IJ^ cents per pound or fraction thereof; (6) In the case of the portion of such publication devoted to advertisements the rates per pound or fraction thereof for de- THE WAR TAX OF 1917 57 livery vsdthin the several zones applicable to fourth-class matter shall be as follows (but where the space devoted to advertisements does not exceed five per centima of the total space, the rate of postage shall be the same as if the whole of such publication was devoted to matter other than advertisements): (1) on and after July first, nineteen hundred and eighteen, and until July first, nineteen hundred and nineteen, for the first and second zones, IJ^ cents; for the third zone, 1^^ cents; for the fourth zone, 2 cents; for the fifth zone, 23^ cents; for the sixth zone, 23^ cents; for the seventh zone, 3 cents; for the eighth zone, 3M cents; (2) On and after July first, nineteen himdred and nineteen, and until July first, nineteen hundred and twenty, for the first and second zones, 13^ cents; for the third zone, 2 cents; for the fourth zone, 3 cents; for the fifth zone, 3 J^ cents; for the sixth zone, 4 cents; for the seventh zone, 5 cents; for the eighth zone, 53^ cents, (3) on and after July first, nineteen hundred and twenty and until July first, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, for the first and second zones, 1 ^ cents ; for the third zone, 2 Yi cents ; for the f omrth zone, 4 cents; for the fifth zone, 4^ cents; for the sixth zone, SJ^ cents; for the seventh zone, 7 cents; for the eighth zone, 7% cents; (4) on and after July first, nineteen hundred and twenty- one, for the first and second zones, 2 cents; for the third zone, 3 cents; for the fourth zone, 5 cents; for the fifth zone, 6 cents; for the sixth zone, 7 cents; for the seventh zone, 9 cents; for the eighth zone, 10 cents; (c) With the first mailing of each issue of each such pubKca- tion, the pubhsher shall file with the post-master a copy of such issue, together with a statement containing such information as the postmaster general may prescribe for determining the post- age chargeable thereon. Sec. 1102. That the rate of postage on daily newspapers, when the same are deposited in a letter carrier office for dehvery by its carriers, shall be the same as now provided by law; and nothing in this title shall affect existing law as to free circulation and existing rates on second-class mail matter within the county of pubhcation: Protnded, That the Postmaster General may hereafter require pubhshers to separate or make up to zones in such a manner as he may direct all mail matter of the second class when in offered for mailing. Sec. 1103. That in the case of newspapers and periodicals entitled to be entered as secondT-cIass matter and maintained by and in the interest of religious, educational, scientific, philan- thropic, agricultural, labor, or fraternal organizations or asso- ciations, not organized for profit and none of the net income of which inures to the benefit of any private stockholder or individ- ual, the second-class postage rates shall be, irrespective of the zone in which deUvered (except when the same are deposited in a letter-carrier office for dehvery by its carriers, in which case the rates shall be the same as now provided by law), 13^ cents a pound or fraction thereof on and after July first, nineteen hundred and eighteen, and imtil July first, nineteen hundred and nineteen, and on and after July first, nineteen hundred and nineteen, 13^ cents a pound or fraction thereof. Ihe pubhshers of such news- papers or periodicals before being entitled to the foregoing rates shall furnish to the Postmaster General, at such times and under such conditions as he may prescribe, satisfactory evidence that none of the net income of such organization inures to the benefit of any private stockholder or individual. Sec. 1104. That where the total weight of any one edition or issue of any pubhcation mailed to any one zone does not exceed one pound, the rate of postage shall be 1 cent. July 1, 1918, July 1, 1919. July 1, 1920. July 1, 1921. File copy. Daily newspapers. Religious,educarion- al, etc., publications. Rate. Weight. 58 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Zone rates. Same rate. Regulations. Salaries. Postmasters granted leave. Construction of Sec. 5 of Act of March 3, 1917. Net income includes. Income exempt from law. Sec. 1105. The zone rates provided by this title shall relate to the entire bulk mailed to any one zone and not to individually addressed packages. Sec. 1106. That where a newspaper or periodical is mailed by other than the publisher or his agent or a news agent or dealer, the rate shall be the same as now provided by law. Sec. 1107. That the Postmaster General, on or before the tenth day of each month, shall pay into the general fund of the Treasury an amount equal to the difference between the estimated amount received during the preceding month for the transporta- tion of first class matter through the maUs and the estimated amount which would have been received under the provisions of the law ia force at the time of the passage of this Act. Sec. 1108. That the salaries of postmasters at offices of the first, second, and third classes shall not be increased after July first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, during the existence of the present war. The compensation of postmasters at offices of the fourth class shall continue to be computed on the basis of the present rates of postage. Sec. 1109. That where postmasters at offices of the third class have been since May first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, or hereafter are granted leave without pay for military purposes, the Postmaster General may allow, in addition to the maximum amounts which may now be allowed such offices for clerk hire, in accordance with law, an amount not to exceed fifty per cen- tum of the salary of the posmaster. Sec. 1110. That section five of the Act approved March third, nineteen hundred and seventeen, entitled "An Act making appro- priations for the Post Office Department for the year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen," shall not be construed to apply to ethyl alcohol for governmental, scientific, 'medicinal, mechanical, manufacturing, and industrial purposes, and the Postmaster General shall prescribe suitable rules and regulations to carry into effect this section in connection with the Act of which it is amendatory, nor shaU said section be held to prohibit the use of the mails by regularly ordained ministers of religion; or by officers of regularly established chvirches, for ordering wines for sacramental uses, or by manufacturers and dealers for quoting and bilMng such wines for such purposes only. TITLE XII.— INCOME TAX AMENDMENTS. Sec. 1200. That subdivision (a) of section two of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby amended to read as follows: "(a) That, subject only to such exemptions and deductions as are hereinafter allowed, the net income of a taxable person shall include gains, profits, and income, derived from salaries, wages, or compensation for personal service of whatever kind and in whatever form paid, or from professions, vocations, businesses, trade, commerce, or sales, or dealings in property, whether real or personal, growing out of the ownership or use of or interest in real or personal property, also from interest, rent, dividends, securities, or the transaction of any business carried on for gain or profit, or gains or profits and income derived from any source whatever. Section four of such Act of September eighth, nineteen him- dred and sixteen, is hereby amended to read as follows: "Sec. 4. The following income shall be exempt from the pro- visions of this title: "The proceeds of life insurance policies paid to individual beneficiaries upon the death of the insured; the amount received THEWARTAXOF1917 59 Amendments to. Deductions allowed citizens or residents of U. S. by the insured, as a return of premium or premiums paid by him imder hfe insurance, endowment, or annuity contracts, either during the term or at the maturity of the term mentioned in the contract or upon surrender of the contract; the value of property acquired by gift, bequest, devise, or descent (but the income from such property shall be included as income); inter- est upon the obligations of a State or any political subdivision thereof or upon the o|)ligations of the United States (but, in the case of obligations of the United States issued after September first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, only if and to the extent provided in the Act authorizing the issue thereof) or its posses- sions or securities issued under the provisions of the Federal Farm Loan Act of July seventeenth, nineteen hundred and six- teen; the compensation of the present President of the United States during the term for which he has been elected and the judges of the supreme and inferior courts of the United States now in office, and the compensation of all officers and employees of a State, or any political subdivision thereof, except when such compensation is paid by the United States Government." Sec. 1201. (1) That paragraphs second and third of sub- division (a) of section five of such Act of September eighth, nine- teen hundred and sixteen, are hereby amended to read as follows : "Second. All ihterest paid within the year on his indebted- ness except on indebtedness incurred for the purchase of obliga- tions or secm-ities the interest upon which is exempt from taxa- tion as income under this title; "Third. Taxes paid within the year imposed by the authority of the United States (except income and excess profits taxes) or of its Territories, or possessions, or any foreign country, or by the authority of any State, county, school district, or municipality, or other taxing subdivision of any State, not including those assessed against local benefits;" (2) Section five of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby amended by adding at the end of subdivision (a) a further paragraph numbered nine, to read as follows: "Ninth. Contributions or gifts actually made within the year to corporations or associations organized and operated exclusively for religious, charitable, scientific, or educational purposes, or to societies for the prevention of cruelty to children or animals, no part of the net income of which inures to the benefit of any private stockholder or individual, to an amount not in excess of fifteen per centum of the taxpayer's taxable net income as computed without the benefit of this paragraph. Such con- tributions or gifts shall be allowable as deductions only if verified imder rules and regulations prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the Approval of the Secretary of the Treasury." Sec. 1202. That (1) paragraphs second and third of sub- division (a) of section six of such Act of September eighth, nine- teen hundred and sixteen, are hereby amended to read as follows : "Second. The proportion of all interest paid within the year by such person on his indebtedness (except on indebtedness in- curred for the purchase of obligations or securities the interest upon which is exempt from taxation as income under this title) which the gross amount of his income for the year derived from sources within the United States bears to the gross amount of his income for the year derived from all sources within and with- out the United States, but this deduction shall be allowed only if such person includes in the return required by section eight all the information necessary for its calculation ; Amendments to. Deductions allowed nonresident aliens. 66 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 When deductions or credits allowed. Personal Exemption. Married or head a family. of "Third. Taxes paid within the year imposed by the author- ity of the United States (except income and excess profits taxes), or of its Territories, or possessions^ or by the authority of any State, county, school district, or municipahty, or other taxing subdivision of any State, paid within the United States, not in- cluding those assessed against local benefits;" (2) Section six of such Act of September eighth, nineteen himdred and sixteen, is also further amended by adding a new subdivision to read as follows: "(c) A nonresident alien individual shall receive the benefit ' of the deductions and credits provided for in this section only by filing or causing to be filed with the collector of internal revenue a true and accurate return of his total income, received from all sources, corporate or otherwise, in the United States, in the manner prescribed by this title; and in case of his failure to file such return the collector shall collect the tax on such income, and all property belonging to such nonresident alien individual shall be liable to distraint for the tax." Sec. 1203. (1) That section seven of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby amended to read as follows: "Sec. 7. That for the purpose of the normal tax only, there shall be allowed as an exemption in the nature of a deduction from the amount of the net income of each citizen or resident of the United States, ascertained as provided herein, the sum of $3,000, plus $1,000 additional if the persons making the return be a head of a family or a married man with a wife living with him, or plus the sum of $1,000 additional if the person making the return be a married woman with a husband hving with her; but in no event shall this additional exemption of $1,000 be de- ducted by both a husband and a wife: Provided, That only one deduction of $4,000 shall be made from the aggregate income of both husband and wife when living together: Provided fur- ther, That if the person making the return is the head of a family there shall be an additional exemption of $200 for each child dependent upon such person, if under eighteen years of age, or if incapable of self-support because mentally or physically defec- tive, but this provision shall operate only in the case of one parent in the same family : Provided further, That guardians or trustees shall be allowed to make this personal exemption as to income derived from the property of which such guardian or trustee has charge in favor of each ward or cestui que trust: Provided further, That in no event shall a ward or cestui que trust be allowed a greater personal exemption than as provided in this section from the amount of net income received from all sources. There shall also be allowed an exemption from the amount of the net income of estates of deceased citizens or residents of the United States during the period of administration or settlement, and of trust or other estates of citizens or residents of the United States the income of which is not distributed annually or regu- larly under the provisions of subdivision (6) of section two, the sum of $3,000, including such deductions as are allowed under section five." (2) Subdivision (&) of section seven of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby repealed. , Sec. 1204. (1) That subdivisions (c) and (e) of section eight of such Act of September eight, nineteen hundred and sixteen, are hereby amended to read as follows: "(c) Guardians, trustees, executors, administrators, receivers, conservators, and all persons, corporations, or associations, act- kig in any fiduciary capacity, shall make and render a return Additional exemption for de- pendent children. Guardians or trustees. Estates. Trusts. Returns by guard- ians, trustees, etc THE WAR TAX OF 1917 61 Returns by partner- ships. Credit. of the income of the person, trust, or estate for whom or which they act, and be subject to all the provisions of this title which apply to individuals. Such fiduciary shall make oath that he has sufficient knowledge of the affairs of such person, trust, ot estate to enable him to make such return and that the same is, to the best of his knowledge and belief, true and correct, and oe sub- ject to all the provisions of this title which apply to individuals: Provided, That a return made by one of two or more joint fidu- ciaries filed in the district where such fiduciary resides, under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe, shall be a sufficient compliance with the requirements of this paragraph: Provided further, That no return of income not ex- ceeding $3,000 shall be required except as in this title otherwise provided. "(e) Persons carrying on business in partnership shall be liable for income tax only in their individuaF capacity, and the share of the profits of the partnership to which any taxable part- ner would been titled if the same were divided, whether divided or otherwise, shaU be returned for taxation and the tax paid under the provisions of this title: Provided, That from the net distrib- utive interests on which the individual members shall be Uable for tax, normal and additional, there shall be excluded their proportionate shares received from interest on the obhgations of a State or any poUtical or taxing subdivision thereof, and upon the obhgations of the United States (if and to the extent that it is provided in the Act authorizing the issue of such obliga- tions of the United States that they are exempt from taxation) and its possessions, and that for the purpose of computing the normal tax there shall be allowed a credit, as provided oy section five, subdivision (6), for their proportionate share of the profits derived from dividends. Such partnership, when requested by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue or any district collector, shall render a correct return of the earnings, profits, and income of the partnership, except income exempt under section four of this Act, setting forth the item of the gross income and the deductions and credits allowed by this title, and the names and addresses of the individuals who would be entitled to the net earnings, profits, and income, if distributed. A partnership Fiscal year, shall have the same privilege of fixing and making returns upon the basis of its own fiscal year as is accorded to corporations imder this title. If a fiscal year ends dmring nineteen himdred and six- teen or a subsequent calendar year for which there is a rate of tax different from the rate for the preceding calendar year, then (1) the rate for such preceding calendar year shall apply to an amount of each partner's share of such partnership profits equal to the proportion which the part of such fiscal year falhng within such calendar year bears to the full fiscal year, and (2) the rate for the calendar year during which such fiscal year ends shall apply to the remainder. (2) Subdivision (d) of section eight of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby repealed. Sec. 1205. (1) That subdivisions (b), (c), (/), and {g) of of section nine of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, are hereby amended to read as follows : "(6) All persons, corporations, partnerships, associations , and insurance companies, in whatever capacity acting, including lessees or mortgagors of real or personal property, trustees act- ing in any trust capacity, executors, administrators, receivers, conservators, employers, and aU officers and employees of the United States, having the control, receipt, custody, disposal, or payment of interest, rent, salaries, wages, premiums, annuities, Amendment regard- ing withholding tax at source on income of nonresident aliens 62 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Withholding normal tax at source. compensation, remuneration, emoluments, or other fixed or determinable annual or periodical gains, profits,_and income of any nonresident alien individual, other than income derived from dividends on capital stock, or from the net earnings of a corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insurance company, which is taxable upon its net income as provided in this title, are hereby authorized and required to deduct and withhold from such annual or periodical gains, profits, and in- come such sum as will be sufficient to pay the normal tax imposed thereon by this title, and shall make return thereof on or before March first of each year and, on or before the time fixed by law for the payment of the tax, shall pay the amount withheld to the officer of the United States Government authorized to receive the same; and they are each hereby made personally liable for such tax, and they are each hereby indemnified against every person, corporation, partnership, association, or insurance company, or demand whatsoever for all payments which they shall make in pursuance and by virtue of this title. "(c) The amoimt of the normal tax hereinbefore imposed shall also be deducted and withheld from fixed or determinable annual or periodical gains, profits and income derived from interest upon bonds and mortgages, or deeds of trust or other similar obliga- tions of corporations, joint-stock companies, associations, and insurance companies (if such bonds, mortgages, or other obliga- tions contain a contract or provision by which the obligor agrees to pay any portion of the tax imposed by this title upon the obligee or to reimburse theobhgee for any_portion of the tax or to pay the interest without deduction for any tax which the obligor may be required or permitted to pay thereon or to retain therefrom under any law of the United States), whether payable annually or at shorter or longer periods and whether such interest is pay- able to a nonresident alien individual or to an individual citizen or resident of the United States, subject to the provisions of the foregoing subdivision (b) of this section requiring the tax to be withheld at the source and deducted from annual income and returned and paid to the government, unless the person entitled to receive such interest shall file with the withholding agent, on or before February first, a signed notice in writing claiming the benefit of an exemption imder Section Seven of this title. "(/) All persons, corporations, partnerships, or associations, undertaking as a matter of business or for profit the collection of foreign payments of interest or dividends by means of coupons, checks, or bills of exchange shall obtain a license from the Com- missioner of Internal Revenue, and shall be subject to such regu- lations enabhng the Government to obtain the information re- quired under this title, as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall pre- scribe; and whoever knowingly imdertakes to collect such pay- ments as aforesaid without having obtained a license therefor, or without complying with such regulations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and for each offense be fined in a sum not ex- ceeding $5,000, or imprisoned for a term not exceeding one year, or both, in the discretion of the court. "(g) The tax herein imposed upon gains, profits, and incomes not failing under the foregoing and not returned and paid by virtue of the foregoing or as otherwise provided by law shall be assessed by personal return under rules and regulations to be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue and approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The intent and purpose of this title is that all gains, profits, and income of a taxable class, as defined by this title, shall be charged and assessed with the corresponding Collection of foreign payments ofinterest or dividends. Penalties for not obtaining license. Personal returns. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Tax on net income of corporations. Rate of Tax. tax, normal and additional, prescribed by this title, and said tax shall be paid by the owner of such income, or the proper represen- tative having the receipt, custody, control, or disposal of the same. For the purpose of this title ownership or liability shall be de- termined as of the year for which a return is required to be ren- dered. "The provisions of this section, except subdivision (c), relating to the deduction and payment of the tax at the source of income shall only apply to the normal tax hereinbefore imposed upon non- resident alien individuals." (2) Subdivisions (d) and (e) of section nine of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, are hereby repealed. Sec. 1206. (1) That the first paragraph of section ten of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby amended to read as follows: "Sec. 10. (a) That there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid annually upon the total net income received in the preceding calendar year from all sources by every corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insurance company, organized in the United States, no matter how created or organized, but not including partnerships, a tax of two per centum upon such income; and a like tax shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid annually upon the total net income received in the preceding calendar year from all sources within the United States by every corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insurance company, organized, authorized, or existing under the laws of any foreign country, including nterest on bonds, notes, or other interest-bearing obligations of residents, corporate or otherwise, and including the income derived from dividends on capital stock or from net earnings of resident corporations, joint-stock com- panies or associations, or insurance companies, whose net income is taxable under this title. (2) Section ten of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby further amended by adding a new subdivision as follows: "(b) In addition to the income tax imposed by subdivision (a) of this section there shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid annually an additional tax of ten per centum upon the amount remaining undistributed six months after the end of each calendar or fiscal year, of the total net income of every corporation, joint- stock company or association, or insurance company, received during the year, as determined for the purposes of the tax imposed by such subdivision (a), but not including the amoimt of any income taxes paid by it within the year imposed by the authority of the United States. "The tax imposed by this subdivision shall not apply to that portion of such undistributed net income which is actually in- vested_ and employed in the business or is retained for employ- ment in the reasonable requirements of the business or is in- vested in obligations of the United States issued after September first, nineteen hundred and seventeen: Provided, That if the Secretary of the Treasury ascertains and finds that any portion of such amount so retained at any time for employment in the busi- ness is not so employed or is' not reasonably required in the business a tax of fifteen per centum shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid thereon. "The foregoing tax rates shall apply to the undistributed net Application of tax. income received by every taxable corporation, joint-stock com- pany or association, or insurance company in the calendar year nineteen hundred and seventeen and in each year thereafter, New subdivision. Tax on undistribut- ed income. Tax does not apply. Extra tax. 64 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 except that if it has fixed its own fiscal year under the provisions of existing law, the foregoing rates shall apply to the proportion of the proportion of the taxable undistributed net income returned for the fiscal year ending prior to December thirty-first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, which the period between January first, nineteen hundred and seventeen, and the end of such fiscal year bears to the whole of such fiscal year." Sec. 1207. (1) That paragraphs third and fourth of subdivision (a) of section twelve of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, are hereby amended to read as follows: "Third. The amount of interest paid within the year on its indebtedness (except on indebtedness incurred for the purchase of obligations or securities the interest upon which is exempt from taxation as income under this title) to an amount of such in- debtedness not in excess of the sum of (a) the entire amount of the paid-up capital stock outstanding at the close of the year, or, if no capital stock, the entire amount of capital employed in the business at the close of the year, and (6) one-half of its interest- bearing indebtedness then outstanding: Provided, That for the purpose of this title preferred capital stock shall not be con- sidered interest-bearing indebtedness, and interest or dividends paid upon this stock shall not be deductible from gross income: Provided further, That in cases wherein shares of capital stock are issued without par or nominal value, the amount of paid-up capital stock, within the meaning of this section, as represented by such shares, will be the amovmt of cash, or its equivalent, paid or transferred to the corporation as a consideration for such shares: Provided further, That in the case of indebtedness wholly secured by property collateral, tangible or intangible, the subject of sale or hypothecation in the ordinary business of such cor- poration, joint-stock company or association as a dealer only m the property constituting such collateral, or in loaning the fimds thereby procmed, the total interest paid by such corpora- tion, company, or association within the year on any such in- debtedness may be deducted as a part of its expenses of doing business, but interest on such indebtedness shall only be deduct- ible on an amoimt of such indebtedness not in excess of the actual value of such property collateral: Provided further, That in the case of bonds or other indebtedness, which have been issued with a guaranty that the interest payable thereon shall be free from taxation, no deduction for the payment of the tax herein imposed, or any other tax paid pursuant to such guaranty, shall be allowed; and in the case of a bank, banking association, loan or trust company, interest paid within the year on deposits or on moneys received for investment and secured by interest-bearing certificates of indebtedness issued by such bank, banking asso- ciation, loan or trust company shall be deducted; "Fourth, Taxes paid within the year imposed by the authority of the United States (except income and excess profits taxes), or of its Territories, or possessions, or any foreign countrjr, or by the authority of any State^ county, school district, or mimicipality, or other taxing subdivision of any State, not iheluding those assessed against local benefits." (2) Paragraphs third and fourth of subdivision (6) of section twelve of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, are hereby amended to read as follows: "Third. The amount of interest paid within the year on its indebtedness (except on indebtedness incurred for the purchase of obligations or securities the interest upon which is exempt from taxation as income under this title) to an amount of such indebtedness not in excess of the proportion of the sum of (a) the entire amount of the paid-up capital stock outstanding at the close of the year, or, if no capital stock, the entire amount of the capital employed in the business at the close of the year, and (6) one-half of its interest-bearing indebtedness then outstanding, which the gross amount of its income for the Amendments to. Deductions allowed Domestic Corpora- tions. Capital stock. Indebtedness secured by property collateral. Bonds. Taxes paid. Amendments to Deductions allowed foreign corporations. THE WAR TAX OF 1917 65 Bonds. Taxes paid. Withholding of tax. Interestupon bonds, etc, Penalties for viola- tions of law. year from businssa transacted and capital invested within the United States bears to the gross amount of its income derived from all sources within and without the United States: Provided, That in the case of bonds or other in- debtedness which have been issued with a guaranty that the interest payable thereon shall be free from taxation, no deduction for the payment of the tax , herein imposed or any other tax paid pursuant to such guaranty shall be al- lowed; and in case of a bank, banking association, loan or trust company, or branch thereof, interest paid within the year on deposits by or on moneys re- ceived for investment from either citizens or residents of the United States and secured by interest bearing certificates of indebtedness issued by such bank, banking association, loan or trust company, or branch thereof; "Fourth. Taxes paid within the year imposed by the authority of the United States (except income and excess profits taxes), or of its Territories, or possessions, or by the authority of any State, county, school district, or munici- pality, or other taxing subdivision of any State, paid within the United States, not including those assessed against local benefits." Sec. 1208. That subdivision (e) of section thirteen of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby amended to read as follows: "(e) All the provisions of this title relating to the tax authorized and re- quired to be deducted and withheld and paid to the officer of the United States Government authorized to receive the same from the income of nonresident alien individuals from sources within the United States shall be made applicable to the tax imposed by subdivision (a) of Section ten upon incomes derived from interest upon bonds and mortgages or deeds of trust or similar obligations of domestic or other resident corporations, joint-stock companies or associations, and insurance companies by nonresident alien firms, copartnerships, companies, corporations, joint-stock companies or associations, and insurance companies; not engaged in business or trade within the United States and not having any office or place of business therein." Sec. 1209. That section eighteen of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby amended to read as follows: "Sec. 18. That any person, corporation, partnership, association, or insur- ance company, liable to pay the tax, to make a return or to supply information required under this title, who refuses or neglects to pay such tax, to make such return or to supply such information at the time or times herein specified in each year, shall be liable, except as otherwise specially provided in this title to a penalty of not less than $20 nor more than $1,000. Any individual or any officer of any corporation, partnership, association, or insurance company, required by law to make, render, sign, or verify any return or to supply any information, who makes any false or fraudulent return or statement with intent to defeat or evade the assessment required by this title to be made, shall be guUty of a misdemeanor, and shall be fined not exceeding $2,000 or be im- prisoned not exceeding one year, or both, in the discretion of the court, with the costs of prosecution: Provided, That where any tax heretofore due and payable has been duly paid by the taxpayer, it shall not be re-collected from any with- holding agent required to retain it at its source, nor shall any penalty be im- posed or collected in such cases from the taxpayer, or such withholding agent whose duty it was to retain it, for failure to return or pay the same, \inless such failure was fraudulent and for the pxirpose of evading payment." Sec. 1210. That section twenty-six of such Act of September eighth, nine- teen hundred and sixteen, as amended by the Act entitled "An Act to provide increased revenue to defray the expenses of the increased appropriations for the Army and Navy and the extensions of fortifications, and for other pur- poses," approved March third, nineteen hundred and seventeen, is hereby amended to read as follows: "Sec. 26. Every corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insur- ance_ company subject to the tax herein imposed, when required by the com- missioner of Internal Revenue, shall render a correct return, duly verified under oath, of its payments of dividends, whether made in. cash or its equivalent or in stock, including the names and addresses of stockholders and the number of shares owned by each, and the tax years and the applicable amounts in which such dividends were earned, in such form and manner as may be pre- scribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury." Sec. 1211. _ That Title I of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, is hereby amended by adding to Part III six new sections, as follows: "Sec. 27. That every person, corporation, partnership, or association, doing business as a broker on any exchange or board of trade or other similar place of business shall, when required by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, render a correct return duly verified under oath, under such rules and regula- tions as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secre- tary of the Treasury, may prescribe, showing the names of customers for whom such person, corporation, partnership, or association has transacted any busi- ness, with such details as to the profits, losses, or other information which the commissioner may require, as to each of such customers, as will enable the Commissioner of Internal Revenue to determine whether all income tax due on profits or gains of such customers has been paid. "Sec. 28. That aH_ persons, corporations, partnerships, associations, and insurance companies, in whatever capacity acting, including lessees or mort- gagors of real or personal property, trustees acting in any trust capacity, Amendments to General Admin- istrative Provisions. Returns of pa7- ments of Dividends. New sections. Returns by brokers. 66 THE WAR TAX OF 1917 Returns by those making payment to others of $800 or more. Regardless of amounts. Further data on de- mand. Applicable. Income credited with amount of War profits tax. Income of foreign governments. "Dividends" defined. Distribution made to shareholders. Premiums paid on life insurance policies. Amounts held by withholding agents. executors, administrators, receivers, conservators, and employers, making payment to another person, corporation, partnership, association, or insurance company, of interest, rent, salaries, wages, premiiims, annuities, compensation, remuneration, emoluments, or other fixed or determinable gains, profits, and income (other than payments described in sections twenty-six and twenty- seven), of $800 or more in any taxable year, or, in the case of such payments made by the United States the officers or employees of the United States having information as to such payments and required to make returns in regard thereto by the regulations hereinafter provided for, are hereby authorized and required to render a true and accurate return to the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, under such rules and regulations, and. in such form and manner a may be prescribed by him, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, setting forth the amount of such gains, profits, and income, and the name and address of the recipient of such payment: Provided, That such returs shall be required, regardless of amounts, in the case of payments of interest upon bonds and mortgages or deeds of trust or other similar obligations of corpor- ations, joint-stock tompanies, associations, and insurance companies, and in the case of collections of items onot payable in the United States) of interest upon the bonds of foreign countries and interest from the bonds and dividends from the stock of foreign corporations by persons, corporations, partnerships, or associations, undertaking as a matter of business or for profit the collection of foreign payments of such interest or dividends by means of coupons, checks, or bills of exchange. "When necessary to make effective the provisions of this section the name and address of the recipient of income shall be furnished upon demand of the person, corporation, partnership, association, or insurance company paying the income. "The provisions of this section shall apply to the calendar year nineteen hundred and seventeen and each calendar year thereafter, but shall not apply to^the payment of interest on obligations of the United States. "Sec. 29. That in assessing income tax the net income embraced in the return shall also be credited with the amount of any excess profits tax imposed by Act of Congress and assessed for the same calendar or fiscal year upon the taxpayer and, in the case of a member of a partnership, with his proportionate share of such excess profits tax imposed upon the partnership. "Sec. 30. That nothing in section II of the Act approved October third, nineteen hundred and thirteen, entitled 'An Act to reduce tariff duties and to provide revenue for the Government, and for other purposes,' or in this title, shall be construed as taxing the income of foreign governments received from investments in the United States in stocks, bonds, or other domestic securities, owned by such foreign governments, or from interest on deposits in banks in the United States of moneys belonging to foreign governments. 1 "Sec. 31 (a) That the term 'Dividends' as used in this title shall be held to mean any distribution made or ordered to be made by a corporation, joint- stock company, association, or insurance company, out of its earnings or profits accrued since March first, nineteen hundred and thirteen, and payable to its shareholders, whether in cash or in stock of the corporation, joint-stock com- pany, association, or insurance company, which stock dividend shall be consid- ered income, to the amount of the earnings or profits so distributed. (6) Any distribution made to the shareholders or members of a corporation, joint-stock company, or association, or insurance company, in the year nineteen hundred and seventeen, or subsequent tax years, shall be deemed to have been made from the most recently accumulated undivided profits or surplus, and shall constitute a part of the annual income of the distributee for the year in which received, and shall be taxed to the distributee at the rates prescribed by law for the years in which such profits or surplus were accumulated by the corporation, joint-stock company, association, or insurance company, but nothing herein shall be construed as taxing any earnings or profits accrued prior to March first, nineteen hundred and thirteen, but such earnings or profits may be distributed in stock dividends or otherwise, exempt from the tax, after the distribution of earnings and profits accrued since March first, nineteen hundred and thirteen, has been made. This subdivision shall not apply to any distribu- tion made prior to August sixth, nineteen hundred and seventeen, out of earn- ings or profits accrued prior to March first, nineteen hundred and thirteen. _ Sec. 32. That premiums paid on life insurance policies covering the lives of officers, employees, or those financially interested/ in any trade or business conducted by an individual, partnership, corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insurance company, shall not be deducted in computing the net income of such individual, corporation, joint-stock company or association, or insurance company, or in computing the profits of such partnership for the purposes of subdivision (e) of section nine. Sec. 1212. That any amount heretofore withheld by any withholding agent as required by title I of such Act of September eighth, nineteen hundred and sixteen, on account of the tax imposed upon the income of any individual, a citizen or resident of the United States, for the calendar year nineteen hundred and seventeen, except in the cases covered by subdivision (c) of section nine of such act, as amended by this act, shall be released and paid over to such in- dividual, and the entire tax upon the income of such individual for such year shall be assessed and collected ir the manner prescribed by such Act as amended by this Act, THF WAR TAX OF 1917 67 TITLE XIII.— GENERAL PROVISIONS Sec. 1300. That if any clause, sentence, paragraph, or part of this Act shall Validity of Act. for any reason by adjudged by any court of competent jurisdiction to be invalid, Buch judgment shall not afiect, impair, or invalidate the remainder of said Act, but shall be confined in its operation to the clause, sentence, paragraph, or part thereof directly involved in the controversy in which such judgment shall have been rendered. Sec. 1301. That Title I of the Act entitled, "An Act to provide increased "pitig Repealed revenue to defray the expenses of the increased appropriations for the Army and r Navy and the extension of fortifications, and for other purposes," approved March third, nineteen hundred and seventeen, be, iand the same is hereby, Sec. 1302. That unless otherwise herein specially provided, this Act shaP. Effective, take effect on the day following its passage. INCREASE IN OUR MARINE ESTABLISHMENT. On Oct. 23, 1917, the Secretary of the ing battleships, cruisers, destroyers, and Navy made public the following statement: submarines; new foundries, machine shops. Congress has appropriated $1,905,620,- immense warehouses, and piers; and in 919.70 for the Navy in the last 14 months, building training camps. Work has been be- That is within $335,000,000 of the total gun on the big projectile plant to be oper- am-ount appropriated from the beginning of ated in connection with the armor plate fac- the new Navy, in 1883, up to August, 1916. tory which will be built at Charleston, W. Every dollar of this is needed, to enable the Va. A $1,000,000 aircraft factory is being Navy to perform the tasks before It. built at the Philadelphia navy yard. The Navy is expanding at a rate that Twenty training camps have been erected would have been regarded as impossible a . which will accommodate 85,000 men. year ago. We are carrying out the greatest Hundreds of millions of dollars are re- warship construction program in history, quired for guns and ammunition; for steel, comprising 787 vessels, including all of the coal, oil; for food and clothing; and the various types, from superdreadnoughts to various other needs of the service, submarine chasers. The appropriations made this year for the There are now almost three times as Naval Establishment and the objects to many vessels in the service of the Navy as which they are applied are given in the fol- there were before war was declared. Every lowing table: battleship and cruiser that was In reserve Appropriated by Apts of March 4, June 15, has been fully manned and commissioned. and October 5, 1917. Hundreds of vessels, yachts, and fast motor Personnel: boats have been taken over for coast de- Pay, subsistence, clothing, fense, antisubmarine warfare, and other pur- training, transportation, poses. Many large merchantmen have been recruiting, etc $217,819,366.16 transformed into transports. The Atlantic Ships: Fleet comprises twice as many vessels as in Construction, purchase, time of peace. equipment, repair, and The Navy and Marine Corps today con- operation of ships 805,277,583.00 stitute a force of over a quarter of a mil- Ordnance: lion men. The day war was declared there Guns, torpedoes, mines, were 64,680 enlisted men in the Regular ammunition, etc 391,812,506.50 Navy; now there are more than 144,000. In Aviation 62,133,000.00 addition there are over 49,000 enlisted in Public works: the Naval Reserve Force, 6,500 in the Hos- New construction and im- pital Corps, 14,500 National Naval Volun- provements, repair, up- teers, and about 5,000 members of the Coast keep, and operation of Guard in service — a total of more than 219,- public works 69,163,755.01 000. The Marine Corps has been more than Marine Corps 42,715,148.78 doubled, there being about 33,000 men and Miscellaneous 3,811,500.00 officers in service as compared with 13,266 enlisted men and 426 commissioned officers $1,592,732,859.45 on April 6. ENLISTMENTS IN THE NAVY. The Navy is expending many millions in Total enlisted men October 20 146,246 the enlargement of navy yards; the con- Net gain October 21 and 22 118 struction of dry docks capable of accommo- • dating the largest ships; shipways for build- Total enlisted men October 22. . 146,364 68 THE UNITED STATES ARMY THE UNITED STATES ARMY The armed forces of the United States Army as at present authorized are: Regular Army 300,000 National Guard 450,000 National Army (first call) . . 687,000 ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION The President is the constitutional com- mander-in-chief of the army and navy. He places the army under commanders subor- dinate to his general commands, exercised through the Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff. The military system is based on a regu- lar army, raised by universal military train- ing and voluntary enlistment, the Officers Reserve Corps, the National Guard and the unorganized militia. The policy of raising the army by universal military service will in time unquestionably supersede the pres- ent military policy. The new universal military service law renders obsolete all figures dealing with the numerical strength of the army. The or- ganization and administration of the army remains virtually as before, but the person- nel is to be so tremendously increased that present units will be but the. nucleus of those to be formed. There are certain exempt clashes, how- ever. From the men registered under the law approximately 500,000 are put into ac- tive service at once, and others as neces- sity demands. The President is also left free to increase the present regular army to its authorized strength of 287,000 men. The National Guard is to be increased to 625,000 men. These troops are to be raised from volun- teers exempt by age from the universal service law. The Secretary of War, a member of the President's cabinet, directs the affairs of the War Department and is directly respon- sible to the President. Through his hands all business pertaining to the army passes He supervises estimates for appropriations, purchases supplies, makes expenditures for maintainance and transportation of the army and for certain other civil appropriations, such as the Panama Canal, etc. He has supervision over the national defense and over the harbor waters and charge of all educational matters pertaining to the army the direction of the expenditures for the army and for supplying it with its needs are made through the Chief of Staff and Staff Bur£Laus of the War Department. The Staff Bureaus are the General Staff Corps, the Chief of Staff, the Adjutant Gen- eral's Department, the Inspector General's Department, the Judge Advocate General's Department, the Quartermaster Corps, the Medical Corps, the Engineer Corps, the Ord- nance Department, the Signal Corps, the Bureau of Insular Affairs, and the Militia Bureau. The General Staff Corps is the chief ad- visory board to the President and the Sec- retary of War. It consists under the new law, of fifty-five officers detailed to it. These men study military problems, plans for de- fense, the utilization of the military forces and improve the efficiency of the army in general. It prepares all plans of campaign and collects all military information. Its work has been the most efficient of any work yet done for the army. The executive head of the General Staff is the Chief of Staff, who reports direct to the Secretary of War. The Adjutant General's Department cares for records, orders and correspondence of the army. Orders and iastructions from the War Department are issued through the Adjutant General. The Inspector General's Department is responsible for the inspection of the upkeep of army posts, service schools, camps, hos- pitals, armories, arsenals, the various de- pots, barracks, etc. In fact, its scope em- braces every branch of military affairs. The Inspector General's Department fur- nishes the watch dogs for maintaining effi- ciency and economy. In a way, its person- nel are the doctors of the military organ- ization. The Judge Advocate General's Depart- ment is the legal bureau of the War De- partment. ~ " " The Bureau of Insular Affairs has charge of all matters of civil government in island possessions subject to the jurisdiction of the War Department. The Militia Bureau is responsible for all business pertaining to the National Guard and the unorganized militia. The Engineer Corps lays out and pre- pares fortifications and lines of march, does all pioneering work, bridge building, sur- veying, map making and the construction and repairing of all roads, bridges and tor^ tifications. Its personnel is also in active service with the mobile army. The Signal Corps has complete charge of the wireless, telegraph, aviation and visual signal methods. It constructs, operates and repairs all of the systems of communica- tion. The new aviation corps now becomes THE UNITED STATES ARMY one of the most important branches of the Signal Corps. The Medical Department regulates the sanitary organization of the army and its camps. It is divided into two main subdi- visions, the hospital corps and the ambu- lance service. With these subdivisions it cares for the sick and wounded. The Ordnance Department provides guns, small arms, ammunition and the many arti- cles classed as arms and munitions. It also operates the government arsenals. The Quartermaster Corps may be called the army's storekeeper as well as the army's housekeeper. It is organized to supply the army with everything but arms and ammu- nition. The Quartermaster General is also the paymaster of the army. BRANCHES OF THE SERVICE The land forces are divided into the mo- bile army and the coast artillery. The mo- bile army is organized for offensive opera- tions and consists of the infantry, field ar- tillery, cavalry, engineers and signal corps troops. The INFANTRY forms the backbone of a country's military force and on its strength is based the strength of all other branches of the service. The foot soldier is the most independent and complete fighting unit in the army. As long as he has strength to carry his arms, ammunition and equipment he can take him- self from battlefield to battlefield, independ- ent of aid. Good, effective infantry, the only kind worth having, must be trained, disciplined and capably led. The infantry service is the least technical of any branch, but it requires longer and more severe training and disciplinary measures than any other branch. Team work is essential. The spirit of the team is first installed in the men on the parade ground and is developed steadily by the more technical training. The CAVALRY was formerly known as the eyes and ears of the army, but the aerial branch of the service has usurped many of its prerogatives. The cavalry, however, is used extensively in reconnais- sance or scouting. It also screens the main army by keeping the enemy at a distance. The cavalryman, in addition to his horse, has for arms a long-ranged rifle, an auto- matic pistol and a saber. Usually the cav- alry's place is on the outskirts of an army, but in battle its versatility in open fighting is great and it is considered the best arm to follow up a defeated army and turn de-: feat into rout through the vigor of its attacks. The FIELD ARTILLERY is divided into horse artillery, light artillery, siege artillery and mountain artillery. The light and horse artillery are armed with the light field pieces, mounted on field carriages. The gunners either ride on the gun and ammu- nition carriages or are mounted on the horses. The mountain artillery is armed with light field pieces that may be carried on pack mules. The men are not mounted, while in the horse artillery, all the men are mounted. The siege artillery is armed with heavy, mobile guns which are drawn from place to place either by horses or motors. Under modern warfare conditions siege ar- tillery is often mounted on armored railroad cars. The COAST ARTILLERY is made up of fixed or stationary guns set in batteries in fortifications at points where the landing of an enemy or naval attacks may be effect- ively opposed. UNITS OF ARMY ORGANIZATION. The smallest unit in the army is the "squad," usually consisting of eight men, one of whom is the leader, called the "cor- poral." Two, three or four squads (usually three) may be joined in the next higher unit, which is called a "platoon." The platoon, however, is not so permanent as a squad, but it is formed whenever there is need for it in drilling or on the firing line. Next comes the "company," which is made up at full strength of 150 men; this is about 18 squads or 6 platoons. However, these figures for the number of squads and of pla- toons in a company are never definitely fixed. A company in the field is very seldom at full strength, and it may be convenient at any time to change the number of squads and platoons. Four companies are joined in a "bat- talion." The battalion is an important unit in the army organization, but it is not so clearly marked as either the company or the regiment. The "regiment" consists of 3 battalions, making 12 companies. In addition, there are three special companies which do not be- long to any of the battalions. These are the headquarters company, including the band and the color guard; the machine-gun com- pany, and the supply company, responsible for the regiment's food, ammunition, and other supplies. Counting in everyone, the regiment at full strength in the old tables of organization totals 2,058 officers and men. THE UNITED STATES ARMY It will go more than this with the increase strength of infantry regiments in the first expeditionary division. The regiment is, of course, very seldom at full strength, but is never allowed to remain below a minimum strength of about 1,400. The regiment is the unit that especially arouses the soldiers' pride and loyalty. The most cherished traditions of the army are made up of the splendid deeds of famous regiments. The soldier identifies himself throughout his life by naming his regiment. His love for the army centers in his regi- ment. His most sacred memories cluster around the regimental battle flags. Two regiments are joined in a "brigade." Thus the brigade is built up by assembling individual soldiers into squads, squads into platoons; platoons into companies; compa- nies into battalions; battalions into regi- ments; and regiments into brigades. Brigades may in turn be joined to form "divisions," divisions may be joined to form corps, and corps to form field armies. Under the new plans an Infantry regiment will be made up as follows : Officers and men. 1 headquarters and headquarters com- pany 303 3 battalions of 4 rifle companies each. 3,078 1 supply company 140 1 machine-gun company 178 1 medical detachment 56 3,755 Each rifle company will have a strength of 250 men and 6 officers. It will be divided Into a company headquarters, composed of two officers and 18 men, and four platoons. The platoons will be made up as follows : Officers and men. 1 headquarters 2 1 section bombers and rifle grenadiers 22 2 sections riflemen, 12 each 24 1 section auto riflemen, 4 guns 11 The headquarters platoon, 93 officers and men; including one staff sectioii, 36 officers] and men; one orderlies section, 29 officers J and men, and one band section, 28 men; ones signal platoon, 77 officers and men, includ-5 ing one telephone section 51 men, one sec- tion with headquarters, 10 men, and one sec- tion with three battalions, '16 officers and men; one sapper's and bomber's platoon, 43 officers and men, including one section of sappers for digging and special work, 9 men, and one section of bombers, 34 officers and: men; one pioneer platoon for engineer work,| 55 officers and men; and one one-pounder ;ii cannon platoon, 33 officers and men. The infantry division _ for service in Eu- rope will be composed as follows: Officers and men., 1 division headquarters 164 1 machine-gun battalion 76S 2 infantry brigades each composed of 2 infantry regiments and 1 ma- chine-gun battalion of 3 companies 16,420 1 field artillery brigade, composed of 3 field artillery regiments and one trench-mortar battery 5,068 field signal battalion 262; train headquarters and military po- lice 337- regiment of engineers '. . . . 1,666 ammunition train 962 supply train 462' engineer train 84 sanitary train, composed of 4 field hospital companies and 4 ambu- lance companies 949 27,152 59 The machine-gun company under the new organization will have 6 officers and 172 men. It will be composed of the headquarters, 3 officers and 21 men; three platoons, each with one officer and 46 men, and a train, 13 men. Its armament will consist of 12 ma- chine-guns of heavy type and four spare guns. The headquarters company will- be the largest unit of each regiment. It will be composed of 7 officers and 294 men split up as follows: DIVISION MACHINE-GUN STRENGTH. A division under the new plan will in- clude a total of fourteen machine-gun com- panies. Each of the four infantry regiments will have one; each of the two brigades will have a machine-gun battalion of three com- panies; and the division will have a ma- chine-gun battalion of four companies. This will give each division a mobile machine- gun strength of ten companies, which can; be used as special needs require, while each regiment still will have its own machine- gun equipment in one of its component com- panies. And, in addition, there will be forty- eight sections of auto-riflemen, each section carrying four light machine guns, one sec- tion in each of the four platoons making up each rifle company. SYSTEM OF NUMBERING ARMY UNITS. The regiments, brigades and divisions of each arm of the army will be numbered in a separate series, and the first number of each series will be as indicated in the fol- THE UNITED STATES ARMY 71 lowing table: Regiment. d a 5| > c3 to o Regular Army 1 101 301 1 101 301 1 101 301 1 National Guard ,. . . . 101 National Army 301 Brigade. Divisions. a "d l-H d "d L4 . 1 Regular Army 1 51 151 1 51 151 1 51 151 1 26 76 115 National Army 1 This is to provide for the organization of Cavalry divisions, either moimted or dismounted. The Engineer regiments, except pioneers, will be numbered in the manner already ap- proved and put into effect. The designations of regiments of the Na- tional Guard will show in parenthesis their present State designations, as, for example, th Infantry (First Maine), th Field Artillery (Second Pennsylvania), etc. The designations of regiments of the National Army will show in parenthesis the State from which each organization, or the bulk of it, was drawn, as, for example, th In- fantry (W. Va.), th Field Artillery (Minn.). No parenthesis implies Regular Army, an ordinal number and State abbre- viation implies National Guard, a simple State abbreviation implies National Army. This system contemplates that the desig- nations in parenthesis will ordinarily be omitted in orders, dispatches, or correspond- ence, but will be authorized, when desired, for the purpose of local identification and to preserve traditions and local pride. NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS. From the first-class privates are usually chosen the corporals. These are the squad leaders. They are appointed by the com- manding oflicer of the regiment on the rec- ommendation of the commanding officer of the company. In addition to the regularly appointed corporals each company may have one lance corporal. This is a temporary ap- pointment made by the company commander for the purpose of testing the ability of some private whom he is thinking of recommend- ing for permanent appointment. In case the lance corporal does not make a good show- ing, or for any other reason, he may be re- turned to the ranks when the commander of the company sees fit. Next above the corporal in rank comes the sergeant. There are usually 9 to 11 ser- geants in a company. Unless a sergeant has some other duty assigned to him, he is nor- mally the leader of a platoon. There are, however, many special duties constantly as- signed to sergeants. The first sergeant (in Army slang, the "top sergeant"), for exam- ple, keeps certain company records, forms the company in ranks, transmits orders from the company commander, and performs many other important tasks. The supply sergeant sees to bringing up supplies of all kinds to the company. The mess sergeant looks after food. The stable sergeant is responsible for the proper care of horses and mules. The color sergeant carries the national or regimental colors. There are many other grades within the rank of ser- geant which can not be described here. COMMISSIONED OFFICERS. Sergeants and corporals are known as non-commissioned officers, because they are appointed by their regimental commanding officer. Officers of higher ranks are known as commissioned, since they hold their rank by virtue of a commission issued to them under authority of the President of the United States. The commissioned officer is thus on quite a different footing from the "non-com" (non-commissioned officer). He obtains his rank and authority from a higher source. He is treated with respect which is of a different character from that extended to a non-commissioned oflicer. This is one of the fundamental things in Army organization. Lowest in rank among the commissioned officers is the second lieutenant. Above him comes the first lieutenant and above him the captain. These are the three "company of- ficers." The captain is ordinarily the com- manding officer of a company, while the lieu- tenants might be described as assistant cap- tains. In the absence or disability of the captain, however, the first lieutenant takes his place and has full command, and in the absence or disability of both the second lieutenant takes the command. Next above the captain is the major, whose proper command is a battalion. A step high- er is the lieutenant colonel, and above him the colonel, the commanding officer of a regiment. The lieutenant colonel ordinarily assists the colonel and in his absence takes the command. In case both the lieutenant colonel and the colonel are disabled or ab- sent, the senior major takes the command. 72 THE UNITED STATES ARMY THE GENERAL OFFICERS. Above the colonel is tlie brigadier gen- eral, whose proper command is a brigade. Above the brigadier general is the major general. One general serves as Chief of Staff of the Army. As such he supervises all troops and departments of the military service. He in turn reports to the Secretary of War. The Secretary of War in his turn acts under the general direction of the President of the United States, who is the Commander in Chief. THE CITIZEN SOLDIER. By studying and practicing the following exercises and drills, small bodies of men may school themselves in the basic prin- ciples underlying all military instruction and weld themselves into an organization that, in emergency, will be capable of pro- tecting life and property against the law- less or riotous activity of enemies of the public safety. In joining a military or semi- military organization, the citizen becomes a soldier and his training will be based on the training given a United States "reg- ular." EXERCISES. The new soldier gets his first military work in physical drill or "setting up" exer- cise, devised to give the recruit the bear- ing of a military man. These exercises pre- pare him for his work as a trained soldier by loosening his muscles and giving him ease of motion. The exercises are simple and embrace sets of movements of the arms, shoulders, legs, trunk and chest. The weak physical points of the recruit are thus given attention. In a remarkably short pe- riod of time great improvement in the phy- sical development of a man will be brought about by practicing these exercises ten min- utes each morning and evening. Other movements may be substituted for any or all of the following: No. 1. — ^Brings into play every important muscle. Stand erect with heels together and arms at the sides. Spring to a position with legs apart, forming an inverted x and arms extended so that a straight line runs through the arms and across the back from finger tip to finger tip; always alight on your toes. Return immediately to first position and repeat without pause until fatigued. This movement is the same as that of the "jack-on-the-string." Never become too tired. Increase the amount of your exercise gradually. No, 2. — ^Hardens leg muscles and exercises the joints. Stand erect, heels together and hands resting on the hips with thumbs point- ing toward the spinal column. Bend the knees until the backs of the calves touch the backs of the thighs and the buttocks are clo&e to the heels. Let heels leave the fioor, balance on toes. Return immedi- ately to first position and repeat. Keep the head and body erect. Use plenty of spring in all these exercises. Proper bal- ange will come with practice. No. 3. — Strengthens back muscles and re- duces waist. Stand with legs spread and arms raised straight over the head. Swing the arms downward, bending head and body, and allow arms and head to swing between legsxmtil the eyes are looking between the legs. Return immediately to first posi- tion and repeat. Let arms and head go as far through on the downward swing as possible. Keep arms stiff and feet flat. No, 4. — ^Develops muscles of arms, should- ers and chest. Stand erect with upper arms close at side and forearms thrust straight out ahead at right angle with upper arms; hands clinched and turned upward (back of hand turned down). Thrust arms straight out ahead on level with should- ers, turning hands over in movement so that backs come up. Open hands at end of thrust, close fists and return to first position. Repeat several times. Vary by thrusting hands downward and upward. Experiment in directions. No. 5. — Strengthens insteps and ankles. Stand erect with hands clasped behind back. Rise on toes without losing bal- ance and repeat. THE SCHOOL OF THE SOLDIER. Military training is divided into schools. The school of the soldier teaches the re- cruit the movements in which he must per- fect himself before he may undertake drill maneuvers with other soldiers. Several men should, if possible, go through this school together under the same instructor, for, while each acts as a unit independent of others, the general results are more bene- ficial. Arms are not necessary in the first lessons in this school. The recruit must obey commands. Commands are divided into two classes: the preparatory command, shown by black type, such as forward, indi- cates the movement that is to be executed and the command of execution shown by capitals such as MARCH, HALT, or ARMS, THE UNITED STATES ARMY 73 causes the commencement of the execution" of the movement. The first order (1) tells the soldier what to do; the second (2) tells him to do it. Third and fourth orders are used in involved movements. ATTENTION is the first military position taught a recruit. It means simply to stand like a soldier. It is the natural position of the well balanced erect human body with muscles relaxed and was long ago adopted by military men as the simplest position for uniformity. It is the base for all drill work. (1) Squad (2) ATTENTION. Heels to- gether, feet turned out at angles of 45 de- grees, legs straight, body erect, shoulders square, arms and hands hanging naturally at sides, thumbs along seams of trousers, head erect, eyes straight to the front, chin drawn in to make vertical axis of head and neck (this is most difiicult part for aver- age recruit), weight resting equally upon heels and balls of feet. Keep hips and shoulders level, chest out and stomach up. Practice will overcome initial stiffness. Jlold position for lengthening periods. To allow rest to men at drill there are three orders: FALL OUT, REST, AT EASE. At FALL OUT men may leave ranks. At REST each man keeps one foot in place but may talk or move body. AT EASE each man keeps one foot in place, preserves silence, but may move body. (1) Parade (2) REST: Move right foot six inches straight back, bend left knee to give position of ease, clasp hands in front of center of body, left hand being upper- most and left thumb lying between right thumb and forefinger, Keep silent and steady. CD Eyes (2) RIGHT, (LEFT) (3) FRONT: At (2) turn head to right or left oblique, fixing eyes on line of eyes of men in, or supposed to be in, same rank. At (3) turn head and eyes back to attention. THE FACINGS: To the flank— (1) Right, (Left) (2) FACE: Raise left heel and right toe; turn- ing on right heel face to the right using ball of left foot to assist, place left foot by side of right. Left face is executed to the left; right op left half face is executed similarly, facing 45 degrees. (1) About (2) FACE: Carry toe of right foot about a half foot-length to rear and slightly to left of left heel without chang- ing position of left foot; face to rear, turn- ing to right on left heel and right toe; place right heel by side of left. There is no left about face. (1) Hand (2) SALUTE: Look toward person saluted. Raise right hand smartly till tip of forefinger touches lower part of hat or forehead above right eye, thumb and fingers extended and joined, palm to left, forearm inclined at 45 degrees, hand and wrist straight. (2) Drop arm after instant's pause. STEPS AND MARCHINGS: (The military walk and run.) All steps and marchings executed from a halt, except right step, be- gin with left foot. Length of full step in quick time (military walk) is 30 inches from heel to heel. Cadence rate of 120 steps per minute. Length of full step double time (military run) is 36 inches, cadence rate of 180 steps per minute. Instructor may assist by calling "left," "right," "left," ."right," at instant for planting either foot. All steps and marchings are executed in quick time unless squad is marching in double time or double time is added to pre- paratory command. Example (1) Squad right, double time (2) MARCH. Quick time, being at a halt — (1) Forward (2) MARCH. At (1) Forward, shift weight to right leg, left knee straight. At MARCH, move left foot smartly straight forward 30 inches and plant without shock. Repeat with right, etc. Let arms swing easily. This is a smart walk with attention given to cadence and length of stride to give uni- formity. When once mastered the march step is the least fatiguing of all walking steps. Double time, being at a halt or in quick time— (1) Double time (2) MARCH. If at a halt, at first command shift weight of body to right leg. At command march, raise forearms, fingers closed, to horizontal position along waistline; take up an easy run with step and cadence of double time, allowing natural swinging motion to arms. If marching in quick time, at command ma.''ch, given as either foot strikes the ground, take one step in quick time, and then step off in double time. To resume quick time — (1) Quick time (2) MARCH. At command march, given as either foot strikes ground, advance and plant othef foot in double time; resume quick time, dropping hands by sides. TO MARK TIME. Being in march— (1) Mark time (2) MARCH. At command march, given as either foot strikes ground, advance and plant other foot; bring up foot in rear and continue cadence by alternately raising each foot about two inches and planting it on line with other. 74 THE UNITED STATES ARMY Being at halt, at command march, raise and plant feet as described above. THE HALF STEP, (1) Half step (2) MARCH. Take steps of 15 inches in quick time, 18 Inches in double time. Forward, half step, halt, and mark time, may be executed one from the other in quick or double time. To resume the full step from half step or mark time: (1) Forward, (2) MARCH. SIDE STEP. Being at a halt or mark time: (1) Right (left) step, (2) MARCH. Carry and plant right foot 15 inches to right; bring left foot beside it and con- tinue movement in cadence of quick time. The side step is used in short distances only and is not executed in double time. If at order arms, side step is executed at triail without command. BACK STEP. Being at a halt or mark time: (1) Backward, (2) MARCH. Take steps of 15 inches straight to rear. Back step is used for short distances only and is not executed in double time. If at order arms, back step is executed at trail without command. TO HALT. To arrest the march in quick or double time: (1) Squad (2) HALT. At command halt, given as either foot strikes ground, plant other foot as in marching; raise and place first foot by side of other. If in double time, drop hands by sides. TO MARCH BY THE FLANK. Being in march: (1) By the right (left) flank, (2) MARCH. At command MARCH, given as right foot strikes ground, advance and plant left foot, then face to right in marching and step off in new direction with right foot. TO MARCH TO THE REAR. Being in march: (1) To the rear, (2) MARCH. At command, march, given as right foot strikes ground, advance and plant left foot; turn to right about on balls of both feet and im- mediately step off with left foot. If marching in double time, turn to right about, taking four steps in place, keeping cadence, and then step off with left foot. CHANGE STEP. Being in march: (1) Change step, (2) MARCH. At command march, given as right foot strikes ground, advance and plant left foot; plant toe of right foot near heel of left and step off with left foot. The change on right foot is similarly exe- cuted, the command march being given as the left foot strikes ground. MANUAL OF ARMS. Manual of Arms or instruction in the handling of the rifle is the drill which aims to make the soldier's weapon a part of him- self. His handling of the rifle must l)e- come instinctive — something that he can go through without thought. The manual of arms teaches the soldier how to handle his weapon the easiest posible way and each position serves a useful purpose. Many movements of the manual involve several motions. The instructor should an- nounce "by the numbers," which means such movements are executed one motion at a time as numbers are called. Attenffoh Ord«r Arms POSITION OF ORDER ARMS STAND- ING (the position of Attention under arms). Butt of gun rests on ground, barrel to rear, toe of butt on line with toe of, and touch- ing, right shoe, arms and hands hanging naturally, right hand holding gun between thumb and fingers. Being at order arms: (1) Present, (2) ARMS. With right hand carry gun in front of center of body, barrel to rear and ver- tical, grasp it with left hand at balance, forearm horizontal and resting against body. (TWO) Grasp the small of the stock with the right hand. Pr e sent Arms Port Arms Hifle Salute THE UNITED STATES ARMY Being at order arms: (1) Port, (2) ARMS. With right hand raise and throw gun diagonally across body, grasp it smart- ly with both hands; right, palm down, at small of stock; left, palm up, at balance; barrel up, sloping to left and crossing op- posite junction of neck with left shoulder; right forearm horizontal; left forearm rest- ing against body; gun in vertical plane parallel to front. Being at present arms: (1) Port, (2) ARMS. Carry gun diagonally across body and take position of port arms. Being at port arms: (1) Present, (2) ARMS. Carry gun to vertical position in front of center of body and take position of present arms. Being at present or port arms: (1) Order, (2) ARMS. Let go with right hand; lower and carry gun to right with left hand; re- grasp it with right hand just above lower band; let go with left hand, and take next to last position in coming to order. (TWO) Complete order. Being at order arms: (1) Right shoul- der, (2) ARMS. With right hand raise and throw piece diagonally across body; carry right hand quickly to butt, embracing it, heel between first two fingers. (TWO) Without changing grasp of right hand, place gun on right shoulder, barrel up and in- clined at angle of 45 degrees from hori- zontal, trigger guard in hollow of shoulder, right elbow near side, piece in vertical plane perpendicular to front; carry left hand, thumb and fingers extended and joined, to small of stock, tip of forefinger touching cocking piece, wrist straight and elbow down. (THREE) Drop left hand by side. Being at right shoulder arms: (1) Order, (2) ARMS. Press butt down quickly and throw piece diagonally across body, right hand retaining grasp of butt. (TWO), (THREE) Execute order arms as described from port arms. Being at port arms: (1) Right shoulder, (2) ARMS. Change right hand to butt. (TWO), (THREE) As in right shoulder arms from order arms. Being at right shoulder arms: (1) Port, (2) ARMS. Press butt down quickly and throw gun diagonally across body, right hand retaining its grasp of butt. (TWO) Change right hand to small of stock. Being at right shoulder arms: (1) Pre- sent, (2) ARMS. ' Execute port arms. (THREE) Execute present arms. Being at present arms: (1) Right shoul- dcp, (2) ARMS. Execute port arms. (TWO), (THREE), (FOUR) Execute right shoulder arms as from port arms. Being at port arms: (l)Left shoulder, (2) ARMS. Carry the gun with right hand and place it on left shoulder, barrel up, trigger guard in hollow of shoulder; at same time grasp butt with left hand, heel between first and second fingers, thumb and fingers closed on stock, (TWO) Drop right hand by side. Being at left shoulder arms: (1) Port, (2) ARMS. Grasp gun with right hand at small of stock. (TWO) Cari-y gun to right with right hand, regrasp it with left, and take position of port arms. Left shoulder arms may be ordered di- rectly from order, right shoulder or pre- sent, or reverse. At command arms execute port arms and continued in cadence to posi- tion ordered. Being at order arms: (1) Parade, (2) REST. Carry right foot 6 inches straight to rear, left knee slightly bent; carry muz- zle in front of center of body, barrel to left; grasp piece with left hand just below stacking swivel, and with right hand below and against left. Being at parade rest: (1) Squad, (2) ATTENTION. Resume order, left hand quitting gun opposite right hip. Being at order arms: (1) Trail, (2) ARMS. Raise gun, right arm slightly bent, and incline muzzle forward so that barrel makes angle of about 30 degrees with the vertical. If men are far apart gun may be grasped at balance and held horizontally. Being at trail arms: (1) Order, (2) ARMS. Lower the piece with the right hand and resume the order. RIFLE SALUTE. Being at right shoulder arms: (1) Rifle, (2) SALUTE. Carry left hand smartly to small of stock, forearm horizontal, palm of hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, forefinger touching end of cocking piece; look toward person saluted. (TWO) Drop left hand by side; turn head and eyes to front. Being at order or trail arms: (1) Rifle, (2) SALUTE. Carry left hand smartly to right side, palm of hand down, thumb and fingers extended and joined, forefinger against gun near muzzle; look toward per- son saluted. (TWO) Drop left hand by side; turn head and eyes to front. 76 THE UNITED STATES ARMY lirspeciTon Tl i g h t" . Shoulder Arms 'parade ' Rest THE INSPECTION. (NOTE)— Great care Should be taken to inspect guns before drill to make certain they are not loaded. Un- less all rifles in squad are of same action formal inspection based on drill regulations is difficult. Being at order arms: (1) Inspection, (2) ARMS. At second command take position of port arms. (TWO) Seize bolt handle with thumb and forefinger of right hand, turn handle up, draw bolt back and glance at chamber. Having found chamber empty, or having emptied it, raise head and eyes to front. Being at inspection arms: (1) Order (Right Shoulder, port), (2) ARMS. At pre- paratory command push bolt forward, turn handle down, pull trigger, and resume port arms. At command arms, complete move- ment ordered. TO DISMISS THE SQUAD. Being at halt: (1) Inspection (2) ARMS, (3) Port, (4) ARMS, (5) DISMISSED. THE SCHOOL OF THE SQUAD. The squad proper consists of seven pri- vates and a corporal, grouped for purposes of instruction, discipline, control and order. Upon entering the squad the soldier loses his identity; he is no longer a unit for in- struction, the squad becomes the unit. Us- ually the squad assembles in four files, four front rank men and four rear rank men, the rear rank 40 inches behind the front, the corporal as the left front rank man. Each man stands four inches from his neighbor on either side. The sqad exe- cutes the movements learned in the school of the soldier and amplifies them in other movements. Skirmish work and the use of the rifle are taught to the squad as a unit. In the squad the soldiers learn the oblique march- ings, how to deploy as skirmishers and as- semlsle and reassemble and how to operate their rifles under various conditions. Also they receive instructions in the use of cover in warfare. By the time the soldier has mastered the drill work of the squad he is proficient in the facings, steps and march- ings, manual of arms, handling and use of the rifle, in deploy work, in seeking cover and firing from various positions. SQUAD FORMATION. The instructor's position is three paces in front of the squad's center. At the com- mand, FALL IN, the men assemble in double rank at ATTENTION, pieces at the order, and men in order of height from right to left. Each man drops left arm as man on left has taken his place. At the command, COUNT OFF, all except right file executes eyes right and beginning on the right the men count one, two, three, four, each turning eyes to front as he counts. ALIGNMENTS. To align the squad, the base file or files having been established: (1) Right (left), (2) DRESS, (3) FRONT. At command dress all men place left hand upon hip (whether dressing to the right or left), each man, except base file, when on or near new line executes eyes right, and, taking steps of 2 or 3 inches, places him- self so that his right arm rests lightly against arm of man on his right, and his eyes and shoulders are in line with those of the men on his right; rear rank men cover in file. The instructor verifies alignment of both ranks from right flank and orders up or back such men as may be out of line. At command front, given when the ranks are aligned, each man turns head and eyes to front and drops left hand by side. In first drills basis of alignment is estab- lished on, or parallel to, front of squad; afterwards, in oblique directions. Whenever position of base file or files necessitates a considerable movement by squad, such movement will be executed by marching to front or oblique, to flank or backward, as case may be, without other command, and at trail. To preserve the alignment when march- ing: GUIDE RIGHT (LEFT). Men preserve their intervals from side of guide, yielding to pressure from that side and resisting THE UNITED STATES ARMY pressure from opposite direction; they re- cover intervals, if lost, by gradually open- ing out or closing in; they recover align- ment by slightly lengthening or shortening step. In double rank, front-rank man on right, or designated flank, conducts march; when marching faced to flank, leading man of front rank is guide. Three of the basic movements of the squad are squad right, squad right about and right turn. They must be mastered. TO TURN ON FIXED PIVOT. Being in line, to turn and march: (1) Squad right (left), (2) IVIARCH. At second command, right flank man in front rank face^ to right in marching and marks time; other front rank men oblique to right, place themselves abreast of pivot and mark time. In rear rank third man from right, fol- lowed in column by second and first, moves straight to front until in rear of his front- rank man, when all face to right in march- ing and mark time; the other number of rear flank moves straight to front four paces and places himself abreast of man on his right, l^en on new line glance toward marching flank while marking time and, as last man arrives on line, both ranks exe- cute forward, march, without command. Being in line, to turn and halt: (1) Squad right (left), (2) IVIARCH; (3) Squad, (4) HALT. Third command is given immedi- ately after second. Turn is executed as prescribed in preceding paragraph except that all men, on arriving on new line, mark time until fourth command is given, when all halt. Fourth command should be given as last man arrives on line. Being in line, to turn about and march: (1) Squad right (left) about, (2) MARCH. At second command, front rank twice exe- cutes squad right, initiating second squad right when man on marching flank has ar- rived abreast of rank. In rear rank third man from right, followed by second and first in column, moves in new direction until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to right in marching, mark time, and glance toward marching flank. Fourth man marches on left of third to new posi- tion as he arrives on line, both ranks exe- cute forward, march without command. Being in line, to turn about and halt: (1) Squad right (left) about, (2) MARCH, (3) Squad, (4) HALT. Same as above except all men, on arriving on new line, mark time until fourth command is given, when all halt. TO TURN ON MOVING PIVOT. Being in line: (1) Right (left) turn, (2) MARCH. Movement is executed by each rank successively and on same ground. At second command, pivot man of front rank faces to right in marching and takes half step; other men of rank oblique to right until opposite their places in line, then exe- cute a second right oblique and take half step on arriving abreast of the pivot man. All glance toward marching flank while at half step and take full step without com- mand as last man arrives on line. Right (Left) half turn is executed in a similar manner. TO TAKE INTERVALS AND DISTANCES. Being in line at a halt: (1) Take inter- val, (2) To the right (left), (3) MARCH, (4) Squad (5) HALT. At second command rear-rank men march backward 4 steps and halt; at command march all face to right and leading man of each rank steps of£; other men step off in sucdession, each fol- lowing preceding man at 4 paces, rear-rank men marching abreast of their file leaders. At command halt, given when all have their intervals, all halt and face to the front. Being at intervals, to assemble squad: (1) Assemble to the right (left), (2) MARCH. Front-rank man on right stands fast, rear-rank man on right closes to 49 inches, other men face to right, close by shortest line, and face to front. Being in line at a halt and having counted off: (1) Take distance, (2) MARCH, (3) Squad, (4) HALT. At command march No. 1 of front rank moves straight to front; Nos. 2, 3 and 4 of front rank and Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 of rear-rank, in order named, move straight to front, each stepping ofE so as to follow preceding man at 4 paces. The command halt is given when all have their distances. In case more than one squad is in line, each squad executes movement as above. Guide of each rank of numbers is right. Being at distances, to assemble squad: (1) Assemble, (2) MARCH. No. 1 of the front rank stands fast; the other numbers move forward to their proper places in line. THE OBLIQUE MARCH. Squad being in column or correctly aligned, instructor causes squad to face half right or half left, points out to men their relative positions, and explains that these are to be maintained in oblique march. THE UNITED STATES ARMY (1) Right (left) oblique, (2) MARCH. Each man steps off in a direction 45 de- grees to right of his original front. He preserves his relative position, keeping shoulders parallel to those of guide (man on right front of line or column), and so regulates his steps that ranks remain par- allel to their original front. At the command HALT men halt faced to front. To resume original direction: (1) For- ward, (2) MARCH. Men half face to left in marching and then move straight to front. If at half step or mark time while obliquing, oblique march is resumed by commands: (1) Oblique, (2) MARCH. TO FOLLOW THE CORPORAL. Being assembled or deployed, to march squad without unnecessary commands, cor- poral places himself in front and com- mands: FOLLOW ME. If in line or skirmish line. No. 2 of front rank follows in trace of corporal at about 3 paces; other men conform to' movements of No. 2, guiding on him and maintaining their relative positions. If in column, head of column follows cor- poral. TO DEPLOY AS SKIRMISHERS. Being in any formation, assembled: (1) As skirmishers, (2) MARCH. The corporal places himself in front of squad, if not al- ready there. Moving at a run, men place themselves abreast of corporal at half-pace intervals, Nos. 1 and 2 on his right, Nos. 3 and 4 on left, rear-rank men on right of their file leaders, extra, men on left of No. 4; all then conform to corporal's gait. When squad is acting alone, skirmish line is similarly formed on No. 2 of front rank, who stands fast or continues march, as case may be, corporal places himself in front of squad when advancing and in rear when halted. When deployed as skirmishers, men march at ease, pieces at trail. The normal interval between skirmishers is one-half pace, resulting practically in one man per yard of front. TO INCREASE OR DIMINISH INTERVALS If assembled, and it is desired to deploy at greater than normal interval; or if de- ployed, and it is de3ired to increase or decrease interval: (1) As skirmishers, (so many) paces, (2) MARCH. Intervals are taken at indicated number of paces. If already deployed, men move by flank toward or away from guide. SIGNALS AND CODES. Much depends on the ability of soldiers to' work with signals. The following arm signals are prescribed. In making them either arm may be used. Signals received on firing line are repeated back to prevent misunderstanding: ' Forward, march. Carry hand to shoulder; straighten and hold arm horizontally, thrusting it in direction of march. TWO ARM SEMAPHORE CODE This signal is also used to execute -quick time from double time. Halt. Carry hand to shoulder; thrust hand upward and hold arm vertically. Double time, march. Carry hand to shoulder; rapidly thrust hand upward full extent of arm several times. Squads right, march. Raise arm later- ally until horizontal; carry it to a vertical position above head and swing it several times between vertical and horizontal posi- tions. THE UNITED STATES ARMY 79 Squads left, march. Raise arm laterally until horizontal; carry it downward to side and swing it several times between down- ward and horizontal positions. Squads right about, march (if in close order), or, To the rear, march (if in skir- mish line). Extend arm vertically above head; carry it laterally downward to side and swing it several times between vertical and downward positions. TWO ARM SEMAPHORE CODE "APPl^MATIVE. ACKNOWLEDGE u w CTTENTIOML NUMERALS 5 Change direction or Column right (left), march. Hand on side toward which change of direction is to be made is carried across body to opposite shoulder, forearm hori- zontal, then swing in a horizontal plane, arm extended, pointing in new direction. As skirmishers, march. Raise both arms laterally until horizontal. As skirmishers, guide center, march. Raise both arms laterally until horizontal; swing both simultaneously upward until vertical and return to horizontal; repeat several times. As skirmishers, guide right (left), march. Raise both arms laterally until horizontal; hold arm on side of guide steadily in hori- zontal position; swing other upward until vertical and return it to horizontal posi- tion; repeat several times. Assemble, march. Raise arm vertically to its full extent and describe horizontal circles. ^ Additional arm signals are employed in fighting formations. WIGWAGGING IS SIGNALING BY ONE FLAG, TORCH, LANTERN OR SEARCHLIGHT BEAM. Position Dot Dash Front There is one position and three motions. The position is with flag or other appli- ance held vertically, the signalman facing directly toward the receiving station. The "dot," first motion, is to the right of sender and embraces an arc of 90 de- grees, starting with the vertical and re- turning to it. The "dash," second motion, is a similar motion to the left. The third motion, "front," is downward directly in front of the sender and instantly upward to first position. It indicates a pause or conclusion. THE ASSEMBLY. Being deployed: (1) Assemble, (2) MARCH. Men move toward corporal and form in their proper places in double time if he continues to advance, TO KNEEL. Half face to right, kneel on right knee, sitting on right heel, left fore- arm across left thigh, gun at position of order arms. TO LIE DOWN. Kneel with right knee against left heel, carry back left foot and lie on belly, body slightly to right. Gun horizontal and pointed to front, elbows on ground, right hand at small of gun stock, left hand at balance. TO RISE. Reverse action of kneeling and lying down. LOADING AND FIRING. Unless guns are of same type, rules of loading and firing 80 THE UNITED STATES ARMY laid down by drill regulations cannot easily be followed. All commands for loading and firing are executed at a halt. When in double rank, rear rank does not load, aim or fire. The target, direction of fire and sight setting are pointed out by ofiicers. Men are trained in the squad in the use of cover, the value of observation and the firing for- mations. SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY. The company in line is formed in double rank as in squad. The company is usually divided into two, three, or four platoons, each usually con- sisting of not less than two nor more than four squads. At the formation of the company the pla- toons or squads are numbered consecutively from right to left. For convenience in giving commands and for reference, the designations, right, cen- ter, left, when in line, and leading, center, rear, when in column, are applied to pla- toons or squads. These designations apply to the actual right, left, center, head, or rear, in whatever direction the company may be facing. The center squad is the middle or right middle squad of the com- pany. Platoons are assigned to the lieutenants and non-commissioned officers, in order of rank, as follows: (1) right; (2) left; (3) center (right center) ; (4) left center. The company executes the halt, rests, fac- ings, steps and marchings, manual of arms, loadings and firings, takes intervals and distances and assembles, increases and di- minishes intervals, resumes attention, obliques, resumes the direct march, pre- serves alignments, kneels, lies down, and rises, as explained in the Schools of the Soldier and the Squad, substituting in the commands company for squad. TO FORM THE COMPANY. At sounding of assembly first sergeant takes position 6 paces in front of where center of company is to be, faces it, and commands: FALL IN. The right guide of company places him- self, facing to front, where right of com- pany is to rest, and at such point that cen- ter of company will be 6 paces from and opposite first sergeant; squads form in their proper places on left of right guide, super- intended by other sergeants, who then take their posts. First sergeant commands: REPORT. Remaining in position at order, squad lead- ers, m succession from the Tight, salute and report: All present; Private(s) absent. First sergeant does not return sa- lutes of squad leaders; he then commands: (1) Inspection, (2) ARMS, (3) Order, (4) ARMS, faces about, salutes captain, reports: Sir, all present or accounted for, or the names of unauthorized absentees, and, with- out command, takes his post. If the company cannot be formed by squads, first sergeant commands: (1) In- spection, (2) ARMS, (3) Right shoulder, (4) ARMS, and calls roll. Each man, as his name is called, answers here and executes order arms. The sergeant then effects the division into squads and reports company as prescribed above. The captain places himself 12 paces in front of the center of, and facing, the com- pany and in time to receive the report of the first sergeant. The lieutenants take their posts when the first sergeant has reported. Officers draw sabers. TO DISMISS THE COMPANY. Being in line at a halt, the captain di- rects the first sergeant Dismiss the Com- pany. The officers fall out; the first ser- geant places himself faced to the front, 3 paces to the front and 2 paces from the nearest flank of the company, salutes, faces toward opposite flank of the company, and commands: (1) Inspection, (2) ARMS. (3) Port, (4) ARMS, (5) DISMISSED. ALIGNMENTS. The alignments are executed as pre- scribed in the School of the Squad, the guide being established instead of the flank file. The rear-rank man of the flank file keeps the head and eyes to the front and covers his file leader. At each alignment the captain places himself in prolongation of the line, 2 paces from and facing the flank toward which the dress is made, verifies the alignment, and commands: FRONT. Platoon leaders take a like position when required to verify alignments. The primary movements of the company which must be mastered are: 1. Being in line to turn the company. 2. Being in line to change direction. 3. Being in line to form column of squads and change direction. 4. Being in column of squads to change direction. 5. Being in column of squads or pla- toons, to form line on right or left. THE UNITED STATES ARMY 81 6. Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line to the front. (1) Being in line, to turn the company: (1) Company right (left), (2) MARCH, (3) Company, (4) HALT; or, (3) Forward, (4) MARCH. At second command right-flank man in front rank faces to right in marching and marks time; other front-rank men oblique to right, place themselves abreast of the pivot, and mark time; in rear rank third man from the right, followed in column by second and first, moves straight to front until in rear of his front-rank man, when all face to right in marching and mark time; remaining men of rear rank move straight to the front 4 paces, oblique to right, place themselves abreast of third man, cover their file leaders, and mark time; right guide steps back, takes post on flank, and marks time. The fourth command may be given any time after movement begins but each man obeys only as he reaches his place at rear of new line. (2) Being in line, to change direction: (1) Right (left) turn, (2) MARCH, (3) For- ward, (4) MARCH. Executed as prescribed in School of Squad, except that men do not glance to- ward marching flank and that all take full step at fourth command. Right guide is pivot of front rank. Each rear-rank man obliques on same ground as his file leader. (3) Being in line to form column of squads and change direction: (1) Squads right (left), Column right (left), (2) MARCH; or, (1) Right (left) by squads, (2) MARCH. In first case right squad initiates column right as soon as it has completed squad right. In second case, at command MARCH, right squad marches forward; remainder of company executes squads right, column left, and follows right squad. Right guide, when he has posted himself in front of right squad, takes four short steps, then resumes full step; right squad conforms. (4) Being in column of squads, to change direction: (1) Column right (left), (2) MARCH. At second command front rank of lead- ing squad turns to right on moving pivot as in School of the Squad; other ranks, without command, turn successively on same ground and in a similar manner. (5) Being in column of squads, to form line on right or left: (1) On right (left) into line, (2) MARCH, (3) Company, (4) HALT, (5) FRONT. At first command leader of leading unit commands: Right turn. Leaders of other units command: Forward, if at a halt. At second command leading unit turns to right on moving pivot. Command HALT is given when leading unit has advanced desired distance in new direction; it halts; its leader then commands: RIGHT DRESS. Units in rear continue to march straight to front; each, when opposite right of its place in line, executes right turn at com- mand of its leader; each is halted on line at command of its leader, who then com- mands: RIGHT DRESS. All dress on the first unit in line. If executed in double time, leading squad marches in double time until halted. Being in column of platoons to form line on right or left. At captain's command on right into line, leader of first platoon commands right turn, leaders of rear platoons, if halted, com- mand forward; if marching, they caution their platoons to continue the march. The first platoon executes right turn at the cap- tain's command MARCH. Having com- pleted turn platoon commander gives com- mand, forward, MARCH. The remaining platoon commanders give right turn, MARCH, when opposite their places, and command, forward, MARCH, when turn has been completed. When leading platoon has advanced the desired distance captain gives command, company, HALT. At command company, leading platoon leader gives command, pla- toon. His platoon only halts at captain's command, HALT. Platoon leader then gives command, RIGHT DRESS. Remain- ing platoons are successively halted and dressed by their leader. (6) Being in column of platoons or squads, to form line to front: (1) Right (left) front into line, (2) MARCH, (3) Company, (4) HALT, (5) FRONT. At first command leaders of units in rear of leading one command right oblique. Leader of first unit commands. Forward. At second command first unit moves straight forward; rear units oblique as indi- cated. Command HALT is given when lead- ing unit has advanced desired distance; it halts; its leader then commands: LEFT DRESS. Each of rear units, when oppo- site its place in line, resumes original di- rection at command of its leader; each is halted on line at command of its leader, who then commands: LEFT DRESS. All dress on first unit line. Having mastered these fundamental move- ments of squads, platoons and company, all THE UNITED STATES ARMY Other movements in drill regulations may be perfected with practice. FIELD SERVICE. TRAINING, DISCIPLINE AND PROTEC- TION IN CAMP: Having mastered the drills and the movements of the soldier, the fighting man's education has been begun but is as yet incomplete for he must learn how to operate in field work. Camp training is necessary to make an effective fighting man, for each must learn how to take care of himself properly while living in the open. In this course of instruction the soldier learns how to pitch and strike his tent, how to cook his meals, how to care for his health and make himself as comfortable as the situa- tion will allow. Military camps are laid out on certain prescribed plans to prevent con- fusion. These plans are rigidly adhered to as far as local conditions allow, for where thousands of men are grouped together in a small space, efficiency demands uniformity in all matters. Camps are formed by regi- ments and are divided into business streets and residential sections. Once a man has mastered the camp plan he should be able, upon entering any camp, to go directly _^ to any spot he may wish. In the army there is a place for every- thing and everything is expected to be in its place. The uniform camp details each animal, tent and feed box to an exact spot, where it may be found at an instant's no- tice. Everything is systematically done without waste of energy or confusion. On the march a new camp is made every night exactly like the one made the night before, and when it is struck the next morning the formula is also exact. The camp city must have its laws Just as any city has laws. Its water system must be protected from pollution, for water is the most common cause of disease. Us- ually all water used in camp comes from one source, a stream, so in order to pro- tect the men's health, guards are placed along the banks to prevent fouling of the water. The drinking water is drawn from a point farthest upstream; lower down ani- mals are watered, the men are allowed to bathe next and the camp washing is done at a point farthest downstream. Camp kitchens and cooking utensils a,re kept scrupulously clean and all garbage and refuse is disposed of in order not to attract flies. A dirty camp kitchen or refuse pile in the vicinity is a certain breeding place for disease. Soldiers now understand that their good health depends, in a great meas- ure, on following the prescribed rules of sanitation and hygiene. In field work, eat- ing is done on an irregular schedule, but every effort is made to give the soldier his heaviest meal at the close of the day's work. The wise soldier at hard work satis- fies himself with army grub, supplied to his company. It is well prepared, nourish- ing and less likely to upset his digestive apparatus than food obtained by outside purchase or gift. At the end of the day's march, the sol- dier pitches his tent, airs his clothing and blankets, prepares his bed, if possible bathes, and makes himself as comfortable as circumstances will permit. Certain men are detailed for camp pro- tection. Those on outpost duty guard ap- proaches to the camp, at a distance from it sufficient to allow the men to prepare them- selves for defense in case of an attack. The men posted farthest out to give alarms are called outguards. Behind them is the main line of observation called Cossack posts, sentry squads or pickets, which fur- nish men to relieve the outguards or senti- nels. Between this line and the camp are larger groups of men detailed as sup- ports for the outposts. They are to aid the first line in case of attack. The re- serve lies still nearer the camp and is the final line of defense between the enemy and the main body of troops. Thus pro- tected the soldier in camp may sleep with- out fear of surprise. TRAINING, DISCIPLINE AND PROTEC- TION ON THE MARCH. For every minute of actual fighting the average soldier must spend days marching. For this reason particular attention has been given to footwear and the weight of equipment. Ill-fitting shoes will destroy an army. Useless and heavy equipment will reduce its mobility tremendously. The av- erage day's march, under ordinary condi- tions, is between 12 and 15 miles, though campaigning often brings army corps to a state of efficiency in which the men will do between twenty and thirty miles day after day. Marching is far slower than walking, for it is gauged by the ability of the men to carry a quarter or third of their own weights on their backs over roads where they are unable to pick their paths, but must plow straight ahead through all obsta- cles, with clocklike, measured regularity. The matching power of a seasoned army is far, far greater than that of green recruits. In fact, the new men, unaccustomed to the extra load and the rules of the march, are THE UNITED STATES ARMY 83 virtually useless. The rules of th© march allow ten minutes rest in each hour, but discipline does not allow the soldier to leave the ranks or lag during any of the fifty minutes he is on his feet, for breaking the ranks means the disorganization of an en- tire column. The column of squads is the usual marching formation. At route step each man carries his gun at ease, muzzle elevated. Ranks preserve distance, but it is not necessary to keep step. Trained soldiers, except on forced marches, do little eating or drinking when on the road, as experience has taught them that such a course is the most satisfactory in the end, though the temptation may be great. Above all things, the soldier cares for his feet. His shoes must allow for the spreading of his feet, due to the extra weight he carries. He must keep his shoes free from sand and gravel and his socks free from wrinkles, which will cause blis- ters. Cleanliness has become prevalent in the army, as it is the surest means of main- taining physical comfort. If unable to bathe at night, the soldier will move heaven and earth to get sufficient water to bathe his feet. The same watch for the enemy is kept on the march that exists around the camp. An advance guard, broken into groups, pro- ceeds the main column and clears the way. In the extreme advance is the POINT, con- sisting of a few men. It is followed closely by the ADVANCE party, which is backed up by the SUPPORT and a still larger body called the RESERVE. Groups of men called patrols or flankers operate on the flanks or sides of marching columns to protect the main body from surprise. The rear guard prevents surprise from the back and rounds up stragglers. TRAINING, DISCIPLINE AND EFFI- CIENCY IN BATTLE. Technically, this phase is called FIRE CONTROL AND DISCIPLINE. In modern warfare the soldier seldom gets a "square" shot at an enemy. Usually the enemy is invisible and the soldier often has difficulty in locating the direction from which the fire is coming. To train men to shoot accu- rately on a rifle range at an inanimate tar- get is one thing, to control them and make their fire effective under actual fighting con- ditions is quite another. Soldiers are not left to shoot where they think the enemy lies, but their fire is di- rected by the officers. If no enemy is in sight a systematic bullet spraying of all ground in the direction from which the fire comes is followed under the close observa- tion of officers through field glasses. The commander thus controls the direction of the fiFe until the enemy either by showing himself or through the slackening of his fire, gives his position away. Such work demands the highest discipline and coolness on the part of men and officers. When once the officers have located the enemy they estimate the range and pass it to the men. Sights are adjusted and at the command the real efficient firing begins. If the range is to be changed the order is transmitted down the line by whistle and signal to th© platoon leaders, who pass it to the squad leaders, who in turn pass it to the men under them. Under this system th© man with the rifle never takes his eyes from the enemy, yet he receives and executes his orders with the regularity of clockwork. In battle, orders are given largely by whis- tle and signal, as words are lost in the din. Combat is divided into two classes — the offensive or attack, and the defensive. The aggressive policy, whether in daily life or in battle, is the policy that produces deci- sive results. There are general advantages on both sides and no two battles have ever been fought under exactly the same circum- stances. Often the attacking side is able to select its own ground, but usually the position is chosen by the enemy. Then, too, the attack may launch itself against any point in the line it chooses, while the defense must prepare to resist at all points. The fire of the attack converges on the de- fenders, while the answering fire is di- verging. ATTACKING A POSITION. In the attack the vital factors ar© th© morals of the men and the superiority of their shooting, or, technically, their Fire Superiority. Fire Superiority means to pro- duce a heavier proportionate volume of ac- curate and effective fire than the enemy, to put out of action a greater proportionate number of men. The principles of attack have not changed since war began. The aim is to have better troops than the enemy at the right place at the right time and to deliver a blow which he cannot resist. The advantage of initiative is with th© attack- ing force. The attack demands a greater number of troops than the defense because those advancing are more exposed than the men on the defense. The attack offers a moving target, however, while the defense is stationary, though better protected. The losses of the attacking side will be greater, but the side inflicting the greater proper- THE UNITED STATES ARMY tionate loss is certain to win, morals being equal. Attacks are not made blindly. Offi- cers who do not estimate the situation by gaining all possible information about the enemy are likely to send their men to cer- tain destruction. Once an attack is re- pulsed the moral advantage is with the de- fenders. Having decided upon a course of action in the attack the more information passed to the men the better their spirit, particularly information dealing with their supports. As has been said before, attacks are not now made in mass but rather in long waves of deploying troops. Charges are not made until fire superiority has been obtained either by artillery or rifle fire. Bayonets are fixed before the charge be- gins, reserves and supports are brought up. As the line charges, troops in the rear must maintain the superiority of fire. In other words, they must keep as many of the enemy as possible from bringing an effect- ive fire to bear on the attacking line. If the enemy holds until the bayonet comes into use, all depends on the number and morals of the troops engaged in the man to man encounter. Attacks, however, which have the strength to come to hand to hand fighting are seldom turned back by men who have been imable to beat them back by rifie fire. Technically, the attack is divided into the deployment or forming of the battle line; the advance usually under hot fire from the defense which, however, remains unan- swered; the fire attack, which is the effort to obtain fire superiority made after the attacking force has secured the most fav- orable position possible; the charge after fire superiority is obtained, and the pursuit to reap the full fruits of victory. The two most usual attacks are: the frontal, deliv- ered directly against the enemy and likely to prove successful only when the attack- ing force has marked superiority in num- bers and fire; the enveloping, which adds to the, frontal attack by striking at either or both fianks, the aim being to overlap, envelope and smother the enemy. DEFENDING A POSITION. There are two kinds of defense: the pas- sive defense, where there is no object but the holding of the position, and the active defense, where a position is held tempora- rily with the idea of attacking the enemy later. An officer on the defense aims to select a position which will give him the greatest advantage possible and put the enemy at the greatest possible disadvan- tage. This is a matter of geographical loca- tion and is merely a common sense adapta- tion of natural resources. The position should be selected so that the enemy must attack or give up the advance, while the defense should always have a means of retreat. In other words, don't let the enemy turn your flank or get your back against a wall. If possible, trenches are dug and all nat- ural barriers taken advantage of. The greater the time the more complete the defense works. Often troops on the de- fense have opportunity to impede the ad- vance by felling trees, obstructing roads, destroying bridges in the enemy's line of march and erecting entanglements in ad- vance of the position to be defended. On6 important move is to determine exact dis- tances to certain objects in the field of fire directly ahead of the position. This gives the defending troops absolute range and a corresponding advantage in securing and retaining fire superiority. The advantage of position and concealment are with the defense, but one of the most trying posi- tions for the soldier is to see men advanc- ing against him unchecked despite his ef- forts. The closer home the attack is driven, the stronger the morale of the advancing troops and the weaker that of the defend- ers. A weakening of morale means a loss in firing efficiency. The advancing troops are undismayed by their dead and wounded who are left behind, and losses are not esti- mated as each man becomes intent on his work in advancing, while the defenders are handicapped by their losses which are ever present. In the work of defense much care should be given to the means of bringing up supports and of moving men in the line from one position to another, also in pro- viding ammunition. On this point the de- fense has an advantage. Under present conditions as few men as possible are kept under fire in the first trenches, until the attack is launched in order to prevent un- necessary loss from artillery fire. However, troops are sent forward as soon as the actual attack begins. Often the repulse of the enemy is followed by a counter attack, but many a battle has been lost by an ill- timed counter attack. However, the regu- lations of the army make, this point in dis- cussing the defense: "The passive defense should be assumed only when circumstances force it. Only the offensive wins. An active defense seeks a favorable decision. A favorable decision cannot be expected without counter attack." Men retiring from trenches are covered as far as possible by supports and reserves, INSIGNIA and every effort is made to retire without confusion or disorganization, for notliing effects the morale of soldiers like the flight of men either singly or in large bodies. ARMY INSIGNIA EXPLAINED. The uniform of the United States Army stands for democracy. It is almost the same for all ranks from private to commanding general — so much so, in fa:ct, that it is often difficult to recognize a man's place in the service at first glance. But a closer view will tell the whole story to any experienced observer. "Insignia" is the term used to include all the badges, buttons, braids, hat cords, and other devices which indicate these three things : 1. The rank of each officer or soldier. 2. His branch of the service or his spe- cial duties. 3. His personal experience or record. FIRST-CLASS PRIVATE MAY WEAR DESIGN. Ah ordinary private's uniform carries no insignia of rank. When a man becomes a. first-class private, however, in the Engineer Corps, Hospital Corps, Ordnance Depart- ment, Quartermaster Corps, or Signal Corps, he is entitled to wear on the sleeves of his coat and shirt the design of the department to which he belongs. A lance corporal wears on his sleeve an inverted "V-shaped bar. A corporal has two bars, and a sergeant three bars. Below the sergeant's three "V-shaped (inverted) bars may appear a number of additional marks, indicating his duties. For example, a first sergeant has a diamond-shaped mark; the stable sergeant has a device representing a horse's head; the color sergeant has a star; the battalion quartermaster sergeant has three horizontal bars; the chief trumpeter has one bar and a device representing aa bugle; and so on. All the cloth designs, such as those just described, which are sewn on the sleeves, are known as "chevrons." INSIGNIA OF RANK; Above the non-commissioned officers, rank is shown by various insignia on the shoulder loops of coats, on the sleeves of coats and overcoats, on the collars of shirts, and by hat cords. The most important are those made of metal and sewn on shoulder loops and shirt collars. A major general has two silver stars; a brigadier general, one silver star; a colonel, a silver eagle; a lieutenant colonel, a silver oak leaf; a major, a gold oak leaf; a captain, two silver bars; and a first lieutenant, one silver bar. A second lieutenant has no shoulder insignia. You can readily tell the rank of any officer by glancing at these metal insignia. It is quite often necessary, however, to recognize that some one at a little distance is a commissioned officer in order that you may treat him with the courtesy due to all officers; in this case you look for the marks indicating that a man holds a commission without waiting to observe his exact rank. Until recently commissioned officers cus- tomarily wore leather leggings, while all en- listed men wore canvas leggings. However, leather leggings may now be worn by mount- ed men. The hat cord is another mark of rank which is easily observed; the hat cords of generals are gold; those of other officers are of gold and black. Another mark of an officer is a band of brown braid about • 3 inches from the end of the coat sleeve. Officers of the General Staff Corps wear black braid instead of brown. On overcoats the braid is sewn on in loops except that of general officers, who wear two black bands of braid. [HAT CORDS SHOTV BRANCH. Every branch of the service has it spe- cial color which appears on the hat cords of enlisted men, on the chevrons of non- commissioned officers, and in many other places. These colors are: Infantry, light blue. Cavalry, yellow. Artillery, scarlet. Adjutant General's, Inspector Gener- al's, and Judge Advocate General's Departments, dark blue. Engineer Corps, scarlet intertwined with white. Signal Corps, orange intertwined with white. Medical Department, maroon. Quartermaster Corps, buff. Ordnance Department, black inter- twined with scarlet. By remembering these colors you 'will often be able easily to recognize men and troops. In addition to these colors, every branch of the service has its own device. REGIMENTAL INSIGNIA. The number of the regiment to which each man belongs is on the collar of his coat. All regimental numbers will run in three different series, showing whether each regi- ment was originally a part of the Regular Army, of the National Guard, or of the Na- tional Army. The number of regiments for- merly of the Regular Army will begin with the figure 1 and run up to the figure 100; those of regiments formerly in the National Guard will begin with figure 101 and run up to 300; those of regiments in the new. Na- tional Army will begin with figure 301. The former National Guard regiments will show also their former State designations, as, for example, (1st Me.), (2d Pa.), etc. The de- vice of regiments of the new National Army in the same way will show the State from SERVICE ARM AND RANK IN THE ARMY. US USR. Regular Army . , . National Army _ , Reserve Corps The above letters, plain for officers and enlisted men, dress Tiniform,;' as tul^psis' for enlisted men, service uniform,- are worn on collar of coat, or on. the collar of the shirt if the coat is not vtrom: TJie arms of tilifi sexYice are indicated by service hat cord:; and by collar insignia^ HAT CORDS. GENERAL OEFICEES -Gold. ALL OTHER OEFICEKS- Goldand' filacM -ENLISTED MEN y„ ^jEnfantry... ." LightMbjIifir ^lar^alry. .Yello,w, .'J]NLISTED men'" Artillery (P, and C.) .ScarlelS:. Medical De.j>§Lrtm.ent Marp-oiu r ENLISTED MEir^ Qitmrtermaster Corgs ,Buff. Oorpsjaf Engineers — Scarlet and -whitei... ENLISTED MEN Oi5.dnan.ce Department Black and scarlet. SlgnaLCorp.s —Orange and white. COLLAR INSIGNIA. Plain for officer^ and^enJList,edj3ress •unifor.m..^^ Buttons enlisted secEiee uniform. Infantry Eield^ArtiHery Itedical^ . Judge Advocate ■ DepaBtmeiiS; QeneiaL's Departme'Sife, rmaster Gen-et&Ti^ Ordnance ^ , _, >^iv^>,, Departmeali JDej)artment Cavalry ■ Coast A^iUerjr.' Adjutant General's ' Inspector General's Department Department Corps of Engineers Signal Corps 86 COMMISSIONED OliTICERS —INSIGNIA ON SHOULDER General ' , "Lieutenant General Coat of arms of the United One large silver star and States^an-d two silver stars. Wo small silver stars. Major General Two silver.-stara* Colonel pilveT spiiead eagle. Lieutenant Colonel- A silYeu loaf. Major A gold leaf. First Lieutenant- One silver bar. ^econd Lieutenant JSo \90p insignia. Erigadier General' One stlyer star. Ca^itain Two silvei; baia. Chaplain Latin cross. Fisst ^^sfi^sai) CHEVRbNS AND ^PEaALTJ MARKS !Ilhe more frequent Clievrons, only are given. Tne colors of tKe hat. eoxds aue used, in the Glievrons.. Saigeaut Corporal Private, 1st Class.. Insignia of coloT! •of arm of service^ Casemate Electrician, jsngineeES Coast Coast ArtiUexy Artillery Observer CFirst Class) Plotter Coaat Artnifiry Gujiners Gun ' pi„3t CiasS''"-- , Camm«n.4ar ' Coaat Artillery Wagoner Bugler Fireman C.S.HAMMOND & C0.,< 87 UNITED STATES NAVY MariTTeg CAP DEVICES Navy Navy Oammissioned Qgicer Warrant Officer Navy- Chief Petty Officer Navy On ribbon U^.S., AND NAME OF VESSEL,*^ EN1.IS.TED MEN ] Naval Militia. On ribbon JfAVAL MlLITfA. Navkl Reserve On ribbon, iHiVAL KESEKYE FOUCB SERVICE COAT COLLAR DEVICES— NAVY (Also used on shoulder devices for ranks through Commodoxe.) (Marines show rank on shoulder loop aa in Army, i ' LINE OEFICERS Admiral of the Navy Admiral Yice Admiral Rear Admiral 4^ ^^ 4^ O *^ ^ Commodore Captain Commander Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Lieutenant Junior Grade Ensign STAFF OFFICERS Sarhe as equal rank of line officers, but corps devices appear in pla'c'e oi anchors CORPS DEYICES % Medical Pay- Prof.Jdath.: Naval Civil Dental Constructor Engineer Officer CHIEF WARRANT OEFICERS, WARRANT OFFICERS, MATES Ch^aplain Cb.BoatswainCli. Gunner Oh. Machinist Ch.Carpenter Ch.SailmakerCh.Pharmacist Chief Midship-^ . Boatswain Gunner Machinist Carpenter Sailmalser Pharmacist., ^^^ 'l^"^^, man "® Paymaster s Gl'erli OFFICERS' SHOULDER MARKS (Worn with White Summer Service Uniform and Blue Service Overcoats) Admiral Vice Admiral Rear Admiral Captain. Commander Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Lieutenant Junior G.rade Ensign/ Chaplain, Chief Boatswain Chief Gunner Chief Machinist Gunner Boatswain. Carpe.n.ter Warrant Machinist Mate. Pay Clerk STJEEVE MARKS OF COMMISSIONED AND WARRANT OFFICERS NAVY. Staff officers same stripes, but instead, of stars, corps -colors are used with stripes.. Coijjs coloiss Medical, maroon; Pay, white; Prof. Math., olive green; CLvii Eng.,- blue; "~ Med. Res., crimson j Dental, orange. LINE OFFICERS . Also used on shoulder devices for ranks below CommodoEe: S S B B Captain Cojnmander Jr'^^^ ^^^? Lieutenant Commander Lieutenant Junior Chief Petty Officer JBnslgn Midshipman 1st Class Midshipman 2nd Class Ch.Boatswain Ch. Gunner Cli.Maehinist Ch.C.arpenter Ch.Sailmaker Ci.Pharamcist Boatswain Gunner Machinist Mate RATINGS AND A FEW ^ECIALTY MARKS NAVY ^ Quartermaster Gunner's Mate Petty Officer 2nd Class Petty Officer 3rd Class Boatswain's Mate Coxswain Printer Carpenter's Mate Plumber Eitter, Painter Turret Captain Storekeeper Yeoman ' Electrician Machinist's Mate . Hospital Corps C,S.HAMMOND & CO.|N.Y. INSIGNIA-AVIATION which each organization, or the bulk of it, China Campaign (indicating service in the was drawn, as, for example, (W. Va.), march to Peking) — Broad band of yellow (Minn.), etc. Thus you will easily be able to with narrow borders of blue, recognize not only the man's regiment but Ribbons for gallantry in action are worn also the section of the country from which farthest to the left, followed by campaign rib- he comes and how he got into the service. bons in chronological order. APMv •sTTPvirw PTRRONs? Chauffeurs, messengers and other civil- m^ v^^i ; SERVICE- KiBBONh. . except Army field clerks, Quartermas- The little strips of parti-colored ribbon . ' ^ ^ accomDanvine exDeditionarv mrnvr, nn thp Ipft hrpn<4tc5 nf nffippr stations. The commission shall take into consideration all they were entitled to receive while on the active list. Hereafter strategical and other military considerations as well as all in- the age for retirement of all officers of the Navy shall be sixty- dustrial elements necessary for the economical and successful four years instead of sixty-two years as now prescribed by law operation of such yards or stations, including local conditions except as stated before. All commissioned officers of the active as to labor and material. Said report shall also contain an list of the Navy shall receive the same pay and allowances ac- estimated cost of the necessary buildings, shops, piers, sea walls, cording to rank and length of service, and equipment of said yards or stations together with the esti- mated annual cost of maintenance thereof. ■Vavai FlTrinv r'irEi i?rki>rri? United States Navy by reason of their graduation from the JM AVAL. lIli!sliKVlii * OBCJi Naval Academy. A Naval Reserve Force is established, under the Department „ . . , „ . of the Navy, to consist of six classes, designated as follows: Commissioned Personnel First. The Fleet Naval Reserve. Hereafter the total number of commissioned officers of the Second. The Naval Reserve, active list, exclusive of commissioned warrant officers, shall be Thhrd. The Naval Auxiliary Reserve, distributed in the proportion of one of the grade of rear admiral Fourth. The Naval Coast Defense Reserve, to four in the grade of captain, to seven in the grade of com- Fifth. The Volunteer Naval Reserve, mander, to fourteen in the grade of lieutenant commander, to Sixth. Naval Reserve Flying Corps. thirty-two and one-half in the grade of lieutenant, to forty-one The Naval Reserve Force shall be composed of citizens who, and one-half in the grades of lieutenant (junior grade) and by enrolling or by transfer thereto, obligate themselves to serve ensign, inclusive. Lieutenants (junior grade) shall have had in the Navy in time of war or during the existence of a national not less than three years' service in that grade before being emergency. Members of the Naval Reserve Force may be eligible for promotion to the grade of lieutenant. ordered into active service in the Navy by the President in time of war or when, in his opinion, a national emergency exists. Warrant OfiScers Members appointed to commissioned grades shall be commis- . . sioned by the President alone, and members of such force ap- Hereafter chief boatswains, chief gunners, chief machinists, pointed to warrant grades shall be warranted by the Secretary chief carpenters, chief sail makers, chief pharmacists, and chief of the Navy. Officers so warranted or commissioned shall pay clerks, on the active list with creditable records^ shall, not be deorived of the retainer pay, allowances, or gratuities to after six years from date of commission, receive the pay and which they would otherwise be entitled. Officers shall rank allowances that are allowed a lieutenant (junior grade), United with but after officers of corresponding rank in the Navy. States Navy, and after twelve years, that of a lieutenant. Enrollment and reenroUment shall be for terms of four years. Warrant officers shall be allowed such leave of absence, with but members shall in time of peace, when no national emergency full pay, as is allowed other officers of the United States Navy, exists, be discharged upon their own request upon reimbursing -1 »> *j * *-'^® Government for any clothing gratuity that may have been . Promotion ana Betirement furnished them during their current enrollment. Persons en- All promotions to the grades of commander, captain, and rolling shall be required to take the oath of allegiance to the rear admiral of the line of the Navy, shall be by selection only United States. When first enrolled, members, except those in from the next lower respective grade upon the recommendation the Fleet Naval Reserve, shall be given a provisional grade, of a board of naval officers. in accordance with their qualifications determined by examina- This board shall consist of nine rear admirals on the active tion. They may thereafter, upon application, be assigned to list of the line of the Navy not restricted by law to the per- active service in the Navy for such periods of instruction and formahce of shore duty only, and shall be appointed by the training as may enable them to qualify for and be confirmed in Secretary of the Navy. such grade, rank or rating. No member shall be confirmed in On and after June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, no his provisional grade until he shall have performed the mini- captain, commander, or lieutenant commander shall be pro- mum amount of active service required for the class in which moted unless he has had not less than two years' actual sea he is enrolled, nor until he has duly qualified by examination, service on seagoing ships in the grade in which serving or who Members shall be issued a distinctive badge or button which is more than fifty-six, fifty, or forty-five years of age, respec- may be worn with civilian dress, and whoever, not being a tively. The qualification of sea service shall not apply to offi- member of the Naval Reserve Force of the United States and cers restricted to the performance of engineering duty only, not entitled under the law to wear the same, willfully wears or Captains, commanders, and lieutenant commanders who be- uses the badge or button or who uses or wears the same to obtain come ineligible for promotion on account of age shall be retired aid or assistance thereby, shall be punished by a fine of not more THE NAVAL APPROPRIATION LAW than $20 or by imprisonment for not more than thirty days or Volunteer Naval Eeserve by both such fine and imprisonment. This class shall be composed of those members of the Naval Reserve Force who are eligible for membership in any of the m + -K 1 » others and who obligate themselves to serve in the Navy in any fleet INavai Ueserve ^ ^ oneof these classes without retainer pay and uniform gratuity All former oflScers of the United States naval service, in- in time of peace, eluding midshipmen, who have left that service under honorable conditions, and those citizens who have been honorably dis- Naval Reserve Flying Corps charged from the naval service after not less than one four-year This class shall be composed of officers and student flyers term of enlistment or after a term of enlistment durmgmmority, ^^^ jjg^^g been transferred from the Naval Flying Corps and ' and who shall have enrolled in the Naval Reserve Force shaU ^f enlisted men who shall have been so transferred under the be eligible for membership in the Fleet Naval Reserve. game conditions as those provided by law for enlisted men Men enrolled in this class with less than eight years naval ^f t^e Navy transferred to the Fleet Naval Reserve. Members service shall be paid at the rate of $50 per annum; those with „{ (.jje Naval Reserve Force, skilled in the flying of aircraft or ^'/H/^^''^ ^"'^ •^^^ than twelve years shall be paid at the rate j^ tj,eir design or building, shall be eligible. The amount of of $72 per annum; and those with twelve or more years naval active service required and the annual retainer shall be the service shall be paid at the rate of $100 per annum, such pay g^^g ^s the Naval Reserve. to be considered as retainer pay for the obligation on the part eSen'^r''''' '" '"''' ''' '''' ^^^ ''' '^' "^ """ "' °^*''"'^' MARINE CORPS EESERVE - „ A United States Marine Corps Reserve, to be a constituent Naval Reserve part of the Marine Corps, and in addition to the authorized Members of the Naval Reserve Force who have been or may strength thereof, is hereby established under the same provi- be engaged in the seagoing profession, and who have enrolled sions as those providing for the Naval Reserve Force, for general service, shall be eligible for membership in the Naval Reserve. No person shall be first enrolled in this class who is NAVAL MILITIA AND NATIONAL NAVAL less than eighteen or more than thirty-five years of age, nor VOLUNTEERS unless he furnishes satisfactory evidence as to his ability and The Naval Militia shall consist of the regularly enlisted militia character; nor shall any person be appointed an officer m this between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years, organized as class unless he shall have had not less than two years e^e- prescribed for the Naval Militia by law, and commissioned nence as an officer on board of lake or ocean going vessels. The officers between the ages of twenty-one and sixty-two years minimumactive service required of members to qualify for (naval branch), and twenty-one and sixty -four years (Marine confirmation in their rank or rating m this_ class shall be three Corps branch). The period of enlistment in the Naval Militia months. The minimum active service required for maintaining shall be three years. An enlisted man who has served honorably the efficiency oi a member of this class is three months during fg^ the full term of his enlistment may reenlist for a term of each term of enrollment. This active service may be m one o^e, two, or three years, as he may elect. period or in periods of not less than three weeks each year. The Iq ease of any emergency, requiring the use of naval forces, annual retainer pay of members m this class after confirmation j^ addition to the Regular Navy, the President is authorized to in rank or rating shall be two months base pay of the corre- enroll such number of the officers and men of the various spending rank or rating in the Navy. branches of the Naval Militia as he may decide is necessary into the National Naval Volunteers, a force created for such Naval AuxUlary Reserve _ ^"m persons so enrolled shall be held to service during the Members of the Naval Reserve Force of the seagoing pro- continuance of any emergency and during the period of any fession who shall have been or may be employed on American existing or thereafter ensuing war, unless sooner relieved by vessels of the merchant marine of suitable type for use as naval order of the President or until reaching the age of sixty-two auxiliaries and which shall have been listed as such by the Navy years for those in the naval branch and the age of sixty-four Department for use in war, shall be eligible for merhbership years for those in the Marine Corps branch, upon attaining in the Naval Auxiliary Reserve. In time of war or during the which ages such persons, respectively, shall be relieved from existence of a national emergency, persons in this class shall be such enrollment. During the continuance of any such emer- required to serve only in vessels of the merchant ship type, gency or war any enrolled person who shall fail to obey the except in cases of emergency, to be determined by the senior call to service of the President may be arrested and compelled officer present, when said officer may, in his discretion, detail to serve, and, in addition thereto, may be tried by court-martial them for temporary duty elsewhere as the exigencies of the as a deserter and punished as such in such manner as said court- service may require. _ martial may lawfully direct. Any person so enrolled may tender Officers shall exercise military command only on board the his resignation to, or request his discharge from, the President, ships to which they are attached and in the naval auxiliary who may, in his discretion, accept such resignation or grant service. The annual retainer pay of members in this class after such discharge and disenroll such person. No person shall be confirmation in rank or rating shall be for officers, one month's held against his will to such enrollment for a longer continuous base pay of the corresponding rank in the Navy, and for men, period than three years, except during the pendency or duration two months' base pay of the corresponding rating in the Navy, of the emergency or of war. Each commissioned, warrant ofiicer and enlisted man on the TC 1 r< f ¥» f » active list of the Naval Militia shall receive compensation for .naval coast lleiense Beserve his services, referred to hereinafter as retainer pay, except Members of the Naval Reserve Force who maybe capable of during periods of service for which he may become lawfully performing special useful service in the Navy or in connection entitled to the same pay as an officer of corresponding grade with the Navy in defense of the coast, shall be eligible for mem- of the United States Navy or Marine Corps, at the following bership in the Naval Coast Defense Reserve. Persons may en- rates per annum, namely: roll in this class for service in connection with the naval defense To officers of or above the naval rank or equivalent rank of of the coast, such as service with coast-defense vessels, torpedo lieutenant, $500; craft, mining vessels, patrol vessels or as radio operators, in To officers of the naval rank or equivalent rank of lieutenant various ranks or ratings corresponding to those of the Navy for (junior grade), $240; which they shall have qualified under regulations prescribed To officers of the naval rank or equivalent rank of ensign, by the Secretary of the Navy. He may permit the enrollment $200; in this class of owners and operators of yachts and motor power To warrant officers, $120; boats suitable for naval purposes in the naval defense of the To enlisted men, pay not to exceed $120._ coast; and is authorized to enter into contract with the owners Whenever a member of the Naval Militia who is employed of such boats to take over the same in time of war or national under a department of the Government of the United States emergency upon payment of a reasonable indemnity. attends drills, cruises, or other ordered duty of the Naval The amount of action service required and the annual re- Militia, he shall receive the amount of the salary or wages he tainer shall be the same as the Naval Reserve. would have earned when so employed, in addition to the amount THE NAVAL APPROPRIATION LAW 95 provided for by law as a member of the said Naval Militia, in each fiscal year, except in time of actual or threatened war; Such attendance shall not affect his efficiency rating in said to use Marine Corps and such other Government property as department, nor shall he suflfer demotion or loss of position he may deem necessary for the military training of citizens while during or at, the termination of any naval or military service in attendance at camps. The Quartermaster's Department, when ordered upon special or active duty of any kind. United States Marine Corps, is authorized to sell articles of r¥TAi»r» uniform clothing as may be prescribed at cost price to the volun- l/OAsT (xUAKlf tggf citizens. These citizens shall be required to furnish at Whenever, in time of war, the Coast Guard operates as a part their own expense transportation and subsistence^ to and from of the Navy in accordance with law, the personnel of that service these camps, and subsistence while undergoing training therein, shall be subject to the laws prescribed for the government of the Navy. COUET OF ABBITRATION LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE ^ ^ The President is authorized and requested to invite, at an The President is hereby authorized, whenever in his judg- appropriate time, not later than the close of the war in Europe, ment a sufficient national emergency exists, to transfer to the all the great Governments of the world to send representatives service and jurisdiction of the Navy Department, or of the War to a conference which shall be charged with the duty of formu- Department, such vessels, equipment, stations, and personnel lating a plan for a court of arbitration or other tribunal, to of the Lighthouse Service as he may deem to the best interest which disputed questions between nations shall be referred for of the country, and after such transfer all expenses connected adjudication and peaceful settlement, and to consider the therewith shall be defrayed out of the appropriations for the question of disarmament and submit their recommendation to department to which transfer is made. their respective Governments for approval. The President is nt^r>irrr •nn<'>.Tr^ ^^nw-mir-Fintin authorized to appoint nine citizens of the United States, who, BEGULATUVG COMMEECE in his judgment, shall_ be qualified for such duty to be repre- In time of war or threatened war preference and precedence sentatives of the United States in such a conference. The shall, upon demand of the President of the United States, be President shall fix the compensation of said representatives and given over all other traffic for the transportation of troops and such secretaries and other employees as may be needed. Two material of war, and carriers shall adopt every means within hundred thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may be neces- their control to facilitate and expedite the military traffic. And sary, is hereby appropriated and set aside and placed at the in time of peace shipments consigned to agents of the United disposal of the President to carry into effect the provisions of States for its use shall be delivered by the carriers as promptly this paragraph. as possible and without regard to any embargo that may have If at any time before the construction authorized by this been declared, and no such embargo shall apply to shipments so Act shall have been contracted for there shall have been estab- consigned. lished, with the cooperation of the United States, an intema- Kx-in-nm ^minci 'r«TcT>>irT<-iiTm■l-nv^-o/-.-^>/^ TATtmom-n-rk line of the Stokhod River was reached, and MONTENEGRO INVESTED there a momentary check was imposed on the In the course of the conquest of Serbia, the advancing Russians. They replied, however, by Teutons sent an army into Montenegro, which shifting the attack southward against Bukowina. tiny kingdom had been fighting the battles of the Here their successes continued. On June 17 Slavs, to the best of her limited ability. Or: Czernowitz was taken, the gates to the Austrian January 12, the Austro-Germans captured Crownland were opened, and the Russians Cetinje, drove out King Nicholas and his family, po'.ired through the gaps. In an incredibly short and set up Austrian rule in the capita' 110 THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR 111 GREECE AND THE WAR The Greeks, who were bound by treaty to protect Serbia against a Bulgarian attack, made many attempts to join the Allies, but were held off by their King, who is a brother-in-law of the German Emperor. RUSSIAN ACTIVITIES IN TURKEY On September 7 the Grand Duke Nicholas was replaced by the Czar as Commander of the eastern armies and was transferred to command the armies of the Caucasus. In January the Grand Duke began operations against the Turks. He achieved a decisive vic- tory, crushing the center of the Turkish sixty- mile front, near Lake Tortum, and pursuing them to the Erzerum forts. About this time Field Marshal von der Goltz was appointed Commander in Chief of the Turkish forces in the Caucasus. On February 16, Erzerum surrendered to the Russians, after five days' fighting. This achieve- ment surprised the world. The astonishing feature was that the campaign was undertaken in a wild tangle of mountains and in the dead of winter, when it seemed that an army could not possibly operate without an elaborate system of railroads behind it. In that country there are no railroads. Dependence for supplies has to be placed upon miserable dirt roads which, at wide intervals, traverse the country. The Rus- sian fleet, of course, controlled the Black Sea, and it was by this channel that supplies were trans- ported. But even from the Black Sea, a long trip overland was necessary. Thus, the two most spectacular achievements on the Allies' side fell to Grand Duke Nicholas and the Rus- sian army, they also having captured Przemysl on March 22, 1915. The surrender of Erzerum was followed by a period of apparent inaction. On April 18, how- ever, the Russians succeeded in capturing Trebi- zond. The Russian right flank was evidently keeping up with the center. Then followed a period of inaction, which was to be followed by the most remarkaole march in history. Taking Baiburt, defeating the Turks at Mamakhutan, the Russians pressed forward. On July 25 they were in possession of Erzingan, the last of the Turkish bases east of Sivas, and practically cleared Armenia of Turks. Russia now occupies about 30,000 square miles of Tur- key in Asia including seven fortified towns. All this was achieved in about seven months of fighting. THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN One of the greatest disappointments in the war, was ihe failure of the AUies on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The object of this undertaking was to force the passage of the Dardanelles, take Constantinople, and in this way give Russia an outlet into the Mediterranean Sea. If this were accomplished, Russia would have shorter com- mimications with her allies. But the undertak- ing was not successful. On August 6, a new army of Australians and New Zealanders made a landing at Anzac Cove. Except for a few small gains, the Turks held them along the coast until December, when the Allies' realized that their efforts were fruitless, and withdrew over 70,000 Colonial troops. The remainder of the allied forces were withdrawn on January 9. After an attempt of nine months, with a British loss of 115,000, and a French loss of 70,000, the cam- paign was given up as a failure. BRITISH OPERATIONS IN ASIA Coincident with the attack upon the Dar- danelles, a British expedition was dispatched to Mesopotamia, at the head of the Persian Gulf, with Bagdad as its objective. The Biitish were successful at first, capturing Kut-el-Amara, on the Tigris, on September 27. On November 22, an army of 20,00i0 Anglo-Indians was pushed up to Ctesiphon, eighteen miles from Bagdad, where it defeated 60,000 Turks, but was obliged to retreat for lack of supports anu supplies. Pur- sued by the Turks, who had been reinforced, the rearguard of this fore?, some 10,000 men, under the command of General Townshend, in- trenched themselves in Kut-el-Amara. Here they held out from December 11, 1915, to April 29, 1916, when starvation compelled them to surrender. Several British attempts to relieve Kut-el-Amara ended in failure. The only ex- cuse for these two disasters to the British arms is that they served to divert the Turkish military strength from a threatened drive across the Suez Canal into Egypt. THE WESTERN FRONT No important action was seen on the western front until September 20. After many months of preparation, and a relative quiet which had lasted since June, 1915, the long promised Allied attack upon the German lines began. The French in Champagne, and the British in Artois, launched terrific attacks. In ten days of bitter fighting the French ad- vanced some three miles on a front of eighteen, took above 25,000 prisoners and many guns; they penetrated two Unes of German trenches and at one point actually broke through the third and last. But the result was nothing. The German line was restored, the French attacks were beaten down, the whole offensive was really over in three days, and in a week, the world knew that the French had failed, although the considerablr 112 THE SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR Qumber of prisoners and the large capture of guns misled many into estimating as a victory what had been a defeat, for the German Une had held. ^ In Artois the British accomplished even less. Their initial success was considerable. There was a moment when the capture of Lens seemed inevitable, but old faults reappeared. The blunders of Neuve Chapelle were repeated; sup- ports did not come up; Loos, won on Septem- ber 25, had to be surrendered; for great sacrifices in life, there was little to show. The failure at Loos cost Field Marshal Sir John French his command, and on December 15, General Sir Douglas Haig succeeded him as Commander in Chief of the British forces in France and Bel- gium. It also condemned the British army to inaction, and the British people to depression for many months. Again the situation at the western front settled down to artillery duels, neither side gain- ing any advantage, until the attack on Verdun. VERDUN On February 21 the German Crown Prince, commanding an army of 300,000, attacked the forts surrounding Verdun. This attack suddenly claimed the attention of the world, and for many weeks seemed certain to end in a crushing French defeat. But Verdun, after the first surprises were over, held. The broken lines were restored, as French reinforcements came in time. Before the old forts a second line was erected and the German advance was halted. The repulse of March 9 was fatal to German hopes for a sudden and sweeping victory, a piercing of the hue, such as France had sought and missed in Champagne in September. The repulse of April 9 ended the possibility of success by any sudden and tre- mendous general thrust. Henceforth Verdun fell to the level of a siege operation and Germany advanced by yards, over mountains of her own dead, whUe on the hills across the Meuse new French lines sprang up until the Verdun salient became the strongest sector in the French front. THE SOMME OFFENSIVE While the Germans were making a great effort to capture Verdun, the British and French were preparing for another drive. On July 1, the long expected offensive began north and south of the Somme River. The British advanced about five mUes and took a number of villages between July 10 and 22. The French advanced over six miles, capturing five towns. German reinforcements from before Verdun arrived and halted the advancing Allies. This is the situation, on the western front, at the close of the second year. THE AUSTRO-ITALIAN CAMPAIGN There was but Uttle important action on the Italian frontier, until April 15, 1916, when the Austrians concentrated their army, to begin a new offensive against Italy. Before this time the Italians had succeeded in gaining advance positions in the Trentino. On May 13, the Aus- trians launched their great offensive, forcing the Italians to abandon their positions and taking many prisoners. Early in June the Austrian drive was slack- ened by the Russian offensive on Austria's eastern border. The Austrians, in order to stop the advancing Russians, moved many troops from the Italian frontier for service against the Slavs. This, however, was not done until the Austrians had advanced some miles on ItaUan soil. Then the Italian counter-offensive began. At the end of the second year we find them con- tinuing their offensive, regaining much ground lost to the Austrians. PORTUGAL ENTERS THE WAR When, on February 23, Portugal seized 36 German and Austrian interned merchantmen, Germany sent her an ultimatum, which de- manded immediate release of these vessels. With the refusal of Portugal, Germany declared war on March 8. Although she does not take a very active part against Germany in Europe, she greatly aided the Allies in the conquest of German colonies. LOSS OF GERMAN COLONIES Of 1,027,820 square miles of German oversea possessions, only 384,180 square miles remain. The German Colonials, fighting against great odds, without any help from the Fatherland, and with no chance for reinforcements, were forced to surrender their land to the allied armies. One by one, the colonies were taken, until at the end of the second year only part of German East Africa remained in German hands. Even this territory was gradually being closed in by the armies of General Smuts, in direct command of the Union of South Africa troops, aided by French, Belgian and Portuguese Colonial armies. THE BATTLE OFF JUTLAND On the afternoon of May 31, the British battle cruiser squadron, under Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty, and the fifth battle squadron, under Rear Admiral Hugh Evan-Thomas, encountered the German first and second light cruiser squad- rons, later joined by the entire high seas fleet. In the evening, Beatty was reinforced by seven divisions of the British battle fleet under the Commander in Chief, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe. Over 9,500 lives were lost in this engagement, both siaes claiming victory. THE THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR ROUMANIA At the very opening of the third year of the war Roumania cast in her lot with the AUies. Neutrahty would bring her nothing, but should Italy wrest back Trentino and Trieste, Rou- mania might recover her territory of Transyl- vania. The northern boundary of Moldavia is the Austrian crownland of Bukowina which ha,d just fallen a prize to Russia when Roumania entered the war on August 7, 1916. Moldavia is separated from Transylvania by the wall of the Carpathian mountains which is penetrated by several passes in which are rail- ways which link up Hungary and Roumania. The northern border of Wallachia between Kronstadt and Orsova is exactly similar, the boundary wall being the Transylvanian Alps. Roumania threw her main, force against the passes of Northern Moldavia and Western Wallachia. The plan seems to have been to cut off Transylvania and greatly shorten the de- fensive hne which Roumania would have to hold. Bulgarian, Teutonic and Turkish troops under Von Mackenson took advantage of the Roumanian preoccupation to move up along the Danube and seize Dobrudja. Cernavoda is the key to the crossing of the Danube and to the control of the railroad system between Cernavoda and Constanza and shortly after Cernavoda Bridge feU into German hands. Falkenhayn, in command of the Teuton forces in Transylvania, was to fight his way through one of the passes in the Transylvanian moim- tains and later to form a junction with Von Mackenson. The first blow was struck against Ret Tower Pass but Falkenhayn soon shifted his efforts to Predeal Pass, but the Roumanian resistance was so strong that the movement was abandoned. The next effort was made at Vulcan Pass, the most westerly of the Transylvanian gaps. The absence of railroads on' the Rou- manian side gave the Teutons the advantage and they broke through and advanced rapidly. Crajova was occupied and Falkenhayn began the march towards Bucharest, the Roumanian capital, which was evacuated on December 6. The Roumanians offered but httle opposition to the advance and no attempt was made to defend the capital. The Roumanian retreat was not that of a defeated army but was made in good order. Falkenhayn continued moving eastwards from Bucharest and joined Von Mackenson who had remained in Dobrudja and from that time the resistance of the Roumanians was stiffened. FROM THE SOMME TO THE AISNE The third year of war, which from the mil- itary point of view dates from the Somme offensive on July 1, 1916, found the British army arrived at its full strength and in combina- tion with the French they forced the second great German retreat of the war. In the first ten days of the offensive north and south of the Somme they recovered thirty square miles of French territory. During the next two days the Germans made a final effort to reach Verdim and got as far as Fleury, but on August 18 Fleury was retaken by the French. There was a lull in the Verdun fighting until October 24, when General Nivelle drove the enemy out of Douaumont and shortly Vaux with all the coun- try between the forts was taken. On Decem- ber 15 General Mangin extended the advance on a six mile front. In January, 1917, the British began a new campaign and early in March and under a combined pressure of the two armies they took Bapaume. '' The Germans began a retreat over a front of 100 miles north of Arras and Soissons. In April the French attacked over a 25 mile front between Soissons and Rheims and drove the German forces out of a large number of villages north of the Aisne and in Champagne. On May 6 they captured Craonne and its plateau with the observation posts. In June the Germans began a series of violent counter-attacks in an effort to force the French from their footing on the plateau north of Craonne. IN ASIA From August, 1916 to December the British made preparations for the offensive which began on December 13 and which found the enemy on the Tigris front in the same positions as they had occupied during the previous summer. Operations on the Hai continued tintil January 4 when the British cut off direct commimication between the Turks in the Khadaivi Bend, east of Kut, and those further west. The capture of Khadaivi Bend and the Turkish trenches was accomphshed on January 19 and the salient operations begim on January 20 brought the British to Dakra Bend which they won on February 16 and on February 25 after the cap- ture of Saima-i-yat and the passage of the Tigris, the British began the advance on Baghdad which was taken on March 11. The British Navy played a conspicuous part in the campaign on the Tigris. During the same period the British began another campaign in Palestine, south of Jerusalem, but after considerable prehminary successes it came to an end with the Mesopo- tamian operations. RUSSIA Russia was in the midst of a great offensive in Volhynia and Gahcia at the beginning of the third year of the war. The Austrian front had been broken and Russian troops had poured into the gaps penetrating the lines from the Volhynian triangle to the Stokhod river. Before the offensive was checked all of the Austrian crownland of Bukowina had been occupied. In May the Russian Revolution broke out and the Czar was dethroned. The Russian armies became paralyzed for an offensive value by the difficulties due to the unrest of the country. For foiu- months they had done practically nothing but debate, but in July there was a feverish offensive urged on by the Russian democratic leader, Kerensky, and gains were 113 114 THE THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR made in Galicia. The unrest continued and when the Austro-German forces were brought up against them the Russian troops became demoraUzed and marched away without firing a single shot. Though vexed internally Russia was not out of the war and the Teuton AlUes were still compelled to keep large forces on the Russian front. . GREECE The long diplomatic struggle between King Constantine of Greece 'and the Entente Allies culminated on June 12, 1917, in the abdication of that monarch. He was at once succeeded by his second son, Prince Alexander. The opposition of the Entente Allies to Constantine was based upon the allegations that he was not only pro-German in his sympathies but that he repeatedly tried to bring Greece into the war on the side of the Central Powers. Early in June M. Jonnart was appointed High Commis- sioner to represent France, Great Britain and Russia and to place before the Greek Premier the demands of the Allied Governments. The abdication of King Constantine was insisted upon and the Crown Prince ruled out on the ground that he shared his father's pro-German leanings. Prince Alexander, the second son, was indicated as acceptable. In his reply to M. Jonnart the Greek Premier said that a decision would be taken after consulting with the Crown Council composed of former premiers. The immediate abdication was the result of the con- ference. Mihtary measures by the Allies were taken at once and French and British troops were landed in Thessaly and at Corinth. ITALY The third year of the war had hardly begim when Italy took the first decided step toward the accomplishment of her war aims by cap- turing Gorizia and the bridge across the Isonzo at that point. Pushing on from there they occupied the Doberde plateau and even seized a foothold on the edge of the Carso. The Carso plateau is the great guard of the citj' of Trieste from an attack coming from the west. Little was done after the Carso was reached until the Spring when the greatest offensive yet under- taken by the ItaUans was begun. They struck fiorst to the north in the region of Tolmino and clearing the Isonzo to the south almost to the sea, the Italians suddenly switched to the Carso which was the main point of the attack. In an offensive lasting nearly three weeks the Austrian positions were destroyed and the Italian lines surged forward. Just as the attack seemed on the verge of reaching its objective, sudden Austrian reinforcements drawn from the Russian front brought it to a halt. THE UNITED STATES The possibilities that America would enter the war became strongly evident in the Winter of 1917 and on April 6 a formal declaration was made that the United States was at war with Germany. In order to make the world safe for democracy the founders of the Republic had established the Monroe doctrine. Warning the old world not to interfere in the political fife of the new, the United States pledged itself to abstain from in- terference in the political conflicts of Europe. This doctrine has remained a dominating element in the foreign pohcy of the country. A second great tradition in its international relations has been a persistent effort to secure an equitable agreement of the nations upon a maritime code which would assure the world a just freedom of the seas. At a naval conference in London in 1909 an international code called The Dec- laration of London was drawn up. It provided limitations of the rights of belligerents at sea but it was not accepted as Germany refused to make the concessions deemed necessary by Great Britain. In the very first days of the war the Government of the United States foresaw that comphcations on the seas might draw the coun- try into the conflict and on August 6, 1914, the Secretary of State despatched an identical note to all the powers calling attention to the risk of serious trouble through the uncertainty of neutrals as to their maritime rights and pro- posing that the Declaration of London be accepted by all nations during the war. The action brought no agreement and the danger of embroilment remained evident. The sinking of the Lusitania on May 7, 1915, by a German submarine brought forth indignation as it defied American rights and the fundamental concepts of humanity. From this period to January 31, 1917, there is a record of repeated injury to the United States through the ruthless warfare on ocean liners involving the loss of Uves of Amer- ican citizens and the actual destruction of United States merchant vessels. On the above date the German Government gave notice that on the following day in a zone around Great Britain, France, Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean all navigation to England and France including that of neutrals would be prevented. The following reply was made by the United States Government on February 3, 1917, "In view of this declaration, which withdraws suddenly and without prior intimation the solemn assurance given in the Imperial Government's note of May 4, 1916, this Government has no alternative consistent with the dignity and honor of the United States but to take the course which it implicitly announced in the note of April 18, 1916, it would take in the event that the Im- perial Government did not declare and effect an abandonment of the methods of submarine war- fare then employed and to which the Imperial Government now proposes to resort." Dip- lomatic relations were withdrawn and a declara- tion of war was followed by war measures and preparations for raising an army to join the allies in France. CHRONOLOGY OF THE GREAT WAR lis CHRONOLOGY OF THE GREAT WAR FIRST 1914 June 28. — Archduke Francis Ferdinand assassinated. July 23. — Presentation of Austro-Hungarian note to Servia. July 28. — War declared on Servia by Austria-Hungary. uly 30. — Partial mobilization of Russian Army. Belgrade bombarded by Austria-Hungary. July 31. — General mobilization of Russian Army ordered. State of war declared in Germany. Aug._ 1. — War declared on Russia by Germany. Luxemburg invaded _by Germany. French cabinet orders general mobilization. Aug. 2. — German troops enter France. German ultimatum to Belgium demanding free passage for her troops. Russian troops enter Germany. Aug. 4. — Ultimatum sent by Great Britain to Germany de- manding an assurance that the neutrality of Belgiurn shall be respected. Germans attack Liege. Mobilization of the Bntish Army. Germany declared war on both Bel- fium and France. Great Britain declared war on Germany. lobilization of Turkish Army. President Wilson issues proclamation of neutrality. Aug. 5. — Lord Kitchener appointed British minbter of War. German mine-layer Koenigen Luise destroyed. First in- stallment of British expeditionary force landed on French coatt. President Wilson tenders his good offices to tho warring nations. Aug. 6. — Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia. Aug. 7.— Mobile Belgian military force withdrew from Liege, leaving forts occupied by their permanent garrisons. Aug. 8. — French advance into Alsace, occupying Altkirch. Italy reaffirms neutrality. Aug. 9. — German warships Goeben and Breslau took refuge in the Bosphorus. French occupy Muelhausen. Aug. 10. — France declares war on Austria-Hungary. Aug. 12. — England declares war on Austria-Hungary. Sale of German warships Goeben and Breslau to Turkey announced. A»ig. 14. — Mobilization of French Army completed and an- nounced as being in touch with the Belgians. _ Allies pro- tested to Turkey against purchasing and taking over the German warships Goeben and Breslau. Aug. 15. — Japanese issue ultimatum to Germany demanding evacuation of Eiauchau. Russia issues proclamation promising reconstitution and autonomy of the Kingdom of Poland. ^ Aug. 16. — Landing of British expeditionary force on coast of France completed. Russian advance on Germany begun. Aug. 17. — Belgian Government removed from Brussels to Ant- werp. Begiuning of a five days' battle in Lorraine, ending in repulse of French across frontier with heavy loss. Be- ginning of five days' battle between Servians and Austrians on the Jadar, ending in Austrian rout. Aug. 20. — Brussels occupied by Germans. Belgian Army re- treats to Antwerp. French reverses in Alsace. Aug. 23. — Germans enter Namur and begin attack on Mons. Japan declares war on Germany, blockades and commences bombardment of Tsingtau. Germans destroy three ol Namur forts. Aug. 24. — Fall of Namur announced. Aug. 25. — Louvain destroyed by Germans. German Zeppelin drops bombs on Antwerp. Muelhausen evacuated by French. Aug. 26. — Non-partisan French cabinet organized. Germans take Longwy. Aug. 28. — British fleet sinks five German warships o£f Helgoland. Sept. 2. — Russians defeat Austrians at Lemberg after seven days continuous fighting. Sept. J. — French Goverimient removed from Paris to Bordeaux. Sept. 5. — Great Britain, France and Russia agree not to treat for peace separately. Rheims taken by Germans. Sept. 7.— Germans reach extreme point of their advance is first invasion of France, and begin retreat. Sept. 12. — German retreat halts on Aisne. Sept. 14. — British auxiliary cruiser Carmania sinks German armed cruiserCa/i Trafaliar oS east coast of South America. Sept. 16. — Russians retire from East Prussia. S^t. 20. — Bombardment of Rheims Cathedral by Germans. British cruiser Pegasus completely disabled while at anchor in Zanzibar Harbor by German cruiser Koenigsbert. YEAR 1914 Sept. 22. — British cruisers AbouUr, Hague and Cressy sunk by German submarine in North Sea. Sept. 28. — Germans bombard Antwerp's first line of defence. Oct 5. — Belgian Government removed from Antwerp to Ostend. Oct. 7. — Japanese seize Caroline Islands. Oct. 9. — Germans occupy Antwerp Oct. 11. — German advance in Poland threatens Warsaw. Oct. 12. — Martial law declared throughout Union of South Africa on account of mutinies by Boer leaders. Oct. 13. — Belgian Government removed from Ostend to Havre. Oct. IS. — Ostend occupied by Germans. Oct. 16. — British cruiser Hawke sunk by German submarine. Oct. 17. — Japanese cruiser Takachiho sunk by torpedo in Kiau- chau Bay. Oct. 18.— Belgian Army effects junction with allied left. Be- ginning of battle from Channel coast to Lisle. Oct. 24. — Ten days battle before Warsaw ends in German de- feat. Oct. 27.— The "Audacious" one of the new British dread noughts, sunk by a mine off the Irish Coast. Oct. 29. — Turkey begins war on Russia by naval attacks on Black Sea ports. Nov. 1. — German squadron defeated British squadron ofl Coronel, Chile. Nov. 5. — England and France declare war on Turkey. Dar- danelles forts bombarded. Nov. 6- — Kiauchau surrenders to Japanese. Nov. 11. — Germans cross Yser Canal and capture Dixmude. Nov. 13. — Russians seize Tarnow, Krosno, and Jaslo. Nov. 18. — Officially reported that a launch of U. S. S. Tennessee was fired on in harbor of Smyrna, Turkey. Nov. 2 1 . — Russians capture Gumbinnen . Nov. 22. — Turks gain victory over British near Port Said, east of the Suez Canal. Nov. 23. — Beginning of second Battle of Ypres in the Argonne. Nov. 24. — Russian victory concludes ten-day battle in Poland. Nov. 25. — British steamer Malachite sunk near Havre by Ger- man submarine. Nov. 26. — British predreadnought Bulwark blown up m the Thames. Nov. 27. — French gain strongholds along Imefrom the Channel to Muehlhausen. Bombardment of Rheims effected. Nov. 29. — Important positions captured by Allies near Ypres. Russians seize Czernowitz. Nov. 30. — Capture of Belgrade by Austrians ends 126-day siege. Dec. 3. — Germans take offensive position between Ypres and Dixmude. Dec. 5. — Allies successfully resist the German attack at Ypres. Dec. 6. — Germans capture Lodz and threaten Warsaw. Dec. 8. — British battleship squadron meets and destrws four German cruisers oS Falkland Islands. Only one German cruiser escapes and this is pursued by the British fleet. British force captures Kurna in Turkey. Dec. 10. — Von Moltke is succeeded by von Falkenhayn as head of the German General Staff. Dec. 1 2 . — Austrians repulsed by Servians at Kosmai. Dec. 13. — British submarine sinks Turkish battleship AfoiwiieA in the Dardanelles. Dec. 14.— Servians recapture Belgrade. Austrians capture 9,000 Russians at Dukla in the Carpathians. Dec. 16. — The English coast towns Scarborough, Hartlepool, and Whitby are bombarded by a German squadron. Dec. 17. — England declares protectorate over Egypt; end oi Turkish suzerainty. Dec. 18. — Germans seize Lowicz. Dec. 19. — Battle on the Bzura halts Germans thirty miles from Warsaw. Dec. 20. — Interior forts of the Dardanelles are bombarded by allied fleets. Germans advance farther toward Warsaw. Dec. 21. — Russians win in Armenia. ' Dec. 22. — German strongholds along Belgian coast shelled by allied fleets. Dec. 23. — .\ustrians defeated in Carpathians. Dec. 25. — British cruisers, accompanied by hydroaeroplanes, attack German naval base at Cuxhaven. Dec. 30. — Germans withdraw over the Bzura. CHRONOLOGY OF THE GREAT WAR FIRST YEAR (Con't.) 1915 Jan. 1. — British battleship Formidable is torpedoed and sunk in the English Channel with severe loss. Jan. 4. — French troops capture Steinbach in Alsace. Russians are victorious at Ardahan and Sarikamysh. Jan. 7. — President of France issues decree prohibiting the sale and transportation of intoxicating liquors. Jan. 9. — Germans recapture Steinbach and Burnhaupt. Jan. 10. — Thirty bombs thrown by German aeroplanes on Dunkirk. Jan. 13. — Baron Burian, a Hungarian, succeeds Count Berch- told as Premier of Austria-Hungary. Jan. 14. — Germans win victory north of Soissons, forcing the French retreat across the Aisne. Jan. IS. — Kirlibaba Pass taken by the Russians. Jan. 16. — Turkish mine sinks French submarine Saphir in the Dardanelles. Jan. 18. — La Bassee, centre of fierce fighting, victories alter- nating. The French advance within ten miles of Metz. Jan. 19. — German airships raid English towns on Norfolk coast. Jan. 24. — German squadron is defeated by British coast patrol in second attempt to raid the English coast. German cruiser Bluecher sunk. Jan. 27. — Austrians recapture Uzsok Pass. Jan. 28. — French defeated at Craonne. Jan. 30. — Russians win Tabriz in victory over Turks. Feb. 1. — Germans recapture Borjimow, driving the Russians back upon Warsaw. Feb. 2. — ^The four outer forts of the Dardanelles are shelled by British and French fleets. Feb. 4. — Germany declares waters surrounding the British Isles, except a passage north of Scotland, to be a war zone after Feb. 18. Feb. 6. — The Lusitania flies American flag in the "danger zone" under British protection. Feb. 9. — Russians repel heavy attack of the Germans in the Carpathians. Feb. 10. — U. S. Government protests against Germany's "war zone" decree. Feb. 12. — Belgian coast seaports raided by thirty-four British aircraft. Feb. 14. — German troops occupy Plock, Feb. 16. — Forty British aviators again attack Belgium. Italy and Holland protest against "war zone" decree. _ Feb. 18. — Germany declares "war zone" decree to be in effect. Feb. 19. — Great Britain suspends passenger travel between England and the Continent. Feb. 20. — American cotton-ship Evelyn is sunk by mine off coast of Holland. Feb. 23. — American steamer Carib is sunk off the German coast. Feb. 24. — Germans capture Przasnysz north by west of Warsaw. Feb. 25. — Allied fleet silences all forts at entrance to the Dardan- elles. Feb. 27. — Russians recapture Przasnysz. Mar. 2. — Russians occupy Dukla Pass. Mar. 5. — Continued bombardment of the Dardanelles silences three more forts on the Asiatic side. Mar. 9. — Three British merchantmen sunk by German sub- marines. Mar. 11. — British take Neuve Chapelle and advance toward Lisle. Mar. 14. — ^Three British warships sink the German cruiser Dresden near Juan Fernandez Island. Mar. 15. — French capture trenches in vicinity of Arras. Mar. 18. — British battleships Irresistible and Ocean and the French battleship Bouvct are sunk in the Dardanelles. The British Inflexible and French Gaw/ozj are damaged. Mar. 22. — Przemysl is surrendered to the Russians. Mar. 23. — ^Lupkow Pass is won by the Russians. Mar. 28. — British- African passenger-ship Falaba is sunk by a German submarine in St. George's Channel. Apr. 1 . — Germans begin attacks on English fishing fleets. Apr. 2. — British battleship Lord Nelson is destroyed in the Dardanelles. 1915 Apr. 3. — Allied fleet withdraws from the Dardanelles. Apr. 4. — Russian army wins Smolnik near Lupkow Pass. Apr. 5. — Russians capture Varecze Pass in the Carpathians. Apr. 7. — Germans surrender Les Eparges to the French. Apr. 11. — Russian army encamps within eighteen miles of the Hungarian border. Apr. 14. — Fierce fighting rages at "Hill 60" in the vicinity of Ypres. Apr. 17. — Russians withdraw from Tamow in Galicia. Apr. 19. — Germans gain in the struggle near Ypres. Apr. 20. — British defeat the Turks in Mesopotamia. Relations between Austria and Italy become strained. Germans begin to evacuate Italy. Apr. 23. — Attack by the Allies is resumed in the Dardanelles. Apr. 26. — Russians suffer losses at Uzsok Pass. Apr. 26. — Germans, reinforced, repulse French north of Ypres offsetting loss at Neuve Chapelle. Apr. 28. — English and French ships suffer severe loss in the Dardanelles. The Allies establish armies on the peninsula of GallipoU. Apr. 29 — Germans cut the Libau-Kovno railroad in Russia. Apr. 30. — Germans shell Dimkirk from distance of 20 miles. May 1. — American oil-steamer Gushing wrecked by German aeroplane in the North Sea. American steamer Gulflight sunk by German submarine. May 2. — Austrians gain heavy victory over the Russians in Tamow. May 5. — British lose "HOI 60" near Ypres. May 7. — Tht Lusitania is sunk by German submarine off Kin- sale, Ireland, with a loss of 1198 lives of which 120 were Americans. May 13. — ^President Wilson stnAs Lusitania protest to Germany. May 16. — British battleship Goiia/A sunk in the Dardanelles May 18. — German trenches captured south of Richebourg. May 19. — Reorganization of EngUsh cabinet. May 22. — Italy declares a 'State of War.' Troops clash on the frontier. May 23. — Freiich gain north of Arras. May 24. — Italy declares war on Austria. May 26. — Ex-Premier Balfour succeeds Winston Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty. May 27. — British battleship Triumph is torpedoed in the Dar- danelles. May 28. — British auxiliary vessel Princess Irene is blown up at the mouth of the Thames, loss of 424 lives. May 29. — Germany's reply to U. S. note suggests arbitration. British shells sink Zeppelin in North Sea. May 30. — Italians force way to Trieste, and capture town of Ala . June 1. — Zeppelin airships drop ninety bombs at the mouth of the Thames. June 3. — Italians reduce fort near Trent. _ San Marino Republic (smallest independent government in the world) declares war. Przemysl retaken by Austro-German troops. June 7. — Secretary of State Bryan resigns. June 8. — Italians occupy Monfalcone. June 11. — President Wilson's second Lusitania note to Ger- many made public. June 13. — Gen. Mackensen breaks Russian line east of Przemysl. Venizelos wins in Greek elections. June 22. — Austro-Germans recapture Lemberg. July 7. — Italian armored cruiser Amalfi sunk by Austrian submarines. July 8. — Germany's reply to second United States note regard- ing Lusitania handed to American Ambassador at Ber- lin. Last German forces in South Africa surrender to Gen. Botha. Russians surprise Austrians under Archduke Joseph Ferdinand and capture 15,000. July 22. — President Wilson sends third Lusitania note to Germany. July 31. — Austrians occupy Lublin. Aug. 4. — British notes on blockade made public. Aug. 5. — Germans occupy Warsaw and Ivangorod. CHRONOLOGY OF THE GREAT WAR 117 CHEONOLOGT— SECOND YEAS OF GREAT WAR 1915 Aug. 1. — ^Teutonic forces advancing steadily on Warsaw. Aug. 5. — ^Teutons occupy Warsaw and Ivangorod. Aug. 7. — ^The Allies land a new army on Gallipoli peninsula. Aug. 9. — British forces gain slight success in vicinity of Ypres. Aug. 12. — ^The Germans take Siedlce, east of Warsaw. Aug. 14. — ^The British transport Royal Edward is sunk by a submarine in the .lEgean Sea with a loss of over a thousand lives. Aug. 17. — The Germans occupy the city of Kovno. Zep- pelins again raid the suburbs of London. Aug. 19. — The trans-atlantic liner Arabic is torpedoed and sunk ofi Fastnet; several American lives lost. The Ger- mans occupy Novo Georgievsk. Aug. 21. — German nav^l forces suffer defeat by Russian ships in an attack on Gulf of Riga. Aug. 26. — German offensive movement continues successful with the occupation of Brest-Litovsk. Aug. 28. — The German ambassador to the United States, Count Von Bemstorff, requests delay of action on part of this government in the Arabic case and promises full satisfaction. Sept. 1. — Germany gives virtual acceptance of the American contentions on submarine warfare. Sept. 2.— German forces take Grodno. Sept. 4. — Allan liner Hesperian sunk off Fastnet. Sept. 7. — Grand Duke Nicholas is relieved of supreme con- mand of Russian forces, the Czar assuming direct com- mand in his stead. Sept. 8. — The Russians assume the offensive in Galicia and score slight success. _ The Germans in a new offensive in the Argonne district of France, gain over a mile of French trenches. Sept. 9. — ^The recall of the Austrian Ambassador, Dr. Con- stantin Dumba, is demanded by President Wilson. Ger- many delivers note to United States justifying the sink- ing of the Arabic. Sept. 10. — A financial commission, sent to the United States by England and France, lands in New York. Sept. IS —The Teutonic forces occupy Pinsk. Sept. 18. — The German advance in Russia continues and city of VUna is taken. Sept. 19. — Austro-German forces begin a bombardment of the Serbian frontier, preparatory to their announced inten- tion of invading Serbia and opening a road to Turkey. Sept. 24. — Greece orders the mobilization of all forces. Sept. 25.— The long-heralded Anglo-French drive commences in the Champagne district and in vicinity of Lens. The first few days of offensive movement nets about SO square miles of territory, many prisoners and considerable war munitions. Sept. 27. — Kut-el-Amara, Turkey in Asia .cature by British under General Townshend. Sept. 28. — England pledges armed support to all Balkan coun- tries who will join the AUies. Sept. 30. — ^The French make additional gains in the Champagne district. Oct. 3. — The Allies land troops at Saloniki, Greece, with the view of aiding Serbian resistance against the Teutons. Oct. 4. — Russia sends ultimatum to Bulgaria, demanding an- swer in 24 hours. Oct. S. — Ambassador Von Bemstorff delivers note to United States, disavowing the sinking of the Arabic and agreeing to give reparation. Oct. 6. — The Greek Premier Venizelos resigns from the Cabinet. Austro-German forces invade Serbia, while Bulgaria formally rejects the ultimatum of Russia. Allied forces commence advance into Serbia. French gain slight suc- cess in Champagne. King Constantine of Greece ap- points Zaimis as Premier to succeed Venizelos. Oct. 7. — The Bulgarian port of Varna, on the Black Sea, is bombarded by Russian cruisers. Oct. 9. — ^The Austro-German forces capture Belgrade after a severe bombardment of several days. Bulgaria protests to Greece against landing of Allied troops at Saloniki. Oct. Ifr. — German attacks in vicinity of Loos repulsed with heavy losses. Russians driven back in Galicia. 1915 Oct. 11. — The Teutonic invasion of Serbia progresses and town of Smedereva is taken. Russian forces gain success over Austrians on Stripa River. Germans capture five miles of trenches from Russians west of Dvinsk. French gain ground in Champagne. Oct. 12.— Austro-Germans advance south of Belgrade on line of OrJMit railway. Edith Cavel, English nurse is executed by Germans on charge of aiding British and Belgians to escape from Belgium. Oct. 13. — Bulgarian army invades Serbia at three points. Greece announces position for present to be one of armed neutrality. Oct. 14._— French Foreign Minister Delcasse resigns from Cabinet. Austro-Germans advance to Posarevatz, Serbia. Greece renounces treaty with Serbia. Zeppelin raid over London results in deaths of 55 persons. British sub- marines in Baltic Sea sink six German merchant ships. Oct. 16. — Great Britain declares war on Bulgaria. Serbia declares war on Bulgaria. Russians continue offensive at Dvinsk. Oct. 18. — Allies land troops at Enos, in Turkish territory. Allies take Strumitza, Bulgaria. Bulgars and Teutons making important advances in Serbia. Oct. 19. — Italy declares war on Bulgaria. Bulgarians take Vrania. Allies repulse several German attacks in France. Germans take Duona. General Sir Ian Hamilton is re- called from the Dardanelles. Sir Edward Carson resigns from the British cabinet. Oct. 20. — Serbian capital transferred from Nish to Prisrend. Bulgarians and Teutons make further gains in Serbia. Italy resumes strong offensive against Austria. Oct. 22. — Serbians reported in serious plight. Bulgars take Komanova. French defeat attacks on west front. Teutons nearing Riga. Oct. 23. — Italian squadron helps Allies bombard Bulgarian port of Dedeagatch on Aegean Sea. Italian land forces resume strong offensive against Austro-Hungarian lines. Oct. 24. — Italians gain on entire front. Russian naval forces bombard Courland coast. Oct. 25. — Germans lose stronghold of "La Courtine" in Cham- pagne. Germans advance in Serbia. Allied forces meet Bulgars in southern Serbia. German cruiser Prtnz Adal- bert sunk by British submarine. Austrian air-men raid Venice. Oct. 26. — Teutonic forces seize Valjevo and Petrovac. Bulgars are defeated by Allied forces near Strumitza. Oct. 27. — ^Teuton forces join Bulgars on Danube, open way to Turkey. French gain in Arras. Germans pierce Russian line at Dvinsk. Oct. 28. — French cabinet, headed by Viviani, resigns in body. Briand appointed Premier by President Poincare. Oct. 29. — Briand names new cabinet. Nov. 1. — Germans take Kraguyevatz, and capture Serbia's largest arsenal. Nov. 3. — ^Bulgars and Germans gain in Serbia. Uzice captured by Germans. Nov. 4. — Greek cabinet resigns after Premier Zaimis loses in Parliament. Bulgars within six miles of Nish. Germans win back Dvinsk position. Nov. S. — Greek King ignores war party. Teutons drive Serbs back in north and Bulgars beat French forces in south. Nov. 6. — Nish, the former capital of Serbia, captured by the Bulgarians. Nov. 7.— Teutons drive Russians back across Stripa River. Teutons retake trenches on western front. Nov. 8. — M. Skouloudis, appointed Greek premier. Germans and Bulgars close in on Serbia. Nov. 9. — Serious revolts reported in India. Lord Kitchener said to have been sent to quell rebels. French gain on west front after severe attacks. Italy to send troops to Serbia through Albania. Nov. 10. — Italian liner Ancona sunk by Austrian submarine. Over 200 persons missing. British renew attacks near Loos. Russians lose near Riga. Nov. 12 — Greek Chamber dissolved. Nov. 14 — Russians driven back across the Styr after prolonged fighting. CHRONOLOGY OF THE GREAT WAR CHRONOLOGY— SECOND TEAR OF GREAT VTAR—Con'd Nov. 17. — Serbians forced to retire from Prilep. Nov. 22. — Anglo-Indian troops rout Turks at Ctesiphon, near Bagdad, but are obliged to retreat. Nov. 23. — Bulgarians capture Mitrovitsa and Pristina. Nov. 28. — British aeroplane destroys German submarine off Middlekirke. Nov. 30. — Prisrend taken, opening up railway between Con- stantinople and Berlin via Vienna, Belgrade and Sofia. Dec. 2. — British withdraw 70,000 troops from Gallipoli. Rus- sians advance on Teheran, Persia. General JofEre made supreme commander of French armies. Dec. 6. — U. S. sends_ note to Austria-Hungary demanding disavowal for sinking the Ancona. Dec. 8. — ^Austrians force Serbian army in north through Monte- negro. British army under General Townshend retreats to Kut-el-Amara. Dec. 11. — ^Turkish forces besiege Kut-el-Amara. Dec. 15. — General Sir Douglas Haig succeeds Sir John French as commander in chief of British forces in France and Belgium. Dec. 21.— Reichstag votes German war credit of $2,500,000,000. Dec. 28. — Germans lose line of trenches to French in Alsace. Dec. 30. — Italian fleet defeats Austrian squadron off Durazzo and sinks two ships. Austria-Hungary disavows sinking of Ancona. 1916 Jan. 4. — U. S. protests British interference with mails. • Jan. 9. — Remamder of British force leaves Gallipoli. Jan. 10. — Herbert Samuel, British Postmaster-General, suc- ceeds Sir John Simon as Home Secretary. Jan. 11. — Austro-Germans capture Mont Lovtchen, Monte- negrin stronghold. Jan. 12. — Austrians occupy Cetinje, capital of Montenegro. Jan. 16. — Russian army advances in. Armenia. Jan. 28. — Germans take line of trenches from French, south of Somme River. Jan. 29. — ^Zeppelins raid Paris and kill twenty-three non- combatants. Jan. 31. — Zeppelins raid English towns and kill fifty-nine. _ Feb. 1. — German prize crew bring to Hampton Roads British steamer Afpam, captured by Cruiser At owe. Feb. 16. — Russians capture Erzerum, a Turkish fortress. Feb. 17. — Franco-British forces complete conquest of Kamerun, a German province in Africa. Feb. 20. — Zeppelin is brought down by French near Revigny, France. Feb. 21.— House of Commons vote war credit of $2,100,000,000. bringing total to $10,410,000,000. Crown Prince, with army or300,000, attack French trenches west of the Meuse. Feb. 23. — Lord Robert Cecil appointed War Trade Minister. Portugal seizes thirty-six German and Austrian interned merchantmen. Feb. 26. — Austrians occupy Durazzo, Albania evacuated by Italians. Feb. 27. — Submarine sinks French transport in Mediterranean with loss of 3,100. Mar. 2. — Russians take Bitlis, fortified city 110 miles south of Erzerum. Mar. 5. — Auxiliary cruiser Mowe returns to Germany after capturing or destroying fifteen allied vessels. Mar. 6. — Germans capture Forges near Verdun. British relief force reaches Essinn, seven miles from Kut-el-Amara. , Mar. 8. — Germany declares war on Portugal for seizing in- / temed ships. Mar. 14. — Grand Admiral von Tirpitz resigns and is succeeded by Admiral von Capelle. Mar. 16. — General Gallieni is succeeded by General Roques as French Minister of War. Mar. 18. — Submarine sinks French destroyer Renaudin in Adriatic. Mar. 24. — British Channel steamer Sussex torpedoed by Ger- man submarine. Mar. 27. — British gain at St. Eloi, Belgium. Mar. 28. — Allies hold war conference in Paris for future conduct of war. Mar. 30.— Germans capture Malancourt by gigantic infantry assaults. Mar. 31. — Germans take Vaux. Apr. 5. — Germans seize Haucourt, west of the Meuse. Apr. 8. — ^French withdraw from Bethincourt. Apr. 18. — Russian troops supported by Black Sea fleet take Trebizond. Apr. 22. — Sir Roger Casement is arrested while attempting to land with German arms in Ireland. Apr. 24. — Revolt breaks out in Ireland. Apr. 25. — German battle cruisers with submarines and Zep- pelins attack English towns northeast of London. Apr. 28.-10,000 British troops besieged for 143 days at Kut-el- Amara surrender to Turks. Apr. 30. — Germans make fierce but unsuccessful attacks ae;aiost Dead Man's Hill, west of the Meuse. May 1 . — Irish rebellion ends. May 4. — Germany, under pressure from the U. S., promises to observe international law in regard to submarine warfare. ■ Mayl7. — Austrians in Lake Garda regions cross Italian frontier. May 20. — British armyon Tigris is joined by Russian CossacWq from Persian frontier. May 22. — French recapture part of Fort Douaumont. May 23.— House of Commons vote a $1,500,000,000 war credit. bringing total up to $11,910,000,000. May 25. — Military Compulsion Bill becomes a law in England, affecting men between eighteen and forty-one. May 26. — Bulgarian troops enter Greece and take possession of several forts. May 29. — Officials announce in London that forty-four air attacks have been made on England sincewar began, re- sulting in 409 dead and 1,005 injured, also, in three attacks by German warships, 141 were killed and 611 injured. May 31. — British and German fleets meet in battle off Jutland. Denmark. British lose fourteen war vessels and Germans eleven. 9,500 lives lost. June 4. — Russians under Brussiloff begin new offensive, capture 13,000 Austrians along 332 mile front. June 5. — British cruiser Hampshire sunk by mine off Orkney Islands on way to Russia. Lord Kitchener. Secretary of War, and entire staff lost. Russians take Lutsk and 15,000 Austrians. June 7. — Germans occupy Fort Vaux, five miles southeast of Verdun. June 9. — Italian transport Principe Umberto sunk by submarine in Adriatic. June 10. — Salandra Government resigns in Italy. Dubno, with 35,000 Austrians captured by Russians. June 12. — Germans penetrate advance positions, four miles from Verdun. June 14. — Encounter between Russian and German battle- ships in Baltic. June 15. — French win back Le Mort Homme and Cailette Wood. Boselli, new Italian Premier, forms cabinet. June 17. — Russians under General Lechitsky capture Czer- nowitz. June 18. — Radziviloff, twelve miles northeast of Brody, taken by Russians. June 2 1 . — Russians occupy Radautz. June 24. — Victor Chapman, American aviator in France, killed while flying over German lines. June 28. — Germans remove 300,000 men from Verdun front for service on the Somme. June 29. — Sir Roger Casement is found guilty of high treason, and sentenced to die on August 3. July 1. — Italians regain one-third of territory lost since May 13. Franco-British offensive begins north and south of the Somme River and French advance. July 3. — Russian left wing advances to within twenty miles of Lemberg. July 7. — Russians begin offensive on Riga front. July 8. — Allies abandon Declaration of_ London and revert to blockade principles as provided by international law. July 9. — German merchant submarine Deutschland arrives at Baltimore from Germany. July 10. — French aeroplanes from Saloniki raid Sofia and Mon- astir. English capture three towns and 6,000 prisoners on the Somme. July 15. — Cossacks cross Carpathians and raid Hungary. July 18. — England publishes names of eighty-two firms as blacklist. July 21. — British take two more towns on the Somme. July 25. — Crisis in British Cabinet over provisional scheme for Home Rule in Ireland. July 27. — U. S. protests against British blacklist as illegal. July 28. — Charles Fryatt, British sea captain, executed by Germans for trying to ram a submarine in March, 1915. Russians capture Brody. July 29. — French establish new line south of Somme and bom- bard Peronne. German airships raid east coast of England. CHRONOLOGY OF THE GREAT WAR CHEONOLOGY— THIED YEAE OF GEEAT WAE Aug. 3. — Sir Roger Casement is handed. Aug. 4. — Turkish troops attack British positions in Egypt, but are repubed with heavy losses. French recapture Thiaumont. Aug. 6. — British troops advance 500 yards from Pozieres. Baron Wimbome appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Aug. 7. — ^Turks recapture Bitlis in Asia Minor from Russian troops. Austrian aeroplanes raid Venice. Aug. 9. — Italians capture Goritzia. 2^ppelins raid the east coast of England causing twenty-three casualties. Aug. 10. — Russians are forced to retreat in Persia. Stanblau is captured by the Russians. Aug. IS. — Allied forces close in on German East Africa. Aug. 16. — French make brilliant advances on the Somme front. Germany claims that seventy-four merchantmen were sunk by submarines during July. Aug. 17. — General Ruzsky is appointed commander in chief of the northern armies of Russia. Aug. 19. — British cruisers Nottingham and Falmouth sunk by German submarines in North Sea. Aug. 24. — French and British troops make further gains on Somme front. Aug. 28. — Roumania declares war on Austria-Hungary. Aug. 29. — Roumanian army begins invasion of Transylvania in two directions. Aug. 30. — Field-Marshal von Hindenburg succeeds General von Falkenhayn as Chief of the General Staff of the Ger- man army. Sept. 1. — Italians in Albania and Serbians in Macedonia begin offensives against Bulgarians. Greek army joins rebellion against King. Sept. 2. — French fleet captures seven Teuton merchant vessels in the Greek harbor of Piraeus. Sept. 3. — Dar es Salam, German East Africa, taken by British forces. Zeppelins raid London. Roumanians capture six towns in Transylvania. Sept. 4. — Allies' secret police arrest German propagandists in Athens. _ Teutonic allies under von Mackensen invade Dobrudja, a Roumanian province. Sept. 5. — Russians claim to have captured 20,000 Austrians in two weeks. Sept. 10. — Von Mackensen takes Silistria. Sept. IS.— Lloyd George, British War Minister, denies misuse of mail to obtain American trade secrets. Sept. 17. — Serbians defeat Bulgarians at Kaimakcalan. Ger- man Admiralty issues statement that " 126 hostile mer- chant ships totalling 170,679 tons and 35 neutral vessels totalling 38,568 tons, were destroyed by submarines during , August." Sept. 18. — Austrians aided by Turkish troops force Russians to retreat. Sept. 19. — Roumanians are defeated by Germans at Szurduk Pass and retreat toward Constantza. Sept. 21. — Revolution headed by ex-Premier Venezelos, breaks out in Crete. Sept. 23. — Italians advance on Trentino front. Sept 25. — British advance on Combles and take three towns. Zeppelins, in raid on English coast, kill 36 and wound 26 non not only their ancient language but their physical type. While they are the most truly Asiatic in origin of all the Slavs, they are Euro- peanized in appearance and character. In some respects their life is more civilized and settled than that of some of the Slavs farther west, as in Montenegro and Dahnatia. They are not only less warriors in spirit than these, but are more settled as agriculturists. Yet they seem to feel that they do not belong to the civilization of Europe, properly speaking, for they say of one who visits the countries farther west that he " goes to Europe." The question concerning the physical type of the Bulgarians is more difficult to solve. Less scientific work has been put upon this portion of Europe than most sections, and there is still doubt as to the movements of the race in pre- historic times and therefore as to their place of origin. There can be little doubt, however, that two physical types are found on opposite sides of Bulgaria. While those of the west are distinctly broad-headed, those on the east are, at least in part, as distinctly long-headed. The western Bulgarians are predominantly, it would appear, of the same Slavic type as their neighboring kinsmen, the Serbo-Croatians. The Albanians (see), who adjoin them on the southwest, are similarly very broad-headed, but are taller than the true Slavs. The explanation of the long- headed type in the east is not so simple. Some think it indicates the early Finnic origin. Others might argue that it is Italic, or at least " Mediter- ranean," for there is no doubt this element is predominant amongst the eastern Roumanians who adjoin them. Bulgarians of the eastern type are predom- inantly brunette, with dark hair, although it is said that 40 per cent have light eyes. The race is rather low in stature and stockily built, but no distinctly Mongolian feature remains, unless it be the high cheek bones and rather narrow eyes which are common amongst the^. It must be assumed that the present Bulgarians have assimilated Turkish, Greek, and Roumanian elements as well as Slavic. This is true even of their language as well as of their blood. The Bulgarian is, in fact, the most corrupt of all Slavic languages at the present time. _ Although it possessed the first Slavic literature, it now has almost none; and what it has, has been developed within the last century. Of Bulgarian dialects the most important to mention is the so-called Macedonian. Some have claimed that there is an independent Macedonian language and therefore race or people. But this would appear to be one of the patriotic misrepresentations not unknown amongst the partisan philologists of this region. The other chief dialects are the Rhodopian and the Southern Thracian or the Upper and Lower Moesian. The well-known Pomaks are the Mohammedan Bulgarians, a fine type phys- ically. Less than 20 per cent of the Bulgarians are Mohammedans; three-fourths are of the Orthodox faith. Bulgarians themselves con- temptuously call the mongrel people of the coast " Gagaous." There would appear to be little doubt that the Bulgars came through southern Russia to their present home in the time of the early migrations of the middle ages. Some records locate them in the second century on the river Volga, from which they appear to have taken their name. In DICTIONARY OF RACES fact, a country called " Greater Bulgaria " was known there as late as the tenth century. If the common supposition be correct, the Bul- garians are most nearly related in origin to the Magyars of Hungary and the Finns of northern Russia. After these they are nearest of kin to the Turks, who have long lived amongst them as rulers. But Turks and Finns alike are but branches of the great Ural-Altaic family, which had its origin in northern Asia, probably in Mongolia. The Bulgarians occupy a territory at least one-half larger than Bulgaria itself. The most of this lies south of Bulgaria, in Turkey proper, especially in central Turkey, extending west- ward to Albania. In fact, all of central Turkey is Bulgarian in population down to the ^gean Sea, excepting a narrow strip along the coast, and this is occupied, not by the Turks, but by Greeks. It is not commonly understood that the Turks form but a small minority of the population of European Turkey; some say but one-seventh of it. A census has never been taken. Of course they are scattered everywhere in an oflScial capacity, as the Greeks are widely scattered as traders. And there are other races or peoples in the portion of Turkey that in population is predominantly Bulgarian. Especially in Mace- donia is this list of races increased by the addition of Serbs and other southern Slavs, of Albanians, and even of Roumanians, in considerable num- bers. The last named, under the designation of Tsintsars, or Kutzo-Vlachs, extend in a rather compact body from southwestern Macedonia southward well into central Greece, CALABRIAN. A native of the southernmost province of the ItaUan Peninsula. A geograph- ical term. CASTILIAN. A native of, Castile, the former kingdom which gave its name to the Castilian or Spanish language. Not an ethnographical term. CATALAN. The race or people of Catalonia, the eastern division of Spain. They extend some- what north over the line into France. Their language resembles the Provengal of France (see French) more than it does the Castilian of Spain. Castilians can not understand Catalans as easily as they understand Portuguese. CAUCASIAN, CAUCASIC, EUROPEAN, EURAFRICAN, or WHITE race. (See xan- thochroi and melanochroi races, p. 153.) The name given by Blumenbach in 1795 to the white race or grand division of mankind as distinguished from the Ethiopian, Mongolian, American, and Malay races (see these). The term is now defined more suitably for our purposes in a broader sense by Brinton and Keane, namely, to include all races, which, although dark in color or aberrant in other directions, are, when con- sidered from all points of view, felt to be more like the white race than like any of the four other races just mentioned. Thus the dark Gallas of eastern Africa are included, partly on linguistic grounds, partly because they have the regular features of the Caucasian; the Berbers of northern Africa because of the markedly blond and regular features found amongst them; the dark Hindus and other peoples of India still more emphatically because of their possessing an Aryan speech, relating them still more closely to the white race, as well as because of their physical type; and possibly the Polynesians, Indonesians, and Ainos of the Pacific because of their physical characteristics, although in this discussion these will be excluded from the definition. The general opinion is that the Dravidians and Veddahs, south of the Aryan Hindus in India, are not Caucasian. They do not possess an Aryan tongue; and physically they more nearly approach the Negro. It will be seen from the above that the Cau- casian race was by no means originally confined to Europe. It has long covered the northern third of Africa and practically all of southern Asia to the borders of Farther India. Although called the " European " race, it more likely had its origin in Asia or even in Africa than in Europe. Because of the latter theorj'^, Brinton calls it the " Eurafrican " race. It does not even now fill certain large sections of Europe. The Mongolian race not only occupies the most of eastern and northern Russia but northern Scandinavia and the greater part of Finland, while the dominant races of Turkey, of Rou- mania, and even of Hungary are Mongolian in origin. Although the white race would be supposed to be the one best understood, it is really the one about which there is the most fundamental and sometimes violent discussion. The word " Cau- casian," for instance, is in nearly as bad repute as "Aryan" at the present time amongst ethnologists. Yet, as Keane has said of the former term, both words may be preserved with conventional meanings as are many of the early terms of natural history, although the early ideas associated with their use be discarded, Wtile the word " Caucasian " has reference mainly to physical characters, " Aryan " will be used here as applsdng strictly to linguistic groupings. The English seldom use the word " Caucasian " in the naiTower sense as desig- nating only the peoples of the Caucasus Moun- tains. The Caucasian is the only grand division of mankind which possesses inflected languages. In two of its minor divisions, the Caucasic and Euskaric, are also found agglutinative tongues. The scope of the word " Caucasian " may be better indicated by naming the subdi's^sions of DICTIONARY OF RACES the race. The following is substantially agreed upon by both Brinton and Keane, if the doubtful Polynesians and Ainos of the latter be discarded. The larger linguistic divisions or " stocks " are the Aryan, Caucasic, Euskaric, Semitic, and Hamitic. Both authors combine the two last named under the term " South Mediterranean," a stock located south and east of this great sea. Brinton applies the term " North Mediter- ranean " to all the rest, while Keane prefers to use the terms " North Mediterranean," " North European," " Iranic," and " Indie " as equiva- lent to Brinton's term " Aryan." Brinton di- vides the Aryans into the Teutonic, Lettic, Celtic, Slavonic, Armenic, Iranic, Illyric, Italic, and Hellenic groups. Forty years ago Huxley replaced the word "Caucasian" by two terms: " Xanthochroi," meaning the blond race, and " Melanochroi," or the brunette portion of the Caucasian race. Ripley has summed up in a masterly manner all the physical classifications made since that of Huxley. He shows that the great consensus of opinion thus far favors the distinction of three great races in Europe, which he calls the " Teu- tonic," the " Alpine," and the " Mediterranean." As is pointed out, Ripley's classification is im- practicable in censuses of races, and therefore it need not be given extended discussion here. Moreover, it appears probable that his classifica- tion must be largely modified by the studies of Deniker. The latter has added to the three classical races of Europe the " Atlanta-Mediter- ranean," the " Oriental," and the " Adriatic," with possibly three or four other " subraces." Ripley has practically admitted the existence of the Adriatic as a distinct race. (See Albanian.) Deniker has wisely given as an alternative classi- fication to that of his physical types a classifica- tion of " peoples " based on linguistic grounds which may be profitably compared, in a discus- sion of each race, with those of Brinton and Keane here adopted. CAUCASUS PEOPLES, CAUCASIAN. The group of native races or peoples peculiar to the Caucasus, as the Russian territory, Caucasia, is sometimes called; not found elsewhere. More exactly defined on linguistic grounds, they con- stitute one of the four distinct divisions of the white race; that is, they \ are a non- Aryan stock, which, with the Aryan, the Semitic, and the Euskaric stocks, make up the great Caucasian or White division of mankind. It is, of course, confusing and objectionable to use the term " Caucasian " in the narrowest sense, as is sometimes done, to designate only the peoples of the Caucasus. This term was first used by Blunaenbach, who applied it to the Caucasian division of mankind because he considered a Georgian of Caucasia the most perfect and ideal specimen of the white race. A full discussion of the Caucasus peoples can hardly be undertaken in this dictionary. It is the most difficult prob- lem in European ethnology. So far as a general view of the non-Aryans of the Caucasus can be given in a few words, they may be said to mediate in most particulars be- tween Europeans and Asiatics, as would be ex- pected from their geographical location. " No- where else in the world probably," says Ripley, " is so heterogeneous a lot of people, languages, and religions gathered together in one place as along the chain of the Caucasus Mountains." While this statement covers the Mongolian population of the Caucasus as well as the Cauca- sus peoples proper, it is true that the latter are greatly mixed in physical stock and most di- verse in type. The blond type of Europe is lacking, it is true, but some western Georgians are long-headed, like northern races. The pre- vailing head form, however, is broader than that of the Russian, although the latter is broad-headed for a European. In stature the non-Aryans are generally tall and of robust physique. As divided on a linguistic basis, there are at least 50 tribes in this region with an area no larger than that of Spain. Ripley gives the num- ber of dialects as 68, including at least one that is Aryan, the Osset. The Caucasus languages proper are more Asiatic than European in type, for they are agglutinative, not inflected like the Aryan and Semitic tongues. Yet they are not related to any linguistic family of Asia or of any other part of the world. The civilization of the region is backward, due in part to its inaccessible nature. The people have figured but little in history except as independent and almost un- conquerable mountaineers. Caucasia, called in Russian " Kavkaz," is a division lying between the Euxine or Black Sea and the Caspian. It includes two mountain ranges, the Caucasus and a range opposite it in Asia sometimes called " Anti-Caucasus " sep- arated by plains or steppes. Northern Caucasia or Ciscaucasia consists of three provinces lying north of the Caucasus Mountains; Transcau- casia, of six provinces lying south, together with Daghestan lying north on the Caspian side. All south of the Caucasus Mountains is, properly speaking, in Asia, although the Russians, in their steady advance toward the south, prefer to call it Europe. Reviewed by geographical regions, Transcau- casia is mainly Kartvelian or Georgian in the west, Armenian in the center, and " Other Caucasian " in the east, while northern Caucasia is mainly Russian in the west and " Other Caucasian" in the east. Turko-Tatars and Hebrews are scattered throughout both divisions. 154 DICTIONARY OF RACES CELTIC or KELTIC. The westernmost branch of Aryan or Indo-European languages. It is divided into two chief groups, with several subdivisions, as shown in the following table from Keane: I. GAEDHELIC (GAELIC) Irish, Old and Modern. Erse, or Gaelic of the Scottish Highlands. Manx, of the Isle of Man. II. KYMRIC Old Gaulish, extinct. Kymraeg, or Welsh. Cornish, extinct. Brezonek, or Low Breton. Irish, because of its more extensive literature and greater antiquity, is considered to be the chief branch of the Gaelic group. Modern Erse or Scotch is thought to be a more recent dialect of Irish. (See Scotch.) Manx is the dialect spoken by a small number of persons in the Isle of Man. Welsh is the best preserved of the Cymric group. It has a literature nearly if not quite as rich as that of Irish, and is spoken by a larger population than any other Celtic language found in the British Isles. (See Welsh.) Low Breton, or Armorican, is the speech found in Lower Brittany, in France. It is spoken by nearly two-thirds as many persons as are all other Celtic dialects combined. (See Breton.) No Celtic language has a current literature of any extent. Each succeeding census shows a decrease in the number of persons who speak a Celtic tongue. In few places is a Celtic language taught in the schools. Everywhere these lan- guages are being supplanted by English or French. The term " Celtic " is used in different senses by the philologist and the anthropologist. The former includes in it all peoples originally speak- ing a Celtic language. The latter has used the term to designate a broad-headed and comprises most of the northern races of Europe. The last named is short, long-headed, and very brunette, and includes the races living on the shores of the sea whose name it bears. This " Celtic " race seems to have had its main center of dissemina- tion in the highlands of the Alps of midwestern Europe. Since the Celtic-speaking races, with the exception of the Breton, are not, as was once thought, of one and the same physical type as those of the British Isles, they are distinctly long-headed and tall, in fact, are among the tallest of all Europe. This dictionary uses the term " Celtic " in the sense of the philologist. Celtic-speaking peoples are found in the west- ern part of Ireland; in the mountains of Scotland and Wales; in Monmouthshire, England, which borders on Wales; in the Isle.of Man; and in the western part of Brittany. It is impossible to give the population of the Celtic race — that is, of those whose ancestral language was Celtic — since most of its members now speak English or French only. CHERNOMORISH. A division of the Cos- sacks (see) of the Dneiper; that is, a subdivision of the Little Russians. (See Ruthenian.) CHUDE. A western subdivision of the Finns (see ). CHUVASH. An important Tataric people (see) in eastern Russia, classified by some among the Finns (see). CIRCASSIAN (CHERKASI) or ADIGHE. The northwestern group of the Caucasus peoples (see). They call themselves Adighe and are known to Russians and Tm-ks as Cherkess. They speak a non-Aryan tongue. Among the dialectal divisions of the Circassians are the Shapsuch, Ubych, and Dshiget. Some call the Abkasians and Kabardians Circassians. All these groups show more or less admixture of Tataric (Mongolian) intrusive elements. Their women are noted for their beauty and adorn the harems of Turkey and Persia. The Circassians are Mohammedans and are a proud-spirited people. Nearly four-fifths of them emigrated to Asiatic and European Turkey after the Russian conquest, some forty-five years ago. CORNISH. The native race or people of Cornwall, the southwestern county of England. The Cornish, linguistically and physically, is Kymric, a division of the Celtic branch of the Aryan stock. Its nearest relatives are the Welsh and the Breton; next come the Irish, the Manx, and the Gaelic of the Scottish highlands. (See these and Celtic.) The people of Cornwall are, therefore not so nearly related to the Enghsh as to the Irish. Their language is now English, the Cornish speech having become extinct a little over a century ago. But the population is the most deeply brunette in Great Britain, being quite the opposite of the typical English. CORSICAN. A native of the island of Corsica, which has belonged to France since the time of Napoleon, who was born here. The language is an Italian dialect. The population is mixed in race, but is supposed to be at bottom Iberic, thus being related to the early inhabitants of Spain and perhaps to the Berbers of North Africa, with later additions chiefly from Italy and France. The Corsican is almost as dwarfish as his neighbor, the Sardinian (see), being fully 9 inches shorter than the Teutonic average of northern Europe. COSSACK or KAZAK. (Cf. Kirghiz^Kazak, following). This term is used in two very different senses. The first is popular and his- DICTIONARY OF RACES 155 torical, rather than ethBological, and refers to " the Cossacks of the Don " and others of south- em Russian origin. The Cossacks are Russian (Caucasian), rather than Tataric, in race. In its> second meaning, strictly ethnological, the word is equivalent to " Kirghiz-Kazak," and refers to the largest race of Central Asia of Tataric (Mongolian) origin. The historical Cossacks, being the best known, may first be briefly dis- cussed; then the real Kazaks, ethnologically speaking. The former may be called the Western or Russian Cossacks; the latter the Eastern or Asiatic Cossacks, or Kazaks proper. The latter spelling of the name is more scientific and pref- erable when speaking of the Eastern Kazaks. WESTERN COSSACK (OR COSSACK OF THE DON, ETC.) The historical Cossacks, named, after the portions of southern Russia they first occupied, " Cossacks of the Dnieper " and " Cossacks of the Don," are of mixed race ethnically. Those of the Dnieper are mainly Little Russian — that is, Ruthenian (see) in origin; those of the Don are Great Russian. Some were Polish in origin, as the famous chieftain Mazeppa, the hero of . Byron's verse. Others, on the Don, may have been of Tataric origin; at least the name and the form of social organization are Tataric. The name " Kazak " means " rider " or " robber." The Cossacks were both. Their name is to be defined as meaning, not a race, but a mixed Russian population having a certain social or- ganization, communistic and semimilitary in character. These communities probably had their origin toward the close of the middle ages as a result of the desperate and repeated struggles with Asiatic invaders. They had the form of organization best fitted to survive. Other races, as the Bashkirs, have become organized on the Cossack plan. The Cossacks of southern Russia who have remained in the old home have devoted themselves to agricultural pursuits. The Zap- orog Cossacks were so called in the sixteenth century because they lived " below the cat- aracts," on the Dnieper, They were Ruthenians. EASTERN KAZAK (OR KIRGHIZ-KAZAK) To be defined as the largest Tataric tribe of Central Asia, extending from Lake Balkash on the east to the Volga in Russia; nomadic, Mo- hammedan, and possessing a relatively pure Turkish speech. Their speech points to this region as being a former home of the Turks of Turkey, although the latter have become, phys- ically, far more Europeanlike than the Kirghiz. Although called Kirghiz by ethnologists, they themselves reserve this term for their kinsmen, the Kara-Kirghiz (see Kirghiz), and call them- selves simply Kazak. The Russians applied to them the name Kirghiz-Kazak, to distinguish them from the western Cossacks or military communities described above. Some writers claim that the Kirghiz are physically Mongolic but linguistically Tataric. There is no doubt that their features are more Asiatic in type than those of the Tatars of Russia, but this may have come from their frequent intermarriages with Mongolic tribes. Their civilization is still very primitive. Only the wandering life of herdsmen is possible on the barren steppes of Central Asia. The people are unlettered and their religion is often Shamanism ^ rather than the Mohammedanism which they profess. The Kara-Kirghiz of Central Asia are com- paratively of little importance. CRAKUS, KRAKOWIAK, or BIELOCHRO- VAT. Names applied to a subdivision of the Poles. CRIMEAN TATAR. A Tatar living in the Crimea, in southern Russia. CROATIAN or SERBIAN, or, better, SERBO- CROATIAN, including the so-called Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, Dalmatian, Herzegovinian, and Montenegrin (Tsmagortsi) races or peoples. (Related words: Chroat, Khrobat, Carpath, Khorvat, Horvath, and Hervat or Hrvat; also Serb or Srp, Sorb, and Sorabian. Sometimes in- cluded with Magyars and others. The Serbo-Croatian is a distinct and homoge- neous race, from a linguistic point of view, and may be defined as the one which, with the closely related Slovenian, constitutes the Southern Divi- sion of the Slavic, the linguistic stock which occupies the countries above indicated, including Slavonia. It is not an ethnical unity in physical characters and descent, but a mixed race. It is separated into the aljove so-called races on political and even religious grounds. GEOGRAPHY OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA Definitions of the Serbo-Croatian peoples depend so largely upon political boundaries that a preliminary sketch of the Balkan States will conduce to clearness. The southern part of the Balkan Peninsula is occupied by Greeks, Al- banians, and a minority of Turks. All the rest — that is, the greater part — is Slavic. Roughly speaking, the eastern half of the Slavic territory is Bulgarian (see). This race belongs to the Eastern Division of Slavs and occupies the entire region from the Danube south nearly to the iEgean Sea and Constantiaople itself. The main range of the Balkan Mountains is in their territory, running eastward to the Black Sea. The Serbo-Croatians are west of the Bulgarians, occupying all the territory to the Adriatic Sea. DICTIONARY OF RACES They are restricted, therefore, to the north- western part, or about one-third, of the Balkan Peninsula. If the northern boundary of the peninsula be considered a line running eastward from the head of the Adriatic to the Black Sea following the Save River to the Danube and down the latter, it will include all the Bulgarians and the Southern Slavs with the exception of the Slove- nian territory, northern Croatia, and Slavonia. These will also be included within the limits of the peninsula if its boundary may be fixed a little farther north to the Drave. This article is not concerned further with the countries of Greece, Turkey (including Albania), and Bul- garia (including Eastern Roumelia), nor with Roumania, which lies north of Bulgaria, and therefore outside the limits of the Balkan Penin- sula. Ripley, however, includes the Rumanians among the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. The remaining States constitute Serbo- Croatian territory. The Kingdom of Serbia, situated just south of the Danube and the Save, midway between the Black Sea and the Adriatic, and the small principality of Monte- negro. The latter occupies the southern angle of the Serbo-Croatian territory, with Albania on the southeast and the narrow territory of Dal- matia and the Adriatic on the southwest. Herze- govina, northwest of Montenegro and similar to it in size, and Bosnia, larger and extending north from Herzegovina to the Save, also Dalmatia, a narrow strip of coast land between these two States aud the Adriatic. Still farther north are the former kingdoms of Slavonia, lying along the southwestern boundary of Hungary proper, and Croatia, lying farthest to the northwest in the peninsular next to Austria and the Adriatic. All the Southern Slavs — that is, the Serbo- Croatians and the Bulgarians — were subject to Turkey forty years ago, excepting those on the northern fringe inhabiting Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. If, as is sometimes said, these are not Balkan States, all the Balkan Peninsula excepting Greece was then covered by Turkey — as also was Greece itself a century ago. THE SERBO-CROATIANS IN GENERAL Ask a Bosnian his race and he will answer " Turk " if he is a Mohammedan; " Latin " or " Croatian " if a Roman Catholic; and " Ser- bian " if an adherent of the Greek Church. Yet in all these cases the race is the same because the language is the same. The case of the Bosnian is typical of the entire Serbo-Croatian people, which is peculiar amongst all the races or peoples of Europe in appearing to be divided into six or more separate ethnical branches; that is, as many as there are political States if not religions in this region, while the scientist can have no doubt but that all are of one race. Their case resembles that of the Poles, who, since the parti- tion of Poland, make part of three different nationalities; or that of the Germans, constitut- ing to a greater or less degree the German, the Swiss, and the Austrian nationalities. In like manner, Bosnian, Dalmatian, Montenegrin, and Herzegovinian are only names of nationalities or of political groups, while the corresponding race or people is Serbo-Croatian. Language is the necessary basis of all official classifications of. European races. It is the one followed by all European censuses of races, and is adopted in this dictionary. The Bulgarians and the Slovenians are outside the Serbo- Croatian race, although they are most closely related to it by language. The confusion in Serbo-Croatian terminology has its origin in both politics and religion. The Serbo-Croatians of the west, who are Roman Catholic, can not read the publications of the eastern Serbo-Croatians, who are Orthodox, although both have the same language, for the former use the Roman alphabet or sometimes the strange Glagolitic letters, while the latter use the Russian characters fostered by the Greek Church. The geographical limits of the Serbo-Croatians are not easily determined. They are defined on the north by the Danube and the Drave; that is, by Hungarian and Slovenian territory. On the east, also, they coincide with the boundary between Serbia and Bulgaria, except that north- eastern Serbia is occupied by Rumanians. But as to the southern boundary the wildest and most divergent statements are made by students of the question according to their political bias. Some pro-Serbians would claim Macedonia and the greater part of Northern Greece and Southern Bulgaria, even to the Black Sea, to be Serbian by language; while it is generally held that the Slavic language found here is Bulgarian. A fair statement would seem to be that the north- western part of Old Turkey is Serbo-Croatian, including a narrow strip of northern Albania, as well as the large districts known as Old Serbia and Novibazar. Old Serbia is farther south- east. As thus delimited, the Serbo-Croatians are inclosed on the west by the Adriatic Sea; on the northwest by the closely related Slovenians; on the north by the totally different Magyars or Hungarians, of Mongol origin; on the northeast by a more nearly related people, the Rumanians; on the southeast by distant relatives, the Bulga- rians; and on the south by the Albanians, a race differing both in language and physical type from any other in Europe. The language may as properly be called either Croatian or Serbian. It was once called the DICTIONARY OF RACES IS? Illjrrian, an ethnical misnomer for which an excuse was sought in political history. But the ancient Illyrians were an entirely different race. (See Albanian.) Few traces of them, it is said, can be found among the Slavs now occupying the country. The apostles of the " lllyrian " propaganda would take into their fold Bulgaria on the east and the Slovenians on the west. " Y ugo-Slavic " — that is "South Slavic" — is a name more recently adopted by other patriotic Slavs in an attempt to inculcate, a feeling of unity among all Serbo-Croatians and Slovenians. It is pan-slavism on a small scale. The historical and linguistic relations existing between widely separated branches of the Slavs are often indicated or suggested by strange similarities in their names. The terms Slav, Slovak, Slovenian, and Slavonian are discussed in the article on the Slovenian. As there pointed out, Slavonian in the narrowest sense may mean the nationality (not a race) inhabiting the former kingdom of Slavonia. The race or people living there is the Serbian or Croatian. Curiously enough, Croat, Hervat, and the related words given at the head of this article are variations of an old word meaning highlands or mountains; hence not strictly ethnical terms. " Horvatok " is the name given Croatians on the Magyar ethnographical map. In lilie manner as the forms Hervat, Horvath, and even Kharpath come from Hrvat, so such variations as Serb and Sorb came from Srp. In the Serbo-Croatian, as in other Slavic languages, a vowel is not written with this " r." The " h " easily passes into "kh" and "b" into "p" or "v." In these and similar words, therefore, are indicated the ancient relationships existing between widely different divisions of the Slavs; between the Serbs, Croats, or Hervats, and Slovenians or Winds of the Southern Division on the one hand, and, on the other, in the north, the disappearing Sorbs and Wends and the Slovaks, with their forerunners, who left their name in ancient Chrobatia and the Carpathians. The technicalities of the slho, cha, and kay dialects of the Serbo-Croatian need not be entered into here. In a general way they corre- spond to: (1) The southern, Serbian, or, better, that spoken in Herzegovina, which has become the literary form of the Serbo-Croatian; (2) the western, Croatian, the use of which is gradually receding to the coast of Dalmatia; and (3) that found on the western border of Croatia, which is more properly called a separate language, the Slovenian. Of the numerous names borne by Serbo- Croatian dialects and divisions of the population only a few need be given here. Some are merely names of political divisions. Thus the " Cer- nagoriana " are simply the Montenegrins, the two words having the same meaning. " Tsrna Gora," in their language, means " black moun- tain." The Ragusans are the natives of the old city of Ragusa; Dubrovcans is another. name for these. Others are the Syrmians, sometimes con- sidered to be a fourth division of the Serbo- Croatians, named after a plain in Croatia-Sla- vonia; the Cices of Istria, and the Hranicares of the borders. Skipetar is a name applied to the Slavonized Albanians (see) of the coast. An Istrian — that is, a native of Istria — may be of any race; more likely a Serbo-Croatian, Italian, or Slovenian. The Morlaks, who call themselves " Vlah " or " Wlach," may be, as some claim, Slavonized Rumanians (Wallachs); but if so, the change has been quite complete, for they might be taken to-day as the primitive Serbian stock, not only in physical appearance and dialect, but in char- acter and customs. They form a considerable population in northern Dalmatia and adjacent territory, especially in Istria. Reclus says that they are amongst the least advanced peoples of Europe. Certain other names found amongst Serbo-Croatians really designate social groups rather than distinct races, dialects, or political divisions. Thus the well-known word " Hai- duk," meaning originally in the Turkish lan- guage something like highwayman or freebooter, was adopted by the Serbians in the sense of defender of the home land. The Uskoks were, like them, brigands before they settled down to agricultural pursuits. They fled from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Montenegrin mountains for protection against the Turks. In physical appearance the Serbo-Croatians are quite distinct from other Slavs. In fact, they would seem to be, at bottom, not Slavic, or " Eastern," to use Deniker's terms, but " Adri- atic." The latter differs from any other race in Europe in combining unusual stature with un- usual breadth of head. Its purest representatives are found a little farther south amongst the Albanians (see), a remnant of the ancient Illyric race, using this word in its proper sense. In northern Albania, and especially in Herzegovina, are found some of the broadest heads in the world, with an average cephalic index of 87. The race is also one of the tallest of Eui'ope, averaging 6 feet 9 inches. This type shades off in every direction, especially on the south, where both the Turks and the Greeks are shorter. The ancient Greeks belong to the long-headed " Mediterra- nean " race. On the north, the Albanian type is modified by the great Slavic wave of migration that brought with it the present Serbo-Croatian language of the country. But while the average height of the Slav is considerably less, the head is broad, as it is also in the " Alpine " race, farther northwest, into which the Serbo-Croatian 158 DICTIONARY OF RACES type insensibly passes. The type is brunette, but not of the darkest. Although not so strong or stoclcily built as the tallest men of northern Europe, the Serbo-Croatian is vigorous and well adapted to hard labor. The Southern Slavs not onlj' outnumber any other race in the Balkan Peninsula, but they constitute about one-half its population if we add to them the small Albanian population to which they are physically related. The Greeks do not make up one-thii'd of the population, while the Turks are hopelessly in the minority, esti- mated by some as only one-seventh as many as the Slavs. THE VARIOUS NATIONALITIES The terms " Bosnian," " Dalmatian," " Her- zegovinian," and " Montenegrin," as shown above, are not names of races, but rather of nationalities found within the Serbo-Croatian ethnical territory. The same is true, of course, of the Serbian, the Croatian, and the Slavonian as nationalities. Further details are necessary concerning each, especially as to their ethnical and I'eligious elements. By the so-called Serbian and Croatian races ai"e generally meant onlj'^ the Orthodox (Greek) and Roman Catholic divisions, respectively, of the one Serbo-Croatian race. To these may be added the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina, of whom the Roman Catholics may be counted roughly as Croatians and the Oriental Orthodox as Serbians. But very few of the Mohammedans are Turks, al- though generally calling themselves by that name. It is said that the Bosnian nobility be- came Mohammedans in order to preserve their feudal rights, but that they differ in more re- spects than race from Turkish Mohammedans. For instance, they do not practice polygamy. Of the Sei'bian nationality — that is, of the citizens of Serbia — 90 per cent are Serbian by race and 98 per cent Orthodox in religion. The Gypsies come next. The Rumanians (see), like the Serbians, are for the most part Orthodox. While the Turks proper are Mohammedans. The small independent principality of Monte- negro has had no census. It is estimated that nearly 90 per cent of the population are Or- thodox. The remainder are Roman Catholics or Mohammedans, the latter being Albanians. In Dalmatia 96 per cent of the population is Serbo-Croation by race and 84 per cent Roman Catholic in religion. These probably all call themselves " Croatian." Nearly all the rest of the people are Greek (not " United ") in religion. Less than 3 per cent of the population are Italians. These live along the coast in cities like Ragusa. There are no Turks in Dalmatia, so far as shown by the census. In the Hungarian provinces of Croatia and Slavonia, besides the Serbo-Croatian population, which, as shown above, is 87 per cent of the whole, about 5 per cent of the population ai-e German, and 4 per cent " Hungarian." This is the classification by mother tongue. Classified by religion, all the Serbians are " Oriental Greek," wiiile 99 per cent of the " Croatians " are Roman Catholic, as are also 80 per cent of the Germans and Hungarians. No Turks or Mohammedans appear as such by name in the census. Finally, in the Coastland, including Istria, wliile nearly one-half of the population is Italian, the most of the remainder are Serbo- Croatians and Slovenians. Nearly 99 per cent are Catholic. DALMATIAN. A political division of the Serbo-Croatians. (See Croatian.) DANISH. (See Scandivanian.) DOUKHOBOR. A Russian (see) sect. Not the name of a race. DUTCH and FLEMISH (less accurately Hollander, Netherlander, and Belgian). The two westernmost races or peoples on the Con- tinent of Low German or Teutonic origin, the Dutch being the native people of Holland (the Netherlands) and the Flemish that of Flanders — that is, of the western part of Belgium. The Dutch and Flemish languages are intermediate between English on the one hand and German on the other. The chief differences between the Dutch and Flemish are those of political boun- daries, customs, and religion, rather than of language or physique. Hollander, Netherlander, and Belgian are names of nationalities and not of races. Holland-Dutch is a term vulgarly used in America to distinguish Dutch from German, while Pennsylvania Dutch is a name wrongly given to the old Pennsylvania German families. DUTCH Etymologically Dutch is simply the German " Teutsch " — that is, " Teuton " — and, there- fore, might be used as a generic term to include all Germans. But in scientific usage the term is now limited to the people of Low German descent living in the Rhine delta. Germans themselves never extend the word " Deutsch " to the Netherlands. The Dutch or Netherlandish language is derived from Old Saxon, a division of the long extinct Old Low German. The word " Dutch " is sometimes wrongly used, especially in the United States, to mean the German language in all its fonns. Dutch is the literary and national language of Holland; it is also the language of the Dutch colonists in South Africa (Boers), and in the East and West Indies. Besides Dutch, there are other dialects of Low German origin used in Holland: Frisian, Saxon, Friso-Saxon, and Friso- DICTIONARY OF RACES 159 Prankish. Frisian is said to have been the language of the early Teutonic people through- out Holland. It had a literature of its own in the fourteenth century, but has been pressed upon by the Saxon and Frankish until it exists to-day only as a patois in the province of Friesland and on some of the islands of the coast. Saxon and Friso-Saxon are spoken throughout the eastern and southeastern part of Holland. Friso- Frankish is spoken in Zeeland — that is, the island province north of Belgium, and in the western part of Holland. Dutch is spoken in the prov- inces of North and South Holland. Physically, the northern Dutch are for the most part long-headed, oval faced, tallish, and blond. The Frisians also are good examples of this type. Southward in the western part of Holland there is more and more of an admixture of a round-headed brunette element, shorter and stouter than the northern type, which is thought to be descended from the ancient " Alpine " race, with more or less Teutonic admixture. Three- fifths of the people of Holland are Protestants; most of the remainder are Catholics or Jews. In social customs the Dutch show greater affinity to the English than to the German. They have been called the Englishmen of the mainland. Like the English, the Dutch have been great colonizers. Holland is an independent kingdom. It is now called the Netherlands, a term formerly given to the lowland country comprising both Holland and Belgium. It is one of the smallest countries of Europe, having a superficial area of only 12,000 square miles. Its ethnographical boundaries coincide with its topographical formation: the Frieslanders hold the alluvial plains, the Saxons are confined to sandy tracts, while the lowlands of the delta of the Rhine have a population mixed in origin. Rudler and Chisholm estimate 71 per cent of the population to be Dutch, 14 per cent Frisian, 13 per cent Flemish, and 2 per cent other Low German. FLEMISH Philologists differ as to the position of Flemish, linguistically. Some consider it to be a branch of Old Low German, closely akin to Dutch, if not identical with it; others place it as a dialect of Dutch and say that it is now nearly extinct; while still others consider it to be a dialect of equal rank with Frisian and Saxon, but distinct from Dutch. The literary language of the Flemish people is now Dutch. Physically the Flemish are of the prevailing Dutch type — tallish, blond, and round-faced — the type so often portrayed by Rubens. The Flemish occupy the northern and western prov- inces of Belgium and the northeastern part of France bordering on Inlanders. BELGIAN The term Belgian simply means a native or inhabitant of the Kingdom of Belgium. It has no significance as to physical race or language. The Belgian nation is represented by two chief linguistic stocks, a Teutonic (Flemish) which occupies the plains and the coast lands, and a French (Walloon) which occupies the uplands (see these). The two peoples also differ in in- dustries. The Flemings are characteristically tenant farmers; the Walloons are small pro- prietary farmers, miners, and manufacturers. Belgium ranked eighteenth in superficial area and eighth in population amongst European countries. It was the most densely populated country in Europe; that is, of about 600 to the square mile. The Kingdom was not evenly populated, the Flemish provinces being much more densely settled than the Walloon. Of the total number, 42 per cent spoke Flemish only and 38 per cent French only, while 12 per cent spoke both Flemish and French, and 6 per cent spoke Flemish, French, and German. Both French and Flemish are official languages. All public documents are printed in both. Both are taught in the schools. At the University of Ghent the professors lectured in both French and Flemish. The Belgians are for the most part Catholics. ENGLISH or ANGLO-SAXON; inaccurately BRITISH. The principal race or people of England; the westernmost European branch of the Teutonic stock; the race that first spoke the English language. Of course there is no necessity in this diction- ary for discussion of a subject so well understood by all as the character, social institutions, and other qualities of the English. It may be as- sumed that all Americans understand the race which has given us our language and laws and political institutions. Yet there may be some doubt as to the ethnical position of the English — as to which of the present components of the mixed English nation are to be considered as unassimilated elements and which as truly English. The student of races will realize that clear distinctions need be drawn in the case of so composite a race as that in England. In the case, for instance, of an immigrant from England who comes of Irish or Scotch descent, how lon§ a residence of his ancestry in England entitles him to be called English? The question goes deeper than this, namely, to the determination of what constitutes a race in ethnology. It is perhaps convenient to consider, in discussing a race so well known as the English, the definition and classification of races upon which this dictionary proceeds. Race is determined by language in such phrases as " the races of Europe," but by phys- 160 DICTIONARY OF RACES ical qualities, such as color, hair, and shape of head, when we speak of " the five great races " or grand divisions of mankind. In either case the attempt is made to bring into a common class all who have the same inheritance. But the term " race " is sometimes used in other senses. Thus we may reach wider and wider " races," each including the preceding, as when we speak of the English race, the Teutonic race, the Aryan or Indo-European race, the Caucasian race, and, finally, the human race. Not only is there this popular looseness in the use of the word, but its scientific acceptation in the most exact of studies, namely, in national census tak- ing, is also variable. While in some European censuses race is determined by the mother tongue of the individual, in other countries it is determined by the " language of converse " or " customary language." It is evident that an Irish family that has lived for generations in England would be called Irish by the first test, English by the second. But how long a residence in England will entitle an Irishman, or a Scotch- man, or a French Huguenot, or one of Norman French stock, to be called English if the mother tongue is the test? Evidently this phrase must be interpreted to mean the ancestral or racial language in dealing with a stock which has kept itself quite pure in descent. But since the greater part of the English population of to-day is of mi.xed origin, a census may adopt the arbitrary rule that the paternal line only shall determine the race, or, what is evidently more difficult and more scientific, it may name the mixed races as such, or consider the race to be determined by the preponderating element in the mixture. Since all this is merely a matter of definition, so far as consistency in the present dictionary is concerned, the following principles and defini- tions may be given as those adopted and pre- sumably scientific. In the narrow sense, the race of an immigrant is determined by ancestral language, as above indicated. The historical limit which determines the transition from one race into another as thus defined varies with different races. It will be assumed in this article that the English race is practically one thousand years old, since the essential elements composing it were welded before or soon after the Norman invasion. Still other definitions will conduce to clearness of thinking. Not only is a distinction to be made between race and nationality, but the terms " English people," " English stock," " English-speaking people," and, consequently, " English language " need definition also. The English nationality includes all native and naturalized citizens of England. It therefore includes members of other races besides English- men in the ethnical sense. The term " English- man " may mean merely one of English national- ity. The " English stock " is a loose expression for the English race. A stock in ethnology generally includes several races. The " English- speaking people," as is evident, includes all individuals in all parts of the world who speak the English language. The term " English lan- guage " is more capable of exact definition than all the foregoing, for, philologically, it is impossi- ble to confuse it with any other. It is only as old as the English race. The expression " English people " is a loose one. By definition in this dictionary it is the equivalent of the term "the English race," which embraces the English in America; it means also the people of the par- ticular country or nationality, England. " Brit- on " is a name appUed to the ancient race of England, lay some supposed to have been of Celtic origin. The word is used at times to mean any native of Great Britain. In this sense it includes different races, as English, Irish, and Welsh. It, or rather " North Briton," is the term by which the Lowland Scotch prefer to be called instead of English. In this dictionary they will be called " Scotch " (see). " British " jis a term of nationality rather than of race. It also means the Celtic language spoken by the ancient Britons. Linguistically, the English are Teutons. Al- though the English language is very composite, the grammar and the spoken language are still characteristically Anglo-Saxon, that is. Low German, notwithstanding that it has lost many of its inflections. English is closely related to the dialects still spoken in Flanders, in the Nether- lands, and on the northern shores of Germany, It is to-day the language of about 180,000,000 individuals living under a score of different governments, among which are two of the greatest nations of the world, the British Empire and the United States of America. No other Indo-European tongue is spoken by so many persons. Physically, as well as linguistically, the Eng- lish are a very composite product. The pre- vailing English type is tall, long-headed, and generally blond, although, as Beddoe has pointed out, there is no one type characteristic of all England. He finds what he calls Anglo- Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons, both Teutonic in type, located in the northern, the eastern, and the southern parts of England; a short, darker type of marked " Celtic " character in the western part, bordering on Wales, and a still darker Celtic type, the Cornish, (see) in Corn- wall. The Lowland Scotch (see Scotch), the people living south of the southern firths of Forth and Clyde and on the eastern side of Scotland, are said to be nearly identical in racial DICTIONARY OF RACES 161 character and closely related in their dialect to the people of the northern part of England. It has been variously estimated that the English race is from one-fifth to one-half Scandinavian, if not, in fact, more Scandinavian than Anglo- Saxon. Freeman says " when we set foot on the shores of Scandinavia and northern Germany, we are simply revisiting our ancestral home." In geographical distribution the English are more widely dispersed than any other people, being found in all parts of the world. The English hold high rank as an emigrating and colonizing people. EUSKARIC stock. A linguistic division of the Caucasian race at present represented by only the Basques of Spain and France. Their lan- guage is of the agglutinative type, the only non- Aryan language of western Europe. FINNIC, FINNO-HUNGARIAN, FINNO- UGRIC, UGRO-FINNIC, UGRIAN. The lan- guage of the Finns, using this word in the wider sense to include the Magyars and, sometimes, the Bulgarians. FINNISH. Best defined for the purposes of this work from a linguistic point of view in a narrow sense as the race or people of Finno- Tataric stock which now constitutes the chief population of Finland and' embraces also the related peoples of northwestern Russia, exclusive of the Lapps (see) . This group may be also called the "Finns Proper" or " Western Finns," and includes the Esths, Livs, Vots, Veps, Tavastians, and Karelians, together with the I j ores and Chudes, subbranches of the last named. The KareUans extend nearly to the center of Russia and are called by some " Eastern Finns." It would appear more significant to reserve this latter name to designate the Ugro-Finnic peoples living in Eastern Russia and in Asia. Although speaking languages similar to the Western Finns or Suomi, they are widely different from the latter in blood, and to a great extent in civiliza- tion. The Western and Eastern Finns are more unlike than the North and South Italians. The Western Finns or Finns proper are Cau- casian rather than Mongolian in appearance, while the Eastern or Volga Finns show dis- tinctly their Asiatic origin. They are divided from the Finns proper by a broad band of Great Russians which extends through Central Russia from north to south. The Lapps and Samoyeds, another very different stock, may be called the " northern Finns." The term " Finn " or " Finnic " is equivalent to " Ugro-Finnic " (see) when employed in a still wider sense to include all thus far mentioned and in addition the Magyars and possibly the Bulgarians (see). The former are linguistically Ugro-Finnic; the latter were so originally. The word " Finnic " is even used at times to designate the entire Finno-Tataric division of the Sibiric branch of the Mongolian race. It then includes the Turks (see). Even the Japanese, Manchus, and Kalmuks belong to coordinate stocks. Finally the term Finns is used in a fourth sense, narrowest of all, to designate only the Finns of Finland; that is, little more than the Tavastians, considering the Esths and Livs, for instance, as distinct races. Until 1809 Finland was a part of Sweden, and before the dawn of history the Finns and Swedes were no doubt intermingling. This will account in part for the prevailing blondness and European cast of countenance amongst the Finns. But the entire Ugro-Finnic stock seems to have been, in origin, lighter in color than most other Mon- golians, perhaps as a result of their northern residence. Formerly they were taken out of the Mongolian grand division by certain ethnologists and put into a separate division of " allophylian whites." Whatever their original stock, the Finns of Finland are to-day the most truly European of any race possessing a Mongolic speech, and in some respects their institutions are abreast of any in Europe. WESTERN FINNS Chude is an old name once applied to all Finns by the Russians. The census limits the name to those locally called " Chotscher " or " Kaivan," who speak a Karelian dialect. They live in one of the tv/o Karelian provinces, Olonetz; that is, northeast of Petrograd. The Veps are northern Chudes; the Vots, southern Chudes. The largest Karelian population is found in Tver province, southeast of Petrograd. The Karelians are the easternmost branch of the Finns proper, and show perhaps more trace of an Asiatic origin. They are mainly agricul- turists. The Ijores, on the contrary, are found mainly in the city of Petrograd. They are descendants of the Ingers, but no longer a pure Tavastian stock, and therefore not good types of the Western Finns. The Finns of Finland are mainly Tavastians, or Hemes, and Savolaks. The Kwaenes extend, farther north and are in a transitional stage between the more cultured Finns toward the south and the Lapps on the north. The Esths and Livs do not differ much from the Finns of Finland in stock. They live south of the Gulf of Finland and along the Baltic, forming about 90 per cent of the population of Esthonia and 40 per cent of that of Livonia. The extinct Krevs formerly lived near these in Courland, in Es- thonia, and especially in Livonia. The aggluti- native language of the Finns is modified by the radically different Aryan speech of the Letts and Lithuanians (see), who adjoin them on the south. In the province of Pskof they speak a dialect 162 DICTIONARY OF RACES called the " Verros." Other names given to certain Baltic or Western Finns are the Lopari, the Evremeiseti, the Savakoti, and the Izhora (Ijores) or Ingers. In religion nearly all the Western Finns are Lutherans. EASTERN FINNS Most of the Eastern Finns live in the middle Volga region of Eastern Russia. Those farthest west are the Cheremisses, in Viatka and Kazan provinces. Not long ago they were nomadic. Though nominally Orthodox, their religion is corrupted with Tatar Mohammedanism and even Mongolian Shamanism. The Chuvashes, adjoining the Cheremisses on the north and the Kazan Tatars on the east, have some of the characteristics of both. Many of them speak Tiirki, the Tatar tongue. They are thought by some to be a branch of the Mordvinians, but are counted in the Russian census as Tatars (see). The Mordvinians form the largest division of the Eastern Finns. They are most numerous farther down the Volga basin, in the provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Penza, and Saratov, reaching to within one province of the Caspian Sea. They are also widely scattered through the Great Russian and Tatar populations of other prov- inces, and are often Russified in language and customs. The Erzu and Mokcha are two dia- lects of the Mordvinian. The Votyaks, Permyaks, and Zyrians are the northernmost of the Eastern Finns in Europe. The last named extend to the Samoyed country on the Arctic. Most of the Voguls and all the Ostyaks, who are nomads, live in Siberia. These two peoples, small in number, may be called the Ugric divisioii of the Ugro-Finnic stock (see). They are nearly as Asiatic and primitive in their manner of life as are the stunted Samoyeds and Lapps of the frozen ocean. Finally, the Besser- mans are a small group of Mohammedans dis- tinguishable only by their religion from the Votyaks, among whom they live, but related to the Voguls. FINNO-TATARIC or FINNO-TURKIC PEO- PLES. A term sometimes used to embrace the Finnic and Tataric (see) groups of the Siberic stock of the Mongolian race. To be defined as that group of Mongolian races speaking the Ural-Altaic languages (see). FRENCH. The principal race or people of France; the northern branch of the Romance- speaking peoples, including, besides the French of France, the French Belgians, the French Swiss, and the French of Alsace-Lorraine. The French is not a well-defined race ethnologically, being a mixture of the three chief prehistoric races of Europe, the broad-headed "Alpine" or "Cel- tic " edement predominating. Linguistically French belongs to the Romance or Italic group of the Aryan family. The French Belgians are found mainly in the southeastern provinces of Belgium. (See article Dutch and Flemish.) They speak a dialect called the " Walloon." They are supposed to be de- scended from the Belgse of Caesar, are tall and long-faced, and resemble the French of Nor- mandy. The French Swiss constitute the greater part of the inhabitants of the western cantons of Switzerland. They belong to the broad-headed Alpine race, are brunette, and much shorter in stature than the French Belgians. French Canadian is an expression used to designate the inhabitants of Canada, especially those of the province of Quebec, who are descendants of the French. They speak a dialect which possesses many peculiarities developed on Canadian soil. Their blood has been more or less mixed with that of the English-speaking Canadians and has had some infusion of the Indian, though to a much less degree than is generally supposed. The term " French language " may be used in a broad or generic sense to include not only the modern literary French, but all the dialects of Old French still in use, as the Walloon, the Provengal, and the Catalan. In a narrower or restricted sense it means the " langue d'oil," which is now the literary as well as the general and official language of France. Old French had two distinct and equally important dialects — the "langue d'oil," spoken north of the Loire and eastward to Berne, Switzerland, and the " langue d'oc," in the south. This is one of the two official languages of Belgium, Switzerland, and Canada. It is the diplomatic language of many countries. Owiag to its clearness and precision it is the language par excellence of science and criticism. One of its dialects, the Walloon, is still used familiarly in Belgium and the northeastern part of France. This is espe- cially characterized by a large number of Celtic and German elements. Though it once had a literature of its own, it is now assuming the character of a patois. The Provengal, often called the " langue d'oc," is the native language of the southern half of France. With the closely related dialects, such as the Gascon, Limousin, Auvergnat, and Savoisin, it is spoken in southern France and in Switzerland and Italy. The Catalan dialect, spoken on both sides of the Catalonian border, occupies a place between Provengal and Cas- tillian. (See Spanish.) Physically the French are not a homogeneous race. There has been much blending of racial elements even within historic times. At the present time France presents three distinct ethnic types, whose persistence depends in part on their geographical location and in part on DICTIONARY OF RACES more recent intrusions. France appears to have been once occupied quite generally by a broad- headed, rather brunette (" Alpine ") race which still characterizes the central part of the coun- try, especially among the Auvergnats, and is found in considerable numbers in Brittany among the Bretons (see). It is estimated by Brinton that this Alpine element forms fully three-fifths of the French race. A tall, long-headed type predominates in the northeastern part of France, especially in Normandy. Many of the inhab- itants of this region are blond. In the most southern part of France, especially along the Mediterranean coast, the inhabitants are of the long-headed brunette or " Mediterranean " type. These three types are fairly well amal- gamated in the great cities of France into what is generally recognized as the typical Frenchman. His ethnic position is that of an intermediate between the northern and the southern races. The Basques (see) of southwestern France seem to be a peculiar modification of the Alpine race of central France. France is thus seen to present great diversities in language and physique. It is the only place on the Continent where a Celtic tongue is spoken — the Breton. With Spain, it is the habitat of the Basques, who speak a non- Aryan tongue. French, using the term in the broad sense, is spoken throughout France, except in four small districts — the western part of Brittany, occupied by the Bretons; a Flemish section on the Belgian border; the extreme southwestern corner, oc- cupied by Basques, and a district occupied by Itahans on the Italian border. Outside of France French populations are found in Belgium, in Germany, in Switzerland, and in the north- western part of Italy. FRISIAN. A name given to a Low German people living in Friesland, Holland, and in the adjacent islands. (See Dutch and German.) FRIULAN or FURLAN. A Rhaeto-Romansh (see) people living northeast of the Italians. GAGAOUS. A name given by Bulgarians to the mongrel people of the coast of the Black Sea. (See Bulgarian.) GALICIAN. Has two meanings: (1) Generally any native of Galicia, a province in Austria, north of Himgary, and therefore of any race or people found there, but generally Ruthenian (see); (2) a native of Gahcia in northwestern Spain or of northern Portugal. The latter speak a Portuguese dialect and are also called "Gal- legos." (See Spanish and Portuguese.) GALLEGO. Same as the Galician (see) of northern Portugal. (Also see Spanish.) GASCON. A native of Gascony, the south- western part of France. (See French.) G£G. A name applied to the northern Albanians (see) as distinguished from the south- ern Albanians or Tosks. GEORGIAN. In a broad sense the Kartvelian or Southern Division of the Caucasus peoples (see), including the Georgians proper, the Mingrelians, the Imeretians, and the Svanetians. All these groups speak non-Aryan languages more or less distantly related. They belong to the Caucasian race, although there is some ad- mixture with Mongolian elements. The Georgians proper or Grusians are the best known of these peoples. They live in Transcaucasia and are renowned for their physical beauty. They are tall, broad-headed, and have black hair. Their women, like those of the Circassians are prized as slaves and mem- bers of harems in Turkey and Egypt. GERMAN (incorrectly Dutch). The race or people whose mother tongue is the German language in the narrower sense of the word; that is, excluding the Dutch, Flemish, EngUsh, and Scandinavian divisions of the Germanic or Teutonic group of languages, but including the German dialects found in all other countries, as in Austria and Switzerland; the race which uses the modern hterary German. Like many of the so-called "races" of Europe, it is not a unity from a physical point of view. Nor will it even stand the linguistic test adopted in this dictionary. For, if we make the mother tongue the test, the Dutch and the Flemish are as much German as are other Frankish or Saxon popula- tions. Merely the historical or poUtical accident that Holland and Belgium have established by law another literary standard than that of Germany leads to their being considered non- German in race. 'Some German scholars have no doubt been influenced by pan-Teutonism — that is, the ideal for a common bond of sympathy, if not of po- litical unity, among all Teutonic peoples — to overstate the linguistic unity of the Germans with the Dutch, the English, and the Scandina- vians. It is the same tendency which is found in much more exaggerated form among the panslavists farther east. English and the Scandinavian languages are often classified as divisions of the Low German. It needs but a moment's reflection to realize that though English may have been Low German in origin, it is now, especially in its vocabulary, more like French or other Romance tongues than like German. The ease with which an Englishman learns the former proves this. The physical anthropologist recognizes a still greater differ- ence in type, and therefore in origin, between the broad-headed and brunette southern Germans, "Alpine" in race, and the typical Enghsh or es- pecially the Scandinavians, who are the extreme of the opposite type, long-headed and pure DICTIONARY OF RACES blonds. Some confusion may arise from the fact that certain ethnical terms are used in op- posite senses in the English and the German languages. It has elsewhere been explained that the English word "Dutch" (see) is never prop- erly applied to a German, although the latter calls himself by practically the same named, Deutsch. Again, English philologists generally employ the word "Teutonic," which comes from the latter word, Teidsch, in the broadest sense of all, to include the "German," while German philologists reverse the terminology and make "Germanic" {Germanish) include the Deutsch. The Austrians and the Swiss Germans can not be considered non-German in race by the test above applied to the Dutch. Although they may speak dialects very different from the modern literary German, they make the latter the legal language and really belong, themselves, to the High German division of dialects, from which the literary German takes its rise. In other words, the Austrian dialects are nearer the true German than are the North Saxon (Low German) dialects. The difference in political affiliation and otherwise does not justify us in speaking of an "Austrian" race, distinct from the German, any more than we can speak of a "Swiss" race (see these). The Swiss Germans are one, linguistically, .with the neighboring population in Germany, the Alemanni (Suabian). Their case is, therefore, the same as that of the Austrian, so far as language is concerned. Their case is stronger statistically, for they constitute two-thirds of the population of Switzerland, while the'German Austrians number but little over one-third of the population of Austria, not including Hungary. But in the popular mind, as well as scientifically, the word Swiss may mean • a Frenchman or an Italian as well as a German. The term "Austrian" may also prop- erly apply to the 25 per cent of Czechs (Bohe- mians, etc.) or to the 35 per cent of other Slavs found in Austria. Among the Austrian dialects are the Tyrolese, the Styrian, and the Carinthian. The Zips are certain Germans of northern Hungary. In eastern Hungary, in Transylvania, is a large population of Saxons. Other names applied to Germans on the ethnographical map of Aus- tria are the Walser, the Alemanen, the Pinzgauer, the Pongauer, the Lungauer, and the Gottscheer. The Frisians, a Low German stock, live in northern Holland. The many other dialects of the German lan- guage need no discussion, for the people speak- ing them are all admittedly German in race. They are confined mainly to Germany, that is, they are German in nationality as well as in race, with the exception of minor segments which have spread over into Bohemia or neigh- boring countries. Of course, all who speak these dialects call themselves German in race. Of such are the Saxons, already mentioned, the Franconians or modern Franks, the Hessians, the Suabians, the Thuringians, the Westphalians, the Limburgers, and the Luxemburgers. Other Germans bear names of purely political divi- sions, as the Hanoverians and the Pomeranians. The names of others are sometimes used in two senses. Thus the Prussian, as a term of na- tionality, is wider than the ethnical term Prus- sian, which applied to a people of non-German origin, related to the Lettish, in eastern Prussia. Finally, the Silesians are those who gave their name to the two provinces called Silesia — the one on the Prussian side, the other on the Aus- trian side of the border. These, the Prussians, and all other divisions of the Germans living in the eastern part of Germany and in German Austria are intermingled with non-German peoples to a degree that does not obtain in western Germany and on the southern border of the race, adjoining Italy. In the northeast the Poles and, to some extent, the Letts are pressing far over the German line, while the Germans, on the other hand, have scattered set- tlements far into Ptussian and Austrian territory. Properly speaking, there is no German race from the point of view of physical characteristics. It is true that this name, or, better, the name "Teutonic," has been given to the so-called "Nordic" type, one of the three great races of Europe as described by physical anthropologists. But only a part of the people living in northern Germany, especially in the provinces nearest Denmark, are pure representatives of this ex- treme type, blond, with light hair and blue eyes, tall, and very long-headed. The type is far bet- ter represented by the Scandinavians. The German stock in Germany itself includes the most opposite extremes in type from the Nordic, just described, to the so-called "Alpine" race of Bavaria and Switzerland. Among these are some of the broadest-headed men in Europe, as in north Germany are found some of the longest- headed. A cranial index of 87 is found in Tyrol, as contrasted with one of 77 on the Danish border. The Alpine type, further, is brunette and short, although not so dark as the "Medi- terranean" type of southern Italy. A unique census of school children by color of hair and eyes was taken some thirty years ago by four countries having a large German population. The results show the region in northwestern Germany already mentioned, and certain dis- tricts on the Baltic coast farther east, to be the only parts of Germany in which 50 per cent are pure blond. Farther south from 20 to 40 per cent are pure blond; then from 16 to 20 per DICTIONARY OF RACES 165 Cent are pure brunette; and finally, among the Germans of the southern border and of Switzer- land and Austria, 20 to 30 per cent are pure brunette. On the average, however, the German population is decidedly of the blond type. Few of the so-called "races" of Europe in- clude so many dissimilar elements, especially from the point of view of language, as the Ger- mans. The Swiss, the Austrians, and the Meck- lenburgers of northern Germany can not under- stand one another; and were it not for the written language they might be called different races as properly as the Dutch and Flemish. The Germans differ among themselves, as re- gards language, more than the great Slavic races. As has just been shown, they are also of different races physically. In many other re- spects they are far from being a homogeneous people. Germany lacks the unifying effect of a national religion, such as that of Russia. While the northern and most of the central portions of Germany are Protestant, the eastern border and the greater part of southern and western Germany are Catholic. The German is one of the most widely distrib- uted of European races. As colonists, and especially as merchants, they are found in nearly every country in the world. Austria has the largest German population of any European country outside of Germany itself, but the German population of America is still greater. All of "Central Eiirope," as defined by Partsch to include Holland and Bulgaria, and all be- tween, besides the greater part of Poland and Hungary, is predominantly German. In this territory the most numerous of the other races or peoples reach less than 7 per cent each. These are the Dutch and Flemish, the Serbo-Croatians, the Magyars, the Poles, the Czechs, and the Rumanians. This list, with the addition of the Italians and the French, indicates the ethnical boundaries of the German people. Outside of Germany itself no country is predominantly German by race, excepting Switzerland. Cis- leithan Austria is 36 per cent German; Hungary, 12 per cent; the little independent principality of Luxemburg is 93 per cent. German. Russia has a large German population, although this is only 1.5 per cent of the total population of that vast empire. Four-fifths of the Germans of Europe are found in Germany itself. In Germany 94 per cent of the population is German in race. In the remaining 6 per cent the only race or people largely represented is the Polish. GREEK (sometimes Hellenic). The modern Greek race or people is that which has descended, with considerable foreign admixture, from the famous race of ancient Greeks, which is one of the oldest branches of the Aryan group (see), and the first to reach a high state of civilization. While the stock has changed much, physically and otherwise, the modern language is more nearly like the ancient Greek than Italian, for instance, is like the ancient Latin. The race is now one of the smaller and comparatively unim- portant of Europe. Are the modern Greeks a different race from the ancient Greeks? Although ethnologists differ upon this question, the answer would appear to be that they are one and the same race when judged by their language, which is the test applied in this dictionary to all European races; but that they differ in part at least when judged by physical characteristics. The ancient Greeks were of the so-called Mediterranean type, long-headed, and of classic regularity of features. While this type still prevails in Greece the influence of admixture with alien blood has produced a type, indigenous to parts of the country, which differs materially from the an- cient Greeks, in that they are broad-headed, broad-faced, and more heavily built, although perhaps no darker than the ancients. Whether the latter were blond or brunette is still a mooted question, with the probability that they were like the "Mediterranean" race of the present day, deeply brunette. Amongst the Greeks of to-day are found two distinct physical types more sharply separated than in most nationali- ties: One, the ancient, long-headed type of Greece, with a cephalic index of 75; the other, the broad-headed type that comes from the Slavic, Albanian, or Turkish admixture (see these), sometimes with the extremely high index of 88. These, however, must be regarded as extremes, and Ripley says that the cephalic index of the modern Greeks ranges with great constancy about 81. All of the Greeks of Asia Minor are distinctly broad-headed, it is said, like the Turks among whom they live. To what degree the ancient and the modern races of Greece differ in character and civiliza- tion may be still more difficult to determine than their physical types. The most contradic- tory accounts are given by partisans on this point. It can not be denied at least that the ancient Greeks were leaders in the civilization of their own day, and laid the foundations of modern civilization; while modern Greece is one of the weaker nations of Europe. The an- cient Greeks were preeminent in philosophy and science, a position not generally accredited to the modern Greeks as a race, although there is no doubt as to their nimble intelligence. They compete with the Hebrew race as the best traders of the Orient. If there be a great difference be- tween the ancient and the modern civilization of Greece, the question still remains whether this DICTIONARY OF RACES change should be explained as simply the de- cadence of an ancient race or because of the debasement it has received, as did the civilization of the Roman, through the incursions of bar- barian hordes, and, in recent history, through the long oppression of Turkish rule. It is not generally understood that the lan- guage of the modern Greeks is really the lan- gua,ge of the ancient Greeks. The difference is only dialectal. The literary language of to-day is but a continuation of the main literary dialect of ancient Greece, the Attic, as modified in pass- ing through the Byzantine. It, or rather the modern vernacular, is sometimes called Romaic, a misleading term, which found its origin in the period of Roman supremacy. To this day the Greeks living in European Turkey are called Romnika. There are several dialects of the modern Greek or Romaic, such as the Mainot, the Phanariot, and the Cypriot, which need no further discussion in this connection. Of late there is a tendency among Greek authors to return more closely to the ancient form of the language. The spoken dialects of Greece vary more widely from it, although the so-called Tsaconic, which is spoken on the eastern side of lower Greece (Peloponnesus or Morea), closely resembles the ancient Dorian. The modern language is much closer to the ancient than any modern descendant of the Latin is to the ancient Latin. Greek is no longer spoken by the Greek colonists of southern Italy, nof even by many of the Greeks of Asia Minor. Crete is prac- tically all Greek, and even southern Macedonia and the coast as far east as Constantinople itself, which has a larger population of Greeks than of Turks. As has been explained in the arti- cle "Turkish" (see), the Turks themselves form but a small minority of the population of Turkey. The Greek race of to-day is intensely proud of its language and its history, and naturally wishes to be considered as genuinely Hellenic. The people are wide-awake on political ques- tions, are avid readers of newspapers, and, like the Greek of olden times, eager to learn some new thing. Generally speaking, in customs, superstitions, and folklore, the modern race is a continuation of the ancient. It shows in other respects, as in the clothing now worn, the in- fluence of the mixture of races. As already in- timated, the race is commercial rather than agricultural in its instincts, and in that respect differs from the Slavic, by which it is supposed to be modified. In religion it is Orthodox (Greek) which is also the national church of Russia and several other countries of eastern and south- eastern Europe. It is from this expansion of the Greek religion that much confusion has arisen in the use of the racial name. Even Ruthenians (see), or Little Russians, in America sometimes call themselves Greeks, apparently in contradistinction from their Slavic neighbors, who are Catholic. Statistics published by Greek partisans are said to exaggerate the number of Greeks found in Turkey by counting as such Bulgarians, Serbians, and others who have become Hellenized and are members of the Greek Church. How many of the inhabitants of Greece itself are really non-Grecian in race is a question dif- ficult to answer. No statistics of the country are taken by race. It is well known, however, that eastern Greece, even in the Peloponnesus, has a large Albanian population. They are so fully Hellenized that but 40,000 now speak the Albanian language. This is perhaps the chief foreign element that is incorporated into the Greek race, although special account must be made also of the Slavic, the Turkish, the Roman, and the Gothic, and even the Rumanian (Kutzo- yiach, or Tsintsar). The last named is so recent in arrival that it is hardly yet incorporated into the race. It has come in largely since Greece was freed from Turkish rule, in 1830, and still forms large settlements extending from the central part of northern Greece into Macedonia. The Slavic element is the oldest that has profoundly rnodified the stock of ancient Greece. By the sixth century Greece had been overrun time and again by Slavic tribes to the very southern ex- tremity of the country. Ripley, Chisholm, and others say that the Greek race numbers above 8,000,000, although the more common estimates place it under 4,500,000 in Europe, or something over 5,000,000 in Europe and Asia Minor combined. Chisholm says that the Greeks living outside of Greece are twice as numerous as those in Greece. Ripley says that they form a third of the total popula- tion of the Balkan States. GRISON. A dialect of the Rhaeto-Romansh language. The term is sometimes used in an ethnical sense, but more properly in a political, meaning the inhabitants of the Canton of the Grisons, in the eastern part of Switzerland. This canton has a population of about 108,000, nearly half of whom speak German, over one- third Romansh, and one-sixth Itahan (see these). German is now taught everywhere in the schools of the canton. In religion, five-ninths of the Grisons are Roman Catholics and the rest are Protestants. GRUSIAN. Same as Georgian (see). GYPSY. A well-known wandering people scattered throughout western Asia, northern Africa, all parts of Europe, and even through parts of the Americas and Australia. As indi- cated by the language he speaks, which is closely related to Sanscrit, the Gypsy belongs to the Aryan race and is therefore Caucasian. In his DICTIONARY OF RACES 167 own language the Gypsy calls himself "Rom," whence comes Romany as a name for the lan- guage. Special names are applied to Gypsies in the different countries where they are found. Some of these relate to the supposed origin of this singular people, as Gypsy or Egyptian in the British Isles, Bohemien in France, Gitano (Egyptian) in Spain, and Tatare in Scandinavia. In some countries they are known by a term of contempt, as Heiden (heathen) in Holland, Harami (robbers) in Egypt, and Tinklers in Scotland, but in most parts of Europe a local form of the word Zingani is used to desig- nate them, as Zigeuner in Germany, Cygany in Hungary, and Zingari in Spain. The Gypsy or Romany language is now con- sidered to belong to the neo-Hindu group, on a level with Hindi and Marathi, but is full of foreign elements borrowed from the various peoples met by the Gypsies in their migration westward. Miklosich distinguishes thirteen Gypsy dialects in Europe: the Greek or Turk- ish, Rumanian, Hungarian, Moravo-Bohemian, German, Polo-Lithuanian, Russian, Scandina- vian, Finnish, Anglo-Scottish, Italian, Basque, and Spanish. These dialects become more cor- rupt as a rule the farther they are removed from Turkey. Gypsies converse with strangers in the language of the vernacular of the people with whom they dwell. They have no alphabet, no written literature, only a few songs. Physically the Gypsy is a very mixed people, the chief characters of which are too well known to need description here. They are supposed to have had their origin in northern India and to have entered Europe by way of Persia and Armenia in the early part of the fourteenth century. The exact relationship of the European Gypsies to certain tribes of Asia — the Nats and Doms of India, or the Luri and Karachi of Persia — has not been demonstrated by scientists. Everywhere the Gypsy resents the restraint of a higher social organization. To him laws and statutes are persecutions to be evaded. He has no history, no tradition, no racial religion, nothing but a remarkable instinct of blood rela- tionship which is manifested in a solidarity of race unequaled by even that of the Jews. So universal are his wandering tendencies that Gypsy camp and cavavan are familiar to all. In some parts of Rumania, Hungary, and Spain, however, large groups of sedentary Gypsies are found. But wherever found they incline to occupations that admit of a roving life, or at least of life in the open air. The men are musi- cians, metal workers, horse dealers, and pil- ferers. The women are fortune tellers and dancers. As musicians Gypsies are famous; as singers in Moscow, as harpists in Wales, and as violinists in Hungary. Liszt attributes to them the creation of national Hungarian music. As gold washers they have performed valuable service for the economic development of Austria- Hungary. In some parts of Spain the butchers are Gypsies. Rarely do they engage in agricul- ture. Very few are farmers, even in Austria- Hungary, where the majority are sedentary. Many are day laborers. Some are shopkeepers. A few Russian Gypsies have accumulated wealth. While the wandering Gypsies live in tents, have little or no furniture, are clad in rags and filthy in their habits, most of the sedentary Gypsies live in small houses, rude huts, or caves on the outskirts of suburbs or villages, and en- joy more of the comforts of civilization. It has been questioned whether the Gypsy can be as- similated inta a nation. In Prussia there is a colony of Gypsies that live in small, clean houses, work on the railroads, and send their children, most of whom have not been taught the Gypsy tongue, to the public school. Auerbach says that 52 per cent of the Gypsies of Hungary are ignorant of the Romany tongue. Intermarriage with other peoples is becoming more frequent. Through loss of language, the assumption of a sedentary life, and intermarriage, Gypsies are decreasing in numbers and seem everywhere doomed to extinction by absorption. HAIK. The native name of Armenians (see). HANAK. A subdivision of the Moravians. (See Bohemian and Moravian.) HEBREW, JEWISH, or ISRAELITE. The race or people that originally spoke the Hebrew language; primarily of Semitic origin. Scattered throughout Europe, especially in Russia, yet preserving their own individuality to a marked degree. Linguistically, the nearest relatives of the ancient Hebrew are the Syriac, Assyrian, and Arabic languages of the Semitic-Hamitic family (see). The latter constitutes one of the four great divisions of the Caucasian race. While the Hebrew is not so nearly a dead language as the related Syrian, Aramaic, or the ancient Assyrian, its use in most Jewish communities is confined mainly to religious exercises. The Jews have adopted the languages of the peoples with whom they have long been associated. More speak Yiddish, called in Europe "Judeo- German," than any other language, since the largest modern population of Jews borders on eastern Germany and has been longest under German influence. Physically the Hebrew is a mixed race, al- though to a less degree than most. This has been fairly well demonstrated by recent studies, notwithstanding the earlier scientific and present popular belief that they are of pure blood. In every country they are found to approach in type the people among whom they have long resided. The two chief divisions of the Jewish people are 168 DICTIONARY OF RACES the Ashkenazim, or northern type, and the Sephardim, or southern. The latter are also called "SpagnuoU," after the country, Spain, from which they were expelled in 1492. They are now found mainly in the countries southeast of Austria. They consider themselves to be of purer race than the northern Jews and in some countries refuse to intermarry or worship with the latter. Their features are more truly Semitic. The "Jewish nose," and to a less degree other facial characteristics, are found well-nigh every- where throughout the race, although the form of the head seems to have become quite the re- verse of the Semitic type. The social solidarity of the Jews is Chiefly a product of religion and tradition. Taking all factors into account, and especially their type of civilization, the Jews of to-day are more truly European than Asiatic or Semitic. HERVAT, HORVATH, HRVAT, KHORBAT, CARPATH, KHROVAT, CROAT, or CROA- TIAN. Different forms of an old Slavic word meaning highlands, mountains, hence not strictly an ethnical term, although some insist that Horvath, and not Croatian (see), is the proper name of their people. HERZEGOVINIAN. A political division of the Serbo-Croatians. (See Croatian.) HIGH GERMAN, HIGH LETTIC, etc. Dialects or divisions of these languages. IBERIC or IBERIAN. (1) Iberian is a name sometimes given in a narrow sense to the Basques (see) since the latter were thought to be identical with the ancient Iberians who gave their name to the Iberian Peninsula, Spain and Portugal. (2) Iberic or Ibero-Insular is a term sometimes used in a wider sense to indicate the "Medi- terranean" race, one of the three or four great races of Europe from a physical point of view. Some make it include the ancient Picts of Britain. IJORE, ISHORE, or INGER. A division of the Western Finns. (See Finnish.) ILLYRIAN. Used in two senses: (1) For the old Albanian (see) language and race; (2) less properly for the Southern Slavs. (See Croatian.) IRANIC. The Aryan languages (see) of "Iran," the native name of Persia; including the Afghan, Beluchi, Kurdic, and, according to some, Armenic and Ossetian; that is, all the Indo-European languages of Asia with the ex- ception of those of India. IRISH. The principal race or people of Ire- land; the. race which originally spoke Irish, one of the Celtic group of Aryan tongues. The term Irish is generally understood in a wider sense to include also the Scotch-Irish and even the English who have settled in Ireland, with their descendants abroad; but this is a defini- tion of nationality rather than of race. This dictionary considers those to be of the Irish race whose ancestral language was Irish even though English has been the medium of intercourse for generations. The common understanding in America that the Irish race includes all of the Irish nationality — that is, all who live in Ireland — is probably not far wrong if we except Ulster province, since the majority of the remaining population are descended from those who spoke Irish. This language is a branch of the Gaelic division of the Celtic group of the Aryan or Indo-European family (see these). It is fast going out of use as a medium of communication. It is said that not 5,000 persons throughout all Ireland are able to read a book in Irish; that not a single Irish newspaper is published; that no church services are conducted in the language, and that it is not taught in the elementary schools. Irish was spoken in 1851 by 1,500,000 persons; that is, by 23 per cent of the population. In 1901 only 640,000 persons, or 14 per cent of the population of Ireland could converse in it — a loss of over one-half in absolute numbers in fifty years. Only 4 in 1,000 are ignorant of English. Irish is now but little used except in the most western part of Ireland. The Irish type is known to all Americans — tall, long-headed, with dark-blue or graj"^ eyes, and hair more often dark than light. This type predominates throughout the greater part of Ireland. Beddoe considers the Irish of to-day to be at least one-third English or Scotch in blood. THE SCOTCH-IRISH The term "Scotch-Irish" does not necessarily indicate, as many Americans suppose, a mixed Scotch and Irish descent, although in many individual cases it could be properly so used. It is an appellation given to the American descend- ants of the Lowland Scotch, Presbyterians in religion, who emigrated in the early part of the seventeenth century to Ulster province in north- ern Ireland, and thousands of whom emigrated to America during the following century. At first they called themselves Scotch. They speak an English dialect with a peculiar accent closely akin to that of the northern part of England. Physically they are a mixed race descended from the ancient Britons with later Teutonic addi- tions, especially of Scandinavian, Danish, and Anglian origin. It is clamed by some that dif- ference in religion, strong racial prejudice, and the pohcy of the Government in land allotments, have all tended to keep the Lowland Scotch of Ulster and the Irish apart. There is a difference of opinion as to the proportion of intermarriages that take place; some say very few. Yet to the average American, an Irishman and a Scotch- Irishman as found in the United States look very much ahke. The latter have contributed DICTIONARY OF RACES 169 some of the greatest statesmen of American history. ISTRIAN.. A geographical, not a racial name; any native or inhabitant of Istria, a crown land of Austria on the Adriatic coast. The Istrians are for the most part Slavs or Italians. The population of Istria is 43 per cent Serbo-Croa- tians, 40 per cent Italians, 15 per cent Slovenians, and only 2 per cent Germans (see these). 'The Istrians almost to a man are Roman Catholic in religion. ITALIAN. The race or people of Italy. North Italians and South Italians differ from each other materially in language, physique, and character, as well as in geographical distri- bution. The former may be defined as includ- ing those Italians who are natives of the basin of the Po (compartimenti of Piedmont, Lom- bardy, Venetia, and Emelia) and of the Italian districts of France, of Switzerland, and of Tyrol (Austria), and their descendants. All of the people of the peninsula proper and of the islands of Sicily and Sardinia are South Italian. Even Genoa is South Italian. Linguistically, Italian is one of the grand divisions of the Romance group of languages descended from the Latin stock of the Aryan family. It has many dialects, the separation and preservation of which is favored by the geographical configuration of Italy. Hovelacque divides these dialects into three groups, the upper, the central, and the lower. The first includes the Genoese, Piedmontese, Venetian, Emilian, and Lombard dialects; the central group includes the Tuscan, Roman, and Cor- sican, and the lower group includes the Nea- politan, Calabrian, Sicilian, and Sardinian. These dialects diverge much more from each other than do the dialects of English or Spanish. In fact, it is said that it is difficult for a Nea- politan or a Sardinian to make himself under- stood by the natives of the valley of the Po. Perhaps in no other country do the educated classes cling more tenaciously to the familiar use of the local dialects in preference to the na- tional literary form of the language. The latter is the Florentine dialect of Tuscany as em- balmed in literature by Dante, Petrarch, and Bocaccio in the fourteenth century. A number of the other dialects, however, have quite a considerable literature, especially the Venetian, Lombard, Neapolitan, and Sicilian. The last named is remarkably rich in poetry. All the upper group of dialects as defined by Hovelacque, except the Genoese, are North Italian. They contain many Gallic or Celtic elements and show affinities for the Provengal and the Rhseto-Romansh (Ladin and Friulan) languages, which bound them on all sides except the south. The Genoese and the dialects of the central and lower groups are used by South Italians. Physically the Italians are anything but a homogeneous race. The Apennine chain of mountains forms a geographical line which cor- responds to the boundary between two distinct ethnic groups. The region north of this line, the basin of the Po, is inhabited by a very broad- headed ("Alpine") and tallish race, the North Italian. The inhabitants of the eastern and western halves of this basin show slight varia- tions due to some Teutonic admixture in Lom- bardy and to an infusion of Slavic blood in Venitia. All of Italy south of the Apennines and all of the adjacent islands are occupied by a long-headed, dark, "Mediterranean" race of short stature. This is the South Italian, sup- posed to be descended from the ancient Ligurians of Italy and closely related to the Iberians of Spain and the Berbers of northern Africa. In- deed, the foremost Italian ethnologist, Sergi, traces their origin to the Hamitic stock of North Africa. It must be remembered that the Karaites are not Negritic or true African, although there may be some traces of an infusion of African blood in this stock in certain communities of Sicily and Sardinia, as well as in northern Africa. The North Italian is placed by some authorities in the "Keltic" division and the South Italian in the "Iberic." Comparatively little admix- ture has taken place between these two ethnic groups, although many North Italians have found their way around the eastern end of the mountain chain into middle Italy. Therefore, the line of demarcation between the Emilians and the Tuscans is much less sharp than it is between the Piedmontese and the Genoese. An Italian sociologist, Niceforo, has pointed out that these two ethnic groups differ as rad- ically in psychic characters as they do in physical. He describes the South Italian as excitable, impulsive, highly imaginative, impracticable; as an individualist having little adaptability to highly organized society. The North Italian, on the other hand, is pictured as cool, deliberate, patient, practical, and as capable of great prog- ress in the political and social organization of modern civilization. Both North and South Itahans are devoted to their families, are benevo- lent, religious, artistic, and industrious. Nearly all are Catholic in religion. ' It is significant that Italy is one of the most illiterate countries of Europe. In 1901, 48.5 per cent of the entire population 6 years of age and over could not read or write. In that year in Calabria, the most southern compartimento of the peninsula, the illiterate amounted to 78.7 per cent of the population 6 years old or over. The smallest degree of illiteracy is found in the valley of the Po among the North Italians. The 170 DICTIONARY OF RACES Lombards and the Piedmontese are the best educated of all Italians. Conditions, however, have been gradually improving since the Govern- ment made education free and compulsory be- tween the ages of 6 and 9 years in communes where only lower elementary schools are maintained, and 6 to 12 years where there are schools of a higher grade. The geographical boundaries of the Italian race are wider than those of Italy. Considerable numbers are found in the adjacent countries of France, Switzerland, and Austria. The provinces of Tyrol and Istria, in Austria, are one-third Italian. Italy itself is nearly all Italian and contains only small islets of other races. Nearly two-fifths of the population of Italy is found in the valley of the Po; that is, in less than one- third the length of Italy. Roughly divided by compartimenti, the population of this district, which is occupied by North ItaUans, includes the Friulans of northeastern Italy, who, although they speak a Latin language distinct from Italian, are hardly distinguishable from the North Italians in race. Most of the Italians of France, Switzerland, and Austria are North Italian in race. Those of Corsica, an island be- longing to France, are South ItaUan. JMOUD, JEMAITIC, SAMOGITIAN, JMUDZ, or LOW LITHUANIAN. A division of the Lithuanians (see) living for the most part in the province of Kovno, bordering on Ger-' many and formerly called Samogitia. KAIVAN. A division of Western Finns who speak a Karelian dialect. (See Finnish.) KARAIT. A small Tataric people (see) of the Crimea, in southern Russia, now of the Hebrew (see) faith. KAREL, KARELIAN, or KARIALAISET. The easternmost section of the Finns proper. (See Finnish.) KARTVELIAN. A name applied to the Georgian group (see), or Southern Division of the Caucasus peoples (see). KASHOUBISH or KASSUBL A subdivision of the Poles (see). KHORUTAN. Same as Carinthian ; a division of the Slovenians (see). KRAINER. A native of the province of Carniola (Krain), Austria. Nearly all the in- habitants (95 per cent) are Slovenians (see). KURD. The largest western section of Indo- Iranic stock, excepting the neighboring Arme- nians, of whom the Kurds are the notorious and inveterate enemies and persecutors. The Kurd- ish language is closely related to the Persian, and through that to the Armenian and the Aryan tongues of Europe, rather than to the surrounding Arabian and Turkish. Physically, the Kurds are a mixed people, showing especially Arab (Semitic) and Turkish (Mongolian) ele- ments through their long social and religious contact with these peoples. They are almost uniformly Mohammedans. A few on the Per- sian border are of the ancient Nestorian sect — • Christians. They have pressed northward from Kurdistan into Armenia, and are settled in Rus- sian Transcaucasia. Nearly one-haK of them live in Turkey. KUTZO-VLACH. Same as Tsintsar. A name given by Macedonians to an important division of Rumanians (see) living in the central part of northern Greece. Their native name is Aromuni; that is, Romans. (See Bulgarian.) KWAEN, QUAEN, or KAINALAISET. The branch of Western Finns (see Finnish) living farthest north in Finland and Sweden, and there- fore adjoining the Lapps. A few are found even amongst the Norwegians, from whom they are distinguished physically by their darker color. In manner of life they are in a transitional stage between the nomadic Lapps and the cultured Finns. LADIN. A mountain people of Tyrol and the north Italian border who speak a modern Latin tongue, the Ladin, distinct from the Italian. They are a subdivision of the Rhseto-Romansh group (see). LAPOTNIKL SameasBugan (see). A name applied to Ruthenians (see) living on the Bug. LAPPISH (called by themselves Samelat). The westernmost Siberic (Mongolian) race or people, from which Lapland takes its name. This region, of indefinite boundaries, extending across northern Norway and Sweden and into northwestern Russia, is inhabited by the two most opposite racial stocks of Europe — on the one hand the dark, dwarfish, round-headed, and comparatively uncivilized Lapps, of Asiatic origin; on the other, the blond Scandinavians, the tallest, the longest-headed, and perhaps the purest representatives of the so-called "Euro- pean" race (Lapouge). The languages spoken by these two races are as different as their phys- ical types. That of the Lapps is agglutinative, like that of the Finns and Mongols; that of the Swedes or of the Norwegians is a cross between English and German, that is, inflected and be- longing to the Indo-European (see Aryan) family of languages. Although the subject is interesting to the ethnologist, no great amount of space need be given to the Lapps. They are but a remnant numerically anddifferent in habits of civilization from ourselves. In Scandinavia where they are most numerous, they do not number one- half of 1 per cent of the population. Lapland itself has far more Scandinavians, Russians, and Finns than Lapps living in it. Many Lapps, of course, are of mixed blood, taller and more fair than those of the ancient DICTIONARY OF RACES type. In fact, the race bids fair to disappear by amalgamation. But it is a curious mistake of well-informed persons to think that the Lapps are Norwegians, or even fair. Their nearest relatives in appearance and manner of life, if not in language, are the Samoyeds (see) of north- eastern Russia and of Siberia. Although Lap- land falls largely within the Arctic Circle, the climate is milder than that of the Siberian coast farther east. Perhaps it is because their hard conditions of life resemble somewhat those of the Eskimos that there is a slight physical re- semblance between the two races. In head form alone is there a marked difference. While the Eskimo is long-headed, the Lapp is the broadest- headed of the broad-headed Mongolians and "Alpine" peoples of Europe. It remains only to be said that the Lapps are nominally Christians, but for the most part very superstitious and ignorant; and that throughout much of Lapland they still lead a nomadic life from the necessity of following their herds of reindeer over vast stretches of desolate moun- tain, tundra, and swamp. LAZ. A branch Of the Georgians. (See Caucasus 'peoples.) LEK. Has two uses: (1) A name formerly applied to Poles (see), and (2) same as Water- polak. The latter are considered by some to be Moravians. (See Bohemian and Moravian.) LEMKE. A division of Little Russians, so called because of their peculiar pronunciation. (See Rulhenian.) LETT, LETTISH, or LATVI. The northern- most division of the Letto-Lithuanian or Lettic stock. The Letts speak a language related to Lithuanian about as Italian stands to Latin. It is divided into the Low Lettish or Tahmian spoken in Northwestern Courland; the High Lettish toward the east, and the Middle Lettish, which is the literary form. The Letts live for the most part in the southern Baltic provinces of Russia. LETTIC, LETTO-LITHUANIAN, LITHU- ANUN-LETTISH, or BALTIC. The name given to that group of Aryan languages which is made up of the Lettish, the Lithuanian, the Jmoud, and the Old Prussian. (See these, and especially Lithuanian.) "Lettic" is sometimes xised in the sense of Lettish only. LETTO-SLAVIC, WENDIC, or BALTO- SLAVIC. The closely related Lettic and Slavic (see) groups of languages are sometimes put to- gether under these names. LITHUANIAN, LITVA, or LETUVININKAI. The Aryan race of western Russia, which gave its name to the former principality of Lithuania, and which, with the related Letts, Jmouds, and Old Prussians, forms a distinct subdivision lin- guistically of the Aryan stock. This subdivision is variously called the Lettic, Baltic, Letto- Lithuanian, or, less properly, the Lithuanian group, using the last given name in the widest sense, and it is sometimes combined with the Slavic (see) under the designation "Letto- Slavic." There is a marked opposition between the conclusions of the philologists and those of the physical anthropologists as to the relationship of the Lithuanians to the Slavs. While the former consider them to be the most closely re- lated to the Slavs of all non-Slavic peoples, the anthropologists, as typified by Ripley, place them at nearly the opposite extreme from the Slavs in European ethnology. The latter are put in the brunette, broad-headed, and wide- faced "Alpine" or "Celto-Slavic" race, while the Lithuanians, and especially the more typical Letts, are said to be "pure blond" and to "ap- proximate quite closely to our Anglo-Saxon model; " that is, to approach the extreme of the long-headed type, and therefore to belong to the "Nordic," or at least to the "Sub-Nordic" race. No doubt both are right. To-day they stand as close linguistically to their eastern neighbors, the Russians, as they do physically to their western neighbors, the Swedes. What they were originally is the question. Is their language or their physical type the last acquired? That it is not the language might be argued from the fact that the Lithuanian is older than perhaps any other Aryan tongue of Europe. Leaving the ethnical center of the race in Courland, on the Baltic, it is found that it shades off in every direction into the types of the sur- rounding peoples. Toward the southwest, in Prussia, it has almost disappeared in the Ger- man, as the Old Prussian, formerly spoken by the Lithuanians in that region, has entirely dis- appeared — a dialect, by the way, which must not be thought from its name to be Teutonic: it is purely Letto-Slavic. On the southeastern border it is difficult to draw the Une, except in language, between the White Russians and the Lithuanians. On the north, in the province of Livonia, there is clearly an approximation to the Finnish type through intermarriage with the Livs and Esths. The Lithuanians are interesting historically. Although surrounded by aggressive races, they long retained their own independence, thanks to their impenetrable swamps and forests. But they retained also their pagan beliefs, traces of which may be found even in the peasantry of to-day. Not till the fourteenth century were they Christianized. Through their political union with Poland, the Lithuanians proper and the Jmouds became Catholic, and are to-day the northernmost people of that faith on the Continent. The Letts are divided among the 172 DICTIONARY OF RACES Lutheran, the Catholic, and the Russian or Orthodox churches. The greater number, who adjoin the Protestant Finnish population on the north and were united politically with it, are Lutherans; toward the east many affiliate with the great mass of the Russian population in the Greek church; while farther south, in Vitebsk province, which formerly belonged, like the Lithuanian provinces, to Catholic Poland, the Letts are mainly Catholic. There are several divisions of the Lettic or Letto-Lithuanian group of languages. In the first place, Lithuanian is about as different from Lettish as Latin is from Italian. Then there are subdivisions. The Jmoud, Zmudz, Jemaitic, Samogitian, or Low Lithuanian is a dialect of the Lithuanian. The Lettish has three dialects, one of them called the Tahmian. Another people, considered by some to be Lithuanian, is the black-haired Yatvyags, farther south, who are probably a mixture of White Russians and Mazurs (Poles). The Lithuanian is a small race numerically, only about 1 per cent of the total population of Europe, or 3H per cent of the population of Russia. The Letts are found mainly in the northern provinces of this region, the Jmouds in the center, and the Lithuanians, although more scattered, occupy the central and southern provinces. In Suwalki, a province of what is to-day called Poland, the Lithuanians number one-half of the population. In Kovno, adjoin- ing it on the north, they constitute one-third, and the Jmouds, or Low Lithuanians, another third of the population. LIV or LIVONIAN. A division of the Western Finns living in Livonia. (See Finnish.) LOPARI. A division of the Western Finns, (See Finnish.) LOW GERMAN, LOW LETTIC, LOW LITHUANIAN, etc. Dialects or divisions of these respective languages. LUBLINIAN. A subdivision of the Poles (see). LUNGAUER. A name applied to certain Germans (see) of Austria. MAGYAR (pron. Ma-jdr), Himgarian, Hun, or Hunyak in popular language. The race, of Finno-Tartar origin, that invaded Hungary about the ninth century and is now dominant there. Often called "Hungarian," although this is more properly a political than an eth- nological term and may be applied also to that half of the population of Hungary which is not Magyar. The Huns, properly speaking, were a horde that overran parts of Europe in the middle ages and are supposed to be more closely repre- sented by the modern Kalmuks or Turks than by the Magyars. The "Hunagars" and "Mo- gers" pushed later over the Asiatic border and absorbed the earlier Mongol and other elements of what is now Hungary. They became Chris- tianized in the eleventh century, the earliest of all the Finno-Tataric tribes of Europe. Thus it is that the Magyars, together with the Finns, are the foremost branches of the Mongolian race, as measured by western civilization. The Magyars are related hnguistically to the Turks (see) and Japanese, all these belonging to the great Sibiric stock possessing agglutina- tive speech. But physically the Magyars and the Finns of to-day are not Mongolian as much as Caucasian. Because of mixture with Cau- casian peoples, they have deviated more widely from the ancient type than have the Turks. While these latter are becoming southern Euro- pean in type, the Magyars are often blonds, yet not so generally as are the Finns. In short, while the Magyars have imposed their speech and rule upon Hungary, they have taken on the physical characters and the civiUzation of the subject peoples. Ripley says that they are "per- haps one-eighth Finnic and seven-eighths Al- pine" or "Cel to-Slavic." The Magyars form a compact population with but minor subdivisions, such as the Szeklers, of Transylvania. The race is confined to Hungary. Standing like an island in the Caucasian popula- tion that surrounds them, they steadily increase in numbers and spread their language among the people whom they rule. While they constitute only half the population of Hungary, Magyar is the language of three-fourths of the schools. The other principal peoples of Hungary proper — that is, exclusive of Croatia and Slovenia — are the Rumanians, Germans, and Slovaks, who consti- tute, respectively, 17, 12, and 12 per cent of the population. MALTESE. A native of the Mediterranean island of Malta, a British colony; generally of Italian or Arabian stock (see these). Arabic is the prevailing language. Ninety per cent of the * inhabitants are Catholic. MANX. The native race or people of the Isle of Man. Linguistically the Manx is a cor- rupt dialect of the Gaelic branch of the Celtic (see) group of the Aryan or Indo-European lan- guages. It is closely allied to Irish and Scotch, but is unimportant. Manx is now spoken by less than one-tenth of the population of the Isle of Man. Fewer than 100 speak Manx only. It is found only in the northwestern parishes and in a few places along the western coast of the island. It will undoubtedly soon become ex- tinct, as did Cornish, another Celtic dialect, in the last century, since nearly all the inhabitants now converse in English. MASUR or MAZUR. One of the four dialectal divisions of the Poles (see). Their language is DICTIONARY OF RACES 173 called Mazurian or Masovian and is considered by some to be but a corrupt form of the Great Polish. It is mainly spoken in east Prussia and about Warsaw. MENNONITE. Not an ethnical term. The name of a religious sect found in the Netherlands, in Russia, and in other parts of Europe. MOLDAVIAN. A geographical division of the Rumanians (see) residing in the former prin- cipality of Moldavia, which now forms the north- ern part of Rumania. Not a racial name. MOLDO-WALLACHIAN. A name applied to the Rumanians (see) . The former principali- ties of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Eastern Rou- melia now constitute Rumania. MONTENEGRIN. A political division of the Serbo-Croatians. (See Croatian.) MORDVINIAN. The largest division of the Eastern Finns. (See Finnish.) MORLAK. A branch of the Serbians living in northern Dalmatia and adjacent territory. (See Croatian.) NISTROVINIAN. A mixed stock of Little Russian and Rumanian blood. (See Ruthenian.) NOGAI TATAR. A small Tataric people (see) living in the Caucasus near the Caspian and formerly in the Crimea, in southern Russia. OSMANLI. The name by which European Turks call themselves. (See Turkish and Ta- taric.) OSSET or OS. An Aryan people living in Caucasia (See Caucasus peoples.) OSTYAK. A Finnish people (see) of Siberia. PERMYAK. A division of the Eastern Finns. (See Finnish.) PERSIAN. The Persian race or people is quite different from the Persian nationality. The latter includes several very different peoples, as will presently be seen. Linguistically, the Persian is the chief race of Persia speaking an Iranic language, that is, one of the Aryan tongues (see these) most nearly related to the Hindi. Physically, the race is of mixed Caucasian stock. It is almost entirely composed of Tajiks. The small section known as "Parsis" or, incorrectly, "Fire worshipers," have for the most part emi- grated to India. The Armenians are so closely related to the Persians linguistically as to be put with them by some into the Iranic branch. The Kurds, the Beluchis, and the Afghans also be- long to the latter. Of the estimated population of Persia about two-thirds are true Persian or "Tajik." The other third is also Caucasian for the most part, including Kurds, Armenians, and other Iranians, and the non-Aryan Arabs. The only Christians are the Armenians and a small group of "Chal- deans," "Assyrians," or "Nestorians," really eastern Syrians, about Lake Urmia, on the northwestern border. In intellect, if not in civilization, the Persian is perhaps more nearly a European than is the pure Turk. He is more alert and accessible to innovation. Yet he is rather brilliant and poet- ical than solid in temperament. Like the Hindu he is more eager to secure the semblance than the substance of modern civilization. PINSGAUER. A subdivision of Germans (see) living in Austria. PODHALIAN. A Slavic population speaking Pohsh (see), but having a physical resemblance to the neighboring Slovaks. PODHORAK. A subdivision of the Morar vians (see). PODLACHIAN. A name applied to mixed Poles living west of the Polesians in Grodno province, West Russia. (See Polish.) PODOLIAN, A geographical term applied to the Poles (see) living in Podolia in south- western Russia. POIK. An Istrian division of the Slovenians (see). POKUTI. A mixed stock of Little Russian and Rumanian (see) blood. POLESIAN. A mixed Polish (see) population in West Russia. POLIECHUK. A division of the White Rus- sians much mixed with Little Russian. They live on the border of Little Russia and near Poland. (See Russian.) POLISH (formerly called Lech; often incor- rectly called Polack in the United States). The West Slavic race (see) which gave its name to the former Kingdom of Poland, now divided among Russia, Austria, and Germany. The Poles stand physically and socially, as they do geographically, between the Russian peoples of eastern Europe and the Teutonic peoples of western Europe. They are neither the one nor the other. In language they are Slavs. In religion they reject the Russian church and adhere for the most part to the. Catholic. Politically and socially they look upon Russia as their enemy, but this is mainly a historical distinction. It must be said that their civiliza- tion has lacked some of the stable qualities shown by nations farther west. Finally, in their physical inheritance, they resemble the "East- ern" or Slavic race more than that of north- western Europe, although probably modified by racial intermixture from the earliest times. In more technical language, the Poles verge toward the "Northern" race of Europe, although still more closely related to the Eastern race, especially those speaking the Mazurian dialect. Deniker puts them in a race quite apart from both these and names them after their chief river, the "Vistulan." He finds them to bo somewhat shorter than the Lithuanians and White Russians of the Eastern race, and not DICTIONARY OF RACES quite so broad-headed. While darker than the Lithuanians!, the Poles are lighter than the aver- age Russian. In other words, they show more of the Teutonic and little or none of the Asiatic element of eastern Europe. In temperament they are more high-strung than are the most of their neighbors. In this respect they resemble the Hungarians farther south. The Poles are surrounded on the east by the Wliite Russians and Little Russians or Ruthe- nians; on the south by the Slovaks and Mora- vians, both of them with languages more closely related to the Polish than is Russian; and on the west and north by the Germans, with the exception of the non-Slavic Lithuanians, who touch their territory on the northeast (see articles on these races). Once their proud kingdom ex- tended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and rivaled Russia. At one time or another it iu- chided the territory of the Lithuanians, the Livs, the White Russians, the Slovaks, most of the Little Russians, the Moravians, and even the Bohemians and the Germans westward to the vicinity of Berlin. The Polish language has four dialects — the Great Polish, the Mazurian, the Kashonbish, and the Silesia n. The Great Poles live west of Warsaw province. The Mazurian or Masovian is said in Poland to be but a corrupt form of the Great Polish. It is spoken mainly in East Prussia and about Warsaw. The Kashoubs, who call themselves ''Kaszebi," live still farther northwest on the Baltic. Those in West Prussia are Catholics; those farther west, in Poraerania, are Protestants. The Silesian dialect is spoken in the German and Austrian provinces of that name. The names Podhalians, Porals, and Gorals (that is, ''mountain dwellers'') apply more properly to the Poles living north of the Tatra Mountains, between Moravia and the main .range of the Carpathians. This population ap- proaches the Slovaks in physical type, as it does geographically. It is said to be in part of Ger- man blood, like the neighboring Gluchoniemcy, or "Deaf Germans," who also speak Pohsh. Other names applying to subdivisions of the Poles are the Bielochrovats (the same as the Krakuses or Cracovinians), the Kuyevs, the Kuprikes, the Lublinians, and the Sandomirians. Podolian is apparently a geographical term ap- plying to the Poles of Podolia, in southwestern Russia; and Polesian is the name of the mixed Polish population living farthest toward the east, in West Russia. Finally, the name Polak, or Podlachian, applies only to the mixed Poles living just west of the Polesians, in Grodno province. The Polabs are extinct. The}' were not Poles, but Wends (see) ; that is, of a related linguistic stock. Of the population of Russian Poland about two-thirds are Poles. Next comes the very large Hebrew population, numbering nearly as many as the four othin- principal peoples of that country combined, namely, the Germans, the Lithuanians, the Ruthenians, and the Great Russians. While the last named are rapidly in- creasing in Poland, the Poles themselves are gaining ground in Germany. The unusually large Jewish population of Poland is its most re- markable feature and had its origin in the early hospitality shown by the Polish Government to this race. Warsaw was the chief Jewish city of the world until New York succeeded to that distinction. POMAK. A name given to the Moham- medan Bulgarians (see). PONGAUER. A local name applied to Ger- mans (see) in certain parts of Austria. PORTUGUESE. The people of Portugal, including their descendants in America who are not of mixed Indian or Negro blood. The lan- guage belongs to the Italic group of Aryan tongues. The primitive Iberians and Basques of Portugal early received a Keltic admixture. Later Arab and Hebrew blood is found largely present in central Portugal, and even Negro blood in the south, resulting from the introduc- tion of many thousands of slaves. The people of northern Portugal resemble those of Spanish Galicia or the Basques. The Portuguese are physically undersized, averaging 5 feet 4 inches in the south and 5 feet 5 inches in the north. PROVENCAL. The chief southern dialect spoken bv the French people (see). RAGUSAN. A native of the old city of Ragusa ; usua 11 v of the Serbo-Croatian race. (See Croatia n . ) RHiETO-ROMANSH, including Romansh, Ladin, and Friulan. A group name given to cer- tain races or peoples living in the region of the central Alps of Switzerland, Austria, and Italy who speak an Italic tongue and are, therefore, Caucasian. Although small in population, these peoples form one of the great divisions of the Romance group of the Aryan family of languages. They are thought by some to be the modern representatives of the ancient Rhietians of the Roman Empire who once occupied the entire re- gion of the central Alps. They are now broken up into small groups and established in the canton of the Grisons, Switzerland; in parts of TjTol, Austria; and in Italy north of the Adriatic. This Rha)to-Romansh group niay be subdi- \'ided into three parts, both linguistically and geographically — the Romansh proper, the Ladin (a name sometimes given to the entire group), and the Friulan. These languages are now recognized to be a thoroughly independent neo- Latin group on a level with Italian, Spanish, French, Provengal, and Rumanian. Romansh proper, sometimes called Grison, resembles the DICTIONARY OF RACES 175 dialects of the "langue d'oc" of southern France, but it contains a number of German elements. It is the language of the Grisons (see) living in the valleys of the Rhine and the Inn in eastern Switzerland. Romansh is surrounded by Ger- man on three sides and by ItaUan on the fourth, the south. Ladin, as the name indicates, is to-day more closely related to the ancient Latin than is Italian. It resembles the dialects of northern Italy and is spoken by the Tyrolese (see), who are bounded on the north by Germans and on the other sides by Italians. It is separated from the Romansh proper by a strip of territory occu- pied by Germans and Italians. Friulan is the name applied to that group of the Rhseto-Romansh peoples living in the old province of Friuli, the most northeastern part of Italy. They extend over the border line as far as Goritz in Austria. They are bounded on the north by Germans, on the east by Slovenians, on the south by the Adriatic Sea, and on the west by North Italians Physically the Rhseto-Romansh are a mixed people, but preponderantly of the broad-headed, brunette "Alpine" type Those in the west, like the Lombards of Italy, show some Teu- tonic admixture, while those in the Friulan dis- trict, like the Venetians, show an infusion ,of Slavic blood. In religion they are for the most part Catholic, especially those of Italy and Austria. Their literature consists chiefly in periodicals and numerous religious works. They are being pressed upon from all sides and their speech is being gradually replaced by German and Italian. Rudler and Chisholm consider them a doomed race. RUMANIAN, DACO-RUMANIAN, VLACH, or MOLDO-WALLACHIAN, including the Mol- davians and Macedo-Vlachs (Aromuni, Tsintsars, or Kutzo-Vlachs) of northern Greece. The na- tive race or people of Rumania; linguistically the easternmost division of the Romance (Italic) branch of the Aryan family tree; physically a mixed race, of Slavic or " Eastern " type in the west, but in the eastern part showing the in- fluence of the old Roman colonies from which it has received its name and language. The Ru- manians are the largest race numerically of southeastern Europe (not including the Russian). Like the Bulgarians south of them, the Ru- manians are an exceptional people in being lin- guistically of one race and physically of another, at least for the most part. As in Bulgaria, also, it was apparently but a small body of invaders who gave their name to the Slavs who were found in occupation of this region. But while the Bul- garians, of Mongol origin, lost their language, exchanging it for a Slavic tongue, the Roman soldiers who settled on the Danube gave their speech to modem Rumania. The people are proud to call themselves "Romani," but their civilization and history are part and parcel of those of the Balkan Peninsula. They are of the Balkan States, if not strictly in them. Some geographers place them in that group topo- graphically, as well as politically. But strictly speaking, it would appear more logical to con- sider them as outside the peninsula, because they are north of the Danube. Like the Balkan States proper, Rumania was until a generation ago a part of Turkey. The race was, in fact, but little known until recently. It has even been supposed that their language belonged to the Slavic group, because it was written, like most of the latter, in the Cyrillic characters. This, ■wdth the fact that the greater majority of the people are Slavic in appearance and civilization, might place them, as it did the Hebrews, in the "Slavic division." (See Slav and Caucasian.) This dictionary, hke all foreign censuses taken by race, places them in the Italic or Romance group. (See Aryan.) Since the Rumanians have adopted the Roman alphabet, which they did recently, the language looks far more familiar to one acquainted with Romance or Latin languages. The chief pe- culiarity that strikes the eye is the annexation of the article to the end of the noun. This is but rarely found among the Aryan tongues. From the fact that it is found in the neighboring languages to the southwest, the Bulgarian and the Albanian, it would appear to be a survival of an ancient language common to all these, perhaps Dacian. The language has indeed undergone profound internal changes, although in some respects it reminds one forcibly of the ancient Latin. Two-fifths of the vocabulary, however, is now Slavic, borrowed, of course, from the tongue of the predominant element in the population. While only one-fifth of the words can be traced to the Latin, they are the words in most common use, the most significant fact in determining the earliest form of the language. Since community of ideas and, ultimately, the type of social institutions and of the civiliza- tion itself, are profoundly dependent upon a community of speech, we should expect the Ru- manians to be more in sympathy with the Latin races and civilization than with the Slavic. This will no doubt be more fully the case when the people are more widely educated. Already their leaders are found frequenting the universi- ties of Paris and Rome. Rumanians appear to compare favorably with the races of the Balkans, although some say that they are more back- ward. They are preeminently agriculturists, like the Slavs in general, but they are prominent also in commerce, even in the capitals of Austria and Hungary. In reUgion they are mainly DICTIONARY OF RACES Greek. In customs and traditions they show- both their Latin and their Slavic origin. In tem- perament they are more emotional than the Slav, less stolid and heavy than the Bulgarian. It is concerning the physical anthropology of the Rumanians that there is the greatest differ- ence of opinion. They have not been as yet sufficiently studied on the field. There would seem to be little doubt, however, that in Ru- mania, as in Bulgaria, which adjoins it on the south, there are two distinct types. While that of the east reminds one of the Italian or "Medi- terranean" ts^pe, long-headed, dark, and slender in build, that far "in the west, in Hungary, is typically Slavic or "Hungarian" — that is, broad of face and head, shorter, and lighter in complexion. Partisanship is bound to appear in this question as everywhere in Balkan ethnog- raphy. There are those who unduly emphasize the Roman element in the origin and present type of the Rumanians. Slavic writers, on the other hand, have been inclined to belittle this element. The medium position would seem more reasonable in recognizing both constituents of the race. It is improbable that the 240,000 Roman colonists who settled on the opposite bank of the Danube under Trajan could have peopled the territory now occupied by 10,000,000 Rumanians, half of which extends outside of Rumania itself into Hungary and Russia, es- pecially since it seems to be the fact that these colonists withdrew to Macedonia in the third century and did not cross the Danube into Roumania until the thirteenth. It is, therefore, the theory of some writers that the Pindus is the real center of dispersion of the Rumanians. It is in this region, in the central part of northern Greece, that resides an important division of the race, the Kutzo-Vlachs or Tsintsars. These are sharper in feature, although they, too, have deviated from the Roman type through admix- ture with Albanians and Greeks (see these). Even in the valleys of the Carpathians, the northern Vlachs or Rumanians are often dark and short and quite Roman in type of face. But the average cephalic index of the entire race is nearer that of the Slavic. They are not only broad-headed, but of medium height, as are the Northern and Eastern Slavs, much shorter than the Serbo-Croatian or Albanian type along the Adriatic. A word of explanation may be given to the many names borne by the Rumanians. They indicate political divisions rather than linguistic. Thus the Moldavians and the Wallachians or Vlachs are found, respectively, in the former principalities of Moldavia, which now consti- tutes northern Rumania, and Wallachia, or its southern part. Combined they are called Moldo- Wallachians. Vlach is a familiar Slavic word. originally meaning horseman, and sometimes applied to people of entirely different stock, as the so-called "Walachs" of eastern Moravia. (See Bohemian and Moravian.) The Morlaks, a Serbo-Croatian stock hving on the Adriatic, were formerly considered by ethnologists to be Vlachs, whose nariie they appear to retain in another form. The Macedo-Vlachs call them- selves Aromuni, that is, Romans, but are called by other Tsintsars or Kutzo-Vlachs. The Rumanians are the largest both in num- bers and in the extent of territory covered of all the many peoples of the Balkan Peninsula and Austria-Hungary combined, that vast territory which has been called "the whirlpool of Europe." On the ethnographical map, the eastern point of Hungary and of the Carpathian range stands in the very center of Rumanian territory. Here is found the curious islet of eastern Magyars known as Szeklers, entirely surrounded by the expanding Rumanians. The latter number over 1,000,000 also in Russia, mainly in the province of Bessarabia, which was formerly a part of Moldavia. They extend across the Danube only near its mouth on the Black Sea into what is known as the Dobruja. With this exception the Rumanian territory is for the most part separated from the sea by Bulgarians, Little Russians, and a few Tatars. The Little Russians of Russia and Ruthenians of Austria-Hungary (one in race) border the Rumanians on the north; the Bulgarians border them on the south; the Serbians on the southwest; and the Magyars, or "Hungarians," on the west. Nearly nine-tenths of the population of Ru- mania is Rumanian in race. RUSSIAN, GREAT RUSSIAN, VELIKO- RUSSIAN, MUSCOVITE. (See also White Russian, or Bielo-Russian, and Black Russian following.) This article will discuss, first, the Great Russian race, or the Russian proper; then all other divisions of the Russian (in the wider sense) excepting the Ruthenian or Little Rus- sian, which is given a separate article (see), and, finally, Russia as a whole, to present a general view of the hundred and more other peoples and tribes who are Russian in nationality but not in race or language. Russian may be defined in the wider sense as the largest Slavic group of Aryan peoples. Lin- guistically it belongs to the Eastern Slavic divi- sion and includes the Great Russian, the Little Russian, and the White Russian. Physically it may be placed in the "Eastern" (Caucasian) race, but it is extensively mixed with Finno- Tataric and other elements. GREAT RUSSIAN The Great Russian, or simply "Russian" in the narrower sense of the word, is that division DICTIONARY OF RACES 177 of the Russian group (see above) which is dominant in Russia and which is the largest Slavic race numerically. "Veliko- Russian" means Great Russian. "Muscovite" is a name sometimes applied to the Great Russian people, because they first prominently appear in history as the race of the early "Empire of Moscovy." Moscow was its capital until St. Petersburg was founded by Peter the Great. The people of Moscow are still the purest in stock of the Great Russian population. Space need not be taken here to repeat what has been said in the article on the "Slav" (see) as to temperament, character, civilization, lan- guage, physical type, excepting so far as to point out in what the Russians differ from other Slavs. As is said in the article on the Ruthenian (see), the Great Russian has usurped to himself the name Russian from the so-called Little Russians, as he has succeeded to their dominion. He is perhaps of purer Slavic blood than they, although some claim that the Great Russian is more of a Finn than the Little Russian is of a Tatar. Both have more of this Mongolian element in the race than has the White Russian. The most ancient race of Russia, that of the kurgans or mounds, was undoubtedly more long-headed than the present population. Indeed, according to cur- rent tradition, "the founders of the Russian na- tion were Norsemen." So wrote Nestor, the first historian of the race. At any rate, it is evident that the Asiatic element in the race is of a later intrusion, which continued far into the middle ages. As late as the fourteenth century Moscow was tributary to the Tatar rule which was set up in southern Russia. The Russian race of to-day is consequently more broad-headed or Asiatic in appearance than the typical peoples of northwestern and southwestern Europe. It belongs mainly to the so-called "Alpine," "Eastern," or "Cel to- Slavic" race, which penetrates somewhat west- ward of Russia into the highland region of Cen- tral Europe. As in the case of other Slavs (see), however, other European races, as the "North- ern" and the "Cevenole," are found represented among the Russians. It is to the Northern or Teutonic race that the Western Finns belong physicall)^ in spite of their Mongolian origin, and the Great Russians are more modified by the Finnic stock than by any other. They are therefore, especially in the north, more blond in type than are the Slavs farther south. Their neighbors on the west, the Lithuanians, and even the Poles, approach more nearly than they to the Northern type, and thus mediate between them and the western Europeans physically as they do in language. In temperament the Great Russians are more practical and persevering than are their racial brothers and competitors, the Ruthenians or Little Russians of southwestern Russia and of Austria. The Great Russians have been said to have approached the Finn in physical type but the Tatar in temperament, the latter not so much through racial admixture as through their struggle with the Tatar hordes of Asia. Their temper and their strength as a people have been developed by struggle. Russia is a buffer state, as the early Slavs were a buffer race between Europe and Asia. Little Russia was perma- nently weakened by the tribute of her best men, whom she offered up in the strife. In language the Great and the Little Russians differ less from each other than do the High and the Low Germans. The Little Russian is sometimes said to be only a dialect of the Great Russian, but this may be regarded as a preju- diced statement. Philologists and anthropolo- gists have often been drawn into the strife for supremacy and leadership between rival Russian and Slavic races. Panslavism, or the aspiration for a united Slavic people and state, suffers from this cause. The Russians even force the use of their language into Little Russian and Polish territory. In the religious world there is the same strife. The autocratic claims of the Russian church have been successfully opposed by the Lutherans of Finland and the Catholics of Poland. Even the Little Russians have succeeded in establish- ing a church that is partly Russian and nominally Roman. Among the Great Russians themselves a large number are dissenters from the state church. "Raskolnik" is the name applied to the schismatics in general, but there is a great variety of minor sects. Of these sects the Du- khobors are perhaps best known. The Dukhobors seem to have originated in central Russia, to have flourished for over a hundred years, and to have received the especial encouragement of Tolstoi. Aside from the names of religious sects, such as Dukhobors and Mennonites — the latter not confined, by the way, to Russia — there is no such list of subdivisions of the Great Russians needing definition as is found among Little Russians and Poles. The Great Russian terri- tory is a homogeneous whole from Petrograd to the Lower Don. Indeed, it extends north to the Arctic, a vast region 500 or 600 miles wide, separating the Finns of Finland from their kinsmen and the Tatars on the Asiatic border; and it extends east to Asia with the exception of the Finnic and the Tataric islets that dot the map of Eastern Russia. (See Tataric and Fin- nish.) The greatest expanse of European Russia that is not Great Russian is southwestern Russia, and that is Little Russian. The "Cossacks of the Don" (see) were Great Russian; those of the Dnieper, Little Russian, 178 DICTIONARY OF RACES The Great Russians number nearly half of the total population of European Russia, excluding from this term Finland, Poland, and Caucasia. The emigration of Great Russians is peculiar in that it is mainly from Europe to the Russian possessions in Asia. In the year 1907, 577,000 persons migrated from European Russia to Siberia. The movement to Siberia is partly the result of the building of the great railway to the Pacific, but mainly because southern Siberia has been found to be a pleasant country and capable of supporting millions of population. Southern Siberia is a wheat country, resembling the Dakotas and western Canada. In its rapid development it resembles in many respects our own West. WHITE RUSSIAN AND BLACK RUSSIAN "Black Russia" is a historical term that may be disposed of in a brief paragraph. It appears on the fourteenth century map some distance north of the Black Sea, directly east of Kief and the Dnieper, and southeast of White Russia. At that time it formed part of the important kingdom of Lithuania. It was afterwards em- braced in Poland, and is now swallowed up in Little Russia. Ripley applies the term "Black Russian" to quite a different district, that of the Gorals, or "mountaineers," of the Austrian Carpathians, and finds that the name distin- guishes the latter, as a very brunette stock, from the neighboring "Red Russians" or reddish blonds. The western Gorals, however, are of Polish speech. The White Russian is one of the three distinct branches of the Russian language and race, al- though of far less importance numerically and politically than either of the other two. It is as much a "race" as the Great Russian ("Rus- sian") or the Little Russian (Ruthenian). Un- like the term "Black Russia,". "White Russia" is stUl found on the ethnographical map. It is a compact but small district roughly correspond- ing with what is now called "West Russia," though reaching somewhat nearer Moscow on the east. It is bounded on the northeast and east by Great Russian territory, on the north- west by Lithuanian, on the southwest by Polish, and on the south and southeast by Little Rus- sian. The White Russians constitute over three- fourths of the population of Moghilef and Minsk provinces and about half of Vitebsk, Vilna, and Grodno. In Kovno and Courland they approach the Baltic. The White Russians have long been in political subjection, first to Lithuania, then to Poland, and, finally, to the Great Russians. For this reason, among others, we hear little of them as a distinct race. They are said by travelers to be a distinctly weaker stock than the Great Rus- sian, and less prepossessing in appearance. They are usually considered to be of purer Russian stock than either the Great or the Little Rus- sians. Both the latter are far more modified by ' Mongolian elements, Finnic and Tataric. The White Russians are naturally more influenced by their Lithuanian and Polish neighbors (see) on the west, and these, especially the former, as has been said elsewhere, approach the blond Teutonic type more than the Slavs in appear- ance. Yet the White Russians are truly Slavs in breadth of head. Their cephaHc index is 82, which is but slightly below that of the Little Russians. They are, therefore, of the purest type of the so-called "Eastern" or "Celto- Slavic" race. But few subdivisions of the White Russian need be mentioned. The Poliechuks (see Ruthe- nian) are a White Russian population much mixed with Little Russian and very broad- headed (cephalic index, 85). They hve in Minsk and Volhynia provinces; that is, on the border of Little Russia and near Poland. The Zabludov, a transition dialect standing between the Little and the White Russian, is found in this district. The White Russians number but little over one-tenth as many as the Great Russians. It is deemed wise to indicate what a variety of peoples go to make up the Russian nationality. About 100 races are Usted in the Russian census of 1897, of which number perhaps 20 are confined almost entirely to Asia. In European Russia it- self there are as many Mongolian as Caucasian "races" or languages represented. Of the Cau- casians, most of the divisions speak, not Indo- European or Aryan languages, hke the Russian, but the peculiar agglutinative tongues of the Caucasus, more different from ours than are the Semitic of Western Asia and the Hamitic of North Africa. The great majority (about 80 per cent) of the population, however, is Slavic, es- pecially Great Russian (nearly 50 per cent), Little Russian (20 per cent), and Polish (7 per cent). Next in numbers come the Jews, Semites (5 per cent); then the Lithuanians, Aryans who resemble Teutons more than Russians physically, if not in language (3 per cent) ; then the Finns, MongoUan by language but Caucasian in ap- pearance, especially those who have long inter- married with the Swedes (nearly 3 per cent) ; and finally the Tatars (also about 3 per cent). RUTHENIAN (synonyms. Little Russian, Malo-Russian, South Russian, Yugo-Russian; in Austria, Russniak, Russine, Red Russian, Galician; in Russia, also Ukrainian, Cherkasi; in addition some call themselves simply "Rus- sian " (Busy) and sometimes in America, even " Greek "). The name Little Russian would seem most available of all this list at present for a clear and scientific definition. The Little DICTIONARY OF RACES 179 Russian " race " of linguistic subdivision is that branch of the Russian, a " Southern Slavonic " (see) division of Aryan tongues, which is found native throughout southwestern Russia and in Galicia (Austria). Physically Little Russians are Caucasian, infrequently modified by a Mongol element. " Little Russia " is a literal translation of the term " Malo-Rossiya." " South Russian " and, less frequently, " Yugo-Russian," and even " Cossack " or " Cherkess," are among the many names which have been bestowed upon this people by their more powerful kinsmen of the north, the Muscovites, who have assumed to themselves the name " Russian " (see) and the hegemony of the race. For similar, that is for political, reasons, Austria has found it con- venient to name her Little Russian subjects " Ruthenians; " and this word is now com- monly, but loosely, applied, even in scientific usage, to all Little Russians, including those of Ukrainia, in Russia. Still the Galicians call themselves " Rusyny," which is sometimes translated " Russine." " Russniak " is a less common equivalent of Ruthenian. " Red Russian " is a historical term which still designates one of the three dialects of the Little Russian language, the western. It ap- pears that " Ruthenian " comes from the same root, meaning " red." What has been said in the articles on the Slavs and the Russians (see) applies in general to the Little Russians or Ruthenians so far as concerns their physical qualities, their intellectual and emotional make-up, their civilization. But little need be repeated here except to make clear in what respects they differ from other Slavs. They are still more broad-headed than the Great Russians. This is taken to indicate a greater Tatar (MongoUan) admixture than is found among the latter, probably as does also the smaller nose, more scanty beard, and somewhat darker complexion. WMle hardly so muscular as the Great Russians, they are slightly taller. They are perhaps less practical, solid, and per- severing than their competitors of the north, and therefore have befen less successful as empire builders. But they often show a higher grade of intelligence and taste, and once led the Russians in scientific work. Their literature and their ' early history warrant them in claiming that they are the true Russian race rather than the north- ern stock which has usurped the name and the rule — the Great Russians. A large section of them have broken away from the Greek or Russian Church and have united with the Roman Catholic under a particular dispensation which allows them peculiar features of the Greek service and a married clergy. Hence the name " United Greek Church." Although the Little Russians stand much closer to the Great Russians than do the Polish, Hebrew, Lithuanian, and German elements in Russia's population, nevertheless the use of their language has been discouraged and in a very remote sense they are a subject people in Russia as well as in Austria. Their ethnical subdivisions and intermixtures are difficult to disentangle, as is the case with other Slavic peoples. The Boikos evidently belong to the Red Russian division of the Ruthenians. They live in the Carpathians of Galicia and Bukowina. The Huzuls or Guzuls, a very broad-headed people of Bukowina speak- ing a Red Russian dialect, have evidently grafted a MongoUan element upon the Ruthenian stock. This element may have come down from the extinct Uzes or Kvunans (Tatars) who early penetrated this region, or it may be of Daco- Rumanian origin. The Huzuls are not friendly to the Boikos, their neighbors. The Touholtses, Ruthenians of Galicia, are very broad-headed like the Huzuls. The Little Russian stock is also found mixed with the Rumanian in the Pokutis and the Nistrovinians; with the Polish in the Belsans; and with the White Russian in the Poliechuks. As has been explained at length in an article on the Cossacks (see), the Cossacks of the Dnieper have been an important branch of the Little Russians historically. The Zaparogs, named from their geographical position on the river, and the Chernomorishes are divisions of these. Little Russian populations have often received names because of some natural location or social condition. Such ai;'e the Stepoviks (of the steppes), the Poliechuks (of the forest) the Werchowinci (of the mountains), the Hai- dulis (or " robbers "), and the Lemkes (so called because of their pronunciation). The last names, who live in the Beskids, call themselves " Rusnaky " — that is, Ruthenians, although they resemble the Slovaks in language and physical type. Finally, there are the self-explanatory geographical terms by which certain Little Rus- sians are known, as the Bukowinians, the Gali- cians, the Ukrainians, and the Bugans, or dwellers on the Bug. The Bugans are also known as the Lapotniki and are of a distinct type. It must not be inferred that the majority of the inhabitants of Galicia, Bukowina, and the Ukraine are Little Russians. In Galicia they are surpassed in niunbers by the Poles; in Bukowina nearly equaled by the Rumanians. In each of these districts the Germans stand third in population. In the Ukraine many peoples are represented: the Great Russians, the Poles, large colonies of Germans, with some Bohe- mians and more Bulgarians; Tatar communities 180 DICTIONARY OF RACES in the south; Rumanians annexed with their territory on the southwest: and multitudes of Jews, besides Armenians, Greeks, and Gypsies everywhere. Roughly speaking, one-half of Russia south of the latitude of Moscow and eastward along the Black Sea as far as the Caucasus, the Kalmuks, and the Cossacks of the lower Don, is Little Russian. The race also covers all of eastern Austria — that is, Galicia and Bukowina — with the exception of a small district about Ivracow (Polish), and spreads out far beyond the Car- pathians into Hungary, Among the Slavic peo- ples their total population is second only to that of the Great Russians. SAMOYED. The Ugro-Finnic people living on the Arctic Ocean in northeastern Russia and northwestern Siberia. Of little importance numerically or in civilization. They are still more primitive in manner of life and more Mongolian in appearance than are their western relatives, the Lapps. While having a similar language to the Europeanized Finns, they are quite the opposite to them in appearance, true Asiatics. SANSKRITIC. A term sometimes applied to all the Aryan languages (see). The Sanslcrit is the oldest of these languages. SARD or SARDINIAN. A native of the island of Sardinia, a possession of Italy. The language is a dialect of Italian (see) peculiar to the island, called " Sardinian." Physically the Sardinians are one of the most homogeneous groups of Europe. Like their neighbors, the Corsicans, they are supposed to be at bottom Iberic, thus being related to the South Italians and the early inhabitants of Spain, and perhaps to the Berbers of northern Africa. The Sardinian, of all the Italians, is the pui'est representative of the " Mediterranean " race in head form and color of hair and eyes. He is the most dwai-fish in stature of European peoples, the average being several inches shorter than the Teutonic average of northern Europe. The facial features often betray an infusion of African blood. The Sardinians are illiterate, very backward, have no great industries, and but little foreign trade. In religion nearly all are Catholic. SAVOLAK, SAVAKOTI, or SAVOLAISET. A division of the Western Finns. (See Finnish.) SAVRIN. An Istrian division of the Slo- venians (see). SCANDINAVIAN (sometimes Norse), includ- ing the Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and Ice- landic races or peoples. The native, Teutonic, race or races of Scandina^da in the wider sense. The name " Scandinavia " is sometimes applied to the northern peninsula only — that is, to Nor- way and Sweden — but it is also properly applied to Denmark and Iceland. The definitions of the subdivisions of the Scandinavian group are self-evident, to wit, the Teutonic races of Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland, respectively. The term " Norse " is applied only to themselves by the Norwegians, who are called " Norsk " in their own language. But it is better justified in international usage as a name of the entire Scandinavian group of languages. The Old Norse, or the early language of Iceland, was the predecessor of all modern Scandinavian languages. It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that the term " Norseman " or " Northman " was applied during the middle ages to the viking rovers of all these countries, who established dynasties in England, Russia, Fiance (Normandy), and Sicily, settled Iceland, and without doubt preceded Columbus to America. Nor is it necessary to remind the student of ethnology that the Scandinavian is considered to be the purest type of one of the three great races of Europe as divided from a physical point of view; that is, of the " North- ern " or " Teutonic " race in contradistinction from the " Alpine " and " Mediterranean " races farther south. (See Caucasian and Aryan.) If races be divided merely by physical char- acters, all Scandinavians form a homogeneous race more truly than any of the large populations or races south of them. The English, and es- pecially the French and the German, are much more mixed in physical type. The typical Scandinavians average as the longest-headed and most purely blond, if not the tallest people of Europe. In height they appear to be surpassed only by the Scotch. Both the height and the cephalic index increase as we pass from Denmark to Sweden and from Sweden to Norway. The cephalic index in these countries rises in the order named from 77.8 to 78, then to 78.5; the height from 1.68 meters to 1.70 meters, and then to 1.72 meters. In English measures, the Nor- wegian average, the last named, is about 5 feet 8 inches, which the Scotch ex:ceeds by one-half inch. It must be remembered that the small pop- ulation of Lapps in northern Scandinavia is of entnely different race, the very opposite of the Scandinavian, in fact, both in language and in physical type. As elsewhere explained (see Lappish), they still speak a Mongol or Ugro- Finnic tongue — agglutinative in structure, in- stead of inflected, as is the Aryan family of lan- guages, to which the Scandinavian belongs. Physically the Lapps are very short and indicate in their dark features and extremely broad heads their Asiatic origin. Very little intermixture has taken place with this stock considering the length of time the Scandinavians and Lapps have hved in neighboring districts, unless a broader-headed and darker type of Norwegians DICTIONARY OF RACES 181 found in the extreme southwest indicates an ancient infusion of this sort. Ripley prefers to think it a survival of an early " Alpine " element from Central Europe. In Norway the rate of illiteracy is the lowest in Europe. In religion the Scandinavians are Protestant almost to a man — over 99 per cent, according to the censuses of these countries. NORWEGIAN The most difficult question that remains for discussion relates to the Norwegian race or people and language. Are the Norwegians to be considered a separate race or people from the Danes? Of course, as a nationality they are different. In fact there exists a separatist feeling among the three Scandinavian nationalities which persists to a degree even in America. But the literary language of Norway and that of Denmark are generally supposed to be one and the same. A fair answer to the question just raised ap- pears to be that the Norwegian can now be called, technically, a different race or people from the Danish, although this was not true a century ago. Of course, this is only an arbitrary distinc- tion and is one of the most artificial distifictions we are called upon to make among the so- called European " races," as determined by language or by any other standard. Physically, as already shown, the Norwegians and the Danes are, to a remarkable degree, homogeneous. Furthermore, so far as dialectal differences are concerned, there is no more reason for separating them from one another than for dividing the Norwegians themselves into different races. The fact is that from 1397 to 1814, when Norway regained her independence from Den- mark, a modified Danish was not only the lit- erary language of Norway but was generally used in the cities and among the educated classes. Since this date a new literary language, the " Dano-Norwegian," has been rapidly developed at the hands of Norway's greatest litterateurs, including Ibsen. While this language is based upon the Danish formerly in use, it has incor- porated 7,000 words from the Norwegian dialects, enough to suffice almost for a language. Indeed, other writers, like Aasen, insist on using only Norwegian dialectal forms. The Norwegian may, therefore, in accordance with the language test, be considered a separate people. DANISH AND ICELANDIC The two smallest in extent of the Scandinavian peoples may next be considered, those of Den- mark and her insular possession, Iceland. They are entirely different from each other in lan- guage, and therefore are distinct in race, accord- ing to the usual test. While Denmark gave its language in recent times to Norway, as has al- ready been said, Iceland gave the Old Norse in written form to all Scandinavia. During that period of the northern literature, Norway took precedence of Denmark and of Sweden. The Sagas and the Eddas belonged in a sease to her as well as to Iceland and gave to Scandinavia the proud distinction of bequeathing to posterity an older and more famous literature than any of the German tongues farther south. The population of Iceland is purely Scan- dinavian, but is small in numbers. In Denmark itself it is estimated that fully 97 per cent of the population is Danish, notwithstanding the close- ness of its relations to Germany. On the other hand, there are at least 140,000 Danes living on the other side of the border in Germany. If one may contrast the three Scandinavian peoples in a slight degree, it might be said that the Norwegian is rather more of a democrat — slow, sturdy, and independent; the Swede, as he has been called, " the Parisian of the North; " and the Dane, the cosmopolite. The royal family of Denmark stands in extraordinary personal relations with those of a number of European powers. Mem- bers of the family of the late King Christian have been rulers or consorts of rulers in several of the European countries. SWEDISH The Swedes may be considered to be entirely distinct in race from the Danes and the Nor- wegians. Their language is so different that it can not be read by the Danes and Norwegians without some study. The Swedes have expanded in Europe more than their sister Scandinavians. For five hundred years Finland was ruled by Sweden. Although this rule ceased a century ago, Swedish is still the language of the higher classes of Finns and is used in official and sci- entific publications of their country. Fully 13 per cent of the population of Finland is Swedish to-day. The Finns themselves, as found in Finland, show a large admixture of Scandinavian blood, for they are Teutonic in physical type rather than Ugric. (See Finnish.) While there is no doubt that they are Asiatic, Mongol, in origin, they are to-day of entirely different type from the Finns of eastern Russia. In America they are often taken to be Scan- dinavians, but are to be distinguished by their mother tongue, which is absolutely different from any Aryan language, agglutinative rather than inflected in type. SCOTCH (including Highland Scotch or Gaelic). A term applied (1) in the wider sense to both races of Scotland, the Celts of the north (Highlanders) and the Anglo-Saxons of the south (Lowlanders) ; (2) in a narrower sense, only to the Celtic race of Scotland, the Highland 182 DICTIONARY OF RACES Scotch. Gaelic is another name for the latter. The word " Scotch," as a linguistic term, means the language spoken by Scotchmen. When un- qualified it means the dialect of English spoken by the Lowland Scotch. Highland Scotch is a synonym for Scottish Gaelic, the most northern branch of the Celtic group of Aryan or Indo- European languages (see these). The words " Scotch " and " Scotchmen," used as terms of nationality, include all citizens of Scotland, and therefore other peoples besides the Highland Scotch and the Lowland Scotch. " Scots " is a synonym used in Scotland for Scotchmen gen- erally. In deference to common usage this dic- tionary must consider Scotch to include both the Highland and the Lowland Scotch. To avoid confusion, however, the term " Highland Scotch" will be generally used for the Celtic linguistic stock of the Highlands and " Lowland Scotch " for the English-speaking population of the Low- lands. HIGHLAND SCOTCH The Highland Scotch language, the modern Erse or Gaelic, is said to be a much more modern language than Irish. These two Celtic tongues are said to differ from one another no more than the English of the Lowland Scotch does from ordinary English. Highland Scotch is meager in its literature and is fast losing ground as a speech. English is rapidly replacing it in com- merce, in church services, in the schools, and even in the home. It is only in the most western part of Scotland and in the islands of the Hebrides that Highland Scotch is still spoken by a majority of the population. There are partisan views as to the origin and racial affinities of the Highland Scotch. Some contend that they are descended from the ancient Caledonian Picts; others that they are the de- scendants of the so-called " Scots " (Irish) who emigrated to Scotland from northern Ireland about the sbrth century and gave their name and language to the new country as did the Angles to England. Perhaps the more reasonable view is that of the physical anthropologists, who say that the Highland Scotch are a mixed people, a product of Pict, Irish, and Scandinavian. The Erevailing type, as among the Irish, is tall, long- eaded, and harsh-featured. But there is a gi'eater proportion of blonds, especially of the red-haired and freckle-faced type. Dark eyes, rare among the Irish, are quite common among the Highlanders. Contrary to the time-honored opinion of ethnologists of the linguistic school, physical anthropologists now state that the " Celtic " or " Alpine " (see) physical type, one of the three great physical divisions of the races of Europe, is rarely found in either Scotland or Ireland. Most of the brunette individuals found in these countries are long-headed and are thought to be representatives of the " Southern " or " Mediterranean " rather than of the broad- headed " Alpine " race. Geographically the Highland Scotch originally occupied the northern islands and all the terri- tory north of the southern firths of Scotland, the firths of Clyde and of Forth; that is, the territory north of the cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. But as Saxons and Danes pressed upon them from the south and Norwegians from the north they were driven into the Highlands of Scotland. These aie generally understood to comprise all the territory northwest of a line drawn diag- onally from the Clyde to Aberdeen on the eastern shore. This territory occupies more than half the area of Scotland, but is sparsely settled. And even the entire eastern part of northern Scotland has become Anglicized. Only about 5 per cent of the people of Scotland can now speak Gaelic, and of this small number, about one-half, live in three counties in the heart of the Highlands. Less than 500 persons of the Lowlands speak Gaelic only. Highland Scotch is practically extinct in the northern islands. LOWLAND SCOTCH AND NORTHERN ISLANDERS The people of the Lowlands and of the north- em islands bear certain resemblances to each other. Both have been Teutonic in language for centuries. Both have been much modified physically by Scandinavian elements. Both are often classed as " English " (see) in race. The term " Lowland Scotch " is a name given to the people of the Lowlands of Scotland. They speak a dialect of English known to every schoolboy through the ballads of Burns. It is closely related to the Northumberland dialect of the northern part of England, but contains more Celtic and Scandinavian elements. Physically the Lowland Scotch are very mixed, being descended chiefly from Scan- dinavians and Saxons, but also from Picts, Celtic-Scots, and Norman French. These various elements do not seem, however, to be as thoroughly amalgamated as in the case of the English. A type largely represented approaches that of the Englishman, long-headed, with light eyes, and with hair varying from light to brown, but taller, heavier, and more muscular. The features are rounder and the cheek bones less prominent than those of the Highland Scotch. This Lowlander is the type sometimes pointed out as the one toward which the American peo- ple is evolving. The chief racial elements of the mixture have been much the same in either case. The Norse type also has many representatives. It is tall (the tallest of all Europe, over 5 feet 8 inches), very long-headed, with light eyes and DICTIONARY OF RACES hair flaxen or sand colored. This type is found not only in the Lowlands, but is predominant in the northern islands, the Shetlands, and the Orkneys. It is also foi^nd in the Hebrides. So thoroughly did the Norwegians invade these is- lands that not only were they dominant there for centuries, but their language was in use in the Hebrides from the eighth to the fourteenth cen- tury, when it was replaced by Gaelic, and still longer in the northern islands, where it survived until superseded by the English in the eighteenth century. From what has been said it will be seen that the English-speaking populations of Scotland now occupy the entire lowlands, the Shetland and Orkney islands, and the northeasternmost county of Scotland. They are bounded on the west by the Highland Scotch and on the south by the Northumberland dialect of English. The Scotch, both Highlanders and Lowland- ers, are too well known in other respects as Amer- ican citizens to need fiu-ther discussion here. Topographical conditions have had much to do in developing their differences. The High- lander, living in the unfertile mountains covered with rocks and heath and barren of mineral wealth, is given to sheep herding and cattle grazing. The Lowlander, having rich fields and mines of coal and iron, is an agriculturist, a miner, and a manufacturer. The population of his district is five times as dense as that of the Highlander. Outside of Scotland, the Scotch, using the term to include both Highlanders and Low- landers, are found in considerable numbers in Ulster province in Ireland (see Irish), in Eng- land, in the United States, and in the British colonies. Longstaff says that Canada is to a great extent a Scotch country. In religion the Scotch are for the most part Protestants. There are also many Catholics. SEMITIC-HAMITIC. One of the four chief divisions or stocks of the Caucasian race. The others are the insignificant Basque and Caucasic stocks and the great Aryan division. The Semitic-Hamitic is considerable in extent, covering one-third of Africa; but its population is only 50,000,000 as against 800,000,000 Aryans. They and the Aryans are the only peoples of the world having inflected languages. For this reason they may be grouped together, perhaps with more propriety than because of their phys- ical similarity. Many Hamites would be taken by travelers to be Negroes; yet because of the regularity of their features, and certain other characteristics, they are felt to be Caucasian rather than Negro. The Semites may be defined as that branch of the Caucasian race indigenous to southwestern Asia, and the Hamites as that branch indigenous to northern Africa; but the Hamites also are supposed to have come originally from the Euphrates region, while one branch of the Semites, the Abyssinians, are found in Africa. While the languages of the Hamites and the Semites are not very closely allied, there can no longer be any doubt that they should be grouped together. SEPHARDIM. The Spanish-Portuguese Jews as distinguished from the German-Polish Jews, called Ashkenazim. They form only 10 per cent of the Jewish race. (See Hebrew.) SERBIAN or SERB. Same as Croatian (see). A political and ecclesiastical division of the Serbo-Croatians. SICILIAN. Not the name of a race but any native or inhabitant of the island of Sicily. This is inhabited for the most part by South Italians, who speak a dialect peculiar to the island called Sicilian. The population is very mixed phys- ically, being at bottom Liguriau or Iberic, but much modified by the many invading peoples, including even North Africans. . The Sicilians are vivid in imagination, affable, and benevolent, but excitable, superstitious, and revengeful. Prior to 1860, when it became a part of United Italy, the Island of Sicily was a part of the Kingdom of the Two SiciUes. It is now a compartimento of Italy. The population of Sicily, excepting about 15,000 Albanians, is Italian. About 50,000 speak the Lombard dialect. The Albanians (see) , locally known as "Greci,'' speak their own lan- guage,; and observe special religious rites. The Sicilians proper are nearly all Catholic. SILESIAN. A geographical term; a name given to those living in the German and Austrian provinces called Silesia. Also the name applied to both Polish and German dialects spoken in Silesia. SLAV (SCLAVE), SLAVIC, or SLAVONIC. To be defined as that Aryan " race " or linguistic group which occupies the greater part of Russia and the Balkans. The Russian and the Polish (see) are its leading tongues. The Slavic, the Teutonic, and the Italic or " Latin " are the three great stocks that furnish the most of the population of Europe. Physically, and perhaps temperamentally, the Slavs approach the Asiatic, or particularly the Tatar, more closely than do the peoples of west- ern Europe. In language they are as truly Aryan as ourselves. Of course, languages do not fuse by interbreeding; physical races do. There is some truth in the old saying, " Scratch a Rus- sian and you find a Tartar," especially if he come from southern Russia, where once lived the Mongol conquerors of the Russias. Unfortu- nately the unlikeness of the language to those of western Europe, perhaps even the unfamiliarity 184 DICTIONARY OF RACES of the alphabet used, has delayed the study of what must soon be regarded as one of the great languages and literatures of civilization. Its spread has been more rapid than that of any other in the present century. If the Slav be still backward in western ideas, appliances, and form of government, it is never- theless conceivable that the time is not far dis- tant when he will stand in the lead. The race is still young. Its history is shorter than that of any other important people of Europe. As to the Slavic temperament and character, it will no doubt be safest to generalize what has been said of the Russian by a Russian sociologist, Novi^ow. Roughly condensing a chapter into a paragraph, the Slav may be said to be inequable or changeable in mood and in effort — now ex- alted, now depressed, melancholy, and fatalistic. Much goes with this: Fanaticism in religion, carelessness as to the business virtues of punc- tuality and often honesty, periods of besotted drunkenness among the peasantry, unexpected cruelty and ferocity in a generally placid and kind-hearted individual. It will conduce to a clearer comprehension of the many-sided Slavic stock if we first analyze it into the numerous " races " which comprise it. The following classification is based upon that of Pypin: Serbo-Croatian is called by Miklosich " Serbo- Horvatian," which illustrates the identity of Croatian and Horvatian. " Macedonian " is recognized by others as a dialect of Bulgarian. " Wend " (see) is another name for Lusatian. All these languages are said to be more closely related to one another than are the Teutonic tongues. Difficulties have been made in their mutual study by the use of three different al- phabets — the Roman, the Cyrillic, and the Glagolitic. The Cyrillic, which is a modified, or more propeiiy a mutilated, Greek alphabet, is used by the largest population, nam.ely, by the Russians, the Bulgarians, and the Serbians, or at least by those Serbians who belong to the Greek Church. The alphabet question is mainly a question of religion. The use of the Glagolitic has been encouraged by the Catholic Church in the Catholic parts of Serbia, Croatia, and Dalmatia. It is said to be now used only in the liturgical writings of the Dalmatians. While this alphabet is losing ground, the use of the Roman is increasing. The Poles and the Bohemians have always used the latter. The foregoing classification is of Slavic lan- guages, not of physical races. The Bulgarians belong there only by adoption. They are mainly of a Mongol or " Turanian " stock which borrowed a Slavic tongue. Just the Classification of Slavic tongues I Great Russian . . Russian ■! Wbite Russian. Eastern and Southern Division Little Russian (Ruthenian) . Slovenian Western Division . T, , . f Old Bulgarian (Church Slavonic). Bulgarian | j^^^ Bulgarian. I Serbian, Serbo-Croatian. . ; ^ mimlrian. Syrmian. Carinthian. Styrian. Tsekh. f Bohemian i Moravian. Slovak. Mazurian. ■n V , 1 Great Polish. P°'i^l^ isilesian. _ Kashubian. T ,• /c u\ ( Upper Lusatian, Lusatian (Sorb) <^ Lower Lusatian. Polabish Polabish (extinct). f Moscow. I Novgorod. I Don Kossack. [ Siberian, f Ukranian. i Galician. [ Carpathian. Many variations from this scheme might be cited. The Serbo-Croatian group is increased by the Bosnian and the Herzegovinian, which are counted together with the Dalmatian, and by the Montenegrin, which is put with the Bulgarian and the Serbian into one column. The Croatians and the Slovenians are counted together. In- stead of " Bohemian " as a group name, some use " Czech," and this has good scientific support. opposite is the case of the Rumanians (see) or " Moldo-Wallachians," who are mainly Slavs by blood but Latinized in speech. Turning to the physical characteristics of the Slavs, it is found that there is not, properly speaking, a Slavic race. The " Alpine " type predominates; that is, the broad-headed, bru- nette type, which extends westward from Asia through the uplands of Central Europe. We DICTIONARY OF RACES 185 find this type accentuated as we proceed from north to south in Russia." Deniker, with his more minute classification, says that no fewer than five European races are represented among the Slavs, besides Turkic and Ugric or Mongolian elements. These are the fair, but broad-headed and short, " Eastern " and " Vistulan " races, in Poland and White Russia especially; the dark, very broad-headed, and short " Cevenole " peoples among the Little Russians of the south, the Slovaks, and some Great Russians; and the taller, but still dark and broad-headed, " Adri- atic " and "Sub-Adriatic" races amongst the southwestern Slavs or Serbo-Croatians and some Czechs and Ruthenians. In the northwest the Russians have been modified by the blond or Teutonized Finns, in the northeast by the dark Finns, and in the southeast by the Tatars; but all such alike are broad-headed Mongolians in origin. With the exception of these Asiatic remnants and the related Magyars and Turks, and the Greeks, all of Europe east of Germany is filled with Slavs. They occupy more than one- half of the Continent of Europe. SLAVONIAN. Used in two senses: (1) The entire Slav (see) group of races; (2) a native of Slavonia, a province of Hungary (see Croatian), being then a term of nationality, not of race. SLOVAK (called Totok, that is, " Slavs,'/ by Hungarian Magyars). The easternmost division of the Czechish-^speaking peoples; the " race " occupying practically all of northern Hungary excepting the Ruthenian territory in the north- east; also densely settled in southeastern Mora- via. " Slovakland " is a political dream and probably an unrealizable one. It has no definite boundaries, as has Bohemia or Moravia. In physical type, also, no dividing line can be drawn between the Slovaks and the Moravians. Even in language it is often claimed that Slovaks speak only a dialect of Bohemian. It is only in their social and political condition that they are sharply distinguished from their Czech brothers on the west. Properly speaking, they are hardly a distinct " race " even in the sense in which the Germans and the Dutch of Holland are different races. They are merely those Moravians who were conquered by Hungary, says Colquhoun. Much of what has been said in the article Bohemian and Moravian (Czech) applies here and need not be repeated at length. As there indi- cated, the eastern Czechs, including the Slovaks, are among the broadest-headed of all the peoples of Europe, not excepting the Asiatic Tatars and Turks. They are of medium stature, some rather low; but they are well built, and, like most Slavs, make excellent farmers. In their own country most are engaged in agriculture and herding. There is much difference of opinion on the subject of their language. Here, as is often the case, scientific discussions have been influenced by religious and political considerations, it being denied in some quarters that the Slovaks are Bohemians or even Czechs. On the other hand, Protestant leaders, and philologists, even, have claimed that Slovak is merely Old Bohemian and have urged the use of Bohemian as the sole written language. To this day, it is said, the Bible has not been translated into any purely Slovak dialect. The connection of the Slovak Protestants, that is, of one-fourth of the popula- tion, with the Moravian and Bohemian Brethren is, therefore, close. On the other hand. Catholic writers have urged the literary development of various dialects spoken by the Slovaks. One fact is clear, that Slovak, as a distinct written language and literature, is not 50 years old. Even to this day where the population is uni- formly Slovak, that is, over the western border in Moravia, Slovaks are taught only Bohemian in the schools, and all of the people use it in reading and writing. In the Slovak counties of Hungary the Mag- yars have attempted to replace this Slavic tongue, distantly related to our own, with one of Asiatic or Mongol origin, agglutinative, totally different in type, the Magyar. Here, in three- fourths of the elementary schools, Magyar is taught; in one-half of them Magyar alone. One- eighth only of the schools of " Slovakland " are conducted entirely in the Slovak tongue. In the 200 or more higher schools the use of the Slovak tongue, even as a medium of conversation, is still more restricted. Forty per cent of the population of North Hungary are counted as Magyars because they use that language. The Slovaks say that in this way the census misrepre- sents their actual number. Among a people so long and so largely deprived of a written language of their own, there is not only an extraordinary degree of illiteracy — 50 per cent — but a great divergence of spoken dialects. To an unusual extent these dialects are modified by surrounding languages of the most opposite type. Thus we find in the west, Moravian-Slovak; in the north, Polish- Slovak, sometimes called Sotak; and in the east, Ruthenian-Slovak — all purely Slavic. But in the west, on the border of Austria, one finds the German-Slovak, a more heterogeneous com- position, and in the south even Magyar-Slovak. These names indicate what languages border on the Slovak country. The Serbo-Slavic dialect is not so easily explained. Safarik, a competent linguist, although ultrapatriotic, finds three chief groups of dialects: (1) The pure Slovak, (2) the Moravian-Slovak, and (3) the Polish- Slovak. He includes among Slovak dialects not only the Trpak, the Krekach, and the Zahorak, DICTIONARY OF RACES but the Hanak, the Walach, and the Podhorak of Moravia. [See article Bohemian and Mo- ravian {Czech) for these dialects and for a general view of Slovaks themselves in their linguistic relations.] Serres, an older writer, gives the name of Charvats to the " Slovaks of Mo- ravia," including the Walachs, who, in turn, include the Chorobats and the Kopaniczars. As explained in the article on the Bohemians and Moravians, these Walachs are considered, on the authority of Czornig, to be Moravians. The Charvats and Chorobats of Serres aie probably fragments of the old Khrovats, or Carpaths — that is, " mountaineers " — from whom the modern Croatians (see) derive their name. In civilization " Slovakland " lies, as it does linguistically, between the east and the west of Europe — between the Teutonic and the Slavic worlds. Its culture is rather primitive. Less advanced than Bohemia, its people partake of some of the solid qualities of that admirable branch of Western Slavs. They are industrious, but they are desperately poor, partly because of the character of their mountain home. In fact they have been called the poorest people of Europe. SLOVENIAN; called also, in part, Krainer and Carinthian (Khorutan); by Germans, Wind or Wend; and by Magyars sometimes, but wrongly, Vandal; also sometimes called, together with the Croatian (see), lUyrian. The westernmost branch of the Southern or Balkan Slavs; located in southern Austria between Hungary and the Adriatic, especially in the province of Carniola (Ger. Krain). The Slovenians or Southern Winds are, with the exception of the Northern Wends of Germany, the smallest " race " in numbers of the Slavic (Slavonic) division of Aryan peoples. There is considerable confusion of thought concerning the above terms and the relation of the Slovenians to other Slavs. In the first place, the Slovenians are not to be confounded with the Slovaks, an entirely different people. They are separated from the latter by the Magyars, the Slovenians living southwest of Hungary between the Magyars and the Adriatic, while the Slovaks live on the northern border of Hungary. In language they belong to different branches of the Slavs — the Slovenians to the Southern Divi- sion, with the Serbians and the Croatians, and the Slovaks to the Western Division, with the Poles and the Bohemians. In America Slovenians are sometimes called Slavonians under the mistaken impression that they come from the neighboring province of Slavonia. The word Slavonian may be used in two senses. It may mean any inhabitant of Slavonia, but it is then a political term, denoting nationality, not an ethnographical term denoting race; and the Slavonians in this sense are Serbo- Croatians (see Croatian), not Slovenians, al- though closely related to the latter. In the second and more usual sense, Slavonian is the equivalent of Slavic, and refers to the great race of eastern Europe of which the Russians and the Poles are the northern branches and the Slo- venians, Serbians, and Bulgarians are the south- ern divisions. Of course, the words Slovenian, Slavonian, Slovak, and Slav all come from the same early name of the Slavic race. But the Slovenians are by no means to be taken as the best modern representatives of that race, al- though they claim to be one of the first branches of it to be introduced to western civilization in the middle ages. It is, at the least, confusing to call the Slo- venians Winds or Wends (see), as some scientific writers do. For this word is generally used to designate a distinct people of the Slavic group which belongs, with the Poles, to the Western Division, not to the Southern, as the Slovenian does. The Wend population is found only in Germany, where it is also called the Sorb, or, from its location, the Lusatian. It has dwindled to only a fragment. It is, of course, not Serb, that is, Serbian. The name Illyrian is a still greater misnomer, although iised in the last century by the Slavs themselves in this region. The name CMnes from that of the ancient prov- ince of Illyria and was given great vogue under Napoleon, when the national spirit of the Slo- venians, in union with the Croatians and the Dalmatians, received a great impetus. An older name, Corutani, corresponds to that of a modern province of Austria, Carinthia, which is now more German than Slovenian. In like manner the geographical or provincial name, Istrian, signifies an Italian more often than a Slovenian. Krain, as the Austrians call Carniola, is the only true Slovenian province. Except in southern Styria, Styrian, like Carinthian, means one of German descent. These provinces are the only ones in Austria that can be called Slovenian even in part, if we except a small district which centers in Goriz, on the Gulf of Istria, at the head of the Adriatic Sea. Here also the Slovenians extend slightly over the border into Italy, as they do on the east somewhat into Hungary. Altogether the Slovenian territory is not over 150 miles in length by 100 in breadth. The only considerable linguistic " island " in it is that of the Gottshees, a curious German stock in southern Carniola near the Croatian border. To sum up, the Slovenian territory is bounded on the north by the German of Austria, and on the south by the Croatian, while it touches the Magyar on the east and the Italian on the west, or, rather, its sister language, the Ladin of Friuli DICTIONARY OF RACES 187 (see Rhceio-Romansh). In this territory, mainly Austrian, Slovenian is spoken by about a third of the population. German predominates in Carinthia and Styria, but in the central province of the Slovenians, Carniola, Slovenian is spoken by 95 per cent of the population. It is the lan- guage of about 32,000 inhabitants of northern Italy and of 95,000 in Himgary. The linguistic position of the Slovenian is probably evident from the foregoing. Its nearest relative is the Serbo-Croatian speech. Together they constitute the Southern Division of the Slavic. Although distinct, they shade into each other on the border. Thus the language of a large portion of western Croatia, called the " Provincial," is considered by some to be Croatian, by others Sloveno-Croatian. The dialects of the Slovenian are numerous, and are differently named by different writers. Those spoken by the largest number are the literary dialect of the Krainer, of Carniola, together with the Gorenci and the Dolenci; next, the dialects of the so-called " Winds," eight in number, found in Styria. Then come the dialects of the smaller Istrian groups, the Berkins, Savrins, and Poiks, and those of the so-called " Vandals " of Hungary. The Resian is spoken on the Italian border. In physique the Slovenians mediate between the Germans north of them and the Croatians on the south. Perhaps the tall, broad-headed, and dark type to which the most of them belong should be called " lUyric," rather than Slavic. Deniker gives it a separate name, the " Adri- atic." Broad-headed as the Slavs, the Illyrians are of greater stature than the latter. Their features often suggest an ancient Mongol ele- ment. Their position on the western Slavic van- guard has not led them to as high a development as it has the Bohemians or the Poles, perhaps because they are weaker and have had a greater burden to share with the Serbo-Croatian in defending the marches against the Turk. Their literature has been overshadowed by that of the greater body of Serbo-Croatians. Being Cath- olics, they use the Roman alphabet, like the Croatians, not the Cyrillic of the Orthodox Serbians. In early days they were quite unique in the use of the Glagolitic letters, which were somewhat like the Cyrillic or .Russian. SPANISH. The principal people of Spain, a branch of the Romance group of the Aryan family; the people of Spain and their descendants of pure blood in other countries, with the excep- tion of the Spanish Americans, Mexicans, West Indians, and Cubans. Even Basques and Moors (see) who have lived in Spain a long time are considered as Spanish for convenience. The national language, Spanish, is native to only a part of the Kingdom of Spain. Other native languages spoken by considerable numbers in Spain are the Basque, the Catalan, and a dialect of the Portuguese. As an ethnic group the people of Spain present a remarkable unity. They are descended from the ancient Celt-Iberians, with considerable infusion of other stocks, including perhaps even Teutonic elements (Visigothic) dating back tp the middle ages. They resemble the South Italians in head form and in many psychical characters. They are for the most part Catholic in religion. The term " Spanish language " may be used in a broad or generic sense to include several closely related native dialects of Spain — Cas- tilian, Asturian, Leonese, Aragonese, and Andalu- sian. In a restricted sense it is the Castilian dialect which has been crystallized in literary form and is the cultured and court language of Spain. It is considered to be more closely related to Latin than is Italian, but contains a number of Teutonic and Moorish elements. It is the native language throughout Spain, with the exception of a narrow strip on the eastern coast (Catalan), the small Basque provinces in the north, and the provinces lying north of Portugal. It is the prevailing language in Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the countries of South America, excepting Brazil, and among the cul- tured in the Philippines. In these islands, how- ever, it is being rapidly replaced by English. It is estimated that Spanish is the mother tongue of about 50,000,000 persons, more than two-thirds of whom live outside of Spain. Of the other linguistic groups of Spain, the Basques (see), although smallest in numbers, are perhaps the most interesting. They are one of the most ancient stocks in Europe, if not the most isolated. They occupy a small district in the northern part of Spain in the Pyrenees on the French border. They speak a non-Aryan tongue totally different from any other in Europe. Al- though once thought to be related to the Mongo- lian Finnish, their language is now known to re- semble the Berber of North Africa. They present a peculiar face form, very wide at the temples and narrow at the chin. The Galicians and the Catalans have much larger populations. The former, also called " Gallegos," live in the provinces in the north- western part of Spain north of Portugal. They speak a dialect of Portuguese (see) which is quite closely related to Spanish. Even Portuguese was once considered a dialect of Spanish, although it has now attained recognition as an independent idiom. The Catalans (see) occupy a narrow strip along the eastern coast of Spain and the Balearic Isles. Their language is unintelligible to the Castilian-speaking peasants. It is considered by some to be a separate Romance tongue 188 DICTIONARY OF RACES on an equal with Spanish and Provengal, by others as an offshoot of the latter, which it resembles much more than it does Castilian, the neighboring dialect of Spanish. It has quite a rich literature of its own which is especially fos- tered by the people of Barcelona. It is the lan- guage of over 3,500,000 persons of eastern Spain and the Balearic Isles. Moors (60,000) and Gypsies (50,000) are scattered throughout Spain but are comparatively unimportant. Physically the Castilians, Catalans, Gali- cians, and even Basques and Moors, of Spain, are quite homogeneous. The entire Iberian Penin- sula is, in fact, one of the most uniform in phys- ical type of any large region in Europe. The head form of the people of to-day is apparently that of their prehistoric ancestors, the ancient Iberians. They are among the most long-headed of all Europe. They resemble the South Italians more than the French, but are taller and less brunette than the former. The Catalans are the tallest of Spaniards and the Galicians are the heaviest. The typical Spaniard is long-headed, of medium stature (average, 5 feet 5 inches), rather brunette, and spare. Ripley places him in the " Mediterranean " group along with the South Italian, the Greek, and the Berber of North Africa. The Spanish have long been an emigrating and colonizing people, but seem to have reached their zenith in this direction. STEPOVIKI. A subdivision of the Ruthe- nians (see) living in the plains (steppes) of Russia. STYRIAN. A geographical term, not the name of a race. A native of Styria, a duchy of Austria. SWISS. The term Swiss simply means a native or inhabitant of Switzerland. It has no significance as to race. There is no Swiss race in the sense in which we use the terms Frenchman, German, Italian, but only a Swiss nation. The Swiss are represented by four linguistic groups, one Teutonic (German) and three Italic (French, •Italian, and Romansh). Two-thirds of the population of Switzerland are German, about one-fourth are French, and only one-fifteenth are Italian. Besides, these large populations of German, French, and Italian there are about 40,000 Romansh (see these) . The Romansh live in the sequestered valleys of the canton of Grisons, the Italians in the valley of the Ticino, and the French in the western part of Switzer- land. In the greater part of Switzerland the speech is German. About two-fifths of the Swiss are Catholics and three-fifths Protestants. SYRIAN (not SIRYAN). The native Ara- maic race or people of Syria. Not Arabian, although practically all Syrians to-day speak Arabic and a considerable part of the present population of Syria is Arabian. Most often distinguished from Arabs by their religion, Syrian immigrants generally being Christians, although m-any of their kinsmeo in Syria are Mohammedan. The influence of American missionaries and schools in Syria evidently explains in part whj^ our immigration from that country is of Syrians rather than of Arabs. Physically the modern Syrians are of mixed Syrian, Arabian, and even Jewish blood. They belong to the Semitic branch (see) of the Cau- casian race, thus widely differing from their rulers, the Turks (see), who are in origin Mon- golian. Linguistically they are not so closely related to the Aryans or Indo-Europeans as are their fellow-subjects of Turkey, the Armenians. Their ancient language, the Syriac, a fonn of the Eastern Aramaic, has Hebrew for its nearest relative. A little more distant is the Arabic tongue. Even the Abyssinian speech is more closely related to it than is the ancient Assyrian, with which it is sometimes confounded. These, with the Coptic dialects of Egypt, are the chief languages of the non-Aryan, Semitic-Hamitic stock (see) of Syria, Chaldee, Chaldaic, and Syro-Chaldaic are other names applied to the form of this language which was spoken by Christ and His disciples. The Neo-Syriac, Palmyrene, and Nabatean dialects are safd to be the only modern forms of the Aramaic, and are spoken by only a small population of villagers under the stimulus of missionary zeal. These reside for the most part east of the main population of Syria (see Ayssore in article Assyrian). Syria is an ancient rather than a modern term, although used, in a narrower sense, by the Turkish Government. It properly comprises all the region lying between the eastern end of the Mediterranean and the desert and is about 430 miles long by 100 wide. Palestine constitutes only one-tenth of it. Of the 3,000,000 (esti- mated) population of Syria, the Syrians probably outnumber the Arabs, Turks, and Jews, although there are more Mohammedans than Christians in Syria. The population of Palestine, consists mainly of Arabs, (see), notwithstanding the recent colonization of Jews in the Holy Land. Among other inhabitants of Syria closely related to the Syrians, if not of the same blood, are descendants of the Phoenicians, inhabitants of the coast districts; the Maronites, Christians of the Lebanon; the Druses, half pagan and un- friendly neighbors of the Maronites; and the Nusarieh or Ansarieh, descendants of the Nazarini, who are, called Fellahin in Syria, and who do not seem to be orthodox in their Moham- medanism. TATARIC (TARTARIC), TURKIC, or TURKO-TATARIC. One of the six linguistic groups which constitute the Sibiric or Ural- DICTIONARY OF RACES Altaic branch of languages spoken by Mongo- lians, as divided by Brinton. The group in- cludes the Turks, the Tatars in the narrower sense of the word, the Kazaks or " Cossacks " (Kirghiz), the Turkomans, the Huns of history (not the Magyars), and less important tribes still living in Asia, such as the Yakuts and Uzbegs. All these are supposed to have had their origin in Chinese Tartary. Their importance' to the student consists in the fact that they constitute more than 6,000,000 of the population of eastern Russia. They may fairly be said to be the most backward in civiliza- tion of any large population of Europe. Al- though filling the best portion of eastern Russia from north to south, they are but little known and their strength and possibilities but little suspected by the ordinary reader. They are perhaps the largest body of non- Caucasians in Europe, about equal in numbers to the Magyars or the Jews. The only other European populations of Mongolian origin are the Ugro^'Finnic stock (Magyars, Lapps, etc.) and the Kalmuks or " Calmucks " (see these). The latter is only a small, isolated tribe of Mongols near the Caspian, in close contact with Tatars and not greatly unlike them. Joined with the Mongol hordes of Genghis Khan, the Tatars have written their name large on the history of the Eastern world. Indeed, these Mongol founders of dynasties have generally, but wrongly, been known to history as Tatars. Their descendants still possess Turkey and dominate the Mohammedan world. As has been explained in the article on the Ural-Altaic stock, of which they form a part, the Tatars, Kazaks, and Turks are closely related in language to the Magyars and Finns, and more distantly to the Japanese and Koreans. All these have agglutinative " Turanean " languages, as contrasted with the monosyllabic Chinese and the inflected Aryan speech of India and western Europe. The dialects of Turkey are veiy closely related to those of the eastern Rus- sian people who call themselves " Tiirki," that is, Turks, but who are more properly called " Tatars." Physically and socially the Tataric group have not become so fully Europeanized as the Finnic. As a rule the Turks are the farthest advanced of the group, and are thought of as much like ourselves; but they by no means so closely resemble Western Europeans as the blond Finns, or even the darker Magyars, the Finnic stock of Hungary. The greater part of the Tataric populations of Russia are Moham- medan in faith, although Shamanisnd still per- sists among them, as it does among their kins- men of Asia. Some are still polygamists. Since the Turks are discussed in a separate article, it remains to speak here only of the more backward Tataric stock, and especially of the 6,000,000 Turko-Tatars of eastern Russia. Geographically they all live south of the Finnic stock of Russia. With the latter they give one the impression of being simply a part of Asia that has everywhere pushed over the line and settled upon European soil. In some provinces the competing Russian stock has entirely surrounded them. The Mordvinian and Bashkir commu- nities dot the map like little islands in the Russian flood. It is in such districts that the Tataric populations are becoming most rapidly Chris- tianized and Russified by intermarriage. The most important division by far of the Turko-Tatars of Russia is that of the Tatars proper, using this term in the narrow sense. They call themselves " Tiirki," not " Tatars," but they are distinct from the Turks of Turkey. They are scattered widely through- out Russia, especially in the large cities, but are most numerous on the Volga and about the Caspian Sea, in southeastern Russia. Only about 270,000 live in, Asia. About 200,000 others live north of the Black Sea. This number probably includes the " Nogai " Tatars of the Crimea, still Mohammedan, who are mentioned by various authorities. Tatars located north of the Crimea have embraced the Greek faith and are Caucasian rather than Tataric in physical type, no doubt because of intermarriage with the surrounding Little Russian population. The Karaits are a small group of 5,000 or 6,000 people, also in the Crimea. They are said to be Tatar in origin, but to have been long ago converted to the Jewish faith. They speak a Tatar dialect. Leaving the better-known Kazaks to a sep- arate article (see Cossacks), we need to consider here only the Bashkirs, the Chuvashes, the Turkomans, and a few less familiar tribes, mainly of Asiatic residence. Of these the Bashkirs are by far the most numerous. They do not extend over the line into Asia in such numbers as do the Tatars, although they live on both sides of the Ural Mountains, in the easternmost province of Russia, Orenburg, and in Ufa, which joins the latter on the west. They therefore are located farthest toward the northeast of all the Tataric peoples of Russia, with the exception of a small group called " Mestcheriaks." The Tepyaks lie close to these in Ufa and the province of Samara, next to Asia. There remains to be noted in eastern Russia the more important branch known as the " Chu- vashes." .They extend farthest west of the Tataric populations, into Central Russia, being quite surrounded by Great Russians and Eastern Finns (Cheremisses and Mordvinians). Like the Bashkirs, they are really a mixed Finno- Tataric stock. The Kazan Tatars live on the 190 DICTIONARY OF RACES eastern bank of the Upper Volga, opposite the Chuvashes. The Turkomans proper, closely related to the Osmanlis of Turkey, live for the most part east of the Caspian, in Central Asia. Less than 8,000 are found in eastern Russia. They are for the most part a wild population of nomads. The name Turkoman is sometimes used in a wider sense to include the related peoples of Persia (such as the Aderbaijani Turks, Kajars, and Afshars) and of Asia Minor (Kizil-Bashis, Yuruks, and Gotchebes — " Seljuk Turks," as the peasant classes are called). Some of these, as the Kizil-Bashis, are largely Aryan (see) in descent rather than Mongolian. The Kazaks (see) live north of the Turkomans in Russian Asia. Passing now to the Tataric peoples of the Caucasus provinces, the most numerous and important are the Osmanlis, the proper name of the Turks of European Turkey (see Turkish). Neighboring them are the Nogais, already men- tioned, and the small populations of the Karat- chais and the Karapapakhs. More numerous are the Kumyks, who live on the Caspian side of the Caucasus. They, like the Nogais, are no doubt a blend of Tatar and Caucasian. Most of the Caucasus peoples (see) are not Turko- Tataric, that is, of Mongolian origin, but are Caucasians who generally speak non-Aryan lan- guages. The remaining Tataric tribes are confined to Asia and need no especial notice here. Among them are the Kara-Kirghiz, or " black " Kirghiz, the Kara-Kalpaks, the Sartes, and the Uzbegs, all of Central Asia, and the Yakuts of Siberia. TAVASTIAN or TAVAST. A division of the Western Finns. (See Finnish.) TEUTONIC. A great branch of the Aryan (see) family of languages and " races," including all those of northwestern Europe excepting the Celtic (see). TOUGHOLTS or TUKHOLTSI. A Little Russian of Galicia. (See Ruthenian.) TSEKH or TSHECK. Same as Czech. (See Bohemian and Moravian.) TURKISH. In the narrow sense, the people now dominant in Turkey; called by themselves " Osmanlis," that is, Ottomans. Some ethnol- ogists define the word " Turkic " in a much broader sense to include all the Tataric group (see) of the Sibiric branch of the Mongolian di- vision of mankind. In this sense it includes not only the Osmanlis of Turkey, but other peoples of eastern Russia, such as the Tatars, the Kirghiz- Kazaks, and the Turkomans, and also the older relatives of this group stretching across Asia from Turkey to central Siberia, such as the Yakuts. While we apply the name "Turks" only to the Osmanlis, they themselves apply it only to provincials; and we do not apply it to the Tatars, although the latter call themselves " Tiirki." With all the foregoing may be com- bined the Lapps, Finns, Magyars, and other non-Caucasian Europeans to make up the larger group variously known as the " Finno-Tatar," the " Turanian," or the " Ural-Altaic." (See these.) The linguistic relationship of all these peoples is much closer to-day than the physical. The languages are agglutinative, like the Japanese, not inflected like the speech of the Arabs, Syrians, Armenians, and Hebrews subject to Turkey. Physically and in culture the Turks have become Europeanized, though to a less degree than the related Finns and Magyars. Instead of becoming blond, as the Finns, they have approached the brunette type of southern Europe, probably in part through their frequent intermarriages with the Circassian and other Mohammedan peoples of the Caucasus. In fact, to-day they are not so much Turkish by blood as Arabian, Circassian, Persian, Armenian, Greek, and Slavic. They prefer to be considered as Arabo-Persian in culture rather than as Turkish. In religion they are almost universally Mohammedan. The Turks are in the minority in their own country, especially in the European part of Turkey, where the Turks, Greeks, Albanians, and " Slavs " (Bulgarians and Serbians) are said by some writers to be found in nearly equal parts. The first three named have been estimated to constitute 70 per cent of the population. No census of Turkey has ever been taken. In the capital itself, Constantinople, the Turks con- stitute only about one-half of the population of 1,200,000. In Turkey in Asia, on the other hand the Turkish race is in the majority. The Mohammedans number perhaps 10,000,000 in a total population of 13,000,000 in Asiatic Turkey and Armenia. There are about 500,000 Turks in Bulgaria out of a total population of 4,000,000. The Mohammedan population of Bosnia and Herzegovina is mainly Slavic rather than Turkish. In Serbia and Greece there is prac- tically no Turkish population. TURKOMAN. An important Tataric people of Asia closely related to the Osmanli Turks. (See Tataric and Turkish.) TYROLESE. Not the name of a race. Any native or inhabitant of the province of Tyrol, Austria. There is no Tyrolean race in the sense that we use the terms French, German, or Slovak race. The Tyxolese represent two very different linguistic divisions of the Aryan family, Teutons and Latins. About 55 per cent of the population are German. Of the remainder, about three-fourths are Italian and one-fourth Ladin (see these) or Rhseto-Romansh (see). There are also Czechs and Slovenians. DICTIONARY OF RACES 191 The inhabitants of Tyrol show marked differ- ences physically. Ripley says that rarely is so close a relationship found between physical characters and language. The Germans are long-headed, tall, and light, the majority being above 5 feet 6 inches, while the Italians and Ladins to the south are broad-headed and brunette, and less than one-fifth of them attain the height of their Teutonic neighbors. Most of the Tyrolese are Catholic in religion. UGRO-FINNIC, UGRIAN, UGRO-SCY- THIAN, FINNO-UGRIC, sometimes FINNIC. The equivalent of " Finnish " when used in the widest sense to include both the Finnic and the Ugric branches of the Ural-Altaic division of Mongolian languages. The chief immigrant S copies speaking Finnic languages are the lagyars and the Finns. UIGURIC. A branch of the Tataric (see) group of languages, including the Turkoman Xsce) and the Jagatai. From the ancient Uigurs is derived the name of the great Ugro-Finnic (see) group of northern Mongolians. UKJRANIAN, A geographical term; a name applied to the Little Russians of Ukraine. (See Ituihenian.) URAL-ALTAIC ; synonyms, Finno-Tataric, Mongolo-Turkic, Sibiric, Scythian, Turko- Ugrian, Altaic, Urahc, Mongolo-Tataric, Ugro- Altaic (in widest senne), and formerly Tataric or Turanian. (See Ugro-Finnic for narrower terms.) The family of agglutinative languages, which distinguishes the Sibiric division of the Mongolian race from the remaining or Sinitic division (Chinese, etc.), the latter possessing a monosyllabic speech. (See Mongolian and Fin- nish.) These are more properly linguistic than ethnical terms, although "Finno-Tataric," which is used in both senses, might well be reserved to designate the peoples and "Ural-Altaic" to designate the languages they epeak. It is not commonly known that these all derive their origin from the same primitive Mongolian stock of northern Asia, and that, although the western members of the stock have become more or less Europeanized in blood, they still have languages of absolutely different origin and type from our own. They are thus cut off from par- ticipation in our literature, and necessarily, to a certain extent, from our ideals and institutions. The Ural-Altaic languages are agglutinative, while our Indo-European languages are inflected and the Chinese is monosyllabic. The only re- maining primary division or family of languages in the world is that of the American Indiaas, the poly synthetic. The term "Turanian," now generally discarded, was applied by Max Miiller to nearly all Old World languages that are neither Indo-European nor Semitic. It was soon loosely applied to all poorly understood languages and ethnical stocks of Europe. Nor is the term "Scythian" in common use, although carefully hmited by Whitney to this group now under discussion. The geographical extent of these people is immense, being second only to that of the Indo- European stock. They extend from the Atlantic (the Lapps of northern Norway) to the Pacific (the Japanese), filling not only all of northern and western Asia down to India, but much of eastern and southeastern Europe (the "Hungarians," Turks, Finns, and various peoples of eastern Russia). The population of this stock is nevertheless small, perhaps 60,000,000, not counting the 60,000,000 Japanese and Koreans. They are very thinly spread out over 10,000,000 square miles, largely in frigid and desert regions of Siberia and central Asia. Their migratory instinct threatened to submerge Europe in the middle ages, but their numbers now count for little even when the proportion that leave their homes is abnormally large, as in the case of the Magyars and the Finns to-day (see). The entire Finnish population numbers less than 6,000,0(X); the Magyar population about 8,500,000. VEP or SOUTHERN CHUDE. A division of the P'innish (see). VELIKO-RUSSIAN. Same as Great Rus- sian (see). VOGUL, A Finnish people (see) living partly in Siberia. WALACH, A division of Moravians. (See Bohemian.) Not the Wallachians of Rumania. (See Rumanian.) WALLACHIAN. Same as Rumanian (see). (Cf. Walach.) WALLOON. A name applied to French Belgians and to their language, a dialect of French (see). They are found in the southeastern provinces of Belgium and the neighboring dis- trict of northern France. They are supposed to be descended from the ancient Belgian Gauls of Caesar. WALSER. A name applied to certain Ger- mans (see; living in Austria. WELSH. The principal people of Wales; linguistically, a division of the Cymric branch of the Celtic group of Aryans (see); physically, a mixed race. The term " Welsh " is, also used to mean any native or naturalized inhabitant of Wales, but thus used it is a term of nationality, not an ethnical one. The Welsh language is the most important member of the Cymric division of Celtic tongues (see). It is an ancient and distinct tongue so far as history carries us, and since the eighth century has had a literature nearly, if not quite, as rich as that of the Irish, which is the most important division of the other branch of Celtic tongues, DICTIONARY OF RACES the Gaelic. In modern literature the Welsh excels all other Celtic languages, for there are several quarterlies, monthlies, and weeklies printed in it, some of which have thousands of subscribers. It is the fireside speech of nearly half the population of Wales, and is used in the churches and the church schools. The Welsh eisteddfod, or musical and literary meeting, is very popular, not only in Wales, but in large Welsh colonies in the Uiiited States and in Australia. Nevertheless, t;he Welsh language, lilie all other Celtic tongues, is losing ground. Its nearest kinsman, the Cornish (see), became extinct a little over a century ago. Ravenstein says that 70 per cent of the population of Wales could speak Welsh. The census of 1911 shows only about 50 per cent of the population able to speak Welsh. Yet, as compared with other Celtic tongues, Welsh is still quite vigorous. For, while less than 1 per cent of the populations of Scotland and Ireland can speak a Celtic tongue only, 15 per cent of the population of Wales speak Welsh only. Only in Brittany, France, is another Celtic language, the Breton, so extensively used. Physically, the Welsh are anything but ho- mogeneous, for Beddoe finds at least two phys- ical races in Wales not yet thoroughly amal- gamated. One is the " Northern," whose repre- sentatives are tall, long-headed, light-eyed, darkish haired — a type that reminds one of the Irish (see) . The other presents quite a contrast. It is short, compactly built, broader-headed, of dark complexion, with dark eyes. This type is thought to belong to the " Alpine " race, called by some, perhaps hastily, the " Celtic " (see) physical type. Here again is a difference be- tween the Cymric people of Wales and the Gaelic peoples of Ireland and Scotland, for in the latter physical anthropologists fail to find evi- dence to warrant an " Alpine " origin. In religion the Welsh are, for the most part, Protest- ants, dissenters from the Church of England. Geographically, the Welsh are found in Wales and in that part of England immediately ad- joining Wales, especially in Monmouthshire. Nearly 1,000,000 persons speak the Welsh lan- guage. WEND, LUSATIAN, or SORABIAN. A small branch of the Western Slavs living in Lusatia, a name formerly applied to a part of Germany, now forming parts of the provinces of Silesia and Brandenburg (Prussia) and of the Kingdom of Saxony. The Wends call themselves " Serbs." They are now restricted to a region about 40 by 75 miles in extent and are entirely surrounded by Germans, by whom they are being rapidly absorbed. Their language, which has two dialects — a High and a Low — is called " Lusa- tian " or " Sorabian." It was nearly extinct as a. literary language when revived by the efforts of a society about the middle of the last century. The Wends are peasant farmers and for the most part Lutherans. Only a few thousand are Catholics. The term " Wind " is sometimes improperly used to apply to Slovenians (see). " Wend "'was formerly used by Germans to mean any Slav (see). WENDIC. A term given by Max Miiller to the Letto-Slavic (see) group of languages. Not Wend (see). ' WERCHOWINCI. A geographical term ap- plying to mountaineers of different stocks ethnically in the Carpathians, in eastern Austria; it includes the Boikos, the Tuholtses, and the Huzuls. (See these in article Ruthenian.) WHITE RUSSIAN. (See Russian.) YEZIDI. A branch of the Kurks (see). YIDDISH. A modern language of the He- brews (see). YUGO-RUSSIAN. Same as South Russian. (See Ruthenian.) YUGO-SLAVIC. Same as South Slavic. (See Croatian.) ZIGEUNER. A name by which Gypsies (see) are known in Germany. ZINGARO. A name by which Gypsies (see) are known in Italy and Spain. ZIP. A name applied to Germans (see) in northern Hungary. 15 2(1 10 ■West 5° Longitude Q" from 5° Greenwich 10' East 15 194 116,035,000 GERMANY* AUSTRIA HUNGARY 20,686,000 BOSNIA >,89SjOOO AUSTRIA HUNGARY CWilh Bosnia) GERMANY 1-AUSTRlA HUNGARY (With Bosnia) BULGARIA • ^ /? ^^iq>c W /v 196 OF THE ^ Nalionalit/ Slate Number 'im.t Germany 59,769,000 92.0 ^H GEI^MANS Austria 9,950,000 350 ^^H Huni^anv ^ 2,03ZOOO 98 ■ Total 71, 756000 ftl S MAGYARS Hungary 10,051.000 48 1 ^H BULBARS B^ilgaria 5,204.000 73.8 ^M TURKS ? ? ■ •' Ottomantmpire 7,000.000 35.0 Total 92,011,000 65.5 DANES Germany 162,000 0,25 1 1 ALSATIANS „ 1,629,000 2.5 1 1 FRENCH „ 258,000 0-4 1 1 LITHUANIANS ^ 122,000 0.2 1 i SORABIANS „ 157,000 0.24 POLES „ 3,834,000 5-9 " Austria 4.968,000 175 Total 8,802.000 S.4 1 1 RUTHENES Austria 3,519.000 12 4 " Hungary 473.000 2-3 Total 3.S92.000 A a CZECHS - Austria 6,436.000 227 Hungary 1,968,000 94 Total a,4(M,000 16.4 1 Natioridlity Slate Number instate Austria Hungary Bosnia 2,036.000 2,940,000 1.898.000 7,2 14.0 lOOO JUGOSLAVS )1 Tofat 6:874.00C 13.4 - ROUMANIANS Austria Hungary 275.000 2.949.000 09 14 1 Total 3,224.000 6 3 ' ITALIANS GREEKS ARMENIANS LAZES KURDS NESTORIANS ARABS Austria Turkey Bulgaria Turkey : 1 " 1 768000 2,000 000 ? 2000,000 2000,000 :^ 000.000 2.7 100 7 ido 100 35.0 All Total Subject Colors Nationdlifiei Tote/ Qerwat^Allldnce 47,392POO 33.8 lo°o°o1 EzpropriaJtWThi qflhe Geniuvz'AnsiedehingsKimmXssum.' IV.VI Jewish. Colonies inPalesUm. ..^'S ,?\.t ^% '^ ''^ ls1ano7.»'An|ora '®Konieh" f Tarsus Mersina> A'laman / 'f Di^rDekr ^fa ^"^ N 197 198 199 200 CX)MPLETE INDEX OF LARGE SCALE W^AR MAP OF THE WESTERN FRONT Copyright, 19X7, by C. S. Hammond & Co., N. Y. This compilation contains the names of all places shown on the accompanying map. Locations are indicated by the index references at the right. The names of the countries are shown by initials as B — Belgium; E — England; F — France; G — Germany; L — Luxemburg; N — Netherlands. Aardenburg, N. . . F 1 Aa River C 2 Aar River S 4 Abancourt, F . . . . B 7 Abancourt, F — .F 5 Abbecourt, F. . . .F 7 Abbeville, F C 5 Abbeville, F M 9 Abducourt, F L 9 Ablain, F E 4 Ablaincourt, F E 6 Ablancourt, F JIO Ableiges, F C 9 Ablis, F Bll Ablois, F GIO Abondant, F BIO Achel, B L 1 Achen, G P 9 Achene, B K 5 Achern, G SIX Achery, F F 7 Acheiix, F D 6 Achicourt, F E 5 Achiet-le-Petit, F.E 5 Acq, F E' 5 Acquigny, F A 9 Acy-en-Multien, F .....E 9 Adegen, B, F 1 Adelange, G OlO Adenau, G O 4 Adinfer, F E 5 Adinkerke, B D 2 Aeltre, B F 2 Aeoz, B J 4 Aerschot, B K 2 Aerseele, B F 2 Aertrycke, B F 2 Afden, G M 2 Afsne, B G 2 Agpier River P 2 Agimont, B J 5 Agincourt, F. . . .Nil Agnez, F D 5 Agnieres, F D 4 Agny, F E 5 Ahrdorf, G O 4 Ahrhiitte, G O 4 Ahr River O 4 Ahrweiler, G P 4 Aigremont, F....G14 Aillant, F F14 Aillevillers, F...N14 Ailloncourt, F...N14 AiUy, F LIO Ailly-le-Hout- Clocher, F C 5 Ailly-sur-Noye, F.D 7 Aincreville, F...K 8 Aingeray, F Mil Ainval, F D 7 Ainville, F M13 Ajraines, F C 6 Aire, F D 3 Aire, F H 8 Airion, F D 8 Aisey le D'uc, F..J14 Aisne River H 8 Aisy, F F 8 Aix, F E 4 Aix, F F 4 Aix • Othe, F..G13 Aix-la-uhapelle, G M 3 Aizecourt, F E 6 Aizelles, F G 8 Alaincourt, F F 7 Alber, G N 9 Alberschweiler, G Pll Albert, F D 5 Albesdorf, G OlO Albisheim, G S 7 Aldenhoven, G. .N 2 Alf, G P 5 Alf River.. O 5 Aliigny, F Jll Alincourt, F. ...H 8 Aiken, B L 3 Aiken, G R 5 Allaines, F B13 Allaines, F E 6 Allarmont, F Pll Alle, B K 6 Allemant, F Gil Allendorf, G S 1 Allennes, F E 4 Allibaudieres, F. . H 1 1 Almersbach, G...R 3 Alonne. F C 8 Alost, B H 2 Alpirsbach, G T12 Alsdorf, G N 6 Alsen River S 7 Alsenz, G .S 7 Alsheim, G T 6 Alt Breisach, G. .R13 Altena, G R 1 Altenahr, G O 4 Altenglan, G R 7 Altenhof, G P13 Altenkirchen, G..R 3 Altenrath, G P 2 Alterkulz, G R 5 Altheim, G R 9 Alt-Honrath, G...P 2 Alt Lussheim, G.T 8 Altweiler, G O 9 Altweiler, G PIG Altzingen, L N 7 Alzenbach, G S14 Alzette River N 7 Alzey, G S 6 Amagne, F J 8 Amance, F J12 Amance, F NIC Amance, F N14 Amance River ... M 1 4 Amanweiler, G..M 9 Ambacourt, F. ..N12 Amberloup, B....L 6 Ambievillers, F..N13 Amblainvjlle, F..C 9 Ambleny, F F 8 Ambleteuse, F...B 3 Ambleye River.. L 4 Amblimont, F . . . K 7 Ambly, F L 9 Ambonnay, F H 9 Ambresin, B K 3 Ambrines, F D 5 Amecourt, F. . . .K 8 Amel, F M 9 Amel, G N 4 Ameln, G N 2 Amiens, F D 6 Amif ontaine, F . . G 8 Amigny, F F 7 Amillis, F Fll Ammersweier, G.P13 Amoncourt, F. . , .N14 Amonines, B L 5 Ampzin, B K4 Amy, F E 7 Ancemont, F L 9 Ancerville, F....K11 Ancre River D 6 Ancy, G M 9 Ancy le Franc,F.H14 Andechy, F......E 7 Andelle River A 8 Andelot, F L12 Andenne, B K 4 Anderleck, B H 3 Andernach, G....P 4 Andeville, F. ...C 9 Andilly, F MIO Andlau, G R12 Andun, G M 8 Anet, F AID Aneuil, F C 8 Angerville, F C12 Angleur, B L 3 Anglures, F Gil Angres, F E' 4 Angweiler, G OlO Anhee, B K 5 Aniches, F F 5 Anizy, F F 8 Anlier, B L 7 Anloy, B K 6 Annay, F E 4 Annelles, F J 8 Annequin, F E 4 Annet, P DIO Annevoie, B J 5 Annoeulin, F. . . .E 4 Annweiler, G....S 9 Anor, F H 6 Anould, F P13 Anoux, F M 9 Anozel, F P12 Ans, B... L 3 Ansacq, F D 8 Anseremme, B...K S Anthee, B.. J S Anthelupt, F Nil Anthcnay, F G9 Antheuil, F A 9 Antilly, G N 9 201 202 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Antoing, B F 4 Antony, F CU- Antweilcr, G O 4 Antwerp, B J 1 Anuin, F D 4 Anvain^, B G 3 Anwen, L N 7 Any, F H 6 Anzelin, G O 8 Anzin, F F 4 Appensweier, G. .Sll Appilly, F E 7 Appoigny, F F14 Apremont; F K 8 Apremont, F LIO Arancy, F L 8 Arbecey, F M14 Arbot, F K14 Arbre, B G 4 Arc en Barrois, F K14 Arces, F G13 Arcis sur Aube, F HU Ardenne. B . . K 5 Ardon. F G 8 Ardoye, B F 2 Ardres, F C 3 Arendonck, B . . . . K 1 Argenteuil, F CIO Argenthal, G R 6 Argewil, F B 7 Argonne Hills... K 9 Arheilgen, G T 6 Arleux, F E 4 Arleux, F F S Arloff, G O 3 Arlon, B M 7 Armancon River. G14 Armancourt, F...E 8 Armentieres, F...E 3 Arnaville, F M 9 Arneke, F D 3 Arnsheim, G S 6 Aroffe, F M12 Aronde River.... D 8 Arpajon, F Cll Arqucnnes, B. . . H 4 Arques, F A 6 Arracourt, F Oil Arras, F E S Arry, G NIO Arraye, F NIO Ars. G M 9 Arsonval, F J12 Arsy, F E 8 Artaise, F K 7 Artemps, F F 7 Artenay, F B13 Arthies, F B 9 Arthonnay, F....H14 Artonges, F GIO Artres, F G S Arville, B L 6 Arvillcrs, F D' 6 Arzbach, G R 4 ^ArEcnbeim, G....R13 Ariweiler, G PU Asbach, G P 3 Asch, B ..L 2 Ascheres, F C13 Ascq, r F 4 Asdorf, G N 2 Asfeld, F ..H 8 Aikford, t A 1 Asnierese, F DIO Aspach, G P14 Assche, B H 2 Assebrouck, B....F 1 Asselborn, L....M 5 Assesse, B K 4 Assmannhausen, G. R 6 Assweiler, G P 9 Astheim, G T 6 Ath, B G 3 Athies, F E 5 Athies, F E 6 Athies, F G 7 Athis, B G 4 Athis, F HIO Athus, B M 7 Atlancourt, F....K11 Attain ville, F D 9 Attancourt, F....K11 Attendorn, G. ...R 1 Attert, B M 7 Attichy, F E 8 Attigneville, F...M12 Attigny, F J 8 Atton, F NIO Aubange, B M 7 Aubel, B M 3 Aubenton, F 11 6 Aubepierre, F....K14 Auberchicourt, F.F S Auberive, F H 9 Auberive, F K14 Aube River K14 Aubers, F E 4 Aubetin Fll Aubigny, F D 4 Aubigny, F F 5 Aubigny, F F 7 Auchel, F D 4 Auchonvillers, F.D 5 Auchy, F D 4 Auchy, F V 4 Audegem, B H 2 ■Audenarde, B...,G 3 Auderghem, B....J 3 Audigny, F G 6 Audresselles, F. . .B 3 Audruicq, F C 2 Audun le-Roman, F M 8 Auerbach, G T 7 Aufferville, F D13 Auge, F H 6 Augrogne River.. N14 Aulnay, F HIO Aulnois, F G 5 Aulnois, F G 7 Aulnois, F M12 Aulnois, G NIO Aulnoye, F G 5 Ault, F B 5 Aumale, F B 7 Aumenancourt, F.H 8 Aumetz, G M 8 Auneau, F B12 Aure, F J 9 Aussonce, F H 8 Auste. F H 7 Autel Bas, B....M 7 Autewll, F C 8 Authe, r K 8 Authje River B 4 Aufhc^n la Plaine, F. C12 Autihuille, F E 6 Autreches, F F 8 Autrecourt. F. . . .K 9 Autreville, F F 7 Autreville, F M12 Autrey, F 012 Autricourt, F....J13 Autruche, F K 8 Autruy, F C12 Autry, F K 9 Auve, F J 9 Auvillers, F H 6 Auw, G N S Auw, G O 6 Auxerre, F G14 Auxi le Chateau, F. C 5 Auxon, F G13 Auxon, F N14 Auzeville, F K 9 Avancon, F H 8 Avaux, F H 8 Avecappelle, B . . . E 2 Avelghein, B F 3 Avelin, F F 4 Aveluy, F E 6 Avenay, F H 9 Avennes, B K 3 Avesnes, F F S Avesnes, F G 5 Averdoingt, F....D 5 Avesnes le Comte, F D 5 Avillcrs, F M 8 Avion, F E 4 Avioth, F L 7 Avize, F HIO Avocourt, F K9 Avrainville, F. . .MIO Avre River D' 7 Avricourt, F E 7 Avricourt, G Oil Avril, F M 8 Awenne, B L 5 Awoingt, F F 5 Axel, N H 1 Ay, F ri 9 Ay, G N 9 Aydoilles, F 012 Aye, B L S Ayette, F E 5 •Aywaille, B L 4 Azannes, F L 8 Azelot, F Nil ^Azincourt, F C 4 ,*Azoudange, G....O10 Azy, F FIO Baal, G N 2 Baalons, F J 7 Baase Bodeux, B.M 4 Baccarat, F 012 Bacharach, G....R 5 Bachem, G O 8 Baconnes, F H 9 Bacovcl, F D' 7 Baden, G TIO Badenwciler, G . . R 1 4 Bad Neuheim, G.T 4 Badonviller, JF...P11 Baelen, B K 1 Bagatelle, F K 9 Bagel, G R S Bagneux, F F S Bagneux la Fosse, Bahlingen, G S13 Baillamont, B K 6 Bailleul, F E 3 Bailleul, F E S Bailleulval, F D S Bailly, F A 6 Bailly, F E 8 Bailly, F Ell Bains les Bains, F N13 Baisshot, B K 2 Baldersheim, G...R14 Balduinstein, G...S 4 Balgau, G R13 Balham, F H 8 Ballay, F J S Balot, F.. J14 Baltersweiler, G...P 8 Balve, G R I Bancourt, F E 5 Bande, B L S Banderberg, G...P Z Bande Sapt, F P12 Bannes, F. L14 Bannogne, F H 7 Bannoncourt, F...L10 Bannstein, G R 9 Bantheville, F K S Baogueville^ F...A 6 Bapaume, F E S Bar, F K 8 Barbenson, B....H 5 Barbery, F D 9 Barbonne, F Gil Barbonville, F...N11 Barby, F H 8 Barcy, F ElO Barges, F M14 Barham, E A 1 Barisey, F Mil Bar le Due, F...K10 Barleux, F E 6 Barlin, F D 4 Barmainville, F..C12 Barmen, G P 1 Baron, F E 9 Baroncourt, F M S Baronville, B K 5 Baronville, G OlO Barr, G Rl? Barricourt, F....K 8 Barst, G O 9 Bar sur Aube, F..J12 Bar sur Seine, F.H13 Bartenheim, G R14 Bartogne, B M 5 Barvaux, B L 4 Barville, F D13 Barzy, F G 6 Basecles, B G 4 Basel, B H 1 Bassange, B L 3 Bassilly, B H 3 Basson, F F14 Bassu, F JIO Bastogne, B L 6 Bastry, E »..B 1 Basweiler, G....M 2 Batilly, F M 9 Battwetler, G R 8 Baudoncourt, F. ..N14 Baudonvilliers, F.KU Baudrecourt, G..N10 Baudrepillc, F...Cia ,Baulny, F K 9 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT 203 Baulon, F K 8 Baumholder, G..R 7 Bauvin, F \E 4 Bauwel, B J 1 Bauxieres, F NIO Bavay, P G 5 Bavinchove, F . . . D 3 Bayincourt, F...D 5 Bay, F H 6 Baye, F GIO Bayen, F Nil Bayonville, F K 8 Bayonvillers, F..D 6 Bazancourt, F...H 8 Bazeilles, F K 7 Bazincourt, F — . Kl 1 Bazoches, F G 8 Bazoches les Gal- lerandes, F CI 3 Bazoilles, F M12 Bazual, F G 5 B. d'Ar«ot, F P14 B. de Denny P14 Bealcourt, F C 5 Beauchamps, F..B 6 Beauchamps, F. .D14 Beauchemin, F...L14 Beauclair, F K 8 Beaudignxes, F..G 5 Beaufort, F G 5 Beaugency, F....B14 Beaulenecourt, F.E 6 Btaumetz, F C S Beaumetz, F D 5 Beaumont, B — .H 5 Beaumont, F D 9 Beaumont, F D13 Beaumont, F E 4 Beaumont, F E 5 Beaumont, F F 5 Beaumont, F. .. .H 9 Beaumont, F K 8 Beaumont, F L 9 Beaumont, F MIO Beaune la Rolande, F D13 Eeauquesne, F . . D 5 Beaurain, F G 5 Beauraing, B....K 5 Beaurains, F E 7 Beaurainville, F..C 4 Beaurleux, F G8 Beausejour, F J 9 Beauvais, F C 8 Beauval, F D 5 Beauvillers, F...M 8 Beauzee, F KIO Bebing, G PH Becelare, B E 3 Bechtheim, G T 7 Bechy, G NIO Beckingcn, G. . . .0 8 Becordel, F E 6 Becquevoort, B . . K 2 Bedburg, G O 2 Becringen, B K2 Beernem, B F 3 Beerst, B E 2 Beffe, B L 5 Beffu, F K 8 Beha^nies, F. .. .E S Beho, B M 5 BeilsteJn, G....,.P 5 Beinbeim, G SIO Beise, F H 9 Belfort. F P14 Bell, G VP 4 Bellefontaine, B..L 7 Bellegarde, F D13 Bellencombe, F.. .A 7 Bellenglis, F F 6 Belleu, F F 8 Bellheim, G T 9 Bellicourt, F F 6 Bellignies, F G5 Bellingen, G R14 Bellot, F FIO Belloy, F E 6 Belmcsnil, F A 7 Beloei, B G 4 Beltheimi, G P 5 Bclval, F P12 Belzanois, F F 4 Ben Ahm, B K 4 Benay, F F 7 Bendorf, G R 4 Beneuvre, F K14 Beney, F LU Benfelden, G R12 Beningen, G O 9 Benrath, G O 1 Benroth, G R 2 Bensberg, G P 2 Bensdorf, G OlO Bensheim, G T 7 Bercenay le Hayer, F G12' Berchem, B G 3 Berchem, L... .. .N 7 Bercheres les Pierres, F B12 Berck, F B 4 Berg, L M 6 Bergeres, F HIO Bergerhausen, G. .O 2 Berg Gladbach, G.P 2 Berghausen, G...T 8 Bergheim, G O 2 Bergheim, G R12f Bergholz, G P13 Bergneustadt, G..R 2 Bergnicourt, F . . . H 8 Bergues, F D 2 Bergzabern, G....S 9 Berlaer, B J 2 Berlaimcnt, F . . . . G 5 Berlancourt, F. ..E 7 Berlancourt, F . . . G 7 Berles, F D 5 Bermericourt, F..H 8 Berneau, B M 3 Bernecourt, F MIO Bernes, F F 6 Berniscart, B G 4 Bernkastel, G P 6 Bernot, F F 6 Bernoy, F B 5 Bernweiler, G....P14 Berny, F E 6 Berrdorf, G N 2 Berrleux, F G 8 Berru, F H 9 Berry Au Bae, F.G 8 Bers6e, F F 4 Berthcleville, F...L12 Bethune River ..A 7 Bextincourt, F E S Bertrich, G P 5 Bertrichamps, F . . 1 2 Bertricourt, F H 8 Bertrix, B K 6 Bertry, F F 5 Berulles, F G13 Berzee, B.... H 5 Berzieux, F J 9 Berzy le Sec, F..F 8 Besange, G Oil Besme, F F 8 Bethancourt, F...H 8 Bethencourt, F...E 7 Betheniville, F...J 9 Bethisy, F E 8 Betliune, F D 4 Beton-Bazoches, F Fll Betsdorf, G S 3 Bettainvillers, F.M 8 Bettemburg, L.. .N 8 Bettenhoven, G..N 2 Bettlainville, G..N 9 Bettwiller, G R 9 Betz, F E 9 Bevercn, B F 2 Beverloo, B K 2 Beverst, B L 2 Beuel, G P 3 Beugin, F D 4 Beugnatre, F E 5 Beugneux, F F 9 Beugny, F E 5 Beuil, F BIO Beuraignes, F....E 7 Beurig, G O 7 Beurville, F K12 Beusel, N K 1 Beuth, F B 4 Beuvardes, F F 9 Beuvry, F E 4 Beuvry, F F 4 Bexbach, G P 8 Bey River P 5 Bezannes, F G 9 Bezu St. Eloi, F.B 9 Biache, F E 5 Biaches, F E 6 Bablis, G T 7 Bick, G P 2 Bickenbach, G...T 6 Bicquelay, F Mil Biebelnheim, G...S 6 Bieberach, G S12 Biebermuhle, G. .R 8 Biebrich, G S 5 Biefvillers, F E 5 Bielmes, F H 8 Bienville, F Oil Biermont, F E 7 Bierwart, B K 4 Biesles, F IJ3 Biestre, F G 5 Bievene, B G 3 Bievre, B K 6 Biewels, G N 6 Biewels, L N 6 Bigge River R 1 Bignioourt, F....J 8 Bihain, B M 5 Bihucourt, F E i Billy, F L 8 Billy, F MIO Billy-Montigny, F.E 4 Bilsen, B L 3 Bilstein, G S 1 Binarville, F K 9 Binas, F A14 Binche. B H 4 Bingen, G S 6 Bingenfcld. G...T 8 Binsfeld, G N 3 Binsfeld, G O 6 Binzen, G R14 Bioncourt, G NIO Bionville, F PU Birchington. E...B 1 Birkenfeld. G P 7 Birkenhardt, G. ..S 9 Birkesdorf, G N 3 Birrcsborn, G....0 S Bischofsheim, G..T 6 Bischweiler, G...S10 Bisping, G QIO Bissen, L M 7 Bissezeele, F D 2 Bisten, G O 9 Bitburg, G N 6 Bitry, F E 8 BitBch, G R 9 Bitscbweiler, G..P14 Biville, F A 7 Bixschoote, B E 2 Bize, F M14 Black Foreat 514 Blacy, F .Til Blagny, F K 7 Blainville, F Nil Blairville, F E 5 Blaise, F K12 Blaise River K12 Blamont, F. Oil Blanchefontaine, B M 5 Blangy, F B 6 Blangy, F C 4 Blangy, F E 5 Blankelaer, B K 2 Blankenberg, G..P 3 Blankenberghe, B.E 1 Blankenheim, G..O 4 Blankerath, G. ...P 5 Blaregnies, B....G 4 Blanzy, F G 8 Blargies, F B 7 Blatzheim, G O 3 Blaudain, B F 3 Blavincourt, F...D "J Bleckhausen, G..O 5 Blecourt, F F 5 Bleialfd, G N 5 Bleid, B M 7 Blenod, F MIO Blenod, F Mil Blerancourt, F. ..F 8 Blercourt, F K 9 Blerick, N M 1 Blesmes, F FIO Blesmes, F K11 Blessonville, F. .K13 Bleurville, F....M13 Bleybach, G S13 Bleyberg, B M 3 Bli«ka«tel, 0....P9 204 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Bliesbnicken, G..P 9 Bliesdalheim, G..P 9 BHes River P 9 Bligny, F G 9 Bligny, F J 13 Blinoourt, F D 8 Blittjrsdorf, G...P 1 Blumenthal, G. .N 4 Bobenheim, G....T 7 Bocholt, B L 1 Bockenhm, G....T 5 Bocklemund, G. .O 2 Bocq River K 5 Bocquoy, F E 5 Bodenheim, G....S 6 Boeschepe, F E 3 Boesinghe, B....E 2 Boevange, L. ...M 6 Bohain, F F 6 Boigny F, C14 Boinoille, F M 9 Boiry, F E 5 Bois, F G 7 Boisent, F CIO Bois ct Borsa, B..L 4 Bois Grenier, F. .E 3 Boisleux, F E S Boismont, F B 5 Boisselles, F E 6 Boissy, F C 9 Boissy St. Leger, F. Dll Boisville la St. Pare, F B12 Boisy le Cutte, F.C12 Boitsfort, B J 3 Bollendorf, G N 6 Bollweiler, G P14 Bologne, F K13 Bomal, B L14 Bonce, F B12 Boncourt, F H 7 Boncourt, F LIO Boncourt, F M 9 Bondues, F F 3 Bongard, G O 5 Bonn, G P 3 Bonndorf, G T14 Bonne Esperance, B H 4 Bonnes, F F9 Bonnet, F Lll Bonneuil, F DIO Bonnevol, F A13 Bonnevoye, L. ..N 7 Bonnieres, F B 9 Bonnieres, F D 5 Bonviller, F Oil Bony, F F 6 Boofzheim, G R12 Boom, B J 2 Boort, B J 2 Boos, F A 8 Boppard, G R 5 Boran, F D 9 Borg, G N 8 Borkel, N L 1 Bornheim, G O 3 Borre, F D 3 Borsch, G Rll Bosc le Hard, F..A 7 Bosserstrat, N . . . M 1 Botzingen, G R13 Boubers, F C 5 Bouchain, F F 5 Bouchoir, F D 7 Boucly, F F 6 Bouconville, F. ..MIO Boucq, F MIO Boudreville, F...K14 Boughton, E. . . .A 1 Bougligny, F D13 Bougnies, B H 4 Bougnon, F N14 Bouillet, B K 4 Bouillon, B K 7 Bouillonville, F..M10 Bouilly, F G14 Bouilly, F H13 Boulay, G O 9 Boulers, B T 3 Bouleuse, F G 9 Bouligney, F. ...N14 Boulogne, F B 3 Boulogne, F G 5 Boult, F K 8 Boulzicoujt, F J 7 Bouquemaison, F.iD' 5 Bourbonne les Baines, F M14 Bourbourg, F D 2 Bourcq, F .J 8 BourdonnaYe, G.Oll Bourdonne, F....B10 Boure, B M 6 Bourevilles, F K 9 Bourg, F G 8 Bourg Fidele, F.J 6 Bourghelles, F. . . F 4 Bourg Leopold, B L 2 Bourgogne, F....H 8 Bourgonee, F....012 Bourmont, F....M13 Bours, F D 4 Boursies, F E 5 Bous, L N 7 Bous Battery, G..N 9 Bousies, F G 5 Boussewiller, G..R 9 Boussy, B G 4 Boutervilliers, F.C12 Bouvaincourt, F.B 6 Bouvancourt, F. .G 8 Bouvellemont, F.J 7 Bouvignes, B....K 5 Bouvignies, F...F 4 Bouvigny, F M 8 Bouvincourt, F..F 6 Bouvron, F MIO Bouxieres, F NIO Bouxieres, F N12 Bouzonville, F...C13 Boves, F D 6 Bovigny, B M 5 Boyelles, F E 5 Bra, B M 4 Brabant, F L 9 Braffe, B G 4 Braibant le Roi, F. KIO Braine I'Anneu, B H 3 Braine le Comtte, B H 3 Braisne, F ,G 8 Brancourt, F F 8 Brand. G N 3 Brandeville, F...L 8 Branges, F F 9 Braquis, F L 9 Braso, B L 6 Brasschaet, B....J 1 Bratte, F NIO Braubach, G R S Braucourt, F Jll Brauweiler, G...O 2 Braux, F J 6 Bray, B H 4 Bray, F B 9 Bray, F H 7 Bray Dunes, F...D 2 Braye, F F 8 Brave, F G 8 Bray s Seine, F..F12 Bray-sur-Sonune, F E 6 Brebach, G P 9 Brebieres, F......F 5 Breckerfeld, G. ..P 1 Bree, B... L 1 Breedcne, B E 1 Bregcnbach, G...T13 Breg River T13 Breidenbach, G...R 9 Breidscheid, G...O 4 Breitenau, G R 4 Eremenil, F Oil Brenelle, F G 8 Breny, F F 9 Breskens, N F 1 Bresles, F C 8 Bressoux, B L 3 Bretenay, F K13 Breteuil, F C 7 Bretigny, F Dll Bretigny, F E 8 Bretten, G P14 Breuell, G N 1 Breuil, F E 7 Breuil, F G 8 Breuilpont, F BIO Breusen River.... Rll Bricon, F K13 Bridge, E A 1 Brie, F E 6 Brie, F F 7 Brie Comte Robert, F Dll Brieien, B E 3 Brienne, F H 8 Brienne le Chat, F J12 Brienon, F G13 Brieulles, F K 8 Briey, F M 9 Brillon, F Kll Brimeux, F C 4 Brimont, F H 8 Brin, F NIO Brion s Ource, F. J14 Briquena, F K 8 Brizeaux, F KIO Brodenbach, G. ..R 5 Breeders Duynen, B D 2 Brohl, G P 4 Brol, G P 3 Brol River P 3 Bronne, F TIG BrosTillc, F A 9 Brou, F A12 Brouck, G O 9 Broussy, F GIO Brouvelieures, F.012 Broyes, F D! 7 Broyes, F Gil Bruay, F G 4 Bruche River PU Brouchy, F F 7 Bruchsal, G T 9 Bruck, G O 4 Briick, G P 2 Brugelette, B G 4 Bruges, B F 1 Briigge, G R 1 Bruggen, G M 1 Brugpy, F GIO Bruhl, G O 3 Bruille, F F 4 Bruley, F Mil Brumath, G SIO Briin, G R 2 Brunehamcl, F..H 7 Brunnadern, G...T14 Brunstatt, G R14 Brus, F Cll Brussels, B T 3 Bruyeres, F G 8 Bruyercs, F 012 Bryas, F D 4 Bubingen, G P 9 Buchenbeuren, G. .P 6 Bucheres, F H13 Buchholz, G P 3 Buchsweiler, G...R10 Buchy, F A 7 Bucy, F F 7 Bucy, F G 7 Budel, N L 1 Budenhm, G S 5 Buderscheid, L..M 6 Budesheim, G....N S Budesheim, G. ...S 6 Buding, G N 8 Bugincourt, F....F 5 Bugmeres, F K14 Buhl, G TIO Buir, G O 2 Buir, G O 4 Buire, F D 6 Buire, F E 6 Buironfosse, F...G 6 Buisson, F Jll Buisson Court, F.Nll Buissonville, B...K 5 Buissy, F F 5 Bulgneville, F M13 Bullay, G P 5 Bullecourt, F E 5 Bulles, F D S Biillingen, G N 4 Bully, F E 4 Bulson, F K 7 Bult, F 012 Bundenthal, G. ..8 9 Bunevillc, F D 5 Burbure, F D 4 Burdons, F L13 Burelles, F G 7 Bures, F A 6 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT 205 Bures, F Oil Burg, O P 1 Burgbrohl, G P 4 Burgwaldneil, G..N 1 Burkheim, G R13 Burnhaupt, G....P14 Burthecourt, F...N11 Burtscheid, G M 3 Burscheid, G....P 2 Burstadt, G T 7 Bury, F (.D 8 Bus, F E 6 Bus, F E 7 Busbach, G N J Biischen, G R 2 Buschhoven, G.-.O 3 Buscourt, F E, 6 Busendorf, G....O 8 Busigny, F F 6 Busken, B J 2 Busnes, F D 4 Buss, G O 8 Bussang, F 014 Bussiercs, F FlC Busson, F L12 Bussu, F E 6 Bussy, F F. 7 Bussy en Othe, F.F13 Butgenbach, G .N 4 Buttelborn, G. .. .T 6 BuStgen, G N 1 Buxerulles, F MIO Buxieres, F J13 Buxieres, F M 9 Buxieres, F MIO Buzancy, F K 8 Buzegney, F 013 Buzenol, B L 7 Buzy, F M 9 Caeskerke, B E 2 Caestre, F D 3 Cagnicourt, F F 5 Caillouet, F A 9 Cailly, F A 7 Cailly, F A 9 Caix, F D 7 Calais, F C 2 Callenele, B F 4 Calonne, F E 3 Camaches, F B 6 Camblain, F D 4 Cambrai, F F 5 Cambrin, F E 4 Cambron, B G 4 Camiers, F B 4 Camon, F r> 6 Campagne-les- Boulonnais, F..C 4 Campagne-les- Hesdin, F C 4 Campeaux, F B 7 Camphin, F E 4 Campremy, F....D 7 Canal de la Haute Seine H13 Canche River . . . C 4 Canchy, F C 5 Candor, F E 7 Canny, F E 7 Canterbury, E. ..A 1 Cantigny, F D 7 Cantin, F F 5 Capellen, L M 7 Cappel, G O 9 Cappy, F E 6 Caprycke, B G 1 Carency, F E 4 Carignan, F. K 7 Carlepont, F E 8 Carlsruhe, G T 9 Camieres, F F 5 Carnoy, F E 6 Carrepuis, F E 7 Cartigny, F E 6 Carvin, F F 4 Cassel, F D 3 Casteau, B H 4 Catenov, F D 8 Cathcux, F C 7 Catigny, F E 7 Catillon, F G 6 Catlenam, G N 8 Cattenieres, F F 5 Caucourt, F D 4 Caudebec, F A 8 Caudry, F F 5 Caulille, B L 1 Caullery, F F 5 Caumiont, F F 7 Cauroy, F J 8 Cayeux sur Mer, F B 6 Ceintrey, F Nil Celle River C 7 Celles, B F 3 Cclles, B K 5 Celles, F jlj Celles, F P12 Cemay le Ville, F.Cll Cercottes, F B13 Cerfontaine, B...J 5 Cerisiers, F Fl 3 Cerisy, F D' 6 Cernay, F H 9 Cernay, F J 9 Cernay, G Pl4 Cernon, F HIO Cerny.F G 8 Cerseuil, F F f- Certilleux, F Ml? Cessieres. F F 8 Cesson, F Dll Cesves, B K 4 Chablis, F G14 Chacrise, F F 9 Chaillon, F MIO Chailly, F D12 Chailly-en-Brie, F FIG Chaingy, F B14 Chaintrix, F HIO Chalette, F El 3 Chalifert, F ElO Challerange, F....] 8 Chalons s Marne, F JIO Ckalvraines, F...L12 Chambery, G OlO Chambley, F M 9 Chambly, F C 9 Chambors, F B 9 Chambry, F EIC Ckambry, F G 7 Chamigny, F ElO Chamouille, F G 8 Ckampagnc, F. ..J 9 Champagne, F N12 Charnjpagney , F. . .0 1 4 Champaubert, F. .GIG Champenoux, F..N11 Champfleury, F..G11 Champignelles, F.E14 Champigneulles, F Nil Champignol, F....J13 Champillon, F...G 9 Champlin, F H 6 Champion, F L 9 Chancenay, F....K11 Changis, F ElO Chaiigy, F JIO Chantilly, F U 9 Chantraines, F...L13 Chaource, F H13 Chapon, B K 3 Chapton, F GlO Chardogne, F KIO Charency, F L 8 Charenton, F DIG Charey, F MIO Charleroi, B J 4 Charleville, F GlO Charleville, F J 7 Charly, F FIO Charmes, F F 7 Charmes, F N12 Charmois, F N13 Charmods, F 013 Charmont, F C13 Charny, F ElO Charny, F F14 Charny Bras, F..L 9 Charpentiry, F K 9 Charr-iy, F A13 Chars, F C9 Chartainvillers, F.BU Chartham, E A 1 Chartres, F B12' Chassigny, F L14 Chateaubleau, F..F11 Chateaudun, F...A13 Chateau neuf, F. .All Chateauneuf sur Loire, F .C14 Chateau-Porcien, F H 8 Chat. Regnault, FJ 6 Chateau Renard, F E14 Chateau Salins, G 'NIO Chateau Thierry, F F9 Chateauvillain, F.K13 C hateaux Landon , F. D13 Chatel. F K S Chatel, F.. N12 Chatelet, B J 4 Chatenois, F Ml 2 Chatenoy, F D14 Chatillon, B M 7 ChatiUon, F G 7 Chatillon, F J14 Chatillon, F K 8 Chatillon, F L 9 Chatillon in Borgc, F Ell Chatillons s Loins'. F E14 Chatillon-sur- Marne, F G 9 Chatonrnpt; F . . . K 1 2 Chatou, F CIO Chaudardes, F...G 8 Chaudenay, F....L14 Chaudun, F F 8 Chauffry, F FIO Chaulnes, F E 6 Chaumes, F.... ..Ell Chaumesnil, F...J12 Chaumont, F C 9 Chaumont, F K13 Chaumont, F LIO Chaumont-Porcien, F H 7 Chauny, F F 7 Chanvency, F....L 8 Chauvonet, F LIO Chaux, F P14 Chavanges, F Jll ChavJtrny, F F 8 Chazel'les, F Oil Chehery, F K 7 Chelers, F D 4 Chelles, F E 8 Chemery, F K 7 Cheminot, G NIO Chenicourt, F NIO Cheniers, F HIO Cherimenil, F....CI0 Cheppes, F JJO Cheppy, F K 9 Chepy, F JIO Cherain, B M 5 Cheratte, B L 3 Cherisy, F All Cherisy, F E 5 Cheroy, F E13 Cherscamp, B. . . .G 2 Chery, F G 7 Chery, F G 9 Chesmes, B G 4 Chestres, F K 8 Chevillon, F KU Chevilly, F C13 Chevreuse, F .... C 1 1 Chevreux, F G8 Chezy, F F 9 Chezy, F FIO Chichy, F GU Ghievres, B G4 Chigy, F F13 Chilham, E A 1 Chilleurs aux Bois, F C13 Chilly, F ...E 7 Chimay, B H 6 Chiny, B L 7 Chiry, F E8 Chivres, F F 8 Chivres, F G 7 Chivy, F G 8 Chocques, F D 4 Choisy, F DIG Choisy, F Dll Choisy, F E 8 Choisy, F Fll Chouilly, F HIO Chuffilly, F .18 Cierges, F G 9 206 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Ciergnon, B K5 Cmey, B K S Qntrey, F M14 Cires le Mello, F D 9 Circy, F Pll Cirfontaines, F...L12 Ciry Salsognc, F.F 8 Citadel, F L14 Clacy, F F 8 Clairupt, F 012 Clairy, F C 6 Clais, F B 6 Clamanges, F . . . H 1 Q Clamccy, F F 8 Clary, F F 6 Clastres, F F 7 Clausen, G. ...... O 6 Clavier, B L 4 Qayfe, F DIO Qefey, F P12 Clefmont, F LU Clemency, L M 7 Cleres, F A 7 Clerf, L MS Clerkcn, B E 2 aermery, F NIO Qermont, B L 4 Clermont, F D 8 Clermont, F G 7 Clermont. F K 9 Clermont, F KIO Qery, F B 9 Clery, F B14 Clery, F E 6 Cleurie, F 013 Clezentaine, F . . . 1 2 Cloyei, F A13 Coblence, G R 4 Cobrietix, F F 4 Ceckiis, F H12 Coeuvree-et- Valsery, F E 8 Cognieres, F. . ..Bll Com, G. NIO Coincourt, F Oil Coincy, F F 9 Coingt, F H 7 Cojenl River E 5 Colincamps, F. . . .D 5 Colligny, F GIO Colmar, G R13 Cologne, G O 2 Colomb, F CIO Colombert, F C 3 Colombey, F Mil Colombey, G N 9 Colombey les 2 EgHsis, F K12 Colroy, F P12 Colroy la Roche, G. P12' Combeaufontaine, F M14 Comblain du Pont, B L 4 Combles, F E 6 Combles, F Kll Combres, F..... .L 9 Comines, F E 3 Commercy, F. . . .LIO Compiegne, F....E 8 Cwichy, F E 7 Coude, F Bll Conde, F ElO Conde, F F 8 Conde, F G 4 Conde, F G 8 Conde, F GIG Conde, F H 9 Conde, F K 9 Condette, F B 3 Condren, F F 7 Coney River N13 Conflans, F CIO Conflans, F M 9 Conflans, F NU Connantray, F . . . H 1 1 Connantre, F Gil Cons, F M 8 Consdorf, L N 7 Consenvoye, F L 8 Constantine, F...L8 Contay, F |D 6 Conteville, F B 7 Conteville, F C 5 Conthill, G OlO Contich, B J 1 Contreuve, F J 8 Contrexeville, F..M13 Contrisson, F .KIO Conty, F C 7 Coolkerke, B F 1 Coolscamp, B....F2 Coolus, F HlO Coosenberg, B . . . M 3 Coppenax Fort, F.D 2 Corbehem, F. .. .F 5 Corbeil F Dll Oorbeilles, F D13 Corbenay, F N14 Corbeny, F G 8 Corbie, F D 6 Corbion, B K 7 Corcieux, F 013 Corey, F F 9 Cormainville, F. .B13 Gormeville, F MlO Cormicy, F G 8 Cormontreuil F..H 9 Cornimont, F....P13 Corny, F J 7 Corny, G M 9 Corravillers, F..014 Corre, F N14 Corribert, F GIO Cortemarck, P, . . .V 2 Cortenhaekn, B..K 2 Cortonberg, B. . . . J 2 Costenz, G. P 6 Coubert, F Dll Couckelaere, B...E 2 Coucy, F F 8 Coucy, F. G H Coudres, F AlO Couilly, F ElO Coullommiers, F.EIO Coulmiers le Sec, F. J14 Coulmurs, F Bl4 Coulombs, F Bll Coulombs, F E 9 Coulomby, F. . . . C 3 Coulommes, F....J 8 Coulonges, F....G 9 Coume, G O 9 Coupeville, F JIO Coupray, F K13 Courances, F D 12 Courbes, F F 7 Courcelette, F...E 6 Courcelles, F E S Courcelles, F M12 Courcelles, G N 9 Courceroy, F .F12 Courchamp, F Fll Courdenxanges, F.J 11 Oourgenay, F G12 Courgivaux, F ... Fll Courlon, F F12 Couronrue, F A 8 Courplay, F Ell Courrieres, F. . . E 4 Court, B J 3 Courtacon, F....F11 Courtalain, F....A13 Courtemont, F J 9 Courtenay, F El 3 Courteron, F. ...J13 Courtisols, F JIO Courtrai, B F 3 Courville, F A12 Cousanges, F . Kll Cousolre, F H 5 Coussegr'ey, P" H14 Coussey, F M12 Coutiches, F F4 Couvin, B J 6 Couvonges, F KIO Couvrelle, F F 8 Coxyde, B ,E 2 Coye, F D 9 Craonne, F G 8 Craonn6lle, F G 8. Crecy, F ElO Crecy, F F 8 Crecy en Ponthieu, F C 5 Crecy-sur-Serre, F G 7 Crefeld, G N 1 Cregy, F ElO Creil, F D 9 Crenay, F H12 Creoecoeur le Grand, F C 7 Creoecoeur le Petit, F D 7 Crepey, F Mil Crepy, F ..E 9 Crepy, F F 7 Cressy, F E 7 Creve, F LIO Creve-Champs, F.NII Crevecoeur, F F 5 Crevic, F NU Criel, F A 6 Crillon, F C 8 Crinchon River... E 5 Crion, F. Oil Croisilles, F E 5 Croismare, F OH Croisy la Haye, F.B 8 Croissy, F C 7 Croix, F E,' 7 Croix, F F 6 Croix, F G 5 Crombeke, B . . . . E 2 Croth, F AlC Crouy, F E 9 Crouy, F F 8 Crupet, B K 4 Cruzy le Chatel, F H14 Cucq, F B 4 Cudot, F F13 Cuerne. B F 3 Cues, G. P 6 Cuffies, F F 8 Cugny, F ]f 7 Cuinchy, F E I Cuiry-Housse, F..F 9 Cuise-la-Motte, F.E 8 Cuisy, F ElO Cuisy, F K 9 Cul-des-Sarts, B.. .J 6 Cumieres, F L 9 Cunfin, F 713 Cuperly, F J 9 Curchy, F E 7 Curjfieux, F . .G 7 Curlu, F. E 6 Custines, F JCIO Cutry, F F g Cuvry, G .".'n 9 Cysoing, F p 4 Daaden, G S 3 Dadizeele, B...'..'."f 3 Daehsenhausen, G.R 3 Dagny, F Fll Dagonville, F LIO Dahn, G s 9 Dainville, F. ..'..E 5 Dainville, F...!!l12 Daleiden, G N 5 Dalheim, L !n g Dalhem, B M 3 Dallon, F '.F 7 D'alstein, G ,N g Damarie, F D12 Damas, F oi2 Dambach, G Rl2 Damblain, F M 1 3 Damery, F E 7 Damery, F .G 9 Dameure, F .'oi2 Damevre, F QJi lyammarie, F A12 Dammartin, F.. . .M13 Dammartin en Goele, F I) 9 Damme, B F 1 Dampierre, F....CH Dampierre, F Hll Damp vitoux, F . . M 1 Damville, F AlO Damvillers, F L8 Dancourt, F E 7 D'angeau, F A13 Danizy, F F 7 Danne, G .RIO Dannes, F B 4 Dannevoux, F . . . L . 8 Darmont, F M 9 Darmsfedt, G....T 6 Darnctrl, F A 8 Darney, F M13 Dasberg, G N 6 Diattenfeld, G R 3 Datzeroth, G R 4 Daucourt, F K 9 Daun, G O 5 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT 407 Daverdisse, B...K 6 Deal, E B 1 Dechy, F F 5 Deerlyck, B F 3 Def tinge, B G 3 Deheries, F F 6 iD'elme, G NIO Demange, F Lll Demangeville, F..N14 Demer River J 2 Denain, F F 5 Denderleeuw, B..H 2 Dendre River.,.. G 3 Denier, F D 5 Denklingen, G — R 2 Dtenzen, G P 6 Derkum, G O 3 Dernancourt, F..D 6 Dernaville, F C 5 Dernay, G O 4 Dtrschlag, G R 2 Desnborn, G O 5- Desselghem, B...F 2 D'essoux, B K 5 Desvres, F C 3 Dettweiler, G. ...RIO Deuillet, F F 7 Deulemont, F E 3 Deutz, G O 2 Deuxville, F Oil Deynze, B G 2 Dhron River P 6 Dliunn, G P 1 Dhunn River.... P 2 Dianne, G PIO Dickebusch, B E 3 Dickenscheid, G. .P 6 Diedenhofen, G..N 3 Diedlingen, G P 9 Diedolshausen, G.P13 Die Eifel O 5 Dlekirch, L N 6 Dielkirchen, G. ..R 7 Diemeringen, G. . .PIO Dienville, F J12 Dieppe, F A 6 Dierdorf, G R 3 Diest, B K 2 Dieue, F ;L 9 Dieulouard, F. ..NIO Dieuze, G OlO D'ieval, F D 4 Diez, G S 4 Differdingen, L. .M 8 Digny, F All Dilhngen, G. ...O 8 Dinant, B K S Dippach, L M 8 Dirmerzheim, G. .O 3 Dirmingen, G. ...P 8 Dives, F E 7 D'ixmont, F F13 Dixmude, B. ...E 2 Dizy, F G 9 Dizy, F H 7 Dochamps, B. . .L 5 Dockweiler, G. .0 5 Doggingen, G. ...T13 Doingt, F E 6 Doische, B J 5 Dolancourt, F. ...J12 Dblcourt, F Mil Dolgesheim, G. ..T 6 Dolleren, G P14 Dollot, F E13 Dom, F J 7 Domart, F C 6 Domart, F D 6 Domats, F E13 Dombasle, F K 9 D'ombasle, F. ...N12 Dombasle, F.' N13 Dombastle, F. ..Nil Dombras, F L 8 Domevre, F MIO Domgermain, F. .Mil Dommartin, F. .K12 Dommartin^ F. ..LIO Dommartin. F ..Ml 2 Dommartin, F. ..013 Dommartin, I's-V., , F N13 Dommartin la Planchette, F...J 9 D ommartin-sur- Yevre, F JIO Dompaire, F. ...N12 Dompcevrin, F. .LIO Dompierre, F. ...C 5 Dompierre, F. ...LIO Doraptail, F 012 Domptin, F FIO Domremy, F. ...Lll D'omremy, F. ,..M12 Domvall'er, F. ..N12 Donaueschingen, G T13 Donchery, F. ....K,7 Doncourt F M 9 Donjour, F. K12 Donnemarie en Montois, F. . . .E12 Donrath, G P 2 Don Seclin, F. .E 4 Dormagen, G. ...O 2 D'ormans, F G 9 Dornach, G. ...R14 Dornheim, G T 6 Dornot, G M 9 Dornstetten, G. .Fll Dorp, G PI Dorsel, G 4 Dossainville, F. ..C12 Dossenheim, G. .RIO Dottignies, B. ..F 3 D'otzheim, G. . . . S 5 Douai, F E 4 Douchy, F E 5 Douchy, F E14 Douchy, F F 5 Doudives, F El 3 Doue, F FIO Douilly, F E 7 Doulcon, F K 8 D'oulevant le Chat, F. K12 Doullens, F D 5 Dour, B G 4 Dourdan, F Cll Dourges, F E 4 Douriez, F C 5 Douvrin, F E 4 Douzy, F K 7 Dover, E B 2 D'rabenderhohe, G P 2 Dravcgny, F. ,..G 9 Drees, G. O 3 Dreis, G OS Dreisam River ...S13 Dreisen. G S 7 Dreux, F All Dreyborn, G N 4 Driencourt, F ..E 6 Drolshagen, G R 2 Drove, G. N 3 Drulingen, G. ...PIO Drusenheim, G. ..SIO Dryhoeck, B. ...J 1 Dudeldorf, G. ...O 6 Dudelingen, L. . .N 8 Dudweiler, G. ...P 8 Dudzeele, B. ...F 1 Duffel, B J 2 Dugny, F. DIO D'ugny, F L 9 Duinbergen, B....F 1 Duisdorf, G P 3 Dulaincourt, F. ..L12 Dulken, G NX Dumpelfeld, G...O 4 Dun, F K 8 Dungeness, E. ...A 2 Dunkirk, F D 2 Dunnwald, G. ...P 2 Durbuy, B L 4 Duren, G N 3 Durkheim, G. . . . S 8 Durlach, G. ....T 9 Durmich, G P 5 DiirrwisSj G. . . . N 3 Durstel, G PIO Dury, F. D' 6 Dury, F. F 7 Dusseldorf, G. ..O 1 Duvy, F E 9 Duzey, F L 8 Dyle River J 2 Dymchurch, E. ..A 2 E. Cappel, F. ...D 2 E. Dunkirk, B...D 2 Ebbe Geb R 1 Kbblinghsm, F...D 3 Ebernburg, G. ...S 6 Ebersheim, G. ...R12 Ebersweller, G. ..N 9 Ebly, B L 6 Ecafaut Farm, F..E 8 Echemines, F G12 Echilleuses, F.. . . D13 Echt, N M 2 Echteriiach, L. ..N 6 Eckenhgn, G R 2 Eclaron, F Kll Ecluzelles, F. ...Bll Ecly, F H 8 Ecordal, F J 8 Ecos, F B 9 Eoouen, F DIG Ecourt St. Quen- tin, F. E 5 Ecousis, F A 8 Ecoussines, B. . .H 4 Ecoust St. Main, F. E 5 Ecouviez, F L 8 Ecquemicourt, F..C 4 Ecquetol, F A 9 Ecriennes, F Jll Ecurie, F E 5 Ecury, F, HIO Ecuvilly F. E 7 Edenkoben, G. ...S 8 Edesheim, G S 8 Edigheim, G T 7 Edingen, G N 6 Eeckeren, B J 1 Eecloo, B G 1 Eede, N.. F 1 Eerneghem, B. ..E 2 Lessen, B E 2 Efferen, G. O 2 Egelshardt, G....R 9 Eggenstein, G. . . T 9 Egisheim, G R13 Egreville, F El 3 Ehein, B L 4 Ehrang, G O 6 Ehrenbreitstein, G. R 4 Ehrenfeld, G. ...O 2 Ehrenstetten, G. ..S13 Eiberdgen, G. . . . N 4 Eich, G T 6 Eich, L N 7 Eichefl, G, R 2 Eichstetten, G....S13 Eigelshoven, N...M 2 Eil, G P 2 Eilendorf, G. ,..N.3 Einod, G R 8 Einruhr, G N 4 Einvaux, F. Nil Einville, F Nil Eisenberg, G. . • . . S 7 Eitorf, G P 3 Elberfeld, G P 1 Elier, G P 5 Elincourt, F E 8 Ellezelles, B. ...G 3 Ellignies, B G 4 Eloyes, F. 013 Elsenborn, G. ...N 4 Elsdorf, G N 2 Eltville, G S 5 Eltz River P 5 Elverdinghe, B. ..E 3 Elwingen, G. ...0 9 Elz, G S 4 Elzach, G R14 Elzach, G. S12 Elz River S13 Embermenil, F. ..Oil Emtken, G N 3 iEmbC, G N 2 Emelghem, B. ...F 2 Emerainville, F...D10 Emmendingen, G..S13 Emmerin, F E 4 Emptinne, B K 5 Ems, G R 4 Enchenberg, G. . . P 9 Endingen, G R13 Engelskirchen, G.P 2 Engers, G R 4 Enghezee, B K 4 Enghien, F DIO Enghien, B H 3 E'ngis, B L 4 Englos, F E 4 Enkenbach, G. . . . S 8 Enkirch, G PC 208 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Ennetieres, F. . . E 3 Ennevelin, F. ...F 4 Enquin, F D 4 Ensisheim, G. R14 Ensival, B M 4 Entepoht, G. N 3 Entroeungt, F.,.G 6 Entsheim, G. ...Rll Envermeu, F. ...A 6 Enx River N 6 Epagne, F C 6 Epagny, F. F 8 Epaux, F F 9 Epehy, F F 6 Epense, F- KIO Epernay, F G 9 Epernon, F Bll Epfig, G. Rl^ Epieds, F F 9 Epinal, F 013 Epinonville, F....K 9 Epinoy, F F 5 Epizon, F L12 Epone, F 1310 Eboye, F 11 9 Eppelborn, G. ...PS Eppenbrunn, G. ..R 9 Eppes, F. G 8 Eppstein, G T 5 Eprave, B K 5 Epreville, F.. A 8 Ept River B 9 Equancourt, F....E 6 Erbach, G R 3 Erbach, G S 5 Erbaut, B G 4 Erches, F D 7 Ercheu, F E 7 Ejdorf, G O 6 Erezee, B L 5 Erfelder, G T 6 Erft River O 3 Erize-la-Br., F LIO Erkelenz, G N 2 Ermenonville, F. . D 9 Ermeton, B J 5 Ermont, F CIO Ernanheid, B. . .L 4 Erneuville, B L 5 Erp, G O 3 Erpel, G. ... P 3 Erquelinnes, B. ..H 5 E'rquinghem, F. .E 3 Erquinvillers, F. .D 8 Errauville, F. ...E13 Erre, F F 4 Ersdorf, G O 3 Erstein, G R12 Ertvelde, B G 1 Ervillers, F E 5 Ervy, F GI3 Esbisoeul, B. .. .G 4 Esbly, F ElO Escalles, F B 2 Escaudain, F F 4 Escaudoeuvres, F..F 5 Escautpont, F. . .G 4 Escaut River F 3 Esch, G 4 Esch, G T 5 Kschdorf, L M 6 Eschenweiler, G. .R14 Esch-on-Sauer, L M 6 Eschweiler, G. ..N 3 Escbwir, G N 3 E'scl, L M 8 Escles, F N13 Esnes, F F 5 Esnes, F. , L 9 Esneux, B L 4 Esqueheries, F. . . G 6 Esquelbecq, F D 2 Essarois, F J14 Essars, F E 4 Esschen, B J 1 Essegney, F N12 Essey, F MIO Essey, F Nil Esseyos, F J13 Essigny, F. F 6 Essigny, F F 7 Essises, F FIO Essomes, F FID Essones, F Dll Essonne River ..D12 Estaires, F E 3 Esternay, F Gil Estissac, F. G12 Estourmel, F. F 5 Estrees, F E 6 Estrees St. Denis, F D 8 Estreux, F G 5 Etain, F L 9 Etaing, F. E 5 Etaing, F F 5 Etais, F J14 Etalle, B L 7 Etampes, F C12 Etampes, F FlO Etaples, F B 4 Etavigny, F E 9 Etelfoy, F D 7 Eterpigny, F. .. .E 5 Eth, F G 5 Ethe, B L 7 Etigny, F F13 Etival, F 012 Etoges, F GIO Eton, F M 9 Etouvelles, F G8 Etouy, F D 8 Etreaupont, F. . . . G 6 Etrechy F C12 Etrepagny, F B 8 Etrepilly, F ElO Etrepoix Farm, F G 7 Etrepy, F JIO Etreux, F G 6 Etricourt, F E 6 Ettelbruch, L M 6 Ettenheim, G S12 Ettlingen, G. ...TIG Etueffont, F. ...P14 Eu, F B 6 Eulmont, F NIO Eupen, G M 3 Eure River A 9 Eurville, F Kll Euskirchen, G. . .O 3 Euville, F. LIO Evaux, F. N12 EVergem, B G 2 Evett, F 014 Evieux, F A 9 Ewell, E A 1 Ewringen, G N 8 Eynattez, G M 3 Eysden, N M 3 Eyseringen, B. . . . JI 3 Fagnieres, F HIO Faigt, B H 4 Fains, F KIO Faissault, F J 7 Falaen, B J 5 Faldise, F J 8 Falk, G O 9 Falkenb€rg, G O 9 Falkensteig, G SI 3 Falmagne, B K 5 Falvy, F E 6 Famars, F G 5 Familleureux, B. .H 4 Fampoux, F E 5 Faremoutiers, F..E10 Farschweilcr, G...O 9 Faucogney, F 014 Faucouzy, F G 7 Faulx, F NIO Fauquembergues, F 4 Fauvillers, B L 6 Faverney, F N14 Faverolles, F. . . . F 9 Faversham, E A 1 Favieres, F M12 Fay, F E 6 Fay, F G 7 Fay aux Logos, F.C14 Fayet, F F 6 Faymont, F 013 Fays Billot, F L14 Fecht River PI 3 Fegersheim, G Rll Pels, L N 7 Felsberg, G 8 Fenneville, F Pll Pepin, F J 6 Ferdrupt, F 014 Fere Champenoise, F Hll Fere-en-Tardenois, F. G 9 Ferfay, F D 4 Ferrieres, B L 4 Ferrieres Gatinais, F. E13 Fesmy, F G 6 Festie, F G 8 Festubert, F E 4 Feuchy, F E 5 Feuges, F. H12 Feuilleres, F. . ..E 6 Fexhe, B L 3 Feyen, G O 7 Fey-en-Haye, F. .MIO Ficheux, F E ; Filliere, F M 9 Fillieres, F M 8 Filsdorf , L N 8 Finnentrop, G....R 1 Pinnevaux, B K 5 Fins, F E 6 Pinstingen, G PIO Finthen, G S 6 Fischbach, G. . . . P 7 Fischbach, G. . . . R 2 Fismes, F. G 9 Flabas, F L 8 Flagey, F L14 Plagy, F N14 Flainval, F. Nil Flamersheim, G...O 3 Flamerslieimer Wald O 3 Flamets, F B 7 Flamierge, B. . . L 6 Flammessfcld, G..R 3 Plaucourt, P. . . . E 6 Plavigny, F HID Flavigny, p Nil Flavy, P. F 7 Fleigneux, p. .. .K 7 Pletre, F E 3 Fleurbaix, F. . . .E 3 Fleurey, P N14 Fleurines, P. . . .D 9 Fleurus, B J 4 Fleury, P KID Fleury, F L 9 Fleury, G N 9 Fleury S. Andelle, F A 8 Flevil'le,' F.' '.'.'.'. V.K 8 Fleville, F M 9 Fleys, P 014 Flines les Raches, F F 4 Flins, P. BIO Flirey, F MIO Flixecourt, P. .. .C 6 Flize, P. J 7 Flobecq, B G 3 Ploeques, P. ... .A 6 Flogny, F G14 Flone, B L 4 Plonheim, G S 6 Florae, B K 4 Ploreffe, B J 4 Florennes, B J 5 Plorenville, B. .. .L 7 Floringhem, P. ...D 4 Florsheim, G. ...T 5 Floyon, P G 6 Pluquieres, P. ..P 7 Foameix, F L 9 Foix, B K 3 Polembray, F. . . P 8 Polies, F D 7 Folkestone, E. . .A 2 Pollevitte, P. ...D 7 Ponsomme, F F 6 Fontaine, P P 6 Fontaine, P H 9 Fontaine, F N14 Fontaine, F P14 Fontaine la Gayon, P. A12 Fontaine le Bourg, F A 7 Fontaine les Vervins, P. . . .G 6 Fontaine I'Eveque, B H 4 Fontaine Madam, F K 9 Fontaine Notre Dame, F F 5 Fontcnay, F B 7 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT 209 Fontenay, F Dll Fontenay, F E13 Fontenay Trcsigny, F. Ell Fontenoy, F F 8 Fontenoy, B G 4 Fontenoy, F. ... .Mil Fontenoy le Chateau, F. ...N13 Fontoy, G M 8 Forbach, G O 9 Forbach, G TIO Forest Abbaye, F.C 5 Forest de Andigny G 6 Forest du Val...Kll Forest of Anlicr.M 7 Forest of Arc K14 Forest of ArgonneK 9 Forest of ArmainvilHers .ElO Forest of AumontH13 Forest of Chantilly D 9 Forest of Chatillon.J14 Forest of Compiegne E 8 Forest of Darney.N13 Forest of Duvaux L12 Forest of Favy. . .A 7 Forest of Fere.. .F 9 Forest of Foun- tainebleau D12 Forest of Gd. Orient J12 Forest of Halatte.D 9 Forest of Hez D' 8 Forest of La Chaume K14 Forest of Laigle..E 8 Forest of L'Ho- pital J14 Forest of Lyons. .B 8 Forest of Massy. .GIO Forest of MaulnesH14 Forest of Mondon.Oll Forest of Neslc...J14 Forest of Orleans. C13 Forest of Othe...G13 Forest of Parroy. .011 Forest of Rambouillet ...Bll Forest of Remilly.N 9 Forest of Senart.Dll Forest of Tra- conne Gil Forest of Vaucouleurs ...Mil Forest of Villotte.F14 Forest of Vs. Cotterets E 9 Forest of Woevre.L 8 Forct de Rainies..F 4 Forges, F L 9 Forges les Eaux, F B 7 Formerie, F. ....B 7 Forrieres, B L 5 Ft. Alvensleben, G M 9 Ft. Andoy, B K 4 Ft. Aubervilliers, F ElO Ft. aux Vaches, F D 3 Ft. Basschaet, B J 1 Ft. Berru, F. ...H 9 Ft. Bismarck, G..R11 Ft. Blumenthal, G.Sll Ft. Bornhem, B...H 2 Ft. Bose, G Sll Ft. Broechen, B...J 1 Ft. Carnot, F E 3 Ft. Castelnau, F..D 2 Ft. Charlemont,

Kermpt, B K 2 Kerpen, G O 2 Keskastel, G. ...PIO Kessel, N Ml Kesseling, G. ...P 4 Kestert, G. . R 5 Kettenheim, G — S 7 Kettenifs. G. ...M 3 Keyem, B E 2 Kilburg, G O 5 Kill River O 4 Kinzig River S12 Kirberg, G S 4 Kirchberg, G. . . . R 6 Kirchen, G R 3 Kirchweiler, G O 5 Kirn, G R 6 Kirscheiniibolan- den, G. S 7 Kirschen, G R14 Klein, G ..R 9 Klingenmuster, G S 9 Klosterchambd, G R 5 Klotten, G. P 5 Klusserath, G. ..0 6 Knesselaere, B. ..F 2 Kniebis, G Til Knocke, B F 1 Kobern, G P 4 Koblenz, G. T14 Kochem, G P 5 Kochern, G O 9 Ktienigsmacken, G N 8 Koeur-la-Pte, F...L10 Kollnau, G R14 Kollnau, G S13 Kond, G P 5 Konigsdorf , G. . . . O 2 Konigstadten, G...T 6 Konigstein, G. ..T 5 Konigswinter, G. .P 3 Konken, G. R 8 Konz, G O 7 Korb, G S 3 Kordel, G O 6 Kork, G Sll Ko rnelimunster, G N 3 Krachenburg, G...R 8 Kranenberg, G — P 1 Krautscheid, G...N 5 Krautshausen, G..N 2 Kreuzau, G N 3 Kreuznach, G. . . S 6 Kreuzthal, G. . . . S 2 Kreuzwald, G. ..O 9 Krombach, G. . . . R 2 Kronberg, G. . . . T 5 Kronenburg, G...N 4 Krov, G. P 6 Krozingen, G. ...R13 Krtichten, G. ...N 1 Kruchten, L N 7 Kruth, G P13 Kruystraet, B. ..E 3 Kubelberg, G. . . . P 8 Kunheim, G R13 Kuppenheim, G...T10 Kurnberg, G S14 Kurten, G P 2 Kusel, G R 7 La Barriere, B . . .L 5 La Bassee, F E 4 La Belle Alliance, B. H 3 La Berlieres, F..K 8 Labeuville, F....M 9 214 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT La Bouteille, F..H 6 La Bresse^ F P13 Labroy^, r C 5 Labry, F M 9 L« Bussiere, F....E14 La Capelle, F G 6 La Cassine, F....J 7 Lacaur, F GIO La Cbalade, F...K 9 La Chapellc, F...K 7 La Chapelle, F...P14 La Chap. Aiix Bois, F N13 La Chapelle la Rhine, F D12 La Chappelle, F..D 9 La Chaume, F....K14 La Chaussee sur Marne, F JIO La Cheppe, F....J 9 La Chiers River. .L 8 Lachy, F Gl 1 Lacken, B H 3 Laoon, F E 4 La Croix, F K 8 Lacroix, F LIO Lacroix St. Ouen, Y E 8 Ladenberg, G. ...T 7 Ladon, F D13 La Fere, F F 7 La Fcrte, F G 7 La Fcrte. F M14 La Fcrte Alais, F D12 La Ferte Gaucher, F Fll La Ferte Milon, F F 9 La Fcrte St. Aubin, F C14 La Ferte-sous- Touarre, F FIO La Feuille, F....B 8 La Foret le Roi, F C12 La Francheville, F J 7 Lagarde, G OH La Gleize, B M 4 Lagney, F Mil Lagnicourt, F. . . E S Lagny, F D'lO La Gorgue, F E 3 la Grange I'Eveque, F G12 Lagroise, F G 6 la Harazee, F....K 9 La Haute Maison, F ElO Lahn River R 4 Lahr, G S12 La Herie, F G 7 La Herliere, r...D 5 Laheycourt, F. ..KIO La Houssoye, F..C 8 La Hulpe, B J 3 Laignes, F J14 Laimont, F KIO Lallaing, F F 4 La Louviere, B. .H 4 La Malmaison, F..H 8 Lanorehe, F. ...M13 La Marcq, F F 3 Lambrecht, G. . . . S 8 Lambres, F D 4 Lambres, F E 4 Lammesdrorf, G. .N 3 Lamortaye, F. ...D 9 Lamorteau, B. ...L 8 La Morthomme, F.K 8 Lamorville, F. ..LIO Lamotte, F D 6 Lamouilly, F. . . .L 8 Lampertheimi, G. .T 7 Lanaeken, B. . . .L 2 LanchereSj^ F. . . . B 5 Lancon, F K 9 Laneffe, B J 5 Landas, F F 4 Landau, G. S 9 Landaville, F.. ..M12 Landecourt, F. ..Nil Landegem, B G2 Landen, B K 3 Landersheim, G...R11 Landif ay, F G 7 Landrecies, F. ...G 5 Landres, F M 8 Landrethon, F. ..B 3 Landroff, G OlO Landser, G R14 Landstuhl, G. ...R 8 La Neuvelotte, F.Nll La Neuville, F. .G 7 La Neuville, F...G 8 La Neuville, F...J 8 La Neuville, F...K 8 La Neuville-au-Pont, F. J 9 La Neuville aux- Bois, F JIO Lanfroicourt, F. .NIO Langatte, G PIO Langemarck, B. .E 2 Langemer, F P13 Langen, G T 5 Langenbrand, G...T10 Langenfeld, G. . . O 1 Langenfeld, G. ...P 4 Langenhahn, G. ..R 3 Langenlonsheim, G S 6 Langenschwalbach, G S 5 Langerwehe, G. .N 3 Langmeil, G. ."...S 7 Langres, F L14 Languion, F L 8 Lanklaer, B L 2 Lannoy, F F 3 Lanques, F L13 Lion, F G 8 Laons, F All La Paire, F P12 La Paix, F G 8 La Pave, F F 6 la Pienne River. .M 8 La Pinte, B G 2 La Plage, F B 4 La Pommeraye, F.F 8 Lappion, F H 7 Laquenexy, G. ...N 9 Larbroye, F E 7 Lardy. F CU Laroene, B L 5 La Roche Guyon, F B 9 La Romagne, F . . H 7 La Romainie, F...J10 La Rue St. Pierre, F D 8 La Sars, F E 6 La Saulsotte, F...F11 La Selle en Hermoy, F E13 La Selve, F H 8 Lassigny, F E 7 La Targette, F. ..E 4 Latou, B L 7 La Tour, F M 9 La Tretoire, F...F10 Laubach, G R 5 Lauch River P13 Laucourt, F E 7 Laugenfeld, G. ..N 5 Launois, F J 7 Launois, F P12 Laurensberg, G. ..M 3 Lautenbach, G. ..P13 Lautenbach, G. ..SIX Lautenbach -Zell, G P13 Lauterburg, G. . . S 9 Lauterecken, G. ..R 7 Lauterfinger, G...O10 Lauter River R 7 Lautzkirhen, G. .P 9 Lauw, G P14 Lavacherie, B. ..L 6 Laval, F F 8 Laval Morency, F.J 6 Laval River L 5 Lavannes, F H 8 Laveline, F 013 Laveline, F PI 2 Laventie, F E 3 La Veuve, F H 9 Lavieville, F D 6 La Villedieu, F..N14 la Ville, F.. G 8 La Ville, F H 7 La Villeneuve, F.C 9 La Voivre, F P12 Lavol, F J 9 Laxou, F Nil Lay, F NIO Lebach, G. ...... P 8 La Bignon Mira- beau, F E13 Le Boisle, F C 5 Le Braizil, F GIO Le Breuil, F GIO Le Gateau, F. . . . . G 5 Le Catelet, F F 6 Le Chatelet, F. ..H 8 Le Chatelet en Brie, F Ell Lechelle, F E 6 L'Echelle, F E 7 L'Echelle, F Fll Lechenich, G. ...0 3 Le Chesne, F J 8 le Chut, F CIO le Claon, F K 9 Le Qerins, F N13 I'Eclus, N F 1 Lecluse, F E 5 Le Coq, B E 1 Le Coudroy, F. ..B 8 Lc Crotoy, F B 5 Lede, B H 2 Ledeberg, B G 2 Ledeghem, B. ...F 3 Le Deluge, F C 8 Leende, N L 1 Leeme, B G 2 Leers, B F 3 Le Fays, F Kll Leffincourt, F .T 8 Leffinghe, B E 1 Le Foret, F . .C12 le Four de Paris, F K 9 - Lc Fraiteux, F...P12 Le Gault, F GIO L'Eglise, B L 7 Le Gris-Nes, F...B 3 Lc Haut, F 014 le Houlme, F A 8 Le Hourdel, F...B 5 Leichlingen, G. ..PI Leidenborn, G. ..N 5 Leimen, G S 8 Leintry, F Oil Leke, B E 2 Lelling, G O 9 Lemarche, F. ...MIO Lembach, G S 9 Lembecq, B H 3 Lemberg, G R 9 Le Menil, F.....N13 Lc Menil, F 014 le Mesnil, F B 6 le Mesnil, F E 6 le Mesnil, F J 9 Le Mesnil, F....H10 Le Mesnil Amelot, F D'lO Le Mesnil St. Denis, F Cll Lemmes, F L 9 Lemoncourt, G. ..NIO Lempire, F F 6 Lendelede, B. ...F 3 Leriing, G OlO Lenne Geb R 1 Lennep, G. P 1 Lenne River . . • . R 1 Lennick, B H 3 Le Nouvion, F...G 6 Lens, F E 4 Lens-sur-Dendre, B G 4 Lenze, B K 4 Le Pailly, F L14 Lc Parcq, F C 4 le Perray, F Bll le Pin, F DIO Lepine, F B 4 L'Epine, F JIO Le Plessis-Belle- ville, F E 9 Le Porte, F B 3 Lcpron-les-Vallees, F J 7 Lcpuix, F P14 le Quesnel, F D 7 Le Quesnoy, F...G 5 Le Raincy, F DIO Le RetoTtat, F Gil Larouville, F. ...LIO COMPLETE INDEX OP THE WESTERN FRONT 215 Les Alleux, F J 8 les Alluets, F CIO Les Andelys, F...B 9 Les Attaques, F..C 2. Les Aubrais, F..C14 Les Bas Rupt, F..013 Les Besards, F...E14 Les Boeufs, F....E 6 les Bordes, F 014 Les Bordes, F H13 Les Bruyers, B...G 4 Les Bulks, B L 7 Les Croutes, F...G13 Les Cuves, F P13 Lesdain, F F 5 Lesdins, F F 6 Les Eparges, F. . .L 9 Les Escrennes, F.E12 Les Etangs, G N 9 Les Gdes. Loges, F H 9 Lesigny, F DU les Islettes, F...K 9 les Loges, F E 7 Lesmenlis, F. ...NIO Lesmont, F J12 Les Monthairons, F L 9 Les Mureaux, F..C10 Lespe, B J 4 Les Ptes Loges, F H 9 Lesquielles, F. .G 6 Les Riceys, F...J13 Les Rivieres, F..J11 Les Rues, F F 5 Le Sauley, F PI 2 Lesse River . . . . K 5 Lesseux, F P12 Les Sieges, F...F13 Lessines, B G 3 Lessive, B K 5 Les Thilliers, F..B 9 Lestre, F F 5 Le Thillot, F 014 Le Tholy, F....013 Le Thour, F....H 8 Le Thuel, F H 7 Le Transloy, F..E 6 Le Tremblois, F..J 6 le Treport-Terrasse, F A 6 Leubringhen, F. . B 3 Leugley, F K14 Leury, F F 8 Leutesdorf, G. ..P 4 Leuze, B G 4 Leval, F G 5 Le Vald'Ajol, F..014 Le Valtin, F PI 3 Le Varoux, F....C 8 Levecourt, F. ..Ml 3 Levergles, F. ...F 6. Leves, F A12 Levignen, F E 9 Ley, G OlO Leyr, F NIO Leyviller, G. ...0 9 Lezennes, F F 4 Lezey, G OlO Lezinnes, F H14 Lhuitre, F Hll Liancourt, F. , . .'D 8 Liancourt, F. . . . E 7 Liane River . . . . B 3 Liart, F H 7 Libermont, F. . . E 7 Libin, B K 6 Liblar, G O 3 Libramont, B. ...L 6 Licheres pres Aigremont, F. .G14 Lichtenau, G. ...SIO Lichtenborn, G. . . N 5 Lichtenthal, G. . .TIG Lichtervelde, B...F 2 Liege, B L 3 Liencourt, F. . . . D' 5 Liepvre, G R12 Lieques, F C 3 Lieramont, F. . . .E 6 Lierde, B G 3 Lierneux, B M 5 Lierval, F G 8 Lierre, B J 2 Liesse, F ..G 7 Liesser, G P 6 Liesser River . . . O 5 Liessies, F H 5 Lievin, F E 4 Liffol le Grand, F L12 Ligne, B G 3 Ligneuville, G. . . M 4 Ligny, F E 4 Ligny, F E 5 Ligny, F F 5 Ligny en Barrois, F Lll Ligny le Chatel, F G14 Ligay, F B14 Lihons, F E 6 Lille, B J 1 Lille, F E 3 Lillers, F D 4 Lillois, B H 3 Limay, F BIO Limbach, G S 5 Limburg, B M 3 Limburg, G S 4 Limerle, B M 5 Limont, B L 3 Limours, F Cll Limperick, G. . . . P 3 Lincent, B K 3 Lindern, G N 2 Lindlar, G P 2 Linkenheim, G. ..T 9 Linne, N Ml Linnich, G N 2 Linselles, F F 3 Linthes, F Gil Liny, F K.8 Linz, G P 3 Linzen, G M 3 Liomer, F B 6 Lironville, F. . .MlO Liry, F J 8 Lisbourg, F D 4 Lisdorf, G O 8 L'Isle Adam, F...C 9 L'Isle-en-Barrois, F KIO Lisseweghe, B. . . . F 1 Lissey, F L 8 Lissy, F Dll Little Nethe River K 1 Littlestone, E. ..A 2 Liverdun, F NIO Lives, B K 4 Livry, F DIO Livry, F H 9 Lixheim, G PIO Lixieres, F M 9 Lixing, G O 9 Lizerne, B E 2 Lizines, F Ell Lizy, F ElO Lizy, F F 8 Lobberich, G. ...N 1 Lobbes, B. .. ...H 4 Lochingen, G. ..Pll Locquignol, F. ..G 5 Locre, B E 3 Loeuilly, F C 7 Loffenau, G TIO Lofflingen, G. ..T13 Loffre, F F 4 Lohmar, G P 2 Loigny, F B13 Loing River E14 Loir River A13 Loire River B14 Loison, F L 8 Loison River L 8 Loisy, F JIO Loisy, F NIO Loivre, F G 8 Lokeren, B H 2 Lo ■•ibaertzyde, B..E 1 Lombeek, B IT 2 Lomme, F E 3 Lommel, B. ... LI Lommer, G M 8 Lommersum, G. .0 3 Lomprez, B K 6 Londerzeel, B. ..H 2 Londinieres, F. .B 6 Longchamp, F. ..K13 Longchamps, B. .M 6 Longchamps, F...F6 Longeau, F L14 Longeanx, F. . ..Lll Longerich, G. ...O 2 Longeville, F. ...Kll Longeville, G. ...O 9 Longjumeau, F. .Cll Longlier, B L 6 Longpont, F F 9 Longroy, F B 6 Longueau, F D 6 Longueville, F....A 6 Longueville, F. ...C 3 Longueville, F. . . . Fl 1 Longvilly, G. ...M 6 Longwe, F J 8 Longwy, F M 8 Lenny, F J 7 Lontzen, G M 3 Loo, B E 2 Loon-Plage, F....D 2 Loos, F E 4 Lootenhulle, B. ..F 2 Looz, B L 3 Loozen, B L 1 Lophera, B F 1 Lor, F H 8 Lorch, G R S Lorch, G S13 Lorentzwciler, L. .N 7 Lorenzcn, G PIG Lorleau, F B 8 Lorres le Bocagc, F E12 Lorris, F D14 Lorry, G N 9 Lorsch, G T 7 Losheim, G O 8 Lossburg, G Til Lonette St. Denis, B k 6 Louetite St. Pierre, B K 6 Loupiegne, F. ...G 9 Louppy, F. KIO Louppy, F L 8 Loury, F C13 Louvain, B J 2 Louveigne, B. ...L 4 Louvetnont, F L 9 Louviers, F A 9 Louvois, F H 9 Louvrechy, F. . . .D 7 Louvres, F, D 9 Louze, F J12 Lubey, F. M 9 Lucey, F Mil Lucheux, F D 5 Lucquy, F J 8 Lucy, G NIG Ludenscheid, G. .R 1 Ludes, F. H 9 Ludres, F Nil Ludwigshafen, G. .T 8 Lumbres, F C 3 Lummen, B. .....K 2 Lunebach, G N S Luneville, F Nil Luplante, F A12 Luppy, G NIO Lure, F 014 Lusigny, F H12 Lustin, B K 4 Luttange, G N 8 Lutterbach, G. ..R14 Luttre, B J 4 Liittringhausen, G P 1 Lutzelburg, G. ...PIO Lutzelhausen, G..P11 Lutzelstein, G RIG Lutzerath, G P 5 Luxemburg, L. . . . N 7 Luxeuil, F ,N14 Luyeres, F H12 Luzarches, F. . . . D 9 Luzy, F L13 Lydd, E A 2 Lydden, E'. A 1 Lyons la Foret, F.B 8 Lys, F F 3 Lys River F 3 Maarheeze, N. ...L 1 Maastricht, N L 3 Mabompre, B. . . , M S Machault, F J 8 Machecourt, F. . . G 7 Macquigny, F. . . G 6 Madeleine, F. . . . F 3 Madon River Nil 216 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Mad Rirer MIO Maeseyck, B. ...M 2 Maffe, B L 4 Magnant, F J13 Magneiix, F G 9 Magnicourt en Comte, F D 4 Magnieres, F. ...012 Magny, F A12 Magny, F B 9 Magny, F M14 Magny, F P14 Mahlberg, G S12 Maifeld P 4 Maig^elay, F. . . .D 8 Mailly, F Hll Mailly, F NIO Mailly-Maillet, F. .D 6 Mainbresson, F. . . H 7 Maing, F G 5 Main River T 5 Maintenon, F Bll Mainville, F M 8 Mainz, G T 5 Maisey le Due, F. .J14 Maisoncelles, F...E10 Maison Rouge, F..F11 Maisons, F CIO Maisons, F Jll Maissemy, F F 6 Maissin, B K 6 Maixe, F OH Maizeray, F M 9 Maizey, F LIO Maizieres, G Oil Maizy, F G 8 Malancourt, F. ...K 9 Malaunay, F A 8 Malaville, F M 8 Malay, F F13 Maldegem, B. . . . F 1 Malesherbes, F...D'12 Malincourt, F. . ..F 6 Mall, B L 3 Malmedy, G M 4 Malo-les-Bains, F.D 2 Malonne, B K 4 Malplaquet, B. ..H 4 Malroy, G iT 9 Malsch, G TIO Malstatt, G P 9 Malvaux, F 014 Malzeville, F NIO Mamer, L M 7 Mametz, F E 6 Mamey, F MIO Manancourt, F. . . . E 6 Mance, F M 9 iManchecourt, F...C13 Manderscheid, G..O 5 Mandrag, F PI 2 Mandres, F LI 2 Mandres, F LI 3 Manebach, G. ...OS Mangiennes, F. ...L 8 Manheim, G N 2 Manheulles, F. ..L 9 Manhoue, G NIO Manicamp, F F 8 Maninghem, F. .. .C 4 Manneyret, F. . . . G 6 Mannheim, G. . . .T 7 Manoncourt, F. ..MIO Manonvillers, F. .OH Manre, F J 9 Mantes, F BIO Marainviller, F. . . Ol 1 Maraye, F G13 Marbache, F NIO Marbehan, B L 7 Marbone, F A13 Marchais, F. . . . . G 7 Marche, B L 5 Marchelepot, F....E 6 Marchenoir, F....A14 Marcheville, F. ...L 9 Marchienne, B... .H 4 Marchiennes, F. ..F 4 Marcilly, F E 9 Marcilly le Hayer, F G12 Marck, F .C 2 Marckolsheim, G. .R13 Marcoing, F F 5 Marcq, F K 8 Marcy, F F 6 Marcy, F G 7 Marenne, B L 5 Marest, F E 7 Marest, F E 8 Maretz, F F 6 Mareuil, F E 8 Mareuil, F E 9' Mareuil, F GIO Mareuil, F H 9 Margate, E B 1 Margerie, F JH Margival, F F 8 Margny, F E 8 Margut, F L 7 Mariakerke, B E 1 Maricourt, F E 6 Mariembourg, B. ..J 5 Marienberg, G....S 3 Marienberghausen, G P 2 Marienborn, G. . . S 6 Marienheide, G. .P 2 Marieux, F D 5 Marigny, F. ...C14 Marigny, F G12 Marimont, G. ..OlO Marines, F C 9 Markirch, G. ...P12 Marie, F G 7 Marlemont, F. ..J 7 Marlenheim, G. ..Rll Maries, F D 4 Maries, F Ell Marieux, F H 5 Marley, F G 5 Marley, F Kll Marloie, B L 5 Marly, F CIO Marly la Ville, F.D 9 Marmagen, G. ...O 4 Marne Rhine Canal Nil Marne River ...ElO Marnheim, G. . . . S 7 Maroeuil, F E 5 Maroilles, F. ...G 5 Marolles, F BIO Marolles s Seine, F E12 Maromme, F. . . .A 8 Maronvillers, F. .H 9 Marquaix, F. .. .F 6 Marquette, F. ...F 5 Marquillies, F. ..E' 4 Marquin, B F 4 Marquion, F. ...F 5 Marquise, F. ...B 3 Marquivillers, F..D 7 Marre, F L 9 Marsal, G OlO Marsangy, F F13 Marseille, F. . . .C 7 Mars-la-Tour, F..M 9 Marson, F JIO Martelange, B. .M 6 Marteville, F. ...F 6 Marthill, G OlO Martigny, F. . . .H 6 Martigny, F. . . .M12 Martigny-les-Bains, F. M13 Martinpuich, F...E 6 Martinstein, G. .R 6 Marville, F All Marville, F L 8 Marxzell, G TIO Mary, F ElO Masbourg, B. . . .L 5 Masmeres, F. ...F 5 Masmunster, G. .P14 Massiges, F J 9 Matigny, F E 7 Matougues, F. ..HIO Matz River E 8 Maubeuge, F. ...G 5 Maubray, B G 4 Maucourt, F. . . .L 9 Maule, F BIO Maupertuis, F. ..Ell Maurmunster, G.Rll Mauvage, F Lll Maxenchamp, F. .013 Maxeville, F. ...Nil Maxey, F Mil Maximiliansau, G rr 9 Mayen, G B 4 Mav-en-Multien, F E 9 Mazerulles, F NIC Meaulte, F D 6 Meaux, F ElO Mechelen, B. . . .L 2 Mechernich, G. ..O 3 . Mechlin, _B J 2 Meckenheim, G. .P 3 Mecrin, F LIO Medan, F CIO Medeah, F J 9 Medernach, L. . .N 6 Meerhout. B. . . .K 2 Meerle, B J 1 Meersen, N M 2 Meetkerke, B. . .F 1 Mehaigne River.. K 3 Mehancourt, F. ..Nil Mehlem, G. ...,..P 3 Meienheim, G. ..R13 Meignaux, F. ...C.7 Meijel, N Ml Meilleray, F. ...FIO Meinerhagen, G..R 1 Meirelbeke, B G 2 Meisenheim, G....R 7 Meisse, F DIZ Meix, B L 7 Melancourt, F E 6 Melay, F M14 Meligny, F Lll Melik, N Ml Melissey, F 014 Melle, B G 2 Melles, B G 3 Mellier, B L 7 Melreux, B L 5 Melun, F Dll Membre, B K 6 Menaucourt, F. . . LI i Mendig, G P 4 Menevillers, F. .D 8 Menil, F 012 Menil la Horgne, F Lll Menil la Tour, F MIO Menil Lepinos, F.H 8 Menin, B F 3 Mennecy, F D'll Mennessis, F. . . . F 7 Mer, F B14 Merbes, B H 5 Mercatel, F E 5 Merchtem, B. ...H 2 Merckem, B. ...E 2 Mercy le Haut, F MS Mereville, F C12 Mericourt,- F. . . . D 6 Mericourt, F. .. .E 4 Mericourt, F. ...E 6 Merken, G N 3 Merle, F L 8 Merlemont, B. ..J 6 Merlimont, F. . .B 4 Merrey, F M13 Merris, F E 3 Mers, F B 6 Mersch, L M 7 Merscheid, G. ...PI Mertert, L N 7 Meru, F C 9 Merval, F G 8 Merville, F. ...D 3 Merviller, F. ...Oil Merxem, B J 1 Merxplas, B K 1 Mery, F. D 8 Mery sur Seine, F Hll M^zalben, G. ...S 9 Merzenhausen, G. N 2 Merzhausen, G....T 4 Merzig, G 6 8 Merzlich, G O 7 Merzweiler, G. ..RIO Mesgrigny, F. ..G12 Mesnil, F D 6 Mesnil, F D 7 Mesnil Lieubray, F B 8 Mespuits, F C12 Messancy, B, .. .M 7 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT 217 Messincourt, F.. .K 8 Messincourt, F. .K 7 Messines, B E 3 Metrich, G N 8 Metrich, G M 9 Mettenheim, G. ..T 6 Mettet, B J 5 Mettlach, G OS Mettmann, G. ...O 1 Mettnich, G P 7 Metz, G N 9 Metz-en-Coture, Metzer'ai.'G. "..'!.' PI 3 Metzcrwiese, G...N 8 Meudon de Chatillon, F. ..CIO Meudt, G S 4 Meuil, F P12 Mctilan, F €10 Meulebeke, B F Z Meung sur Loire, F B14 Meurchin, F. . . .E 4 Meurcourt, F. ...N14 Meurthe River. ..Nil Meuse, F LI 3 Meuse River ... .J 6 Meuvy, F L13 Mexheim, G R 6 Mezerelles, F. . .C 5 Mezieres, F F 7 Mezieres, G N 9 Mezieres Bellegarde, F D13 Mezy, F F 9 Michelbach, G. ..S 5 Middelkerke, B...E 1 Miehlen, G R 5 Miel, G O 3 Mielino, F 014 Mignieres, F. ...D13 Millieres, F L13 Milly, F D12 Milly, F K 8 Mimfcach, G P 9 Minderhout, B. ..J 1 Minfield, G T 9 Minorville, F. ..MIO Minster, E ^B 1 Miraumont, F. ..E 5 Mirbach, G O 4 Mirecourt, F. ...N12 Mirfeld, G N 4 Mirwart, B L 6 Misery, F E 6 Missy, F F 8 Missy, F G 7 Mitry, F DIO Modelin, F H 8 Moder River ...SIO Modrath, G 2 Mioen, B E 3 Moerbeke, B G 1 ^Toerbeke, B. ...H 3 Moere, B E 2 Moerkerke, B. . .F 1 Moeslains, F. .. .Kll Moeuvres, F F 5 Mogneville, F. ..KIO Moha, B K 4 Mohivil'.e, B. ...K 4 Mohon, F J 7 Mohringan, G. ..0 9 Moircy, B L ff Moislains, F. . . . E 6 Moisselles, F. ...D' 9 Moisy, F A14 Molinons, F F13 Moll, B K 1 MoUiens Vidame, F C 6 Mollkirch, G. ...Rll Molsheim, G. ...Rll Mombronn, G. ..P 9 Momignies, B. ..H 6 Mommenheim, G.RIO Monceau, B K 6 Monceau, F G 7 Moncel, F NIO Monchecourt, F...F 5 Monchiet, F D 5 Monchweiler, G.. .T13 Monchy, F D 5 Mondelange, G. .N 8 Mondement, F. .GIO Mondesi, F C12 Mondorf, L N 8 Moneteau, F. ...F14 Monheim, G. ...02 Monneren, G. ...0 8 Monreal, G P 4 Mons, B H 4 Mons, F E 6 Mons-en-Pevele, F E 4 Monsheim, G. ..S 7 Monsoult, F C 9 Mont, B MS Mont, F Nil Montlacher, F. ..E'13 Montaigu, B. . ..K 2 Montaigu, F. . ..G 8 Montainville, F. .B12 Montargis, F. ...E13 Montataire, F. . .D 9 Montaubaur, G. . . R 4 Montbouy, F. ...E14 Montbre, F H 9 Montbrehain, F. .F 6 Montceoux, F. ..Fll Montcetz, F JIO Montcornet, F. .H 7 Montdidier, F. . .D 7 Mt. Donon PI 1 Montdore, F. ...N14 Montenau, G. ...N 4 Montenils, F. ...FIO Montenoy, F. ...NIO Montereau Faut Yonne, F E12 Monteresson, F. .E14 Montescourt, F. .F 7 Montfaucon, F. .K 9 Montgeron, F. ..Dll Monthairons, F. .L 9 Montherme, F. . . J 6 Monthois, F J 8 Monthureux, F. .Ml 3 Monthyon, F. . . .ElO Montier en Der, F K12 Montiers, F Lll Montigny, B J 4 Montigny, F. . . .D12 Montigny, F E 8 Montigny, F. ...F 4 Montigny, F. . . .G 7 Montigny, F L13 Montigny, F. ...Oil Montigny s Aube, F T14 Montjavoult, F.. .B 9 Montjoie, G N 4 Montlhery, F. . ..Cll Montlognon, F. ..E 9 Montlone, F. . ..H 7 Montmarquet, F..C 6 Montmedv, F. ...L 8 Montmirail, F....G10 Montmorency F..D10 Montraort, F. ...GIO Mt. Notre Dame, F F 9 Montoise, G. . . .M 9 Montplonne, F...K11 Montrecourt, F. .G 5 Montreuil, F. ...C 4 Montreuil, F. ...DIO Montreuil, F. ...FIO Montribourg, F...K13 Mt. St. Aignan, F.A 8 Mont-St.-Eloy, F..E 5 Mt. St. Jean, B-J 3 Mont St. Juan, F.H 7 Mt. St. Martin, F A 8 Mont-St. Martin, F J 8 Mt. St. Martin, F M 8 Mt. St. Remy, F.J. 8 Montsec, F MIO Monville, F A 8 Moorslede, B. .. .F 2 Moorslede, B. ...F 3 Moosalba River.. .R 8 Morains, F HIO Moranville, F L 9 Moranzy, F H 7 Morbach, G P 6 Morchain, F E 7 Morchies, F D 5 Morchingen, G. ..OlO Morcourt, F. . . .D 6 Morcourt, F F 6 Moree, F A14 Moresnet, B. . . . M 3 Moret, F E12 Moreuil, F D 7 Morey, F NIO Morfelden, G. ...T 6 Morgendorf, G. .R 4 Morgny, F B 8 Morhet, B L 6 Morienval, F. . . . E 8 Moriville, F 012 Morlancourt, F. .E 6 Mormal Forest . . ,. G 5 Mormant, F Ell Mormont, B L 5 Morsain, F F 8 Morsains, F FIO Morsbach, G. ...0 9 Morsbach, G R 2 Morsbronn, G. ..RIO Morsch, G TIO Mortagne, F 012 Mortagne River.. Oil Mortcert, F. ElO Mortemer, F. . . . B 7 Mortiers, F G 7 Morville, G NIO Morville, G OlO Morvillers, F. ...B 7 Moselle River ...06 Moselotte River .P13 Mouaville, F. .. .M 9 Mouchin, F F 4 Mouilly, F L 9 Moulette, F BIO Moulins, F H14 Moulins, F K 7 Moulins s Touvent, F E 8 Moulle, F C 3 Mouroux, F ElO Moursel, B H 2 Moururett le Montoy, F. . . .KIO Mouscron, B. . . .F 3 Moutils, F Jfll Mouveaux, F. ...F 3 Mouy, F D 8 Mouy, F F12 Mouzaive, B. ...K 6 Mouzay, F K 8 Mouzon, F K 7 Moxhe, B K 3 Moy, F F 7 Moyen, F Oil Moyenmiotitier, F P12 Moyenneville, F.. .B 6 Moyenneville, F. .D 5 Moyenuic, G OlO Moyeuvre, G. . . M 9 Much, G P 2 Muchedent, F A 7 Muggensturm, G.TIO Muhlbach, G. ...P13 Muhlbach, G. ...R 8 Muhlberg, G T 9 Muhl River R S Muids, F A 9 Muille, F E r Muizon, F G 9 Mulhausen, G. ...R14 Mulheim, G O 2 Mulheim, G 3 Mulheim, G, ..,.P 6 Mullheim, G. ...R14 Mullenborn, G. ..O 5 Mundenheim, G...T 8 Mundersbach, G..R 3 ^ Munchen, G. . ..N 1 Muno, B K 7 Munster, G PIO Munster, G P13 Munster, G S 6 Munsterappel, G. .S 7 Munsterbilsen, B..L 2 Miinstereifel, G. ..O 4 Miinstermaifeld, G P 5 Munster River ..N 3 Murg River TIO Murlenbach, G. ..O 5 Murville, F M 8 Musch, G 4 Muscourt, F G 8 Mussbach, G S 8 218 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Mussey, F KIO Musson, B L 7 Mwssy s Seine, F..J13 Mutscheid, G. ..O 4 Mutterhausen, G..R10 Muttersholz, G...R12 Mutterctadt, G...T 8 Mutzenich, G N 4 Mutzig, G Rll Muzeray, _F L 8 Nackenheim, G. .T 6 Nadrin, B MS Nahbollenbach, G '...R 7 Nahe River R 6 Naives, F .L1,0 Naix, F Lll Nameche, B K 4 Namedy, G P 4 Namois, F Ill Nampeel, F F 8 Nampont St. Martin, F. C 4 Namps, F C 7 Nampteuil, F. ...F 8 Namur, B K 4 Nancois, F Lll Nancy, F Nil Nandrin, B L 4 Nangis, F Ell Naninne, B K 4 Nanteuil, F ElO Nanteuil, F H 8 Nanteuil le Haudouin, F. .E 9 Nantillois, F. ...K 8 Nassogne, B L 5 Nassau, G R 4 Nastatten, G S 5 Nauheim, G T 6 Nauroy, F H 9 Navarin, F J 9 Nazareth, B G 2 Neauphie le Vieux, F BIO Necharau, G. . . .T 8 Nederbrakel, B. .G 3 Ndr. Breisig, G...P 4 Ndr. Ingelheim, G S 6 Ndr. Kirschen, L.M 7 Ndr. Lahnstein, G R 4 Nederweert, N....L 1 Ndr. Zissen, G...P 4 Nederzwalm, B....G 2 Neer, N M 1 Neerlinter, B. ...K 3 Neeroeteren, B. ..L 2 Neer Pelt, B L 1 Neerwinden, B. .K 3 Neiderbronn, G...R10 Nemours, F E12 Nennig. G N 8 NerviUe, F C 9 Nery, F E 9 Nesdigneul, F....B 3 Nesle, F B 7 Nesle, F E 7 Nesles, F B 3 Nesles, F. C 9 NetUncourt, F. .KIO N«tte River P 4 Nettersheim, G. .0 4 Neubois, G R12 Neu Breisach, G..R13 Neudorf, G S 5 Neuenburg, G. ..RH Neuendorf, G. ...N 5 Neuenrade, G. ..R 1 Neuerburg, G. ...N 6 Neuerkirch, G. ..R 6 Neuf Berquin, F..D 3 Neuf chateau, B.,.L 6 Neufchateau, F...M12 Neufchatel, F. ...B 7 Neufchatel, F. ..H 8 Neufchef, G. ...M 8 Neufchelles, F. ..E 9 Neu Freistett, G..S11 Neuhof, G S 5 Neuhof, G Sll Neu-Honrath, G. .P 2 Neuilly, F CIO Neuilly en Thelle, F C 9 Neuilly I'Evevue, F L14 Neuilly St. Front, F F 9 Neukirchen, G. ..P 2 Neulsenburg, G. .T 5 Neumagen, G. . . . O 6 Neunkchn., G. ...P 2 Ncunkheusen, G. . R 3 Neunkirchen, G. .P 8 Neuschloss, G. ..T 7 Ncuss, G O 1 Neustadt, G R 3 Neustadt, G S 8 Neustadt, G T13 Neuve Chapelle, F E 4 Neuve Eglise, B..E 4 Neuve Eglise, B. .E 3 Neuve Maison, F.G 6 Neuves Maisons, F Nil Neuville, B L 4 Neuville, F A 6 Neuville, F C 4 Neuville, F E 4 Neuville, F E S Neuville, F F 3 Neuville, F. F 7 Neuville, F G 8 Neuvilles-aux Bois, . F C13 Neuvillette, F. . .D S Neuvillette, F. ..G 6 Neuvilly, F K 9 Neuvy, F G13 Neuweiler, G. . ..RIO Neuwied, G R 4 Nevele, B G 2 New Romney, E..A 2 Nianny, F B 5 Nibelle, F C13 Nicey, F LIO Nideggen, G. ...N .3 Nied. Adenau, G.O 4 Nied. Altdorf, G..0 8 Niederau, G N 3 Niederbruck, G. .P14 Nieder Emmels, G. N 5 Niederfeulen, L..M 6 Nieder Lauterbach, G SIO Niedermerzig, L..M 6 Niederpieis, G....P 3 Nieder-Rodern, G SIO Niedert, G R 5 Nied River N 9 Niehl, G O 2 Niekirchen, G. ...O 8 Nieppe, F E 3 Niergnies, F F 5 Nierstein, G T 6 Nieucappelle, B. .E 2 Nieulay, F C 2 Nieuport, B E 2 Niffen, G R14 Nijon, F M13 Nik St. Etienne, B J 3 Nims River N S Nimy, B H 4 Ninove, B H 3 Nippes, G 2 Nismes, B J 6 Nister River ....R 3 Nitz River O 4 Nivelles, B H 4 Nives, B L 6 Nivillers, F C 8 Nizy-le-comte, F..H 8 Noailes, F C 8 Noeux, F D 4 Noeux, F D' S Nogent, F A12 Nogent, F D 9 Nogent, F. ......FIO Nogent en Bassigny, F L13 Nogent le Roi, F.BU Nogents s Aube, F H12 Nogent s Seine, F ...F12 Nogent S Vernisson, F E14 Nohen, G P 7 Nohfelden, G. ...P 8 Noirefontaine, B. .K 6 Noirval, F J 8 Noiseux, B L 5 Noisseville, G. ..N 9 Noisy-le-Sec, F...D10 Nolleval, F B 8 Nomain, F F 4 Nomeny, F NIO Nomexy, F N12 Nonancourt, F. ..AlO Nonette River .. .D 9 Nonniwieiler, G. ..0 7 Noordpeene, F. ..D 3 Noordschote, B. .E 2 Nopeant, G MIO Nordausques, F. .C 3 Noreuil, F E 5 Norf, G O 1 Normee, F HIO Noroy, F F 9 Norrent Fontes, F D 4 Norrois, F Jll Norroy le Sec, F.M 9 North Canal N 1 Norvenich, G. ..0 3 Nothberg, G N 3 Nothen, G O 4 Notre Dame de Lorette, F E 4 Nouart, F K 8 Nouillon Pont, F.M 8 Nouveau Brighton, F B 6 Nouvron, F F 8 Nouvion, F B 5 Nouvion, F G8 Noville, B L 3 Noville, B MS Nouzon, F J 7 Novion-Porcien, F J 7 Novy, F T 8 Noyal, F G 6 Noyelette, F D 5 Noyelle, F E 5 Noyelle, F OS Nqyelles siir Mer, F B 5 Noye River D 7 Noyers, F H14 Noyers, F L13 Noyon, F E 7 Nubecourt, F. ...KIO Nuenberg, G. TIO Nuits, F H14 Nully, F K12 Niimbrecht, G. ..R 2 Nuncq, F D' S Nunkirchen, G. .OS Nunschweiler, G..R 9 Nurlu, F E 6 Nylen, B J 1 Obenheim, G. ...Rl? Oberbronn, G. .. .RIO Oberbruch, G. ...P14 Ober Ehnheim, G.Rll Ob. Harmersbach, G S12 Oberhaslach, G. ..Pll Oberhergheim, G..R13 Ob. Ingelheim, G.S 6 Ob. Kassel, G....P 3 Oberkirch, G. ..Sll Ob. Lahnstein, G.R 4 Obermoschel, G...R 7 Oberndorf, G. ...R 7 Ober Pleis, G....P 3 Ober Rasbach, G.T 4 Ober Rimsingen, G S13 Obersgegen, G. ..N 6 Oberstein, G P 7 Ober Steinbach, G.R 9 Obertenzkirch, G. .T14 Oberursel, G T S Obervisse, G O 9 Oberweiler, G. ...N 6 Ob. Weis, G N 6 Oberwesel, G. ...R S Ob. Winter, G....P 3 Ob. Zissen, G P 4 Occoches, F D 5 Ochamps, B L 6 Ochtezeele, F. ..D 3 Ocquerre, F ElO Ocquier, B L 4 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT 219 Octringen, L. ...N 7 Odeigne, B M S Odenkirchen, G. .N 1 Odentbal, G P 2 Oderen, G P14 Gdernheim, G. . . . R 6 Odernheim, G. . . . S 6 Odeur, B L 3 Oedelem, B F 1 Oetigheim, G. ...TIO Oeuilly, F G 8 Oeuilly, F G 9 Oeuvy, F Hll Offagne, B K 6 Oflfenbach, G. ...R 7 Offenbach, G. ...T 9 Offenburg, G. ...Sll Offoy, F E 7 Offranvilk, F A 6 Offstein, G T 7 Ogeviller, F. ....Oil Oenes, F F 7 Offgersheim, G. ..T 8 Ognolles, F E 7 Ognon River ... .014 Obey, B K 4 Ohiigs, G O 1 Oignies, F E 4 Oiry, F HIO Oisemont, F C 6 Oise River G 6 Oissel, F A 8 Oisscry, F E 9 Oisy, F G 6 Oisy le Verger, F.F 5 Old Ft., B E 1 Olizy, F K 8 Ollieres, F M 8 Ollignies, B G 3 Olm, G S 6 Olpe, G R 2 Olsene, B F 2 Olzheim, G N 5 Ombret, B L 4 Omicourt, F J 7 Omissy, F F 6 Omont, F J 7 Onavonne, F G 8 Ondival, G M 4 Onhave, B J 5 Onnaing, F G 4 Onville, F M 9 Onvillers, F E 7 Oolen, B K 1 Oombergen, B. . .G 2 Oordegem, B. . . . G 2 Oos, G O 5 Oos, G TIO Oostacker, B G 2 Oostburg, N F 1 Oostcamp, B F 1 Oosterzeele, B. ..G 2 Oostham, B K 2 OosQcerke, B. . ..E 2 Oost Malle, B J 1 Oostnicuwkerke, B. .• F 2 Oostroosebeke, B..F 2 Oosttaveme, B E 3 Oostvleteren, B...E 2' Ooiircy, F H 8 Opglabbeel, B. ...L 2 Ophass€lt, B G 3 Opladen, G O 2 Opont, B K 6 Oppau, G T 7 Oppenau, G Sll Oppenheim, G. ...T 6 Oppy, F E S Opwyck, B H 2 Orainville, F. ...H 8 Orbais, F GIO Orbey, F P13 Orchies, F F 4 Orchimont, B. . . K 6 Orcq, B .F 4 Oreye, B L 3 Orfeuil, F. J 8 Orgeo, B L 6 Orgeres, F B13 Orge River Cll Orgeval, F G 8 Origny, F G 6 Origny, F H 6 Orleans, F B14 Orly, F DU Orly, F FIO Ormeignie, B. ...G 4 Ormes, F B14 Ormes, F Nil Ormiecourt, F. ..E 7 Ormingen, G P 9 Ormont, G N 4 Ormoy Villers, F..E 9 Ornaine River ...Lll Ornel, F L 9 Orne River M 9 Orncs, F L 9 Orrouy, F E 9 Orry, F D 9 Ors, F G 5 Orsay, F Cll Orsinval, F G 5 Ortenburg, G. ...Sll Ortho, B L 5 Oron, G OlO Orval, B L 7 Orvillier, F BIO Orvillers, F ElZ Osly Courtil, F. ..F 8 Ostal, F G 8 Ostend, B E 1 Osterath, G N 1 Ostheim, G R13 Osthofen, G T 7 Ostrich, G S 5 Othain River L 8 Ottendorf, G. . ..N 9 Ottenheim, G. .. .S12 Ottenhofen, G. ..Sll Otterbach, G R 8 Otterberg, G S 8 Ottignies, B J 3 Ottingen, G M 8 Ottmarsheim, G...015 Ottmarsheim, G. .R14 Ottweiler, G P 8 Otzenhausen, G. .P 7 Ouanne River ...E14 Ouarville, F B12 Ouckene, B F 2 Oucques, F A14 Oudecappelle, B...E 2 Oudenburg, B E 1 Oudler, G M S Otiire, F. G 8 Oudczeele, F. .. .D 3 Oulchy, F F 9 Oulins, F BIO Ource River .J13 Ourcq River E 9 Our River N 5 Ourthe River ....L 4 Oussoy, F D14 Outarville, F. ...CI 3 Outches, F G 8 Outrepont, F J 10 Ouville, F A 6 Ouzouer le Marche, F B14 Ouzouer sur Loire, F D14 Overath, G P 2 Overmere, B G 2 Overysshe, B J 3 Oye, F C 2 Ozerailies," F.' '.'.'.M 9 Ozoir, F D'll Pacy, F AID Pael, B K 2 Pagny, F MIO Pagny, F Mil Pagny, G NIO Pailhe, B K 4 Pailly, F FlZ Palaiseau, F Cll Paley, F E13 Palis, F G12 Paliseul, B K 6 Pallien, G O 7 Palluel, F F 5 Pancey, F L12 Range, G. N 9 Paningen, N. ...Ml Pannes, F D13 Pannes, F MIO Pareid, F. ......M 9 Pargny, F E 7 Pargny, F G 7 Pargny, F KIO Paricke, B G 3 Paris, F DIO Paris Plage, F....B 4 Paroche, F LIO Parois, F K 9 Paron, F F13 Parroy, F Oil Partenheim, G. ...S 6 Partondry, F G 8 Parux, F Pll Pas, F D 5 Passavant, F. ...K 9 Passavant, F. .. .M13 Passchendaele, B.E 2 Passel, F E 8 Patay, F B13 Patignies, B. ...K 6 Paturages, B. ...G 4 Pauvres, F J 8 Pavilion, F G12 Payne, F. G12 Pecq, B F 3 Pecquencourt, F..F 4 Peer, B LI Peissent, B H 4 Pellingen, G. ...0 7 Pelm, G 5 Peltre, G N 9 Pelves, F E 5 Penchard, F ElO Penin, F D S Pepinster, B. ...M 4 Perenchies, F. . . E 3 Perigny, F Gil Perl, G N 8 Perle, L M 6 Pernant, F F 8 Pernes, F D 4 Peronne, F E 6 Peronnes, B F 4 Peronville, F B13 Perrogney, F. ...K14 Persan, F C 9 Perthes, F D12 Perthes, F H 8 Perthes, F J 9 Perthes, F Kll Peruwelz, B G 4 Peruyse, B E 2 Perwez, B K 3 Perwez, B K 4 Petergensfeld, G.M 3 Petersbach, G. ...PiO Peterzell, G. T13 Petit-Brogel, B...L 1 Petitmont, F. ...PH Petit Morin River FIO Pet. Mourmelon, F H 9 Pettingen, L. ,..M 7 Peuvillers, F. ...L 8 Pevy, F G 9 Pexonne, F Pll Pezarches, F. ...Ell Pfaffenheim, G...P13 Pfalzburg, G. ..PIO Ffalzel, G O 6 Pfarebersweiler, G P 9 Pfuftendorf, G...M 2 Pfungstadt, G. ..T 6 Phalempin, F F 4 Philippesheim, G..O 6 Philippeville, B.. ..J 5 Philippine, N. ...G 1 Philippsburg, G...T 8 Phlin, F NIO Picquigny, F. . . . C 6 Pier, G N 2 Pierrefaite, F. ..M14 Pierrefitte, F LIO Pierrefonds, F E 8 Pierre Levee, F...E10 Pierrelez, F Fll Pierrepont, F. . . .D' 7 Pierrepont, F. ...G 7 Pierrepont, F. . . .M 8 Pierres, F Bll Pierry, F HIO Piesnoist, F H 8 Piesport, G O 6 Piffonds, F F13 Pignicourt, F. ...H 8 Pilhem, F. D 3 Pillon, F L 8 Pimelles, F H14 Pimprcr, F E 8 Piney, F H12 Pingsdorf, G. ...0 3 Pingsheim, G. . . . O 3 Pinon, F F 8 220 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Pintheville, F. ..M 9 Pirmasens, G. ...R 9 Pisdorf, G PIO Pithiviers, F. •••C13 Pitthem, B -t 2 Plaidt, G P 4 Plailly, F D 9 Plaine, G Plf Plaine River PH Plainfaing, F. ...P13 Plainville, F. ...g 7 Plancher, F 014 Plancv, F Hll Plasschendaele, B.E 1 Plateau de Tailles, B M S Platsheim, G Rll Pleddersheim, G...T 7 Plettenberg, G R 1 Pleurs, F GU Plivot, F HIO Ploegsteert, B. ...E 3 Plorabieres, F. ---OlS Ploy art, F ^' » Poederle, B J \ iPoelcappelle, B. . .t j Poeuilly, F F 6 Pogny, F. J 10 Poilcourt, I' W b Poilly, F G 9 Poincy, F E Poissons, F J^J^ Poissy. t t.10 Poix, B L 6 Poix, F G 7 Poix, F J 7 Poix, F G 5 Poleh, G P 4 Poligny, F .El«> Polleur, B M 4 Pollinchove, B. • • E ^ Pomade, F H 8 Pommier, F U 5 Ponipey. F NIO Pompierre, F. •••Ml^ Pondrome, B. • • •!> 5 Pont, F u---fe^2 Pont-a-Marcq, F. -i* 4 Pont a Mousson, F MIO Pt. Andelys, F. . .B 9 Pont-Arcy, F. • • -G 8 Pontarme, F D .9 Pont aux Moines, F €14 Pon't-a-Vendin, F..E 4 Pont de Bonne, B.L 4 Pont de I'Arche, F A 8 Pont Faverger, F.H 9 Pontigny, F. • • • -614 Pont Noyelles, F..D 6 Pontoise, F C 9 Pontoy, G N 9 Pont Pierre, L.. .M 8 Pont-Remy, F. ...C 6 Pont Ste. Maxence, F D 9 Pont St. Maid, F F 8 Pont St. Pierre, F A * Pont St. Vincent, F Mil Pont s Seine, F...F11 Pont s Yonne, F..F12 Pt. Xivry, F L 8 Poperinghe, B. .-E 3 Poppe, B ^- 1 Portieux, F N12 Portmort, F B 9 Port s Saone, F. .M14 Porville, B K 4 Posieres-en-Santerre, F Do Possesse, F JIO Poucques, B r ^ Pougy, F H12 Pouilly, F K 8 Poulheim, G O 2 Ponlseur, B L 4 Pourcy, F G J Pouy, F. GU Pozieres, F E b Prag, G ••••S.14 Precy s Oise, F...D 9 Prefontaine, F. . .U16 Fremont, F F 6 Prenouvellon, F. .Bl.^ Preseau, F G 5 Presles, F D 9 Presles, F -G b Preutin, F MS Prey, F AlO Prez, F.^...-.--I>ll Prims River US Pringy, F D 1 Pringy, F. •••••••JIO Profondeville, B...J 4 Proisy. F G 6 Pronsfeld, G N S Pronville, F E 5 Prosnes, F H 9 Prouvy, F ^ 5 Provais, F G 8 Proven, B E 2 Provencheres, F. .M13 Provencheres, F...P12 Proville, F F 5 Provin, F E f Provins, F FU Proyart, F E 6 Prtiderbach, G. . .R 3 Priim, G N 5 Prum River N 5 Prunay, F H 9 Puers, B H 2 Puiseaux, F D13 Puisieux, F E 5 Puisieux, F E 9 Pnlnoy. F Nil Pnlversheim, G. ..R14 Punchy. F E 7 Punderich, G. ...P 6 Pussay, F C12; Pussemange, B....K 7 Putte, B J 2 Puttelingen, G. ..N S Puttlingen, G. ...P 9 Puxieux, F M 9 Puzeaux, F E 7 Ouaedmechelen, B K 2 Quarouble, F, ...G 4 Quartier fi'Orleans, F G 8 Quatre Bras, B....J 4 Quatre Champs, F.T 8 Quatremare, F. . .A 9 Queant, F E 5 Queich River . .. .S 9 Ouenast, B H 3 Quend le Jeune, F B 5 Ouenneviere Farm, "F E 8 euers, F N14 uesnoy, F E 3 Quesnoy, F E 7 Quesny, F E 7 Queudes, r '^^'■ Quevaueamps, B...G 4 Quevauvillers, F...C 6 Quevilly, F A 8 Quiddelbach, G...0 4 Quievrain, B G 4 guievy, F Fa uilen, F C 4 Quilly, F J 8 Quimbacht, G. . . . R 8 Quincampoix, F. ..A 7 Quint, G 6 Quivieres, F E 6 Rablingen, G PIO Raches. F F 4 Raddon, F 014 Radevorm^wald, G.P 1 Radinghem, F. ..C 4 Raeren, G M 3 Raevels, B K 1 Rahin River 014 Raillencourt, F. .F 5 Raillicourt, F. . ...T 7 Rainville, F Ml 2 Rainvillers, F. .. .C 8 Raismes, F F 4 Rambervillers, F..012 Rambouillet, F. ..Bll Rambruch, L. ...M 6 Rambucourt, F. ..MIO Ramecourt, F. ...G 8 Ramerupt, F Hll Ramilles, F F 5 Ramillies, B K 3 Ranwnchamps, F...014 Ramscappelle, B...E 2 Rainsgate, E B 1 Ramstcin, G R 8 Ramupt, G .P12 Ranee, B H 5 Ranconnieres, F. .M14 Rancourt, F E 6 Rancourt, F KIO Randerath, G. ...M 2 Rangeval, F MIO Ransart, F D 5 Raon, F Pll Raon I'Etape, F...P12 Rappoltsweiler, G.P12 Rarav, F E 9 Rasey, F N13 Rastatt, G TIO Rath, G O 1 Ratingen, G 1 Raucourt, F K 7 Raucourt, F NIO Raulecourt, F. , .MIO Raunheim, G T 5 Rauweiler, G. ...PIO Ravenel, F D 8 Raves, F P12 Ravieres, F H14 Raville, F Oil Reau, F Dll Rebais, F FIO Rebrechien, F. ...C13 Recey s Ource, F.K14 Rech, G P 4 Rechicourt, G. ...Oil Rechingen, L. . . .M 7 Recht, G M 4 Rechtenberg, G. ..S 9 Recogne, B L 6 Recourt, F LIO Redange, L M 7 Redingen, F M 8 Redlingen, L. ...M 7 Redu, B K 6 Reduit de Chenay, F G 9 Regnauville, F. ..C 5 Regnieville, F. ..MIO Rehainviller, F....011 Rehon, F M 8 Reichenbach, G. ..TIO Reichenbach, G. ..Til Reichlange, L. ..M 7 Reichshafen, G. .RIO Reidscheid, G. ...P 7 Reil, G P S Reisdorf, L N 6 Reiselweiler, G. .R 9 Remagen, G P 3 Remagne, B L 6 Remaucourt, F. ..F 6 Remaucourt, F. . .H 7 Rembercourt, F. .LIO Remelfing. G. ...P 9 Remich, L N 7 Remies,' F G 7 Remilly, F K 7 Remilly, G NIO Reming, G PH Remirecourt, F. .D 8 Remiremont, F. ..013 Remomeix, F. ..P12 Remscheid, G P 1 Remy, F E 5 Remy, F E 8 Renaix, B G 3 Renansart, F. . . .F 7 Rench River Sll Rendeux, B L 5 Rengsdorf, G. . . .R 4 Reninjjhelst, B. ..E 3 Renland, L N 7 Renncval, F H 7 Renneville, F. .. .H 7 Renwez, F J 7 Ressons, F E' 8 Resteigne, B K 5 Rethel, F H 8 Rethondes, F. . ..E 8 Rethy, B K 1 Rettert, G S 5 Reuillv, F G 9 Reuland, G N 5 Reuth, G N 5 Reuves, F GIO Revigny, F KIO COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT 22] Rcvin, F .jf 6 Rexpoede, F D 2 Reyncl, F L12 Rezonville, G. ...M 9 Rhaunen, G P 6 Rheidt, G P 3 Rheims, F H 9 Rheinau, G K12 Rheinbach, G. ...O 3 Rhcinbollen, G. ..R 6 Rheinbrohl, G. ...P 4 Rheindahlen, G. .N I Rhcindurkhcim, G.T 7 Rheingohtim, G. .T 8 Rbeinsabern, G. ..T 9 Rheinsheim, G. . .T 9 Rhcinweiler, G R14 Rhcns, G R 5 Rheydt, G N 1 Rhine Canal R14 Rhine River R 4 Ribccourt, F E 8 Ribecourt, F F 5 Ribemont, F F 7 Richardmenil, F. ..Nil Richebourg, F. ...E 4 Richebourg, F. ..K13 Richect, F. MIO Richemont, F. . . . B 6 Richterich, G. . . .M 3 Rieding, G PIO Riedsefz, G S 9 Riegel, G S13 Riencourt, F E 5 Rienne, B K 6 Rieulay, F F 4 Rieux, F D 9 Rigny, F Mil Rilly, F. ....... H 9 Rimaucourt, F. ..L12 Rimbach, G P14 Rimogne, F J 6 Rimsburg, G P 7 Ringsdorf, G P 3 Rinnthal, G S 9 Ripont, F J 9 Riquier, F C 5 Ris Orangis, F....D11 Rivecourt, F D 8 Riviere, B K 4 Riviere, F. ..... .E 5 Rivieres le Bois, F L14 Riwer, L N 7 Rixheim, G R14 Rixingen, B L 3 Robecq, F D 4 Robclmont, B. ...L 7 Robert-Espagne, F Kll Roche, F J 8 Rochefort, B. ...K 5 Rochefort, F ClI Rochehaut, B. ...K 6 Rochesson, F. ...013 Rochetaillee, F. .LI 4 Rochy Conde, F..C 8 Rockenhausen, G..S 7 Roclincourt, F. ..E 5 Rocourt, F F 9 Rocquigny, F. ...H 7 Rocroy, F J 6 Rod a. d. Weil, G.T 4 Rodalben, G R 9 Rodelhausen, G. .P 6 Rodemachern, G. .N 8 Roden, G 8 Rodendorf, G. ...P 3 Rodcnkirchcn, G. .O 2 Rodheim, G T 4 Rcidingcn, G. ...N 2 Rocdersheim, G. .R14 Roellecourt, F. ..D 4 Ro^rdorf, G N 2 Rocrmond, N. ...M 1 Roer River N 3 Roeul, B H 4 Roeux, F E 5 Rogccourt, F. . , . F 7 Rognow River ..L12 Rogny, F E14 liogny, F G 7 Rohr, G O 4 Rohrbach, G P 8 Rohrbach. G P 9 Rohrcn, G N 4 Roiglise, F E 7 Roisdorf, G O 3 Roisel, F E 6 Roizy, F H 8 Rolampont, F. ...L14 Rolandseck, G. ..P 3 Rolleghemcappelle, B F *? Rollot,"'F. ".'.'.' ...D 7 Romagne, F K 8 Romagne, F LB Romain, F G 8 Romansweiler, G. .Rll Romarin, B E 3 Rombas, G N 9 Romedenne, B. ..J 5 Romeree, B J 5 Romilly, F A 8 Romilly sur Seine, F G12 R omm erski rchen , G O 2 Romoncourt, F. .M12 Romont, F 012 Remouchamps, B.M 4 Ronceux, F M12 Ronchamp, F. ...014 Roncourt, G M 9 Roncq, F F 3 Ronssoy, F F 6 Ronvaux, F L 9 Rood, L M 6 Roodt, L N 7 Roost-Warendin, F F 4 Roppewillen, G. ..R 9 Rorbach, G 01 Rosay, F. JIO Roschwroog, G. ..SIO Rosee, B .J 5 Rosenau, G R14 Rosendael, F. ...D 2 Rosenheim, G. ...S 6 Ro.senweiler, G. ..Rll Rosenheim, G. ...Rll Rosieres, F LIO Rosieres, F MIO Rosieres, F Nil Rosnay, F G 9 Rosnay, F J12 Rosny, F DIO Rosny s Seine, F.BIO Rosoux, B K 3 Rosoy, F F13 Rosport, L N 6 Rosrath, G P 2 Rossart, B L 6 Rossignol, F D 7 Rotgen, G N 3 Roth, G N 6 Rothau, G tPll Rothbach, G RIO i 2 St. Crepin, F fc; » St. Croix > ^ I St. Cyr, V OO St. Cyr..F.. <-,}^ St. Demts, Tf i^]'J St. Denis. F t 4 St Denis, F \']i St Die, F......Y - St Dizier, F..,..K1} Ste. Colombe, I"- -1:4 St Eloi..B......E 3 Ste. Mane. F....J » Ste. Mcsmcs. F. CU Ste. Preuve. F...G / St Ermc. F......G 8 St Etiennc, F...A » St. Etiennc. I; • • • ^ ' St Etiennc, F...H « St. Eticnne. F....J11 St. Eticnne. F. ..OU St. Eticnne au Temple. F. ••••110 St Ettienne. I'-.-'J ,» St Florentin. r..*.'iJ St Folquin, F C 2 St Gabain, F. ...1; 7 St Genest. F. . . -O 2 St Genevievcj l'..iNUi St. Gcomes, F L14 St Crtjorgen, G...S13 St Georgen, G. . .1 li St Georges, B...E 2 St Georges sur Eure. F AlO St Gerard. B J 4 St Germain, F CIO St Germain, F...1*.|0 St Germain, V.. .1112 St Germain, F...014 St. Germain des iFres. F E14 St Germain Laxis. F F.11 St Germainmont, F H 8 St German, F. . .B 6 St Germer, F.. ..B 8 St Ghislain, B...G 4 St Gibrien, F HIO St Gilles. F G 9 St Gear, G R 3 St Goarshausen, C R S St Helene'.F.V.'.OlZ St Hilaire, F P 4 St Hilaire, F J 9 St Hilaire, F....M 9 St Hilaire au Temple. F .TIO St Hubert, B....L 6 St Illiers. F BIO St Imoges, F. ..G 9 St Incbcrt, G P St. Tean, B E 3 St Jean, F JIO St Jean, F Nil St Jean, G PIO St. Tean de Rehcrvilliers, F.All St. Tean le Blan, 1' C14 St Tohann, G P 9 St Tulien. B E 2 St. "Tulien, F M 9 St Tulien, F MIO St. tulien du Sault. F F13 St Ture, G NIO St Tust F D 8 St 'Tuvin, F K 8 St Ivreuz, G P12 St ICreuz. G R13 St Laurent, B...G 1 St Laurent, F...E 5 St. Laurent, F L 8 St Laurent, F...N13 St Lefjer, F E 5 St Leger, B M 7 St. Leger aux Bois. F Bll St Leonard. B... .J 1 St Ivconard. F. ..H 9 St. Leonard, F PI 2 St Ics Ormes, F..F12 St Louis, G PIO St. Loup, F H 8 St Loup, F N14 St. Leu, F CIO St. Leu. F D 9 St Lye, F €13 St. Mareel. F M 9 St. Mard. F G 8 St Mard. F KIO St. Mare s Seine, F Jl-. St Marguerite. F.P12 St Marie. B L 6 St Marie. F J 9 St. Marie. G M 9 St. Marqucritc, F.A 6 St. Martin, F A 7 St Martin. F H14 St Martin, F JIO St. Martin de Bossenay. F. . .G12 St Martin en Campagne. F. ..A 6 St Martin d'Ordon, F E13 St. Martin I'Heureux, F. ..J 9 St. Masmes, F...H 8 St Maur. F DIG St Maurice, F...A11 St Maurice, F. ..D13 St Maurice, F...M10 St Maurice. F...P14 St. Maurice s Aveyron. F. ...E14 St Maxent. F B 6 St Med.nrd, B....L 6 St Medard. F E 7 St. Mcmmie, 1\...T10 St. Menehould, F.K 9 St Mesmcs. F DIO St Mcsmin. F..G12 St Michel. F....B 7 St Michel. F H 6 St Michel. F 012 St Mihicl. 1^ LIO St Morel, F J 8 St Nabord, F 013 St Nicolas, B II 1 St Nicolas, F E 5 St. Nicolas du Port, F Nil St Omer, F C 3 St. Omer en^ Chaussee, F. . . . C 8 St Ouen.F M13 St. Ouen TAumone, F C 9 St Oulph, F Gil St. Parres les Terties, F H12 St. Parres les Vaudes, F H13 St Paul, B H 1 St Paul, F C 8 St. Peravy la Catambe, F, ...B13 St Pierre, F D12 St. Pierre, F G 7 St. Pierre, F HIO St Pierre, F J 8 St Pierre, F M 8 St. Pierre-Aigle, F F 8 St. Picrre-Brouck, F D 2 St. Pierre Cappelle. B ....E 2 St. Pierre les Bitry, J' E 8 St. Pierre les Ebeuf, F A 9 St Pilt, G R12 St Pol, F D 2 St Pol, F D 4 St. Privat, G M 9 St Prix, F GIO St. Python, F G 5 St Quen, F Hll St. Quentin, F F 6 St Quentin, F.. .H 7 St Owentin en Tourmont, F. . .B 5 St puirin, G Pll St Kemcy, F 012 St Remv, F F 9 St Remy, F G 5 St Remy, F H 8 St Remy, F J 9 St. Remy, F L 9 St Remy, G N 9 St Remy en Bouzemont, F...T11 St Romain, F C 7 St Saens, F A 7 St Saulve, F G 4 St Sauveur, F...014 St Serotin, F E13 St Simon, F F 7 St Souplet, F....J 9 St Soupplets. F..E 9 St Sulpicc. F F 7 St Thicbaud. F..L13 St Thomas, F K 9 St Trout, B K 3 St Va.ist F F S St Vaast, F F 8 St. Valery sur Sommc, F B 5 St V.allerien, F..F13 St Vast. F C 6 St Vau.xbourg. F..J 8 St Venant F. ...D 3 St Victor, F A 7 St Vith, G M S St Usage, F T13 St Waast F G 5 St. Wendel, G P 8 Sainvillc, F C12 Sallaumines, F. ..E 4 Salm, G Pll Salmchateau, 6. .M 5 Salmorhr, G. ..,.0 6 Salm River O S Salome, F E 4 Salon, F Hll Salon River L14 Salzig. G. R 5 Sambre River ...H 4 Samcr, F B 3 Samghin, F E 4 Samogncux, F. . .L 9 Samoussy, F G 7 Sampipny. F LIO Sanirce, B L 5 Sancheville, F. ..B13 Sancourt, F E 6 Sand. G R 8 Sandtrate, E A 2 Sangatte. F B 2 Sandwich, E B 1 Sannois, F CIO Sanon River ....Oil Sante, F E 4 Santhoven, B. ...J 1 Saone River M13 Sapigneul, F. ...G 8 Sapiguies, F E S Sapogne, F T 7 Sapognc, F L 7 Saponcourt, F. ..N14 Saran, F B14 Sarcus, F C 7 Sarcy. F G 9 Sarladingc. B. ...G3 Sarmshelm, G. ...R 6 Sarre. E A 1 Sars Poteries, F..H 5 Sart B M 4 Sartes, F M12 Sasbaeh, G R13 Sasbach, G Sll Sassey, F K 8 Sas van Ghent, N.G 1 COMPLETE INDEX OP THE WESTERN FRONT 223 Sauchy, F F 5 Saudrupt, F Kll Sauer River .. . .M 6 Saul, L M 7 Saulccs, F T 7 Saulces, F J 8 Saulcourt, F F 6 Saulmory, F K 8 Saulnes, F M 8 Saultain, F G 5 Sault-Iz. Rethcl, F H 8 Saulx, F N14 Saulx River Kll Saulxures, V. ...013 Saulzoir, F F 5 Saumont, F B 7 Saussay la Vache, F. B 8 Sauvigny, F. ...Mil Sauville, F J 8 Saux, F. Lll Savcnthem, B, • • • J 2 Saveuse, !■" C 6 Savieres, F G12 Savigiiy, F E13 Savigny, F. . . . . .J 8 Savonnieres, F. ..Kll Savy, F D 5 Savy, F F 6 Scarpe River F 4 Sceaux, F CIO Schaft, N LI Schallstadt, G. ..SI 3 Scheijdt, N M 2 Schelde River ,..G 3 Scheuern, G N 5 Schevcn, G O 4 Schierstein, G. ...S 5 Schifferstadt, G. .T 8 Schifflingen, L. .M 8 Schiffweilcr, G. ..P 8 Schiltach, G T12 Schiltighm, G Sll Schimpach, L. ..M 6 Schirmcck, G. ...Pll Schlachtenhaus, G S14 Schladern, G R 3 Schlangenbad, G. .S 5 Schlcbusch. G.. ..P 2 Schleiden, G N 4 Schleider, G. ...N 2 Schlettstadt, G. ..R12 Schliengen, G. ..R14 Schlossdahf, G. ..O 4 Schluchsee, G. ..T14 Schnierlach, G. ..PI 3 Schmidt, G N 3 Schmidtheim, G. .O 4 Schnee Eifel ....N S Schnett, G P 9 Schoeffen, G M 4 Schonau, G O 4 Schonau, G S14 Schonberg, G. ...N 5 Schoneberg, G. . . R 3 Schonecken, G. ..N 5 Schonenberg, G...P 2 Schonenberg, G...S10 Schonstein, G. . . . R 3 Schoondike, N. ..F 1 Schoorbakke, B. .E 2 Schopfheira, G. ..S14 Schopp, G R 8 Schoroach, G. ...R - Schrambcrg, G. ..112 Schuyfferscappelle, B F 2 Schwarzenacker, G R 8 Schwarzenborn, G O 5 Schwcgcnheim, G T 8 Schwcich, G O 6 Schwcighof, G. ..S14 Schweigshauscn, G RIO Schwclm, G P 1 Schwctzingen, G. .T 8 Seboncourt, F. ...G 6 Scchault, F ] 9 Scchtem, G O 3 Sedan, F K 7 Seefelden, G S14 Seelbach, G S 2 .Scicheprey, F. ..MIO Seifen, G R 3 Seignelay, F G14 Seillcs, B K 4 Seine River Dll Sclayn, B K 4 Selbach, G P 7 Sclgersdorf, G. ..N 2 Sella River N 9 Seloignes, B. . . . .H 6 Selommcs, F A14 Selters, G R 4 Sellers, G S 4 Selvigny, F F 6 Selx River S 6 Selz, G SIO Selzaete, B G 1 Semide, F J 8 Semilly, F G 8 Scmmauth, F. ...K 8 Semoine, F Hll Semouse, F 013 Semousies, F G S Semouticrs, F. .. .K13 Sempigny, F E 8 Semps, B J 2 Scmuy, F J 8 Senan, F F14 Senarpont, F. ...B 6 Seneffe, B H 4 Senheim. G P 5 Senlis, F D 6 Senlis, F D 9 Senon, F L 9 Senoncourt, F. ..N14 Senonts, F P12 .Senonvillc, F. ...LIO Sens, F. F13 Sensec River E 5 Sentheim, G P14 Senuc, F K 8 Seny, B L 4 Sepcaux, F F14 Septeuil, F BIO Sept-Meules, F B 6 Septmonts, F F 8 Septsarges, F. ...K 8 Sept Saulx, F H 9 Serain, F F 6 Scraincourt, F. ...H 7 Scraing, B L 3 Serain villers, F...'F 5 Serein River ....G14 Serifontainc, F. ..B 8 Scrgincs, F F12 Sermaises, F C12 Sermaizc, F KIO Sermiers, F G 9 Scrquex, F B 7 Scrre, F E 5 Serre River G 7 Serrig, G O 7 Scrvais, F F 7 Servance, F 014 Scvigny, F H 7 Servigny, G 9 Servon, F K 9 Sery, F H 7 Serzy, F G 9 Setterich, G N 2 Seuil, F T 8 Seurea, F CIO Sevran, F DlO Sewen, G P14 Sey, G N 9 Sezanne, F Gil Shorncliffe, E. ...A 2 Shoulden, E B 1 Sibiville, F D 5 Sibret, B L 6 Siegburg, G P 3 Siegcn, G S 2 Sieglar, G P 3 Sieg River P 3 Sien, G R 7 Sierck, G N 8 Sierenz, G R14 Siershausen, G. ..R 4 Signy I'Abbayc, F..J 7 Signy le Petit, F.H 6 Signy Signets, F..E10 Silenrieux, B J S Sillegny, G NIO Sillery, F H 9 Silly, G NIO Silly la Poterie, F E 9 Silmont, F Lll Silvarouvres, F. ..J13 Simerath, G N 3 Simmer Kopf, G. .R 6 Simmern, G R 6 Simmer River . . .R 6 Simonswald, G. ...S13 Sin, F F 4 Sinceny, F F 7 Sindorf. G O 2 Singhaten, G S 4 Singrist, G RH Sinsin, B L 5 Sinspelt, G N 6 Sinzenich, G O 3 Sinzheirn^ G .SIO Sinzig, G P 4 Sirault, B G 4 Sissonne, F G 7 Sissy, F F 7 Sistig, G N 4 Sittard, N M 2 Sivry, B H 5 Sivry, F Ell Sivry, F L 8 Sivry, F NIO Sleydinge, B G 2 Sluis, N F 1 Slype, B E 1 Smeeth, E A 2 Snacskcrke, B. ..El Soberheim, G. ..R 6 Socourt, F N12 Soex, P D 2 Sognes, F F12 Soheit, B L 4 Sohicr, B K 6 Sohren, G P 6 Soignies, B H 4 Soissons, F F 8 Soisy 8 Etoilles, F Dll Soizy, F GIO Solentc, F E 7 Solesmes, F F 5 Soligny les Etangs, F F12 Solingcn. G O 1 Soller, G N 3 Sologne, G NIO Solre, F H 5 Solterre, F D14 Somain, F F 4 Sombreffe, B. ..J 4 Sombrin, F D 5 Somcrgem, B. ..G 2 Sommc-Blonne, F.T 9 Sommecaise, F. .f'H Sommedieue, F.. .L 9 Sommeilles, F. ..KIO Somme Leuze, B.L 4 Sommepy, F J 9 Sommerance, F. .K 8 Somme River ...D 6 Sommerviller, F. .Nil Sommery, F. . . . A 7 Sommcsous, F. .Hll Somme-Suippes, F J 9 Somme-Tourbe, F T 9 Sommevol, F G13 Somme Vcsle, F..J10 Somme- Yevrc, F..J10 Sommierc, B. ...K 5 Sompuis, F Hll Son, F H 7 Sonchamp, F. ...Bll Soncourt, F K12 Sondernach, G. ..P13 Songeons, F C 7 Songy, F TIO Sons, F G 7 Soon Wald R 6 Soppe, G PI4 Sorbey, G N 9 Sorbon, F H 8 Sorcy, F Lll Sorneville, F. ..NIO Sormery, F G13 Sottegem, B G 3 Sotteville, F A 8 Sotzweiler, G. . . P 8 Souain, F J 9 Souchez, F E 4 Soucy, F F12 Soude N. D., F..H11 224 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Soude Ste. Cry, F Hll Soudron, F HIO Sougney, f" B13 Souilly, F L 9 Soulaines, F J12 Soulanges, F. ...JIO Soulosse, F. . . .M12 Soultzbach, G P13 Soultzmatt, G. ..P13 Soupir, F G 8 Souppes, F E13 Soumagne, B. ..M 3 Sours, F. B12 S. Barthelemy, F..F10 S. Saire, F B 7 Soy, B L 5 Spa, B M 4 Spada, F LIO Spechbach, G. . .P14 Speicher, G O 6 Speyer, G T 8 Spiesen, G P 8 Spincourt, F. . . . L 8 Spock, G T 9 Spontin, B K 5 Sprendlingen, G. .S 6 Sprimont, B L 4 Spy, B J 4 Stabroeck, B J 1 Stadeckn, G S 6 Staden, B E 2 Stadtkyll, G. ...N 4 Stainville, F. ...Kll Staple, F D 3 Staufen, G S14 Stave, B J 5 Stavele, B D 2 Stavelot, B M 4 Steenbrugge, B. .F 1 Steene, B E 1 Steene, F D 2 Steenkerque, B. .H 3 Steenstraate, B. .E Z Steenvoorde, F. .D 3 Steenweg, B J 1 Steige, G P12 Steinach, G. S12 Steinalben, G ...R 8 Steinbach, G. ...P14 Steinbach, G SIO Steinbrucken, L.M 8 Steinbrunn, G. ..R14 Steinburg, G. ...RIO Steinebriick, G...N 5 Steinf eld, G 8 9 Steinfort, L. . . .M 7 Sfieinstrass, G N 2 Stekene, B HI Stenay, F K 8 Sternbeck, B. . ..J 3 Stetternicli, G N 2 Stevensweert, N.M 1 Stockhheim, G....N 3 Stockstadt, G. ...T 6 Stolberp, G N 3 Stollhofen, G. ..SIO Stonne, F K 8 Stosswihr, G. ...P13 Stoumont, B M 4 Straimont, B. ...L 7 Strass, G N 3 Strassburg, G. ..SU Strassfeld, G. ...O 3 Strauch, G. N 3 Straudernheim, G R 6 Strazelle, F E 3 Stromberg, G R 3 Stromberg, G. . . . R 6 Stuckange, G. ..N 8 Stuhlingen, G. ..T14 Sturry, E A 1 Sturzelbronn, G. . R 9 Suchtein, G N 1 Sufilenheim, G...S10 Suftgen, G N 8 Sugny, B K 6 Sugny, F K 7 Sugny, F J 8 Suippe River ...H 8 Suippes, F J 9 Sully la Chapelle, F C13 Sully a Loire, F..D14 Sulz, G P14 Sulz, G SIO Sulzbach, G P 8 Sulzbad, G Rll Sulzburg, G S14 Sulzeren, G P13 Sulze River P 2 Superbe River . .N14 Surburg, G SIO Sure River L 6 Surmelin River ..GIO Siirth, G 2 Susteren, N. . ..M 2 Suxy, B L 7 Suzanne, F E 6 Sweveghem, B. . . F 3 Swis River O 3 Sysseele, B F 1 Tagnon, F H 8 Tagolsheim, G. ..R14 Tahure, F J 9 Taillefontaine, F..E 9 fTaintrux, F 012 Talma, F K 8 Talus, F GIO Tamines, B J 4 Tamise, B H 2 Tannay, F K 8 Tannois, F Kll Tartiers, F F 8 Tarzy, F H 6 CTaunus S 5 Tavaux, F G 7 Tavigny, B M 5 Tellancourt, F. ..L 8 Tellin, B K 5 Telz, G N 2 Templemars, F. .F 4 Templeuve, B. ..F 3 Templeuve en Pevele, F F 4 Templeux, F. . . . F 6 Tenneville, B. . . .L 5 Tergnier, F. F 7 Termes, B L 7 Termonde, B. ..H 2 Terneuzen, N G 1 Ternuay, F 014 Terny, F F 8 Tertry, F F 6 Terveuren, B. . . . J 3 Terwagne, B. . . .L 4 Tessenderloo, B. .K 2 Testelt, B K 2 Teterchen, G. . . . O 9 Tetingen, G 9 Thaller, G O 7 Thalfang, G O 7 Thann, G P14 Thanweiler, G. ..RIZ Thaon, F 012 Theley, G P 8 Thelus, F E 4» Thenelles, F F 6 Thennelieres, F...H12 Thenorgues, F....K 8 Therain River ...C 8 Therouanne, F. ...D 3 Theux, B M 4 They, F M12 Thezey, F NIC Thiant, F F 5 Thiaucourt, F..,.M10 Thibie, F HIO Thieblemont, F...J11 Thiefosse, F 013 Thielen, B K 1 Thielt, B F 3 Thielt, B K 2 Thiengen, G S13 Thiengen, G T14 Thiennes, F D' 3 Thierny, F G 7 Thiescourt, F. ..E 8 Thieuloy, F B 7 Thieux, F D 8 Thil, F G 8 Thillois, F G 9 Thillot, F M 9 Thilloy, F E 5 Thimert, F All Thimonville, G...N10 Thimory, F D14 Thionville, G.....N 3 Thivars, F B12 Thiville, F A13 Thoiry, F BIO Tholey, G P 8 Thonnance, F. . .L12 Thonne le Thil, F L 7 Thorigny, F F12 Thornick, G O 6 Thourotte, F E 8 Thourout, B F 2 Thuilles, B PI 5 Thuilley, F Mil Thuin, B H 5 Thuisy, F H 9 Thur River P14 Thury en Valois, F E 9 Thy, B J 5 Thynes, B K 5 Tierrelet, F M 8 Tigeaux, F ElO Tigy, F C14 Tihange, B L 4 Tilff, B L 4 Tillet, B L 6 Tilloloy, F E 7 Tilloy, F E 5 Tilloy-Bellay, F...J10 Tilly, B. J 4 Tilly, F B 9 Tilly, F LIO Tincourt, F F 6 Tincry, G NIG Tinques, F D 4 Tintange, B M 6 Tintigny, B L 7 Tirlemont, B. ...K 3 Titisee, G T13 Titz, G N 2 Tocqueville-sur-Eu, F A 6 Toges, F J 8 Togny, F JIO Tondorf, G O 4 Tongres, B L 3 Tonnerre, F G14 Tonnistein, G. . ..P 4 Toquin, F Ell Torcy, F A 6 Torcy, F F 9 Torgnieres, F. ...BIO Tortequenne, F...F 5 Torvilliers, F H12 Totes, F A 7 Touchy, F F14 Toufflers, F F 3 Touffreville, F B 8 Toul, F Mil Toulis, F G 7 Touquet, F B 4 Tournan, F .Ell Tournay, B F 4 Tournes, F J 7 Tournoisis, F. ...B13 Tourpies, B G 4 Tourteron, F J 8 Tourville, F AS Toury, F C13 Tousson, F D12 Tous Vents Farm, F D 5 Toutonville, F....N12 Touvent Fm., F..E 8 Traban, G P 6 Tracy, F. E 8 Trainel, F F12 Tramery, F G 9 Trampot, F L12 Trancault, F G12 Tranchiennes, B..G 2 Trannes, F J12 Transinne, B K 6 Translay, F .B 6 Trarbach, G P 6 Trassem, G N 7 Traubach, G P14 Trazegnies, B. . . H 4 Trebur, G T 6 Treis, G PS Trelon, F. H 6 Treloup, F G 9 Tremblecourt, F..M10 Tremblecourt, F...L11 Treon, F All Treveray, F Lll Treves, G O 7 Triaucourt, F. .. .KIO Triberg, G T13 Triconville, F. .. .LIO Trie Chateau, F..B 8 Triel, F CIO Trieux, F M 8 COMPLETE INDEX OP THE WESTERN FRONT 225 Trilport, F ElO Trintingen, L. . . .N 7 Trippstadt, G R 8 Trittenheim, G O 6 Trittleinge, G O 9 Trois Fonts, B. .M 4 Troissereux, F....C 8 Troisvilles, F F 5 Tromborn, G O 9 Tronchoy, F H14 Trondes, F Mil Tronecken, G. ...O 7 Tronville, F Lll Tronville, F M 9 Trooz, B L 4 Trosly, F F 8 Troussey, F Mil Troyes, F H12 Troyon, F G 8 Troyon, F LIO Truchtersheim, G.RU Trulben, G R 9 Tubize, B H 3 Tiidern, G M 2 Tupigny, F G 6 Turcoing, F F 3 Turkheim, G P13 Turnhout, B K 1 Ubach, G M 2 Uccle, B H 3 Uckerath, G P 3 Uckinger, G N 8 Udenbreth, G. ...N 4 Udersdorf, G. ...O 5 Ues River s.O 5 Uffholz, G P1 + Ugny, F E 6 Ulflingen, L M 5 Ully, F D 9 Ulmen, G P 5 Ulmet, G R 7 Unkel, G P 3 Unterthal, G TIO Urbach, G ;P 2 Urbes, G P14 Urdingen, G O 1 Urft, G 4 Urmatt, G RH Urmersbach, G. . . P 5 Urmond, N M 2 Ursel, B F 2' Uruffe, F Mil Urville, F J13 Ury, F D12 Urzig, G P 6 Udeldingen, L. . .M 7 Usingen, G T 4 Ussy, F ElO Utzenfeld, G S14 Vaals, G M 3 Vachy, F G13 Vacon, F Lll Vagney, F. 013 Vailly, F F 8 Vair River ..... .M12 Valence en Brie, F E12 Valenciennes, F..G 4 Valhey, F Nil Valhuen, F D 4 Valkenburg, N...M 3 Vallan, F F14 Vallendar, G R 4 Vallery, F E13 Vallieres, F H13 Valmondois, F. . C 9 Valmy, F J 9 Vanault, F KIO Vance, B M 7 Vandieres, F. ...MIO Vandoeuvre, F. .Nil Vandy, F J 8 Vannecourt, G. ..OlO Vannes, F Mil Varenne River . . A 7 Varennes, F D14 Varennes, F K 9 Varennes, F LI 4 Varneville, F. . . .A 7 Varneville, F. ...MIO Varney, F KIO Varreddes, F. ...ElO Varssenaere, B. . . F 1 Varvinay, F LIO Vassens, F E 8 Vassinconrt, F. ..KIO Vassy, F Kll Vatierville, F. ...B 7 Vatry, F HIO Vaubecourt, F. ..KIO Vauchamps, F. ..GIO Vauclerc, F Jll Vaucouleurs, F. .Mil Vauday, F. Ell Vaudemont, F. ..M12 Vaudesincourt, F..J 9' Vaudetre, F H 8 Vaudeurs, F G13 Vaudoncourt, F. .L 8 Vaulx, B F 4 Vaumoise, F E 9 Vauquois, F K 9 Vauvillers, F. ...E 6 Vauvillers, F. ..N14 Vaux, B L 4 Vanx, F F 6 Vaux, F J 8 Vaux, F L 9 Vaux, F. LIO Vaux, G M 9 Vaux-Andigny, F F 6 Vauxcere, F G 8 Vavincourt, F. ...KIO Vavray, F JIO Vedrin, B K 4 Veerle, B K 2 Veiving, G (T 9 Velaine, F Mil Velaine, F Nil Velasnes, F L 8 Velbert, G O 1 Velpe River K 3 Venables, F A 9 Vendegies, F. ...G 5 Vendelles, F F 6 Vendenheim, G. ..R13 Vendeuvre, F J12 Vendhuil, F F 6 Vendome, F A14 Vendresse, F G 8 Vendresse, F J 7 Vendrest, F E 9 Venizel, F F 8 Venlo, N N 1 Vennecy, F C14 Vennesey, F. .....012 Ver, F D' 9 Verberie, F E 9 Verbiesles, F. ...L13 Verdelot, F FIO Verderel, F C 8 Verdes, F A13 Verdun, F L 9 Vergaville, G. ...OlO Verigny, F All Velaines, B F 3 Verlin, F F13 Verlinghem, F. . . E 3 Velu, F E 5 Vermand, F F 6 Vermandovillers, F E 6 Vermelles, F E 4 Verneuil, F Ell Verneuil, F G 7 Verneuil, F G 9 Vernon, F. .. B 9 Vernonet, F B 9 Vernoy, F F13 Verny, G NIO Verpel, F K 8 Verrieres, F J 9 Verrieres, F K 8 Versailles, F CIO Versigny, F F 7 Vert le Grand, F..D11 Vertryck, B J 3 Vertus, F HIO Vertuzey, F Mil Verviers, B M 4 Vervins, F G 7 Very, F K 9 Verzenav, F H 9 Verzy, F H 9 Vesaignes, F L13 Vescheim, G. ...PIO Vescoux, F 013 Vesdre River . . . .M 4 Vesigneul, F. .. .HIO Vesle, F F 8 Veslud, F G 8 Vesqueville, B. ..L 6 Vettweiss, G. ...0 3 Vexouse River . .011 Vezaponin, F. ...F 8 Vezelesi, F Nil Vezon, B G 4 Vianden, G N 6 Viarmes, F D 9 Vic, G OlO Vicherey, F M12 Vicht, G N 3 Vichte, B F 3 Vie, F F 8 Vieil, F G 8 Vielsalm, B MS Viels Maisons, F..F10 Viemme, B K 3 Vienne-le-Chateau, F J 9 Vienne-le-Ville, F K 9 Viernheim, G. ...T 7 Vierrieres. F. . . .H12 Viersen, G N 1 Vierzy, F F 9 Vieux, F J 9 Vieux Berquin, F..E 3 Vieux Conde, F..F 4 Vieux Moulin, F.E 8 Vieville, F MIO Viffort, F FID Vignacourt, F. ..D 6 Vignes, F L12 Vigneulles, F. ..MIO Vigneux, F G 7 Vignory, F K12 Vignot, F LIO Vigny, F C 9 Vigor, F A 9 Vigy, G N 9 Vilette, F BIO Vilich, G P 3 Villadin, F G12 Villaines, F D 9 Villampuy, F. ...A13 Villance, B K 6 Villars, F B12 Ville, F L 8 Ville, F NIO Villecerf, F E12' Villechetive, F. ..F13 Villedieu, F. ...,.J14 Ville-en-Tardenois, F G 9 Villefranche, F....F14 Villefrancoeur, F..A14 Villembray, F. ...C 8 Villemert, F El 3 Villemoiron, F. ..G13 Villemontoire, F. .F 9 Villemorien, F. ..H13 Villenauxe, F. ...Gil Villeneuve, F. ...D 9 Villeneuve, F Dll Villeneuve, F. ...E12 Villeneuve, F. . . . J12 Villeneuve au Cliemin, F G13 Villenetive 1 Archeveque, F. .G12 Villeneuve-le-Comte, F ElO Villeneuve les Genets, F F14 Villeneuve St. Salves, F G14 Villeneuve s Yonne, F F13 Villepreux, F. ...CIO Villeret, F. _. F 6 Villermareuil, F ElO Villers, B K 4 V'llers, F D 6 Villers, F. E 7 Villers, F F 5 Villers, F G 6 Villers, F G 8 Villers, F H S Villers, F H 8 Villers, F KIO Villers, F L 7 Villers, F LB Villers, F Nil Villers, L .L 7 Villers-aux-Bois, _F GIO Villers-Bretonneau, F. D 6 226 COMPLETE INDEX OF THE WESTERN FRONT Villers Cotterets, F E 9 Villers en Vexin, F B 9 Villers-Faucon, F..E 6 Villers-Franqueux, F H9 Villers-la-Cheve, F L 8 Villers la Montagne, F.' M 8 Villers sur Lessee, B K 5 Villerup, F M 8 Villeselve, F F 7 Villeseneux, F...H10 Ville sous la Ferte, F J13 Ville s Terre, F..J12 Ville sur Tourbe, F ] 9 Ville-s-Yron, F....M 9 Villette, F Hll Villey, F Mil Villiers, F F 6 Villiers, F F14 Villiers aux Chenes, F K12 Villiers le Bel, F.DIO Villiers le Sec, F.K13 Villiers St. George, F Fll Villingen, G T13 Villmar, G S 4 Villotte, F Jll Villotte, F LIO Vilosnes, F LB Vilvorde, B J 2 Vimery.F D'14 Vimy, F E 4 Vinay, F GIO Vincennes, F. ...DIO Vincey, F N12 Vingre, F F 8 Viomenil, F N13 Vionville, G M 9 Vire, B L 8 Virecourtj F N12 Vireux, F J 5 Virey, F H13 Virneburg, G. ...P 4 Virouin River . . . J 6 Virton, B L 7 Viry, F F 7 Vise, B L 3 Vitarville, F L 8 Vitasse, F E 5 Vitrey, F M14 Vitrimont, F Nil Vitry, F DIO Vitry, F TIO Vitry, F Jll Vitry, G N 9 Vitry Canal Jll Vitry-en-Artois, F.E 5 Vitry-en-P., F JIO Vitry les Croise, F J13 Vittel, F M13 Vittouville, F. ...MIO Vivelles, B H 6 Vivieres, F E 9 Viviers, F M12 Vivy. B K 6 Vladsloo, B E 2 Vlaraerlinghe, B...E 3 Vlodrop, N Ml Vodelee B J 5 Vohrenbach, G. • . .T13 Void, F Lll Voire River J12 Voise, F B12 Voisey, F M14 Volcksberg, G. ..RIO Volkingen, G. ...O 9 Volmeringen, G. .O 9 Volme River ....R 1 Vologne River . ..013 Voncq, F J 8 Voneche, B K 6 Voormezeele, B....E 3 Voort, B J 1 Voreifel P 5 Verges, F G 8 Vosges Mts P13 Vosselaer, B K 1 Voue, F H12 Voulpaix, F G 6 Voulx, F E12 Voves, F B12 Vouxey, F M12 Vouziers, F J 8 Voyenne, F G 7 Vraugnes, F. — E 6 Vrecourt. F.....M13 Vregny, F F 8 Vrely, F D 7 Vresse. B K 6 Vrigne, F K 7 Vrizy, F J 8 Vron, F C 5 Vry, G N 9 V. sur Illon, F..N13 Vulaines, F E12 Vulaines, F G12 Vynckt, B F 2 Waben, F B 4 Wachenheim, G. . . S 8 Wacquermoulin, F D 8 Wacques Farm, F.J 9 Wadenheim, G P 4 Waderin, G O 7 Wallhem, B J 2 Waereghem, B. ..F 2 Waghausel, G. ..T 8 Wahlbach, G R14 Wahn, G. P 2 Wahn River P 2 Wail, F C 5 Wailly, F B 4 Walburg, G SIO Walcourt, B. ...H 5 Waldbockelheim, G R 6 Waldbreitbach, G R 4 Waldbrol, G R 2 Waldfeucht, G. .M 2 Waldfischbach, G.R 8 Waldhausen, G...R 9 Waldkirch, G SI 3 Waldkirch, G. ...T14 Waldsee, G T S Waldshut, G T14 Waldweise, G. , , ,0 8 Walferdgen, L....N 7 Walhalben, G R 8 Walheim, G N 3 Walhorn, G M 3 Walincourt, F F 6 Wallendorf, G...N 6 Wallerfangen, G..O 8 Wallers, F F 4 Wallerstadten, G..T 6 Wallhausen, G....R 6 Walmer, E A 1 Walmer, E B 1 Walporzheim, G. .P 4 Walrus, F C 6 Walsdorf, G T 4 Wambrechies, F..E 3 Wancennes, B....K 5 Wancourt, F E S Wangassen, G O 9 Wanlin, B K S Wanze, B K 4 Wanzenau, G Sll Warca, F M 9 Warchin, B F 4 Wardamme, B....F 2 Wardin, B M 6 Waremme, B L 3 Warhem, F D 2 Warmeriville, F. .H 8 Warneton, B E 3 Warthe River ...M 4 Warvillers, F D 7 Wasen, G S14 Wasigny, F H 7 Wasmes, B G 4 Wasselnheim, G..R11 Wassenberg, G...N 2 Wasserbillig, L...N 7 Wassigny, F. . . . G 6 Waterloo, B H 3 Watervliet, B. ...G 1 Watigny, F H 6 Watten, F D 3 Wattrelos, F F 3 Watweiler, G. ...P14 Waulsort, B K 5 Wauxaillon, F. ...F 8 Wavignies, F D 8 Wavrans, F D 4 Wavre, B J 3 Wavreille, B. . ..K S Wavrille, F L 8 Wavrin, F E 4 Waxwejler, G. . . . N 5 Waziers, F F 4 Wechelderzande, B J 1 Weenduyne, B. ..E 1 Weert, B J 3 Weert, N L 1 Wegberg, G N 1 Wegeringhausen, G R 2 Wehen, G S 5 Wehr, G P 4 Wehr, G S14 Wehrheim, G. ...T 4 Weibern, G P 4 Weiden, G N 3 Weidersheim, G. .P 9 Weiler, G 3 Weiler, G P14 Weiler, G, ...... R 6 Weiler, G R12 Weilerbach, G....N 6 Weilerswist, G.. ..O 3 Weilerthal, G R12 Weingarton, G. . .T 8 Weinsfeld, G N i Weisel, G R 5 Weiselbach, G. ..P 7 Weiskirchen, G...O 7 Weismes, G. N 4 Weissenburg, G. . . S 9 Weissweiler, G...N 3 Weiswampach, L MS Weiswell, G S12 Weiten, G O 8 Weitersweiler, G..R10 Weldorf, G N 2 Wellen, B L 3 Wellin. B K S Wellin, L N 7 Welschenenest, G.S 2 Wembach, G S14 Wendelsheim, G..S 6 Wenden, G R 2 Wengerchr, G. ..P 6 Wepian, B K 4 Werbemont, B. ..M 4 Wercken, B.......E 2 Werdohl, G R 1 Weris, B L 5 Werlaing,' F F 4 Wermelskirchen, G P 1 Wervicq, B F 3 Weselbet-g. G R 8 Wespelaer, B J 2 Wesseling, G. ...O 3 Wessem, N Ml Wesserling, G. ..P14 Westende, B E 1 Westerburg, G S 3 Westerloo, B. . . . K 2 Wester Wald ....R 3 Westhofen, G. ...S 7 Westkerke, B. ...El West Malle, B....T 1 Westmeerbeek, B..K Z Westrehem, F....D 4 Westroosebeke, B.E 2 West Schelde River G 1 Westvleteren, B..E 2 Wetteren, B G 2 Wettolsheim, G...R13 Wevelinghoven, G 2 Wey Macourt, F.E 2 Weyersbusch, G..R 3 Wez, B F 4 Whitstable, E. ...A 1 Wibrin, B MS Widdendorf, G...O 2 Widdig, G O 3 Wiebelskirchen, G.P 8 Wied, G P 3 Wied River R 3 Wiege, F G 6 Wiejjl, G R 2 Wiencourt, F. ...D 6 Wierde, B K 4 Wiesbaden, G. ...S S Wiesbaum, G, ...0 4 COMPLETE INDEX OP THE WESTERN FRONT 227 Wies River S 6 Wignehels, F G 6 Wijk, N M 3 Wilbergerhutte, G.R 2' Wilberwiltz, L. .M 6 Wildbad, G TlOi Wildenstein, G. ..PI 3 Wilgartswiesen, G.S 9 Willebroeck, B. ..J 2 Willencourt, F. ..C 5 Willerwald, G. ...P 9 Wilskerke, B E 1 Wiltz, G M 6 Wimereux, F. . . B 3 Wimille, F B 3 Winchringen, G..N 7 Winden Minfeld, G S 9 Windesheim, G. . . S 6 Wingen, G Rl® Wingham, E. A 1 Winghe, B K 2 Wingles, F E 4 Winkel, G S 5 Winnezecle, F. . . D 3 Winningen, G. ..R 4 Winnweiler, G. .S 7 Winterburg. G. .R 6 Wintrich, G P 6 Winzenbachp G. .SIO Winzenheim, G...P13 Wipperfurth, G. .P 1 Wirwignes, F. . . B 3 Wismes, F C 3 Wissant, F. .....B 2 Wissen, G R 3 Witry, F H 9 Witry, B L 6 Wittenheim, G. . . R14 Wittes, F D 3 Wntlich, G O 6 Wiwersheim, G. . . R 1 1 Woel, F M 9 Woesten, B E 2 Woevre L 9 Woignarue, F. . . B S Woimbey, F LIO Woinville, F. ...MIO Woippy, G N 9 Wolfach, G T12 Wolferding, G. ..P 9 Wolfsheim, G. ..S 6 Wolfskehlen, G. .T 6 Wolf stein, G. ...R 7 Wollbach, G S14 Wollstein, G. ...S 6 Wolmeringen, G. .N 8 Wolmunster, G..R 9 Wolterdingen, G. .T13 Wolverthem, B. .H 2 Wolxh'm, G Rll Wondelgem, B. .G 2 Wormeldangen, L N 7 Wormhoudt, F. .D 2 Worms, G T 7 Worringen, G. ..02 Worrstadt, G. ...S 6 Worsdorf, G. ...8 5 Wors River S 4 Wortegem, B. ...G 3 Wortel, B K 1 Worth, G. ......SIO Worth, G T 9 Woumen, B E 2 Wuestwezel, B. ..J 1 Wulfrath, G. ...O 1 Wulverghem, B. .E 3 Wupper River ..PI Wuschheim, G. ..P 6 Wusteweiler, G. .P 9 Wyneghem, B. ...J 1 Wyngene, B. ...F 2 Wytschaete, B. . . E 3 Wytse Laete, B...E 3 Xammes, F MIO Xanrey, G OlO Xermamenil, F. ..Oil Xertigny, F 013 Xhoffraix, G.. ..M 4 Xirocourt, F. ...N12 Xivry, F. ......MS Ymonville, F. ...B12 Yonne River ....F13 Ypres, B E 3 Yrouerre, F H14 Yser River E 2 Ytres, F E 6 Yuraumont, F KID Yvernaumont, F...J 7 Yvoir, B K 5 Yvrench, F C 5 Zabern, G. RIO Zandvoorde, B. .£' 3 Zarren, B E 2 Zedelghem, B. ..F 2 Zeebrugge, B. . ..F 1 Zeggers Cappel, F D' 2 Zele, B H 2 Zellenburg, G....R13 Zell, G PS Zell, G S12 Zell, G S14 Zeltingen, G P 6 Zepenecken, B. ..G 2 Zerf, G 7 Zetrad, B K 3 Zevecote, B E 2 Zillebeke, B E 3 Zillisheim, G. ...R14 Zinnhain, G. . . . . S 3 Zitter Wald N 4 Zoerle-Parwys, B..J 2 Zoersel, B J 1 Zollhaus, G S 4 Zonhoven, B L 1 Zonnebeke, B. ...E 3 Zons, G O 1 Zorn River RIO Zoteux, F C 4 Ziilpich, G. O 3 Zulte, B F 2 Zundorf, G P 2 Zuydschoote, B....E 3 Zuytpeene, F. ...D 3 Zweibrucken, G. ..R 9 Zweifoll, G N 3 Zwingenberg, G. .T 6 THE PRONUNCIATION OF WAR NAMES By C. 0. Sylvester Mawson, Litt.D., Ph.D. KEY TO PRONUNCIATION Vowel sounds: ale, bSre, arm, &sk, senSte, Sm, orgfin, sofd; eve, Svent, ?nd, nov% bak?r ; Tee, 111 ; old, 6rb, 5bey, Cdd, cdmbine; use, flrn. Unite, Qp, locflat; food, fd&i^ uut, oil; menii. Note. — w, as in French menu or German MHUer, has no equivalent in English. To produce it hold the lips rigidly in position to say oo and attempt to say e. 8 or 06 in German resembles the English u in urn ; e. g., GOthe or Goethe is pronounced gQ'te. Consonants: As in English, ch as in diair ; gas in go; tw for gu as in queen ; « as in so ; sh as in she ; 2 as in zone ; zh as 2 in azure. Special symbols : K (small capital) for eft as in German ich or Scotch loch ; N (small capital) indicates nasal tone of preceding vowel, as in French bon (b6N) ; i) ( =■ ng) for n be- fore the sound of k or hard g as in bant (bSi)k). finger (firj'ger); ' indicates the elision of a vowel, or a mere suggestion of a vowel sound, as in Ypres (e'pr'). Accents: The principal or primary accent is indicated_by_a heavy mark ('), and the secondary accent by a lighter mark {') ; thus Bouvines (boo'ven') , Massachusetts (mSa'd- choo'sSts) . Note. — French names have the primary accent on the final full syllable, but this accent should generally be very slight. The other syllables are marked with equal stress. In German names the principal accent is placed earlier in the word, as in English. In Hun- garian and Bohemian names the accent ia on the first syllable. In Polish, as in Italian, the accent is on the penult. In Russian the accent is capricious but very marked. Names from the Westeen War Area Aachen (.or Aix-la-Chapelle) , a'K^n Aalst (or Alost), alst Agincourt, a'zhaN'koor'; Eng. 5j'In-kort Aisne (river) ,• an Aix-la-Qhapelle (or Aachen), aka'li'shd'pSl' Albert, al'bar' Alost (or Aalst), a'lSst Altkirch, alt'kirK' Amiens, a'mySN' Ancre (river) , aN'kr' Argonne, ar'gSn' Arlon, ar'loN' Armentieres, ar'maN'tyflr' Arras, a'ras' Artois, ar'twa' Attigny, a'te'nye' Aube (river), ob Aubenton, o'baN'tfiN' Aubigny, o'be'nyS' Audenarde (or Oudenarde), ou'dC-nSi'dS Avesnes, a'van' Avricourt, a'vre'kdor' BSle (or Basel), bal Bapaume, ba'pom' Bar-le-Duc, bar'-le-diik' Basel (or Bale) , ba'zel Bassle, La, la' ba'sa' Bastogne, bas'tSN'y' Bavay, ba'vS' Beaumont, bo'm6N' Beauvais, b5'vS' Belfort. bel'fSr' Berlaimont, bSr'lg'mON' Bertincourt, bSr'taN'koor' Besangon, be'zaN'soN' Bethune, ba'tiin' Blamont, bla'm6N' Bohain, b6'5N' Bouchain, boo'shSN' Bouillon, boo'ySN' Boulogne, bob'lfin'y"; Eng. bd&-15n' Bouvines. boo'ven' Boves, bov Brabant-le-roi, bri'baN'-lS-rwa' Braine-Ie-Comte, brSn'-lS-kONt' Bray-sur-Seine, brS'-sUr'-sSn' Briey, bre'S' Bruges, briizh Calais, ka'lg'; Eng. kai'5 Cambrai (orCambray), kSN'brg' Carignan, ka'ren'yaN' Cateau, Le, le ka'to' Chalons-sur-Marne, sha'16N'-siir'-marn' Chalon-sur-SaSne, sh4'16N'-siir'-son' Champigny, shaN'pe'nye' Charleroi (or Charleroy), sh4r'llf-rwa' Charleville, sharl'vel' Chateauroux, sha'to'roo' ChSteau-Thierry, sha'to'-tyS're' ChStel, sha'tSl' Chatillon-sur-Marne, sha'te^yfiN'-sUr'- m^rn' Chaudefontaine, sh3d'f8N'tan' Chaulnes, sho'n* Chaumont, sh5'm6N' Chauny, sho'nS' Chimay, she'mS' Chiny, she'ne' Ciney, se'nff' Clary, kla're' Combles, kSN'bl* Comines, kS'men' Commercy, kS'mSr'sS' Compiegne, koN'pySn'y* Cond€, kSN'da' Conflans, koN'flaN' Coucy-le-ChSteau, koo'se'-lS-sha'tC Coulommiers, koo'lS'mya' Courtrai, koor'trS' Craonne, kra'6n' Crecy (or Cressy), kra'se'; Eng. krSs'I Crecy-sur-Serre, kra-se'-siir'-sSr' Croisilles, krwa'sel' Dammartin, daN'mar'taN' Damvillers, daN've'ya' Denain, dS-nSN' Dendermonde (OT Termonde), dSn'dSr- m3n'de Diedenhofen (or Thionville), de'dZn-ho'fIn 228 PRONUNCIATION OF WAR NAMES 229 Dijon, dS'zhflN' Dinant, de'naN' Dixmude, dSks'mud'; dS'mUd' Dompaire, dSN'par' Dormans, d3r'maN' Douai (or Douay), do&'a' DouUens, doo'lSN' fepernay, a'r^r'nS' fipinal, a'pe'nil' fetain, a'tSN' Fgre, La, la' fSr' FSre-Charapenoise, f9r'-8haN'p5-nw42' Fere-en- Tardenoia. far'-aN'-t4rd'nwa' Fert6-Gaucher, La, Id' fSr'ta'-go'sha' Fert6-sous-Jouarre, La, Id' fSr'ta'-soo'- zhoo'ar' Fourmies, fobr'me' Freancs-en-WoSvre, frSn'-aN'-v6'Sv'r' Genappe, zh?-ndp' Gironville, zhe'rSN'vel' Givenchy, zhe'vaN'she' Givet. zhe'vS' Gorizia (or Gorz), g3-rId'ze-S Gorz (or Gorizia), gOrta Gravelotte, griy'lSt' Guiscaird, gez'lcar' Guise, gttez' Hal, hal Hautmont, 3'm8N' Helgoland (or Heligoland). hgl'gS-lant Hirson, er'eSN' Huy, hoi Juniville, zhii'ne'vgl' La Bassge, li' bS'sa' La Fdre, W Itx' La Fere-ChampenoiBc, Id' far'-shaN'pS- nwaz' La Fert^-Gaucher, la' fgr'ta'-go'eha' La Ferte-sous Jouarre, Id' f?r'ta'-8o6' zhoo'- ar' Lagny, Idn'ye' Landrecies, laN'dra'eS' Langres, law'gr' Languion, laN'ge'ON' Laon, laN Le Cateau, 15' ka'tS' Lens, laNs Le Quesnoy , IS ka'nwi' Liancourt, IS'aN'koor' Li6ge, le'Szh' Lierre, IS'ar' Ligny, len'ye' Ligny-en- Barrois, len'ye'-aN'-bi'rwd' Lille (or Lisle), lei Longwy, ISN've/ Loos, IS-Ss' Lorraine (or Lothringen), 16-ran' Lothringen (or Lorraine), 13t'ring-2n Louvain, loo'vaN' Luniville, lii'na'vel' Lys (river), lea Mainz (or Mayence), mints Maisons-Alfort, ina'z3N'-zdl'f8r' Marcoing, mar'kwSN' Maubeuge. mo'bOzh' Mayence (or Mainz), md'yaNe' Meaux, m3 Melun, m5-10N' Messancy, mS-sSN'se' Meuae (river), mQz; Eng. muz Mezidrea, ma'zySr' Mona, m3N8 Montdidier, mSN'dS'dya' Monthureux, mSN'tU'rO' Montmedy, m3N'ma'd5' Montmirail, mBN'mS'rd'y' M ,"euil, mS'rQ'y' Mcuvaux. moo'vo' Moyenmoutier, mwa'ySN'moo'tya' Miilhauaen, miil'hou'zen Namur, na'miir' Nancy, naN'se'; Eng. i^n'al Nesle, nal Neufchateau, nO'aha'to' Neuilly-sur-Marne, nQ'ye'-sUr'-mdrn' Neuve Chapelle, nQv'ahd'pSl' Nieuport, ne'ob-pOrt Ntmea (or Nismea), nem Oiae, wdz Orchies, Sr'ahe' Oudenarde (or Audenarde), ou'dS-nar'd8 Ourcq (river), oork Ourthe (river), oort Pfironne, pa'r8n' Philippeville, fe'lep'vSl' Pierrefitte, py§.r'fet' Pierrefonds, pyslr'f3N' Poitiers, pwa'tya' Poix, pwa Pont-d-Mou8son, p3N'-ta'-m(J6'z8N' Pont Ste. Maxence, p3N' B5Nt'-m4'zaN8' Quatre-Bras, ka'tr'-brS' Quesnoy, Le, IS ka'nwd' Ramillies, ra'me'ye' Raon-l'Etape. raN'-la'tdp' Raucourt, ro'koor' Rethel, rS-tgl' Rheima (or Reima), remz; Fr. r5N« Ribecourt, reb'koor' Ribemont, reb'moN' Rochefort, rSsh'fSr' Rocroi, rS'krwa' Roiael, nvd'zSl' Roubaix, roo'ba' Roulera, roo'la' Roye, rwa Rozoy-sur-Serre, rS'zwa'-siir'-aSr' Saar (river), zar Saarbriicken, zar'bruk'en Saint-Amand, aaN'ta'maN' Saint-Denis, sSN'-de-ne' Saint-Die, saN'-dya' Saint Hubert, sSN'tii'bar' Saint-Mihiel, sSN'-me'ySl' Saint-Omer, aSN'tS'mar' Saint-Quentin, sSN'-kaN'tSN' Saint-Trond, saN'-tr8N' Sambre (river) , saN'br' Sedan, s5-daN' Senlis, saN'les' S^anne, aa'zan' Signy I'Abbaye, sen'ye' 14'b5' Siaaonne, ae'aSn' Soiaaons, swa'sBN' Soleames, s5'lam' Somme (river, department) , sSm Suippea, swep Termonde (or Dendermonde), tgr'm3Nd' Thiaucourt, tyS'koor' Thielt, telt Thionville (OT Diedenhofen), ty3N'vel' Thuin, tii'aN' Tirlemont, terTm^N' Tongres, tSN'gr' 230 PRONUNCIATION OF WAR NAMES Toul, toSl Tourcoing, tSor'kwSN' Tournay (OT Tournai), toSr'na' Trfelon, tra'lSN' Trieste (oT Triest) , tre-Sst' Valenciennes, vd'IaN'sySn' Varennes-en-Argonne, vA'rSn'-zaN'-ir'gSn' Verdun, vSr'dQN' Versailles, vSr'sa'y'; Bng. vSr-salz' Vervins, ver'vSN' Villers-Bretonneux, ve'lSr'-brS-tO'nQ' Villers-Cotterets, ve'lar'-kS'tS-rE' Villers-la-Ville, ve'lar'-la'-vel' Vise, ve'za' Vitry-en-Artois, ve'tr5'-aN'-dr'twa' Vitry-le-Franjois, ve'tre'-lS-fraN'swa' Vosges, v5zh Vouziers, voo'zya' Wassigny, va'sS'nyS' Wavre, viv'r" WoSvre, vS'Sv'r* Ypres, e'pr' Vser (river) , E'sS* Yvoire, e'vwar' Zabern, tsa'b&n Zeebrugge, tsa-br] ^. Si^^ y 4ic w '/e. P:^ iw 242 243 244 East ?W, I Caxla 54 Thuringia, D 3, see Map of Qermanv, East f(CelIo ^OVER y W^'HlW* NienburgC p4 c. s. HAMMowD d cOo w.y. S W f > w^^ ^. ^.-^-. _ B ttongUnd^ Baot S"* from Greeu's^ioh C 2 Reuss-Greiz. 8 Reuss-Schleiz. i Saxe-A!tenburg fi Saxe-Cobuig- Gotha. 6 Saxe-Meinin- en. 7 Saxony (Saxe- Wei mar -Eise- nach). 8 Schwarzburg- Rudolstadt. 9Schwarzburg- Sondershausen C. S. HAMMOND a CO.. N.Y. 18° Longitude 246 247 248 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper procesa. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: ^^y ^m-j PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IW PAPER PRESEBVATIOM 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 Petrogi <^ P^ B L A C h P/q #iSaIi5iiics OfSA-thens yi^ 5 £ A Damas THE SECRET OF GERMANY'S PEACE OFFER The Central Powers Population (in round figures) Germany 68,000,000 Austria-Hungary 52,000,000 Bulgaria 5 500,000 Turkey 19,500,000 145.000,000 The Occupied Territory (Jan'y 1918) Belgium 6,500,000 Northern France 6,000,000 Poland, Lithuania, Courland 18,500*00 Serbia, Montenegro 5,000,000 Roumania 5,000,000 Italy 1,000,000 42,000,000 TO-DAY GERMANY CONTROLS Revised from "The New Europe" Januarv 11, 1917 187,000,000 People Q % E G Y P Khartui S U D w as realised by War IN EUROPE AND IN ASIA "Centra! Europe" and its Annexe in the Near East {Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey) The Entente Powers i Territory occupied by Central Powers Territory occupied by Entente Powers GERMANY'S MAIN ROUTE TO THE EAST (Berlin-Bagdad, Berlin-Hodeida, Berlin-Cairo-Cape) Supplementary Routes {Berlin- Trieste, Berlin-Salonica-Athens, Berlin-Constantza-Constantinople) Uncompleted sectors C.S.Hammond & Co.,N.Y. tockholm/ PetrogT! P? Paris PRANCE \ P o^ \ ^ C'C®'^ Lemberg\ V ^ M & .^ Ba;|le v.-^.^\^ Vienna^ ^AUSTRIAC ITZ^J r-^ Trieste HUNGARY "N taAe., ^j 6 R Uo'^ sBuchareg Odessa THE SECRET OF GERMANY'S PEACE OFFER The Central Powers Population (in round figures) Germany 68,000,000 Austria-Hungary 52,000,000 Bulgaria 5 500,000 Turkey 19,500,000 145,000,000 The Occupied Territory (Jan'y 1918) Belgium 6,500,000 Northern France 6,000,000 Poland, Lithuania, Courland 18,500000 Serbia, Montenegro 5,000,000 Roumania 5,000,000 Italy 1,000,000 42,000,000 TO-DA'Y GERMANY CONTROLS 187,6oO,OOOPeople Q GYP Khartur S U D ]■ THE SECRET OF GERMANY'S PEACE OFFER The Central Powers Population (m round figures) Germany 68,000,000 Austria-Hungary 52,000,000 Bulgaria 5 500,000 Turkey 19,500,000 145,000,000 The Occupied Territory (Jan'y 1918) i Belgium 6,500,000 Northern France 6,000,000 Poland, Lithuania, Courland 18,500.^00 Serbia, Montenegro 5,000,000 Roumania 5,000,000 Italy 1,000,000 Q Vadi Salf^ A \ ^0 E G Y P T M VA>tisJL^'. 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