Book _ AS. 
 
COURSE XXI 
 Booklovers Reading Clu 
 Hand-BooR 
 
 j>jf 
 
 Hon. HENRY CABOT LODGE 
 Professor ALBERT BUSHNELL HAR1 
 Professor JOHN BACH McMASTER 
 Dr. REUBEN GOLD THWAITES 
 Mr. PAUL LEICESTER FORD 
 Professor A. C. McLAUGHLIN 
 
 -And Othe\ 
 
n 
 
 ** 6 
 
 ISSUED FROM THE PRESS OF 
 THE BOOKLOVERS LIBRARY 
 1323 WALNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA 
 
 (5) 
 
JOHN FISKE 
 
THE BOOKLOVERS READING 
 CLUB HAND-BOOK TO AC- 
 COMPANY THE READING COURSE 
 ENTITLED, AMERICAN FOUNDA- 
 TION HISTORT 
 
 SEYMOUR EATON 
 
 Librarian 
 
 FREDERIC W. SPEIRS, Ph.D. 
 
 Educational Director 
 
 (?) 
 

 THE LIBRARY OF 
 
 OONGRESS, 
 Two CoHid Receiveb 
 
 FEB. 1 190: 
 
 COTVBWMT ENTRY 
 
 CLASS O. XXo. No. 
 
 i« 
 
 c»py a 
 
 Copyright, 1901 
 The Booklovers Librart 
 
 
AMERICAN FOUN- 
 DATION HISTORY 
 
 Course XXI: Booklovers Reading Club 
 BOOKS SELECTED 
 
 FOR THIS READING COURSE 
 by 
 
 Hon. HENRY CABOT LODGE 
 
 (9) 
 
The BOOKS 
 
 HE following three books are supplied by 
 The Booklovers Library to Club Members 
 who have enrolled for Course XXL ' 
 
 /. OLD VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGH- 
 BOURS 
 
 (John Fiske) 
 
 //. THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENG- 
 LAND 
 
 (John Fiske) 
 
 ///. AMERICAN HISTORY TOLD BY CON- 
 TEMPORARIES: Volume I— ERA 
 OF COLONIZATION 
 
 (Albert Bushnell Hart) 
 
 The course of reading as outlined in this handbook 
 is based on these books. Suggestions for supplementary 
 reading will be found at the end. 
 
 ("> 
 
AMERICAN FOUNDATION HISTORT 
 
 TALKS and LECTURES 
 
 by 
 
 ALBERT BUSHNELL HART 
 
 and 
 
 JOHN BACH McMASTER 
 
 and 
 
 PAUL LEICESTER FORD 
 
 and 
 
 REUBEN GOLD THWAITES 
 
 and 
 
 andrew c. Mclaughlin 
 
 "These papers by Professor Hart, Professor McMaster, 
 
 Mr. Ford, Mr. Thwaites and Professor McLaughlin 
 
 have been prepared especially for 
 
 readers of this course. 
 
 EDITORIAL NOTES 
 
 by 
 DR. CLAUDE HALSTEAD VAN TTNE 
 
 03) 
 
A WORD from THE DIRECTOR 
 
 T is often urged as an objection to democ- 
 racy that in the distribution of civic 
 honors scant recognition is given to 
 intellectual ability and training. The 
 men who sit in legislative halls and who 
 wield executive power in a democracy 
 refect not the highest but merely the 
 average intelligence of the community . In certain 
 European countries the " scholar in politics" is an 
 important factor, but in America he is a rarity. 
 Among the few Americans in public life who have 
 gained recognition in the world of scholarship 
 
 05) 
 
A Word from the Director 
 
 Senator Henry Cabot Lodge holds a promine?it 
 place. Although he was trained for the law, he 
 made literature his profession, working principally 
 in the historical field. Those who are fa?niliar 
 with his History of the English Colonies in 
 America and his Story of the Revolution will 
 readily understand our reasons for requesting 
 Senator Lodge to give our readers the benefit of 
 his judgment in the selection of books for this 
 course. 
 
 It is a striking tribute to the work of folin 
 Fiske that two of his books were given a place in 
 a collection on American foundation history which 
 was li?nited to three treatises. Indeed, we seriously 
 considered basing our course altogether upon Mr. 
 Fiske 's books. His series of three works on colo- 
 nial history, The Beginnings of New England, 
 Old Virginia and Her Neighbours, and The 
 Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, covers 
 the whole subject in most satisfactory fashion. 
 But since we felt that the original documents 
 which have bee?i put into such attractive form by 
 Professor Hart would have unique interest and 
 value, we finally decided to drop one of Mr. 
 Fiske' s books in favor of American History 
 Told by Contemporaries. // was not difficult 
 to decide which one should be omitted. It is 
 
 1'6) 
 
A Word from the Director 
 
 generally recognized that the two principal 
 colonial centers from which radiated the lines 
 of influence that have controlled our national 
 development were New Engla?id and Virginia. 
 The Middle Colonies were more heterogeneous in 
 population and less distinctive in character. For 
 this reason the book on the Puritan settlements 
 and the work on the group of colonies centering 
 about Virginia best served our purpose. 
 
 The character of the historical work of "John 
 Fiske is so well known that readers will take 
 up the books of the course with some initial 
 appreciation of their delightful and stimulating 
 qualities. Mr.. Fiske had an extraordinary range 
 of historical vision and re?narkable power of lucid 
 and vivid presentation. In a judicial review of 
 the career of the historian Professor Hart says: 
 " The great historical service of fohn Fiske was 
 that of the interpreter of the dull and the confused; 
 he made it his honorable profession to bring home 
 to the average man wholesome truths about our 
 ancestors. Like other historians, he fell into some 
 errors, and he had his prejudices, but he loved and 
 sought the truth; he stated it as he saw it; he 
 made it clear. A recent critic calls him ' fohn 
 Fiske, popularizer.' Large the service of him 
 who popularizes love of truth ! ' ' 
 
 2Q (17) 
 
A Word from the Director 
 
 The papers of the handbook represent a notable 
 group of writers and teachers of American history. 
 Professor Hart and Professor McMaster are in 
 the very front rank of authorities in their special 
 field. Each is at the head of a strong depart?nent 
 in a great university ', and both have made valuable 
 contributions to historical literature. Professor 
 McLaughlin holds a chair of American history 
 in a university which is famous for excellent 
 work in this subject. Mr. Thwaites is a spe- 
 cialist of high authority in colonial history. Many 
 of the readers of Mr. Paul Leicester Ford's 
 popular fiction do not realize that he is a serious 
 student of history, but those who know him 
 through his Many-sided Franklin and The 
 True George Washington will understa/id 
 that he is able to write on the subject of 
 historical fiction with an appreciation of the 
 historian s point of view as well as of the 
 novelist 's. 
 
 The various suggestions to the reader in the 
 form of outlines, notes, and questions, furnished by 
 Dr. Van Tyne, of the University of Pennsylvania, 
 will be extremely valuable to those who take the 
 course with a serious purpose to master the essen- 
 tial principles of American colonial development. 
 
 (IS) 
 
The Idea of the Course 
 
 S early as the time of Andrew Jackson, 
 J\ travelers from other lands found the 
 American public too much interested in 
 itself. Americans were impatient of 
 censure and insatiable of praise. Yet 
 such was their hurry and impetuosity, 
 complained the foreigners, that they 
 never stopped to inform themselves of 
 the really important facts of their own 
 past. They were content with a few ideas about 
 Columbus, John Smith, the Plymouth Rock, a cer- 
 tain battle of Lexington about which clung 
 unpleasant associations for Englishmen, and the 
 Declaration of Independence, which they consid- 
 ered the central fact on which universal history 
 turned. Around those few historical data the 
 "blighting tempest of democracy" raged. The 
 citizens of the United States seemed to feel that 
 they were an aboriginal race, owing nothing to 
 Europe or to European civilization. Americans 
 forgot that they were but Englishmen, Dutchmen, 
 and Frenchmen transplanted to a new soil. It 
 would be well, wrote the strangers in America, if 
 this great people learned their obligations. 
 
 Travelers are unnecessarily harsh. There is 
 good reason to believe that the subjects of Andrew 
 Jackson were too busily engaged reducing their 
 
 (19) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 environment to the requirements of civilized life 
 to give a thought to yesterday. The work of 
 development is now well advanced toward comple- 
 tion. Recent events have given a new impetus 
 to national pride, and Americans are turning with 
 fresh interest to the study of their national his- 
 tory. It is the purpose of the present course to 
 assist the reader to learn the lessons which the 
 past can teach by giving an attractive view of the 
 foundation history of our country. 
 
 (20) 
 
HINTS AND SUGGESTIONS TO 
 THE READER 
 
 The necessity of limiting the number of books 
 in the course leaves certain parts of American 
 colonial history without any special recognition by 
 the books selected. The period of discovery 
 proper and the whole subject of the history of the 
 Middle Colonies receive no special attention. 
 Happily, Mr. Fiske's method of going deeply into 
 the causes of events has in part supplied the loss in 
 the age of discovery, and, as we shall see, Professor 
 Hart's Era of Colonization gives us some very 
 valuable material for filling the lacunae in the Mid- 
 dle Colonies. Finally, both of those omissions 
 receive admirable summary treatment in the 
 several papers in this handbook. 
 
 It is important that the student who undertakes 
 to read carefully the books of Mr. Fiske which 
 form the basis of this course should have some 
 preliminary knowledge of the point of view and 
 the methods of the historian. One of the great 
 charms of Mr. Fiske's historical writing is his 
 care to point out the significance of small 
 
 (21) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 things. He selects an event or movement which 
 we have long accepted as of world-wide import- 
 ance, and persuades us to connect logically that 
 event with an apparently very minor event in 
 colonial history. The mind is thus led to magnify 
 the minor event until it assumes equal proportions 
 with the major. Valuable as this is in assist- 
 ing the memory, it creates, nevertheless, a dis- 
 torted image, against belief in which the reader 
 should be constantly upon his guard. The condi- 
 tions in which the event took place must be kept 
 in mind, and the size of the event not confused 
 with the importance of the results. Again the 
 reader must beware of Mr. Fiske's tendency to 
 use too brilliant colors. It should be remem- 
 bered that every fact mentioned may have an 
 undeniable existence, but the neglect of counter- 
 balancing facts may destroy the verity of the effect 
 upon the mind. Mr. Fiske will frequently be 
 found dogmatic, and the alert reader will find 
 ample scope for historical skepticism. One may 
 ask, Is he prejudiced ; is he too sympathetic ; can 
 he know with the certainty that he assumes ? 
 Such questions cannot fail to give a livelier 
 interest in the study in hand. 
 
 Finally the reader must carefully distinguish 
 the work of the philosopher from the work of the 
 historian. The philosopher does not submit his 
 facts for inspection, but presumes that they will 
 be recalled by the reader. The historian should, 
 
 (22) 
 
Am erican Foundation History 
 
 wherever possible, present sufficient data that his 
 reader maybe in position to judge for himself the 
 accuracy of a conclusion. Such a method soon 
 establishes a confidential relation between the 
 author and the reader. In general the reader 
 may be assured that John Fiske was a conscien- 
 tious as well as a brilliant historian, and that his 
 mind was comprehensive enough to grasp the 
 larger meaning of things. Above all, for the 
 ofeneral reader he has made American colonial 
 history a good substitute for some forms of litera- 
 ture which as a rule monopolize the reading 
 public. 
 
 In Old Virginia and Her Neighbours we have 
 not a history of each of the Southern Colonies 
 but a history of a group that was characterized 
 by certain economic and social phases. The divi- 
 sion is not an arbitrary geographical distinction 
 between Northern and Southern Colonies but is 
 based upon a distinction of sectional character 
 recognized by the colonists themselves. When 
 there was to be united action upon any matter it 
 was recognized that the Southern, the Middle, 
 and the Eastern Colonies had different interests, 
 and each section demanded that its interests be 
 distinctively represented. Mr. Fiske has selected 
 for treatment that group of plantation colonies 
 whose extensive rather than intensive agriculture 
 gave to all its institutions, economic, political, and 
 
 (23) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 social, a character common to each member of 
 the group. The book follows the history of the 
 Southern Colonies down to 1753 when "the 
 stream of Virginia history becomes an insepar- 
 able portion of the majestic stream in which 
 floats the career of our Federal Union." 
 
 The Beginnings of Nezv England presents an 
 entirely new set of institutions, affected in this 
 case not only by different economic conditions 
 but by the pronounced character of the people 
 who took up the task of developing the country. 
 The author feels the necessity of accounting for 
 the stern Puritan race whose characteristics 
 entered into all the institutions of this colonial 
 group. In opening the book the reader is sur- 
 prised to find almost fifty pages with scarcely a 
 mention of America. One is conscious of a 
 desire to look again at the title-page to assure 
 oneself that the book is a history of New Eng- 
 land. As in all of Mr. Fiske's books the spirit of 
 the philosopher is present. Not with the embark- 
 ation of the Mayflower, but with the Cathari, or 
 the Puritans of the Eastern Empire, began the 
 history of New England. There must be a sect 
 of Albigenses and Lollards, and there must be a 
 Latimer and a Cromwell before men would grimly 
 go to a new world to escape Roman Catholicism. 
 Again, he goes back ages to trace the movement 
 toward a new conception of representative govern- 
 
 (24) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 ment. Since Mr. Fiske was a New England 
 man by birth and training, his treatment of Puri- 
 tan institutions and Puritan character has special 
 interest aud value. 
 
 It would be a great mistake to use the American 
 History Told by Contemporaries in the same way 
 that we should use the works of Fiske, which are 
 connected narratives intended to be read as a 
 whole. True, Professor Hart has most ably 
 arranged the various selections under certain 
 large divisions of colonial history, and again 
 chosen such passages as will, taken in order, 
 best tell the story of that period ; but the nice 
 adjustment of proportion and historical per- 
 spective is impossible. The book is then best 
 used for illustration and as a corrective for wrong 
 impressions necessarily gotten from the general 
 statements of the historian. The reader can also 
 get the flavor of an event and the quaint spirit of 
 an age better from a real product of that time 
 than from the interpretations of the historian. It 
 is true that there are dangers as well as advan- 
 tages from the use of these so-called sources of 
 history. The general reader cannot have all the 
 sources, and gets only the impression from the 
 one selected and placed before him. Other just 
 as reliable sources might entirely change the 
 opinion formed on the basis of the selection. 
 Again, the reader of Professor Hart's book cannot 
 
 (^5) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 be placed in possession of complete knowledge 
 of the circumstances under which the selected 
 document was written, and as a result can make 
 no allowances for prejudice on the part of the 
 writer. Nevertheless, the information and pleas- 
 ure that may be gained from the reading of the 
 Contemporaries is of a kind that no secondary 
 history can give. 
 
 Two selections from the works of Francis Park- 
 man are presented in this handbook (page 101) 
 because the books and the papers of the course 
 afford no adequate view of the great struggle that 
 took place between France and England for the 
 possession of America. In the luminous passage 
 first cited Parkman sketches the characteristics 
 of the colonizing methods of both nations and 
 shows clearly why England won the gigantic 
 struggle. The second quotation is the historian's 
 scholarly tribute to the zealous service of the 
 Jesuits, who failed — but not ingloriously. 
 
 (26) 
 
TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 F THE C U R S E 
 
 (V) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Memoranda : 
 
TOPICAL OUTLINE 
 
 F r H E CO U R S E 
 
 In this outline the abbreviations O. Va., N. E. y and 
 Contemp.y stand respectively for Old Virginia and 
 Her NcigJibours, The Beginnings of New England, and 
 American History Told by Cojitcmporaries. In the 
 Contemporaries the number of the selection is indicated, 
 not the page. 
 
 I. Historical Geography. 
 
 A. The Work of Discovery and Explora- 
 tion. 
 
 1. Spanish: 0, Va., I, i-ii; Contetnp., 
 
 17-24. 
 
 2. French : Contempt 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, 42, 
 
 43- 
 
 3. English : 0. Va., I, 12-61 ; N. E., 76-77 ; 
 
 Contcnip., 26-33, 9°- 
 
 4. Dutch : Contemp., 38, 150, 151. 
 
 B. The Task of Settlement. 
 
 1. Spanish : Handbook, 71. 
 
 2. French : Contemp., 36, 41. 
 
 3. English : 
 
 (a) The Theory of Colonization. TV. E. t 
 1-49. 
 
 (b) Settlement. O. Va., I, 61-194; Con- 
 temp., 44-58, 61, 62-64, 97-99; N. E. y 
 50-137- 
 
 4. Dutch : O. Va., II, 3-4, 139, 140; Con- 
 
 temp., 153, 154. 
 
 5. Swedish: Con temp., 158, 159. 
 
 (29) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 C. The Struggle for Supremacy. 
 
 i. The Dutch overcome the Swedes. O. Va., 
 II, 139. 
 
 2. By a brief struggle the English supplant the 
 
 Dutch. Contemp., 155. 
 
 3. The gigantic struggle between the English 
 
 and the French. O. Va., II, 377-379, 
 398-400 ; N. E., 274-277 ; Handbook, 74. 
 
 II. Political Development in the Eng- 
 lish Colonies. 
 
 A. The Southern Colonies. 
 
 1. Virginia. 
 
 The reign of the remodeled London Com- 
 pany. O. Va., I, 177-254. 
 
 The first American legislature. O. Va., I, 
 241-254; Contemp., 65. 
 
 Bacon's Rebellion. O. Va., II, 45-107 ; 
 Contemp., 71. 
 
 A century of political education. O. Va., 
 II, 108-130; Contemp., 66-70. 
 
 2. Maryland. 
 
 The palatinate form of government. O. Va., 
 
 I, 255-285 ; Contemp., 72. 
 Troubles with William Claiborne. O. Va., 
 
 I, 286-318 ; Contemp., 74. 
 Quarrels with near neighbors. O. Va., II, 
 
 1 31-146; Contemp., JJ. 
 Preparation for the Revolution. O. Va., II, 
 
 149-173. 
 
 (30) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 3. The Carolinas. 
 
 The Fundamental Constitutions and how 
 they worked. O. Va., II, 270-280; Con- 
 tempt 80. 
 
 The restless era of proprietary government 
 and its end. O. Va., II, 281-308; Con- 
 temp., 78, 79. 
 
 Royal government. O. Va., II, 308-333. 
 
 4. Georgia. 
 
 Its beginnings. O. Va., II, 333-33 6 - 
 
 B. New England. 
 
 1. The representative system. N. E., 105-107; 
 
 Contempt 107. 
 
 2. The effects of restricting the suffrage. 
 
 N. E., 109-137. 
 
 New Hampshire and Rhode Island founded. 
 Contcmp., 1 1 3-1 16. 
 
 Connecticut and New Haven founded. Con- 
 temp., 1 17-122. 
 
 3. The New England Confederacy. N. E., 
 
 140-16 1 ; Contemp., 129. 
 
 4. The question of religious freedom. N. E., 
 
 163-198. 
 
 5. The complaints of the Lords of Trade. 
 
 N. E., 242-264; Contemp., 109. 
 
 6. The annulment of the Massachusetts charter 
 
 and the tyranny of Andros. N. E., 265- 
 274; Contemp., 135, 136. 
 
 7. Massachusetts becomes a royal province 
 
 and the seeds of revolution are sown. 
 N. E., 274-278. 
 
 130 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 C. The Middle Colonies. 
 
 i. New York. 
 
 Under an English proprietary government. 
 
 Contemp., 156. 
 Leisler's revolution. Contempt 157. 
 A royal province. 
 
 2. Pennsylvania. 
 
 The proprietary government with a charter. 
 Contempt 161, 162. 
 
 Measures to attract immigrants ; results. 
 Contcmp., 163. 
 
 The long struggle between the representa- 
 tives of the proprietor and the people of 
 the colony. 
 
 3. New Jersey. Contemp., 164-168. 
 
 4. Delaware. Contemp., 160. 
 
 III. Social and Economic Life in the 
 English Colonies. 
 
 A. New England. 
 
 1. Education and religion. Contemp., 137-146, 
 
 93, 94; N. E., 108, no, 146-149, 172-190, 
 243-250. 
 
 2. Pioneer mode of life affected by relations 
 
 with the Indians. Contemp., 147, 92, 91 ; 
 N. E., 199-241. 
 
 3. Everyday life of the people. Contemp., 149, 
 
 100, 101. 
 
 B. The Middle Colonies. 
 
 1. Education and religion. Contemp., 171, 169. 
 
 (3^J 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 2. Mode of life as affected by relations with 
 
 the Indians. Contempt 152. 
 
 3. Social conditions- Contcmp., 172. 
 
 C. Southern Colonies. 
 
 1. Education and religion. Contcmp., 84-86, 
 
 89; O. Va., II, 241-259. 
 
 2. Industrial conditions. Contemp., 87, 88 ; 
 
 O. Va., I, 174-200. 
 
 3. Commercial conditions. O. Va., II, 338-369. 
 
 4. Social life. O. Va., II, 1-44, 200-241, 260- 
 
 266, 311-331. 
 
 3Q (33) 
 
The Fundamental Principles 
 of American History : A Talk 
 by ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN 
 
 (35) 
 
The Fundamental Principles 
 of American History : A Talk 
 by ANDREW C. McLAUGHLIN 
 
 Andrew C. McLaughlin was graduated from 
 the University of Michigan in 1882, and from the 
 law department in 1885. He practised law for a 
 short time, and then became instructor in Latin 
 in the Michigan University. In a year he went 
 over into the history department, where in 1S91 he 
 became professor of American history, which 
 position he still holds. He has written a life of 
 Lewis Cass, a History of Higher Education in 
 Michigan, Civil Government of Michigan, and 
 A History of the American Nation. He also 
 edited the third edition of Cooley's Principles of 
 Constitutional Law, and has contributed to vari- 
 ous periodicals. In addition to his academic 
 duties he has the editorial management of the 
 American Historical Review. 
 
 The fundamental principles of American history- 
 are not far to seek. Four hundred years 
 ago the world entered upon a new era, an era of 
 colonization, during which the ideas and the civiliza- 
 tion of western Europe were gradually extended. 
 That stage of the world's history has not yet gone 
 by ; in these latter days we see the process of 
 expansion going on plainly before our eyes, in 
 Africa, in Asia, in the islands of the sea. America, 
 which at the beginning was a field for coloniza- 
 tion, has in the course of time become one of the 
 
 (37) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 active agents in the work of thrusting onward 
 and forward the essential ideas of occidental 
 civilization. 
 
 The student, therefore, who would understand 
 American history must try to realize at the outset 
 that this continent was an open field inviting set- 
 tlement, and that the nations of the Old World in 
 the process of European expansion entered upon 
 the task of occupying the land. He must see 
 also that while in its broadest aspects the most 
 important thing is this extension of Europe out- 
 ward toward the west, the European states 
 entered into rivalry, each seeking to win the 
 advantage and to excel the other in gaining new 
 dominion and power. While beyond all question 
 the important fact was that the civilization of 
 western Christendom was expanded and its power 
 multiplied, the nations engaged in this stupendous 
 work looked with suspicion one upon the other, 
 and were often bitter antagonists in the prose- 
 cution of their enterprises. The early history 
 of America, then, must be viewed from these two 
 sides : it was a time in which Europe was making 
 America her own ; it was a time of rivalry between 
 contestants for the lion's share of the prize. 
 
 At the end of a hundred and fifty years, the 
 guerdon had fallen to two nations who were in 
 quite different ways successful as colonizers, 
 England and Spain. England had won a large 
 part of North America and given her best civiliza- 
 
 (38) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 tion, her freest and freshest ideas, her truest 
 impulse to a young people who were soon to 
 press forward with zealous energy in carrying out 
 an inherited tendency. Spain then owned the 
 greater portion of South America with a share of 
 the northern continent, and before she lost pos- 
 session she had impressed herself, her language, 
 her religion, her laws, her modes of thought, 
 indelibly upon the New World ; to remotest gene- 
 rations the inhabitants of these United States 
 must deal with the real Spain which has been left 
 at our doors. 
 
 England too lost her most promising colo- 
 nies in what we call our Revolution. We ought 
 not to lose sight of the fact, however, that the 
 breaking of the political bond was not the most 
 significant fact. The cardinal thought is this, that 
 the United States remained a colony of England, 
 the heir to her language, her customs, her modes 
 of thought and action, her natural impulses and 
 desires. It is true that many new ideas had sprung 
 up in this New World and that it was in part to 
 maintain these ideas, to compel a legal recognition 
 of political principles, that the Revolution was 
 fought. But casting aside that notion for a moment 
 let us realize that England did not fail, even by the 
 so-called loss of her colonies when as free States 
 they went forward to magnify her influence and 
 to carry on the work of extending European and 
 Anglo-Saxon civilization. The pioneers of America 
 
 (39) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 who pushed boldly over die mountains a cen- 
 tury and a quarter ago were in reality engaged 
 in the same task as the earlier pioneers who settled 
 at Jamestown or Plymouth. Moreover in what 
 we call colonial times the Anglo-Saxon and the 
 Latin had been here in conflict. England had 
 begun her settlements in opposition to Spain, had 
 succeeded in pushing the Spaniards off toward 
 the south, and finally in wresting Canada and the 
 eastern half of the Mississippi basin from France 
 The United States carried on the work. First 
 Louisiana was won ; then west Florida was seized ; 
 next east Florida was obtained ; then Texas and 
 California and the great West were annexed ; 
 finally Porto Rico and the Philippines were taken, 
 and the yoke of the master, that had rested heavily 
 on Cuba from the time of Columbus the Admiral, 
 was taken from her weary shoulders. 
 
 Such certainly is one of the most fundamental 
 notions of American history. Any one desiring 
 to understand the different phases of development 
 cannot lose sight of this simple fact that our his- 
 tory forms a large part of that era of colonization, 
 of the expansion of western Europe, which began 
 with Henry the Navigator, Columbus, and 
 DaGama, and is not yet ended ; the end no one 
 can foresee. It is necessary, too, that we should 
 see that the United States has not only won terri- 
 tory from Spain, but with marvelous rapidity has 
 extended across a continent. One hundred and 
 
 (40) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 twenty-five years ago when independence was 
 declared, the population was less than three 
 millions ; settlements were confined to the Atlantic 
 coast, though a few bold spirits had had the 
 temerity to move over into the great valley. By 
 the first census there were not four million people, 
 including slaves, in this country, and only 228,758 
 across the mountains. The ease and celerity with 
 which the Mississippi valley was won for civiliza- 
 tion must always remain one of the astounding 
 achievements of history. The pioneer took with 
 him the school-house, the court-house, and the 
 church. The privations of the frontier were soon 
 changed for the comforts, one might well say the 
 graces and elegancies, of the farther east. No 
 one can appreciate American history unless he 
 keeps constantly in mind the task of subduing a 
 continent ; he must remember that, if we have not 
 the poets and sculptors and musicians of Europe, 
 American energy has gone whither nature beck- 
 oned it, and has transformed the wilderness and 
 made it the abode of civilized and happy man. 
 
 It will not do, however, to omit from our con- 
 sideration the fact of which I have already spoken, 
 that at the time of the American Revolution cer- 
 tain principles were put forth of which the people 
 demanded a legal recognition. It may be said 
 that the conflict with Great Britain was begun to 
 obtain the legal expression and application of a 
 new ethical principle in politics. The Americans 
 
 (40 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 claimed that they were demanding only that 
 England recognize the well-established principles 
 of the English Constitution ; in reality they sought 
 the recognition of an ethical notion as yet not 
 formulated in the law of the mother-country. 
 America stood for the idea that no man's money 
 should be taken without his consent or the con- 
 sent of his representative duly chosen. In its 
 broadest sense this meant self-government by the 
 main body of the people, and although it did not 
 immediately find its fullest expression in Ameri- 
 can institutions, this principle was slowly worked 
 out in the democratization of the country in the 
 first forty years of its independence. And so, 
 naturally, as an inevitable product of its history, 
 the United States stood for the intrinsic worth of 
 self-government. Men of the last century, like 
 Jefferson or other democratic leaders, would have 
 argued that better government. was obtained when 
 the people were the custodians of power. But 
 after all it was not good government alone that 
 they were seeking ; it was self-government as the 
 natural and inherent right of man. 
 
 Again, with this process of democratization, 
 which must always be borne in mind, was another 
 essential idea which was expressed so clearly and 
 cogently by Jefferson in the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, and by George Mason in the Virginia 
 Bill of Rights. Jefferson declared that everyone 
 has the natural and inherent right to "pursue 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 happiness." These words are trite — so much the 
 better for America — but they were not trite when 
 they were first written. It is easy to forget this 
 most fundamental fact in our history, a fact in 
 comparison with which dates, and battles, and 
 proper names are of no account, viz., that 
 America set before its eyes this idea, hitherto 
 not carried out in the world, that there must not 
 be privileged orders, or stratified society, or 
 special advantages, but that each man because of 
 his manhood must have the right to seek happi- 
 ness and to rise by virtue of his own buoyancy to 
 a place which might seem to bring him his heart's 
 desire. 
 
 If I were asked to state, then, the four funda- 
 mental ideas that should be carried in the mind 
 of the reader of American history, whatever 
 else might fail him, I should say, first, the place of 
 America in the history of colonization, remember- 
 ing that we have been both active and passive 
 agents in the process ; second, our conquests 
 from Spain and the extension of our rule and our 
 civilization across the continent ; third, the demand 
 for self-government and the gradual democratiza- 
 tion of society, a process in which ideals have 
 been in part made good ; fourth, the idea that 
 America stands, not for stagnant well-being, but 
 for progress. 
 
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The Foundations ^Ameri- 
 can Nationality : A Lecture 
 
 by JOHN BACH McMASTER 
 
 (45) 
 
The Foundations ^Ameri- 
 can Nationality : A Lecture 
 
 by JOHN BACH McMASTER 
 
 John Bach McMaster was educated in the 
 public schools of Brooklyn and was graduated 
 from the College of the City of New York in 1872. 
 He taught grammar in that college for a year, 
 then studied civil engineering, and in 1877 wa s 
 appointed instructor in civil engineering at 
 Princeton. As early as 1870 he had begun to 
 gather materials for A History of the People of 
 the United States. From that time until 1883 his 
 spare moments were devoted to that work. 
 Upon the appearance of the first volume of the 
 history in 1883 it gained an immediate success. 
 The author was at once made professor of Ameri- 
 can history in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 Since that time four volumes more have appeared, 
 and he has written in addition Benjamin Franklin 
 as a Man of Letters and a series of magazine 
 articles which have been collected in a volume 
 entitled With the Fathers. His papers on Daniel 
 Webster, originally published in the Century, have 
 now appeared in book form. 
 
 The early history of what is now the United 
 States falls naturally into four periods ; that 
 of discovery and exploration, that of occupation 
 and settlement, that of struggle for possession, 
 and that during which the course of events led 
 steadily on to the war for independence. 
 
 That our continent was visited by Europeans 
 long before the famous voyage of Columbus may 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 now be accepted as a fact ; yet the history of our 
 country may, nevertheless, be considered as start- 
 ing- with those great epoch-making voyages which 
 made the New World known to the Old. Now 
 it is well, at the outset, to understand that the 
 voyage of Columbus was in no sense an accident, 
 but the direct result of a business, a commercial 
 need. It must be remembered that the highways 
 of trade between Europe and the Indies were then 
 in the hands of the Turks and might at any 
 moment be closed ; that a new way to the East, 
 a way not subject to Moslem control, was an 
 imperative necessity ; that Portugal, in hope of 
 finding such a way, had long been pushing her 
 explorations down the west coast of Africa ; and 
 that it was to discover a shorter and more direct 
 route than that attempted by Portugal that 
 Columbus went due west across the Atlantic. 
 
 It is well, again, to understand at the outset 
 who this man Columbus was ; why he believed in 
 this particular route, and what were the direct 
 results of his voyage. We should know why the 
 Pope drew the Line of Demarcation. We should 
 know the names of some of the other explorers 
 who were so quick to follow Columbus ; and we 
 should know where these men went and what 
 they accomplished. In some respects Columbus 
 had failed in his undertaking. He sought the 
 East. He found a continent that barred the way 
 to the East, and with the realization of this fact 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 by Europe we enter on a new period of explora- 
 tion, during which patient search is made, at first 
 for a southwest passage through or around the 
 New World, and finally — after Magellan sailed 
 through the strait that still bears his name — for a 
 shorter passage in the northwest. Voyages such 
 as these did much toward the discovery of the 
 coast-line, and so prepared the way for the 
 exploration and settlement of the interior and 
 the seaboard. 
 
 In this work of exploration it should be noted 
 that two European nations, the Spanish and the 
 French, stand preeminent ; while in the work of 
 settlement and colonization England surpasses 
 both. Indeed, it is not too much to say that down 
 to the founding of the United States every impor- 
 tant contribution to the knowledee of the 
 geography of the interior of our country was 
 made by Spaniards or Frenchmen. 
 
 Following on the track of Columbus the Span- 
 iards became the possessors of the West Indies 
 and of Mexico, and, naturally, the explorers of 
 our Gulf coast and the southwest. The journeys 
 of Ponce de Leon and De Soto are familiar to 
 every one ; but far more remarkable are the over- 
 land wanderings of Vaca and his companions, and 
 the great march of Coronado in search of the 
 Seven Cities of Cibola. The doings and adven- 
 tures of these men and their followers in the Rio 
 Grande valley has been too much neglected, and 
 
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 now that the story has been so well told by Mr. 
 Lummis in his Spanish Pioneers, it should be read 
 as part of the foundation history of our country. 
 
 Turning to the work of French explorers, we 
 should understand at the outset how it came about 
 that they went to the Gulf and the River St. Law- 
 rence rather than to any other part of our country; 
 how the hostility of the Indians of central New 
 York prevented them from coming down the 
 valley of the Hudson ; how they were forced to 
 make their explorations westward ; how they dis- 
 covered the Great Lakes and the Mississippi 
 River ; how they thus gained possession of the 
 very heart of our continent ; and we should under- 
 stand what this meant to the English settlers on 
 the seaboard. 
 
 These seaboard settlements, it should be noted, 
 were made by men of three nations, the English, 
 the Dutch, and the Swedes ; and again it should 
 be understood why these people came to particu- 
 lar localities, and on what their claims, real or 
 pretended, were formed. Their history should 
 be so read as to afford a clear conception of why 
 the two Virginia Companies were chartered, what 
 they attempted to do, why they failed, how one 
 by one the thirteen colonies were created, what 
 causes led to the foundation of each, what kind 
 of settlers came to each, and what were the 
 boundaries set forth in the charters ; for out of 
 these came the present limits of many of our sea- 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 board States and the land disputes which so 
 nearly wrecked the old Confederation. 
 
 But above all colonial history must not be so 
 read as to become a mere record of Indian wars 
 and massacres, of the quarrels of petty rulers, and 
 of persecutions in the name of religion. True it 
 is that all such things are not to be ignored. They 
 have their place and remind us of what hardships 
 were endured, what dangers were met, what sac- 
 rifices were made by those who laid the foundation 
 of our country. But quite as important is some 
 knowledge of the customs, usages, institutions, 
 ways of living of those commonwealth builders. 
 We should know and appreciate the vast differ- 
 ence between life in a New England village or on 
 a Virginia plantation and in the woods of Canada 
 and the far Northwest. The minister with his 
 hour-glass on the pulpit, the housewife with her 
 rude utensils about her, the frontier farmer with 
 his musket on his back, the slave in the tobacco 
 field, the priest with his portable altar, the coureur 
 de bois with his canoe full of furs, should all be as 
 real to us as the men we meet upon our streets. 
 It was these differences which counted for so much 
 when the great struggle for supremacy was under 
 way. 
 
 Two of the four nationalities that entered this 
 struggle were disposed of easily. The Swedes 
 were conquered by the Dutch, and they in turn 
 by the English. But the conflict was long and 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 bloody when the English met the French, and 
 three-quarters of a century passed before it ended 
 in an English triumph. This bitter fight appears 
 in our annals under the meaningless names of 
 King William's War, Queen Anne's War, King 
 George's War, and the French and Indian War, 
 all but so many phases of the one contest for the 
 possession of America. 
 
 Before entering on a study of this long struggle 
 it is well to get clearly before us the historical 
 geography of the country. The French were then 
 in possession of Nova Scotia and the islands 
 round about ; of New Brunswick and New 
 France, which was the drainage basin of the river 
 St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes ; and of 
 Louisiana, which then extended from the Alle- 
 gheny River to the Rocky Mountains and the Rio 
 Grande, and from New France to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. The Spaniards, as the explorers and 
 occupiers of Florida, held the coast from near 
 St. Mary's River to Mobile Bay, and were entitled 
 to all the country drained by the rivers of that 
 coast, and to the upper valley of the Rio Grande 
 and what is now our southwestern Territories 
 and California. The far Northwest was still an 
 unknown land. The English by a treaty with 
 Spain in 1670 had come into undisputed posses- 
 sion of the Atlantic watershed from Maine to 
 Georgia, and were even then pushing steadily 
 westward toward the mountains. 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 With the English in New England and New 
 York, and the French on the St. Lawrence and 
 the fishing grounds, a contest between the two 
 peoples for possession was sure to come, and by 
 the time King William's War opened the colo- 
 nies of both nations were strong enough to begin 
 the fight. Naturally enough in this struggle the 
 geographical features of the country played a 
 most important part. The seafaring New 
 Englanders made their attack by sea. The 
 French, with their stronghold at Quebec, came 
 down the lake and river system and harried the 
 frontier of New England and New York. When 
 the peace came in 1697 neither party had gained 
 anything while both had suffered much. The 
 first signs of English conquest are visible in the 
 next or Queen Anne's War (1 701-13) when the 
 French are forced to acknowledge the claims 
 of England to Newfoundland and the country 
 around Hudson Bay, and to leave New Bruns- 
 wick and Nova Scotia and its chief town, Port 
 Royal (now Annapolis), in English hands. 
 
 To the true characteristics of the struggle thus 
 begun in America Great Britain seems to have 
 been oblivious. But France was keenly alive, and 
 during the thirty years of peace which followed 
 the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, she built 
 Louisburg and a chain of forts across Louisiana 
 from Niagara to Mobile Bay, and this line of 
 defence the colonists during King George's War 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 could not break down. They did, indeed, take 
 Louisburg, but the British gave it back at the 
 peace, and France, coming out of the war with all 
 of her possessions in America safe, promptly took 
 the next step and began another chain of forts 
 which was to shut the British out of the Ohio 
 valley. But the British colonists, moving west- 
 ward, had already pushed the frontier to the Sus- 
 quehanna in Pennsylvania and the upper waters 
 of the Potomac in Virginia. Indeed, a great land 
 company had already been organized and was 
 preparing to open up to settlement a great tract 
 of land lying around the head waters of the Ohio 
 River, when the French began the construction 
 of their forts at Presque Isle (Erie), Le Bceuf, 
 and Venango. Alarmed at their proceedings the 
 governor of Virginia bade them begone, and 
 chose as his messenger George Washington. 
 The refusal of the French to go was followed by 
 the second journey of Washington to build a fort 
 where Pittsburg now stands, by his capture at 
 Fort Necessity, and by the opening of the French 
 and Indian War. The last phase of the struggle 
 for supremacy in America now began. When it 
 ended France surrendered all of her possessions 
 in Canada, save a few islands in the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, and entering what is now the United 
 States divided Louisiana by the Mississippi River. 
 All to the east she gave to Great Britain. All to 
 the west she gave to Spain. But Spain also had 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 taken part in the war, and when peace was made 
 was forced to yield Florida to Great Britain, who 
 thus came out of the contest with an enormous 
 addition to her New World domain. 
 
 A reform in colonial government now became 
 necessary. The new territory must be occupied 
 and governed, the old French forts must be held 
 by British troops, the Indians must be kept in 
 order, and the frontier must be defended. Toward 
 accomplishing these ends the mother-country 
 began drawing lines about the well-inhabited 
 regions and establishing new provinces or col- 
 onies. That created in Canada was called the 
 province of Quebec. Two more along our gulf 
 coast were named East and West Florida. 
 Another line drawn along the coast of the Atlantic 
 watershed from Maine to Florida parted the colo- 
 nies from French Louisiana, which was closed to 
 settlement and reserved for the use of the Indians. 
 For the purpose of defending the colonies against 
 enemies at home and from abroad, troops were to 
 be sent over and the cost of maintaining them 
 was to be borne by the colonies. This cost was 
 to be met by enforcing the navigation acts, by 
 the collection of water-edge duties, and by the 
 inland taxes imposed by the ever-famous Stamp 
 Act of 1765, against which the colonists rose as 
 one man. 
 
 What now followed should be so studied that 
 the Declaration of Independence may be under- 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 stood when read. That document is a great bill 
 of complaints against the King and Parliament, 
 and sums up the wrongs which the colonists suf- 
 fered for ten long years. It was the party platform 
 of the American Whig, and every charge it made 
 had a meaning for every man who read the 
 Declaration. So too it should have a meaning 
 for us. "He has refused his assent," says the 
 Declaration, " to laws the most wholesome and 
 necessary for the public good." What were some 
 of those laws ? " He has dissolved representative 
 houses repeatedly for opposing with manly firm- 
 ness his invasions on the rights of the people." 
 What representative houses did he dissolve? 
 "He has made judges dependent on his will 
 alone for the tenure of their offices;" "he has 
 erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
 swarms of officers to harass our people;" "he 
 has kept among us in times of peace standing 
 armies;" "he has plundered our seas, ravaged 
 our coasts, burnt our towns," cut "off our trade 
 with all parts of the world," imposed "taxes on 
 us without our consent," and deprived "us, in 
 many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury." 
 What specific instances are here referred to? 
 When did he ravage our coasts, plunder our 
 seas, cut off trade, in short, do any of the thirty 
 evil deeds he is accused of doing in the Declara- 
 tion ? Till these questions can be answered with 
 some detail the Declaration is almost meaning- 
 
 v56) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 less, and a most important decade in the history 
 of the foundation of our country is read to little 
 purpose. 
 
 The Declaration read and understood, we should 
 pass to some of the consequences of this assertion 
 of independence. We should ask ourselves what 
 became of the royal governors ; how did the colo- 
 nies become States ; what sort of governments did 
 they establish ; what sort of authority did the 
 Continental Congress have over the States before 
 the March day, 1781, when the Articles of Con- 
 federation went into force ? We should under- 
 stand that the long delay in adopting the Articles 
 of Confederation was due to the dispute between 
 the small States with well-defined western bounda- 
 ries — Rhode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary- 
 land — and those which under their old charters 
 claimed at least to the Mississippi. We should 
 know what these disputes were ; how they were 
 settled by the cession of New York, Virginia, 
 Massachusetts, and Connecticut ; what pledges 
 the Continental Congress made and how these 
 pledges were redeemed. We should know how 
 this Northwest Territory became the nucleus of 
 our public domain, how our land system was 
 devised, the Territory with its two grades of gov- 
 ernment created, and the way made straight for 
 the admission of new States into our Union. We 
 should know, finally, why the Articles of Confed- 
 eration, ratified with so much difficulty, were soon 
 
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 found wanting. We should see how the inability 
 of Congress to lay a tax of any sort deprived it 
 of money and made the payment of its debts 
 impossible. We should see how the lack of power 
 on the part of Congress to regulate trade with 
 foreign countries and the failure of the States to 
 impose uniform regulations for themselves left our 
 merchants at the mercy of foreigners. We should 
 see how the power of each State to issue paper 
 money, pass tender laws, and force acts brought 
 on such financial distress as our countrymen never 
 saw before or since. We should clearly see why 
 our present Constitution was not only a political 
 but a business necessity, and we should know 
 something of its framing and adoption, because 
 with its adoption the foundation of our country 
 was finished. 
 
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American Historical 
 Geography : A Lecture by 
 
 ALBERT BUSHNELL HART 
 
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American Historical 
 Geography : A Lecture b y 
 
 ALBERT BUSHNELL HART 
 
 Albert Bushnell Hart was graduated from 
 Harvard University in 1880. He then pursued 
 graduate studies at Harvard, University of Berlin, 
 University of Freiburg, and the School of Politi- 
 cal Science in Paris. He received the degree of 
 doctor of philosophy from the University of 
 Freiburg in 1883, and in the same year became 
 instructor in American history at Harvard. He 
 now occupies a chair of American history in the 
 University. He has written An Introduction ta 
 the Study of Federal Government, The Formation 
 of the Union, Foundations of American Foreign 
 Policy, Practical Essays on American Govern- 
 ment, and, in collaboration, A Guide to the Study 
 of American History. He is the editor of Epochs 
 of American History, American History Told by 
 Contemporaries, and the American Citizen series, 
 and is one of the editors of the American Histor- 
 ical Review. Professor Hart is a constant con- 
 tributor to the periodical literature of history and 
 political science. 
 
 The hypnotist insists that the subject shall 
 look straight at a fixed point, in order 
 thereby to concentrate his thought : the teacher 
 of American history in like manner bids his 
 pupils put their attention on the geography of 
 their own country, for everything else in a very 
 real sense rests upon the surface of the earth. 
 Indeed, historical geography, rightly viewed, is 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 the illuminant of history and the most fascinating 
 of studies. 
 
 For historical geography is the record of human 
 storm and stress, the story of the rising of man 
 above his environment, of a defiance of nature. 
 When you ride over the Horseshoe Curve on the 
 Pennsylvania Railroad you feel a sense of exhila- 
 rating conquest. Environment says : "There is 
 no road here ; I have set a boundary over which 
 you cannot pass." Historical geography says : 
 "Both sides of the mountains belong to the 
 people, and they shall hold them together." 
 
 Historical geography is also the evidence of 
 previous historic changes. A glance over the 
 present map of the United States shows a graphic 
 outline of the history of the country in which we 
 live. The little black dots which mark the prin- 
 cipal cities and towns are the stepping-stones 
 over which has passed the procession of advanc- 
 ing settlement and civilization ; the sweeping lines 
 which designate the boundaries of States and 
 Territories are the edicts of statesmen, setting off 
 the solitary in families and communities, dividing 
 Territories and States. 
 
 Taking up the history of America from the 
 beginning, every epoch abounds in geographic 
 delights. The romantic, the adventurous, the imag- 
 inative has nowhere a broader field than in the 
 early stages of the record of the discovery and 
 exploration of our country. Listen a moment to 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 Columbus' own account of the first event in the 
 territorial history of civilized America: "The 
 Admiral was quite convinced of the proximity of 
 land. In consequence of that when they said the 
 Salve, which they used to say and sing it in their 
 way, all the sailors and all being present, the 
 Admiral requested and admonished them to keep 
 a sharp lookout at the castle of the bow, and to 
 look well for land, and said that he would give to 
 him who first saw land a silk doublet, besides the 
 other rewards that the King and Queen had 
 promised, namely, an annual pension of ten 
 thousand maravedis to him who should see it first. 
 Two hours after midnight the land appeared 
 about two leagues off. They lowered all the 
 sails, leaving only a storm squaresail, which is 
 the mainsail without bonnets, and lay to until 
 Friday when they reached a small island of the 
 Lucayos, called Guanahani by the natives. They 
 soon saw people." Or let quaint John Smith tell 
 of the delights of exploring an unknown shore : 
 ''And then the Countrie of the Massachusets, 
 which is the Paradise of all those parts : for, 
 heere are many lies all planted with corne ; 
 groues, mulberries, saluage gardens, and good 
 harbors. . . . The Sea Coast as you passe, 
 shewes you all along large corne fields, and great 
 troupes of well proportioned people, 
 and in the harbors we frequented, a little boye 
 might take of Cunners and Pinacks and such 
 
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 delicate fish at the ships sterne, more than sixe 
 or tenne can eate in a daie." 
 
 The inland explorers who opened up the high- 
 ways and with their camp-fires marked the sites of 
 future cities were historical geographers. What 
 a flavor of buffalo hunts and Kansas blizzards is 
 in Coronado's account of his journey east of the 
 Rocky Mountains in 1 541 : "Through mighty 
 plains and sandy heaths, smooth and wearisome 
 and bare of wood. All that way the plains are as 
 full of crook-back oxen as the mountain Serena 
 in Spain is of sheep. One day it rained in that 
 plain a great shower of hail, as big as oranges, 
 which caused many tears, weaknesses, and vows." 
 
 An article, or indeed a volume, might be given 
 to one of the simplest phases of our historical 
 geography, the names of places. Thus, the limits 
 of the Spanish occupation of parts of the present 
 United States may be traced by Spanish names : 
 Cape Mendocino in northern California, San 
 Francisco, Los Angeles, San Bernardino, the 
 Colorado River, Santa Fe in New Mexico, Pueblo 
 in Colorado, Corpus Christi in Texas, St. Augus- 
 tine and Fernandina in Florida. Through these 
 points might be drawn a line which would show 
 clearly how far the Spanish power had extended. 
 A French boundary might in like manner be 
 drawn through Louisburg, Frenchman's Bay, 
 Trois Pistoles, Chazy, Presque Isle (now Erie), 
 Braddock's Field, Baton Rouge, New Orleans, 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 and Biloxi to the Gulf; and from St. Louis 
 through St. Paul to the northern lakes. The 
 Dutch have left us some rather strong and 
 unspeakable names. We may follow them from 
 Staten Island through Rhinebeck, Rensselaar- 
 wyck, Poughkeepsie, Fort Orange to Schenectady 
 and Canajoharie. The site of a German colony 
 and the ravages of the French in the Palatinate, 
 which caused their exodus, are commemorated 
 in Palatine Bridge in central New York. 
 
 In that State alone is preserved the record of 
 another invasion not mentioned in history : the 
 limit of the Roman Empire in the west is dis- 
 tinctly marked, not by York and Chester, but by 
 Lyons, Turin, Ithaca, Syracuse, Utica, and Rome 
 of the State of New York; and one could not 
 suggest a more difficult task in historical geogra- 
 phy than the correct location on the atlas of 
 classical geography of the following stations on 
 the New York Central Railroad : Ilion, Utica, 
 Rome, Verona, Manlius, Syracuse, Memphis, Jor- 
 dan, Lyons, Palmyra, Macedon, South Greece, 
 Medina, Batavia, Camillus, Marcellus, Aurelius, 
 Mertensia. 
 
 As strict American names, besides the pic- 
 turesque and individual West Points, Little 
 Rocks, Painted Posts, and Chinquapin Roughs, 
 we have the beautiful Indian names, the Oneidas 
 and Cayugas, and Cuyahogas which will always 
 remain with us, an imperishable memorial of the 
 
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 race that bestowed them. An erratic American 
 poet has even proposed that appropriate names 
 be composed of parts of Indian words. Thus, of 
 Cayuga, Chenango, and Naumkeag may be built 
 up an endless succession of Ca-nan-keags and 
 Che yu-keags and Naum-u-gas and Che-na- 
 naums to puzzle future philologists. A striking 
 instance of the passable success of such com- 
 pounds is Beloit in Wisconsin ; it seems as French 
 as Detroit or Bellaire, but was really a happy 
 Anglo-Saxon inspiration. In general, Americans 
 seem pledged againt a really striking name. 
 Appomattox, which had passed into history along 
 with the Caudine Forks and Waterloo, has 
 recently changed its name to Surrender. Thus 
 settlers from other continents have constantly 
 brought their names and their experience to 
 enrich our history ; and discoverers, explorers, and 
 colonizers have expressed the romance of Ameri- 
 can geography in the terms of topography. 
 
 The early colonists liked geography exceedingly, 
 provided they might make the maps themselves. 
 The Spaniards tried to color all of North America 
 south of the Delaware with their tint ; the French 
 wanted to sow all the land north of the Hudson 
 with their lilies on a white ground ; the Dutch 
 drew a streak of bright orange between New 
 England and Virginia ; and the English with their 
 "thin red line" confused and obliterated the 
 labors of the Spanish, French, and Dutch geogra- 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 phers, and would have it that there was only one 
 color in America east of the Mississippi. Then 
 came Brother Jonathan, with most of the solar 
 spectrum on his palette, and painted a great gore 
 out of the map of British America. 
 
 The earlier Americans served as explorers, 
 delineators, geographers, and conquerors all in 
 one. John Smith made real maps of some unreal 
 experiences ; John Winthrop followed the Merri- 
 mac to its head ; Champlain thought he had 
 reached China, and named his discovery Lachine, 
 and Lachine the rapids above Montreal remain to 
 this day. William Penn got his patents by the 
 thousand square miles ; Sir William Johnson 
 marked a new frontier ; John Jay described a 
 new boundary. It was not an accident that 
 George Washington and Abraham Lincoln were 
 both surveyors ; for they both learned the impor- 
 tance of historical geography, and applied their 
 knowledge to the problems of their presidencies. 
 
 Good surveyors and good geographers were 
 necessary in colonial days because the English 
 grants were hopelessly mixed. Massachusetts 
 had a charter all the way from Nahant to the 
 Pacific Ocean ; Pennsylvania cut off a slice of 
 Maryland, including the present site of Philadel- 
 phia. Lord Baltimore had the spirit to resist, 
 declaring " that the king was greatly mistaken, 
 that he could not leave his patent to follow the 
 king's letter, nor could a letter void his patent; 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 by that he would stand." Penn piously hoped 
 that "we shall all do the thing that is just and 
 honest, according to our respective stations, 
 which is always wise ; " and having a stronger 
 court influence behind him, Penn was able, partly 
 by bullying and partly by judicial decision, to gain 
 his end. Such disputes raged all along the stretch 
 from the Altamaha to the Saint Croix ; and the 
 line between Massachusetts and Rhode Island is 
 still not quite adjusted, after two centuries and a 
 half of dispute. 
 
 The geography of the frontier, so attractively 
 described by Theodore Roosevelt in his Winning 
 of the West, is one of the liveliest phases of Amer- 
 ican history. The pioneer, with his ox-wagon, his 
 brood of children, his ax and gun, is still a favorite 
 character in play, story, and real life. Almost 
 as interesting is the land speculator, of whom the 
 most eager was that excellent man of business, 
 George Washington. In one of his letters setting 
 forth the advantages of his seventy thousand acre 
 tract in the Great Kanawha he ingenuously says : 
 " It is not reasonable to suppose that those who 
 had the first choice were inattentive to the quality 
 of the soil or the advantage of the situation." 
 
 Our ancestors early busied themselves with the 
 question of subdividing the new western country ; 
 Vandalia, Transylvania, Westsylvania, Kentucky, 
 Franklin were some of the States proposed from 
 1776 to 1783. In 1784 Jefferson put his mighty 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 mind on the problem and proposed to divide the 
 Northwest into ten States, to be called Sylvania, 
 Michigania, Chersonesus, Assenisipia, Mesopota- 
 mia, Illinoia, Saratoga, Washington, Polypotamia, 
 and Pelisipia. Providence excised the polysylla- 
 bles, but any reader would find it interesting to 
 note how the Northwestern Territory was cre- 
 ated and later divided, and how Ohio, Indiana, 
 Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota came 
 to be. 
 
 Another of the panoramas of American histor- 
 ical geography is to be found in the annexation of 
 territory: George Rogers Clark's conquest of 
 the Northwest in 1778 ; Adams and Jay's triumph 
 in securing the Southwest in 1782 ; the romantic, 
 incredible, but absolutely true tale of how the 
 Sultan of the French threw Louisiana at the head 
 of the American envoys in 1803 ; the strange and 
 prodigious adventures of Lewis and Clark in their 
 journey to Oregon in 1804— 1806; the adherent 
 claims to West Florida ; the goading of Spain to 
 cede the Floridas in 18 19 ; the timely dropping in 
 1845 of the ripe prickly-pear, Texas, into the lap 
 of Columbia ; the remarkable coincidence that in 
 the very next year we conquered New Mexico 
 and California; the Gadsden Purchase of 1853; 
 the acquirement in 1867 of the Alaskan ice-gorge, 
 which proved to be a gold-mine in disguise ; the 
 islands of the East and West Indies in 1898 sail- 
 ing like ducks into the range of our big guns. 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Let Sindbad have a holiday while we read of 
 these greater wonders! The territorial develop- 
 ment of the United States ; purchase, conquest, 
 and voluntary cession ; subdivision and organiza- 
 tion ; admission of new States — these things are 
 the core of American history and the field for the 
 life of adventure. 
 
 One other topic in our historical geography 
 deserves mention, the slavery contest, to a large 
 degree a struggle for territory. In 1 820 Congress 
 was convulsed by the debates over the question 
 whether a given piece of territory should be the 
 slave State Missouri or the free State Missouri. 
 John Quincy Adams set down in his diary the 
 conclusion: "If the Union must be dissolved, 
 slavery is precisely the question upon which it 
 ought to break. For the present, however, 
 the question is laid asleep." In a conversa- 
 tion with Calhoun, who hinted at a secession and 
 alliance with England, Adams stated the issue 
 with equal firmness : " Do you think that in that 
 case New England people would remain bound 
 hand and foot upon their rocks to starve ? Or 
 would they not use their powers of locomotion to 
 move southward by land ? " That question was 
 answered in 1864 when Sherman's veterans 
 marched to the sea. 
 
 Upon the geographical question of slavery the 
 mightiest and the best strove for forty years. 
 Against the annexation of Texas John Quincy 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 Adams brought his fiercest invectives and his 
 sharpest satire. For free territory Joshua R. 
 Giddings defied his adversaries. To settle the 
 territorial question of slavery Clay gave his last 
 life-blood in 1850, and Douglas girded himself 
 for the Kansas-Nebraska debate of 1854. Pierce 
 and Buchanan tried to annex Cuba to be slave 
 territory. Abraham Lincoln forged his most pow- 
 erful speeches in 1858 to defend the principle that 
 new territory was always born free. In behalf of 
 a territorial principle John Brown of Ossawatomie 
 stole slaves, stole horses on which to carry the 
 fugitives away, and massacred his enemies, and 
 yet throughout all stood forth as the most 
 romantic character in American history. Like a 
 prophet of Israel, he felt toward the slaveholder 
 as Samuel felt toward Agag : "And Agag came 
 unto him cheerfully. And Agag said, ' Surely the 
 bitterness of death is past.' And Samuel hewed 
 Agag in pieces before Jehovah in Gilgal." 
 
 Since 1898 territorial questions have again 
 risen to perplex our councils and to thrust new 
 duties upon us ; hence the past history of our ter- 
 ritorial relations is at this moment the most 
 important subject before the American people, 
 for from it we must draw wisdom for the present 
 crisis. From the beginning of the history of 
 America to the year 1901 geographical questions 
 have been among the most important and far 
 reaching, and are worthy of the most study ; for 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 they include the history of discovery, the progress 
 of settlement, the strife with other races, the 
 distribution of types of individuals , and the 
 perplexing problem of legislation for depend- 
 encies. Geography is not only concentrated 
 history ; in our experience it has often been 
 concentrated morals. 
 
 (72) 
 
Life and Manners in 
 the Colonies: A Talk 
 
 by REUBEN GOLD THWAITES 
 
 (73) 
 
Life and Manners in 
 the Colonies: A Talk 
 
 by REUBEN GOLD THWAITES 
 
 Reuben Gold Thwaites was born and educated 
 in New England. After completing his post- 
 graduate work at Yale (1874-5) he became manag- 
 ing editor of the Wisconsin State Journal. Since 
 1885 Mr. Thwaites has been secretary and super- 
 intendent of the State Historical Society of Wis- 
 consin. He is also a lecturer on American his- 
 tory at the University of Wisconsin, chairman of 
 the American Historical Manuscripts Commission, 
 and editor of the Jesuit Relations and many other 
 historical collections and chronicles. Mr. Thwaites 
 was elected president of the American Library 
 Association in 1900. He is the author of The 
 Colonies, Historic Waterways, Stories of the 
 Badger State, Afloat on the Ohio, and The Story 
 of Wisconsin, besides numerous magazine articles 
 and monographs on the history of New France 
 and the middle West. 
 
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 The physical characteristics of the English 
 colonies on the Atlantic seaboard profoundly 
 affected the life and manners of our colonial 
 ancestors. The New England coast is narrow, 
 and the streams short and rapid, with occasional 
 navigable stretches between waterfalls. This 
 condition was favorable for the development of 
 factory towns and their busy, ingenious, thrifty 
 people. In the South, although the coast has few 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 safe harbors, there are long, broad rivers flowing 
 lazily through the plains, affording avenues of 
 approach to large, isolated colonial estates, 
 whereon aristocratic planters could, by aid of 
 slave labor, cultivate a life of ease and luxury, and, 
 by having their ports of entry at their own doors, 
 exist quite independently of tradesmen. The 
 Middle Colonies combined the physical character- 
 istics of their abutting neighbors on either side. 
 Back of the colonists were the mountains barringf 
 the way to the West, and guarded by the Indians 
 and the French who sought to hem in the English 
 to the coast. Thus were the little commonwealths 
 prevented from diffusing their power all over the 
 continent, until in time they were firmly knit and 
 could present a solid front for the beating down 
 of obstacles to expansion. 
 
 A REFLECTION OF ENGLISH LIFE 
 
 Let us remember that colonial life was but Eng- 
 lish life reflected in a provincial mirror although 
 much affected by environment. To dress and act 
 "like the people at home" was the height of 
 colonial ambition. Manners changed from time 
 to time in the century and a half of colonial exist- 
 ence as manners changed in England, or as 
 economical and social conditions changed in the 
 colonies themselves. It is therefore impossible 
 to depict colonial life without taking into consid- 
 eration variances in time and place. Seventeenth 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 century conditions, as reflected in Longfellow's 
 Courtship of Miles Standi sh, Hawthorne's Scarlet 
 Letter, and Whittier's Mogg Megone are often 
 quite apart from those depicted in the eighteenth 
 century studies of Cooper's LeatJierstocking 
 Tales, Mrs. Stowe's The Minister s Wooing, Long- 
 fellow's Evangeline, and Thackeray's The Vir- 
 ginians. 
 
 THE SOUTH 
 
 The colonies were divided naturally into three 
 groups, differing in origin, natural conditions, 
 and people. Throughout the South the English 
 were dominant, although there were many for- 
 eigners, especially in the Carolinas, where we find 
 Huguenots, Moravians, Germans, Swiss, and 
 Scotch-Irish. Trading towns were few, the climate 
 was mild, the soil was rich ; the rivers were the 
 chief highways. With certain local exceptions, 
 which are not important to note here, society was 
 principally divided into four classes : negro slaves ; 
 indented white servants — some of them convicts 
 — who were often cruelly treated ; the middle 
 class — small farmers and the despised tradesmen ; 
 and the upper class, who in dress, manners, and 
 political thought resembled English country gen- 
 tlemen. This last is the class about which we 
 mostly read, the people of fine clothes and stately 
 manners, of whom Washington and most other 
 southern leaders of the Revolution were examples. 
 During much of the colonial era this elegant 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 formality was often a mere protection against 
 society itself. In the main the manners of the 
 upper class were coarse, judged by our standards. 
 The gentlemen were born aristocrats, indolent, 
 vain, haughty, arrogant, and sensitive to restraints. 
 They drank, gambled, and sometimes fought. 
 They exhibited an almost absurd gallantry toward 
 women, but this was chiefly on the surface ; their 
 letters often exhibit a quite low estimate of the 
 weaker sex, which, to tell the truth, was then but 
 indifferently educated as a helpmeet for man. 
 Nevertheless, the virtues of these southern gentle- 
 men were many: they had a keen sense of honor 
 and pride of ancestry ; their isolated life begat a 
 broad point of view ; their leisure was often de- 
 voted to political study; and they furnished the 
 Revolution with a high class of soldiers, diplomats, 
 and statesmen. 
 
 Education was largely by tutors, or the young 
 men were sent to English colleges. In Virginia 
 and North Carolina there were, during most of 
 the colonial period, practically no professions. In 
 Maryland and South Carolina, owing to the exist- 
 ence of quarrelsome elements, lawyers arose, but 
 they were poorly equipped and held in low esteem. 
 Medicine was in a crude stage. While there were 
 clergymen of superior attainments, the majority 
 were deficient in breeding and education. 
 
 Roads were in execrable condition. Few people 
 had traveled as far as the adjoining colonies, save 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 as peddlers. Horseback was the principal mode 
 of land conveyance ; boats were chiefly used for 
 visiting and for commerce. As a consequence of 
 isolation and difficulties of travel, the planters 
 showed marked hospitality to the few gentlemen 
 who made tours through the southern country. 
 This practice of generous hospitality resulted in 
 the many pleasing pictures of plantation life which 
 have come down to us in the published journals 
 of that day. 
 
 A plantation with its galleried manor-house, its 
 rows of negro quarters, its barns and shops, was 
 largely a self-sustained community. Vessels from 
 Europe and the West Indies came to the planter's 
 door. Many of his slaves were excellent mechan- 
 ics. Manufactures and many elegancies, as well 
 as necessaries, were imported from England or 
 from the neighboring colonies. The economic 
 and social conditions were favorable to single 
 crops — tobacco or cotton, both of which were, in 
 their respective localities, largely and profitably 
 grown. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND 
 
 The narrow coast of New England was the 
 other extreme. The soil was thin, and inter- 
 spersed with rock and gravel ; the principal forests 
 were exceptionally heavy, and land difficult to 
 clear ; the climate was harsh — courageous toil 
 was necessary to overcome these and other obsta- 
 cles to human welfare. 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Whereas the population of the South largely 
 sprang from west England, and was closely 
 related to the Welsh and the ancient Britons, the 
 New Englanders were from east England, with 
 roots in Germany and Scandinavia. It will be 
 seen that these were, in general terms, the 
 respective regions of the conservative Cavaliers 
 and the contentious Roundheads of the seven- 
 teenth century, a fact which of itself would cause 
 marked distinctions between the people of the 
 southern and those of the northern colonies. 
 Although receiving some foreign emigration, the 
 New Englanders were for a century and a half 
 practically an east England people, multiplying 
 on its own soil with solidarity of temper and char- 
 acteristics. It is New England colonial life upon 
 which we of our day love most to dwell. 
 
 Roundheads and Puritans, and proud in their 
 sturdy notions of independence, they were not 
 democrats. Social distinctions were almost as 
 sharply drawn as in the South. Heading society 
 was the powerful and much respected aristocratic 
 class, beginning with the village squire and end- 
 ing with crown officials in the capital towns. 
 Next came yeomen, merchants, and mechanics in 
 their order, all thus properly seated at church and 
 appropriately dressed, for to be attired above 
 one's rank was a gross affront to superiors. 
 Now and then there were landed estates, but 
 not generally ; public offices and the professions 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 were filled by gentlemen ; no one was idle in 
 colonial New England. There were a few slaves ; 
 but economic conditions did not render profitable 
 the service of any who had to be driven to 
 work. 
 
 Of the professions the ministry was the most 
 important, embracing men of the best ability and 
 station, for it took the best to maintain suprem- 
 acy in those parishes of sturdy, intelligent people. 
 In medicine, quackery flourished ; the best physi- 
 cians were but " herb-doctors " and " blood- 
 letters," some of whom were barbers as well, 
 and others clergymen. Among all primitive 
 peoples the medicine man and the priest have 
 been either identical or in close relationship. 
 
 Unlike the South, New England relied but little 
 on England for manufactured goods. Mechanics, 
 millers, miners, and the like were plentiful. The 
 fisheries were important ; hamlets of fishermen, 
 nurseries of the American navy, were strung all 
 along the shore, and whalers ventured into the 
 Arctic seas. 
 
 Commerce was extended far and wide. Out of 
 Maine went fish-oil and lumber to foreign coun- 
 tries ; hay, grain, and cattle were sent to New 
 York, Philadelphia, and the West Indies. There 
 was an immense longshore traffic in produce and 
 wares. Many of the numerous Yankee vessels 
 were in the slave-trade. There are instances of 
 New England vessels taking rum to Africa in 
 
 6q (8i) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 exchange for slaves, and the slaves themselves to 
 the West Indies to be bartered for sugar and 
 molasses, which were carried home and converted 
 into rum ; but it was the day when kegs of rum 
 were given to ministers at donation parties, and 
 ministers made brandy by the barrel for their 
 own use and for sale to parishioners. 
 
 Boston, Newport, and New Haven were the 
 principal New England towns, and trade there 
 flourished mightily. Small villages abounded, the 
 neighborhood centres of the various towns ; there 
 were the dwellings of the minister and the school- 
 teacher, with the shops of tradesmen and artisans, 
 and farm-houses grouped about. The village 
 streets were overhung with elms. The houses 
 were quaint, roomy, gambrel-roofed, with their 
 sides to the street, and were presided over by 
 model housewives. The towns were thoroughly 
 officered with their selectmen, constables, hog- 
 reeves, fence-viewers, and numerous other small 
 officials. 
 
 The people were, as a rule, in moderate finan- 
 cial circumstances ; they were neat, intelligent, 
 fairly educated ; both sexes, old and young, 
 worked hard, were frugal and thrifty ; they were 
 generally strict in morals, kind and hospitable, 
 but, English-like, coldly reserved to strangers and 
 acutely inquisitive. They were attired in sober- 
 colored garments, except on Sunday, when som- 
 bre finery was displayed. The men wore long 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 stockings and knee breeches, with low buckled 
 shoes ; workmen had leather or canvas aprons, 
 and nearly all were in homespun — only the rich 
 wore imported clothes. 
 
 The large open fireplaces were ill adapted to 
 the rigor of New England winters ; rheumatism, 
 pleurisy, and throat and lung diseases sorely 
 afflicted the aged. The dreary churches, where 
 long-winded sermons were delivered by austere 
 pastors, were wholly unprovided with heating 
 arrangements, although individuals mitigated the 
 severity of the temperature by the use of foot- 
 stoves which today amuse us as we see them in 
 museums. The popular diet was spare ; cider 
 and rum were freely consumed, but drunkenness 
 was not prevalent, for the New England tempera- 
 ment was not conducive to roistering. The gen- 
 eral tone of social life was sedate. There was "a 
 lurking inherited distrust for enjoyment," yet 
 there was prevalent a certain dry humor, which 
 has been preserved for us in the old Yankee say- 
 ings which once graced our joke books. For the 
 young people life brought more or less jollity in 
 the form of house-raisings, dancing parties, and 
 husking, spinning, quilting, and apple-paring bees. 
 In the towns social intercourse was somewhat 
 more ceremonial in character, with minuets, recep- 
 tions, and out-of-door tea-parties ; but in general 
 the social differences between town and village 
 were not strongly marked. 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Nowhere else was there such general communi- 
 cation between the colonies as in New England. 
 The highways were in fair condition, but the large 
 streams were unbridged, and boat ferries were in 
 much demand. Until the Revolution, wheeled 
 vehicles, except for heavy loads, were uncommon 
 beyond the limits of the large settlements ; horse- 
 back was the ordinary mode of conveyance. Each 
 village had at least one tavern, kept by a leading 
 citizen ; his rates were reasonable and the lodg- 
 ings good, but the cooking is declared by the 
 diarists of the day to have been execrable. 
 
 Crime was less frequent in New England than 
 elsewhere. As in England at the time, great 
 publicity was given to punishments. Each town 
 had its gibbet, chiefly used for pirates ; stocks for 
 vagrancy and petty thieving; pillory, largely for 
 offences against the moral code ; ducking-stool 
 for scolds ; and whipping-posts for brawlers and 
 wife beaters. Criminals might also be branded, 
 mutilated, or compelled to wear conspicuously 
 colored letters, as in Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter. 
 
 In religion the colonial New Englanders were 
 harsh and narrow. It has not inaptly been said, 
 though of course with some exaggeration, that the 
 Puritans "came to worship in their own manner, 
 and to make others do the same." They were 
 shrewd, close-fisted, thrifty, enterprising, brave ; 
 and their town-meetings were free parliaments 
 which served as rare training-schools in democ- 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 racy. New England institutions are today, in 
 large measure, the characteristic institutions of 
 the American commonwealth. 
 
 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
 
 In the Middle Colonies the river systems drain- 
 ing into Chesapeake, Delaware, and New York 
 Bays lead far inland. Back from the sandy coast 
 the soil is fertile ; the climate is an agreeable 
 compromise between New England and the South. 
 It is the chief region of the present-day seaside 
 and mountain resorts. 
 
 The colonial population of this region was 
 remarkably heterogeneous — Dutch, French, Ger- 
 mans, Swedes, Finns, Welsh, Scotch-Irish, and 
 English Quakers, bringing together great variety 
 of speech, customs, and thought. Among the 
 Dutch rural aristocrats, or manor-chiefs, along the 
 Hudson River, trade was exalted, free labor was 
 not degraded, and there was not much servile 
 labor. In Pennsylvania the Quaker squires built 
 up a sort of feudal system, although there was a 
 strong underlying spirit of democracy, stronger 
 even than in New England and in the South. 
 
 Clergymen took high rank ; on the other hand, 
 the bar was inferior. Agriculture was the chief 
 industry, but there were not a few diversified 
 manufactures and some mining. The sense for 
 trade was keen ; there was a widespread and 
 prosperous commerce. An extensive fur trade 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 was developed among the Indians to the west, in 
 sharp competition with the French, and ships traf- 
 ficked with other American colonies and with the 
 Madeiras, Lisbon, England, and the West Indies. 
 
 The Dutch adhered tenaciously to old costumes 
 and customs ; their farm-houses were picturesque 
 and distinguished by the overhanging top story, 
 rafters ribbed the ceilings, the spacious fireplaces 
 were framed in pictured tiles, wooden and pewter 
 dishes were arrayed in racks along the kitchen 
 walls, and the floors were daily scrubbed and 
 sanded. The better class of farmers practised a 
 mixed agriculture and were prosperous but simple; 
 men and women worked together in the fields, as 
 in continental Europe ; their family life was of the 
 patriarchal type. In the large manor-houses there 
 were trains of white and black servants, and a 
 degree of splendor outshining all the other colo- 
 nists. The Dutch women, rich and poor, were 
 excellent housekeepers, pious in the extreme, and 
 devoted to flowers. The soberly attired Quakers 
 largely influenced society, which evinced for the 
 most part a healthy moral tone. 
 
 As a whole, life in the Middle Colonies wore a 
 sombre hue and was filled with toil, but there 
 were not lacking abundant rough and simple 
 diversions — in the country, for example, corn- 
 huskings, spinning bees, and house-raisings, at 
 which festivities there was noticeable much hard 
 drinking ; in the towns, horse-racing, bull-baiting,. 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 cock-fighting, tavern parties, balls, and picnics. 
 Men and women were more sociable in their 
 habits than in New England. Although among 
 the common folk was little luxury, there was 
 noticeable a deep-seated satisfaction with life, an 
 idyllic condition quite unlike that of the South, 
 where political speculation resulted in popular 
 uneasiness, or that of New England, which was 
 ever in a contentious mood. 
 
 The principal town was New York, whose wide 
 streets were lined with trees overhanging low brick 
 and stone houses, which were built with gables to 
 the highway. Philadelphia, the Quaker capital, 
 was laid out upon a convenient checker-board 
 plan, the simple dwellings being backed by 
 orchards and gardens. Except between the large 
 towns there was little communication. The facili- 
 ties for land travel were meagre ; roads were rough 
 and stony, and the chief conveyances were rude 
 wagons, two-wheeled chaises, and saddle-horses. 
 
 Education was neither general nor of good 
 quality. Public enterprise was much impeded by 
 the great variety of religious denominations, 
 which evinced great bitterness toward each other ; 
 nevertheless there was more popular tolerance 
 than in New England. Serious crime was not 
 prevalent, except that of piracy, which was long a 
 grave detriment to commerce ; but there was 
 great severity toward petty offenders, and hang- 
 ings, whippings, and exposures in the pillory were 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 familiar public spectacles. Pauperism appears 
 not to have been serious in extent. 
 
 Speaking generally of the Middle Colonies, 
 throughout the greater part of their career we 
 see that their distinguishing characteristics were a 
 mixed population, a fertile soil, mixed agriculture, 
 an enterprising commercial spirit, a consider- 
 able fur traffic, religious tolerance, democratic 
 tendencies, and slow political development; later, 
 however, life and manners among these people 
 were much influenced by the inrush of Puritans 
 from New England. 
 
 The English colonists, on the whole, were 
 undoubtedly worthy men and women, fit ances- 
 tors for their revolutionary sons and daughters. 
 Theirs were lives of toil, characterized by more or 
 less simplicity, some stateliness, and certainly far 
 less democracy than we are content with today. 
 We were long in the habit of referring to colonial 
 days as " the good old times ; " but the study of 
 history has convinced us that our ancestors of two 
 and a half centuries ago lived in times of much 
 bigotry, rude hardships, coarseness in society, 
 and in general a much lower civilization than we 
 
 now enjoy. 
 
 vh\$to^h 
 
 (88) 
 
American History as 
 Reflected in Fiction: By 
 
 PAUL LEICESTER FORD 
 
 (89) 
 
American History as 
 Reflected in Fiction: By 
 
 PAUL LEICESTER FORD 
 
 Paul Leicester Ford has gained such wide 
 reputation as a novelist that his important histor- 
 ical and biographical work is somewhat over- 
 shadowed by his successful fiction. He has edited 
 the ten volumes of Thomas Jefferson's Writings 
 and three volumes of the Writings of John 
 Dickinson, and has done a considerable amount 
 of similar editorial work. The True George 
 Washington and The Many-Sided Franklin 
 represent original historical investigation. His 
 novels have usually appeared serially and later 
 in book form. The best known are The Honor- 
 able Peter Stirling, The Story of an Untold Love, 
 and Janice Meredith. Mr. Ford is a native of 
 Brooklyn and a resident of New York City. 
 
 The value of works of the imagination in an 
 historical sense can only be appreciated 
 when it is clearly recognized how large a portion 
 of our familiar knowledge of the past is due to 
 them. Take away from literature the Iliad, 
 Odyssey, sEneid, and other mythological writings 
 of Greece and Rome, the sagas of the Scandi- 
 navian people, and the Arthurian and other 
 minstrelsy tales of western Europe, all of which 
 are but traditions vivified not by the chronicler 
 but by the poet, and European history has been 
 robbed of its verv foundations and corner-stones. 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Nor is it sufficient to argue that these are excep- 
 tional instances due to the fact that, because these 
 particular myths and fables deal with the early or 
 "dark" centuries of history, we accept them for 
 want of anything more authentic. Take from 
 English-speaking people the plays of Shake- 
 speare and the tales and poems of Scott, and 
 measure the loss it would represent to a general 
 knowledge of many historical periods and persons. 
 What number of people know Macaulay's 
 England, the most popular history ever written, 
 and what number his ballads of Horatius and 
 Ivry? In our own country, what proportion of 
 people have read Bancroft's account of Lexington 
 and Concord, or Rhodes' chapter on the invasion 
 of Maryland, or Ropes' campaign in the Shenan- 
 doah, as compared with those who have read 
 Longfellow's Paid Revere s Ride, Whittier's Bar- 
 bar a Frietchie, or Read's Sheridan's Ride? How 
 much has a general interest in history been popu- 
 larized and broadened and stimulated by the poet 
 and the novelist ? 
 
 The obvious answer to such a question is that 
 people read these works of imagination for their 
 fiction and not for their history, and that the latter 
 quality is valueless because of the departures 
 from actual occurrences and other inaccuracies or 
 improbabilities. This is to ignore two qualifying 
 conditions which, properly weighed, would leave 
 but a residuum of force in the objection. 
 
 [9 2 ) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 The first of these is the fact that all history, 
 save the absolute documentary annals, is merely 
 a compendium of what one writer is able to 
 believe ; and unless it is more than a bare record, 
 that is, unless it receives color from him, it will bs 
 a lifeless and therefore an unread book. Perhaps 
 no fact contains greater discouragement for the 
 historian than the circumstance that that history 
 is not the most popular which approaches the 
 closest to the truth, but that which is most vivi- 
 fied by the man who wrote it, be he impartial or 
 prejudiced. 
 
 The second and more important qualification is 
 that the poet or novelist, whatever his wish, must 
 be essentially truthful the moment he trenches on 
 the domain of history. No writer of imaginative 
 books, with all his supposed freedom from the 
 restraining and curbing force of fact, would dare 
 to picture Washington as a self-seeking politician, 
 or Lincoln as a traitor to his country, or either of 
 them as small in stature. Nor is this all ; for even 
 more striking is the certainty that the impression 
 left upon the reader by fictitious characters and 
 events can be as truthful, or even more truthful, 
 than that derived from a history. Ivanhoe brings 
 back the England of Cceur de Lion, and The 
 Scarlet Letter the colony of Massachusetts Bay 
 better and more clearly than any historical work 
 yet. written, and it was probably a recognition of 
 this power of the greater imagination over lesser 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 imagination which led Napoleon to say, "Take 
 away this history and give me a novel ; I want 
 the truth." It seems, therefore, idle to ignore the 
 educative value of fiction, and a survey of how 
 far the story of our country can be gained from 
 its literature of the imagination may be of value. 
 
 As the original possessor of our country, the 
 Indian deserves first consideration, and he has 
 been a favorite theme to both the poet and the 
 novelist. Preeminent in verse is Longfellow's 
 Hiawatha, which stands as the great classic of 
 our primeval race. Worthy of mention, though 
 of much less merit, are T. Campbell's Gertrude 
 of Wyoming, Seba Smith's Powhatan, G. H. Col- 
 ton's Tecumseh, J. Lathrop's Speech of Canonicus, 
 and A. B. Street's Frontenac. The great depicter, 
 and one might say creator, of the red man in fic- 
 tion is Cooper, who, in his Leatherstocking and 
 Littlepage Manuscript series, and in Wyandotte 
 and Wept of Wish-ton- Wish has drawn a type 
 from which all future draftsmen must copy. The 
 Indian figures prominently in certain of the novels 
 of W. G. Simms and J. E. Cooke, and in John 
 Neal's Logan, H. B. Fuller's Cliff Dwellers, 
 and W. H. C. Hosmer's Yonnondio. Modern 
 aspects of the Indian problem are treated in 
 H. H. Jackson's Ramo?ia and G. Parker's Trans- 
 lation of a Savage. 
 
 The coming- of the white man to America has 
 been little used. The alleged discovery by the 
 
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American Foundation History 
 
 Welsh is the subject of Southey's poem Madoc. 
 S. Rogers' Voyage of Columbus is a poetic account 
 of the discovery, and the same event is the basis 
 for Cooper's novel of Mercedes of Castile. W. G. 
 Simms' stories of The Damsel of Darien and Vas- 
 conselos deal with the explorations of Balboa and 
 DeSoto. 
 
 The period between the first settlement of the 
 country and the outbreak of the war of inde- 
 pendence has been such a favorite one that some 
 classification is necessary. For New England, 
 Longfellow's Courtship of Miles Standish and 
 New England Tragedies, and Whittier's Ho?ne 
 Ballads and Mogg Megoiie are the best known 
 poems. Hawthorne's Scarlet Letter, Twice-Told 
 Tales, Mosses from an Old Manse, and House of 
 the Seven Gables are preeminent, not merely as 
 stories of New England, but as masterpieces of 
 American literature. Other novels of varying 
 merit are C. M. Sedgwick's Hope Leslie, A New 
 England Tale, and Redzvood ; J. L. Motley's 
 Merry Motmt, J. G. Holland's Bay Path, J. G. 
 Austin's Standish of Standish, Betty Alden, A 
 Nameless Nobleman, Dr. LeBaron and His 
 Daughters, and David Alden s Daughter ; E. L. 
 Bynner's Agnes Surriage, F. J. Stimson's King 
 Noanett, and M. E. Wilkins' Pembroke, and Giles 
 Corey, Yeoman. 
 
 New York, both province and State, was a 
 favorite locality of Cooper, and some twelve of 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 his novels are laid therein, five of which fall within 
 the colonial period, Deerslaycr, Pathfinder, Last 
 of the Mohicans, Satanstoe, and Water- Witch, all 
 being considered among the best of his works. 
 Irving, too, has written delightfully of the Dutch 
 settlers, and his Knickerbocker History of New 
 York, Wolfert" s Roost, Rip Van Winkle, and 
 other pieces rank very high in a literary sense. 
 The same subject is treated in J. K. Paulding's 
 The Dutchman 's Fireside, P. H. Myers' First of 
 the Knickerbockers and Young Patroon, and A. E. 
 Barr's Bow of Orange Ribbon. The Quaker of 
 Pennsylvania has been pictured in several novels, 
 the only notable one of which is S. W. Mitchell's 
 Hugh Wynne, which falls more properly under 
 the Revolution. The colonial life of Maryland 
 is depicted in C. Reade's The Wandering 
 Heir, M. W. Goodwin's Sir Christopher, and 
 W. Churchill's Richard Carvel. 
 
 Of the southern colonies Virginia has been the 
 subject of innumerable novels. Of all these, 
 Thackeray's The Virginians still stands first, 
 both for art and for history. Most of the stories 
 of J. E. Cooke deal with the happenings in this 
 colony, as do M. W. Goodwin's The Head of a 
 Hundred and White Aprons, C. C. Harrison's 
 Flower-de- Hundred and A Son of the Old Domin- 
 ion, and M. Johnston's Prisoners of Hope and To 
 Have and To Hold. Many of W. G. Simms' novels 
 relate to the history of the southern colonies. 
 
 (96) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 A class properly separated from the above, as 
 not really connected with any one colony, 
 deals with tales of the sea. First of these are a 
 number relating to the early buccaneers, such as 
 E. B. Warburton's Darien, E. Howard's Sir 
 Henry Morgan, The Buccaneer, J. H. Ingraham's 
 Captain Kyd, Irving' s Kidd, F. J. Stimson's Pirate 
 Gold, Stevenson's Treasure Island, and Cooper's 
 Red Rover. The latter' s Water- Witch and Two 
 Admirals are nautical stories of the colonial era. 
 
 More connected with individual colonies, yet 
 forming a class by themselves, are the romances 
 based on the several wars with France. In verse 
 Longfellow's Evangeline is best known, and in 
 fiction the first four novels of Cooper's already 
 referred to under New York. Other tales are 
 C. W. Hall's Twice Taken, C. Doyle's Refugees, 
 G. Parker's Seats of the Mighty, and B. E. Steven- 
 son's A Soldier of Virginia. 
 
 The favorite theme of American authors has 
 been the war of independence. Cooper in The 
 Spy, Lionel Lincoln, Wyandotte, and The Pilot, 
 and W. G. Simms in The Partisan, Mellichampe, 
 The Scout, Katharine Walton, The Eorayers t and 
 Eutaw have been at once the most prolific and 
 the best known. J. E. Cooke stands next with 
 Canolles and Henry St. fohn, Gentleman ; and 
 other romances are C. Burdett's Margaret Mon- 
 crieffe, C. F. Hoffman's Grayslaer, J. K. Pauld- 
 ing's Old Continental, T. B. Read's Paul Redding, 
 
 70. (97) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 H. Frederic's In the Valley, P. L. Ford's yanice 
 Meredith, S. W. Mitchell's Hugh Wynne, 
 W. Churchill's Richard Ca7'vel, G. C. Eggleston's 
 A Carolina Cavalier, M. Thompson's Alice of Old 
 Vincennes, S. O. Jewett's The Tory Lover, and 
 R. W. Chambers' Cardigan. 
 
 The period between the end of the Revolution 
 and the beginning of the slavery issue has been 
 little dealt with in fiction. R. I. Lockwood's 
 The Insurgents and E. Bellamy's Duke of Stock- 
 bridge have Shay's Rebellion for their subject, and 
 H. H. Breckinridge's Modern Chivalry and H. C. 
 McCook's The Latimers have the Whiskey 
 Rebellion of 1794. Cooper's Cham-Bearer and 
 Redskins relate to the land question in New York, 
 and his Afloat and Ashore and Miles Walling- 
 ford are devoted to the merchant marine, 
 1 797-1808. E. A. Dupuy's The Conspirator, 
 E. E. Hale's Man Without a Country, and 
 J. Clemen's The Rivals concern themselves with 
 Burr's conspiracies. S. Woodworth's Champions 
 of Freedom and I. Bacheller's Dri and I cover 
 the War of 181 2, and S. R. Duke's Osceola the 
 Seminole War. Other novels falling within this 
 period which have an historical quality are C. B. 
 Brown's ArtJiur Mervyu, J. L. Allen's Choir 
 Invisible, and H. B. Stowe's The Minister s 
 Wooing. 
 
 Grouped as a class by themselves are the sto- 
 ries picturing the settlement and upbuilding of the 
 
 (98) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 West. Here again Cooper and Simms are at once 
 the pioneers and the best. Other stories are 
 J. K. Paulding's Westward Ho, Irving' s Astoria 
 and Adventures of Captain Bonneville, and J. E. 
 Cooke's Last of the Foresters. For the extreme 
 West the stories of Bret Harte, though making 
 no pretense to be historical, are none the less 
 valuable, as are Bayard Taylor's California poems. 
 
 This last remark is equally true of a number of 
 novels picturing slavery. First of these in merit, 
 and the most popular novel ever written, is H. B. 
 Stowe's Uncle Toms Cabin, and her D red is on 
 the same subject. For the southern standpoint, 
 T. N. Page's In Ole Virginia is the best. Other 
 stories are N. Adams' The Sable Cloud, J. W. 
 Forest's Kate Beaumont, E. A. Dupuy's Planter s 
 Daughter, J. R. Gilmore's Among the Pines and 
 My Souther ?i Friends, E. Sargent's Peculiar, 
 B. Tucker's Partisan Leader, J. T. Trowbridge's 
 Neighbour Jackwood, and A. W. Tourgee's Hot 
 Plowshares. In poetry Longfellow's Poems on 
 Slavery and Whittier's Voices of Freedom are 
 best known. 
 
 So related to slavery as well-nigh to defy sepa- 
 ration are the poetry and romance of the war 
 of secession. The best stories on the southern 
 side are those of T. N. Page, notably Meh Lady. 
 Other novels are J. E. Cooke's Hilt to Hilt, 
 Surry of Eagle s Nest, Mohun, Out of the Foam, 
 and Wearing of the Gray ; J. R. Gilmore's 
 
 (99) 
 Lol 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Among the Guerrillas, C. C. Coffin's Winning 
 His Way, J. K. Hosmer's Thinking Bayonet, 
 H. Morford's Days of Shoddy, Shotdder-Straps t 
 and The Coward \ M. H. Norris' Grapes of Wrath, 
 M. D. Conway's Pine and Palm, F. Emory's 
 A Maryland Manor, A. E. Hancock's Henry 
 Bourland, and W. Churchill's The Crisis. In 
 poetry the principal are Whitman's Driun-Taps 
 and Lincoln, Whittier's poems of the war, Bayard 
 Taylor's Since 1861, S. Lanier's Tiger Lilies, and 
 G. H. Boker's Poems of the War. The period of 
 reconstruction is described in T. N. Page's Red 
 Rock and A. W. Tourg-ee's A Fool's Errand and 
 Bricks without Straw. 
 
 /Z~J £&Lt~ ^Z^t 
 
 (100) 
 
Illustrative Selections 
 
 THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ENGLAND AND FRANCE 
 
 Francis Parkman 
 The American colonies of France and England 
 grew up to maturity under widely different auspi- 
 ces. Canada, the offspring of Church and State, 
 nursed from infancy in the lap of power, its puny 
 strength fed with artificial stimulants, its move- 
 ments guided by rule and discipline, its limbs 
 trained to martial exercise, languished, in spite of 
 all, from the lack of vital sap and energy. The 
 colonies of England, outcast and neglected, but 
 strong in native vigor and self-confiding courage, 
 grew yet more strong with conflict and with 
 striving, and developed the rugged proportions 
 and unwieldy strength of a youthful giant. 
 
 In the valley of the St. Lawrence and along 
 the coasts of the Atlantic, adverse principles con- 
 tended for the mastery. Feudalism stood arrayed 
 against Democracy ; Popery against Protestant- 
 ism ; the sword against the ploughshare. The 
 priest, the soldier, and the noble ruled in Canada. 
 The ignorant, light-hearted Canadian peasant 
 knew nothing and cared nothing about popular 
 rights and civil liberties. Born to obey, he lived 
 in contented submission, without the wish or the 
 capacity for self-rule. Power centered in the heart 
 of the system left the masses inert. The settle- 
 
 (IOI) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 ments along the margin of the St. Lawrence were 
 like a camp, where an army lay at rest ready 
 for the march or the battle, and where war and 
 adventure, not trade and tillage, seemed the chief 
 aims of life. The lords of the soil were petty 
 nobles, for the most part soldiers or the sons of 
 soldiers, proud and ostentatious, thriftless and 
 poor ; and the people were their vassals. Over 
 every cluster of small white houses glittered the 
 sacred emblem of the cross. The church, the 
 convent, and the roadside shrine were seen at 
 every turn ; and in the towns and villages one 
 met each moment the black robe of the Jesuit, the 
 gray garb of the Recollet, and the formal habit of 
 the Ursuline nun. The names of saints, St. 
 Joseph, St. Ignatius, St. Francis, were perpetu- 
 ated in the capes, rivers, and islands, the forts and 
 villages of the land ; and with every day crowds 
 of simple worshippers knelt in adoration before 
 the countless altars of the Roman faith. 
 
 If we search the world for the sharpest contrast 
 to the spiritual and temporal vassalage of Canada, 
 we shall find it among her immediate neighbors, 
 the Puritans of New England, where the spirit of 
 non-conformity was sublimed to a fiery essence, 
 and where the love of liberty and the hatred of 
 power burned with sevenfold heat. The English 
 colonist, with thoughtful brow and limbs hardened 
 with toil ; calling no man master, yet bowing 
 reverently to the law which he himself had made ; 
 
 (102) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 patient and laborious, and seeking for the solid 
 comforts rather than the ornaments of life ; no 
 lover of war, yet, if need were, fighting with a 
 stubborn, indomitable courage, and then bending 
 once more with steadfast energy to his farm, or 
 his merchandise — such a man might well be 
 deemed the very pith and marrow of a common- 
 wealth. 
 
 The fur-trade engendered a peculiar class of 
 restless bush-rangers, more akin to Indians than to 
 white men. Those who had once felt the fascina- 
 tions of the forest were unfitted ever after for a 
 life of quiet labor ; and with this spirit the whole 
 colony was infected. From this cause, no less 
 than from occasional wars with the English and 
 repeated attacks of the Iroquois, the agriculture 
 of the country was sunk to a low ebb ; while 
 feudal exactions, a ruinous system of monopoly, 
 and the intermeddlings of arbitrary power cramped 
 every branch of industry. Yet, by the zeal of 
 priests and the daring enterprise of soldiers and 
 explorers, Canada, though sapless and infirm, 
 spread forts and missions through all the western 
 wilderness. Feebly rooted in the soil, she thrust 
 out branches which overshadowed half America ; a 
 magnificent object to the eye, but one which the 
 first whirlwind would prostrate in the dust. 
 
 Such excursive enterprise was alien to the 
 genius of the British colonies. Daring activity 
 was rife among them, but it did not aim at the 
 
 (103) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 founding of military outposts and forest missions. 
 By the force of energetic industry their population 
 swelled with an unheard-of rapidity, their wealth 
 increased in a yet greater ratio, and their promise 
 of future greatness opened with every advancing 
 year. But it was a greatness rather of peace 
 than of war. The free institutions, the indepen- 
 dence of authority, which were the source of their 
 increase, were adverse to that unity of counsel 
 and promptitude of action which are the soul of 
 war. It was far otherwise with their military rival. 
 France had her Canadian forces well in hand. 
 They had but one will, and that was the will of a 
 mistress. Now here, now there, in sharp and 
 rapid onset, they could assail the cumbrous masses 
 and unwieldy strength of their antagonists as the 
 kingf-bird attacks the eaode, or the sword-fish the 
 whale. Between two such combatants the strife 
 must needs be a long one. 
 
 THE JESUIT MISSIONARIES 
 
 Francis Parkman 
 Since the middle of the seventeenth century a 
 change had come over the Jesuit missions of 
 New France. Nothing is more striking or more 
 admirable than the self-devoted apostleship of the 
 earlier period. The movement in western Europe 
 known as the Renaissance was far more than a 
 revival of arts and letters — it was an awakening of 
 
 (104) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 intellectual, moral, and religious life ; the offspring 
 of causes long in action and the parent of other 
 movements in action to this day. The Protestant 
 Reformation was a part of it. That revolt against 
 Rome produced a counter Renaissance in the 
 bosom of the ancient Church herself. In the pres- 
 ence of that peril she woke from sloth and corrup- 
 tion and girded herself to beat back the invading 
 heresies, by force or by craft, by inquisitorial fires, 
 by the arms of princely and imperial allies, and 
 by the self-sacrificing enthusiasm of her saints and 
 martyrs. That time of danger produced the exalted 
 zeal of Xavier and the intense, thoughtful, organ- 
 izing zeal of Loyola. After a century had passed 
 the flame still burned, and it never shone with a 
 purer or brighter radiance than in the early missions 
 of New France. 
 
 Such ardors cannot be permanent ; they must 
 subside, from the law of their nature. If the great 
 western mission had been a success, the enthu- 
 siasm of its founders might have maintained itself 
 for some time longer ; but that mission was 
 extinguished in blood. Its martyrs died in vain, 
 and the burning faith that had created it was 
 rudely tried. Canada ceased to be a mission. 
 The civil and military powers grew strong, and 
 the Church no longer ruled with undivided sway. 
 The times changed, and the men changed with 
 them. It is a characteristic of the Jesuit Order, 
 and one of the sources of its strength, that it 
 
 (105) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 chooses the workman for his work, studies the 
 qualities of its members, and gives to each the 
 task for which he is fitted best. When its aim 
 was to convert savage hordes and build up 
 another Paraguay in the northern wilderness, it 
 sent a Jogues, a Brebeuf, a Charles Gamier, and 
 a Gabriel Lalemant, like a forlorn hope, to storm 
 the stronghold of heathendom. In later times it 
 sent other men to meet other needs and accomplish 
 other purposes. 
 
 Before the end of the seventeenth century the 
 functions of the Canadian Jesuit had become as 
 much political as religious ; but if the fires of his 
 apostolic zeal burned less high, his devotion to 
 the Order in which he had merged his personality 
 was as intense as before. While in constant 
 friction with the civil and military powers he tried 
 to make himself necessary to them, and in good 
 measure he succeeded. Nobody was so able to 
 manage the Indian tribes and keep them in the 
 interest of France. "Religion," says Charlevoix, 
 " is the chief bond by which the savages are 
 attached to us ; " and it was the Jesuit above all 
 others who was charged to keep this bond arm. ■ 
 
 (106) 
 
Stimulative Questions 
 
 hese questions are framed with the 
 sole pur -pose of enabling the reader 
 to apprehend more clearly the 
 important points in the books 
 presented in this course. 'They 
 are not " catch questions," nor 
 are they mere tests of the memory. They are, to borrow 
 an old title , "Aids to Reflection." The method which the 
 reader should follow in using these questions may perhaps 
 best be left to himself. An excellent plan would be to read 
 the books first with no reference to the questions ; then, 
 taking up the questions, to try how far memory and 
 judgment will go toward answering them ; and finally y 
 with the questions in mind, to refer once more to the 
 books, and freshen, correct, and fill up the ideas which 
 the questions are intended to suggest. To get the 
 greatest possible advantage from the course it would be 
 well to write out in a note-book the conclusions reached 
 by such a method, along with any original ideas that 
 the reading and the questions may have suggested. 
 Such a note-book should be preserved, for it will have 
 permanent value for its owner, not only as a record of 
 reading, but as a memorial of a certain stage in the 
 development of his taste and judgment. 
 
 (107) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Memoranda : 
 
 1 08) 
 
STIMULATIVE QUESTIONS 
 
 OLD VIRGINIA AND HER NEIGHBOURS 
 
 i. Does this book seem to have been written by Fiske 
 with any less sympathy than The Beginnings of New 
 England ? 
 
 2. What do you think of his statement that there 
 was an undeniable contrast in educational advantages 
 between Virginia and New England ? 
 
 3. What effect on the reader's mind does the first 
 chapter create ? 
 
 4. What is your personal opinion of his defence of 
 John Smith ? 
 
 5. Does this history resemble a collection of essays, 
 or has it dramatic interest ? 
 
 6. What is your opinion of his comparison of 
 Nathaniel Bacon with Tiberius Gracchus ? 
 
 7. What do you think of his distinction between 
 pirates and sea-kings ? 
 
 8. Is he fair in his treatment of the subject of 
 slavery ? 
 
 9. Is he calm and unimpassioned in his treatment of 
 moral or political problems, or does he give evidence of 
 personal feeling ? 
 
 10. Why did Locke's Fundamental Constitutions fail 
 as a colonial system of government ? 
 
 11. How did the Maryland palatinate differ from a 
 proprietary form of government ? 
 
 12. Is there anything in his chapter on "The Coming 
 of the Cavaliers " to indicate his social sympathies ? 
 
 (109) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 13. What would you say of his ability in portraying 
 historical characters ? Is he inclined to generalize, or 
 to submit sufficient detail that the reader may judge? 
 
 14. Is he fair in characterizing Virginia as an aris- 
 tocracy and New England as a democracy ? 
 
 THE BEGINNINGS OF NEW ENGLAND 
 
 1. Is the first chapter history or political philosophy ? 
 What is its purpose in connection with a history of New 
 England ? 
 
 2. What are the distinguishing features of a theo- 
 cratic form of government ? 
 
 3. What is the value in a history of speculative gen- 
 eralizations like those at the close of the third chapter ? 
 
 4. What colonial conditions made for the breaking 
 down of the theocratic form of government ? 
 
 5. What was the effect of Indian warfare upon the 
 humanity and the sympathies of the colonists ? 
 
 6. Do you think that the confederation in New Eng- 
 land had any effect upon, or in any way furthered, the 
 confederation of the colonies in the Revolution ? 
 
 7. Do you detect any sectional prejudice in Fiske's 
 treatment of New England, and upon what subject is it 
 manifested ? 
 
 8. Was there the educational value in theological 
 discussion that Fiske attributes to it, or did it only make 
 men more narrow-minded ? 
 
 9. Can you determine from this book what Fiske's 
 own religious views were ? 
 
 10. What sort of religious freedom did the Puritans 
 seek when they migrated to America ? 
 
 (no) 
 
American Foundation History 
 
 AMERICAN HISTORY TOLD BY 
 CONTEMPORARIES 
 
 1. What is the difference in the authoritative value 
 of two documents like those numbered, respectively, 144 
 and 145 ? 
 
 2. Compare the verisimilitude of Documents 90 and 
 142. From the internal evidence, which would you 
 incline to believe ? 
 
 3. What was the result in New England history of 
 the application of such principles as are found in Docu- 
 ment 93 ? 
 
 4. What can you learn from Document 138 about the 
 people that used such a psalm-book? 
 
 5. What does Document 162 reveal of William Penn's 
 character ? 
 
 6. Which has the greater value for the truth-seeking 
 historian, Document 107 or Document 168? 
 
 7. Do you think from internal evidence that the 
 writer of Document 71 had ever been in America? 
 
 8. What importance has Document 25 when read 
 after Document 21 ? Could we ever get the information 
 in 25 from the writer of 21 ? 
 
 9. How can the historian help us to understand 
 Document 154 ? 
 
 10. Would we expect the life described in Document 
 149 to result from the doctrines preached in Document 
 112 ? 
 
 (in) 
 
Topics for Special Papers 
 and for Open Discussion 
 
 i. The contrast between the Puritans and the Cava- 
 liers. 
 
 2. A comparison of the educational methods in New- 
 England and Virginia. 
 
 3. Where should American foundation histcy close ? 
 
 4. Was there in the colonial period any real religious 
 toleration ? 
 
 5. The co-onial conditions that necessitated repre- 
 sentative government of the American type. 
 
 6. Economic conditions of the South compared with 
 those of the North. 
 
 7. The development of slavery in the colonies. 
 
 8. The reasons for the different systems of local gov- 
 ernment in the North and South. 
 
 9. Did the work of the sea-kings necessarily precede 
 the work of English colonization ? 
 
 10. The characteristics of a proprietary government. 
 
 11. Is there any similarity in the causes which led to 
 the establishment of royal governments in the various 
 colonies ? 
 
 12. What circumstances made the tyranny of Andros 
 possible ? 
 
 13. The value of a theoretical government as illus- 
 trated by the experiment in South Carolina. 
 
 14. Discuss the so-called "seeds" of the American 
 Revolution. 
 
 (112) 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY BOOKS 
 
 GENERAL HISTORIES 
 
 The Colonies : 1492- 1750. By Reuben Gold 
 Thwaites. 
 
 A most readable condensation of the history of the 
 colonies in the period of exploration, settlement, and 
 struggle for supremacy. The facts are not merely 
 catalogued, but are marshaled in an order that makes 
 their relation plain. 
 
 The Colonial Era. By George Park Fisher. 
 
 This work, beginning with a description of the physi- 
 cal geography of America and a brief chapter on the 
 aborigines, tells in a straightforward way the story 
 of colonization in America, closing the narrative at 
 the beginning of the final struggle between England 
 and France. 
 
 History of the United States. By George Ban- 
 croft. 
 
 The first five volumes of the edition of 1859 complete 
 the period covered by this course. This history has 
 long occupied the position of a monumental work 
 upon the period it covers. Here and there its accu- 
 racy and scholarship have been attacked, but it still 
 remains one of the most interesting of histories. 
 
 A Larger History of the United States of 
 
 America. By Thomas Wentworth Higginson. 
 This is written with the salient purpose of interest- 
 ing. It has movement and dramatic power. It is 
 especially valuable as a rapid review of the whole 
 field. 
 
 8q (113) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 SPECIAL HISTORIES 
 The Spanish Pioneers. By Charles F. Lummis. 
 
 A fascinating history. The very table of contents is 
 inspiring. " A Girdle around the World," " The 
 Storming of the Sky-City," " The American Golden 
 Fleece," " The Golden Ransom" — such chapter head- 
 ings would lure any one, and the reader will not be 
 disappointed. 
 
 The Transit of Civilization. By Edward Eggle- 
 
 ston. 
 
 A history of life in the colonial United States. Here 
 are treated the medical notions of the colonists, their 
 folk-lore and literature, their traditions of education, 
 and the subject of land and labor. 
 
 Colonial Days in Old New York. 
 
 Home Life in Colonial Days. 
 
 The Customs and Fashions in Old New 
 
 England. 
 The Sabbath in Puritan New England. 
 
 By Alice Morse Earle. 
 This charming series of books upon the every-day 
 life of our forefathers must be read eagerly by anyone 
 with a grain of interest in the past. The very quaint- 
 ness and simplicity of it all is winning. In them we 
 learn, not of political theories and evolving constitu- 
 tional law, but of the wooing and wedding of our 
 forefathers, their holidays, their wardrobes, child life, 
 domestic service, doctors and their patients, taverns 
 and turnpikes — all presented in vivid style. 
 
 (in) 
 
American Foundation History 
 The Romance of Colonization. By G. Bamett 
 
 Smith. 
 
 This book presents in a readable way the attempts, 
 failures, and successes of colonizers before the land- 
 ing of the Pilgrim fathers. 
 
 LOCAL HISTORIES 
 The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America. 
 
 By John Fiske. 
 
 This work has an especial value for those who have 
 done the work laid out in this course. It fills the 
 vacancy made by not having a history of the Middle 
 Colonies. Verrazano and Hudson, the West India 
 Company and its colonization schemes in New York, 
 and the struggle between the English and Dutch for 
 control are all here presented. 
 
 The True William Penn. By Sydney George 
 Fisher. 
 
 This very interesting biography gives incidentally 
 the details of the colonization of Pennsylvania which 
 are not included in the work of this course. 
 
 The Pilgrim Republic. By John Abbott Goodwin. 
 This history of the colony of New Plymouth was 
 intended, as the author says, "for the mere reader;" 
 and for one who wishes to dwell upon the history of 
 the Pilgrims it is full of details of their primitive 
 life. 
 
 France and England in North America. By 
 
 Francis Parkman. 
 
 This series of historical narratives, nine volumes in 
 all, treats of the great struggle between France and 
 England for America. It is so written that one or 
 
 (115) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 two volumes may be read at a time with the feeling of 
 having completed a subject. The work, both from 
 an historical and a literary point of view, reaches the 
 high-water mark of American historical writing. 
 
 BOOKS THAT CONTAIN SOURCES 
 OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen. Edited by 
 
 Edward J. Payne. 
 
 Here are contemporary accounts of the voyages of 
 Hawkins, Frobisher, and Drake. Anyone who can 
 read the Arabian Nights or Robinson Crusoe can get 
 pleasure from these thrilling stories of seafaring in a 
 romantic age. 
 
 The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers : As Told 
 by Themselves, Their Friends, and Their Ene- 
 mies. Edited by Edward Arber. 
 From this pleasant collection of contemporary litera- 
 ture we learn of the " prophets of the ' holy disci- 
 pline' and their comical proceedings." The old life 
 in Scrooby, Amsterdam, and Leyden is quaintly told, 
 and the Pilgrim fathers are here scrutinized just as 
 the title promises. 
 
 Old South Leaflets. Edited by Edwin Doak Mead. 
 This collection contains many very interesting docu- 
 ments in American history which may be used to 
 supplement Professor Hart's admirable collection. 
 
 American History Leaflets. Edited by Albert 
 
 Bushnell Hart and Edward Channing. 
 Another series useful in eking out the more valuable 
 compilation made by Professor Hart in his Contem- 
 poraries. 
 
 (116) 
 
Twenty-Five Reading Courses 
 
 No. i— PROBLEMS IN MODERN DEMOCRACY 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are ex-President Cleveland; Woodrow Wilson, Professor 
 of Politics, Princeton University ; Henry J. Ford, author of Rise 
 and Growth of American Politics; and Henry D. Lloyd, author 
 of Newest England. The books for the course are selected 
 by Mr. Cleveland. 
 
 No. 2— MODERN MASTERS OF MUSIC 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are Reginald de Koven, Dr. W. S. B. Mathews, editor of 
 Music ; James G. Huneker, editor of Musical Courier ; Henry 
 E. Krehbiel, musical critic New York Tribune; and Gustave 
 Kobbe", author of Wagner 's Life and Works. The most attrac- 
 tive reading course ever offered to lovers of music. 
 
 No. 3— RAMBLINGS AMONG ART CENTRES 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are F. Hopkinson Smith, Dr. John C. Van Dyke, Dr. 
 John La Farge, President of the Society of American Artists ; 
 Ken yon Cox and Dr. Russell Sturgis. The handbook is 
 attractively illustrated. Mr. Smith and Dr. Van Dyke are 
 responsible for selecting the books to be read. 
 
 No. 4— AMERICAN VACATIONS IN EUROPE 
 
 This course is the next best thing to going abroad oneself. 
 Among the contributors to the handbook are Frank R. Stockton, 
 Jeannette L. Gilder, editor of The Critic; Mrs. Schuyler Crown- 
 inshield and George Ade. The handbook has a fine portrait 
 frontispiece. 
 
 No. 5 _A STUDY OF SIX NEW ENGLAND CLASSICS 
 
 The books for this course are selected by Dr. Edward 
 Everett Hale. Among the contributors to the handbook are 
 Dr. Hale, Julian Hawthorne, Mrs. James T. Fields and Dr. 
 Edward Waldo Emerson. Dr. Emerson is a son of Ralph Waldo 
 Emerson. This is one of the most attractive courses in the 
 entire series. 
 
 No. 6- SHAKESPEARE'S ENGLISH KINGS 
 
 The plays are selected for this course by H. Beerbohm 
 Tree, the well-known English actor, and the books to be read 
 in connection with the plays are selected by Sir Henry 
 
 (i '9) 
 
The Booklovers Reading Clu 
 
 Irving. Among the other contributors to the handbook are Prof. 
 Edward Dowden, acknowledged the greatest Shakespearean 
 scholar of Great Britain, Dr. Hiram Corson, of Cornell Univer- 
 sity; Dr. William J. Rolfe and Dr. Hamilton W. Mabie. The 
 handbook is very attractively illustrated. 
 
 No. 7— CHARLES DICKENS : HIS LIFE AND WORK 
 
 Among the contributors to the delightful handbook accompany- 
 ing this course are George W. Cable, the well-known novelist; 
 Irving Bacheller, author of Eben Holden; Andrew Lang, the 
 distinguished English writer ; Amelia E. Barr, the novelist ; and 
 James L. Hughes, author of Dickens as an Educator. The 
 books to be read are selected by Mr. Cable and Mr. 
 Bacheller. The handbook is beautifully illustrated. 
 
 No. 8— CHILD STUDY FOR MOTHERS AND TEACHERS 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are Margaret E. Sangster, Nora Archibald Smith, Anne 
 Emilie Poulson, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Lucy Wheelock 
 and Kate Gannett Wells. Mrs. Sangster selects the books to be 
 read. 
 
 .No. 9— INDUSTRIAL QUESTIONS OF THE DAY 
 
 The following distinguished writers on economic problems 
 contribute to the handbook accompanying this course : Presi- 
 dent Jacob Gould Schurman, of Cornell University ; Jeremiah 
 Whipple Jenks, Professor of Political Science, Cornell University ; 
 Richard Theodore Ely, Director of the School of Economics, 
 Political Science and History, University of Wisconsin ; Sidney 
 Webb, Lecturer London School of Economics and Political 
 Science, Member London County Council ; and Carroll Davidson 
 Wright, United States Commissioner of Labor. 
 
 No. io— FLORENCE IN ART AND LITERATURE 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are William Dean Howells, Dr. Russell Sturgis, Frank 
 Preston Stearns, author of Midsummer of Italian Art, Life of 
 Tititoretto, etc. ; Dr. William Henry Goodyear, Curator Fine Arts 
 Museum of Brooklyn Institute; and Lewis Frederick Pilcher, 
 Professor of Art, Vassar College. The handbook has some 
 attractive illustrations. 
 
 No. ii— STUDIES OF EUROPEAN GOVERNMENTS 
 
 The books have been selected specially for this course by the 
 Rt. Hon. James Bryce, of the English House of Commons, and 
 the Hon. Andrew D. White, United States Ambassador to Ger- 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 many. Among the other contributors to the handbook are Jesse 
 Macy, Professor of Constitutional History and Political Science, 
 Iowa College; and John William Burgess, Professor of Political 
 Science and Constitutional Law, and Dean of the Faculty of 
 Political Science, Columbia University. 
 
 No. 12— FAMOUS WOMEN OF THE RENAISSANCE 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are Col. Thomas Went worth Higginson, Margaret Deland 
 and Charlotte Brewster Jordan. The handbook has several 
 very interesting illustrations. 
 
 No. 13— THE MODERN CITY AND ITS PROBLEMS 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are Dr. Frederic W. Speirs ; Dr. Albert Shaw, editor 
 of The Review of Reviews ; Bird S. Coler, Comptroller of the 
 City of New York, author of Municipal Government ; and Charles 
 J. Bonaparte, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the 
 National Municipal League. The books are selected by Dr. 
 Speirs. 
 
 No. 14— STUDIES IN APPLIED ELECTRICITY 
 
 This is without exception the most attractive and the most 
 helpful reading course ever offered to students of electricity. 
 Thomas A. Edison selects the books specially for these studies. 
 Among the other contributors to the handbook are Dr. Edwin 
 J. Houston, Dr. Elihu Thomson, Carl Hering, Ex-President of 
 the American Institute of Electrical Engineers ; and Arthur V. 
 Abbott, Chief Engineer of the Chicago Telephone Company. 
 
 No. 15— FIVE WEEKS' STUDY OF ASTRONOMY 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are Charles A. Young, Professor of Astronomy, Prince- 
 ton University ; Sir Robert S. Ball, Professor of Astronomy, 
 Cambridge University, and Director of Cambridge Observa- 
 tory, England ; Camille Flammarion, founder of the As- 
 tronomical Society of France, and author of Marvels of the 
 Heavens, Astronomy, etc.; George C. Comstock, Director of 
 Washburn Observatory, University of Wisconsin ; and Harold 
 Jacoby, Professor of Astronomy, Columbia University. The 
 study programme includes contributions from the most famous 
 astronomers of England and France. 
 
 No. 16— RECENT ENGLISH DRAMATISTS 
 
 Lovers of the best modern dramas will find much pleasure in 
 these studies. Among the contributors to the handbook are 
 Brander Matthews, Professor of Literature, Columbia University; 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 Dr. William Winter, Dramatic Critic for the New York Tribune ; 
 Dr. Harry Thurston Peck, Editor of The Bookman; Louise 
 Chandler Moulton ; and Norman Hapgood, the well-known 
 writer of dramatic criticism. The handbook has some interest- 
 ing illustrations. 
 
 No. 17— STUDIES IN CURRENT RELIGIOUS THOUGHT 
 
 The books are chosen for the course by Ur. Lyman Abbott 
 and Dr. Washington Gladden. Among the contributors to 
 the handbook are Dr. Samuel D. McConnell, Rector of Holy 
 Trinity Church, Brooklyn ; President William DeWitt Hyde, of 
 Bovvdoin College; Dr. Amory H. Bradford, Editor of The 
 Outlook ; Dr. Henry Collin Minton, of San Erancisco Theological 
 Seminary, late Moderator of the Presbyterian General Assembly ; 
 Dr. H. W. Thomas, Pastor of the People's Church, Chicago; 
 and Dr. Theodore T. Munger, Pastor of the United Congrega- 
 tional Church, New Haven. For clergymen and laymen who 
 wish to stimulate the growth of a theology which is in harmony 
 with the best thought of the time we recommend this handbook 
 and this reading course. 
 
 No. 18— THE GREATER VICTORIAN POETS 
 
 The books are selected for this course by Thomas Bailey 
 Aldrich. Among the other contributors to the handbook are 
 Thomas R. Lounsbury, Professor of English, Yale University; 
 Dr. T. M. Parrott, of Princeton University ; and Marie Ada Moli- 
 neux, author of The Phrase Book of Broivning. 
 
 No. 19— OUT-OF-DOOR AMERICANS 
 
 Among the contributors to the handbook accompanying this 
 course are John Burroughs, Ernest Seton-Thompson, President 
 David Starr Jordan, of the Leland Stanford Junior University ; 
 Ernest Ingersoll and Hamlin Garland. Lovers of nature will 
 find delight n the outlines and recommendations of this course. 
 
 No. 20— THE WORLD'S GREAT WOMAN NOVELISTS 
 
 Mrs. Humphry Ward, the well-known English novelist, is the 
 first contributor to the handbook accompanying this course. 
 The other contributors are Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward, Mary 
 E. Wilkins, Agnes Repplier, Katherine Lee Bates, Professor of 
 English, Wellesley College; and Oscar Fay Adams. The hand- 
 book contains some interestinc: illustrations. 
 
 No. 21— AMERICAN FOUNDATION HISTORY 
 
 Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge selects the books for this course. 
 Among the other contributors are Albert Bushnell Hart, Pro- 
 fessor of American History, Harvard University ; John Bach 
 
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The Booklovers Reading Club 
 
 McMaster, Professor of American History, University of Penn- 
 sylvania ; Reuben Gold Thwaites, Secretary of the State Histori- 
 cal Society of Wisconsin, author of The Colonies ; Paul Leicester 
 Ford, author of Janice Meredith; and Andrew Cunningham 
 McLaughlin, Professor of American History, University of 
 Michigan. 
 
 No. 22— STUDIES IN AMERICAN LITERARY LIFE 
 
 Professor Barrett Wendell and Professor Lewis E. Gates, of 
 Harvard, and Dr. Horace E. Scudder, late editor of The Atlantic 
 Monthly, contribute to the handbook accompanying this course. 
 For a brief stimulative and instructive course in American litera- 
 ture nothing better could possibly be offered. 
 
 No. 23— STUDIES IN RECENT FRENCH FICTION 
 
 Alc£e Fortier, Professor of Romance Languages, Tulane 
 University of Louisiana, has chosen the books for this reading 
 course. Among the contributors to the handbook are the three 
 distinguished French writers, Edouard Rod, Ferdinand Bru- 
 netiere and Paul Bourget, and the notable American critic, 
 Dr. Benjamin W. Wells, author of Modern French Literature and 
 A Century of French Literature. 
 
 No. 24— THE ENGLISH BIBLE : HOW WE GOT IT 
 
 The contributors to this course include President William R. 
 Harper, of the University of Chicago ; John Franklin Genung, 
 Professor of Rhetoric, Amherst College ; William Newton Clarke, 
 Professor of Christian Theology, Colgate University; and Richard 
 G. Moulton, Professor of English Literature, University of 
 Chicago. The handbook is a very interesting and instructive 
 volume in itself. 
 
 No. 25— THE MECHANISM OF 
 
 PRESENT DAY COMMERCE 
 
 Ln Preparation. The books are selected by the Hon. Lyman 
 }. Gage, Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
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