l n 
 
 litis 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 ^ A X 
 
 
 
q 
 
PHILOLOGICAL PROOFS 
 
 UNITY AND RECENT ORIGIN 
 
 UMAN RACE 
 
 1)1. Kl\ II) KIIOM 
 
 ARISON OF THE LAN^SpES p £ 
 
 SUta, dftirope, Stfrira, aitfi 3mer 
 
 BEING AN IKQUIB1 HON l\H Till. DIFFERENCES IN Till: LANGUAGES OF 
 THE GLOBE ARE ELEFEKBXBLE TO I LU8BS WOW IN nl'KUATION. 
 
 AltTIIVR JAMES JOHNES, ESQ. 
 
 li 
 
 Z161 or avw 
 
 iiu^uam (pnmaDvam) He: dicunfc Syri auam, Veriua 
 
 ntur primaovam linguam nullitn puram extare, sed reliquiae ejus 
 
 (.koi m*-—Atmet. Genet, w 
 
 . 
 
 AR 30 bi/ 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 JOHN RUSSELL SMITH, 
 
 1. OLD COMPTON STREET. SOIIO SQUARE. 
 
 MDCCf \l.\ I 
 
n ~\ 
 
 C\°K 
 
 tJ\ 
 
 ?!0 3 
 .06 , 
 
 1846 
 
 ■^J 
 
TO 
 
 LADY HALL OF LLANOVER. 
 
 My Lady, 
 
 This volume has been published in consequence of 
 the following opinion expressed by Dr. Prichard 
 on an Essay written by the Author for a National 
 Society, in whose proceedings your Ladyship takes a 
 lively interest : 
 
 :t This Essay contains very valuable matter, which 
 " I trust we shall hereafter see in print/' 
 
 Notwithstanding the deference which I consider 
 due to the sentiments of so eminent an authority, 
 had I committed to the press, without revision, the 
 hastily-written Essay to which he was thus pleased to 
 refer, I might have conformed to the letter, but I 
 should have violated the spirit of this very nattering 
 recommendation. Instead of so doing, I have availed 
 myself of such intervals of leisure as I have been able 
 
Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 PLAN OF THIS INVESTIGATION. 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND CHANGES OF HUMAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE EVIDENCE FURNISHED BY A COMPARISON OF 
 THEIR LANGUAGES OF THE ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE 
 VARIOUS NATIONS OF THE CONTINENTS OF ASIA, 
 EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 
 
 Absolute Identity of the Languages of the Four Continents when 
 compared collectively. Illustrations from the Names of the Gods of 
 Egypt, Greece, Italy, and India, showing the Origin of Idolatry, 
 North American Indian Names for the "Great Spirit" . . 5 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE DIFFERENCES WHICH DISTINGUISH INDIVIDUAL 
 LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 
 
 Section I. — These differences principally caused by the abandon- 
 ment, 1, of the different Synonymes; 2, of different meanings 
 of the same Synonymes . . .26 
 
 Section II. — On the Differences between the Celtic and Gothic 
 Classes of Languages. The Celtic and Gothic differ almost 
 totally in the most Common Words. Celtic and Gothic words 
 identical with Persian Synonymes . . . ib. 
 
 Section III. — On the Changes which have taken place in the 
 English Language. Effect of the Norman Conquest, as a 
 Cause of these Changes exaggerated. Dr. Johnson's Opinion. 
 Sir Walter Scott's. Speech of " Wamba" in Ivanhoe. Some 
 of the most important Changes have occurred since the time of 
 Chaucer. The modern English, the Provincial Dialects of 
 Lancashire and other English Counties, and the Lowland 
 Scotch, different Fragments of the Anglo-Saxon. The Pro- 
 vincial English Auxiliary Verb, ■ I Bin,' &c. . . 29 
 
CONTENTS. ix 
 
 Section IV. — On the Scandinavian Languages. Resemblances be- 
 tween the Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon. Recent Origin and 
 extensive Nature of the Differences among the Icelandic, 
 Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian Tongues. Approximation 
 of the Ancient Specimens of the Scandinavian and Teutonic 
 Languages . . . , .41 
 
 Section V.— The Origin of the Irish Nation. The original Language 
 of the British Isles was a Union of Welsh and Irish. Union of 
 the Irish, Welsh, &c. in the ancient Local Names in the Celtic 
 Countries of Gaul, &c. These Names a connecting Link be- 
 tween the existing Celtic Dialects and the Oriental, Greek, 
 and other Languages, &c. . . . .49 
 
 Section VI.— Summary of the Results deducible from the previous 
 Sections. The Changes which have occurred in the English, 
 Scandinavian, and Celtic Languages, sufficient to account for 
 the Differences among all Human Tongues. Causes which give 
 rise to the Abandonment and specific Appropriation of Syno- 
 nymes. Total Differences of Grammatical Forms no Proof of 
 a fundamental Difference of Language. The Relation which 
 the Languages of one Continent, viewed in the aggregate, 
 bear to the individual Languages of such Continent, the same 
 as that which the Ancient Scandinavian bears to its derivative 
 Dialects, &c. Incipient Changes in the Language of Australia. 87 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OP SYNONYMES. 
 
 Section I. — First Source of Synonymes the Metaphorical Character 
 of Human Language in its Infancy. Even modern Languages 
 metaphorical or descriptive, as regards the Names of Substances 
 recently known to Man. Progressive Change from a metapho- 
 rical to a conventional Character displayed by more Modern 
 compared to more Ancient Languages. Illustration from the 
 Sanscrit Words for ' The Sun' . . . .94 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Section II. — Second Source of Synonymes. Imitative Origin of the 
 Elements of Human Language. Imitative Character of Ancient 
 Languages. Imitative Origin of Language consistent with 
 the Unity of the Human Race. Supported by Analogy. 
 Adam Smith's Opinion that the first Elements of Language 
 were Nouns considered. Progress of Language in Infancy. 
 Illustration, from Campbell's Hohenlinden, of the Influence of 
 the Imitative Faculty on the Imagination. Progressive Growth 
 of Language. Important Exception to the Principle of the 
 Imitative Origin of Language. Origin of the Harsh and 
 Open Sounds of Ancient Languages . . . .99 
 
 Section III. — Application of these Conclusions to the Question of the 
 
 Unity of the Human Race . . . .109 
 
 Section IV. — Recent Origin of the Human Race . .110 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON THE ORIGINAL IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, WELSH, 
 HINDOOS, AND OTHER NATIONS CLASSED AS INDO- 
 EUROPEAN WITH THE JEWS, ARABIANS, ETC. 
 
 Sir William Jones's Opinion that the Languages and Reli- 
 gions of these two Classes of Nations are quite distinct. The 
 Names of the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India significant 
 in the Hebrew. Arts brought by the Ancestors of the Euro- 
 pean Nations from the East. Names of Fermented Liquors. 
 Arts of the Pastoral State. Words for Butter, &c. Close 
 Connexion of the Hebrew with the English. No specific dif- 
 ference between the Semetic and Indo-European Tongues . 112 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, 
 AND OTHER BRANCHES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 Section I. — Identity of the ancient Indian and Egyptian Mythology, 
 &c. Names of the Egyptian Gods significant in the Hebrew 
 and Indo-European Tongues. Dr. Lepsius's comments on 
 Champollion's opinion that the Modern Egyptian does not differ 
 from the Egyptian of the oldest Monuments. Proofs of Changes. 
 Proofs from Language that the origin of the Egyptians cannot 
 be referred to the very remote date fixed by some writers. 
 Causes of the primitive features of the Hebrew and the Sanscrit. 
 Identity of Sanscrit and Scriptural Account of the Creation and 
 of the Origin of the Human Race. Sir William Jones's expla- 
 nation of this coincidence. High antiquity of the Indian Vedas 125 
 
 Section II. — High Antiquity of the Egyptian Nation. Interesting 
 Character of Egyptian Remains. Extent of Egyptian Con- 
 quests. Tartars, Parthians, Turks, &c Figures of Jews on 
 Egyptian Monuments. Egyptian and Semetic Languages and 
 Races connecting links between the Asiatic and African Lan- 
 guages and Races . . . . .135 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ON THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 High Antiquity of the Chinese Empire and Remains discredited by 
 Sir William Jones and Adelung. But the Differences between 
 the Chinese Language and those of Western Asia more ancient 
 than the peculiarities which distinguish the African Languages 
 from those of Europe and Western Asia. These Differences 
 not fundamental. Identity of the Chinese with the Hebrew and 
 with the English and other European Languages, &c . 14/ 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Identity of the American Tribes with the Nations of the other Conti- 
 nents. High Mental and Moral qualities of the North Ame- 
 rican Indians. Views of Cooper, Du Ponceau, and Catlin. 
 Clear nature of the proofs derivable from Language of the 
 Identity of the N. A, Indians with the European and Asiatic 
 Nations. Catlin's views as to the Identity of the Mandans, a 
 Tribe of N. A. Indians, with the Welsh. Union in the Dalects 
 of the N. A. Indians, of Greek, and other Indo-European and 
 Tartar Inflections, with the Pronouns of the Hebrew and the 
 Welsh. Close Approximation of these Dialects to the Greek 
 and other European Tongues, and to the Languages of the 
 North of Europe and Asia . . . .155 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Analytical Comparison of some of the most important words in the 
 African Languages with the Analogous Words in the Languages 
 of Asia, Europe, and America 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Containing (arranged according to the Tribes and Regions of Africa) 
 the African Words which are compared in Appendix A with 
 the corresponding Terms in the Languages of Asia, Eu- 
 rope, and America . ... .83 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 Showing that the Celtic differ almost totally from the Gothic Lan- 
 guages . . . . . .95 
 
<$ 
 
 RECEIVED. v * 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 ON THE CONNEXION OF THE CONCLUSIONS OF THIS 
 WORK WITH HISTORY, SACRED AND PROFANE, AND 
 WITH THE RESULTS OF SCIENCE. 
 
 Interpretation of the Passage commented on by Grotius. Mr. 
 LyeWs Geological Proofs of the Recent Origin of Man. 
 Grounds of Ade lungs Opinion that Central Asia was the 
 Birthplace of the Human Race. Its Central Position and 
 High Elevation. Its Climate. It is the native Country of 
 Domestic Animals. This View consiste?it with the Scrip- 
 tural Narrative, and supported by ancient Indian Accounts. 
 * Ararat" of Scripture not in Armenia. Monosyllabic and 
 Polysyllabic Languages. Dr. Prichard on the Origin of 
 different Races. The Dispersion of Mankind probably very 
 rapid. Routes of Diffusion. Basques and Celts. Con- 
 nexion of the Welsh with Negro Dialects. The Peopling 
 of Islands. The Unity of the Human Species deduced 
 from the Uniformity of the Moral, Mental, and Social 
 Features of civilized and uncivilized Races. Egyptians 
 and Negroes. Ancient Gauls and Modern French. Ten- 
 dencies to Progression among Races yet uncivilized. The 
 N. A. Indian Tribe the Mandans. Imperfection of Modern 
 Civilization. The Siege of Genoa. The Hottentot Race. 
 
 In commenting on a celebrated passage of Scripture, 
 Grotius has adopted, with regard to the primitive language 
 of mankind, the conclusion expressed on the title-page. 
 
 " That Language the Hebrews say is the same as theirs — 
 " the Syrians say it is the same as theirs. It may be as- 
 
XIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " serted, with more truth, that the Primitive Language is 
 " not extant in a pure state anywhere, but that its remains 
 " exist in all languages !" 
 
 Of the conclusion thus expressed by this celebrated writer 
 — a conclusion dictated by the intuitive sagacity of a great 
 mind — the facts developed in the following pages will be shown 
 to be confirmatory. All existing languages, when viewed 
 separately, are fragmentary and irregular. But when a wide 
 and extensive comparison is instituted, the i disjecta membra' 
 are found to reunite, and the irregularities to disappear ! 
 
 Assuming the various languages of the Globe to have been 
 derived from one Original Speech, it will be established that 
 the formation of numerous distinct languages from that one 
 Primitive Tongue admits of a complete explanation, by means 
 of causes of which the agency can be traced within the range 
 of the Historical era. The influence of those causes will be 
 shown within a limited period of time to have produced dia- 
 lects which display — not a destruction — but a dispersion of 
 the elements of the Parent languages from which they are 
 known to have arisen. In other words, these dialects manifest 
 the same relative features as are exhibited by those languages 
 which were formed anterior to the period of History. The 
 only distinction is, that in the latter case the differences are 
 more numerous and extensive — a result which is obviously a 
 necessary consequenceof a longer period of time. 
 
 Agreeably to an interpretation which has received very 
 high sanction, the event described in the passage referred to 
 in the title-page cannot be pronounced to have had any con- 
 siderable share in the production of Human Languages, for, 
 according to eminent authorities,* the changes thereby 
 
 * See notes to D'Oyly and Mant's Bible. The differences, it is supposed, may 
 have consisted in a different mode of pronouncing the same words, such as exists 
 in various English counties, to a sufficient extent to make the speakers mutually 
 unintelligible ! See, also, Eichhom's view. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XV 
 
 caused probably consisted in mere Dialectic differences, not 
 materially affecting the Words or Structure of Language. 
 Moreover (it is inferred) the influence of that event did not 
 extend to the whole Human Race, but merely to that small 
 portion of it who were the ancestors of the Semetic or Syro- 
 Phcenician nations. 
 
 In these pages are embodied proofs, from Language, of 
 the two following propositions : — 1. That the various nations 
 of our Globe are descended from one Parent Tribe. 2. That 
 the introduction of the Human Species into the system 
 to which it belongs, cannot be referred to an epoch more 
 ancient than the era indicated as the date of that event by 
 our received systems of chronology. 
 
 These propositions, of which the Philological evidence is 
 developed in this volume, are supported not only by the tes- 
 timony of History, Sacred and Profane, but also by the 
 highest Scientific authorities. 
 
 In Cuvier's theory of the Earth the date of the origin of 
 our species is discussed, not only on Geological but also on 
 Historical grounds, in a disquisition embracing an immense 
 mass of learning on the subject of the supposed antiquity of 
 the Chinese, Egyptians, and other nations who have laid 
 claim to a very remote origin. These pretensions are rejected, 
 and the date usually assigned to the origin of Man is adopted 
 in this celebrated work. 
 
 The same views have been expressed by Mr. Lyell ; views 
 which he espouses, not merely as the result of his own 
 reasonings, but of the prevalent conclusions of the highest 
 geological authorities. 
 
 " I need not dwell," he observes, " on the proofs of the 
 " low antiquity of our species, for it is not controverted by 
 " any experienced geologist ; indeed the real difficulty con- 
 " sists in tracing back the signs of man's existence on the 
 a earth to that comparatively modern period when species, 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 < e now his contemporaries, began to predominate. If there 
 " be a difference of opinion respecting the occurrence in 
 " certain deposits of the Remains of Man, and his works, 
 " it is always in reference to strata confessedly of the most 
 ee modern order, and it is never pretended that our race co- 
 u existed with assemblages of Animals and Plants, of which 
 " all or even a great part of the species are extinct. From 
 " the concurrent testimony of history and tradition we learn 
 " that parts of Europe now the most fertile, and most com- 
 " pletely subjected to the dominion of Man, were, less than 
 " three thousand years ago, covered with forests, and the 
 " abode of wild beasts. The archives of nature are in ac- 
 " cordance with historical records, and when we lay bare the 
 " most superficial covering of peat we sometimes find therein 
 " the canoes of the savage, together with huge antlers of the 
 " wild stag, or horns of the wild bull. In caves now open 
 " to the day, in various parts of Europe, the bones of large 
 " beasts of prey occur in abundance, and they indicate that 
 " at periods comparatively modern in the history of the globe 
 " the ascendancy of man, if he existed at all, had scarcely 
 " been felt by the brutes." * 
 
 (See an analogous argument of Berkeley for the Recent 
 Origin of Man, quoted with approbation by Mr. Lyell, 
 vol. iii. p. 203.) 
 
 In what part of the Globe was the Human species first 
 introduced ? On this interesting question various opinions 
 have existed, and very opposite theories have been pro- 
 pounded. Sir Humphry Davy t surmised that this locality 
 must have been somewhere in or near the Tropics, in a cli- 
 mate suited to the tender childhood of the Race. Sir William 
 Jones fixed upon Persia or Iran.J Adelung has concluded 
 
 * Lyell's Geology, vol. i. p. 230. t Consolations in Travel. 
 
 X Discourse on the Origin and Families of Nations. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XV11 
 
 in favour of a contiguous locality ; viz., the regions of the 
 Indus, the borders of Cashmire and Tibet. It may be ob- 
 served also that his grounds, in some respects, coincide with 
 those adopted by Sir William Jones, who, after alluding to 
 the extensive and, as he conceives, fundamental differences 
 between the Languages of — 1, The Persians and Indians, 
 Romans and Greeks, &c. ; 2, The Jews, Arabs, &c. ; 3, The 
 people of China and Japan ; and 4, The Tartars — nations 
 whom, nevertheless, he conceives to have descended from 
 one pair — observes, " If, then, you consider the seats of 
 u all the migrating nations as points in a surrounding figure, 
 u you will perceive that the several rays, diverging from Iran, 
 (i may be drawn to them without any intersection ; but this 
 u will not happen, if you assume as a centre, Arabia or 
 " Egypt ; India y Tartan/, or China : it follows that Iran, or 
 u Persia (I contend for the meaning, not the name,) was the 
 " central country which we sought." 
 
 Adelung's* Dissertation on this subject, which, as he 
 states, contains " the only hypothesis in which he has per- 
 " mitted himself to indulge," is characterized by profound 
 reasoning and graceful illustration. Considering their variety 
 and extent, his proofs seem to be conclusive, especially when 
 dissociated from the opinion which was entertained both by 
 himself and Sir William Jones, viz., that the languages of 
 the nations forming the diverging radii of migration are 
 fundamentally different. Of these languages the original 
 unity will be apparent, from the facts embodied in this work. 
 Adelung's grounds for selecting the Central Asiatic regions 
 of Cashmire and Tibet are — 1. Their Geographical position 
 and high elevation, and the direction of their mountains and 
 rivers, which render these countries a natural source for the 
 diffusion of Population over the Globe. 2. Their Climate 
 
 • Mithridates, vol. i. 
 
XV111 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 and Natural productions. 3. The Ancient Indian accounts 
 which are corroborated by the Scriptural narrative. 4. In 
 these regions is the line which separates from other Asiatic 
 races the nations who exhibit the Mongol or Tartar Physio- 
 gnomy. 5. The same line separates the Monosyllabic and 
 Polysyllabic Languages. 6. The Astronomical reasonings 
 of Bailly. 
 
 1. Geographically. 
 
 Central Asia forms a natural centre for the diffusion of 
 population over the Globe, as will appear from the following 
 passages from an authority by whom Adelung's views have 
 been adopted:* 
 
 " Asia, exhibiting such characteristics in its outline, is no 
 "less remrrkable for the form of its surface, on which the 
 " climate, and consequently the vegetation and animal king- 
 " dom, of its different parts must chiefly depend. In exa- 
 " mining the other divisions of the globe, we find that 
 " Australia exhibits level and comparatively low 7 countries 
 a without many high mountain-ranges, as far as we yet know. 
 u Africa is divided into two nearly equal parts, the southern 
 "of which forms an almost uniform table-land, whilst the 
 " northern, with the exception of the Atlas region, may be 
 " considered as a lowland. Europe contains plains of small 
 " extent lying between dispersed mountain-groups and ridges ; 
 " but these plains are not confined to any particular parts. 
 '■' In America the highest land lies on one side, occupying its 
 " western coast from the extreme north to the south ; it forms 
 " the most extensive system of mountain-chains on the globe, 
 " which inclose within their arms elevated plateaus, but of 
 " comparatively small extent. Asia exhibits different feature*. 
 ec The whole mass of the interior continent rises to a conside- 
 
 * Asia, by Carl Ritfer and others. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XIX 
 
 " rable elevation above the sea, and this elevated mass, of which 
 "the high table-lands occupy by far the greatest extent, is not 
 "placed at one of the extremities of the whole mass, but occu- 
 " pies its centre. 
 
 " From these table-lands, which occupy the centre of Asia, 
 " the surface descends in gradual and diversified terraces and 
 " slopes to the lowlands which surround them." 
 
 After stating that these table-lands consist of two terraces, 
 (viz. an Eastern system, composed of Tibet and the Great 
 Desert, called Gobi, and a Western terrace, including Iran 
 or Persia,) which unite where the ranges of the Himalaya, 
 Hindu-Kuh, Thsungling, and Belur Tagh meet, the same 
 writer thus alludes to the regions which form the point of 
 junction : 
 
 u Such a juxta-position of all the great featur< ; which na- 
 " ture exhibits on the surface of the globe, on such a colossal 
 " scale, and in so limited a space, makes this one of the most 
 " remarkable spots on the face of our planet. This maximum 
 "of the contrasts of natural features, placed in the centre of 
 "the continent, is the principal characteristic which distin- 
 " guishes Asia. By drawing a circle with a radius of a few 
 "hundred miles round this common centre, we comprehend 
 " in it the countries of Cashmere, Sogdiana, and Cabulistan, 
 " the ancient empires of Bactria, Delhi, and Samarcand, the 
 " cold table-lands of Tibet, of Khotan, and of Kashgar, up 
 " to the ancient Seres and Paropamisadae." 
 
 Further, the same writer, after describing the immense va- 
 riety of climate that occurs within this limited space, adds : 
 
 " From the extremity of these table-lands, especially on 
 "the south-east and north-east, south-west and north-west, 
 " there issue several separate mountain-chains, not connected 
 " with one another, but which form more or less a part of 
 
 " the table-lands themselves. 
 
 # * # * 
 
XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 "The valleys, which are produced by this indentation on the 
 " borders of the table-lands, offer peculiar advantages for the 
 * e progress of civilization. For, as we have already observed, 
 " the highland of Asia does not sink on one side only, but on 
 "all sides and towards every point of the compass; it also 
 "sinks towards different oceans, which are separated from 
 " the highland by extensive plains, varying greatly in mag- 
 66 nitude and form. This circumstance, added to the valleys 
 " formed by the indentations in the exterior margins of the 
 " highlands, has given rise to numerous and most extensive 
 " river systems, which, descending through the intervening 
 " terraces, direct their winding course towards the north, 
 " south, tvest, and east, and thus give to the distant internal 
 "countries of this continent the advantage of an easy conunu- 
 ce ni cation with the ocean." 
 
 2. The Climate and Natural productions of Cashmire and 
 Tibet. 
 
 Influenced solely by its high elevation, De Pauw, Zimmer- 
 man, and Pallas concluded that Central Asia must have been 
 the birthplace of the human race. To this conclusion the 
 rigorous climate of those parts of it which were best known 
 to them appeared to present an insuperable objection. But 
 as Adelung observes, those regions of Central Asia which 
 border upon the Indus have been shown by the accounts of 
 travellers to fulfil all the requisite conditions in this respect. 
 Had these celebrated writers been possessed of the infor- 
 mation these accounts contain, they might have discovered 
 in Cashmire a suitable locality for the first abode of man, in 
 Tibet a fitting school of discipline to prepare him for the 
 various climes and countries he was destined to inhabit ! 
 
 Cashmire. Adelung's description of this enchanting 
 country calls to mind in many of its features the ■ Happy 
 Valley' in Rasselas ! 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXI 
 
 The faculties with which man has been endowed enable him 
 to contend with the most unfavorable climes : but not until 
 these faculties have been ripened by Time and experience ! 
 At his first creation he required an abode where nature* s free 
 bounty would supply all his wants ; in fine he needed, with 
 reference even to his mere physical necessities, a Paradise ! 
 To this appellation no country in Asia can assert a better 
 claim than the lovely land of Cash mire, which is, in fact, a 
 mere Valley, separated by inaccessible mountains from India, 
 Persia, and Tibet ! Owing to its high elevation, the heat of 
 the South is tempered into a perpetual Spring, and nature 
 here puts forth all her powers to bring all her works, Plants, 
 Animals, and Man, to the highest state of perfection ! 
 Cashmire is a region of fruitful hills, countless fountains and 
 streams, which unite in the River Behut, that, like the Pison 
 of Paradise, " compasseth the whole land !" 
 
 Bernier found here all Asiatic and European fruits in per- 
 fection. The Pisang, undoubtedly the same tree as the fig 
 tree of the Book of Genesis,* grows no where so large or so 
 beautiful as in Cashmire ! 
 
 Even the men of this country are distinguished among 
 Asiatics by superior natural endowments, mental and physical. 
 They have none of the Tartar physiognomy, but exhibit the 
 finest features of the European race ; while in genius and in- 
 telligence they surpass most other Oriental nations ! Cashmire 
 was at one time governed by kings of its own ; it was after- 
 wards subject to the Moguls of India, who ruled it with gen- 
 tleness on account of its beauty ! On their downfall it fell 
 under the sway of the rude ArTghans. 
 
 Tibet. This contiguous country unites within itself the 
 temperatures and products of the most opposite of those 
 
 • Genesis, c. iii. v. 7, "And they sewed fig-leuves together, and made them- 
 selves aprons." 
 
XX11 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 climes in which man was intended to dwell, combining 
 mountains crowned with perpetual snow and icebergs, 
 with valleys in which never-ending Summer blooms. Tibet 
 also presents, in a native or indigenous state, the various 
 Plants and Animals which have been domesticated by Man ! 
 Here are found in a wild state the Vine, the Rice-plant, the 
 Pea, the Ox, the Horse, the Ass, the Sheep, the Goat, the 
 Camel, the Pig, the Cat, and even the Reindeer, " his only 
 " friend and companion in the polar wastes/ 5 * 
 
 3. The Scriptural and Indian Accounts. 
 
 It is extremely remarkable that the Indian accounts, of 
 which the antiquity is believed to be equal to that of the 
 Scriptural narrative, (see p. 132,) actually fix the first abode 
 of Man on Mount Meru, on the borders of Tibet and 
 Cashmire ! Blended though they are with fable, it is impos- 
 sible to see how we can refuse to attach some weight to these 
 venerable remains, harmonising, so completely as they do, 
 with the conclusions formed on other grounds by some of the 
 greatest men of modern times, as regards the date and the 
 locality of the first introduction of our species ; for if, on the 
 one hand, the received date of the origin of the human race 
 be authentic according to the views of Cuvier, and if, on the 
 other, the date of the Indian Vedas be such as accords with 
 the opinions of Sir William Jones and other eminent autho- 
 rities, the intervening period must have been too brief to efface 
 a traditionary reminiscence of the early history of our species, 
 (see p. 132.) The correspondence of the Indian with the 
 Scriptural narrative is in many features very extraordinary. 
 We have a similar account of the creation of the world, of 
 the early history of man, of a primitive state of virtue and 
 
 * Adelung quotes Zimmerman to the effect that of the animals found in Europe 
 all have been derived from Asia, with the exception of sixteen or seventeen kinds, 
 and the^e are mostly Mice and Bats. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XX111 
 
 happiness, of the fall of man, of a tree of life and death.* 
 We have also a Serpent that poisons the water, which is the 
 source of life ! 
 
 Adelung notices a feature in which the locality fixed upon 
 as the birthplace of man by the Indian traditions corresponds 
 with the Paradise of Scripture. From Mount Meru spring 
 four Rivers, the Ganges, the Buramputur, the Indus, and 
 another stream that flows into Tibet. "Now Michaelis," he 
 observes, u translates Genesis, ii. 10, c Four rivers flowed 
 " out of Eden, and they separated continually more and more 
 " widely from each other P " 
 
 Cashmire is considered by the Hindoos in the light of a 
 Holy Land, the cradle of their race, their civilization, and 
 their religion ! 
 
 The Scriptural narrative, in describing the Creation of our 
 species, does not define the first abode of man any further 
 than by fixing it in u the East," (Genesis, ii. 8,) an expression 
 corroborative, as Adelung observes, of the Indian traditions, 
 for in the time of Moses this expression was applicable to the 
 regions of the Indus. On the other hand, the common inter- 
 pretation of Genesis, viii. 4, which assumes that Ararat in 
 Armenia was the centre of diffusion of population after the 
 Flood, is irreconcilable with those accounts, this locality being 
 not to the East but to the North of all the Syro-Phoenician 
 or Scriptural regions. But according to Bohlen,t the im- 
 pression that Ararat in this verse means the mountain of that 
 name in Armenia, which is inaccessible, crowned with per- 
 petual snow,J and anciently had a different name, is erroneous. 
 Ararat, he observes, does not mean a mountain but a country 
 in this verse and elsewhere in Scripture. Thus the sons of 
 
 * " A Tree well known in India, culled the Tschiampa. Its fruit is like an 
 " Apple, and it is said to bear both good and evil frail !" 
 t Bohlen (Prof. Theol. zu Kbnigsberg) auf Genesis. 
 1 Morier. 
 
XXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Sennacherib escaped into the land of Ararat, (II. Kings, xix. 
 37,) and the Prophet Jeremiah calls upon the kingdoms of 
 Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz to rise up together with the 
 Medes against Babylon, (Jerem. li, 27-8) Ararat in these 
 passages, it may be suggested, may naturally be interpreted 
 to apply generally to the kingdoms and regions of the unex- 
 plored* table-land of Central Asia, which commences on the 
 Persian borders, immediately to the East of Assyria. More- 
 over the supposition that the Ararat of Scripture was in 
 Armenia may be regarded as irreconcilable with another 
 important passage, Gen., xi. 2, which distinctly implies that 
 the emigrants who reached the plain of Shinar, and who, it 
 may be inferred, were the first colonists of South Western 
 Asia, had journeyed thither from some region far to the 
 "East" of all the Semetic countries, of which Shinar or 
 Mesopotamia forms the Eastern border ! 
 
 It is remarkable that the expressions of this passage — "And 
 "it came to pass, as they journeyed from the East, that they 
 " found a plain in the land of Shinar ; and they dwelt there 5 ' 
 — harmonise in the most perfect manner not only with the 
 Indian remains, but also with the passages first referred to 
 from the Scriptural narrative itself with respect to the first 
 abode of the human race, for it will be seen by the map that 
 1 , Gashmire lies in a direct line to " the East" of Shinar or 
 Mesopotamia ! 2, The whole intervening territory is occu- 
 pied by the Central- Asiatic table-land of Persia or Iran, which, 
 as previously noticed, forms one continual descent from its 
 highest elevation on the borders of Cashmire to its termi- 
 nation near the plain of Shinar ! Ar-ar-at may reasonably 
 be inferred to be nothing else than a term commonly applied 
 in the East to " a country of lofty mountains," (see p. 83,) 
 an expression highly appropriate to the Persian table-land 
 
 * ' Unexplored' with reference to the Semetic nations. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXV 
 
 both at its centre, and at its junction with the Semetic regions, 
 near the banks of the Tigris and the Euphrates ! (See Ritter.) 
 
 4. As before observed, in these regions are found in juxta- 
 position nations which exhibit the very opposite Physiological 
 characteristics of the Mongol and Western Asiatic races. 
 The people of Tibet display the former, those of Cashmire 
 the latter. 
 
 5. Philology. 
 
 Here the Monosyllabic and Polysyllabic languages branch 
 off from a common centre. The former begin in Tibet, the 
 latter in Cashmire. 
 
 The Monosyllabic languages which prevail in Tibet, China, 
 Ava, Pegu, Siam, Tonquin, and Cochin China, countries 
 which contain a population of 180 millions, betray all the 
 rudeness of human speech in its infancy. They have no 
 compound words and no grammar. " The same sound," says 
 Adelung, " which means Joy, means also Joyful and To re- 
 "joice through all persons, numbers, and tenses !" 
 
 " They form their plural like a child, either by repetition, 
 "as k Tree-tree 9 (i. e. 'Trees'), or by means of an additional 
 " word, as ' Tree-many ! Tree-other /' When the great grown- 
 -up child is heard stammering ( Be Heaven, I Other* Father 
 "which,' who but another child like him can guess that this 
 " means e Our Father which art in Heaven /' " 
 
 The imperfection of the Monosyllabic languages does not 
 arise solely from their consisting of Monosyllables, but from 
 the want of the more refined grammatical forms which are 
 found in all other Tongues, even those of the wildest American 
 Tribes. No nation, however uncivilized, that had once ac- 
 
 * < 1' (with ' Other' added) means < We.' 
 
XXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 quired a knowledge of these would ever fall back " to the 
 "speech of childhood!" Hence Adelung infers that the 
 Chinese, &c. must have been completely separated at an early 
 period from the other races of men. But it will be asked, 
 Why is it that the Chinese have remained stationary in this 
 respect, while nations far inferior to them in every other 
 point of view have surpassed them in this one instance? 
 There is, I conceive, no other mode of solving this problem 
 than by regarding these opposite results in the light of ves- 
 tiges, belonging to an early stage of society, of the same 
 variableness and inequality in the efforts of the human mind, 
 which are observable in the inventions of modern times ! 
 That this question admits of no other solution will be mani- 
 fest from Chapter VI , in which it is shown that the Chinese 
 is not fundamentally different from the tongues of Europe 
 and Western Asia, but the same language in a different stage 
 of its growth! 
 
 6. The Astronomical Theory of Bailly. 
 
 Bailly's theory is that the various nations of the ancient 
 world were descendants of emigrants from a primaeval com- 
 munity superior to them in knowledge and civilization, of 
 which he places the locality in Central Asia. His views are 
 founded on the fact that there existed a knowledge of the re- 
 sults of some of the most recondite Scientific principles 
 among the Persians, Chaldeans, &c, (nations who were cer- 
 tainly unacquainted with the principles themselves,) as, for 
 example, of the moon's course, of the Solar year, of the 
 Zodiac, of the Planets, of the retrogression of the fixed Stars 
 &c. Some of Bailly's opinions have been impugned in 
 Cuvier's Theory of the Earth. 
 
 The question whether the different branches of the Human 
 Race are descended from one Stock, has been discussed on 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXV11 
 
 Physiological grounds by Dr. Prichard,* in a work equally 
 remarkable for profound Philosophical and extensive Literary 
 research. After detailing a variety of facts with respect to 
 the distribution of Plants and Animals, he thus expresses his 
 conclusion : " The inference to be collected from the facts at 
 " present known, seems to be as follows. The various tribes 
 " of organized beings, were originally placed by the Creator in 
 " certain regions, for which they are by their nature pecu- 
 u liarly adapted. Each species had only one beginning in a 
 " single stock ; probably a single pair, as Linnaeus supposed, 
 " was first called into being in a particular spot, and their 
 " progeny left to disperse themselves to as great a distance 
 " as the locomotive powers, bestowed on each species, or its 
 " capability of bearing changes of climate and other physical 
 " circumstances may have enabled it to wander ." 
 
 According to this writer the varieties of colour, feature, 
 &c. displayed by different races of Men, are the results partly 
 of climate and other external agencies, and partly also of a 
 natural tendency to the manifestation of varieties which may 
 be viewed in the light of a characteristic quality of the 
 Species. Of these propositions the numerous and diversified 
 facts collected by Dr. Prichard appear to furnish perfectly 
 conclusive evidence. Thus he has shown that the charac- 
 teristic physiognomy of the Negro is found to occur and dis- 
 appear by nice gradations in strict accordance with the dif- 
 ferences of climate throughout the African Continent. 
 
 The tendency to variety is very manifest, even from facts 
 under our daily observation. Individuals are common among 
 European nations, who exhibit some one or more of the traits 
 of the Negro, as, for example, his woolly hair, thick lips, &c. 
 Among the Negro races have been born individuals of a 
 perfectly white colour. Many of these specimens, according 
 
 * Prichaid on Man. 
 
XXV111 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to Dr. Prichard, were not Albinos or diseased persons, but 
 indisputable examples of his principle. 
 
 It is probable that in the infancy of the race, this extra- 
 ordinary tendency may have served the important purpose 
 of accelerating those physiological changes by which the 
 constitution of Man was adapted to the different climates of 
 the Globe, while, in subsequent ages, climate which deter- 
 mines the physiology of the majority, may be said thereby to 
 neutralize the influence of these exceptions. Diversities of 
 complexion, &c. occur in our own and in neighbouring 
 countries within a very limited area. Thus the dark hair 
 and features of the ancient Silures which were ascribed by 
 the Romans to a Spanish origin, are still observable among 
 their posterity, characteristics of which, I conceive, a satis- 
 factory explanation may be found in the warm and equable 
 temperature of the Southern counties of Wales, caused by 
 the peculiar distribution of land and water.* In these 
 countries many productions, both animal and vegetable, 
 flourish, which are rarely found further North. The Night- 
 ingale is common, and the Vine is cultivated frequently. 
 The contrast between the temperature of the coasts of South 
 Wales and that of North Wales has not escaped the atten- 
 tion of the Welsh Bards. Davyth ap Gwilym, a Bard of the 
 fourteenth Century, in a Poem of great beauty, in which he 
 describes himself as writing from the land of ' wild/ 
 Gwynedh (North Wales), calls upon the Summer and the 
 Sun to visit with their choicest blessings the genial region of 
 c Morgan wg/ (Glamorganshire,) of which he was a native, 
 and alludes to its warm climate and its Vineyards, which 
 seem to have been a conspicuous feature ! For some very 
 valuable illustrations of the same principle, I may refer to the 
 account given by the Rev. Thomas Price in his Tour in 
 
 * Lvell on Geology. 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXIX 
 
 Brittany, published in the Cambrian Quarterly Magazine, 
 of the varieties of complexion and stature observable in 
 Upper and Lower Brittany. # 
 
 From the facts collected by Dr. Prichard, it appears to 
 follow very distinctly, not only that Human Physiology is 
 extremely mutable, but also that the transitions do not oc- 
 cupy a very long interval of time. Thus Jews are resident 
 in the African Kingdom of Kongo, whose complexions are 
 as black as those of the native Negro population. Again on 
 the borders of Negro-land, different sections of the same 
 tribe, speaking the same language, are, in many instances, 
 found variously approaching to or diverging from the Negro 
 standard of colour and physiognomy, according to the lati- 
 tude or elevation, or other physical features of their respective 
 locations ; instances in which the separation — and therefore 
 the physiological differences — must have been recent — for lan- 
 guages change too rapidly to preserve the features of identity 
 or even of a close affinity for a period of long duration ! The 
 descendants of the Arabs who overran the North of Africa 
 in comparatively modern times furnish another example ; they 
 do not differ in physiognomy from the Berbers, the original 
 inhabitants of the same regions. 
 
 From these and similar facts it must be inferred — not only 
 that the existing varieties of Human Physiology form no 
 objection to the opinion that the different populations of the 
 Globe are descended from one stock— the same facts lead also 
 to the conclusion, that — with relation to the earliest eras in 
 the History of our species — Physiological peculiarities must 
 be entirely rejected as evidence, either of a specific connexion 
 or of a specific difference between individual races of men, a 
 principle admitting of many highly interesting applications, 
 of which an example will now be offered. 
 
 * See also the Rev. T. Price on the Physiology and Physiognomy of the British 
 Isles. 
 
XXX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 By what road did the first Colonists of Europe reach their 
 final destination? Adelung has inferred that Europe was 
 peopled exclusively from the Steppes of Northern Asia. 
 But for this opinion, it does not seem that any valid reason 
 can be assigned. If we assume Central Asia to have been 
 the focus of migration, it will be observed that there are 
 three routes by which the forefathers of the European 
 nations may have arrived in their final abodes, viz. 1 , The 
 Steppes of Northern Asia ; 2, Asia Minor and the Hellespont ; 
 and 3, The Isthmus of Suez, the North of Africa, and the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. For concluding that either of these 
 three routes was used, to the exclusion of the other two, it 
 would not be easy to point out any strong argument based on 
 Geographical grounds. Now if the third was employed at all 
 it may be inferred that some of the European nations may be 
 even more nearly allied to those of Africa than they are to 
 the Asiatic populations. To this conclusion, however, a for- 
 midable objection occurs in the strikingly contrasted Phy- 
 siology of Africa and Europe, for — even though it should be 
 conceded that these opposite features do not serve to prove 
 an aboriginal difference of race — the question still arises 
 whether they do not, nevertheless, furnish evidence that the 
 nations of these two continents are more remotely related 
 than any other branches of the Human Family; whether they 
 do not point to the inference that the inhabitants of the South 
 and West of Asia — who certainly occupy an intermediate place 
 Physiologically — must not also be regarded as forming a con- 
 necting link between those of Europe and Africa in a Ge- 
 nealogical and Historical sense ? To these inquiries it will be 
 obvious that the facts just adverted to furnish a very distinct 
 answer, for from those facts it directly follows — not only that 
 climate and other existing causes are sufficient to account for 
 the different Physical peculiarities of the inhabitants of Africa 
 and Europe — but it also follows from the same evidence, that a 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXXI 
 
 period of time far short of that during which the European 
 and African nations are known to have occupied their present 
 abodes, would have sufficed to superinduce the opposite cha- 
 racteristics they now display ! Perhaps it may be inferred, 
 though probably the subject does not admit of a precise con- 
 clusion on this head, that in a suitable climate the lapse of 
 500 or 600 years might be more than adequate to engraft on 
 the physiognomy of Southern Asia all the distinctive pecu- 
 liarities of the Negro. That these peculiarities had been fully 
 developed in an early era of the History of the World, is 
 manifest from the Egyptian Paintings, in many of which wo 
 have individuals of this ill-fated race very vividly depicted, 
 appearing sometimes as tributaries, and on other occasions as 
 captives, leashed together like hounds ! 
 
 Infirm health, and final extirpation, have often attended 
 colonies from the North of Europe settled in tropical climes, 
 incidents that seem to have had great weight with Dr. 
 Prichard himself, as constituting an objection to his views. 
 To this objection, however — independent of the numerous 
 facts of an opposite nature — the following consideration, I 
 conceive, suggests a satisfactory answer. Nature may have 
 provided for gradual transitions of climate such as must have 
 been encountered by a population progressively diffused over 
 the Globe ; and that she has done so appears to be distinctly 
 established. But it does not follow that she has made any 
 provision for abrupt changes. These are probably a viola- 
 tion of her dictates, and may have the same tendency to pro- 
 duce disease and death as we know to be incident to sudden 
 and extensive variations of temperature in the same climate 
 and country. 
 
 The foregoing deductions will be found to have a highly in- 
 teresting application in relation to the origin of two ancient 
 European races, the Basques and the Celts. If Physiological 
 grounds are dismissed from our consideration, it will probably 
 
XXX11 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 be found that the balance of evidence is in favour of the conclu- 
 sion that these races have sprung, not from Asiatic colonists, 
 but from emigrants from the coasts of the continent of 
 Africa ! 
 
 This conclusion is strongly favoured by the geographical 
 position in which we find these races placed at the dawn of 
 History. In the earliest ages the Celts and Basques were in 
 possession of all the most western countries of Europe. The 
 Spanish Peninsula, the South of France, and the North of 
 Italy, were divided between them ; the remainder of France, 
 the whole of Belgium, Switzerland, and the British Isles, 
 were held by the Celts, while of Sicily and Italy the Basques 
 appear to have been the first inhabitants. (See Dr. Prichard's 
 Works.) Now in connexion with these facts two considera- 
 tions deserve to be noticed, which, by a reference to the map 
 will be seen to acquire especial force. 1. It will be observed 
 that the original regions of the Celts and Basques are more 
 closely contiguous to Africa than the Eastern countries of 
 Europe are ; both Spain, and Sicily (which may be considered 
 a part of Italy,) approaching at certain points very closely to 
 the African coast. 2. If we assume Central Asia to have 
 been the original focus of migration — it will be evident- that 
 nomade septs issuing thence through the Syro-Phoenician 
 countries, and along the North of Africa — would have 
 found a shorter route to the Italian and to the Spanish 
 Peninsulas — than those emigrants who may be supposed to 
 have passed over the Hellespont, or through Northern Asia ! 
 Further it may be added, that the regions originally held by 
 the Basques and Celts are precisely those which would have 
 been occupied by the descendants of Colonists who had ar- 
 rived in Europe from the South-west of Africa if opposed — as 
 we may infer them to have been — by rival Septs impeding 
 their progress towards the East. To the East of the Basque 
 and Celtic regions we find the rest of Europe possessed by 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXX111 
 
 the Teutons or Germans, the Finns, the Sclavonians, and the 
 Greeks, nations all located in countries closely contiguous to 
 Asia, to the inhabitants of which continent the evidence of 
 language indisputably proves them all to have been closely 
 related.* That these nations were also the primitive inhabi- 
 tants of the territories which they still occupy has been 
 pointed out by Dr. Prichard. 
 
 The conclusion above suggested appears to be supported 
 by the evidence of history. With respect to the Basques, or 
 Iberians, Dr. Prichard has referred to the testimony of clas- 
 sical authorities, which distinctly confirms the opinion that 
 they were an African race. But with regard to the Celts, 
 the same learned writer assumes that they must originally 
 have come from the East. It is remarkable, however, that 
 this conclusion is directly at variance with the current 
 opinions of the Ancients, to which he has referred in the fol- 
 lowing passage : 
 
 " The earlier history of the Celtic people is a subject of 
 " great interest, but of difficult investigation. Were they 
 " the aborigines of Gaul or Germany? According to all the 
 " testimony of history, or rather of ancient tradition col- 
 " lected by the writers of the Roman Empire, the migrations 
 " of the Gauls were always from West to East ; the Celtic 
 " nations in Germany as well as in Italy and in the East, 
 " were supposed to have been colonies from Gaul, and the 
 u Celtae have been considered as the immemorial inhabitants 
 " of Western Europe !" (Ethnography of the Celtic Race, in 
 Prichard on Man.) 
 
 In assuming that the Celts migrated to Europe direct 
 from Asia, Dr. Prichard's views were very naturally in- 
 fluenced by the valuable evidence he has himself adduced of 
 
 * The Greek, Russian, and German, have all been shown to belong to what 
 are called the Indo-European class of languages. The Finnish, Vater states to 
 be in its roots identical with the German. 
 
XXXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the connexion of the Celtic dialects with the Sanscrit, &c. 
 This evidence, however, has been shown (see p. 19) to be 
 quite consistent with the conclusion suggested above, viz. that 
 the Celts may have sprung from emigrants who penetrated 
 into Spain from the opposite coast of Africa. 
 
 The interesting researches of Humboldt, which have served 
 by the evidence of local names to show that the language of 
 the ancient Iberians was the same as the Basque, have also 
 established, by means of the same evidence, that the Peninsula 
 of Spain, at the time of its subjugation by the Romans, was 
 divided in a very irregular manner between Basque and 
 Celtic tribes. " The Celts," observes Dr. Prichard, u pos- 
 " sessed a considerable part of Spain, comprehending not 
 66 only the central provinces, but also extensive territories in 
 u both of the western corners of the Peninsula, where a 
 " population either wholly or partly of Celtic descent re- 
 " mained at the period of the Roman Conquest." The 
 remainder of Spain was held by Basques or by Celt — 
 Iberian tribes, a mixture of both races. 
 
 This singular intermingling of the Basques and Celts in 
 the Spanish Peninsula has been a source of many conflicting 
 opinions among the learned, on the question which of these 
 two races were the first inhabitants, and which were the in- 
 vaders of Spain? The enigma, I conceive, will be most 
 satisfactorily solved by the rejection of the opinion that that 
 country was in the first instance wholly occupied by either ! 
 Both may have arrived almost simultaneously, too weak in 
 numbers wholly to engross the new territory on which they 
 thus entered. Each may have thrown out into the most 
 distant provinces weak colonies, consisting of a few nomade 
 families, which afterwards became the foci of powerful Septs. 
 This explanation completely harmonises with the instructive 
 facts which have been developed relative to the North Ame- 
 rican Indian Tribes, who are still in the "hunter state." as 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXXV 
 
 the first colonists of Europe must have been. The languages 
 of a great portion of the North American Indian Tribes have 
 been shown to consist of mere dialects of a few Parent 
 Tongues. But the Septs thus proved to be nearly related 
 are not always contiguous, but often separated by tribes 
 speaking dialects of a different class, a necessary consequence 
 of the roving habits and the imperfect occupation of territory 
 incident to the "hunter state." An interesting example of the 
 influence of the causes which lead to these results occurs in 
 Mr. Catlings allusion to a North American Indian Tribe, the 
 Assinneboins, of whom he says : " The Assinneboins are a 
 " part of the Dahcotas, or Sioux, undoubtedly ; for their 
 a personal appearance, as well as their language, is very 
 " similar. 
 
 " At what time, or in what manner, these two parts of a 
 u nation got strayed away from each other is a mystery ; yet 
 " such cases have often occurred, of which I shall say more 
 " in future. Large parties who are straying off in pursuit 
 a of game, or in the occupation of war, are oftentimes inter- 
 " cepted by their enemy, and being prevented from returning, 
 " are run off to a distant region, where they take up their 
 " residence and establish themselves as a nation." (Catlin 
 on the North American Indians, p. 53.) 
 
 The evidence furnished by their languages is not un- 
 favorable to the supposition that the Basques and Celts may 
 have been of African origin. 
 
 Though by Humboldt, and some other eminent writers, the 
 Basque has been regarded as distinct from other languages, 
 the examples which occur at the close of this Introduction 
 | must, I conceive, serve to remove all doubt as to the identity 
 ; of the Basques or Iberians with the other branches of the 
 i Human Race. Of these examples grammatical differences 
 i cannot serve to diminish the force. (See p. 89 and the chapter 
 j on the Chinese Language.) The Basque also shows some 
 
XXXVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 traces of a peculiar connexion with the African tongues. 
 Thus its numerals are nearly identical with those of the 
 North African nations, and the formative particle Er is used 
 for similar purposes in the Basque and Egyptian, and in both 
 is placed before the word, a characteristic which distinguishes 
 the African from the European languages. (See p. 1 42.) Thus 
 we have Juan, c To go/ Er-uan, 'To cause to go/ [Basque.) 
 Ouini, e Light/ Er-ouini, e To cause Light, or e To enlighten/ 
 [Egyptian.) Instances of words formed in the same manner, 
 which are common to the Egyptian and the Celtic, will be 
 found at p. 38, Appendix A. 
 
 A striking example of the connexion of the Celtic lan- 
 guages with those of Africa occurs in the region where the 
 respective Physiological peculiarities of North Africa and 
 Negro-land meet. In the vicinity of the river Senegal the 
 line of separation may be said to divide the Iolofs, a Negro 
 nation, from the Fulahs and Phellatahs, whose physical 
 characteristics are of an intermediate nature. Now it is re- 
 markable, that by comparing and as it were uniting the 
 dialects of the Iolofs, the Fulahs, and the Phellatahs, some of 
 the most common Welsh words are obtained essentially un- 
 changed, as in Le oure, e The Moon/ ( Fulahs,) Gour, and 
 Gourgne, 'A Man/ [Iolofs,) Gourko, f A Man/ [Phellatahs,) 
 Loho, < The Hand/ (Iolofs,) Bourou, ' Bread/ [Iolofs,) 
 Bouron, ' Bread/ [Fulahs.) 
 
 Consistently with the principles on which the origin of 
 languages is hereafter explained in this work, I cannot 
 suggest that these coincidences, striking as they are, afford 
 any proof of a specific connexion between the Celtic and 
 African races. But they tend to prove, nevertheless, that 
 language furnishes no positive ground for inferring that the 
 Celts are more nearly allied to the Asiatic than they are to 
 the African races. Hence, since the evidence of Physiology 
 on this subject is also of a negative character, it may be 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXXV11 
 
 affirmed, with regard both to this race and the Basques, 
 that the opinion that they are of Asiatic descent — opposed 
 as it is by the evidence of history in one, if not in both 
 cases — and by the inferences which Geographical considera- 
 tions, in both instances, appear to suggest — requires recon- 
 sideration. 
 
 In this place I may observe, that in the course of the fol- 
 lowing inquiries it will be found true as a general principle, 
 that in direct proportion as the proofs of the General Unity 
 of the different races of the Globe are observed to become 
 more distinct, the evidence which has frequently been relied 
 upon as demonstrative of a specific connexion between par- 
 ticular races will also be observed to become more doubtful, 
 for both the affinities and differences which exist between the 
 languages of contiguous — and those of the most distant — 
 nations, are for the most part so nearly alike in character, 
 and so nearly equal in degree, as to favour the inference that 
 the dispersion of the Human Race must have been exceed- 
 ingly rapid, and that many ancient nations, such as the 
 Basques and Celts, who in subsequent times were found 
 closely contiguous, must, in the first eras of the world, have 
 been isolated from each other by incessant war and nomade 
 habits, almost as early as the most distant nations were ! It is 
 certain that the language of the Welsh does not present either to 
 the Basque or to the Teutonic — dialects of nations located con- 
 tiguously to their Celtic forefathers — examples of affinity more 
 striking than those just adverted to. Nor are the examples 
 above noticed of the connexion between the Welsh and the 
 African dialects by any means more remarkable than the in- 
 stances of resemblance between the former tongue and the 
 dialect of the Mandans, a North American Indian Tribe, 
 which have been pointed out by Mr. Catlin ! In both cases 
 the same observation applies — an observation based on a prin- 
 ciple that will be more fully understood hereafter— viz., that 
 
XXXV111 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 these coincidences are unequivocal proofs of a generic, but 
 not of that kind of specific relation, which implies that these 
 nations were at one time united more intimately than the 
 other families of mankind. 
 
 Various miscellaneous considerations connected with the 
 primitive migrations of mankind may now be adverted to. 
 
 Neither the extent nor the physical features of our Globe 
 are such as imply that the spread of population over its sur- 
 face must necessarily have been the work of many ages. To 
 traverse the habitable earth from the Southern extremity of 
 Africa to the North of Asia, and thence to the extreme 
 Southern point of the American continent, is a task which 
 would require only a small fraction of one man^s life ! And 
 in the first ages of the Race, Man was probably a Nomade, 
 a Wanderer ! It may be inferred, therefore, that in the early 
 ages of the world the diffusion of population was very rapid 
 in the warmer latitudes, while towards the North it was ob- 
 structed rather by climate than by any other cause. As 
 population became more dense in the more favoured regions, 
 weaker tribes, it may be surmised, were gradually driven 
 into the steppes of Asia and the wilds of Siberia, whence 
 they may be supposed to have penetrated into Europe on 
 the one hand, and across Behring's Straits into America on 
 the other. With the exception of America, all the great 
 Continents are connected together by districts easily traversed 
 by Man ; and Behring's Strait, which is interposed between 
 America and the North-east of Asia, might be passed in the 
 canoes of some of the most barbarous tribes with which we 
 are acquainted. 
 
 The peopling of Islands is a subject that has been dis- 
 cussed very satisfactorily by Dr. Prichard, and after him by 
 Mr. Lyell. Their conclusion is, that the occasional drifting 
 of canoes by storms and currents, is sufficient to account for 
 the existence of Human population in the most remote 
 
INTRODUCTION. XXXIX 
 
 islands, as is proved by facts related by Kotzebue and others. 
 Several reasons have however been suggested in the following 
 pages, for the conclusion that Australia is a recently peopled 
 country. 
 
 The geographical distribution of the various languages of 
 the globe seems to render Adelung's arguments for regarding 
 Central Asia as the birth-place of our species eminently con- 
 vincing. The languages of China and the South-east of 
 Asia are either Monosyllabic, or Tongues that partake of 
 that character ; Languages having the same features are 
 spoken through the long chain of islands in the Pacific as far 
 as New Zealand. All the other Tongues of the Globe are 
 Polysyllabic. Now if the birth-place of Man and the focus 
 of migration was in Central Asia, on the borders of Cashmire 
 and Tibet, this division of Languages would necessarily have 
 followed, for it will be observed that Tibet, which is the 
 source of the rivers of the regions to the South-east, would 
 in that case have given inhabitants to the countries of South- 
 eastern Asia, countries which are isolated from all others, for 
 not only are they cut off from Europe, Africa, and Western 
 Asia, by the system of Table-lands and its Mountains, they 
 are also separated from Northern Asia and therefore from 
 America by the Great Desert of Gobi or Shamo. To the 
 Steppes of Northern Asia, and consequently to America as 
 well as to Europe and Africa, the territory of Persia or Iran, 
 which, as has been seen, forms the opposite slope of the 
 system of Table-lands, is the natural route. 
 
 The relations which the Parsian, the Pehlwi, and the Zend, 
 the ancient dialects of Persia, bear to those of the surround- 
 ing countries, seem to be in a highly interesting manner 
 confirmatory of Adelung's views. The Parsian, which was 
 spoken in the South of Persia in the provinces near to India, 
 approaches so closely to the Sanscrit, the ancient language 
 of that country, that Sir William Jones considered the Parsian 
 
xl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to have been the parent of the Sanscrit. The Pehlwi, the 
 language of the Parthians who occupied the centre of Persia, 
 a territory that adjoins the Semetic countries, appears very 
 decidedly to be a connecting link between the Semetic lan- 
 guages on the one hand and the Parsian and Zend and the 
 Indo-European tongues, viewed as a class, on the other. The 
 Zend, the dialect of ancient Media, or North Persia, is supposed 
 to be closely allied to the Armenian. The Parsian, Pehlwi, 
 and Zend, respectively bearing these relations to the languages 
 of the neighbouring countries, are closely connected as sister 
 dialects among themselves. These facts tend to show — from 
 the summit of the Western Table-land viewed as a centre, 
 through Persia viewed as a medium — a radiation of language 
 from which a radiation of population may reasonably be 
 presumed. 
 
 The species of affinity which the ancient Persian dialects 
 display to the languages of the adjoining countries appears 
 to point very distinctly to another highly important conclu- 
 sion in relation to the early history of mankind, viz., that the 
 diffusion of population over Persia and the contiguous 
 countries must have been a comparatively recent event with 
 reference to the earliest specimens of the Persian and Semetic 
 dialects, &c. After the lapse of a long interval the languages 
 even of contiguous countries lose the traces of original unity. 
 But with regard to modern dialects it can be distinctly shown 
 that those of intermediate districts are connecting links 
 between those of the extremities. Thus the Savoyard con- 
 nects the French and Italian dialects of the Latin, and those 
 of the North of England are intermediate between the modern 
 English and the Lowland Scotch ; Du Ponceau has made a 
 similar remark with regard to the North American Indian 
 dialects spoken by kindred tribes. Septs placed in the centre 
 continue to maintain a certain degree of intercourse with all 
 the tribes by which they are surrounded, a consideration 
 
INTRODUCTION. xli 
 
 which will account for these results, which probably cannot, 
 in many cases, be referred to different degrees of Genealogical 
 affinity. 
 
 One of the most striking indications of the Original Unity 
 of the different Races of Men is derivable from the uniformity 
 of the Moral; Mental, and Social Features they display. 
 
 Though the mind in early infancy may be destitute of 
 positive ideas, it seems to be evident, nevertheless, that our 
 Species has been gifted with Intellectual Faculties, and with 
 Moral Sentiments and Sympathies, which are in the strictest 
 sense innate.* Of this conclusion a striking confirmation is 
 derivable, from the extraordinary sameness which, on a close 
 examination, will be found to prevail in the characters, senti- 
 ments, and sympathies of the various branches of the Human 
 Species. Of this truth a few examples will now be noticed. 
 
 The Negro tribes of Africa have frequently been supposed to 
 belong to an inferior race of Men, an opinion founded — partly 
 on an inadequate conception of the progressive character of 
 the Human species — partly on ignorance of the progress which 
 many Negro nations have actually made. On the one hand 
 it would be difficult to show that the rudest of the African 
 tribes are in a more barbarous condition than the ancestors of 
 some of the most civilized European nations once were ! On 
 the other hand, the proofs of a capacity for social improve- 
 ment are as unequivocal in the former case as they are in the 
 latter ! Large and important nations, as for example the 
 Mandingoes and the lolofs, are found in the interior of Africa, 
 professing the Mahomedan religion, and as far advanced in 
 the virtues and refinements of civilization, as any other 
 nations who are followers of the same creed. In many of these 
 nations the Men are distinguished by a grave and reflective 
 character, and the women are remarkable for their exemplary 
 
 • See Dugald Stewart, on the Active and Mora) Faculties, 
 
xlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 discharge of the duties of domestic life. Sections of the Negro 
 race have also been converted to Christianity, including many 
 individuals who have been distinguished not only by a steady 
 conformity to its precepts, but by the zeal and success with 
 which they have fulfilled the high duties of Missionaries 
 among their countrymen, and by the composition of Theo- 
 logical treatises of no inconsiderable merit ! (See Dr. 
 Prichard on Man.) 
 
 It has been already observed that the physiognomy of the 
 Egyptians approaches closely to that of the Negro race, of 
 which it may be regarded as a modification. It has also been 
 pointed out in another part of this work, that the evidence of 
 language favours the inference that Egypt was the source of 
 the various African populations. The discoveries of our age — 
 while they have rendered indisputable the extraordinary arts, 
 high civilization, and vast political power of ancient Egypt — 
 have also served to disclose, in the portraits of individuals of 
 that country, forms of grace and elegance, that serve to link 
 together by the ties of a close and pathetic association, the in- 
 fancy with the later ages of the world ! To adopt the expres- 
 sion of Schlegel, (See SchlegeFs Translation of Dr. Prichard's 
 Work on Eg. Mythol.,) the physiognomy of the ancient 
 Egyptians is that of a u very noble race 5 ' of men. But it 
 differs very widely from the characteristics of the European 
 nations ; in the dignified features of the men, and also in the 
 lineaments of female beauty, the approach to the Negro Phy- 
 siognomy is often very conspicuous ! 
 
 I may instance the countenance of the Sphynx as affording 
 a specimen of the species of approximation to the Negro 
 Physiognomy which is observable in ancient Egyptian 
 remains ! 
 
 One of the most forcible examples of the susceptibility to 
 
INTRODUCTION. xliii 
 
 civilization* of nations once very barbarous may be found in 
 a comparison of the character of the ancient Gauls and 
 modern French. When Hannibal invaded Italy he confined 
 his ravages to the possessions of the Romans and spared 
 those of the Gauls ; a partial distinction which won the 
 favour of this simple people, who flocked in great numbers 
 to his standard. The Gauls who were in his army at the 
 battle of Cannae are described as a fierce people, naked from 
 the waist, carrying large round shields, with swords of an 
 enormous size blunted at the point. Yet there cannot be a 
 doubt that the French, one of the most refined and distin- 
 guished of modern nations, are lineally descended from this 
 primitive race ! (See p. 64.) The true answer to the reveries 
 of Pinkerton, with respect to the imputed incapacity of the 
 Celts, is to be found in the literature and science of the 
 French, in whom, owing to the great extent of their country, 
 the original Celtic blood is most probably less unmingled 
 than it is in the Irish, the Welsh, or the Highland Scotch ! 
 
 A comparison of the character of the ancient Gauls and 
 modern French involves also an instructive example of the 
 mode in which the tendency to progression in the Human 
 species is often united with a stability of national character 
 in some features that forms a singular contrast to that 
 tendency. In comparing Caesar's Commentaries on his Wars 
 in Gaul with the volumes of General Napier, we are struck, 
 in almost every page, with proofs of a coincidence of mental 
 features so minute, that but for the opposite accompaniments 
 on the one hand, of a primitive, and on the other of a modern 
 age, we might imagine we had before us, in these relations, 
 two narratives referring to the same wars, the same sieges, 
 
 * In connexion with this subject I may refer to an article distinguished by great 
 genius and profound philosophical reasoning, which lately appeared in Chambers's 
 Journal, under the title of " Thoughts on Nations and Civilization.'" (See 
 Number for May 21st, 1842.) 
 
xliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 and the same men ! The mind is perplexed to eonceive how 
 a nation that has existed in conditions so contrasted, as re- 
 gards Civilization, could have continued thus uniform in its 
 social and moral features ! 
 
 Striking as these and other proofs which may be adduced 
 of the uniformity of character which has often been maintained 
 by the same nation in different stages of society undoubtedly 
 are, they must cease to excite surprise — though they may be 
 said to acquire even a higher interest — when viewed through 
 the medium of the closely analogous results which will be 
 found to flow from a comparison with the civilized nations 
 of Europe of contemporaneous Tribes still existing in the 
 " Hunter State." 
 
 The natives of Australia have generally been thought to oc- 
 cupy the lowest place in the social scale. But from Col. Grey^s 
 valuable work it may be inferred that in their devices for 
 catching game and other arts belonging to their rude state, 
 they give proofs of the same intelligence and acuteness as are 
 evinced by other races of men. They have also Songs of War 
 and Love which they sing in tunes most barbarous and dis- 
 cordant. The more refined lays of the European excite mimicry 
 and laughter. But, adds Col. Grey, "Some of the natives 
 " are not insensible to the charms of our music. Warrup, 
 "a native youth, who lived with me for several months 
 "asa servant, once accompanied me to an amateur theatre at 
 " Perth, and when the actors came forward and sang i God 
 " save the Queen,' he burst into tears. He certainly could 
 " not have comprehended the words of the song, and, therefore, 
 iC must have been affected by the Music alone?' 
 
 * * * * 
 
 u Nothing can awaken in the breast more melancholy feel- 
 " ings than the funeral chants of these people. They are 
 " sung by a whole chorus of females of all ages, and the effect 
 
INTRODUCTION-. xlv 
 
 "produced upon the bystanders by this wild music is in- 
 " describable." 
 
 * * * * 
 
 Many of the Australian words given by Colonel Grey will 
 readily be recognized among the terms collected from the 
 languages of the other Four Continents in Appendix A ; as 
 for example: Nganga, Ngon-ge, Tin-dee. Tiendee, f The Sun' 
 and < The Stars/ (See App. A, p. 26.) Yanna, 'To go/ and 
 Tjenna, Tinna, 'The Foot/ (74.) Tullun, Tdallung, Tad- 
 langa, c The Tongue/ (72.) Nago, c To see/ (42, 43.) Mena, 
 'The Eye.' (14.) Poou, Puiyu, Poito, Booyoo, ' Smoke/ and 
 Bobun, < To blow/ (21.) 
 
 In the construction of their canoes, the inhabitants of 
 some of the most barbarous islands of the Pacific, exhibit an 
 originality and a variety of conception of precisely the same 
 nature as is displayed in those mechanical inventions by which 
 the sum of European civilization is progressively extended ! 
 
 But in • relation to the subject more immediately under 
 examination, far the most valuable and instructive informa- 
 tion occurs in Mr. Catlings account of his residence among 
 the North American Indian Tribes, a work, admirable alike 
 as a living picture of Indian manners and sentiments, and 
 also as an earnest and simple minded, and for that reason an 
 eminently touching and eloquent appeal, on behalf of one of 
 the noblest, though one of the most unfortunate families of 
 the Human Race ! 
 
 " I have roamed about from time to time during seven 
 "or eight years f says the writer, "visiting and associating 
 " with some three or four hundred thousand of these people, 
 "under an almost infinite variety of circumstances; and 
 " from the very many and decidedly voluntary acts of their 
 " hospitality and kindness, I feel bound to pronounce them, 
 "by nature, a kind and hospitable people I have been 
 " welcomed generally in their country, and treated to the 
 
xlvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " best that they could give me, without any charges made 
 " for my board ; they have often escorted me through their 
 " enemies' country at some hazard to their own lives, and 
 u aided me in passing mountains and rivers with my awkward 
 " baggage ; and under all these circumstances of exposure, 
 "no Indian ever betrayed me, struck me a blow, or stole 
 " from me a shilling's worth of my property that I am aware of. 
 
 "This is saying a great deal (and proving it too, if the 
 " reader will believe me,) in favour of the virtues of these 
 " people ; when it is borne in mind, as it should be, that 
 " there is no law in the land to punish for theft, that locks 
 "and keys are not known in their country, that the com- 
 "mandments have never been divulged amongst them, nor 
 " can any human retribution fall upon the head of a thief, 
 "save the disgrace which attaches as a stigma to his cha- 
 racter in the eyes of the people around him. 
 
 "And thus in these little communities, strange as it may 
 "seem, in the absence of all systems of jurisprudence, I have 
 " often beheld peace and happiness, and quiet, reigning su- 
 " preme, for which even kings and emperors might envy them. 
 " I have seen rights and virtue protected, and wrongs re- 
 " dressed ; and I have seen conjugal, filial and paternal affec- 
 "tion, in the simplicity and contentedness of nature. I have 
 "unavoidably formed warm and enduring attachments to 
 " some of these men, which I do not wish to forget, who have 
 " brought me near to their hearts, and in our final separation 
 "have embraced me in their arms, and commended me and 
 " my affairs to the keeping of the Great Spirit." 
 
 Among those tribes which have been placed in contact with 
 the Whites, individuals, generally Chiefs, have acquired all 
 the advantages of a European education, to which in most of 
 these instances are united, dignified and gentlemanlike feel- 
 ings and manners, qualities which seem to belong to the native 
 American character. Some tribes have been nearly extir- 
 
INTRODUCTION. xlvil 
 
 pated by the use of fermented liquors. But some sections of 
 the Indian population have been converted to Christianity, and 
 adopted the habit of total abstinence ; others have become in- 
 dustrious cultivators of the soil. Where this race has rejected 
 the benefits of civilization, it seems almost invariably to have 
 arisen from the prejudices naturally excited in their minds by 
 the vices of the worst part of the white population, and the 
 calamities which they have caused by the introduction of 
 ardent spirits ! Even those excellent men who have devoted 
 their lives to the religious instruction of the Indians, and by 
 whose efforts it may be inferred that some Tribes have been 
 saved from extinction, have too often found in these preju- 
 dices, an obstacle which might perhaps be removed were 
 the missionaries generally to commence by offering to teach 
 some of the simplest arts of civilized life — information of 
 which the benefits would be immediately appreciated— as a 
 means of paving the way for obtaining that confidence which, 
 as religious instructors, they require. 
 
 The life of constant war and peril to which the Indians are 
 exposed is incompatible with actual Social advancement. 
 But proofs of a spontaneous tendency to civilization may 
 be gleaned, as I conceive, from the grace and tastefulness of 
 their dresses — the beautiful lodges many of the Tribes build — 
 and other indications, &c. But of this truth, a still more deci- 
 sive example occurs, as I venture to think, in the account given 
 by Mr. Catlin of a very interesting tribe, the Mandans, whom, 
 from the evidence of language already noticed and other con- 
 siderations, he has conjectured to be descendants of Madoc"s 
 Colony, and whose personal character and appearance he 
 thus describes : 
 
 " The Mandans are certainly a very interesting and pleasing 
 " people in their personal appearance and manners ; differing 
 " in many respects, both in looks and customs, from all other 
 " tribes which I have ever seen. They are not a warlike 
 
xlviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 "people, for they seldom, if ever, carry war into their 
 " enemies' country ; but when invaded, show their valour and 
 " courage to be equal to that of any people on earth. Being 
 " a small tribe, and unable to contend on the wide prairies 
 " with the Sioux and other roaming tribes, who are ten times 
 u more numerous, they have very judiciously located themselves 
 " in a permanent village, which is strongly fortified, and en- 
 " sures their preservation. By this means they have advanced 
 "further in the arts of manufacture, and have supplied their 
 " lodges more abundantly with the comforts and even luxuries 
 et °f life than any Indian nation I know of. The consequence 
 " of this is that the tribe have taken many steps ahead of other 
 " tribes in manners and refinements (if I may be allowed to use 
 " the word refinement to Indian life) ; and are, therefore, 
 " familiarly (and correctly) denominated by the Traders and 
 " others, who have been amongst them, the c polite and 
 " friendly Mandans/ 
 
 " There is certainly great justice in the remark, and so 
 " forcibly have I been struck with the peculiar ease and ele- 
 " gatice of this peeple, together with the diversity of com- 
 " plexions, the various colours of their hair and eyes, the 
 " singularity of their language, and their peculiar and unac- 
 " countable customs, that I am fully convinced that they have 
 e: sprung from some other origin than that of the other North 
 " American tribes, or that they are an amalgam of natives 
 " with some civilized race. 
 
 " Here arises a question of very great interest and impor- 
 " tance for discussion ; and after further familiarity with their 
 " character, customs, and traditions, if I forget not, I will 
 " eventually give it further consideration. Suffice it then for 
 " the present, that their personal appearance alone, inde- 
 pendent of their modes and customs, pronounces them at 
 " once as more or less than savage, 
 
 "A stranger in the Mandan village is first struck with the 
 
INTRODUCTION. xlix 
 
 u different shades of complexion and colours of hair which he 
 " sees in a crowd, and is at once almost disposed to exclaim 
 " that ' these are not Indians F 
 
 lC There are a great many of these people whose com- 
 " plexions appear as light as half-breeds ; and amongst the 
 " women particularly, there are many whose skins are almost 
 i( white, with the most pleasing symmetry and proportion of 
 " features ; with hazel, with gray, and with blue eyes ; with 
 " mildness and sweetness of expression, and excessive modesty 
 " of demeanour, which render them exceedingly pleasing and 
 « beautiful !" 
 
 It has been shown in another part of this work that the 
 language of the Mandans does not prove them to be con- 
 nected with the Welsh, and that their dialect is of the same 
 character as that of other Indian tribes. Further, did space 
 allow, I might produce some evidence that the Mandans are 
 allied in blood to their hereditary foes, the fierce and warlike 
 Sioux ! The phenomena noticed by Mr. Catlin must be ex- 
 plained therefore by the aid of different principles than those 
 to which he has referred.* 
 
 I conceive then that these various peculiarities of colour, 
 personal appearance, and of manners and social habits, which 
 he noticed amongst the Mandans, may all be viewed as effects 
 of one simple cause, viz. their "judiciously selected location" 
 in "a permanent village,' 5 involving protection from exposure 
 to the seasons on the one hand, and the abandonment of 
 nomade habits on the other. To the former, the changes of 
 complexion — to the latter, the social advances — of the 
 Mandan Tribe may be ascribed ! 
 
 There are numerous other data in Mr. Catlings work which 
 seem to afford illustrations of the mutability of Human 
 Physiology. The Indians who live among the Whites he 
 describes as e Pale 5 Red. May not the change implied in 
 
 * This sept were also generally termed the " gentlemanly" Mandans. The 
 recent destruction of this warm-hearted tribe by the smallpox is one of the most 
 heart-rending tragedies in history ! 
 
 D 
 
1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 this expression be referred to an abandonment of their original 
 life of activity and exposure on the wild Prairie, quite as much 
 as to misfortune or a mixture of European blood ? The va- 
 riety of Physiognomy among the different tribes, as shown 
 by his admirable portraits of Chiefs, &c, is very extraordinary. 
 Some of these countenances are ugly and unprepossessing ; 
 but in others the finest European features occur ! The traits 
 exhibited by these portraits are contrary to the inference 
 which Humboldt's description might suggest, viz., that all the 
 N. A. Indian Tribes resemble the Mongol Race in features 
 as well as in the colour of their skin and the absence of beard. 
 
 The Indian shows no want of acuteness in detecting the 
 characteristic vices, whether real or imaginary, of the civilized 
 world. 
 
 "On one occasion, when I had interrogated a Sioux chiefj 
 "on the Upper Missouri, about their government, their 
 " punishments, and tortures of prisoners, for which I had 
 " freely condemned them for the cruelty of practice, he took 
 " occasion, when I had got through, to ask me some ques- 
 " tions relative to modes in the civilized world. He told me 
 "he had often heard that white people hung their criminals 
 a by the neck and choked them to death like dogs, and those 
 " their own people; to which I answered ' Yes.' He then told 
 " me he had learned that they shut each other up in prisons, 
 " where they keep them a great part of their lives because they 
 " can^t pay money ! I replied in the affirmative to this, which 
 " occasioned great surprise and excessive laughter even 
 " amongst the women ! He told me that he had been to our 
 " Fort at Council Bluffs, where we had a great many warriors 
 " and braves, and he saw three of them taken out on the 
 u prairies and tied to a post and whipped almost to death ; and 
 "he had been told that they submit to all this to get a little 
 " money ! * * * 
 
 " He put to me a chapter of other questions as to the tres- 
 " passes (of the Whites) on their lands, their continual cor- 
 
INTRODUCTION. li 
 
 " ruption of the morals of their women, and digging open the 
 " Indian's graves to get their bones, &c. To all of which I 
 " was compelled to reply in the affirmative, and quite glad to 
 " close my note book, and quietly to escape from the throng 
 " that had collected around me, and saying (though to my- 
 " self and silently), that these and a hundred others are vices 
 " that belong to the civilized world, and are practised upon 
 tt (but certainly in no instance reciprocated by) 'the cruel and 
 " relentless' savage !" 
 
 It is probable that the finer features of the North American 
 Indian character may be ascribed in a great measure to the 
 elevated nature of their religious belief, which indisputably 
 appears to be quite free from the loathsome and debasing 
 idolatry of the Hindoos and other pagan nations of the Old 
 World. 
 
 " I fearlessly assert to the world (and I defy contradiction), 
 " that the North American Indian is everywhere in his native 
 " state a highly moral and religious being, endowed by his 
 " Maker with an intuitive knowledge of some great Author 
 " of his being and the universe, in dread of whose displeasure 
 ,f he constantly lives, with the apprehension before him of a 
 " future state, where he expects to be rewarded or punished 
 "according to the merits he has gained or forfeited in this 
 « world." 
 
 In their native state, in regions remote from the Whites, 
 the Indians are well clothed and fed, cleanly in their habits, 
 cheerful, and healthy. The opposite qualities have been con- 
 sidered to be characteristic of the race, in consequence of the 
 unhappy condition of most of those Tribes who are found 
 among or near the settlements of the Whites, a condition 
 ascribable to the use of ardent spirits, the destruction of the 
 game on which they originally subsisted, and the fraudulent 
 manner in which they have often been deprived of their 
 lands ! 
 
Ill INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " From what I have seen of these people I feel authorized 
 " to say, that there is nothing very strange or unaccountable 
 u in their character ; but that it is a simple one, and easy to 
 "be understood if the right means be taken to familiarize 
 " ourselves with it. Although it has dark spots, yet there is 
 "much in it to be applauded, and much to recommend it to 
 M the admiration of the enlightened world. And I trust that 
 " the reader who looks through these volumes with care, will 
 u be disposed to join me in the conclusion, that the North 
 " American Indian in his native state is an honest, hospitable, 
 " faithful, brave, warlike, cruel, revengeful, relentless, yet 
 " honorable, contemplative, and religious being." 
 
 The tortures practised by the Indians on their prisoners of 
 war are, it seems, inflicted only on a portion of their cap- 
 tives by way of reprisal. The prisoners are for the most 
 part adopted into the conquering tribe. The men are mar- 
 ried to the wives of those who have fallen in battle ; and 
 those outrages on the weaker sex which have disgraced the 
 armies of civilized Europe are unknown in the annals of 
 Indian warfare ! 
 
 The Indian is reckless of life, and the female sex among 
 these tribes is consigned to a life of servitude. But it must 
 be asked, is the morality of European nations uniformly 
 founded on an earnest regard for the claims of humanity — 
 on a tender respect for the rights and for the sufferings of the 
 weak and defenceless ! This is a momentous question, to 
 which an answer at once humiliating and complete may be 
 drawn from one single historical incident described in the 
 following touching passage ! 
 
 After noticing the defective state of the European law of 
 nations in certain respects, the author from whose work the 
 following narrative has been derived, thus proceeds : " The 
 " other case in which it seems to me that the law of nations 
 " should either be amended, or declared more clearly and en- 
 
INTRODUCTION. liii 
 
 u forced in practice, is that of the blockade of townsnotdefended 
 " by their inhabitants, in order to force their surrender by starva- 
 " tion. And here let us try to realize to ourselves what such a 
 " blockade is. We need not, unhappily, draw a fancied pic- 
 " ture ; history, and no remote history either, will supply us 
 u with the facts. Some of you, I doubt not, remember 
 " Genoa; you have seen that queenly city, with its streets of 
 " palaces rising tier above tier from the water, girdling with 
 " the long lines of its bright white houses the vast sweep of 
 "its harbour, the mouth of which is marked by a huge 
 " natural mole of rock, crowned by its magnificent lighthouse- 
 " tower. You remember how its white houses rose out of a 
 " mass of fig, and olive, and orange trees, the glory of its old 
 "patrician luxury; you may have observed the mountains 
 " behind the town, spotted at intervals by small circular low 
 " towers, one of which is distinctly conspicuous where the 
 " ridge of the hills rises to its summit and hides from view 
 " all the country behind it. Those towers are the forts of the 
 fcC famous lines ; which, curiously resembling in shape the later 
 " Syracusan walls inclosing Epipolae, converge inland from 
 " the eastern and western extremities of the city, looking 
 " down the western line of the valley of Pulcevera, the 
 " eastern on that of the Bisagno, till they meet as I have said 
 " on the summit of the mountains, where the hills cease to 
 " rise from the sea and become more or less of a table-land, 
 " running off towards the interior at the distance, as well as I 
 " remember, of between two and three miles from the outside of 
 " the city. Thus a very large open space is inclosed within 
 "the lines, and Genoa is capable therefore of becoming a vast 
 " entrenched camp, holding not so much a garrison as an 
 " army. In the autumn of 1 799, the Austrians had driven 
 " the French out of Lombardy and Piedmont ; their last vic- 
 " tory of Fossano or Genola, had won the fortress of Coni or 
 "Cuneo close under the Alps, and at the very extremity of 
 
liv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " the plain of the Po. The French clung to Italy only by 
 " their hold of the Riviera of Genoa, the narrow strip of coast 
 " between the Apennines and the sea, which extends from 
 a the frontiers of France almost to the mouth of the Arno. 
 14 Hither the remains of the French force were collected, com- 
 " manded by General Massena, and the point of chief im- 
 " portance to his defence was the city of Genoa. 
 
 " Napoleon had just returned from Egypt, and was become 
 " First Consul; but he could not be expected to take the field 
 " till the following spring, and till then Massena was hopeless 
 " of relief from without, everything was to depend upon his 
 " own pertinacity. The strength of his army made it impossible 
 e ' to force it in such a position as Genoa ; but its very numbers, 
 u added to the population of the city, held out to the enemy 
 " a hope of reducing it by famine; and as Genoa derives most 
 " of its supplies by sea, Lord Keith, the British naval Com- 
 a mander in Chief in the Mediterranean, lent the assistance 
 " of his naval force to the Austrians, and by the vigilance of 
 " his cruizers, the whole coasting trade right and left was ef- 
 66 fectually cut off. It is not at once that the inhabitants 
 " of a great city, accustomed to the daily sight of well-stored 
 " shops and an abundant market, begin to realize the idea 
 " of scarcity; or that the wealthy classes of society, who have 
 " never known any other state than one of abundance and 
 et luxury, begin seriously to conceive of famine. But the shops 
 " were emptied, and the storehouses began to be drawn upon; 
 " and no fresh supply or hope of supply appeared. Winter 
 " passed away, and Spring returned, so early and so beautiful 
 " on that garden-like coast, sheltered as it is from the north 
 " winds by its belt of mountains, and open to the full rays of 
 €t the Southern Sun. Spring returned, and clothed the hill 
 " sides within the lines with its fresh verdure. But that ver- 
 " dure was no more the delight of the careless eye of luxury, 
 " refreshing the citizens by its loveliness and softness when 
 
INTRODUCTION. lv 
 
 " they rode or walked up thither from the city to enjoy the 
 " surpassing beauty of the prospect ! The green hill sides 
 "were now visited for a very different object; ladies of the 
 " highest rank might be seen cutting up every plant which 
 " it was possible to turn to food, and bearing home the com- 
 " mon weeds of our road sides as a most precious treasure ! 
 
 * The French general pitied the distress of the people ; but 
 " the lives and the strength of his garrison seemed to him 
 "more important than the lives of the Genoese, and such 
 " provisions as remained were reserved in the first place for 
 " the French army. Scarcity became utter want, and want 
 u became famine ! In the most gorgeous palaces of that gor- 
 " geous city, no less than in the humblest tenements of the 
 "poor, death was busy; not the momentary death of battle 
 "or massacre, nor the speedy death of pestilence, but the 
 " lingering and most miserable death of famine ! Infants died 
 " before their parents' eyes, husbands and wives lay down to 
 "expire together! A man whom I saw at Genoa in 1825 
 " told me that his father and two of his brothers had been 
 " starved to death in this fatal siege. So it went on, till in 
 " the month of June, when Napoleon had already descended 
 " from the Alps into the plain of Lombardy, the misery be- 
 " came unendurable, and Massena surrendered. But before 
 " he did so, twenty thousand innocent persons, old and young, 
 "women and children, had died by the most horrible of deaths 
 
 * which humanity can endure ! Other horrors which occurred 
 " besides during the blockade I pass over; the agonizing death 
 " of twenty thousand innocent and helpless persons requires 
 " nothing to be added to it ! 
 
 " Now is it right that such a tragedy as this should take 
 (i place, and that the laws of war should be supposed to justify 
 " the authors of it ? Conceive having been a naval officer in 
 " Lord Keith's squadron at that time, and being employed in 
 " stopping the food which was being brought for the relief of 
 
lvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " such misery ! For the thing was done deliberately ; the 
 " helplessness of the Genoese was known, their distress was 
 " known ; it was known that they could not force Massena to 
 "surrender; it was known that they were dying daily by 
 " hundreds ; yet week after week, and month after month, 
 " did the British ships of war keep their iron watch along all 
 " the coast : no vessel nor boat laden with any article of 
 " provision could escape their vigilance! One cannot but be 
 " thankful that Nelson was spared from commanding at this 
 " horrible blockade of Genoa ! 
 
 "Now on which side the law of Nations should throw the guilt 
 " of most atrocious murder is of little comparative consequence 
 " or whether it should attach to both sides equally: but that the 
 " deliberate starving to death of twenty thousand helpless per- 
 " sons should be regarded as a crime in one or in both of 
 " the parties concerned in it seems to me self-evident ! The 
 " simplest course would seem to be that all non-combatants 
 " should be allowed to go out of a blockaded town, and that 
 " the general who should refuse to let them pass should be 
 " regarded in the same light as one who were to murder his 
 " prisoners or who were in the habit of butchering women and 
 " children." 
 
 It is not intended to be suggested that the morality of the 
 more virtuous and religious members of civilized communities 
 is not superior to that of uncivilized races. But that such 
 superiority can be claimed by the mass of the inhabitants of 
 Europe is a proposition of which the evidence must be allowed 
 to be doubtful as regards some — must be allowed, alas ! to 
 fail altogether as regards many — of those virtues of which our 
 nature is capable ! 
 
 Yet, notwithstanding many melancholy facts that seem to 
 be repugnant to such a conclusion, there exist satisfactory 
 grounds for inferring that civilization has a direct tendency to 
 
INTRODUCTION. lvii 
 
 promote the moral improvement of the Human Race, and that 
 our species is probably destined even in this state of existence, 
 to a course not only of social, but also of a moral progression ! 
 Of this truth distinct indications may be recognized in the 
 altered sentiments of European nations on many momentous 
 subjects, as evinced in the increasing aversion to wars of ag- 
 gression — in the general condemnation of the principle — and 
 the extensive abolition of the practice — of slavery, and in the 
 rapid growth of an earnest sympathy, at once generous and 
 humane, with the claims and the sufferings of the more unpro- 
 tected branches of mankind ! Of the practical results of these 
 changes in the moral sentiments of Society— of which Chris- 
 tianity, which teaches that all men are of one blood and of one 
 family, has been the primary source —and of which the Eng- 
 lish nation —influenced by the example of a few men of extra- 
 ordinary piety, wisdom, and humanity, to whom it gave birth in 
 the last generation, have been the most conspicuous instruments 
 — one example may be appropriately introduced in this place. 
 "The original proprietors of this fine soil, (the neighbour - 
 u hood of the Cape of Good Hope,) the poor Hottentots, the 
 "fabricated tales of whose filthiness are known to every school- 
 "boy, and have made them proverbial in every nation of Europe, 
 u are probably the simplest and most inoffensive of the human 
 " race. By open robbery and murder, and by a cruel and per- 
 " severing system of oppression on the part of the Dutch colo- 
 et nists, they have been reduced to not much more than 15,000 
 " souls. Under the protection of theBritish government, by the 
 " careful instruction of the missionaries, and their increased 
 " importance in the colony as labourers since the abolition of the 
 " slave trade, their number is now considerably on the increase; 
 " General Craig, after the capture of the Cape, brought for- 
 " ward, experimentally, the physical and moral qualities of 
 " this most injured and degraded people, by forming them into 
 " a military corps, which, in point of discipline, obedience, 
 
hiii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 " instruction and cleanliness, were not at all behind European 
 "troops. The truth is that the filthy appearance of the 
 " Hottentot was never from choice, but necessity. The anxiety 
 " which he now shows to get quit of his sheep-skin clothing for 
 " cotton, linen, or woollen, and to keep his person clean, proves 
 " that he is far more sensible than the ' Boor 5 to the comforts of 
 " civilized life. ■ Whosoever, says the excellent Mr. Latrobe, 
 ** the father of the Moravians in this country, charges the 
 " Hottentots with being inferior to other people of the same 
 " class as to education and the means of improvement, knows 
 " nothing about them. They are in general more sensible, 
 " and possess better judgment than most Europeans, equally 
 u destitute of the means of instruction/ At Bavians Kloof, 
 " or the Monkey's Ravine, which General Jansens altered into 
 " Gandenthal, or the Valley of Grace, 130 miles e. by n. of 
 " Cape Town, is an establishment of these poor despised 
 "people under the care of missionaries, founded in 1737. It 
 "consists of a beautiful village containing 1400 Hottentot 
 " inhabitants. Every cottage has a garden, a few of the poor 
 " class still wear sheep skins, and their children go naked, but 
 " far the greater part of them make a point of providing them- 
 " selves with jackets and trousers, and other articles of 
 " European dress which they already wear on Sundays. Both 
 " before and after meals they sing grace in the sweetest tones 
 " imaginable. The place externally, appears a little Paradise, 
 " and let it be remembered it is only one of a great number 
 " of these missionary stations. The Hottentots are of a deep 
 " brown or yellow brown colour, their eyes are pure white, 
 " their head is small ; the face very wide above, ends in a 
 " point ; their cheek-bones are prominent, their eyes sunk, the 
 " nose flat, the lips thick, the teeth white, and the hand and 
 " foot rather small. They are well made and tall, their hair is 
 " black, either curled or woolly, and they have little or no 
 "beard. Barrow and Grandpre conceive them to be of a 
 
INTRODUCTION. fix 
 
 "Chinese origin, they call themselves Gkhui-gkhui, pro- 
 " nounced with a click of the tongue or throat, and say they 
 " do not come from the interior, but from over the Sea ! The 
 " Hottentots are divided into several Tribes/'* 
 
 The nature of their language shows very clearly that the Hot- 
 tentots are not closely connected by descent with the Chinese ; 
 the tradition that they came originally from a country beyond 
 the sea might apply to the island of Madagascar where a dia- 
 lect kindred to theirs is spoken. There seems however every 
 reason for concluding, agreeably to Dr. Prichard's views, that 
 the Hottentots are descendants of Colonists impelled by the 
 ordinary causes of migration from the North and Middle of 
 Africa, who, as they finally occupied the farthest extremity, 
 were probably the earliest inhabitants of that Continent. The 
 evidence of language serves in a very striking manner to confirm 
 this conclusion. For proofs of the connexion of the Hottentot 
 dialects with the Egyptian and with the Negro languages, see 
 Appendix A. The Hottentot dialects abound also in words 
 unequivocally identical with the corresponding terms in an- 
 cient European and Asiatic languages, as for instance Imine, 
 'A Day/ and Ki, 'The Earth,' with the Greek. Surrie, Sore, 
 'The Sun', with the Sanscrit ' Surya.' Mamma, 'A Mother/ 
 with the Latin, &c. Bo Aboob, 'A Father,' with 'Abba/ 
 Hebrew. Tamma, e The Tongue.' (See p. 15, &c. &c.) Coin- 
 cidences of this nature are proofs of that species of generic 
 connexion with all the other races of mankind which might 
 be expected as a consequence of a separation that, judging 
 from the Geographical position of the Hottentot tribes, we 
 may suppose to have occurred in the earliest ages of the world. 
 
 * Bell's Geography. 
 
1\ INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Proofs of the Identity of the Basque with other Languages. 
 
 The following specimens of the Basque, which have been 
 introduced in illustration of the previous statement, at p. xxxv, 
 include nearly all those words which are in most common 
 use (with the exception of that class of Words which is 
 noticed in Appendix A). By referring to the passages in 
 this work, noticed below, the identity of the Basque words 
 with those of other nations will be readily seen. 
 
 'A Father.' Aita {Basque,) Atta {Gothic), p. 52, Eioth {Egyp- 
 tian.) — C A Mother.' A . m . a . {Basque,) A.m. {Hebrew), 
 see p. 106. 
 
 1 Earth.' Erria {Basque), Erde {German), A . r . ts {Hebrew.) 
 
 ' Water.' Ura {Basque), Ur {Siberians), see p. 84. 
 
 'A Stream.' Ibaya {Basque), see p. 71. 
 
 'Dog.' Potzoa {Basque), Psit {Bohemian), Pesia {Russian.) 
 
 Ora {Basque), Ouhor {Egyptian.) 
 
 'Cat.' Catua {Basque), see p. 122. 
 
 'Ox.' Idia {Basque), Ei di on {Welsh.) 
 
 'Cow.' Bihia {Basque), Bee ouch {Welsh.) 
 
 ' Bull.' Cecena {Basque), Uxen, Ukshhan {Sanscrit), Ox, Oxen 
 {English.) 
 
 'Goat.' A qu erra {Basque), see p. 122. 
 
 'A Lamb.' A-churria, p. 121, Umerria {Basque), A . m . r 
 {Chaldce.) 
 
 'Swine.' Charria Cherria {Basque), Xoir-os {Greek), see p. 122. 
 
 'A Bear.' Artsa {Basque), Arth {Welsh), Arcturus {Latin), 
 Arktos {Greek.) 
 
 The identity of the following words with equivalent terms 
 in the English, &c. will be obvious. 
 
 ' Bread of Maize.' Artosi {Basque), Artos 'Bread; Food' {Greek.) 
 
 'An Arrow.' Istoa {Basque), Ios Oistos {Greek.) 
 
 ' A Raven ; Black.' Balcha Belcha {Basque.) 
 
 ' Eud.' Ondoa {Basque.) 
 
 ' To Go.' Gan {Basque), Gang {Lowland Scotch), Gehen {German.) 
 
 'To Sell.' Saldu {Basque.) 
 
 ' Zeal.' Kharra {Basque), C'H . r . a {Chaldce), C'H . r . e {Hebrew.) 
 
 'Morning.' Bora {Welsh), Biar {Basque.) 
 
 ' To shine very brightly.' B . e . r {Arabic.) 
 

 THE 
 
 RECEIVED. 
 
 ORIGINAL UNITY AND RECENT ORIGIN 
 
 OF 
 
 THE HUMAN RACE, 
 
 SHOWN BY LANGUAGES. 
 
 PLAN OF THIS INVESTIGATION. 
 
 LORD BACON'S PRINCIPLES APPLICABLE TO INQUIRIES 
 INTO THE ORIGIN AND CHANGES OF HUMAN LAN- 
 GUAGES. 
 
 The fanciful theories in which even some of the most dis- 
 tinguished writers have deemed themselves at liberty to in- 
 dulge, when they have entered upon the field of Philological 
 research, have naturally tended to create, among men of calm 
 and dispassionate minds, a general distrust in the results of 
 all inquiries into the origin and early history of human lan- 
 guages. But it must be obvious that the errors into which the 
 first inquirers on this — as on every other — subject have been 
 betrayed is not a fair test of the attention due to Philological 
 investigations. In this, as in every branch of human know- 
 ledge, the authenticity of the results must be tested solely 
 with reference to the principles appealed to, and the weight, 
 amount, and consistency of the evidence adduced. In this, 
 as in every other branch of knowledge, the value of those re- 
 sults must depend solely on the interest and importance of 
 the truths which such results may involve. 
 
 1 
 
2 PLAN OF THIS INVESTIGATION. 
 
 In the following pages are developed proofs of two leading 
 propositions, viz. : 
 
 1. That the languages of the continents of Asia, Europe, 
 
 Africa, and America, were originally the same. 
 
 2. That the differences which exist between the individual 
 
 languages of those continents may be explained con- 
 sistently with the proofs of original unity, by causes 
 still in operation. 
 
 In this place, the principles appealed to in elucidation of 
 these propositions may be explained with advantage. 
 
 1 . As regards the proofs adduced of the original unity of 
 the languages of the four continents. 
 
 These proofs are in no instance founded upon speculation 
 or surmise. They consist in every instance, either of a com- 
 parison of terms absolutely identical in sound and sense, or 
 of terms, of w T hich the mutual connexion is equally certain, 
 in accordance with those principles, wdth respect to which 
 philosophical writers on language are agreed. Terms be- 
 longing to two different continents have been compared in 
 those instances only, in which the affinities are of the same 
 nature, as those which have been shown to be characteristic 
 of words belonging to different dialects of the same lan- 
 guage, in the writings of Court Ghebelin, Home Tooke, 
 Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, Humboldt, and Du Ponceau. 
 These great writers do not belong to the class of Philological 
 speculators, but to that of authorities on the origin and mu- 
 tations of human tongues. 
 
 Hence it follows that the leading doctrine laid down by 
 Lord Bacon as applicable to the investigations of Physical 
 science applies equally in this instance to the researches of 
 
PLAN OF THIS INVESTIGATION. 6 
 
 the Philologist; I allude to the following fundamental maxim: 
 Experience is the only legitimate guide to Truth ; hence an 
 accurate investigation of those facts which are within the 
 limits of our historical knowledge, forms the only admissible 
 basis of deduction, with respect to those facts which are be- 
 yond the range of our actual experience. 
 
 2. Not less applicable is the same maxim in elucidation of 
 the second proposition, viz. : " That the differences 
 which exist between individual languages may be 
 explained, consistently with the proofs of original 
 unity, by causes still in operation." 
 
 This principle may be applied in the following manner : 
 
 There are certain languages of which the original unity can 
 be proved, either by the extrinsic evidence of history, or by 
 the gradual approximation they display as we ascend from 
 modern to earlier epochs, and compare modern with ancient 
 specimens. We can show, by means of the like evidence, the 
 progressive changes they have undergone, and the nature of 
 the existing differences which have been the result of those 
 changes. 
 
 There is another class of languages which came into 
 existence during periods with regard to which we do not pos- 
 sess the light of history ; and the only source from which we 
 can draw our conclusions, with respect to the relations that 
 originally existed between them, is the internal evidence af- 
 forded by the composition and structure of those languages 
 themselves. History being silent, this is the only clue by 
 which we can determine whether they were originally dis- 
 tinct, or derived from a common source. 
 
 But by what rules are we to be guided in the deductions 
 we may form from the mere texture of dialects of the second 
 class ? 
 

 PLAN OF THIS INVESTIGATION. 
 
 The answer is, that the rules to be pursued in forming our 
 conclusions, with respect to the original relations of 
 those languages which can not be historically traced to 
 their source, must be drawn from the experience fur- 
 nished by that class of languages of which the tran- 
 sitions can be traced by means of the independent 
 evidence of history. 
 
 It will be shown that the existing relations between these 
 two different classes of languages are, and therefore we may 
 infer that the original relations were, the same. 
 
 By the adoption of these principles of investigation as re- 
 gards both: 1, The Resemblances, and also 2, The Dif- 
 ferences, which Human Tongues display, the great maxim of 
 Lord Bacon's philosophy will become legitimately applicable 
 to language, and the researches of the Philologist may be 
 directed by the same criteria, and his conclusions vindicated 
 by the same tests as those which apply to the investigations 
 of the inquirer into Physical phenomena. 
 
 It is upon these principles that I propose to conduct the 
 inquiry of which the results are embodied in these pages. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE EVIDENCE FURNISHED BY A COMPARISON OF 
 THEIR LANGUAGES OF THE ORIGINAL, UNITY OF THE 
 VARIOUS NATIONS OF THE CONTINENTS OF ASIA, 
 EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 
 
 Absolute Identity of the Languages of the Four 
 Continents when compared collectively. 
 
 Illustrations from the Names of the Gods of Egypt, 
 Greece, Italy, and India, showing the Origin of 
 Idolatry. 
 
 North American Indian Names for " The Great Spirit/ 5 
 
 The proposition which forms the subject of this Chapter 
 will be supported through the course of this work by the 
 progressive development of a series of various but mutually 
 connected proofs, which — both by their individual force, and 
 by their harmonious combination, — will be found to be con- 
 clusive. 
 
 But of these proofs there is only one branch which admits 
 of being conveniently adverted to in this place. I allude to 
 the evidence collected in Appendix A, in the form of a " Com- 
 parison of the most Common Terms in the African, Asiatic, 
 European and American languages/ 5 This comparison, though 
 composing only a part of the proofs adduced, will be found 
 to involve in itself evidence sufficient to establish the sug- 
 
O ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 gested conclusion. Moreover, the evidence therein em- 
 bodied, — though copious in details, and strictly conforming to 
 the principles laid down by philosophical writers on language, 
 is simple in its nature and results, which may readily be ap- 
 preciated by inquirers totally unaccustomed to philological 
 investigations. For these reasons, the comparison instituted 
 in Appendix A forms an appropriate subject of examination 
 at the commencement of this work. 
 
 Here, however, it must be premised that it will be impos- 
 sible, without a complete perusal, to form a correct appre- 
 ciation either of the facts or of the consequences developed 
 in that Appendix. The explanations I shall present in this 
 place must be viewed, therefore, in the light of a general and 
 imperfect outline only. These explanations will be directed 
 to— 
 
 I. The Nature, 
 II. The Results of the Comparison contained in Appendix A. 
 
 I. Of the Nature of the Comparison in Appendix A. 
 
 The languages of Africa have been chosen as the basis or 
 subject of comparison with which the languages of the other 
 three continents have been collated. 
 
 This arrangement has been dictated by a consideration of 
 the comparatively slight attention which has hitherto been 
 paid to the languages of the Central and Southern Regions 
 of Africa ; and also by the peculiar physiology of the Negro 
 and Hottentot tribes, which has induced some physiologists 
 to refer the origin of these tribes to Races totally distinct from 
 the other Families of mankind. 
 
 The extensive researches of Dr. Prichard have satisfacto- 
 rily shown that the peculiarities of the Negroes and Hottentots 
 are not permanent nor abruptly marked, but local and evane- 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 7 
 
 scent, and that they melt away by nice shades of gradation, 
 corresponding with the minute progressive transitions of 
 climate that are traceable through the various regions of the 
 African continent. Hence the possibility of the identity of 
 the Negro and Hottentot Tribes with the inhabitants of the 
 other three great continents maybe clearly inferred. But no 
 evidence has yet been produced calculated to establish this 
 conclusion as a positive truth. This desideratum the aid of 
 philology will be found satisfactorily to supply. 
 
 In the North of Africa the physiological difficulties which 
 are encountered in the Middle and South do not exist to the 
 same extent in any instance, and in most instances they can 
 scarcely be said to exist at all. The Berbers — the original 
 population of Morocco and the adjoining countries, the lineal 
 descendants of the ancient Numidians— approach very closely 
 to the Spanish population of the opposite coasts of the 
 Mediterranean ; and the Egyptians in the north-east of Africa 
 are much more alike to the contiguous Asiatic nations than 
 they are to the Negro Tribes. Hence it follows that the 
 theory that the Negroes and Southern Africans are distinct 
 Races of men, may be as decisively tested by a comparison 
 of their languages with those of the Northern Africans, as by 
 collating them with the languages of the other continents of 
 the globe. 
 
 The mode of comparison adopted in Appendix A, has been 
 dictated by these considerations. Accordingly, I have therein 
 separated the languages of Africa into three divisions, those 
 of: 1, North Africa; 2, Negro-land; 3, South Africa; allot- 
 ting a separate column to each division ; while on the opposite 
 page a separate column is devoted to each of the continents 
 of Asia, Europe, and America. This comparison will serve 
 at once to show the general connexion of the African lan- 
 guages with those of Asia, Europe, and America, and at the 
 same time to demonstrate another proposition of nearly equal 
 
8 ORIGINAL. UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 interest, viz. the close mutual affinity of the languages of 
 Northern, Tropical, and Southern Africa. 
 
 With respect to the particular words selected for com- 
 parison, I have chosen the names for the following objects : 
 " Fire, Sun, Day, Eye,* Moon, Heaven, a Human Being, 
 Man and Woman/ 5 (Homo, Vir, Fcemina, Latin.) The most 
 important parts of the Human Frame, (viz. " The Hand, Arm, 
 Foot, Leg, Ear, Tongue, Head.")* 'Water.' 
 
 These terms comprise nearly all the specimens of the lan- 
 guages of Africa, which have been collected in " the Mithri- 
 dates," of Adelung and Vater. The objects to which these 
 terms have been applied are comparatively few. But for 
 reasons about to be explained, the evidence which may be 
 deduced from the terms themselves is neither scanty nor im- 
 perfect, but, on the contrary, very extensive and complete. 
 
 The African names for the above-mentioned objects analysed 
 in Appendix A, amount to about 700. The corresponding 
 and analogous terms introduced from the other three Con- 
 tinents are about treble that number. 
 
 In determining the mutual relations of different languages, 
 it is obviously not necessary to compare the whole of their 
 component parts. All that is required is a comparison of 
 such portions of each as may be justly viewed in the light of 
 a satisfactory test. That the selected specimens of the lan- 
 guages of Africa are sufficiently numerous for this end is plain. 
 It only remains to be shown that their nature is such as to 
 render them eminently suitable and conclusive. 
 
 Now it will be clear from the following considerations, that 
 these specimens are peculiarly calculated to serve as a decisive 
 test of the general composition and structure of languages. 
 
 * The African names for ( The Nose' do not occur in Appendix A, but they 
 are noticed elsewhere in this work. The names for * The Eye' are explained 
 among words for ' The Sun,' &c. of which they are generally derivatives. 
 
ASIA; EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 9 
 
 Terms for the Objects above enumerated will be found 
 to include the greatest portion of the primary elements 
 of all languages.* 
 This proposition may be placed in the clearest light by 
 means even of comparatively modern languages, for both 
 modern and ancient tongues will be found principally to con- 
 sist of the following elements : 
 
 1. The nouns above mentioned. Such nouns are in fact 
 the names of the most familiar and conspicuous objects ; of 
 those objects which are common to all ages and countries. 
 
 Verbs descriptive of the functions of such objects. 
 
 2. Names of Animals and Birds. 
 
 3. Names of Rivers, the Ocean, Hills, and Mountains. 
 
 4. Words expressive of Mental Qualities and Emotions. 
 
 5. Pronouns and other Conventional Grammatical Forms. 
 
 1. Now, with the exception of the second, all these five classes 
 of words may be shown to be mere modifications of those of 
 the 1st class. 
 
 2. Moreover, as regards even the Second Class, names of 
 Animals and Birds, terms of this description are also in a 
 great number, perhaps in the majority of instances compounds 
 chiefly consisting of terms of the First Class, viz-, of the words 
 for the i Members of the Body/ for ' Water, Fire/ &c, as in 
 c Red-breast/ 'Water-wag tail* (English). Sgyvarn-og 'a 
 Hare/ from Sgyvarn ( an Ear' ( Welsh). 
 
 There are, it is true, some terms of this class of a more 
 primitive origin, as they plainly consist of imitations of the 
 characteristic cry or note of the Animal or Bird named, as for 
 example c Cuck-oo 5 (English); ' U-iu-la' (Sivedish), 6 U-lu- 
 1-aka' (Sanscrit), ' An Owl. 5 But then it is plain that words 
 
 * The terms for the Domestic Relations are in some instances compound 
 words — in others they seem to be identical with the Names of the Human Race. 
 
10 ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 of this kind are for the most part confined in their application 
 to the objects designated and do not enter largely into the 
 composition of languages. 
 
 3. Words for l Rivers' and ' The Ocean' consist of terms 
 for < Water.' 
 
 For example : ' The Esk' is from Eask (Irish), and Esseg 
 (Bongolan, North Africa), ' Water.' c The Usk' or f Ou-isg,' 
 as the word is pronounced by the Welsh, from Uisge, e Water' 
 (Irish), connected with Eask (Irish). e The Ayr' is identical 
 with A . r. e A River/ also e To flow^ (Hebrew), 'The Yarrow' 
 with Iaro (Egyptian), and the Hebrew words Ee . a . ou. r 
 Ee . a . r (modifications of A . r, Hebrew). Some able Celtic 
 scholars have attempted to explain the origin of such names 
 as ' Ayr and Yarrow,' which are very common as names of 
 rivers in Celtic countries, by means of a Celtic term which 
 means e Gentle,' an explanation very inapplicable in many ' 
 instances. The error of these writers arises from the as- 
 sumption they are prone to adopt, that the Celtic is an I 
 unchanged language, the truth being that the changes which 
 it can be shown to have undergone in more recent times, 
 form a distinct ground for the conclusion that, long prior to 
 the earliest period to which our most ancient Celtic speci- 
 mens can be referred, the Celts must have lost many words I 
 which their forefathers brought with them from the East. 
 
 In the names above noticed, not only the general features, 
 but the finer shades of inflection of the Oriental words re- 
 appear. 
 
 Numerous examples may be pointed out, of words applied 
 in some languages to ' Water' generally, appropriated exclu- 
 sively, in others to the ' Sea or Ocean.' Thus we have Shui 
 in Chinese, and Su in Turkish, e Water.' In the German See, 
 the Anglo Saxon Seo Sae, the English ( Sea,' and in other 
 analogous terms to be met with in all the Gothic tongues, we 
 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 11 
 
 recognize the same term as a word for a ' Lake/ or for e The 
 Sea.' Adelung has pointed out the resemblance which in 
 some other instances the Turkish bears to the German. 
 The ancestors of the Turks and Germans, it maybe observed, 
 are both traceable to contiguous regions of Northern Asia, 
 the great e High Road of Nations' from China to Europe. 
 
 Again, in various dialects of the North American Indians 
 we meet with Oghnacauno, Oneekanoosh, &c. * Water.' In 
 Latin and Greek we find the same term tf Ocean-os,Ocean-oio', 
 &c, applied exclusively to ' The Ocean.' (See for other ex- 
 amples Appendix A, p. 77.) 
 
 Words for Mountains and Hills are almost universally 
 identical with words for c The Head, The Back, The Breast,' 
 &c. Thus even in the English, in which the first meanings 
 of words are often lost, we have ( Ridge' (A Back and A Hill), 
 ' Head-land,' 'Saddle-back' (the name of a mountain.) In 
 the Principality of Wales, in which a less changed and a less 
 conventional language prevails, the common names for hills, 
 { Cevn, Pen, Vron,' &c, are words for ' The Back, The Head, 
 The Breast,' &c, appropriated according to the particular 
 shapes of the hills. The same words, as will appear here- 
 after, were used as names of mountains in ancient Gaul and 
 Spain, &c. 
 
 Jugum, 'A Yoke and A Hill/ {Latin,) Cadair Idris, 'The 
 chair of Idris,' A Fabulous Giant and Astronomer, ( Welsh,) 
 are instances of metaphors of a different kind. But generally 
 names of hills are traceable as above described, and are 
 therefore mere forms of terms belonging to the first class. 
 
 4. That terms of this Class, viz. : Words descriptive of the 
 Operations and Emotions of the Mind, consist of metaphors 
 derived from words originally appropriated to physical ob- 
 jects and agencies, has been indisputably proved by the cele- 
 brated French writer, Court Ghebelin, and by Home Tooke, 
 
12 ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 whose researches were applied to the analysis of the English 
 language only. Words appropriated to the members of 
 the Human Frame and their Functions, and other terms of 
 the First Class, are the chief sources of these metaphorical 
 terms. 
 
 This philological maxim was supposed by some of the most 
 eminent of those writers by whom it was established, to fur- 
 nish an argument in favour of the doctrines of Materialism, 
 as when, for example, the English word ' Spirit 5 was derived 
 from the Latin word for e Breath,' Spiritus. But the pre- 
 mises do not appear to furnish any solid support to the infer- 
 ences they were thought to favour. The same Consciousness 
 which in this case, and in other similar instances, perceives 
 an analogy, perceives also that the connexion is one of ana- 
 logy only. The true explanation of the relations which exist 
 between these two classes of words may, I conceive, be de- 
 rived from the consideration, that though Man is endowed with 
 moral and intellectual, as well as with perceptive, faculties, — 
 inasmuch as the perceptive powers are earliest exercised, — 
 the language of his higher sentiments consists of metaphors 
 thence borrowed. ( The Hand,' in like manner, as may be 
 inferred from several examples which occur in the course of 
 this work, has, in many instances, metaphorically given names 
 to some of the less conspicuous bodily organs of perception. 
 At the same time, the soundness of the philological principle 
 developed by Ghebelin and Home Tooke can not reasonably 
 be disputed. In these pages will be found numerous illus- 
 trations of its truth. Moreover it will appear that this prin- 
 ciple forms the basis of some of the most convincing proofs — 
 that languages afford — of the common origin of nations very re- 
 motely situated from each other, as of the Welsh and English, 
 for example, with the Hebrew, and other ancient Syro-Phce- 
 nician nations. 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 13 
 
 5. As regards Pronouns and other Grammatical Forms. 
 
 Pronouns enter very largely into the composition of lan- 
 guages, not merely in a separate form, but also as the source 
 from which the most striking peculiarities of other parts of 
 grammar have been derived. It has been shown by Dr. 
 Prichard that the various inflections which distinguish the 
 different persons of the Verb in the Latin and Sanscrit, 
 and other highly-complicated languages of the same class, 
 are identical with pronouns. 
 
 In the works of Home Tooke and others it has been abun- 
 dantly shown that Pronouns are merely Nouns, viz Names 
 of the Human Species, 6 Man, Woman,' &c. In other words 
 they belong to a section of the terms of the First Class. 
 
 Hence it will be manifest that an analysis, completely em- 
 bracing numerous specimens of nouns of the First Class, vir- 
 tually embraces also numerous specimens of words of the 
 Four other classes, which, together with the First, compose 
 the principal elements of Human Language. For it must be 
 observed that 
 
 Though the African nouns belonging to the First Class 
 form the only basis or subject of inquiry, the in- 
 quiry itself will be found to embrace an extended 
 comparison of those nouns with the kindred terms of 
 the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Classes, which are dis- 
 coverable in the languages of the other three conti- 
 tinents. 
 Finally, a principle must here be stated and applied, which 
 will be more fully illustrated hereafter. 
 
 The names of Objects can be shown in a great va- 
 riety of instances to be identical with Verbs or terms 
 descriptive of some dominant or conspicuous quality 
 which those Objects display. 
 
14 ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 This remark applies even to the terms for the Members of 
 the Human Frame, and other Objects of which the names 
 are included in the First Class of Words, — as appears by abun- 
 dant illustrations in works of authority and research confined 
 to an investigation of the European languages. But the same 
 truth may be much more clearly and unequivocally demon- 
 strated even by the most cursory examination of more ancient 
 and therefore more primitive tongues, such as the Hebrew 
 and the Sanscrit. The application of this principle will be 
 found to unfold a wide range of facts serving to connect the 
 languages of Africa with those of the other Continents; 
 the same terms, which present themselves as Nouns or Con- 
 ventional names in the languages of Africa, occurring in 
 a great variety of examples in those of the other continents, 
 unaltered or very slightly changed in sound, fulfilling the 
 functions of the corresponding descriptive terms or verbs. 
 Here it may be remarked that the descriptive or metaphorical 
 character, which originally belonged to nouns, and the various 
 modes in which the same objects are susceptible of descrip- 
 tion, may be viewed as the source of these numerous names 
 for the same objects. But this is a subject which will be 
 more fully discussed in a subsequent part of this work. 
 
 The following examples will serve to illustrate at once the 
 principle last stated, and also another principle before sug- 
 gested, viz. that c The Hand 5 * and its perceptions have me- 
 taphorically given namesin many instances — not only to the 
 faculties of the Mind, — but also to the other perceptive organs 
 and their functions. For further illustrations, see Appendix 
 A, p. 65, and the subsequent pages. 
 
 • Probably the terms were not in all cases appropriated in the first instance to 
 the Hand exclusively, but applied alike to all the perceptive organs. 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 
 
 15 
 
 Tom, (Heb.) ' To try,' 
 
 1 To try an experiment,' 
 ' To perceive.' 
 
 'To taste/ 
 'To eat/ 
 
 Tom, 'The Hand,' (Mexico.) 
 
 Tedembeton, 'The Hand,' 
 
 (Nubia.) 
 Thumb (Eng.), Damn, (Ger.) 
 Teim-law, 'To Feel,' (Welsh) 
 
 Tamma, 'The Tongue/ 
 
 (Hottentots.) 
 
 — ' Mental Taste/ 
 
 — 'Discernment/ 
 
 — ■ Judgment/ 
 
 Tami-as, A Judge, (Greek.) 
 Doomsday, S^ °' 
 
 G.sh.(/M.), 'Tofeelfor.' Guess, (Eng.) See below, 
 
 K . s . m, (Heb.) 
 
 G . sh . sh . (Heb.), ' To feel Gus-to, ' To taste, To listen/ 
 for repeatedly,' (Latin.) 
 
 'To grope for' - - Kchesi, 'The Hand/ 
 
 (Finland.) 
 Keez, 'The Hand/ 
 
 ( Hungarian.) 
 
 K . s . m . (Heb.), " To guess Keisio, ' To seek, To attempt, 
 hidden things,' Endeavour/ (Welsh.) 
 
 'To divine/ 
 'Toforetel.' 
 
 These examples instructively display the manner in which 
 the Hebrew, which is a language of high antiquity, combines 
 within itself a variety of meanings, which are found only par- 
 tially preserved in more modern languages. This venerable 
 tongue may be said in these, as in numerous other instances, 
 to confirm, by means of its own intrinsic resources, the re- 
 sults which are deducible from a wide comparison of other 
 languages of which our specimens are more modern, 
 
16 ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 II. Of the Results of the Comparison, contained in Ap- 
 pendix A. 
 When the languages of Africa are compared collectively 
 with those of the other three Continents, it will be found : 
 
 1. That the names of the most Common Objects, occurring 
 in the various dialects of Africa, may be detected, and as it 
 were restored, in the same or in kindred senses in each of the 
 other three Continents, when all or a considerable portion of 
 their languages are examined. 
 
 2. The exceptions to this principle are so insignificant, 
 that the rule, viewed in the light of a philological maxim, may 
 be regarded as universal, especially when it is borne in mind 
 that the specimens we possess of the various languages of 
 Mankind are undoubtedly incomplete. 
 
 3. A further remarkable truth is established by Appendix 
 A, viz. : 
 
 The resemblances which the African languages display to 
 those of Asia, &c , are as close as those which the Asiatic lan- 
 guages exhibic among themselves; and they are as close as 
 those which the languages termed Indo-European mutually 
 display. 
 
 4. What has been stated in the previous explanation of 
 Result 3 applies to the languages of the continent of America 
 as well as to those of Africa. 
 
 5. Not only the same words but the same minute tran- 
 sitions which words undergo may be recognized in the Four 
 Continents, and the steps of transition are much more com- 
 pletely traceable when the various Continents form the sub- 
 ject of comparison than when the investigation is confined to 
 one Continent. Compare, for example, (See Appendix A, 
 p. 13,) Ano, f ADay' (Caraihs) ; Antu, Antu, 'The Sun, 
 A Day 5 (Araucan, South America) ; Antu, Andru, f A Day* 
 {Madagascar, South Africa); Indra, The Indian < God of 
 Day' (Sanscrit, Asia) ; Inti, Indi, f The Sun' (South America). 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 17 
 
 6. It will be seen that in this instance, and in numerous 
 other examples, finer shades of transition are restored by 
 means of a comparison including the Four Continents. 
 
 7. As regards the Continent of Africa, by this comparison 
 all its synonymes of the class selected for analysis have, with 
 a few trifling exceptions, been exhausted. As regards the 
 other three Continents, so large a portion, probably the great 
 majority, of these synonymes have been introduced from 
 every region of those continents, that the evidence thus ob- 
 tained, combined as it is with a complete investigation of the 
 African terms, may be considered as equally conclusive with 
 the proofs which would have been furnished by an exhaustion 
 of the synonymes of all the four continents. 
 
 The examination of synonymous terms is the principle 
 which has been pursued by Humboldt, in his work on f The 
 Basque,' and by Du Ponceau in his Treatise on the ' Algon- 
 quyn Dialects of the North American Indians/ It is the 
 most satisfactory mode of investigating languages, because it 
 involves an explanation of the differences as well as of the re- 
 semblances they mutually display. 
 
 8. Hence it follows that when all the dialects of each con- 
 tinent are thus compared in the aggregate with those of each 
 of the other three, the very same language is reproduced by 
 the reunion of the "disjecta membra" 
 
 With reference more especially to the third and fourth 
 results above stated, I may here advert to the researches 
 of two philologists of the highest eminence, whose conclusions 
 will not, in the present state of philological knowledge, be 
 disputed, — the German writer Klaproth, and Dr. Prichard : 
 the former has treated of the proofs of affinity observable 
 among the Asiatic languages ; the latter has discussed the 
 proofs of mutual resemblance displayed by certain languages 
 usually classed under the term " Indo-European/' 
 
 The affinities which present themselves among the different 
 
 2 
 
18 ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 languages of the single continent of Asia, in the following 
 examples, have been selected as evidence of the original con- 
 nexion of those languages by Klaproth. 
 
 Words for 'The Sun/ 
 
 Asia. — Chor Churr (Ossetian.) 
 
 Chor Chorschid (Persian.) 
 Chorschid (Pehlwi), Huere (Zend.)* 
 
 America. — Coaracy, Curasi, Quarassi (Brazil.) 
 
 Africa* — 'Koara (Bosjesmans.) 
 
 South Africa. — Giro (Kanga, Negro-land.) 
 
 Though the Zend, Pehlwi, and Persian are three kindred 
 dialects of Persia, it will be observed that the Pehlwi and 
 Persian words in this example, although clearly allied to the 
 corresponding Zend word ( Huere), resemble that word less 
 than they do the American and African terms. On the other 
 hand, the next example presents to us American and African 
 words perfectly identical with this term (Huere). 
 
 Words for 'The Sun 5 and 'Day. 5 
 
 Asia. — Huere, 'The Sun, 5 (Zend.) 
 
 S.America. — Huarassi, 'The Sun 5 and 'Day,' (Omaguans.) 
 Africa. — Hor, Horus, i.e. 'The God of Day, 5 (Egypt.) 
 Huer, ' Day, 5 (Iolofs, Negro-land.) 
 
 Asia.— Eiere,t 'Day, 5 (Zend.) 
 Africa. — Iirri, 'The Sun, 5 (Watvu, Negro-land.) 
 The connexion between the previous words for the Sun 
 and the first of the two following classes of terms for the 
 
 * Klaprotb's Asia Polyglotta. 
 
 + Eiere (< Day/ Zend,) is obviously connected with Huere (' The Sun,' Zend." 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 19 
 
 Moon will be manifest. The origin of the relation which is 
 universally traceable between the names of the two great 
 Heavenly Luminaries will be found fully discussed in Ap- 
 pendix A. 
 
 Words for 'The Moon/ 
 Asia, — 'Wiri Yere Irri\S amoied),W\irra(Sumbava Island.)* 
 Africa, Negro-land. — 'Uhaaire Verr' (Iolofs.) 
 
 Asia. — 'Sara' [Syrian), 'Sara' [Mongol and Calmuck.)* 
 Africa, Negro-land. — 'Assara' (Gold Coast.) 
 
 Dr. Prichard has clearly proved the connexion of the 
 Welsh and other Celtic dialects with the Sanscrit and other 
 ' Indo-European' tongues, a class in which he considers that 
 the Celtic dialects ought therefore to be included. The 
 Welsh and Sanscrit words which occur in Appendix A, p. 11, 
 have already been compared by him in his work on the 
 Celtic Languages. The mutual connexion of these words 
 is clear. But it will be equally manifest that the African 
 terms which occur in the same passage, Appendix A, p. 11, 
 are quite as nearly allied to the Welsh words as are the 
 Sanscrit terms with which those words have been collated by 
 Dr. Prichard. In some instances they are even more so. 
 Compare, for example, ' Lloer,' The Moon, ( Welsh,) with the 
 African word c Leoure,' The Moon, (from the dialect of the 
 ; Fulahs.') 
 
 An examination of the names of some of the principal gods 
 of Egypt, Greece, Italy, and India, by means of a comparison 
 of the languages of all the Four Continents, will be found in a 
 very striking manner to illustrate at once the foregoing phi- 
 lological results, and also the origin of those names, and of 
 the systems of Idolatry to which they belonged. 
 
 * Klaproth's Asia Polyglotta, p. 36. 
 
20 ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 Hor . Hor-us, 'The God of Day/ {Egypt,) already ex- 
 plained. 
 
 Indra, The Indian c God of Day/ previously explained. 
 
 Surya, The Indian ' God of the Sun/ His Orb personi- 
 fied, (Sanscrit.) Osira Osiri, and Serap-is or Sorop-is, 
 (believed to have been the same as Osiri,) ' Gods of the Sun/ 
 (Egypt.) 
 
 The same change of inflection which is observable when 
 c Surya and Osira 5 are compared with Sero-p-is, occurs in the 
 following : 
 
 Surie, Sorrie, Sorre, Sore, ' The Sun/ (Hottentots.) 
 Sor oh-b, 'The Sun/ (Corona Hottentots.) 
 The same change occurs also in the following : 
 Z.e.r, 'To shine brightly/ Sh.r.-ph, 'To burn/ 
 Sh . r-ph eem, ' Seraphs/ ( Hebrew.) 
 
 Auror-Aj ' T he Goddess of The Dawn/ (Latin.) 
 
 A.ou.r, ' Light, Day-light, (Hebrew.) 
 
 Wadar, 'The Dawn/ (Welsh.) 
 
 Or, 'Day,' Ar-pi, 'The Sun/ (Armenian.) 
 
 W ura be, 'Day/ (Nubia.) 
 
 E - o-us, One of the Horses of the Sun, Eo-s (E 6, E 6 a, 
 Accusative,) s The Sun, The Dawn, The Goddess' ' of The 
 Dawn,' (Greek.) 
 
 Eoohu, Haou, 'Day/ (Egypt.) Uwya Ou, 'The Sun/ 
 (Negroes.) Hueiou, 'The Sun/ (Caraibs, South America.) 
 Au-6, 'To shine/ (Greek.) 
 
 Net-phe, 'The Goddess of the Heaven or Firmament/ 
 
 (Egypt.) 
 
 Neth-phe Ne-phe ou, 'The Heavens or Heaven/ (Egi/pt.) 
 Nev, 'Heaven/ (Welsh.) Nebo, ' Heaven/ (Sclavoiiian.) 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 21 
 
 Ere and A e r (Greek), 'The Goddess of The Heaven 
 or Atmosphere,' ' Juno.' 
 
 Iru, ' Heaven,' (Negroes,) Awyr, 'The Sky,' (Welsh,) Atr, 
 (Latin), ' Air/ (English.) 
 
 Juno (Latin), the same as the last. She was also re- 
 garded as 'The Mother of the Gods.' (See this name ex- 
 plained by means of Sanscrit and Negro words combined, 
 Appendix A, p. 62.) 
 
 Khem, A God of ■ The Sun/ (Egypt.) 
 K au m-et, 'The Sun/ K au m-ei, 'The Moon/ (Greenland.) 
 C'.h . m . n . -ee . n, ' Sun Images/ (Hebrew.) 
 C'h.m/ Hot, Heat/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 Ee ph-aist-os (Greek), 'Vulcan/ 'The God of Fire/ 
 Aifi, ' Fire/ (Sumbava,) Fi (Japan), and Fei (Siam), 
 * Fire/ Epee, ' Fire/ (Katabans, North America,) Peez Pioc, 
 'Fire/ {Moxians, South America,) Ee. ph . c'h, and Ph . ou . c'h, 
 'To blow upon,' 'Kindle/ ■ Inflame/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 Phoi-b-os (Greek), 'The God of the Sun, Phoebus.' 
 
 " This word (' Phoibos') expresses the brightness and splen- 
 dour of that luminary." (Lempriere.) 
 
 Pha-6, 'To Shine/ (Greek.) 
 
 Ee . ph . 6, « To shine forth/ (Hebrew,) ' Brightness, Splen- 
 dour/ (Chald.) Ee . ph . ph . e, 'Very Beautiful/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 Phos, ' Light/ (Greek.) 
 
 Fosseye, ' The Sun/ (' Sereres' Negroes.) 
 
 Phos, ' A Star/ (Japan.) 
 
 The foregoing are merely examples of the mode in which 
 the names of the Heathen Deities are susceptible of explana- 
 tion, by means of a general comparison of languages. In the 
 course of this work, the names of nearly all the principal 
 
22 ORIGINAL UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 Gods of Egypt, Greece, Italy, and India, will be explained in 
 the same manner. 
 
 The North American Indians are not Idolaters. They 
 worship a ' Great' and ( Good Spirit.' They also believe in 
 an ' Evil Spirit/ 
 
 A large class of Indian dialects have been analysed by Du 
 Ponceau, a writer whose high philosophical reputation, great 
 candour, and perfect knowledge of the dialects he examined, 
 render his researches eminently deserving of attention. In 
 early youth he was secretary to Court Ghebelin. But though 
 a native of France, he passed the principal part of his life in 
 the United States, in the employment of the Government of 
 that country. His essay on the £ Algonquyn Dialects of North 
 America,' was elicited from him at a very advanced period of 
 life by a prize offered in Paris, for which he was the successful 
 competitor. By means of his familiar acquaintance with the 
 languages of the Indian Tribes, it is related that he proved a 
 person, whose arrative at one time excited considerable in- 
 terest both in this country and in France to be an impostor ; 
 Hunter, the author of a work professing to give an authentic 
 account of his captivity among the Indian Tribes. In his 
 treatise on those languages, though for the most part he de- 
 clines to generalize and professes to wish rather to furnish data 
 for others, Du Ponceau expresses himself nevertheless, de- 
 cidedly adverse to the views of those writers who conceive the 
 Indian Tribes to be descendants of colonists from the Asiatic 
 continent. The Indians and their languages he views as in- 
 digenous products of the American soil. After alluding in 
 general terms of respect to the memory of that celebrated 
 writer, he assails with national vivacity Grotius's conclusion 
 with respect to the primitive language, which forms the motto 
 of this work, quoting from Dante a passage in which it is 
 intimated that the primitive language of Man must have 
 perished at the < General Deluge !> 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 23 
 
 More ample proofs of the connexion of the dialects ex- 
 amined by Du Ponceau with those of the Old World, occur 
 hereafter. In this place I must confine myself to one re- 
 markable example. 
 
 With reference to the names given by the Indians to the 
 great object of their worship, Du Ponceau states the result 
 of his analysis to be that the names of the Supreme Being in 
 all the Indian dialects he has explored, primarily mean e a 
 Spirit/ But there is one instance, he adds, in which he has 
 not been able to verify this conclusion, viz. in that of the 
 dialect of the Abenaki tribe. It is true, he remarks, that 
 6 Father Raffles 5 had made a statement tending to show that 
 in this instance there was no exception to the general rule he 
 (Du Ponceau) had adopted, for, according to Father Raffles, 
 in the dialect of the Abenaki the name of the Supreme Being 
 was Ketsi Niou eskou, and these words K etsi 'Nioueskou,' 
 mean the Great ' Spirit' ■ or Genius ;' while the name of the 
 Evil Being was Matsi c Nioueskou,' and these terms mean the 
 Evil ' Spirit or Genius/ 
 
 But Du Ponceau intimates that he has not been able by 
 means of his own researches to satisfy himself of the accuracy 
 of Father Raffles's statement, as to the origin of these words, 
 and he adds, " I do not know whence this word ( Ni oueskou' 
 comes." (" Je ne sais pas d'ou vient ce mot Nioueskou/') 
 
 Among the specimens he has published of words used in 
 the Iroquois dialects, a class of Indian languages which he 
 has not minutely analysed, Du Ponceau gives e N s iou' as the 
 name of ' the Deity/ 
 
 Now the following comparison exhibits the remarkable fact 
 that these words ( N' iou' and ( Nioueskou' may be distinctly 
 and extensively recognized in the languages of the old world, 
 in the very sense which, according to Father Raffles, was the 
 primitive meaning of e Nioueskou' among the Abenaki tribe 
 of Indians, viz., in that of ' a Spirit or Genius.' They also 
 reappear in physical meanings, which, according to Home 
 
24 
 
 ORIGINAL, UNITY OF THE LANGUAGES OF 
 
 Tooke's principles, may, a priori, be pronounced to be philo- 
 logically analogous. 
 
 The resemblance of the Indian terms to the European and 
 Asiatic words is as close as the resemblance which exists be- 
 tween such words of the two latter classes as belong to the 
 same languages or to the same group of languages. The va- 
 riation of inflection between N'ioh and Niou-es kou, may 
 also be restored; compare No- (the root or unchangeable 
 part of ' Noos/) with ' No-os Nous/ 6 The Mind/ (in the 
 nominative case, Gree k.) Compare also ' Nose/ {English,) 
 with 'Nas-ika/ (Sanscrit.) 
 
 Hebrew, Indo-European, and American Words applied to the 
 Physical Senses. 
 
 IND.-EUROP. & AMERICAN. 
 
 Nos (Sclavonic), Nase, &c. 
 (German and other Gothic 
 tongues), Nas-ika (San.) 
 Nas-us, 
 
 Nas-um (Latin.) 
 ' The Nose/ (English.) 
 
 N 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 -b, N.sh.-ph, 
 
 To 
 
 sh 
 
 blow/ 
 N . sh . -m, ' To breathe out/ 
 N.sh.-m.e, < The Breath/ 
 'Man as p Breathing 
 Animal'. * 
 N.ph.sh, ' Breath/ 
 Ee-n . sh . ou . ph, 
 
 'A species of Water- 
 fowl remarkable for 
 its Hard Breathing.* 
 
 Applied to Mental and Physical Objects. 
 
 N .sh .-m.e ' Breath/ 
 (as above) 'Life/ 
 ' Soul/ 
 ' Spirit.' 
 
 N . ph . sh 
 
 'Breath/ 
 'Life/ 
 
 'Mind/ 
 ' A Person 
 Man/ 
 
 No-os, Nou-s, (No . e . No), 
 'The Mind/ (Greek.) 
 
 N'ioh . Xioues-kou, ' The 
 Genius, Spirit, God/ 
 (^orth American Indian 
 Dialects, as above.) 
 
 N . ph . sh, or Nouvis, ' Full 
 of Life or Spirits/ 
 
 (Welsh). 
 
 or 
 
 N.ph. sh-ee, The Pronoun 'I.' 
 
 * Parkburst's Hebrew Lexicon. 
 
ASIA, EUROPE, AFRICA, AND AMERICA. 25 
 
 These examples may be concluded with a very remarkable 
 instance of an important word which occurs in every one of 
 the three great divisions of the globe, except America, and is 
 met with in every one of the three regions of Africa. 
 
 Words for e Bread.' 
 
 Asia. — Buro (Savu Isle, a Malay dialect.) 
 
 Africa. — Bouron (Fulahs, North Africa.) 
 Bourou (lolofs, Negro-land.) 
 Bra Bre (Hottentots, South Africa.) 
 
 Europe. — Bara (Welsh.) Bro (Norwegian.) Bread 
 (English.) Brod or Brot (German.) 
 
 The source of these words seems to be, B . r . e, B . r . ou . th, 
 ' Food/ (Hebrew.) In the same language, L c'h . m, i Bread,' 
 primarily means ( Food, To feed/ 
 
 Combined with the phenomenon of the absolute identity of 
 the united elements of the languages of the Four Continents, 
 we encounter a wide, and in many instances a total difference, 
 when two individual languages are compared. And this is 
 true not merely of two languages taken from different con- 
 tinents, but it is true also of languages spoken even in 
 contiguous regions of the same continent. 
 
 How then are these singular features of general unity 
 combined with individual diversity to be reconciled? Of 
 this problem the investigation will be found in the following 
 pages. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON THE DIFFERENCES WHICH DISTINGUISH INDIVIDUAL 
 LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 These differences may be explained by Causes now in 
 Operation. The principal causes are, The abandonment by 
 different branches of the same race : 
 
 1, Of different Synonymes; 
 
 2, Of different meanings of the same Synonyme. 
 
 This Section A ay be considered as confined to an affirma- 
 tion of the propositions above stated. 
 
 Section II. 
 
 On the Differences between the Celtic and Gothic Classes of 
 Languages. The Celtic and Gothic differ almost totally 
 in the most Common Words. Celtic and Gothic words 
 identical with Persian Synonymes. 
 
 The Celtic and Gothic Races form the population of North- 
 western and Central Europe. 
 
 In those early ages in which the Celtic tribes first 
 came into collision with the Roman legionaries, the Celtic 
 language and race occupied a wide section of Europe, in- 
 cluding the British islands, France, the Rhine, the whole of 
 Switzerland, a portion of South-western Germany, and the 
 
DIFFERENCES OF INDIVIDUAL LANGUAGES, &C. 27 
 
 North of Italy. The Celts were also in possession of some 
 of the fairest regions of the Spanish Peninsula, a country 
 which they shared with Iberian tribes, the ancestors of the 
 Basque nation, of which a remnant still preserves among the 
 fastnesses of the Pyrenean mountains the language, character, 
 and institutions of their warlike forefathers. The existence 
 in those ages of a Celtic population, occupying territories 
 thus extensive, and the identity of their languages with the 
 living tongues still spoken by the Welsh and other Celtic 
 nations, have been placed beyond all doubt by the luminous 
 investigations of Dr. Prichard and Humboldt. 
 
 In the present day, the Gothic nations and languages ex- 
 tend over a large section of the area of Europe, including the 
 greatest portion* of Germany, the whole of Sweden, Norway, 
 and Iceland, the German Cantons of Switzerland, and the 
 British Isles, with the exception of those districts in which 
 dialects of the Celtic are spoken. 
 
 Of the common origin of the Celtic and Gothic tongues 
 we possess no direct historical proof, for the sources of these 
 languages reach far higher than the records of history. Nor, 
 as I conceive, is it possible, from a comparison of these lan- 
 guages themselves, to elicit a satisfactory demonstration of 
 their original identity. Instances of partial resemblances 
 may no doubt be pointed out ; but it will be found neverthe- 
 less that in the most common corresponding terms, the Celtic 
 and Gothic differ almost totally. As this is a proposition 
 not generally received among philologists, 1 have subjoined 
 in Appendix C some examples which will serve to render its 
 truth obvious. 
 
 The only satisfactory mode of proving the common origin 
 of the Celtic and Gothic seems to be by means of the affinity 
 to the languages of India, Persia, &c, which are displayed 
 by both, even in those very features in which they differ most 
 
 • Bohemia la inhabited by a Sclavonic race, cVrc. 
 
'28 
 
 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 widely from each other. The following are examples of the 
 union, in the form of Synonymes in the Persian, of corres- 
 ponding terms, in which the Celtic and Gothic differ totally 
 
 from each other. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 
 WELSH. 
 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Made, a maid, a 
 
 
 
 Maid. Madchen, Germ. 
 
 female. 
 
 
 
 
 Geneez, a girl. 
 
 Geneth. 
 
 
 . . 
 
 D. ch . t.r ., a girl, i 
 daughter. 
 
 i . . 
 
 
 Daughter. Tochter, Germ. 
 
 Chouahr, a sister. 
 
 Idem. 
 
 
 . . 
 
 Ch.d. a God. 
 
 . . 
 
 
 God. 
 
 B . r . ee, God. 
 
 Beree or Peree, 1 
 
 to create, 
 
 
 
 (spelt Peri.) 
 Beri|adur, Creator. 
 B.r .a. Heb. Id. 
 
 • • 
 
 Pechegan, infants. 
 
 Bechgyn. 
 
 
 
 Juvan, young. 
 
 leuangc. 
 
 
 Juvenile, from Lat. 
 
 Braud . | r. 
 
 Braud (Bratbair, 
 
 Irish.) 
 
 Brother. 
 
 Mam, mother. 
 
 Mam. 
 
 
 , , 
 
 M . d . r . mother. 
 
 . . 
 
 
 Mother. 
 
 P . d . r . father. 
 
 
 
 Pater, Lat. ; Fader, 
 Aug.- Sax. 
 
 Aud . J n. the ear. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 Aud|io 
 I hear. 
 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 Koush, the ear. 
 
 
 
 A|kous o, I will hear. 
 
 Akoustics, Eng. 
 
 F . m . the mouth. 
 
 (Fhuaim, a voice, 
 
 Irish.) 
 
 Feemjee, I speak. 
 
 Fama, Fame, Latin 
 
 The Persian grammar also combines many European 
 languages : 
 
 PERSIAN. 
 
 Men, I. 
 Tou, thou. 
 Av, he, she, or it. 
 A een, this. 
 Bod|n|, to be; (n. 
 infinitive affix.) 
 Am, I am. 
 
 WELSH, 
 
 My. 
 
 Idem, spelt Ev. 
 Hyn. ; Hon. 
 Bod. 
 
 ENGLISH, 
 
 Mine. 
 Thou. 
 
 Idem. 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 Me us. 
 Tu. 
 
 GERMAN. 
 
 Mein. 
 Du. 
 
 (Eim|i , Greek.) 
 
 This tense is very like Latin : 
 
 Shou, be thou. Shou d (sit;, let him be. 
 
 • Shou eem (simus), let us be. 
 Shou eet (sitis), be ye. Shou nd, let them be.* 
 
 • This comparison has been extracted from the Cambrian Quarterly Magazine. 
 vol. IF., p. 183, in which it was originally published by the author of this work. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 29 
 
 Section III. 
 
 On the Changes which have taken place in the English Lan- 
 guage. Effect of the Norman Conquest, as a Cause of 
 these Changes exaggerated. Dr. Johnson's Opinion. Sir 
 Walter Scott's. Speech of " Wamba" in Ivanhoe. Some 
 of the most important Changes have occurred since the time 
 of Chaucer. The modern English, the Provincial Dialects 
 of Lancashire and other English Counties, and the Low- 
 land Scotch, different Fragments of the Anglo-Saxon. The 
 Provincial English Auxiliary Verb, ' I Bin,' Sfc. 
 
 That extensive changes have taken place in many Human 
 languages, within a comparatively limited period, is a truth 
 of which the proofs are alike abundant and indisputable. The 
 various dialects that sprang from the Latin after the down- 
 fall of the Roman Empire, the emanation of numerous dia- 
 lects in the Scandinavian Kingdoms from one ancient tongue, 
 "The Danska Tunge" or "Norse," and finally the suc- 
 cessive phases of transition through which the English lan- 
 guage itself has passed since the period of the Norman 
 conquest, conspire, with other examples of the same kind, at 
 once to establish the occurrence of such changes, and to ex- 
 hibit in a striking point of view their extraordinary variety 
 and extent. 
 
 In order to account for differences, so characteristic and 
 apparently so fundamental, as many of the languages which 
 are the offspring of these changes display, it has generally been 
 deemed necessary to ascribe them to the agency of a violent 
 disturbing cause. Hence the origin of an opinion that may 
 be regarded as the prevalent one, viz. that these varieties of 
 dialect have been mainly produced by the influence of Foreign 
 invasions and conquests, and the consequent admixture of 
 
30 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 the Languages of the dominant, with those of vanquished, 
 nations. 
 
 The grounds of this conclusion may be appropriately tested 
 — and its fallacy, as I conceive, satisfactorily established — in 
 one single instance, which I have been naturally led to select 
 as involving considerations of peculiar interest to English 
 readers. I allude to the influence which the Norman con- 
 quest of England is supposed to have exercised, in the pro- 
 duction of those peculiar features, which distinguish the 
 modern language of England from the original Anglo-Saxon 
 tongue. 
 
 The share which the Norman conquest may have had in 
 the formation of those peculiarities may be best determined 
 by investigating 1st the immediate, and 2d the remote, 
 consequences of that event. 
 
 On the subject of the immediate effects of the Norman 
 conquest, it is highly interesting to observe that Dr. Johnson 
 thus expresses himself in the following remarkable passage : 
 " About the ytar 1150 the Saxon began to take a form in 
 " which the beginning of the present English may be plainly 
 " discovered ; this change seems not to have been the effect 
 " of the Norman conquest, for very few French words are 
 " found to have been introduced in the first Hundred years 
 " after it ; the language must, therefore, have been altered by 
 ee causes like those which, notwithstanding the care of writers 
 " and societies instituted to obviate them, are even now daily 
 "making innovations in every living language. I have ex- 
 " hibited a specimen of the language of this age from the 
 "year 1135 to 1140 of the Saxon Chronicle, of which the 
 "latter part was apparently written near the time to which 
 "it relates."* 
 
 Yet Professor Rask of Copenhagen, a writer of great learn- 
 
 * History of the English language, prefixed to Dr. Johnson's Dictionary. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 31 
 
 ing and ability, in alluding to the changes that occurred at 
 this period, attempts to account for them by vaguely attri- 
 buting them to an infusion of the speech of the " old northern 
 settlers/' (in other words — the Danes,) and to the ascendancy 
 of the Norman French as a court language.* But the facts 
 are singularly at variance with his conclusions ! The sway 
 of the Danish kings had produced, as he admits, no material 
 alteration in the English language, even during its con- 
 tinuance ; and how then could it have done so a century after 
 its termination? Nor can the ascendancy of the Norman 
 Court be accepted as a satisfactory explanation of these results, 
 since the changes to be accounted for did not consist in the 
 adoption of Norman words, but in an internal change in the 
 structure and inflections of the original Anglo-Saxon itself, 
 unattended by the introduction of any Foreign admixture. 
 
 It is obvious, then, that the conclusion of Professor Rask 
 cannot be regarded as a deduction naturally suggested by 
 the phenomena, with which he was so profoundly conversant, 
 but must be viewed rather as a result of the influence which 
 the popular and generally received opinions on the subject, 
 must have exercised upon his mind. Highly instructive is 
 it to mark in this instance an example of the extent to which 
 even erudite and admirable philologists have frequently been 
 betrayed into inconsistency and error, by the supposed ne- 
 cessity of referring the revolutions which languages have 
 undergone, to some abrupt and violent social revolution, with 
 which, being connected in the order of events, they are also 
 and not unnaturally conceived to be equally connected by 
 the relation of cause and effect ! 
 
 It may be assumed therefore, agreeably to the views of 
 Dr. Johnson, that the Norman conquest had no immediate 
 effect on the language of the Anglo-Saxons. It remains then 
 
 • Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, by Thorpe. Preface, p. xlvii. 
 
32 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 to inquire in what manner the influence of that event was 
 felt at a more distant period, viz. : about a century after- 
 wards, during the reigns of John and Richard Cceur de Lion, 
 the period during which the intermingling of the Norman 
 and Saxon races and tongues is believed to have been con- 
 summated. During this period also, we possess the guidance 
 of a great master, who has embodied all the philosophy of 
 this subject in a few pathetic words which he has put into 
 the mouth of a jester. # 
 
 "Truly/ 5 said Wamba, without stirring from the spot, 
 " I have consulted my legs upon this matter, and they are 
 " altogether of opinion, that to carry my gay garments 
 " through these sloughs would be an act of unfriendship to 
 " my sovereign person and royal wardrobe ; wherefore Gurth, 
 " I advise thee to call off Fangs, and leave the herd to their 
 " destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of travelling 
 " soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be 
 " little else than to be converted into Normans before morn- 
 " ing to thy no & nail ease and comfort." 
 
 "The swine turned Normans to my comfort," quoth 
 Gurth ; " expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too 
 dull, and my mind too vexed, to read riddles." 
 
 "Why, how call you those grunting brutes running about 
 " on their four legs 1" demanded Wamba. 
 
 " Swine, fool, swine/' said the herd ; " every fool knows 
 " that." 
 
 "And swine is good Saxon," said the Jester; "but how 
 "call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and 
 " quartered, and hung by the heels, like a traitor?" 
 
 " Pork," answered the swineherd. 
 
 * Mr. Lockhart has given an interesting account of the origin of Sir Walter 
 Scott's views on this subject as expressed in the passages quoted above. They 
 were first suggested by a friend whose attention had been much directed to sub- 
 jects of this nature. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 33 
 
 u I am very glad every fool knows that too/' said Wamba, 
 " and Pork, I think, is good Norman- French ; and so when 
 " the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she 
 " goes by her Saxon name ; but becomes a Norman, and is 
 " called Pork, when she is carried to the Castle-hall to feast 
 * among the nobles. What dost thou think of this, friend 
 "Gurth, ha? 5 ' 
 
 " It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got 
 " into thy fooPs pate \" 
 
 " Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba, in the same 
 tone. u There is old Alderman Ox continues to hold his 
 " Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and 
 u bondmen such as thou, but becomes Beef, a fiery French 
 "gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that 
 " are destined to consume him. e Mynheer Calf/ too, be- 
 " comes c Monsieur de Veau,' in the like manner : he is 
 " Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman 
 "name when he becomes matter of enjoyment." 
 
 " By St. Dunstan," answered Gurth, u thou speakest but 
 " sad truths ; little is left to us but the air we breathe, and 
 u that appears to have been reserved with much hesitation, 
 ¥ solely for the purpose of enabling us to endure the tasks 
 " they lay upon our shoulders. The finest and the fattest is 
 " for their board ; the loveliest is for their couch ; the best 
 " and bravest supply their foreign masters with soldiers, and 
 f whiten distant lands with their bones, leaving few here who 
 " have either the will or the power to protect the unfortunate 
 " Saxon !" 
 
 The effect of the Norman Conquest was simply to intro- 
 duce among the Saxon population a certain class of new 
 terms, which — though they were eventually embodied in their 
 language — are still readily distinguishable from the Stock on 
 which they were thus engrafted. But the general structure 
 and composition of the language remained unaffected by any 
 
34 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Foreign alloy. The most common verbs, nouns, and gram- 
 matical inflections and forms — Home Tooke's " epea pte- 
 roenta" of the English language — remained, and have since 
 continued to be, pure, unadulterated Anglo-Saxon ! 
 
 Such was the character of those modifications in the 
 English Tongue that flowed from the Norman Conquest. 
 Partial and peculiar were those changes in their nature — 
 brief, also, was the interval of which they were the result ! 
 A period can be fixed, at which it is certain that the dialect of 
 theNorman had ceased to encroach on that of the Anglo-Saxon 
 people. In the age of Chaucer, for example, the Norman and 
 Saxon races had long become undistinguishable, and the lan- 
 guages they spoke had blended into one. Can the same age 
 be fixed upon as an epoch at which the process of transition 
 in the English language had also been arrested ? That con- 
 siderable changes have since occurred will not be disputed — 
 for it is an historical fact which does neither admit of doubt 
 nor discussion. But had all important changes ceased at that 
 time? Can ic be said that — in the time of Chaucer — that 
 progressive revolution which has so widely separated the 
 modern English from the original Anglo-Saxon had gone 
 through all its stages? Can it be said that the innovations 
 which have since occurred are few in number, and trifling in 
 point of character, compared to those which belong to earlier 
 periods of our History ? 
 
 The answer to these inquiries involves a truth that I 
 believe will be found no less startling to the Philologist than 
 to the general reader, in whose mind the changes which the 
 English language has undergone are associated with the 
 violent shock given by the Norman Conquest to Anglo-Saxon 
 institutions. The truth to which I allude— and it is one for 
 which I apprehend few inquirers will be prepared — is this : 
 that the changes which have occurred in the English language 
 since the age of Chaucer are at least equal in importance to 
 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 35 
 
 those which took place in the antecedent periods of our 
 history. Novel as this conclusion may appear, the proofs 
 are so simple and so conclusive, as to place its accuracy 
 beyond the possibility of doubt. 
 
 The features which distinguish different languages from 
 each other are divisible into two classes — Words and Gram- 
 matical inflections. In both these features marked differences 
 have arisen between our modern English and its parent 
 Saxon, and to both these classes we must refer in forming 
 our conclusion as to the relative importance of the alterations 
 which have taken place in our language at two different epochs. 
 1st. The difference in words between the language of 
 Chaucer and our modern English will be sufficiently ob- 
 vious, from a cursory glance at the venerable remains of that 
 poet. How many terms are there in the pages of the father 
 of English poetry that require the aid of a glossary to render 
 them intelligible even to an educated Englishman ! These 
 terms too, be it observed — and it is a reflection highly de- 
 serving of the attention of those who may still cling to the 
 impression that the Norman Conquest has been the sole 
 agent of those phases through which the English Tongue has 
 passed — do not consist exclusively of Anglo-Saxon roots, but 
 comprise also a large number of Norman words which have 
 shared the same fate ! 
 
 2d. Still more striking have been those Changes in the 
 Grammatical forms of the English which may be referred 
 to the last four centuries. 
 
 The ancient Saxon was a language of inflections — the 
 modern English is a language of simple forms. Thus, in the 
 Anglo-Saxon the terminations of the Verb were varied in dif- 
 ferent Persons, as they are in the Latin * Hab-eo, Hah-emus, 
 Kah-ent,' and in the German 'Hab-e, Hab-en, Hab-en.' 
 These inflections have, for the most part, progressively dis- 
 appeared from the English, which expresses the changes of 
 
36 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Persons by separate Pronouns, in conjunction with a Root, in 
 most instances unvarying, as e I Have, We Have, They Have.' 
 There is distinct evidence that this change has, in a great 
 measure, perhaps principally, taken place since the time of 
 Chaucer — whose writings, to a great extent, preserve the 
 Anglo-Saxon inflections, such as 'They Hav-e//,'* &c, cor- 
 responding with the German ' Sie Hab-e;/,' &c. 
 
 Slow and almost imperceptible have been the steps in this 
 as in other examples of that revolution of which the progress 
 may be faintly traced in the writings of Spenser, and 
 Shakspeare, and Milton, and even in those of the great 
 modern Masters of the last century. In our own generation 
 it has not been consummated ! A striking instance occurs 
 in the old inflection of the third person singular ' He Giv-eth/ 
 still partially used in the venerable forms of Scripture. This 
 inflection, now fast passing into oblivion, trifling as it may 
 appear, forms a link which serves to associate the English 
 language not only with the German, but with the Latin and 
 the Sanscrit 1 1 
 
 The Auxiliary Verb may probably be regarded as the most 
 important part of Language. Now it is highly deserving of 
 remark, that in the Anglo-Saxon there existed an Auxiliary 
 Verb, f Beo, or Beonne, To Be/ which has been abandoned 
 in the modern English. This Verb is interesting, not merely 
 from its important functions as a part of Language, but also 
 from its forming a link, as will hereafter appear, between the 
 Anglo-Saxon, the German, the dialects of the English Pro- 
 vinces, and of the Scottish Lowlands. From the English of 
 
 • This inflection, as in ' They Hav-m,' is also preserved in the Dialects of the 
 English Provinces, 
 t Giv-eth (Eng.) 
 Gieb-et (Germ.) 
 Don-at (Lat.) 
 
 Can-ati (Sans.) i. e. Can-it (Lat.) 
 Diy-ati (Sans.) i. e. Die-th (Eng.) 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 37 
 
 Literature it has been lost since the days of Chaucer, by 
 whom it is commonly used, as in the following example : 
 
 " These two sinnes bin so nigb cosins." — Persoji's Tale. 
 
 The peculiarities which distinguish the dialects of the 
 English Counties from the language of the higher classes of 
 society are not, as is perhaps generally supposed, the results 
 of the capricious deviation of uncultivated minds from an 
 established standard. On the contrary, they appear clearly 
 for the most part to be various relics or Fragments of Old 
 English or Anglo-Saxon, which the more educated classes 
 have lost. For example, To ' axe 5 (for To ask,) e I conne/ 
 (I can,) expressions used by the peasantry of Shropshire, are 
 words of Saxon origin that occur in Chaucer. In an able 
 work on the peculiarities of the dialect of Lancashire, by 
 Mr. Collier,* it has been shown with much learning and re- 
 search that those peculiarities are to be recognized in Chaucer, 
 Spenser, Ben Jonson, and other old English writers. Ob- 
 solete Norman, as well as Saxon, words occur in this dialect. 
 Similar inferences with regard to the Lowland Scotch may 
 be drawn from Mr. Jamieson's work on that branch of the 
 Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Some very interesting results will be found to flow from a 
 Comparison of the " Pronunciation" of different English 
 Counties, and of the Lowland Scotch, with that of the edu- 
 cated classes of modern England. One of the most marked 
 differences between the modern English and the German 
 consists in the superior breadth or distinctness which is given 
 in the German to words which are uttered with a compara- 
 tively narrow and indistinct sound in Modern English. There 
 is every reason to believe that the Anglo-Saxon Pronuncia- 
 
 • A work published by this gentleman under the quaint title of" Tim Bobbin," 
 and written entirely in the Lancashire Dialect, is well known. His writings, how- 
 ever, display the attainments of a scholar. 
 
38 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 tion was similar to the German, and that the present English 
 mode has been the result of progressive innovation, Of the 
 various dialects of the Anglo-Saxon, the Lowland Scotch, in 
 its pronunciation, as well as in individual words, approaches 
 nearest to the Continental German.* But, as intimated 
 above, many of the characteristics of German articulation 
 have been preserved also in the Provincial dialects of England. 
 Moreover, it is interesting to observe, that different primitive 
 peculiarities have been preserved in different counties. For 
 example, the English of the educated classes diners from the 
 Continental German, and, as it is believed, from the Anglo- 
 Saxon also,t in giving a narrow sound to the vowels A and U. 
 Now the Shropshire dialect has preserved the broad A ; 
 (' Hair,' for instance, is pronounced c H-a-r/ as it is by the 
 Germans !) On the other hand, in Lancashire and Cheshire 
 the broad U forms the prominent feature in the dialect of the 
 peasantry; (for example, 'Butter 5 and ( Gutter' are pronounced 
 6 Bootter 3 and ' Gootter /') 
 
 As already - jticed, the Anglo-Saxon Auxiliary Verb forms 
 in numerous instances an important connecting link. Thus 
 the modern English and the modern German Auxiliary Verbs 
 differ totally in the present tense. 
 
 ENGLISH. GERMAN. 
 
 I am, Ich bin, 
 
 Thou art, Du bist, 
 
 He is. Er ist. 
 
 We are, Wir sind, 
 
 You are, Ihr seyd, 
 
 They are. Sie sind. 
 
 But both these Verbs co-exist in the present tense in the 
 old Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 * < Gang to the recht {right) hand' was a reply which Dr. Lappenben? of 
 Hamburgh has noticed to the author as one which struck his ear when he visited 
 Scotland for the first time as a student. The approximation to the German is 
 manifest. 
 
 + Rask, by Thorpe, pp. 8-9. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 39 
 
 Anglo-Saxon* Verb the source Anglo-Saxon Verb corres- 
 of the English 'lam.' ponding with the German 
 
 <Ich bin: 
 
 INDICATIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. Singular. 
 
 1, Eom, \ 9 Beo, 
 
 2, Eort, 2, Byst, 
 
 3, Is. 3, By & Byd. 
 
 Plural. Plural. 
 
 1, 2, 3, Synd. 1, 2, 3, Beod & Beo. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Singular. Singular. 
 
 1, 2, 3, Sy (Seo). 1, 2, 3, Beo. 
 
 Plural. Plural. 
 
 1, 2, 3, Sy'n. 1, 2, 3, Beon. 
 
 INDICATIVE IMPERFECT. 
 
 Singular. Singular. 
 
 l,Waes, 1,2,3, Beo. 
 
 2, Waere, 
 
 3, Weds. 
 
 Plural. Plural. 
 
 1,2,3, Weron. 1, 2, 3, Beod. 
 
 INFINITIVE PRESENT. 
 
 Wesanne. Beonne. 
 
 PARTICIPLE ACTIVE. 
 
 Wesende. Beonde. 
 
 PARTICIPLE PAST. 
 
 Gewesen. 
 
 * This- Verb also exhibits the German Plural / Sind/ which differs from the 
 singular altogether, and belonged no doubt originally to a distinct Auxiliary Verb. 
 
40 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 But though the present tense of the Verb ' Beo or Beonne' 
 does not exist in modern English, it has been preserved in a 
 remarkable manner in the Shropshire and other dialects, in 
 which it runs thus : 
 
 PROVINCIAL ENGLISH. GERMAN. 
 
 I Be, or I Bin, Ich Bin, 
 
 Thou Bist, Du Bist, 
 
 He Is. Er 1st. 
 
 We Bin, 
 Y6 Bin, 
 They Bin. 
 
 The word ( Bin' or i Ben 5 is used by Chaucer for the 1 st, 
 2d, and 3d Persons Plural,* as in the passage previously 
 quoted: "These two sinnes bin so nigh cosins." (Person's 
 Tales.) 
 
 These are singular but highly instructive examples of the 
 caprices of " the great Innovator \" 
 
 * See Glossary to Tyrwhitt's Chaucer. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 41 
 
 Section IV. 
 
 On the Scandinavian Languages, Resemblances between the 
 Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon. Recent Origin and extensive 
 Nature of the Differences among the Icelandic, Swedish, 
 Danish, and Norwegian Tongues. Approximation of the 
 Ancient Specimens of the Scandinavian and Teutonic 
 Languages. 
 
 The Island of Iceland abounds in diversified features of 
 interest; and its Language, early History, and Institutions, 
 will be found replete with instruction, in connexion with the 
 inquiry pursued in this volume. 
 
 As has been previously stated, the Gothic Class of lan- 
 guages are naturally divisible into two great subordinate 
 branches : the Teutonic or German, including the dialects of 
 Germany, the Low Countries, and of Great Britain — and the 
 Scandinavian, including those of the two Scandinavian 
 Peninsulas and Iceland. These two great Divisions of the 
 Languages of the Gothic race are radically the same, but 
 they are supposed to display certain specific differences by 
 which they are distinguished from each other. 
 
 Of the Teutonic — one of the most venerable specimens is 
 the Anglo-Saxon, the primitive tongue of the Ancestors of 
 the modern English. More ancient specimens of some of 
 the other Gothic dialects have been preserved, but as these 
 are for the most part mere fragments — while of the Anglo- 
 Saxon literature and language we possess copious Remains — 
 it has been inferred by eminent Scholars that it is in these 
 Remains — to Englishmen so interesting for other reasons — 
 that we may on the whole, perhaps, hope to find the nearest 
 approach to a transcript of the early language of the Teutonic 
 
42 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 tribes.* Of all the Scandinavian Languages, on the other 
 hand, the Icelandic — by the general concurrence of the 
 scholars of the North — appears to be the most primitive. 
 
 Now in relation to these two Languages, a very interesting 
 proposition has been established by Scandinavian scholars — 
 and though they widely differ as to the cause of the results 
 they discuss— they seem to be agreed with respect to the 
 proposition itself. The Icelandic, they have shown, closely 
 approaches to the Anglo-Saxon in numerous features in 
 which it differs from the languages of Norway, Sweden, and 
 Denmark. Moreover it has been pointed out by the writers 
 who first noticed these resemblances, that — in their Literary 
 and Bardic Institutions, as well as in their Language — the 
 Icelanders approach to the Anglo-Saxons. In explanation 
 of these facts, they propose the theory — that in the early 
 ages of their history the Icelanders must have benefited 
 by direct communication and instruction from the Anglo- 
 Saxons. 
 
 These views T ive been fully discussed by Professor Rask, 
 in a Preface prefixed to his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, which 
 contains a valuable body of facts that serve to throw a new 
 light on the history of the Scandinavian Tongues. f He does 
 not deny the existence of these important common features 
 in the Icelandic and Anglo-Saxon Languages and Remains ; 
 nor the absence of the same features as regards the Modern 
 specimens of the Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian ; but he 
 maintains, nevertheless, that all these characteristics may be 
 retraced in detail, either in the Ancient or in the Provincial 
 specimens of those three Languages. In the present day 
 the Icelandic differs widely from the Languages of the 
 Mainland of Scandinavia, an^ those Languages also differ 
 widely among themselves. But originally, he maintains, one 
 
 * Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, 
 t Rask's Grammar, by Thorpe. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 43 
 
 common Speech, the ancient Scandinavian, (' DanskaTunge/) 
 was spoken from the coasts of Greenland to those of Finland, 
 from the Frozen Ocean to the Eider.* As we ascend into 
 the remoter periods of history we find the languages of 
 Scandinavia gradually approximate to each other, and finally 
 blend into one.f During the ninth century, and the period 
 immediately succeeding, these tongues were perfectly iden- 
 tical. 
 
 Professor Rask's proofs of this proposition may be said to 
 consist of a reunion of the i Disjecta Membra' of the 
 ' Danska Tunge/ as found dispersed in the various kingdoms 
 and provinces of the Scandinavian Mainland. Of these 
 proofs I shall offer a few examples. 
 
 After observing that the Danish and Norwegian have from 
 various causes become very much alike, he adds that a com- 
 parison of the Danish with the Swedish would, for that 
 reason, be more instructive. 
 
 * The Swedish has almost from the introduction of Chris- 
 " tianity, even during the Calmar union, a.d. 1397, and in 
 " the time of Gustavus I., been a distinct tongue ; a com- 
 " parison, therefore, with the Swedish is more to the present 
 " purpose." 
 
 He then gives a specimen of an ancient Danish MS. of a 
 date prior to the Reformation, which, " like all MSS. prior" 
 to that event, " differs widely from the present Danish. . . . 
 * It has many inflections now obsolete, but which are to be 
 " found only in Old Swedish and Icelandic ; many antiquated 
 e< words and phrases, exempli gratia, then annin," Icelandic 
 " thann annan." 
 
 He then mentions some words contained in this MS. which 
 are still preserved in " the provinces of Upland, Jutland, and, 
 (< Dalecarlia." 
 
 * Bosworth's Scandinavian Literature. 
 
 + lb. See Rask's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, by Thorpe. 
 
44 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 He next notices an old Swedish document issued by King 
 Magnus Smik, of which he observes : " This, although about a 
 " century older, greatly resembles the preceding specimen, 
 " and is scarcely distinguishable from the Danish of the same 
 
 " period But if we go further back to the language 
 
 " of the old Danish Laws, we there recognize nearly the 
 " entire structure of the earliest Swedish, and the Icelandic 
 " though not always strictly adhered to, as the language in 
 a those unhappy and turbulent times which preceded the 
 " Calmar Union, underwent in Denmark what may be termed 
 " its fermentation, somewhat earlier than in the other states." 
 
 He then gives a specimen from the Ecclesiastical Laws of 
 Zealand, of which he observes : " The few deviations from 
 " the Icelandic bear, for the most part, a strong resemblance 
 " to the Swedish. 
 
 " But the oldest remains of the Danish language are to be 
 " found on our Runic stone monuments, and here at length 
 " it perfectly coincides with the earliest Swedish, Norwegian, 
 " and Icelandic. 
 
 ***** 
 
 " The Danish is closely allied to the Swedish, and both, in 
 " the earliest times, lapse into the Icelandic, which, according 
 Ci to all ancient records, was formerly universal over all the 
 " North, and must therefore be considered as the parent of 
 " both the modern Scandinavian dialects/ 5 # 
 
 On the subject of the differences of dialect in the different 
 provinces of the Northern Kingdoms he says that, "In Norway 
 " as well as in Denmark one province terminates its verbs 
 
 * The original identity of all these Languages maybe said to be clearly proved ; 
 tbe Icelandic, also, seems to have deviated less than the rest from the parent 
 tongue. But this opinion that the Icelandic has not changed at all is a highly 
 unreasonable one. For example, the Danish and Swedish names for ' Water' in 
 Appendix C, of which the antiquity is certain from their general use among the 
 Teutonic tribes, &c. must have been lost by the Icelanders. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 45 
 
 "in a, another distinguishes all the three genders, while a 
 <e third has preserved a vast number of old words and inflec- 
 £i tions which to the others are unintelligible" 
 
 We have thus a proof that even in the provinces of the 
 same kingdom there are differences of " words, grammar, 
 " and inflections.'" The difference in the number of genders is 
 a very remarkable one. 
 
 The researches of Professor Rask will be found distinctly 
 to warrant the following conclusions. These conclusions are 
 in the nature of results that legitimately flow from his re- 
 searches ; they do not represent the inferences which he him- 
 self has thence deduced. With regard both to the languages 
 of England and of his native Scandinavia, this learned writer 
 seems evidently to have been perplexed by the extent and 
 variety of the changes he has described. Hence, in both in- 
 stances, he has shown an inclination to ascribe to the influence 
 of War and Social disturbance changes which his own re- 
 searches clearly prove to have been the effects neither of 
 transient nor of local influences, but of causes progressively 
 at work through a series of ages, and embracing large groups 
 of nations and languages in their action. 
 
 1. The differences which now exist between the various 
 Scandinavian Languages extend to all those features in which 
 it is possible that one Language, or one Class of Languages, 
 can differ from another; viz. to Words, Grammar, Inflec- 
 tions,* and to the arrangement of Words in sentences,t or 
 Idioms. 
 
 2. Not only do differences of this nature present themselves 
 in the various Scandinavian Kingdoms — but also in the va- 
 
 * As to Grammar and Inflections, see especially pp. xvii. and xix. xxi. xxiii. 
 —Rask. 
 
 f See Bosworth's ' Scandinavian Literature,' as to the difference in the 
 arrangement of sentences, and the difference of Idioms between the ancient and 
 modern Scandinavian dialects. 
 
46 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 rious Provinces of the same Kingdom, which in many in- 
 stances are distinguished by the most marked differences in 
 Words, Grammar, &c. Thus the Dialect of Dalecarlia in 
 Sweden is very ancient and distinct, and approaches to the 
 Gothic* 
 
 3. These characteristic features of the various languages 
 and dialects of Scandinavia have arisen progressively during 
 the course of ages. 
 
 4. These differences principally consist in the abandon- 
 ment in one Kingdom or Province of a portion of the Words, 
 Idioms, Grammar, &c. of the Parent Speech — that part of 
 the elements of the Original Tongue which have become ob- 
 solete in one dialect having generally been preserved in the 
 dialects of other kingdoms and provinces — which have at 
 the same time generally lost other distinct portions of the 
 Vocabulary, Grammar, &c. of their common Original. In 
 other words, the f Disjecta Membra 5 of the old Scandinavian, 
 or ' Danska Tuv ?/ when not preserved in the Danish, have 
 been retained for the most part in the Swedish, Icelandic, 
 and Norwegian, or in some of the Provincial dialects of 
 Scandinavia, and vice versa. In the various provinces in which 
 it was once spoken different portions of the Parent speech have 
 been abandoned or preserved. 
 
 5. Hence it follows that the Primitive Language of Scan- 
 dinavia, or e Danska Tunge/ does not exist in any one — 
 but is dispersed in all, its derivative dialects. (Compare 
 the motto from Grotius on the title-page.) 
 
 6. It is a necessary consequence of the third and fourth 
 propositions that the more ancient remains of the derivative 
 dialects approach more nearly to the Parent Speech, and — 
 in the ratio of their superior antiquity — unite a greater pro- 
 portion of the distinctive peculiarities of all the sister-dialects, 
 
 * Rask, pp. xvii. and xix. Bosworth's Scandinavian Literature. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 47 
 
 which, as previously stated, have arise n in consequence of 
 certain portions of the Parent speech having been abandoned 
 in some provinces and retained in others, and vice versa. 
 
 An interesting illustration of this maxim occurs in a pas- 
 sage from Professor Rask^s preface already quoted, in which, 
 after giving a specimen of old Danish, which approaches 
 closely to the Icelandic, he adds, " The few deviations from 
 " the Icelandic bear for the most part a strong resemblance to 
 ce the Swedish" In other words, the older specimens of the 
 Danish unite those peculiarities by which the modern col- 
 lateral Tongues of Iceland, Denmark, and Sweden are dis- 
 tinguished from each other. 
 
 Let it be borne in mind, that the lapse of one thousand 
 years has produced these changes, and the instructive nature 
 of this example will be fully apparent. Of the accuracy of 
 the data on which the previous deductions rest, all doubt 
 must be removed by reference to one remarkable event. It 
 is historically certain that the Island of Iceland is inhabited 
 by a nation descended from emigrants from the opposite 
 Norwegian coast. It is historically certain, also, that pre- 
 viously to the Ninth Century these warlike adventurers had 
 not established themselves on the Icelandic soil. Anterior to 
 that period, therefore, it is self-evident that, inasmuch as the 
 Icelanders had no existence as a nation, the Icelandic Tongue 
 could not have had a separate existence as a language. Yet 
 it is certain that in the present day the Icelandic deviates at 
 least as widely from the language of the adjoining Norwegian 
 Coasts as that language deviates from the other Scandinavian 
 Tongues. 
 
 The evidence furnished by Professor Rask and the writers 
 whose views he has combated, will be found, when fairly 
 balanced, distinctly to support a very important Conclusion, 
 contemplated by neither. The facts adduced on both sides 
 conspire to show a rapid approximation of the Teutonic and 
 
48 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 Scandinavian branches of the Gothic as we ascend into re- 
 mote ages. 
 
 Of this approximation, the features of identity between the 
 Anglo-Saxon and the Icelandic, pointed out by the writers 
 whose views Professor Rask combats, furnish a reasonable 
 presumption, which is converted into positive proof by 
 the evidence collected by Professor Rask himself, that the 
 same features occur in all the ancient, though they do not 
 in the modern, specimens of the Languages of the Scandi- 
 navian Peninsulas. It is true, this learned writer, of whose 
 researches I have chiefly availed myself in this Section, 
 maintains that there are some features in which all the 
 Scandinavian differ from the Anglo-Saxon and other Teutonic 
 Dialects, a conclusion, however, but feebly supported by the 
 examples he has adduced, and scarcely reconcilable in any 
 way with the resemblance which the primitive Swedish 
 dialect of Dalecarlia is said to bear to the Gothic. But, as- 
 suming the occurrence of some features of difference, even in 
 the earliest specimens we possess, this assumption leaves un- 
 touched the proposition that these specimens show a rapid 
 rate of approximation, which, if equally rapid prior to their 
 date, implies that at an era not many ages anterior the iden- 
 tity of the languages of Germany and Scandinavia must 
 have been complete. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 49 
 
 Section V. 
 
 The Origin of the Irish Nation. The original Language of 
 the British Isles was a Union of Welsh and Irish. Union 
 of the Irish, Welsh, fyc. in the ancient Local Names in the 
 Celtic Countries of Gaul, $c. These Names a connecting 
 Link between the existing Celtic Dialects and the Oriental, 
 Greek, and other Languages, fyc. 
 
 The origin of the Irish nation, or Gael, forms — for nu- 
 merous reasons — a highly interesting and important subject 
 of inquiry. Of this Nation the very same theories have been 
 maintained as those which have been adopted in some quar- 
 ters with respect to the North American Indians, the Negroes, 
 and other branches of the Human Family ; viz., that they 
 are of a stock aboriginally inferior and distinct, by nature 
 incapable of the virtues of civilization. Let the views advo- 
 cated by Pinkerton with respect to the Gaelic race — views 
 received with no slight degree of favour in his time — be com- 
 pared with the doctrines of many modern writers on the 
 subject of the native African and American Races, and an 
 instructive lesson will be learnt on the force of prejudice and 
 the uniformity of error ! 
 
 On the other hand, it must be allowed that the opinions 
 which have been generally espoused on the subject of the 
 origin of the Gael by many of the Historians and Scholars 
 of Ireland and of the Highlands of Scotland, can scarcely be 
 said to possess a better claim to the approbation of a calm 
 and dispassionate judgment. Eminently distinguished as 
 the Irish are by Literary genius, there is probably no subject 
 on which their native talent has appeared to less advantage 
 than in the investigation of the early History of their own 
 
 4 
 
50 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Country. Fictions the most extravagant, borrowed from the 
 Chronicles of the dark ages, have been credulously adopted 
 by their first Scholars in lieu of those solid truths to which 
 a calm and sober inquiry alone can lead. Thus we find Mr. 
 Moore, at once the Poet and the Historian of Ireland, 
 lending the sanction of his name to the Fable that the Irish 
 are of Spanish origin; and citing, in answer to the more rea- 
 sonable hypothesis of a British origin, a variety of Irish 
 writers of no mean note, and some Welsh writers also, in 
 favour of the assertions : 1, that the Irish Language is almost 
 totally unlike the Welsh or Ancient British ; and 2, that the 
 Welsh is not a Celtic but a Gothic Tongue ! There is every 
 reason to conclude that Mr. Moore — unacquainted, probably, 
 with any of the Celtic dialects himself — resorted to those 
 authorities which he might naturally have deemed most de- 
 serving of confidence. But this only renders more lamentably 
 conspicuous the credulity, carelessness, and ignorance of 
 those to whose kbours he has appealed. The assertions, 
 1, that the Welsh and Irish are unlike; and 2, that the 
 Welsh is a Gothic dialect, are contradictions of the plainest 
 facts, as will be obvious from a perusal of the examples se- 
 lected in Appendix C. 
 
 Influenced by national feelings Gaelic Scholars have also 
 advanced various other theories, calculated to exhibit the an- 
 tiquity of their language and race in a favorable point of 
 view. The Gaelic has been maintained to be the Parent, at 
 least in part, of the Latin, the Welsh, &c. ; while to the first 
 Colonists of Ireland a Carthaginian or Phoenician origin has 
 been assigned. 
 
 These conclusions cannot be sustained. But it is highly 
 probable, notwithstanding, that the proofs on which they 
 have been based will be found, in many instances, to contain 
 the germs of important truths, though blended with an ad- 
 mixture of error. The traces of affinity between the Irish 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 51 
 
 and other ancient languages which have been collected by 
 Gaelic Scholars, may be open in many cases to the same re- 
 mark, which is clearly applicable to the examples of affinity 
 pointed out by Mr. Catlin between the dialect of the North 
 American Indian tribe the Mandans and the Welsh; viz., 
 these features may consist of clear and genuine traces of a 
 generic, though they may afford no proofs of a specific, 
 affinity of race. There can be no doubt that the Irish pre- 
 serves many primitive forms which the kindred Celtic of 
 Wales has lost ; there can be no doubt also that the Irish 
 approximates to the Latin, to the Greek, and to the Egyp- 
 tian,* &c. in many features which the Welsh no longer ex- 
 hibits. The examples adduced in Appendix A of the con- 
 nexion of the Irish language with the Hebrew, Egyptian, &c. 
 are sufficient to show that the Irish are a nation of Oriental 
 origin. But on the other hand it must be borne in mind, 
 that inasmuch as the Welsh, Latin, &c, have also preserved 
 primitive forms which the Irish has lost, there is no ground 
 for concluding that the Gaelic is a Parent rather than a Sister 
 of these venerable Tongues ; and inasmuch as the evidence 
 of the Eastern origin of the Gael, however unequivocal, is 
 not clearer or closer than the accompanying t evidence with 
 respect to the Welsh, English, and other European nations, 
 there are no peculiar grounds for referring the first coloniza- 
 tion of Ireland to a direct migration from the shores of 
 Palestine or Africa, rather than to the gradual diffusion of 
 population from a central point. 
 
 The following comparison presents examples of features 
 in which the Irish approximates to the Gothic and other 
 Languages, at the same time that it differs more or less from 
 the Welsh. 
 
 * See the Irish names for the Heavenly Bodies, in Append. A and C. 
 f See Appendix A. 
 
.V> 
 
 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 Words in which the Gaelic resembles the Gothic, and other 
 European Languages, more closely than it resembles the 
 Cymraeg or Welsh. 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 GAELIC. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 CYMRAEG. 
 
 1. Father. 
 
 Ath-air, (Ir.) 
 
 Atta, (Gothic.) 
 
 Ayta, Aydia, (Basque.) 
 
 Attia, (Hung.) 
 
 Otek, (Russ.) 
 
 Fader, slightly varied in all 
 the Gothic dialects, except 
 the Gothic properly so 
 called. 
 
 Pater, ( Greek 2$ Latin.) 
 
 Tad, (W.) 
 
 2. Mother. 
 
 Math-air, (Ir.) 
 
 Mater or Mutter (with some 
 trifling variations) in Latin, 
 Greek, and all the Teuto- 
 Scandinavian dialects ex- 
 cept the Gothic — also in 
 the Sclavonic and Bohe- 
 mian. 
 
 Ath-ei, (Gothic.) 
 
 
 
 Mymmog, 
 
 ... 
 
 Mam, (fV.) 
 
 
 (Manx dialect.) 
 
 
 
 3. Brother. 
 
 Brathair, (Ir.) 
 
 The Irish form, Brathair, 
 
 Brawd, (W.) 
 
 
 
 occurs in the Latin and 
 
 Bredar, 
 
 
 
 Teuto-Scandinav. tongues; 
 
 (Cornish.) 
 
 
 
 the Welsh form, Brawd, in 
 
 
 
 
 the Sclavonian tongues. 
 
 
 
 Breur, 
 
 ... 
 
 Breur, (Jrm.) 
 
 
 (Manx dialect.) 
 
 
 
 4. Sister. 
 
 Siur, (Ir.) 
 
 The Irish form prevails in the 
 Latin, Teuto-Scand. and 
 Sclavonic. 
 
 Chwaer, (TV.) 
 
 
 Piur, (Scotch.) 
 
 
 Hor, Huyr, 
 
 (Cornish.) 
 Torv. 
 
 5. A Company. 
 
 Drong, (Ir.) 
 
 Drang, a Throng, a Crowd, 
 
 
 
 ( German.) 
 
 
 6. Mock. 
 
 Magom, (Ir.) 
 
 Mock, (English.) 
 
 Gwatwor, (JV.) 
 
 7. Evil. 
 
 Neoid, (Ir.) 
 01k, (Ir.) 
 
 *« \ { E„ g .) ... 
 
 Droug, (W.) 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 
 
 53 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 GAELIC. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 CYMBAEG. 
 
 8. The Bank > 
 of a Stream. ' 
 
 Rang, (Jr.) 
 
 Rand,* (Germ.) 
 
 Glan, (W.) 
 
 9. A Step. 
 
 Beim, (Ir.) 
 
 Bem-a, a Step, (Greek.) 
 
 Bain-o, to go. 
 
 Bahn, a Path, (Germ.) 
 
 Cam. 
 
 10. To bear. 
 
 Beir-im, (Ir.) 
 
 Fero, (Latin.) 
 Ge-Bahr-en, (Germ.) 
 
 Dwyn. 
 
 11. Jeering. 
 
 Fon-amhad(Ir.w 
 
 Fun, (Eng.) 
 
 
 Delight. 
 
 Foun, (Ir.) 1 
 
 Vonne, Delight, > ( ^ m>) 
 Vunsch, a Wish, 5 V 
 
 Vynn, orMynn, 
 
 A Desire. 
 
 J 
 
 a Wish, (W.) 
 
 12. A Woman. 
 
 Geon, (Ir.) 
 
 Cwen, (Ang.-Sax. fy Icel.) 
 
 Gen-eth, a Girl, 
 
 13. To know. 
 
 Fis-ay-im, (Ir.)-* 
 Fod-am, (Ir.) \ 
 
 Viss-en, (Germ.) -* 
 Vit-an, (Ang.-Sax.) J 
 1 1 wot,' (Eng.) S 
 
 Wys, or Gwys, 
 
 
 Wyth.orGwyth, 
 
 
 
 Knowledge ( W.) 
 
 14. To heat, > 
 or warm. S 
 
 
 
 
 Gorm, (Ir.) 
 
 Warm, (Eng.) 
 
 Gwresogi, (W.) 
 
 15. A Shadow. 
 
 Sgath, (Ir.) 
 
 lY m * ] (Greek.) ^ 
 Skiad-on, 5 V I 
 
 Schatten, (Germ.) J 
 
 
 
 
 Cysgod, (W.) 
 
 
 
 
 16. To speak. 
 
 Raid-him, (Ir.) 
 
 Read-en, (Germ.) ... 1 
 
 Siarad, (W.) 
 
 Some of these examples would furnish a more plausible 
 argument to show that the Irish are a Gothic race than any 
 which have been advanced to prove that the Welsh are of 
 Gothic origin ! It is singular, for instance, that the Irish 
 terms expressive of the Domestic relations are so near the 
 English as to excite in the first instance a suspicion that they 
 must have been borrowed from the followers of Strongbow ! 
 But this impression must be dispelled by the reflection that 
 terms of this class are never borrowed from its conquerors by 
 a nation that continues to retain its primitive language. 
 Moreover, it will be observed, that the Irish, in the instance 
 of these words, approaches much more nearly to the Gothic, 
 
 • Possibly many of these words may be traced in the Greek, &c, but it would 
 be foreign to the present subject to enter into too minute a discussion on that 
 head. 
 
,")4 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Hungarian, and Russian, &c. than it does to the English. 
 Again, the Irish word ' Gorm/ To heat or warm, is like the 
 English c Warm.' But, on the other hand, its genuineness 
 is rendered indisputable by its absolute identity with the 
 word ' Gorm' in Persian and Egyptian, (See Appendix A, 
 p. 21.) Finally, the resemblances manifested above by the 
 Irish to the Greek are quite as close as those which the 
 former language displays to the English and other Gothic 
 Tongues. In these examples, therefore, we may recognize 
 proofs not of any partial results or specific connexions, but of 
 the more complete approximation of the European languages 
 as we enlarge our range of inquiry, and obtain more ample 
 specimens of each Class. 
 
 But, notwithstanding the occurrence of some features of 
 difference, it is indisputable that there exists a close spe- 
 cific affinity between the Irish and Welsh Languages, which 
 renders the common origin of the nations who speak them evi- 
 dent. The original identity of the Irish and Welsh Languages 
 was established as far back as the commencement of the 
 eighteenth century, by the investigations of the excellent 
 Archaeologist, Edward Lhuyd, who spent five years in tra- 
 velling through the various Celtic regions, and whose com- 
 parison of the dialects of Wales, Cornwall, Armorica, the 
 Highlands of Scotland, and the Isle of Man, is not inferior 
 either in soundness of reasoning, or in patient, extensive, and 
 honest research, to the best German works of the present 
 day. But although the writings of Lhuyd may be said to 
 have established the original unity of the Welsh and Irish 
 races, since the publication of his work, a peculiar opinion 
 has been adopted by some learned men with regard to the 
 time of their original separation. Of this opinion, Edward 
 Lhuyd was himself the first advocate; his conclusion was 
 that though the Irish and British Celts were both descend- 
 ants from one stock, they must have been separated into two 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 55 
 
 distinct Tribes before their arrival in the British Islands. The 
 Gaelic or Irish Tribe he supposes to have preceded the Welsh 
 or British Tribe, by whom he conceives them to have been 
 gradually driven to the West, as the Britons were by the 
 Saxons in subsequent ages. Lhuyd' s grounds are as follows : 
 
 The most ancient names of Rivers and Mountains in the 
 Island of Britain are very generally composed of terms still 
 preserved in the Welsh or Ancient British Tongue. But 
 there are some remarkable exceptions, and in these instances 
 it frequently happens that the Names may be clearly iden- 
 tified with Words still preserved in the Irish or Gaelic branch 
 of the Celtic. For example, the names of the British rivers, 
 the Usk and the Esk, are particularly noticed by Lhuyd ; 
 these names are identical with ' Uisge, Eask/ the Irish term 
 for ( Water.' This word, he observes, does not exist in the 
 Welsh, and he had looked for it in vain in the sister dialect 
 of Armorica ; but, he adds, it is still retained by the Irish or 
 Gaelic. Hence, he suggests that the Irish or Gaelic branch 
 of the Celts must have colonized the Island of Britain before 
 the arrival of the Cymry or Welsh branch, by whom, as he 
 conceives, they were expelled, after having conferred names 
 on the principal localities. 
 
 The evidence of language will be found sufficient to show 
 not merely the common origin of the Welsh and Irish, but 
 also to fix a much more recent date for their separation than 
 that which has been assigned by Lhuyd. It will thence ap- 
 pear that the Irish are descendants of Colonists of the Welsh 
 or British race, not of a distinct Celtic sept, and that the 
 commencement of the separate existence of the Irish nation 
 must be referred to a comparatively recent date, propositions 
 of much interest, of which the proofs about to be advanced 
 will probably be deemed to be at once clear and simple. 
 
 Lhuyd 5 s reasoning in favour of his theory, that the Irish or 
 Gael existed in Britain as a separate Tribe, prior to the arrival 
 
56 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 of the Britons who fought against Caesar, the ancestors of 
 the modern Welsh, is founded on a false analogy not unna- 
 tural to a first inquirer. 
 
 The proposition that the most important local names in 
 every country for the most part consist of terms belonging 
 to the language of the very first inhabitants, is one of which 
 1 conceive the truth will be evident. For a proof of this 
 principle, I may refer to Chalmers' * admirable analysis of 
 local names in the Lowlands of Scotland, where, in spite of 
 a succession of Conquests, and the utter extinction in that 
 part of Britain of the language of the original inhabitants, 
 viewed as a vernacular dialect, Welsh and other Celtic names 
 are still preserved, after the lapse of ages, for the most pro- 
 minent features of the country. This result, it may be ob- 
 served, is one that flows from the very nature of things. 
 Even the most fierce and ruthless invaders are compelled to 
 hold sufficient intercourse with the first population to enable 
 them to learn the proper names of their localities, and these 
 names, from obvious motives of convenience, they almost 
 universally adopt. 
 
 Now, had Lhuyd shown that the most ancient Local names 
 in Britain are exclusively Irish, there can be no doubt that, 
 consistently with the principle just noticed, his theory would 
 have been supported by the facts to which he adverts. But 
 the most ancient local names in Britain are not exclusively 
 or principally Irish ; in an equal number, perhaps in a majo- 
 rity, of cases they are Welsh. 
 
 Moreover, it may be observed that the names of localities 
 in this Island furnish highly instructive evidence, not merely 
 with respect to the different races by whom it has been suc- 
 cessively peopled, but also of the order in which they arrived. 
 Thus the names of Rivers and Mountains, and other natural 
 
 * Chalmers' Caledonia. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 57 
 
 objects, at least of the most conspicuous, are Celtic; the 
 names of the most ancient Towns are Latin, or Latin grafted 
 on British words ; more modern Towns and Villages have 
 Saxon appellations; those of more recent origin have fre- 
 quently Norman designations; and last of all come those 
 places which have names derived from our present English. 
 These various classes of names cannot be nicely distinguished 
 in each particular instance. Of the correctness of the general 
 principle, however, there is no doubt. 
 
 But the terms noticed by Lhuyd as significant in the Irish 
 language do not belong to a different class of appellations 
 from those which are obviously of British or Cymraeg origin. 
 The Irish and Cymraeg terms are both found to predominate 
 most in the names of the most ancient Class, viz. in those of 
 Rivers, Mountains, &c, and to be thus applied in conjunction. 
 Hence the natural inference that flows from his facts is not 
 that these names were conferred by two distinct and succes- 
 sive races, but that they were imposed contemporaneously and 
 by the same People ! 
 
 Further it may be noticed, that if British Topography pre- 
 sents words extant only in the Irish Tongue, Irish Topography 
 also presents names which cannot be explained by means of 
 the Irish, though their meaning is preserved in Welsh ; for 
 example : There is a place near the head of a Stream in 
 Roscommon, called ' Glan a Modda, (from Glan, e The bank 
 of a Stream, 5 Welsh.) There is a place in Wales, called 
 i Glan a Mowdduy.' There is a place called ' Glan-gora/ in 
 a Creek at the head of Bantry Bay; and another place in 
 Ireland called i Glan-gort.' 
 
 'Ben-heder/ the ancient Irish name for 'The Hill of 
 Howth/ interpreted by Mr. Moore 'The Hill of Birds.' 
 (Adar, ( Birds,' Welsh. The word does not exist in Irish.) 
 
 Arran, A mountainous Island. (Arran, a Mountain, Welsh. 
 This word does not exist in Irish,) &c. &c. 
 
58 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Mr. Chalmers in his Caledonia states that the prevalent 
 ancient names of localities in Britain and Ireland are essen- 
 tially the same. 
 
 The conclusions to which these facts legitimately and ne- 
 cessarily lead are, that the British Islands were originally 
 colonized by Settlers, who, at the time of the first occupation 
 of Great Britain and Ireland, spoke one uniform language, 
 in which the Welsh, Irish, and other living Celtic Dialects 
 were combined. We may infer, and I conceive most clearly, 
 that these dialects must be viewed in the light of f Disjecta 
 Membra' of the speech of the old British and Irish Celts, 
 just as the Icelandic, Norwegian, &c. are fragments of the 
 ancient f Danska Tunge/ as noticed in the previous section. 
 
 It has been shown by Dr. Prichard that the population of 
 Islands has been derived from the neighbouring Continents, 
 and that the population of the more distant Islands has been 
 derived in like manner from those which are nearer to the 
 common source of migration. It is highly unreasonable to 
 assume that Ireland has formed an exception to this general 
 rule, considering that the common basis of the Irish and 
 ancient British or Welsh languages are confessedly the same, 
 unless it can be proved that the accompanying differences 
 are such as to require the solution Lhuyd has suggested. 
 Here, then, the question arises, are the features of difference 
 between the Welsh and Irish languages more numerous or 
 more fundamental, in relation to the interval of time that has 
 elapsed since the Roman Invasion of Britain, than the varieties 
 of dialect among the Scandinavian nations are in relation to 
 the period that has elapsed since the colonization of Iceland ? 
 Now the comparison on this head contained in Appendix C 
 will prove, indisputably, that they are not ! It will thence 
 be seen that Lhuyd's theory, as to the remote date of the se- 
 paration of the Gaelic or Irish from the British or Cymraeg 
 branch of the Celts, is founded on an exaggerated conception 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 59 
 
 of the stability of Human Tongues ; and that the abandon- 
 ment by various septs of different synonymes used conjointly 
 by their common forefathers will satisfactorily account for the 
 differences between the Welsh and Irish, to which he attaches 
 so much weight. It will be perceived, for example, that in the 
 Icelandic, of which the existence commenced in the ninth 
 centurv, and the Continental Scandinavian from which it 
 then sprang, totally different terms are used for e Water/ the 
 very instance to which Lhuyd especially adverts, as regards 
 the languages of the Welsh and Irish, whom we know to 
 have existed as separate nations in the time of Caesar eighteen 
 centuries ago ! 
 
 Another highly instructive test of the correctness of his 
 theory may be derived from the investigations of Lhuyd him- 
 self, who, in his comparison of the Welsh and Irish languages, 
 uniformly distinguished the current terms from the obsolete 
 synonymous words that occur only in ancient MSS. This 
 comparison, of which a specimen is given in Appendix C, 
 proves distinctly that the Irish and Welsh languages approxi- 
 mate, as we ascend, at a rate which, if as rapid previously as 
 we know it to have been up to the date of the earliest MSS., 
 would imply that these languages must have been identical 
 about the era of the Roman invasion. As the changes which 
 languages undergo in their infancy are more rapid than those 
 which occur at later stages of their growth, it is possible 
 that the unity of these Tongues may be ascribed even to a 
 much later period, an opinion which has been maintained by 
 a very judicious and excellent writer, Mr. Edward Davies, 
 who in his 6 Claims of Ossian' has published an early specimen 
 of Irish Poetry, which in Language and Style he regards as 
 identical with the most ancient productions of the Welsh 
 Bards. Making every allowance for the irregularity of the 
 changes which occur in Languages, I do not conceive it pos- 
 sible that the Welsh and Irish could have differed very essen- 
 
60 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 tially in the time of Caesar. This leads directly to another 
 conclusion, viz. that the first colonization of Ireland could 
 not have taken place a great many centuries before the Roman 
 invasion. Had such been the case, the differences between 
 the Welsh and Irish Languages must have been proportion- 
 ately more extensive. In the time of the Romans we learn 
 that an Irish traitor arrived in Britain, who stated that Ireland 
 might be kept in subjection by a single legion, an incident 
 which tends, however slightly, to favour the opinion that the 
 sister Island was at that period but thinly, perhaps because 
 but recently, peopled. 
 
 Of the extent of the changes which the Celtic languages 
 have undergone since the first arrival of the Celts in Europe, 
 we possess proofs of far more ancient date than the earliest 
 literary specimens of the living dialects of the Celtic in the 
 Local names of Celtic regions, as preserved in Roman Maps, 
 and in the existing languages of the French, English, and 
 other nations, who occupy countries of which the Celts were 
 the first inhabitants. These names I shall show to consist 
 of three elements: A union of 1, Welsh, Cornish, &c. ; 
 2, Irish, Highland Scotch, &c. ; and 3, Terms not extant in 
 any Celtic Tongue, but preserved in the Oriental, Greek, and 
 other languages. 
 
 As regards the Names of the 1 st and 2d Classes, it will 
 abundantly appear from the ensuing examples that, in the 
 Topographical Nomenclature of Gaul, Britain, and other 
 Celtic regions of Europe,* words derived from all the various 
 Celtic dialects now extant, occur in a manner that leads dis- 
 tinctly to the inference that these ' Disjecta membra 5 must 
 have simultaneously belonged to the language of the old 
 Celts. Dr. Prichard, who has examined these vestiges of the 
 
 * In this part of the present work I have derived great assistance from Dr. 
 Prichard's sound and successful researches, and from the labours of M. Bullet, 
 which arc distinguished alike by genius and indefatigable industry. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 61 
 
 ancient Celtic Populations of Europe with much ability and 
 success, leans to the opinion that the Cymraeg or Welsh 
 Dialects predominate in these names. But the following 
 examples, which comprise many names derived from the Irish 
 or Gaelic that have not been noticed by Dr. Prichard or by 
 previous writers on this subject, will serve to render it mani- 
 fest that the ancient Names in Europcea Celtica did, in fact, 
 include all the various living Celtic dialects very equally and 
 harmoniously blended. 
 
 How luminous and distinct these proofs of the identity of 
 the ancient with the modern Celtic nations are, will be better 
 understood by a preliminary statement of certain rules, which 
 will serve to give greater precision and perspicuity to the il- 
 lustrations selected : 
 
 1. There can be no doubt that the Romans, in the Celtic, 
 as in other countries conquered by them, modified the native 
 terms by the addition of their own peculiar grammatical in- 
 flections, as in e Judae-i, Britann-i, Sen-ones/ &c. Now it is 
 obvious that in identifying the Celtic terms we must reject 
 these mere Roman inflections.* 
 
 2. In many cases the Roman Names cannot be supposed 
 to involve complete transcripts of the Celtic Names ; fre- 
 quently they were doubtless convenient abbreviations of the 
 original names — names consisting of descriptive terms to 
 them unintelligible. According to Mr. Reynolds, the Saxons 
 generally adopted the first syllable only of the Roman or 
 British names they found in this island. According to 
 Bullet, e Vic/ a word of Roman origin for a Village or Town, 
 has, from similar causes, become common as a Proper name 
 in Dauphine ; in modern times we have numerous Villages 
 called ' Thorpe/ the name for a Village in Anglo-Saxon and 
 
 * I find M. Bullet in many, and in some few instances Dr. Prichard, have, as 
 I conceive, mistaken the Roman inflections for distinct Celtic words. 
 
62 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 German. In instances of this kind, there can be no doubt 
 that originally the names were descriptive, such as ' Long- 
 town/ { Old-town/ &c. Tre or Trev is the common Welsh 
 word for a Town, Village, or residence ; it had the same 
 meaning in Cornwall : 
 
 By Tre, Tres, and Tren, 
 
 You shall know the Cornish men." 
 
 A consequence of the names of the gentry of the county 
 having been derived from those of their residences, into 
 which this word commonly entered ! 
 
 In Wales we have numerous examples of 'Tre,' as in 
 <Tre-Uwng,' 'The Town' of the 'Pool/ (i.e. Welshpool,) 
 from an adjoining ' Llyn,' or Pool, near Powis Castle ; f Tre- 
 lydan/ the Broad Village, or Residence near Welshpool; 
 'Trev-alyn/ near Chester, the Residence on the Stream; 
 the 'Alyn/ &c. &c. 
 
 Now according to the Roman mode, such a term as 
 Trev-alyn would have been changed into Trev-iri, the de- 
 signation actually given to the Celts of ' Treves/ &c. 
 
 The following are analogous examples : 
 
 There is a tribe of Brig-antes in Yorkshire, another in 
 Ireland, and a third in the North-east of Spain. Many un- 
 successful attempts have been made to show that these dis- 
 tant Celtic tribes must have been scions of the same tribe. 
 A much simpler explanation may be given. 
 
 By referring to the Roman maps the reader will find a 
 word, ' Briga/ in such general use as part of the names of 
 towns as to leave no reasonable doubt that it must have 
 been, like Tre, a Celtic name for a town — now obsolete. 
 Thus in Spain we have, Laco-briga, Meido-briga, Ara-briga, 
 Tala-brica, Augusto-briga, &c. Now the analogous instances 
 already noticed suffice to point out that the occurrence of 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 63 
 
 Brig-antes as a Roman name of Tribes in three Celtic 
 countries, is a natural result of the frequent occurrence of 
 Briga as the first part of the names of Celtic places. 
 
 The e Allo-bryg-es. ' The name of this warlike tribe, the 
 Celtic inhabitants of Savoy, has also been the source of per- 
 plexity, which may be removed in the same manner. This 
 tribe had a town, called by the Romans ' Brig-icum/ which 
 was said to be " the only one they had." * Now Allo-Bryga 
 may reasonably be identified with Alpo- Briga, the Town of 
 the Alps (Briga being clearly the common base of € Allo- 
 bryg-es/ and c Brig-icum.') 
 
 The names of Celtic communities, as they appear on the 
 Roman Maps, may, I conceive, be proved to have been de- 
 scriptive of the most prominent natural features of the re- 
 gions they inhabited, and not of their lineage or descent, as 
 seems to have been often supposed. Thus we have the 
 Mor-ini in Belgium, and the Ar-mor-ici in Gaul on the Sea ; 
 we have the Sen-ones on the Seine, the Tamar-ici on the 
 Tamar-is, in Hispania, &c. In the Mountainous regions it 
 will be observed that the names of tribes are derived from the 
 Mountains. In the flat countries they take their names 
 from Rivers or the confluence of Rivers. In the same man- 
 ner it is highly deserving of remark, that the names of the 
 different French Departments have been derived from precisely 
 the same natural features. Thus in the Hilly countries we 
 have the Departments of the High Alps, e Hautes Alpes f 
 of the Low Alps, ' Basses Alpes f in the Champaign 
 countries the Departments are named from the Rivers ; such 
 as the Seine, the Marne, and the Somme, &c. Many of 
 these French names are literally equivalent to translations of 
 the ancient Gaulish names, as interpreted by means of the 
 Welsh and Irish languages. It is impossible to conceive a 
 
 * MalteBrun. 
 
64 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 more perfect verification of the accuracy of these interpre- 
 tations ! 
 
 I may here observe, that as far as we can perceive, the 
 various independent communities of Britain and Gaul men- 
 tioned by Caesar, such as the Edui, the Venetes, &c, did not 
 consist of one clan or sept, they seem rather to have been a 
 combination of several contiguous septs, to whom no appro- 
 priate common name could have been given, except one de- 
 rived from the natural features of the district they occupied. 
 
 The durability of local names has been already noticed. Of 
 this truth we possess remarkable proofs in those of localities 
 in France, as preserved by the modern French to the present 
 day. I do not doubt that the present French names are, in 
 many instances, much more faithful transcripts of the original 
 Celtic appellations than those which occur in the Roman Maps 
 are. Thus, for example, Bonomia, a name conferred by the 
 Romans upon Boulogne, and of which the origin has per- 
 plexed Antiquaries, may easily be explained as a Roman ab- 
 breviation of the word Boulogne itself, of which the Celtic 
 meaning will be shown hereafter to be appropriate and un- 
 equivocal. Here it may be noticed, that the Celtic language 
 did not become extinct in Gaul until many centuries after 
 the termination of the Roman sway and the establishment of 
 the Franks in that country. The use of the old Gaulish or 
 Celtic continued until the eighth century, nearly until the time 
 of Charlemagne * Now we know that the modern Welsh 
 and Irish, for the most part, continue to use their own pri- 
 mitive names of localities in those cases in which abbrevia- 
 tions or translations have been substituted by the English. 
 There canbe no reasonable doubt that the ancient Gauls did the 
 same, and that these names were in use among the inhabitants 
 
 • Kerdanet's History of the Language of the Gauls and Armoricans, translated 
 hy David Lewis, Esq., in the Cambrian Quarterly Magazine. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 65 
 
 of each locality at the time of the final subjugation of Gaul 
 by the Franks, by whom, in many instances, these names are 
 more likely to have been adopted than those used by the 
 Romans. 
 
 It will also be observed in the course of the following ex- 
 amples, that names of the class about to be noticed, viz., 
 Topographical names of which the elements are not extant in 
 the existing Celtic dialects, but occur in Oriental words, &c, 
 are remarkably well preserved by the modern French. Thus 
 the e Aube,' as pronounced by the French, is identical in sound 
 with the Asiatic terms for Water, and names of Rivers, to 
 which it is allied. 
 
 3. By many, perhaps by all those Celtic scholars who 
 have investigated this subject, it has been assumed that the 
 living Celtic dialects may be expected to furnish a complete 
 clue to all the Local Names of ancient Celtic regions. This 
 conclusion, like the theory of Lhuyd above discussed, is 
 founded on an exaggerated idea of the stability of Human 
 Tongues ! Neither the Irish nor the Welsh, nor a combina- 
 tion of all the Celtic dialects, will be found to afford a com- 
 plete solution of the Topographical nomenclature of the 
 ancient Celtic regions of Europe. Names undoubtedly occur 
 in these countries which have been preserved in none of the 
 Celtic tongues, names which I shall indisputably show to be 
 positive transcripts, in many instances, of appropriate terms 
 occurring in the Hebrew and other languages, with which, 
 in other parts of this work, the original Celtic dialects will 
 be proved to have been originally identical. These facts lead 
 to the conclusion that the ancient nomenclature of Celtic 
 countries forms in reality a connecting link between the ex- 
 isting dialects of the Celts and the language of the Oriental 
 stock from which they are descended. 
 
 This conclusion, though at variance with the views of many 
 estimable writers, is nevertheless in unison with those antici- 
 
 5 
 
66 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 pations which historical facts legitimately suggest. It is 
 only reasonable to infer that since the period of their first 
 arrival in Europe, the era at which many of these names 
 must have been conferred (see page 10), the Celtic tribes 
 must have lost many words which none of the modern 
 Celtic nations have preserved. The Celts were settled about 
 the sources of the " Ister, and the city/ 5 (perhaps the moun- 
 tains) u of Pyrene," even in the time of Herodotus, and how 
 many ages had elapsed since their first arrival is unknown !* 
 
 There is a certain Class of terms of which the meaning 
 can reasonably be inferred from their extensive use in com- 
 bination with other terms, of which the meaning may be 
 considered as ascertained. To this class may be referred the 
 terms immediately following. 
 
 Catti, Cassii, Casses, or Cad, seem to have meant a People, 
 Tribe, &c, as in the following examples of the names of 
 Celtic Tribes : 
 
 The Abr-in-Catui, in Normandy. The Catti-euch-lani, 
 the people of Cambridgeshire and the adjoining counties. 
 The Cassii, in Hertfordshire. The Bidu- casses, in Normandy. 
 The Tri-casses, a people in Champagne. The Cad-ur-ci, on 
 the Garonne. 
 
 The above words seem clearly derivable from the following 
 Welsh words, which are allied to the Hebrew : 
 
 WELSH. HEBREW. 
 
 From Kiw-dod (Kiw-dod-ae, Gow, a Body of Men, a So- 
 
 plur.) a Clan, a Na- ciety or Association, 
 tion. 
 
 Kiw-ed, a Multitude, Gowee, a Nation. 
 
 a Tribe. 
 
 Kyf, a Body or Trunk, Gow, Gowe, Goweeth, the 
 
 a Pedigree. Body of a Man or Animal. 
 
 * Prichard on the Celtic Languages. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 67 
 
 Tre, Trev, a Village, Town, or Residence, (Welsh,) a 
 Tribe, {Irish.)* 
 
 Trev-iri, the people of Treves. A-Treb-ates, the people 
 about Arras. (For further examples see Dr. Prichard's work.) 
 Trev is a common element in names of places in Wales, as 
 Tre-vecca, Tre-gynnon. 
 
 Trigo, to reside, dwell, ( Welsh.) 
 
 Duro-trig-es, the dwellers on the Water or Sea, the people 
 of Dorsetshire. (Camden.) 
 Catt uriges. (See Dour.) 
 
 Dun-um, a Hill, a Fort or Town, generally on a Hill, 
 (occurs in Welsh and Irish,) 
 
 Oxell-dunum, a Hill-fort in Gaul, described by Caesar. 
 (See numerous instances in Dr. Prichard's work.) 
 
 e Castell Din-as Bran,' on a lofty eminence in the Vale of 
 Llangollen, Wales. 
 
 Dur, Duvr, Awethur (Welsh), Dour (Cornish), Dur (Ar- 
 morican), Dovar (Irish, obsolete, but occurs in ancient 
 MSS.) < Water.' 
 
 This word, and Ydor or Hudor (Greek), and Tschur 
 (Armenian), e Water/ have an obvious affinity. These forms 
 may be traced in the names of Celtic Localities, 
 
 6 Dour' occurs in the following names of Rivers : Dur, 
 (Hibernia,) Dur-ia Major, ' The Doria,' and Duria Minor, 
 (Gallia Cisalpina,) Dur-ius, ' The Douro,' and * Dero,' 
 (Hispania,) Dur-anius, ' The Dordogne,' (Gallia), In 
 Bucharian Deria means c The Sea.' 
 
 Ydor or Hudor (Greek), Awethur (Welsh), occur in the 
 
 * Tribus (Latin.) 
 
68 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Rivers c The Adour/* Atur-is (Gallia), 'The Adder' 
 (Britain), < The Adare' (Ireland.) 
 
 'Tschur 5 (Armenian), occurs in 'Stura' (Gallia Cis.), 
 'The Stour' (Britain), 'The Suir' (Britain fy Ireland), 
 ' The Souro' (Spain, a branch of the Tagus.) 
 
 From the frequent recurrence of all these different forms 
 in several Celtic countries thus widely separated, it is plain 
 that they were used conjointly by the early Celts, and repre- 
 sent various transitions of the same word. Thus e Stura' 
 (in Gal. Cis.), flows between the neighbouring streams 
 Duria Major and Duria Minor, &c. 
 
 This word c Dour 5 enters very largely into the names of 
 tribes ; it forms singly a natural clue to a great number of 
 names that hitherto have been referred to a complication of 
 Roots. Thus the Roman name for the people of Dorsetshire, 
 Duro-trig es, i. e. The dwellers on the Water or the Ocean, 
 has been noticed by Camden. 
 
 In the preceding, and in several of the following, it will be 
 apparent that the old Celts applied this term to the 4 Sea or 
 Ocean/ as the Bucharians do, and also to a 'River. 5 At 
 present the Welsh apply the term to Water only, in a re- 
 stricted sense. 
 
 In the South-east of England names abound (applied to 
 places on Rivers or the Sea) in which the two slight varia- 
 tions of Dur and Du-v-r (or Do-v-ar, Irish), still preserved 
 in Welsh, are apparent. Duro-vern-um, « Canterbury/ from 
 Duro, Water, and Vera or Veryn, a Hill. (Compare the 
 name of the 'Ar-vern-i/ under Beryn, at p. 78.) The 
 Town was on a Hill by the Stour. 
 
 Portus Du-b-r-is or Dub-r-ce, i. e. < Sea Port/ the modern 
 
 • As previously noticed, the French names handed down from the old Gauls 
 are probably often nearer the Celtic than the Latin names. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 69 
 
 e Do-v-or/ a word which is an echo of the Irish Dovar and 
 the Welsh Du-v-r. 
 
 Duro-brivae, Rochester on the Medway, (Briva or Brivis, 
 the ancient Celtic for a Town.) Duro-levum, Milton on the 
 Thames. 
 
 Lan-du-b-r-is, a Portuguese Island. Lan, a Bank of a 
 Stream, or the Sea: also an inclosed Space, (Welsh.) 
 
 Tur-ones, the inhabitants of the country at the junction of 
 several streams with the Loire, the neighbourhood of the 
 modern Tours. 
 
 Bi tur-ig-es, from Bi e Two/ Tur or Dour, Water, and trigo, 
 to reside. 
 
 There are two tribes of this name in Gaul ; the Bituriges 
 Cubi, situated between two of the branches of the Loire, and 
 the Bi-turi-ges Vobisci, between the Garonne and the Sea, 
 at the junction of the Dordogne and the Garonne. 
 
 Cat-ur-iges, from Catti, Tribes or People; Dour, Water, 
 and Trigo, to reside ; on the Durentia, South-east of France, 
 about Embrun or Eburo-Dunum, which was their principal 
 town. Cad-ur-ci, from Catti, Tribes, and dur. 
 
 There is one tribe of this name on the Dordogne, and 
 another contiguously placed on the Garonne. 
 
 The mutual support that these interpretations give to each 
 other will be obvious. 
 
 The following Irish word for * Water/ which is not extant 
 in the Welsh, may be traced in Celtic regions in its various 
 modifications: Uisge (Irish), ' The Usk' (South Britain) — 
 Eask* {Irish, obsolete), < The Esk' (Scotland), 'TheEscaut 5 
 (North of France), Isca, 'The Exe' (South Britain) — Easkong 
 (Irish, obsolete), Axona (Gallia, Belg.), e The Aisne/ 
 Axones, the neighbouring tribe. 
 
 • Esseg, < Wuter,' (Dongolan, North Africa.) 
 
70 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 NAMES OF ESTUARIES, OR MOUTHS OF STREAMS. 
 
 The terms of this class, which occur in ancient Gaul, &c, 
 consist either of terms still thus applied in the living Celtic 
 dialects, or of compounds of which the elements may be re- 
 cognized, unchanged, in those dialects. Moreover it will be 
 highly interesting to observe that these terms, for the most 
 part, consist of Metaphors derived respectively from the same 
 sources as the two English words c Estuary 5 and e Mouth/ 
 and the two Latin words c iEstuarium' and * Os Fluminis.' 
 
 One of the principal arguments of those writers who 
 maintain that the separation of the Irish from the other 
 Celtic tribes must have been of remoter date than the first 
 peopling of these islands, is founded on the fact that the 
 Irish use the word In-ver for the Mouth of a Stream, while 
 the Welsh use Ab-ber (spelt Aber) ; a feeble support for so 
 wide a conclusion, which a correct analysis of these terms, 
 and a comparison of some interesting coincidences in the 
 local names of ancient Gaul will show to be utterly futile ! 
 In-ver and Ab-ber are not simple but compound terms, 
 literally corresponding to the Latin expression * Fluminis 
 iEstuarium.' ^Estuarium is from ^Estuo, ' To boil,' a meta- 
 phorical term, obviously derived from the agitation of the 
 Waters where two Streams meet, or where a River enters 
 the Sea. 
 
 In the first syllable < Inver 5 and < Ab-ber' differ, but they 
 agree in the last. Both < In 5 and < Ab/ the first syllables of 
 these terms, occur so often in Celtic regions that there 
 can be no doubt they were both in use among the ancient 
 Celts as words for a River, or Water. The last syllable of 
 these words, Ber or Ver, I shall show to mean an < Estuary.' 
 
 'In' occurs in the name of < The Inn,' in the Tyrol, the 
 ( ^En-us' of the Romans, and in other instances previously 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 71 
 
 noticed. ' An 5 is a Gaelic or Irish term for c Water,' which 
 is identical in sound and sense with terms of frequent occur- 
 rence among the tribes of the American Continent, as in 
 Aouin (Flurons, N. America), Jin Jin (Kolushians, extreme 
 North-west of N. America), Ueni (Maipurians, S. America.) 
 
 i Ab 5 occurs in ( The Aube/ in France, &c, a name of 
 which the pronunciation may be considered identical with 
 Ab, ( Water/ [Persian.) Ap in Sanscrit, and Ubu Obe in 
 Affghan, mean e Water/ c Obe' occurs in Siberia as the name 
 of a well-known river. In India also the term has been ap- 
 plied to ( Rivers f thus we have in that country the Punj-ab, 
 (the Province of e The Five Rivers,') an appellation of which 
 the corresponding Celtic terms f Pump-ab' would be almost 
 an echo ! 
 
 Further it may here be noticed — as an example of the 
 complete identity of the Celtic and Oriental languages when 
 all the ' Disjecta Membra' are compared — that this word does 
 not exist in the modern Celtic in the simple form of Ab, but 
 in the derivative form of Avon, which is found in the Roman 
 maps spelt ' Abon/ &c. Now this form also occurs in the 
 East. Abinn, ' A River, 5 is given by Klaproth from the lan- 
 guage of the inhabitants of the Mountains to the North of 
 Bhagalpur. Apem means ' Water/ in Zend, an ancient 
 Persian dialect. Af is f Water/ in Kurdish. 
 
 c Berw 5 is the South Welsh name for the effervescence in 
 the deep receptacle in which a Cataract foams after its fall ; 
 it is applied also to the Cataract itself, as ' Berw Rhondda/ 
 the fall of the River Rhondda. 
 
 Aber, in Cornish, means e a Confluence of Rivers/ also 
 ' a Gulf,' * a Whirlpool: * 
 
 In Breton or Armorican Aber means * a confluence of 
 Rivers. 5 " Dans le diocese de Vannes," says Bullet, " le mot 
 
 * This word is marked thus t in the Cornish Vocabularies, as being extinct. 
 
72 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 " a encore une autre signification, c'est cel/e de torrent." " In 
 " the diocese of Vannes this word has still another meaning, 
 "viz., that of 'a Torrent !'" (Compare Torr-ens (Latin), 
 < Torrent' (English), from Torreo (Latin), ' To boil. 5 " Aber, 
 " in a deflected sense/' he says, " has been applied to a 
 " Harbour; hence Havre de Grace !" 
 
 " It is a curious fact," says Chalmers, U which we learn 
 " from the Charters of the twelfth century, that the Scoto- 
 " Irish people substituted Inver for the previous Aber of the 
 " Britons. David I. granted to the Monastery of May Tnver- 
 " In qui fuit Aher-In in Chart May."* This remarkable place 
 is at the " Influx of a small stream, called the In, on the coast 
 " of Fife. Both appellations are now lost." 
 
 Among the names of ancient Celtic regions we have Abrin- 
 catui, that is (without any change in the word) Aber-In-Catui ; 
 the name of a Tribe in Normandy, about Avranches, which 
 is at the mouth of a River now called the See. (Another 
 stream flows into the same Estuary.) 
 
 Aber — In — Cattui. 
 
 Literally, 
 
 c Estuary (of the) River — Tribes or People/ 
 i. e. The Tribes living at the Estuary of the River or Rivers. 
 
 The name of the same place will also furnish an example 
 of a corresponding term, primarily meaning 'The Mouth,' in 
 the modern Celtic. 
 
 Gence (Welsh), Ganau (Cornish), Gion (Irish), Genu 
 (Armorican), mean c The Mouth.' 
 
 The original name of c Avranches/ when the country was 
 first subdued by the Romans, was In-' ge?ia.' Here it is 
 plain e Gena' was synonymous with Aber ! The Town was 
 afterwards called Aber-in-Catui by the Romans, who very 
 generally gave the names of the Celtic tribes to their prin- 
 cipal Towns. 
 
 ' Chalmers's Caledonia. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 73 
 
 In D'Anville's Map we find, in the same part of Gaul, 
 Ara-genu-s given to Bayeux, (the capital of the Bajocasses,) 
 at the mouth of a river now called the e Ayr !' 
 
 The following are very striking examples of the occurrence 
 of the same word, Genoe or Ganau : 
 
 ' Gano -durum' (Dur water) Constance, at the spot where 
 the Rhine issues out of Lake Constance. 
 
 f Geneva.' (The Rhone issues here from the Lake, and is 
 immediately afterwards joined by the Arve.) 
 
 ' Genua' (Genoa). At the mouth of a stream. 
 
 'Albium In-gaun-um,' a town to the east of Genoa, 
 where many streams from the Maritime Alps unite in one 
 mouth. 
 
 Beal or Bel {Irish), Buel [Manx), ' A Mouth.' This is 
 another word, applied in Wales and Ireland, in topographical 
 names, in nearly the same sense as Aber, as in Bala, at the 
 mouth of a lake, North Wales, Bally-shannon, Ireland. This 
 word does not occur either in vernacular Welsh or in the 
 Welsh of old MSS. But in Irish, Beal or Bel is still the 
 common word for ' A Mouth. 1 
 
 We shall find unequivocal proofs that this word also was 
 used by the old Celts of Gaul, as in ' Boulogne,' i. e. Bala 
 (Beal, or Buel) Liane, e The mouth of the Liane.' The town 
 is at the mouth of a small stream, of which Bullet, who does 
 not appear to have suspected the derivation, says u La riviere 
 " qui passe a Boulogne s'appelle Liane. — The stream that 
 " runs by Boulogne is called Liane !" * Liane, Lune,' &c. is 
 a common proper name for a stream in all countries of which 
 the Celts formed the first population. Lliant (Llian-au, plur.) 
 means a stream, a torrent, in Welsh ; Llyn, 'Water,' in Welsh; 
 and Lean, Irish. Hence ' The Lune' in Herefordshire, &c. 
 
 A further example of words of this Class occurs in the 
 Latin name of the ' Humber.' 
 
 This great receptacle of streams was generally called Ab-us; 
 
74 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 but Ptolomey, in Greek, gives the name more fully, < Abon- 
 trus !'* This word means in Welsh and Irish ' The Outlet, or 
 literally ( The Door 5 of the Rivers. Trus, A Door, (Drous, 
 Welsh, Doros, Irish,) occurs in the same sense in Tura 
 (Sanscrit), Der (Persian). Hence it appears that the Welsh 
 word, which is nearer to the term preserved in this name, 
 has not been borrowed from the English e Door P 
 
 ' Aber/ however, was the greatest favorite with the ancient 
 Celts, as with the modern Cymry ! It would seem that this 
 word ' Aber' was as commonly applied in ancient Gaul, &c. 
 as it still is in Wales, not merely to the mouths of large rivers, 
 but to places situated at those of very small streams !f 
 
 Britain. — York, Ebor-acum (Caer Eboranch, Welsh; Ever- 
 wick, Saxon.) Is inclosed for the most part between the 
 Ouse and the Foss, which unite close to the Town ! The 
 river Foss separates some parts of the Town from the rest. 
 
 Eburo-cass-um (Alnewick), at the mouth of the River Alne, 
 Northumberland. Ever-wick is the name of an adjoining 
 Village on the same river. 
 
 Eburo-nes (Belgic. Gaul). About the junction of the 
 Saba and the Mosa. Caesar states in his account of them 
 that this tribe had no Town. 
 
 There was a prince of the CEduansJ in Caesar's time, named 
 Eporo-dor-ix, apparently from Aber-Dour i Water/ and Rex. 
 The Gaulish chiefs, like those of the Gaelic Scotch, seem to 
 have frequently derived their names from their peculiar ter- 
 
 * Ab-us, (Anton.) Ab-on-trus, Ab-ou-trus, Ab-ou, (Ptolomey.) Baxter 
 suggests Abon trus4, < The Noise of the Rivers/ an allusion, as he supposes, to 
 the noise of the currents. But this explanation involves a change in the second 
 word, and a fanciful construction of the sense of the terms employed. 
 
 f It is only by a very minute and careful investigation of Maps, ancient and 
 modern, that I have been enabled to verify the correctness of this and many other 
 Celtic derivations. 
 
 % A powerful Gaulish Tribe in the East of Gaul. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 75 
 
 ritories or patrimonies ; in the same manner, for instance, 
 as the chiefs ' Lochiel, Glengarry/ &c. 
 
 As before intimated, it appears pretty clear that the little 
 nations into which Gaul was divided, such as the Ceno-mani, 
 the CEdui, &c. consisted for the most part of a combination 
 of several distinct septs or clans each under their respective 
 princes. The name of the chief (Eporo-dor-ix) just men- 
 tioned may, therefore — and most probably must — have been 
 derived from that of some place no longer capable of being 
 identified, though the country of the (Edui, the source of 
 many rivers, abounds in localities to which it would apply 
 very appropriately ! 
 
 Gaul. — Eburo-dunum (now Embrun in Dauphine.) At 
 the confluence of a small stream with the Durance. 
 
 Since writing the above I find this town in Hornius' map, 
 marked c Epeb r-o-duru,' i. e. ( Mouth of the Water,' (Welsh.) 
 
 Eburo-briga, a Town. At the junction of one of the streams 
 that feed the Seine above Sens. 
 
 Ebro-lacum. A Town near the source of the Loire ; pre- 
 cise situation apparently unknown. But the affinity of 
 ' Ebro' to the Celtic c Aber,' and the identity of Lac (um) 
 with Loch * or Lach, the Gaelic for a Lake or Water, will be 
 obvious. 
 
 Avar-icum (Bourges), at the junction of the L'Evrette with 
 the Evre, one of the branches of the Cher. 
 
 Switzerland. — Ebro-dunum, ' Yverdun/ at the mouth of 
 the river Orbe, that flows there into the Lake of Neuf-chatel. 
 
 Spain and Portugal. — Eburo-britz-ium, the modern Alco- 
 baza or Alco-baca, on the Portuguese coast, between the 
 
 • Lucus {Latin.) 
 
76 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Tagus and the Mondego, and not far from Torres Vedras. 
 This town is at the mouth of the Alcoa river. The modern 
 name, Alco-baca, ( e The mouth of the Alcoa/) is a guarantee 
 of the correctness of the above construction of the ancient 
 name !* 
 
 In the North-east of Spain, on the Bay of Biscay, we meet 
 with the word Aber itself in an undisguised form, as we do 
 in Gaul in the word Abr-in-catui. 
 
 There is a town, XJx&m-aber, on a river called in Roman 
 Maps the Uch-esia.f This is an unfortunate word for the 
 advocates of the Spanish origin of the Irish, for here we have 
 the Welsh Aber, in lieu of the Gaelic Inver, in the North of 
 Spain — the very district from which the Colony is supposed 
 to have come ! Indeed the Local names in the Celtic regions 
 of Spain generally approach much more nearly to the Welsh 
 than to the Irish ! This will be seen in some of the following 
 examples. 
 
 Glan or Lan, ' a Sea shore or Margin/ ( Welsh,) not extant 
 in Irish. 
 
 Glan a tuia (Glandeves), at the junction of a small stream 
 with the Varus, that separates France and Italy. 
 
 Glan-um, on the Puech River, near Embrun. 
 
 Cat-a-laun-i. A tribe resident about Chalons on the Seine. 
 
 Cat-a-laun-i. ' People (of) the river bank/ The name 
 originally given to this town by the Romans was Duro-Cat-a- 
 laun-i, i.e. (The Town of ) 'the Tribe on the Bank of the 
 River or Water. 9 
 
 Llanes, a place on the coast of Asturia. (The aspirated 
 LI of the Spaniards is very like the Welsh LI, and is most 
 
 * This is one of the numerous instances in which, judging merelv from ancient 
 Maps, or from the less minute modern Maps, (on which ttiis stream is not 
 marked,) the situation of a place seems inconsistent with the derivation sug- 
 gested. 
 
 t Hornius's ancient Map. This place is very near to Bilboa. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 77 
 
 probably a relic of Celtic pronunciation.) Lancia (Ciudad 
 Rodrigo,) Lancia (Guarda.) 
 
 Lan-dubr-is. 6 The Shore or Margin of the Sea or Water/ 
 or a spot inclosed by the Sea.* An Island, in Latin Maps, 
 on the coast of Portugal. 
 
 ' The Lan-des.' The well-known arid sandy deserts form- 
 ing the South-eastern coast of France. 
 
 Medio -lan-um.f Medd, the middle, (Celtic,) and Lan. 
 Towns thus designated seem to have been situated either 
 at the Curve or Winding of a stream, or inclosed between 
 two streams. 
 
 I may instance — in Cisalpine. 
 
 Gaul. Medio-lan-um, Milan. 
 
 Mediolanum (Sunt ones), on the Loire. 
 
 (Eburovices Aulerci), Evreux, Normandy. 
 
 (Bituriges Cubi), inclosed between two wind- 
 ing streams, which are the sources of the Loire. Bi-tur-iges 
 is from a synonyme, Bi, two, and Dour, Water. 
 
 D61, " A wind, a bow, a turn, a meander, a dale or mead, 
 " through which a river runs," ( Welsh t )% as in Dol-Vorwyn 
 and Dol-Vorgan, Montgomeryshire, North Wales; 'Dole,' the 
 ancient capital of Franche Compte. (Compare the situation.) 
 
 Lut-ecia,§ Paris, seems clearly to have derived its name 
 from its situation among marshes. " Situee dans une isle 
 "de la Seine environnce de marais profonds, difficiles a 
 " traverser, qui communiquent a ce fleuve." (Bullet, from 
 Strabo.) 
 
 Llath-ach, < Mud, Dirt/ {Irish,) Llaith, Moist, (Welsh.) 
 
 Lug-dunum or Lau dunum.|| ' Laon,' built on the Summit 
 of a Hock divided into two branches. Lug, from Llech, a 
 
 • Lan means au inclosed spot in Welsh. t Medius (Latin.) 
 
 I Dr. W. O. Pughe's Welsh Dictionary. $ Lutum (Latin.) 
 
 || Dunum, a Hill Fort. 
 
78 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Stone. Clog, a detached rock, ( Welsh.) Liag, a great Stone. 
 Leagan Kloiche, a Rock, (Irish.) 
 
 In the following instances the identity of the Gaulish and 
 other Celtic names with the Welsh is remarkably clear, and 
 will be vividly felt by persons vernacularly familiar with the 
 Welsh language, and the most common local names in 
 Wales. 
 
 The e Bretons/ Ar-mor-ici. Ar, ' On/ Mor, e the Sea/ 
 
 The people of a Hilly Region in the South-east of France, 
 Ar-e-com-ici. 
 
 Coum, c a Hollow Circular Valley, or Depression/ ( Welsh.) 
 This word is the source of the numerous names of places in 
 England ending in Combe. The Oriental origin of the word 
 is clearly traceable. After describing the great Table-land 
 of Central Asia as extending over the whole of Persia, Ritter 
 adds : w Towards e Koom/ (in Persia,) we find the greatest 
 " depression, in the Table-land ; here the surface sinks to 
 "2046 feet!"* 
 
 There are also the ' Com-oni/ above Toulon, and Com-us, 
 ' Como/ to which the word is peculiarly appropriate. (Bullet.) 
 
 The People of Auvergne. Ar-vern-i, ' On the Hills.' 
 Veryn or Beryn is a Hill in Welsh. Thus ' Cevn y Beryn/ 
 is the name of a Hill in Montgomeryshire. 
 
 By Plutarch the Ar-vern-i are called Ar-ben-i. This is a 
 very interesting addition to our information. c Veryn' and 
 ' Ben' are both synonymes extant in Welsh for * a Hill/ 
 
 We have the same words repeated in the following in- 
 stances, joined with Um (Irish), Am (Welsh), £ About/ 
 (Compare the Greek Amphi.) 
 
 Um-benn-i, 'The People (living) about the Hills.' A 
 Swiss Tribe. 
 
 Um-bran-ici (from Beryn or Bron, Welsh,) a name of the 
 Helvii mountaineers to the South-east of the Cevennes. 
 
 * Asia, by Carl Ritter and others. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 79 
 
 In the following names, again, we have Pen or Ben, and 
 Beryn or Bron, alone. 
 
 Ben-ones, a Mountain Tribe in Switzerland. 
 
 Breun-i, on the borders of Bavaria and the Tyrol. 
 
 Bern-enses, the people of Berne, in Switzerland, and also 
 those of Bearne, in the South of France, adjoining the 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 A-Pen-inus Mons. Alpes Pen-inae, the Alps immediately 
 to the South of Geneva. Vallis Pen-ina, the Valley of the 
 Rhone. 
 
 The primary sense of Pen, in Welsh, is * the Head.' As 
 observed at page 11, the names for Hills in that language 
 are metaphors from * the Head, the Breast,' &c. Now it is 
 observable that in ancient Celtic Europe a difference of ap- 
 plication corresponding to the different primary meanings of 
 the terms is discoverable. Alpes is the general name for the 
 Alps. (Alpes) Pen-inae, a term derived from the Head, are 
 the lofty and abrupt Alps, as distinguished from Alpes 
 Maritimae, &c. 
 
 In Spain and Portugal. Pena-s da Europa, (North of 
 Spain.) Cape Pena-s, (in the Asturias.) Pen-a Longa, a 
 Town adjoining the long ridge called the Sierra da St. 
 Catherina in Portugal. 
 
 Gebenn-a Mons, the Cevenn-es, ' South of France.' 
 Cevenn-es, (omitting e es,' French plural,) is identical with 
 Cevn, c a Back,' ( a Hill,' as in Cevn y Coed, the name of a 
 hill in Montgomeryshire, ( Welsh.) 
 
 The Irish Gibhis, ' a Valley,' is from the same source. 
 Names of ' Valleys and Hills' are generally composed of the 
 same roots. (Similiter the Latin word ' Altus' means both 
 ■ High 5 and Deep !) A Valley is, in fact, formed by Hills ! 
 
 These various meanings and inflections are found united 
 in the Hebrew. 
 
80 
 
 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Ga . e, to rise. 
 
 Goun, -> 
 
 or > Swelling. 
 Gav . n, y 
 
 i Gee a. 
 
 C Ga . oun, plur. A val- 
 ley, or " more properly 
 " a lawn rising to the 
 " top of the adjoining 
 " hill." 
 
 Gve, or Gou e, to be high, 
 gibbous, or curved. 
 
 Gb, the Back. 
 
 Gbn, Hunch backed. 
 
 a Mountain. 
 
 G.b.oe, > 
 G.b.o.th, S 
 G . b . o . the, the Slope 
 of a Mountain. 
 
 Derivatives. 
 
 •Kuh, a Mountain. 
 
 (Persian.) 
 
 Kof. (Pehlwi.) 
 
 Gev . n, 
 or 
 
 Cev. n, the Back, the 
 Ridge of a Hill. 
 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 Geib-his, Gibhis, a Val- 
 ley. (Irish.) 
 
 The Ghauts, Mountains 
 in Asia. 
 
 Gibb-osus. (Latin.) 
 
 Goupp en, a chain of Hills in Switzerland. (Bullet.) 
 
 Alp. Dr. Owen Pughe quotes many classical authors to 
 show that the word meant in Gallish a lofty Mountain. In 
 the mountains of Glamorganshire, he adds, it is still used for 
 a craggy summit. 
 
 Alp-es. Allo-bryges, from Alp- and (briga).f Brigi-cum 
 was their only town. To the South-east of the Allobryges 
 were the Hel-v-ii, (Alba their capital.) To the North the 
 Hel-v-etii, (Vod in Welsh, a Residence.) Both names were 
 probably from Al-p. 
 
 Nant, (Nan-au, plural,) a Mountain Valley, ' a Mountain 
 Stream/ (Welsh.) This word is still in use in Savoy. (See 
 Dr. Prichard's remarks.) J 
 
 Nannet-es, a Tribe in Britany, and 
 
 Nant-uates, a Tribe occupying the valley of the Rhine 
 below its source. 
 
 Nang-ates, the people of Connaught. This is one of nu- 
 
 * Hence the ' Hindoo-Knb.' t A Town. 
 
 t Celtic Ethnography, in Dr. Prichard's work on < Man.' 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 81 
 
 merous instances of local names in Ireland, of which the 
 sense has been lost in the Irish and still preserved in the 
 Welsh. 
 
 Cori, or Corrie, means a hollow between hills. A glen 
 or 'Cleugh/ a small stream.* (A word of Celtic origin, 
 Jamieson's Etymological Diet, of the Scottish Language.) 
 
 This word appears to be in use both in the Highlands and 
 Lowlands of Scotland ; the first a Gaelic, the second origi- 
 nally a Cymraeg district. (See Chalmers's Caledonia.) 
 
 Sir Walter Scott has very gracefully introduced this ancient 
 word in the beautiful e Coronach/ or Funeral-song of the 
 Clansman, in the ' Lady of the Lake :' 
 
 " He is gone from the mountain, 
 He is gone from the forest, 
 Like a summer-dried fountain, 
 When our need was the sorest. 
 
 Fleet loot on the cur re 
 Sage counsel in cumber 
 
 Red hand in the foray, 
 
 How sound is thy slumber ! " 
 
 To this passage Sir Walter Scott has added the following 
 note : t " Corrie or Cori. The hollow side of the hill where 
 " game usually lies !" 
 
 I conceive a comparison of the following examples will 
 serve to render it indisputable that this term may be accepted 
 as a clue to a great number of the most important topo- 
 graphical names of Gaul and Britain, which have hitherto 
 eluded the researches of Celtic scholars. 
 
 • The word, in the sense of a stream, seems to be confined to such streams as 
 traverse the bottoms of narrow glens. 
 
 t This word occurs in a variety of mutually connected meanings in the Hebrew 
 and Celtic. 
 
 6 
 
DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 HEBREW. CELTIC. 
 
 C.r, To surround, go round. Cor. A Circle, (Welsh.) 
 A pasture or Circuit Cor-lan. A Sheepfold, 
 
 for Cattle. (Welsh.) 
 
 A Lamb. Ka ora, or Kyra. A Sheep, 
 
 (Irish.) 
 A ' Cor.' A measure so 
 called from its round 
 form. 
 C . ee . ou . r. A Round Pot, < Cori/ or Corrie. " The 
 or Caldron. <e hollow side of the Hill 
 
 " where the game usually 
 
 C.r.e. To dig, as a Well "lies." (Sir W. Scott.) A 
 
 or Pit. Hollow between Hills. A 
 
 Cleugh. (Jamieson.) 
 
 The Tri-Cori-i. From Tre and Cori. A tribe who in- 
 habited the modern French Department of the ( High Alps,' 
 an Alpine region, the source of numerous streams which feed 
 the Rhone and its branches. 
 
 The Petro-Cori-i.* The inhabitants of the Departments of 
 Dordogne and Correze. Dordogne is thus described by 
 Malte Brun : 
 
 " We may pass from the Department of Lot to that of 
 u Dordogne by descending the last river which traverses it 
 u on the South from East to West. It is also watered by the 
 " Ille, the Dronne, the Vezere, and by more than fourteen 
 " hundred small rivers and streams. Hills extend along this 
 " country in every direction, but with the exception of two 
 " vallies, those watered by the Ille and the Dordogne, they 
 " bound only narrow passes, almost all of which are desolated 
 " by torrents !" 
 
 • Petro is said to mean a Rock, in Gaulish names, by some French Celtic 
 scholars. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 83 
 
 Correze. From the same authority we learn that two 
 thirds of this department consists of a mountainous region, 
 full of " ravines and precipices," and that its scenery pro- 
 gressively assumes more of this wild and romantic character 
 as you ascend the river Correze, which gives its name to the 
 Department, and to its principal town. Correze is plainly 
 derived from Cori.* 
 
 The Cori-tan-i. A British tribe in Derbyshire, &c, from 
 Cori and Tania, an addition frequently made by the Romans 
 to the name of a province or district, as in Aqui-tania, 
 Mauri-tania. Camden expresses himself totally unable to 
 explain this term satisfactorily. 
 
 The following are partly composed of ancient Celtic Topo- 
 graphical Names, of which the appropriate meanings have 
 not been preserved f in the Welsh and Irish, &c, but are 
 found in the Oriental and other languages. 
 
 6 Eryr-i/ the Welsh name of the Snowdon Mountains. 
 This word has been variously explained by Welsh scholars, 
 as meaning the i Snowy Mountain* (from Eira, c Snow'), the 
 c Eagles' Mountain,' &c. None of these explanations are 
 appropriate. Moreover ' Eryr-i* is not the name of a single 
 peak, but of the Snowdon range of mountains ! c E . r . r' 
 is a pure Hebrew word, signifying a very high mountain,:]: 
 from which c Eryr-i/ the name of the Snowdon range, the 
 highest in South Britain, is a plural regularly formed ! 
 
 Cimas da Our-ar-as, are high Mountains to the North of 
 Lisbon. 
 
 Ban-nau Brycheiniog, f the Brecon Beacons,' lofty hills 
 in Brecknockshire. Ban de la Roche, the celebrated Pastor 
 
 * Hence, also, as may be inferred, the Curi-osilitae in Brittany. 
 
 f In such instances, however, the Celtic generally presents words approaching 
 in sound and sense to those occurring in the Local names, though not so near to 
 them as the Oriental terms, <fcc. 
 
 J E . r, a Mountain; by reduplication E . r . r, a very high Mountain (Heh.) 
 
84 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 Oberlin's residence among the Vosges Mountains, in the 
 East of France. Ban, < Lofty/ ( Welsh,) Bian, a Hill, ( Irish,) 
 Boun-os, a Hill, (Greek,) Ban-k (English), a diminutive. 
 
 Bal. " Applied in Wales to Mountains that terminate in 
 "a Peak. Balannu, to shoot or spring forth." (Dr. W. 
 Owen Pughe.) Belan is also applied to Hills, as 6 Nant y 
 Belan/ near Wynnstay. Bala, Bulund (Persian), Beland 
 (Peh/wi), Bulund (Zend), < High/ 
 
 e The Don and the Dune,' Rivers in Scotland. Trev-i don, 
 i. e. ' the Town of, or on the River,' a place on the river 
 Tarn, in the South of France. Don, Dun, ' Water,' l a River/ 
 (Ossetians, a people of the Caucasus). 'The Don' River, in 
 the country of the c Don Cossacks,' who are also considered 
 to be a people of the Caucasus. 'Donau' (German), the 
 Danube. 
 
 From Ar, c a River, a Stream,' (Hebrew.) <Ar-a/ now 
 c the Ayr/ that enters the sea at Bayeux, (see before, p. 73.) 
 < The Ar-ar/ Gaul. < The Ayr,' Scotland. 
 
 From Ee . a . ou . r, ' a River, a Stream,' (Hebrew,) a modi- 
 fication of A . r. Wari, ' Water/ (Sanscrit.) ' The Evre' and 
 'Evrette/ France. 'TheWavre/ Belgium. ' The Weaver* 
 and ' the Wear/ England. 
 
 From Ee. a.r (Hebrew), and Iaro, <a River/ (Egyptian,) 
 'The Yarrow/ Scotland. (See p. 10.) 
 
 From Ur, ' Water/ (Jeniseians, in Siberia,) and Our-on 
 (Greek), terms connected with the previous Hebrew words; 
 • Ur-us,' the Ouse, Britain. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the various inflections of the 
 Hebrew word A.r. have been completely preserved in the 
 names of the different rivers in each of the Celtic countries 
 of Britain and Gaul. 
 
 Lamu, < the Sea/ ( Tungusian.) Lam, c the Sea/ (Lamutian.) 
 Limne, a Lake, u Poetically, the Sea, the Ocean, which seems 
 " to be the most primitive sense ; also anciently, as it would 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 85 
 
 " appear, the Estuary of a River/' Schneider {Greek). At 
 
 the mouths of the rivers that flow into the Black Sea lakes 
 
 are formed, which are called i Limans.'* Hence 'Leman-us 
 
 Lacus' in Switzerland. 
 
 Lim-en, a Haven, {Greek,) connected apparently with the 
 
 last word; Limne {Greek), * Lemanae' vel Portus e Leman-is/ 
 
 Lyme, in Kent, where Caesar first landed. 
 
 Jura, a long Mountainous ridge in ancient Gaul. Jura, 
 
 a long Mountainous Island (Scotland). ' Jur-jura/ an im- 
 portant chain of Mountains in the North of Africa. Gora 
 
 {Russian), Ghiri {Sanscrit), a Mountain. 
 
 In the foregoing examples Celtic words having an affinity 
 to the Latin frequently occur, employed in a manner that 
 shows they could not have been borrowed by the Celts from 
 the Romans. Thus we have the names Ar-wor-ici, Ebro- 
 lacum, names in which terms like the Latin 'Mare' and 
 6 Lacus' are naturally blended with other Celtic words which 
 are quite unlike the Latin ! 
 
 I conceive the evidence adduced in the previous pages 
 must serve to place beyond all doubt the truth of the propo- 
 sitions illustrated in this Section, viz., that the language of 
 the primitive Celts of Europe and the British Isles originally 
 consisted of a combination of the Welsh and Irish, and other 
 living Celtic dialects, united with many words and forms pre- 
 served in none of those dialects, but traceable in the Hebrew, 
 the Greek, and the languages of other ancient and distant 
 nations. 
 
 The uniformity that presents itself in the ancient local 
 nomenclature of all the Celtic countries is a very remarkable 
 and instructive feature, of which an adequate conception can 
 be formed only by an examination of the Roman Maps. The 
 identity of names, for example, is found to be as complete 
 
 * Kohl's Russia. 
 
86 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL. 
 
 when the Roman Maps of Gaul and Britain are compared, 
 as we meet with in examining the Maps of two English 
 Counties ! To this rule Ireland, as far as we can judge from 
 the imperfect nature of the information transmitted to us, 
 formed no exception. These facts lead to the inference that 
 the Celts must have diffused themselves, within a compara- 
 tively short interval of time, over all the regions of Europe of 
 which the Romans found them in possession ! Had the pro- 
 cess of diffusion occupied a great many ages, there must have 
 been a commensurate change in the Celtic language, which 
 would have displayed itself in the local names of the more 
 distant regions. But no such difference occurs, the local 
 nomenclature of Britain, for instance, being identical with 
 that of Switzerland and Spain ! 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 87 
 
 Section VI. 
 
 Summary of the Results deducible from the previous Sec- 
 tions. The Changes tvhich have occurred in the English, 
 Scandinavian, and Celtic Languages, sufficient to account 
 for the Differences among all Human Tongues. Causes 
 which give rise to the Abandonment and specific Appropria- 
 tion of Synonymes. Total Differences of Grammatical 
 Forms no Proof of afundametital Difference of Language. 
 The Relation which the Languages of one Continent, viewed 
 in the aggregate, bear to the individual Languages of such 
 Continent, the same as that which the ancient Scandinavian 
 bears to its derivative Dialects, Sfc. Incipient Changes in 
 the Language of Australia. 
 
 The facts developed in the previous Sections obviously 
 present a satisfactory solution of the problem suggested at 
 page 25, viz., whence it has come to pass that languages 
 almost totally different in their present composition could 
 have sprung from one original Tongue ? That existing lan- 
 guages have sprung from one source is a proposition of which 
 the proofs have been explained in the same Chapter in which 
 this problem has been suggested. (See Chap. I.) 
 
 In the preceding Sections it has been shown, agreeably to 
 the statement contained in Section I., that Languages are 
 exposed to two prominent causes of change ; viz., the aban- 
 donment by different branches of the same race — 1, of dif- 
 ferent Synonymes ; 2, of different meanings of the same 
 Synonyme. 
 
 From the facts Historically proved in the previous Sections 
 it will be found to be an indisputable truth, that — assuming 
 their operation to be continued for an adequate period of time, 
 
88 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 — these two causes are calculated to produce, from one parent 
 Tongue, languages-of which the differences are apparently 
 fundamental. For example, if the differences between the 
 Gothic and Celtic languages noticed at page 28, — languages 
 which differ almost totally, — are compared with those which 
 have been proved to have arisen in the last nine hundred 
 years among the various branches of the Scandinavian and 
 the Celtic, it will be seen at once that the latter are of pre- 
 cisely the same nature as the former. The only distinction 
 is that they are fewer in point of number ! But on the other 
 hand, it is certain that the same causes of change — acting 
 at the same rate during a previous period of treble that length 
 of time — might have produced between two branches of a 
 common original speech differences equally numerous with 
 those which the Gothic and Celtic exhibit ; in other words, 
 differences sufficiently extensive almost entirely to exclude all 
 vestiges of original unity ! 
 
 But it must be added, that it would be highly erroneous 
 to infer that the rate of change previous to the commence- 
 ment of the Historical period was the same as it has been 
 since ; it must have been much more rapid ! Changes of this 
 nature are prompted by the dictates of convenience, which 
 suggest the extinction of superfluous words, and the appro- 
 priation of the remainder to distinct though kindred pur- 
 poses: names for e Water, Rivers, the Sea/ for example, 
 were doubtless in the first instance applied indifferently to all 
 these objects. Now, inasmuch as languages are more redun- 
 dant in their earlier than they are in their later stages, it is 
 apparent that these changes, of which this redundant cha- 
 racter is the source, must be more rapid. 
 
 This explanation would fully account for the diversity of 
 structure evinced by the Gothic and Celtic Tongues, which 
 probably differ as widely as any languages of the globe, 
 without referring the commencement of their separation to a 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 89 
 
 more remote date than would be quite consistent with received 
 systems of Chronology. That the Celtic and Gothic were 
 originally one speech, and that the differences which they now 
 display have arisen in this manner, will be evident from 
 Section II. (page 26,) combined with the facts developed in 
 the other Sections of this Chapter. 
 
 Difference of Grammatical forms has been supposed to 
 afford proof of a fundamental difference of language. A 
 comparison of those of the languages previously noticed will 
 show this to be a highly erroneous conclusion ! The Welsh 
 and Irish differ most widely in their grammars, though the 
 general resemblance of these languages proves their original 
 identity. The German and English also differ very widely, 
 the majority of the Pronouns being unlike. Again, even the 
 modern and the provincial English have different Auxiliary 
 Verbs, &c. ike. These are results of the same principle, viz., 
 the tendency to abandon, or appropriate differently, the 
 various elements of a common parent speech. 
 
 Moreover since Pronouns, which are the principal basis of 
 Grammar, are merely different Synonvmes for " Man, or a 
 u Human Being" (see page 13), appropriated to different 
 Persons, the supposition that kindred nations may be ex- 
 pected in all cases to use the same grammatical forms is 
 founded on the gratuitous and highly unreasonable assump- 
 tion, that the process of appropriating these various Nouns 
 to different Persons must have been complete at a very early 
 period, before the separation of the Human Race into distinct 
 Tribes ! 
 
 But though the rejection of superfluous Synonymes, and 
 the specific appropriation of the remainder are results of the 
 dictates of convenience, the selection of the particular syno- 
 nvmes which are retained, and the particular mode of appli- 
 cation, are results dependent on individual caprice and 
 idiosyncracv. Hence we find, as has been shown in previous 
 
90 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 Sections, the various branches of the same race adopt and 
 abandon different terms. This feature, -which has been 
 traced in the Historical progress of languages, completely 
 explains the phenomenon especially noticed at the close of 
 the First Chapter, viz., the positive identity which we find 
 on the one hand, when the languages of the different Conti- 
 nents are compared in the aggregate, combined on the other 
 with a difference nearly total among individual languages, 
 occurring, in many cases, among the languages of contiguous 
 nations of the same Continent. In each separate tribe there 
 is a tendency to abandon part of the parent speech, but as 
 different tribes generally abandon different parts, probably 
 no portion of the original tongue is lost ! Its component 
 parts are dispersed, and not destroyed ! There is a complete 
 and perfect analogy between the relation which will be found 
 to prevail between the languages of each continent viewed in 
 the aggregate as one original Tongue — compared with the 
 individual existing languages of the same continent — and the 
 relation shown in the previous Sections to prevail between 
 the ancient ( Danska Tunge' and its derivative Scandinavian 
 Tongues — between the Anglo-Saxon and the modern English 
 Dialects — between the ancient Celtic and the modern Welsh 
 and Irish ! 
 
 A recent work on Australia, by Colonel Grey, furnishes 
 an account of the language of that country, so strikingly cor- 
 roborative of the views developed above with respect to the 
 origin of the various languages of the other four great 
 Divisions of the Globe, that I have been induced especially 
 to advert to Colonel Grey's statement in this Section. 
 
 " The arguments which prove that all the Australian 
 " dialects have a common root, are : 
 
 " 1st, A general similarity of sound, and structure of 
 " words, in the different portions of Australia, as tar as yet 
 " ascertained. 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 91 
 
 u 2d. The recurrence of the same word with the same 
 " signification ; to be traced, in many instances, round the 
 " entire continent, but undergoing, of course, in so vast an 
 " extent of country, various modifications. 
 
 " 3d. The same names of natives occurring frequently at 
 " totally opposite portions of the continent. Now, in all 
 u parts of it which are known to Europeans, it is ascertained 
 " that the natives name their children from any remarkable 
 " circumstance which may occur soon after their birth ; such 
 u being tli m accordance of the names of natives is a 
 
 '* proof of 8 similarity of dialect. 
 
 " The chief cause of the misapprehension which has so 
 u long existed with regard to the point under consideration 
 u i> that the language of the aborigine* of Australia abound* 
 
 u in st/noni/nns, many of which arc, for a time, altogether 
 u local; BO that, for instance, the inhabitants of a particular 
 "district will use one word for unto* while those of a 
 u neighbouring district will (ijndy another, which appears to 
 *• he a totally different one. But when I found out that in 
 
 u Mich instance! a- these both tribes understood the words 
 a which either made use <>/, and merely employed another 
 u one from temporary Jathiou and capric€ 3 I felt convinced 
 M that the language generally spoken to Europeans by the 
 k ' natives of any one tmall district could not be considered as 
 u a fan- specimen of the general language of that part of 
 M Australia, and therefore in the vocabulary which I compiled 
 u in Western Australia. 1 introduced words collected from 
 " a eery ei tensive trad of eountry. 
 
 M Again, in jretting the names of the parts of the body, &c. 
 " from the natives, many causes of error arise, for they have 
 
 * Here i- bh explanation, in the instance ol the very .same woid, ol Lbuyd'a 
 ifficult) noticed lo the but Section. 
 
92 DIFFERENCES OF THE INDIVIDUAL 
 
 " names for almost every minute portion of the human frame : 
 " thus, in asking the name for the arm, one stranger would 
 " get the name for the upper arm, another for the lower arm, 
 " another for the right arm, another for the left arm, &c. ; 
 " and it therefore seems most probable that in the earlier 
 " stages of the inquiry into the nature of the language of this 
 " people, these circumstances contributed mainly to the er- 
 " roneous conclusion, that languages radically different were 
 " spoken in remote parts of the continent. 
 
 " One singularity in the dialects spoken by the aborigines 
 " in different portions of Australia is, that those of districts 
 " widely removed from one another sometimes assimilate very 
 " closely, whilst the dialects spoken in the intermediate ones 
 " differ considerably from either of them. The same circum- 
 " stances take place with regard to their rites and customs ; 
 " but as this appears rather to belong to the question of the 
 " means by which this race was distributed over so extensive 
 " a tract of country, I will not now enter into it, but merely 
 " adduce sufficient evidence to prove that a language radically 
 " the same is spoken over the whole continent. 
 
 " If, then, we start from Perth, in Western Australia, fol- 
 " lowing the coast in a southerly direction, it will be found 
 " that between Perth and King George's Sound a common 
 " language is spoken, made up of several dialects, scarcely 
 " differing from one another in any material points, and 
 " gradually merging into the dialects of these two places, as 
 " the two points considered are nearer to one or the other. 
 * * * * * 
 
 " The word for the Sun at Perth is X^an^a, whilst at 
 " Adelaide it is Tin-dee ; but the word used by the natives 
 " at Encounter Bay, South Australia, thirty-six miles from 
 " Adelaide, is Ngon-ge, and the word used in the southern 
 " districts of Western Australia for the Stars is Tiendce ; 
 
LANGUAGES OF THE FOUR CONTINENTS. 93 
 
 " thus, by extending the vocabularies of the two places, the 
 a identity of the language is shown/' * 
 
 * ^c % ^c * 
 
 The reader who by a perusal of the previous Sections has 
 learned how rapid are the changes which languages undergo, 
 will not merely conclude, with Colonel Grey, that the popu- 
 lation of Australia must be descendants of one Sept, but he 
 will conclude also that the first colonization of that continent 
 must be referred to a comparatively recent date. Australia 
 is nearly as large as the Continent of Europe, and yet we 
 find one language prevail over the whole of its extensive 
 surface ! It may be inferred with certainty, from the changes 
 which one thousand jean have produced in the European 
 languages, that this fact makes it probable that the date of 
 the origin of the Australian tribes must have been compara- 
 tively recent, — makes it impossible that it can have been 
 remote ! 
 
 In relation more immediately to the conclusions developed 
 in this Section, it remains to be noticed that the trifling in- 
 cipient differences of dialect in the language of Australia, as 
 described by Colonel Grey, afford a vivid picture of the first 
 phases of that process which, during the course of a series of 
 given rise to the different languages of the four 
 great Continents of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America! 
 
 But how are we to account for the origin of these nu- 
 merous synonymous terms which abound in all, especially 
 in ancient, languages? 
 
 This subject will be discussed in the next Chapter. 
 
 • In Appendix A the original identity and subsequent specific appropriation of 
 the names of the Heavenly Luminaries ;ire especially noticed. See Appendix A, 
 p. 48. These wurds occur in the same Appendix; as to 'Tin-dee,' see p. 20, 
 as to « Ngai mum page. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 First Source of Synonymes the Metaphorical Character of 
 Human Language in its Infancy. Even modem Lan- 
 guages metaphorical or descriptive, as regards the Values 
 of Substances recently known to Man. Progressive Change 
 from a metaphorical to a conventional Character displayed 
 by more Modern compared to more Ancient Languages. 
 Illustration from the Sanscrit Words for ' The Sun' 
 
 But not only may the dispersion of Synonymes be referred 
 to influences of which the active agency still continues ; it 
 will appear that the first Origin of the numerous Synonymes 
 which Human Language presents may also be explained by 
 means of causes still in operation ! 
 
 Human Language, in its infancy, was descriptive or meta- 
 phorical. Nouns, or names of objects, were expressive of 
 some of their dominant or most conspicuous qualities. Hence, 
 inasmuch as in different individuals, and in the same indi- 
 vidual at different times, the faculty of Imagination is affected 
 by various characteristics, a great diversity of descriptive 
 terms were generally devised for the same objects, and these, 
 as their primitive metaphorical meanings were insensibly 
 forgotten, gradually lapsed into arbitrary or conventional 
 Nouns. That this is a correct explanation of the origin of a 
 
ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. 95 
 
 large portion of the Synonymes in which Human Tongues 
 abound, will be apparent from an examination of two vene- 
 rable Oriental Languages, the Hebrew and the Sanscrit, 
 which indisputably display through their whole structure a 
 metaphorical or pictorial character. 
 
 The same truth is confirmed by facts within the range of 
 our actual experience — facts that suggest reflections of high 
 interest ! 
 
 Several thousand years have passed away since man first 
 became acquainted with the most prominent and familiar of 
 those objects with which he is surrounded. For these ob- 
 jects he has inherited from his remote ancestors names which 
 he learns in infancy, and which relieve him from the task of 
 inventing anew appropriate designations. But though Nature 
 presents no new features, the progress of Science has in 
 modern times revealed a few new substances unknown to our 
 forefathers, which have served at intervals to call forth the 
 exercise of the same inventive powers by which language was 
 originally constructed ! Now if we examine the names that 
 were originally conferred on the various chemical substances 
 which have been brought to light in our own and in the last 
 generation, we shall arrive at the instructive result that these 
 Dames almost wholly consist of descriptive terms, represent- 
 ing either some of their most obvious properties, or the 
 various conclusions formed by different philosophers on the 
 subject of their nature and composition.* Further, we shall 
 
 • Fur example: ' Carbonic Acid Gas,' called also ' Choke Damp' (by miners,) 
 and ' Fixed Air.' 
 
 1 Carburetted Hydrogen,' called also ' Fire Damp' (by miners), ' Inflammable 
 Air,' 'Coal Gas,' and 'Gas.' 
 
 'Iodine,' from lodes, 'Like a Violet,' {Greek,) a name suggested by its 
 beautiful violet tint. 
 
 ' Nitrous Oxide,' or ' Protoxide of Azote' (terms expressive of its component 
 elements), a gtt discovered by Dr. Priestley, called also ' Laughing Gas' (from 
 its peculiar property discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy). 
 
 ' Gas' is from a German word meaning ' Breath. Air, Spirit,' ice. <fcc. 
 
96 ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. 
 
 find that many of these new substances gave rise, in the first 
 instance, to numerous descriptive terms ! That these terms 
 were for some time used concurrently ! That subsequently a 
 portion of them fell into disuse ! That finally the remainder 
 gradually lost the descriptive significations at first attached 
 to them, and acquired the character of mere arbitrary or con- 
 ventional names ! 
 
 Hence it is evident, and most assuredly it is a result of the 
 highest interest, that the native and permanent tendencies of 
 the Human mind itself distinctly point to the conclusion that 
 language must originally have been descriptive or metapho- 
 rical ! Hence, also, we derive a vivid illustration of the same- 
 ness of those tendencies, as exhibited both in the latest and 
 in the earliest ages of the world, in the trains of thought ex- 
 cited by new objects in the minds of the Philosophers of 
 modern days, and in those of the simple forefathers of the 
 Human Race, whose 
 
 " Souls proud Science never taught to stray 
 Far as the solar walk or milky way !" 
 
 As we ascend from Modern into remote ages, Human 
 Language gradually reassumes its Metaphorical character. 
 Moreover, it will appear that the transition may be traced oc- 
 curring in different classes of words at different epochs : 
 terms for newly-discovered substances or new inventions 
 being descriptive in all languages; terms for the most common 
 and conspicuous objects of nature, on the other hand, not 
 exhibiting this quality, except in the most ancient Tongues ; 
 while in specimens of Language belonging to intermediate 
 eras, an intermediate character is observable ; terms for less 
 common and less conspicuous natural objects being more 
 generally descriptive than they are in modern Tongues, &c. 
 
 The nature and steps of this transition will be more dis- 
 tinctly perceived if viewed retrospectively : 
 
ORIGIN OF SYXOXYMES. 97 
 
 1. Modern Languages. 
 
 In such languages as the modern English, French, and 
 German, probably the great majority of terms are conven- 
 tional, though we meet with numerous names of animals, 
 birds, &c. which are descriptive, as * Black-bird.' In words 
 applied to new inventions or discoveries, a descriptive cha- 
 racter is commonly displayed, as in c Rail-road* (Eng.), 
 'Eisen-bahn' (Ger.), c Chem in defer* (French), i.e. 'Iron-way.' 
 
 2. Ancient Specimens of the European Languages. 
 
 In the oldest written specimens of the Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, 
 &c, the vestiges of a descriptive origin rapidly increase. The 
 names of Animals and Birds are found to be nearly all either 
 descriptive or imitative, and Synonymes are much more nu- 
 merous in certain classes of words. 
 
 The names for ' The Sun, The Hand,' &c, and other objects 
 enumerated at page 8, as the first on which appellations must 
 have been conferred by Man, seem to have become purely 
 conventional previously to the date of the earliest Celtic or 
 Saxon MSS. But, on the other hand, a comparison of Lan- 
 guages serves to indicate that in this class of terms also these 
 Tongues were Metaphorical in remote ages prior to the era 
 of History. Thus 'Grian,' The Sun, (Irish,) means e A 
 Burner' in Welsh. Again, the Celtic and Gothic races have 
 been too long separated to use the same conventional terms. 
 But they frequently agree in the basis of the descriptive terms, 
 from which the conventional terms are derived. Thus 
 Llygad, 'An Eye,' (Welsh,) is totally unlike the English 
 'Eye,' ('Auge,' German;) but it is identical in its root with 
 the English word Leo*. \ Trued; The Feet, (Celtic,) is un- 
 like ' Foot,' but its root is identical with e Tread' (English) ! 
 Celtic scholars have often derived the English ' Tread' from 
 the Celtic or Welsh 'Traed;' but the Verb < Tread' (< Tret-en,' 
 German) is used by all the Gothic nations from the Danube 
 to Iceland ! 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 ORIGIN OF SYXONYMES, 
 
 The Greek and Latin also conspicuously exhibit a more 
 Metaphorical character than the modern tongues of Europe. 
 
 3. The Sanscrit and the Hebrew. 
 
 It is agreed that in the entire structure of these languages 
 a metaphorical character is displayed ; even such words as 
 the names for e The Sun/ &c. are for the most part metapho- 
 rical or descriptive. 
 
 The truth and extensive application of the principle under 
 discussion will be best understood by a perusal of Appendix 
 A, which contains ample illustrations of the rule that while 
 the conventional significations of words are preserved in one 
 Language, the same words commonly occur in others in 
 kindred metaphorical meanings. In this place, however, 
 may be appropriately introduced one illustration derived from 
 the various Sanscrit words for the Sun. These words, which 
 are all considered to be descriptive or metaphorical, have ob- 
 viously formed the source of the following Conventional Terms 
 for that Luminary, which occur in Indo-Germanic languages 
 of more modern form : 
 
 Different Words for the Sun in Sanscrit , and their distribution 
 in other Indo-Germanic Languages. 
 
 
 
 
 
 German 
 
 
 Sanscrit. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin, 
 
 and 
 English. 
 
 \Vr,.s H . 
 
 Huilih ... 
 
 
 
 Sol. 
 (S. Hail-ib.j 
 
 
 Hail. 
 
 Hail-is ... 
 
 
 He-elios. 
 
 
 
 
 Sura ...... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ser-en, A 
 Star. 
 
 Sunu 
 
 
 
 
 Sob, 
 
 
 Mihira 
 
 Mibira. 
 
 
 
 Sonne. 
 
 
 Af \ 
 
 Teh J 
 
 1 Af-tab. 
 
 
 
 
 
ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. \)\) 
 
 Section II. 
 
 Second Source of Synonymes. Imitative Origin of the Elements 
 of Human Language. Imitative Character of Ancient 
 Languages. Imitative Origin of Language consistent ivith 
 the Unity of the Human Race. Supported by Analogy. 
 Adam Smiths Opinion that the first Elements of Language 
 were Nouns, considered. Progress of Language in Infancy. 
 Illustration, from Campbell's Hohenlinden,of the Influence 
 of the fmitative Faculty on the Imagination. Progressive 
 Growth of Language. Important Exception to the Priu- 
 ciple of the Imitative Origin of Language. Origin of the 
 Harsh and Open Sou/ids of Ancient Languages. 
 
 In its infancy, Language was metaphorical, but it was 
 directly Imitative of surrounding objects at its birth ! Hence, 
 as will now be explained, another source of the synonymes 
 in which Human Tongues abound! 
 
 Did man derive his language from the direct instruction of 
 his Creator, or from the natural exercise of those faculties 
 with which he has been endowed'- For the former opinion 
 no argument, either Scriptural or Philosophical, has ever 
 been advanced. In favour of the latter, proofs deducible 
 from Language, Analogy, and the actual features of the 
 Human Mind, conspire. 
 
 In the Hebrew, and other ancient languages, Man's first 
 imitative efforts are distinctly traceable,* and as we ascend 
 from modern to earlier eras in the history of Human Tongues, 
 and extend our comparison by including within its range a 
 greater number of kindred dialects, we shall find — not only 
 the features of a descriptive or metaphorical character, as 
 
 See Remarks in Adelung*! Mitbridates on the Hebrew. 
 
100 ORIGIN OF SVNONYMES. 
 
 already noticed — but also the vestiges of an imitative origin 
 progressively increase. Thus, for example, the English words 
 for two common birds, the 6 OwP and the ' Crow/ have no 
 other effect on the ear than that of mere arbitrary or conven- 
 tional terms; they have been too much abbreviated any 
 longer to suggest distinctly the source from which they have 
 sprung. But in the Swedish f Ul-u-la/ and the Sanscrit 
 c Ul-u-ka/ the reiterated screams of "the bird of night" 
 are plainly mimicked, as is the harsh guttural croak of the 
 crow in the German c Kr'ahe ! ' 
 
 Those writers who have espoused, and those who have 
 impugned, the conclusion that language is the natural fruit 
 of the endowments which have been conferred on our species, 
 have, for the most part, mutually assumed that conclusion to 
 be irreconcilable with the common origin of the different 
 nations and languages of the globe. Each ancient sept, 
 they take for granted, must in that case be inferred to have 
 had a distinct origin, and to have invented a distinct language 
 for itself. But there is no necessary connexion between the 
 premises and the conclusion. All nations may have emanated 
 from one parent sept, and all languages may have sprung 
 from one parent tongue, and yet the parent speech may, not- 
 withstanding, have been the product of Man's own native 
 energies in the earliest era of his existence ! Our species 
 may have been invested with the faculty of constructing a 
 language adequate to meet all its first wants, and yet that 
 faculty may have been exercised only once ! 
 
 The conclusion adopted above is supported by the dictates 
 of Analogy, as traceable in the instance of provisions made 
 for wants analogous to those which language is calculated to 
 supply. Destined to pass successively through various 
 phases of civilization, and to push his colonies into every 
 clime and country, Man required and has received, both in 
 his physical and mental constitution, powers of adaptation 
 
ORIGIN OF SYXOXYMES. 101 
 
 that enable him to conform to those marvellous changes which 
 are incident to his condition as a Progressive Being. His 
 first infantine feelings are expressed by imitations of sur- 
 rounding objects, and as his higher moral and intellectual 
 faculties are developed, they find utterance in metaphors de- 
 rived from the organs of sensation. In those advances which 
 he was mysteriously intended to make from age to age, he 
 would have been fettered and not aided by the gift of an 
 immutable language ! His wants in this respect have been 
 more wisely provided for by the power which has evidently 
 been conferred upon him of framing in the first instance a 
 language calculated to express his earliest wants as they suc- 
 cessively arose, and of subsequently moulding it to suit 
 the emergencies of his condition. 
 
 It was the opinion of Adam Smith that the elements of 
 language consist of Nouns or Names of things. From this 
 opinion, M. Du Ponceau dissents. Nor is this conclusion 
 confirmed by an analysis of languages, which serves to show, 
 on the contrary, that these elements or roots partake less of 
 the character of Nouns or Names of Objects than of that of 
 Verbs or terms descriptive of their actions and qualities. This 
 result appears to be a necessary consequence of the imitative 
 origin of language, for it is only their characteristic sounds or 
 other salient qualities that admit of imitation, it is impossible 
 to copy by the voice the objects themselves ! The English 
 word Cuc-koo furnishes an excellent example. This word is 
 now used as a Noun or Name. But it is quite manifest that 
 originally it was a mere imitation of the characteristic cry of 
 the bird, in other words it was descriptive of a single quality 
 or action ! 
 
 But though they partake of the character of Verbs rather 
 than of that of Nouns, it will, I conceive, appear that the 
 roots or elements of language do not in reality belong to any 
 existing class of grammatical terms. In the Hebrew and the 
 
102 
 
 ORIGIN OF SYNOXYMES 
 
 Sanscrit the < Root' is neither a Noun nor a Verb, but the 
 common basis of both. Nor is the application of this maxim 
 confined to ancient languages; it may be shown to apply 
 extensively to modern languages also, as in the following 
 examples, derived from the English : 
 
 ROOT. 
 
 NOUN. 
 
 VERB. 
 
 Burst. 
 
 Burst. 
 
 I burst 
 
 Thrust. 
 
 Thrust. 
 
 I thrust. 
 
 Crack. 
 
 Crack. 
 Crack-er. 
 
 I crack. 
 
 Wrench. 
 
 Wrench. 
 
 
 Hiss. 
 
 Hiss. 
 
 I hiss. 
 
 Rumble. 
 
 Rumbl-er. 
 
 It rumbles. 
 
 Break. 
 
 Break. 
 Break-er. 
 
 I break, &c. 
 
 Croak. 
 
 Croak. 
 Croak- er. 
 
 I croak. 
 
 The previous examples will serve to illustrate at once the 
 proposition they are intended to support, and also the imita- 
 tive character of the roots or elements of language. This 
 character, it will be observed, does not occur exclusively in 
 terms primarily descriptive of sounds, it is displayed in an 
 equally unequivocal manner in terms descriptive of other 
 physical qualities, as in ' Thrust, Burst, Wrest/ cxc. 
 
 It is obvious that the human voice possesses the power of 
 copying sounds more perfectly than other external impres- 
 sions. But the attempt at imitation is not more conspicuous 
 than it is in other cases, in which the imitation is necessarily 
 more imperfect. Thus Koom, used in Persia and Wales for 
 6 a hollow circular valley,' ( Coop' [English), are attempts by 
 means of the motion of the lips, &c. to imitate the s/iaj 
 the subjects of description. 
 
 The evidence furnished by language in support of the i 
 
ORIGIN OF SYNONYM ES. 103 
 
 position suggested above, viz., that its roots or elements do 
 not consist either of Nouns or Verbs, but of sounds which 
 constitute the common basis of both, will be found, I con- 
 ceive, to derive direct confirmation from an examination of 
 the faculties employed in the formation of language, and the 
 order of their development. 
 
 Man is endowed with two faculties of a very different 
 nature, of which language seems to be the joint product, 
 viz., with powers of imitation and powers of reflection. Now 
 the elementary sounds, or roots of language, may be viewed 
 as exclusively the work of the imitative propensity ; the 
 steady .appropriation of these elements as recognized descrip- 
 tions of actions and objects seems, on the other hand, to be 
 the result of the progressive growth and of the reiterated 
 subsequent exercise of the functions of Memory and Abstrac- 
 tion. Thus we find infants mimic sounds long before we 
 can suppose their minds to be sufficiently developed perma- 
 nently to associate such sounds with particular objects; 
 afterwards, as their faculties are gradually unfolded, th< 
 imitations are appropriated as names. Accordingly we rind 
 that almost all children are in the habit of using a certain 
 number of Wordfl thus formed, which are understood and 
 employed by the guardians and companions of their infancy 
 An instructive example of the natural activity of those mental 
 qualities to which language first owed its existence — an ac- 
 tivity which is repressed by no other cause than by the 
 maturity of languages in use, which fully meet all the exi- 
 gencies of the social state ! 
 
 The vehement gesticulations of uncivilized tribes is another 
 manifestation of the imitative propensity. Nor arc the ves- 
 tiges of its influence anions civilized nations altogether con- 
 
 • Some exa Uent observations dm the subject ol words thus formed by children 
 04 * in in ^ome Lite numbers of Chambers's .Journal. 
 
104 ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. 
 
 fined to the period of childhood. They may be recognized in 
 the marked, though generally unconscious, disposition we 
 feel to select words imitative of the ideas we seek to convey, 
 and in the pleasure we derive from works of imagination, in 
 which the sound is rendered a an echo of the sense/ 5 in con- 
 formity to the critical rule of classical antiquity. Of the 
 sublime associations called forth by a happy appeal to the 
 imitative faculty, we possess a fine example in the lines of 
 the great living Poet, which, with a fastidiousness as marvel- 
 lous as the genius by which they were conceived, he proposed 
 to cancel, as being " Drum and Trumpet lines ! n * 
 
 " On Linden when the sun was low 
 All bloodless lay the untrodden snow, 
 And dark as winter was the flow 
 Of Iser rolling rapidly. 
 
 " But Linden saw another sight 
 
 When the trump blew at dead of night, 
 Commanding fires of death to light 
 The darkness of her scenery ! 
 
 " By torch and trumpet fast array'd 
 Each warrior drew his battle blade, 
 And furious every courser neigh'd 
 
 To join the dreadful revelry ! " 
 
 (Campbell's ' Hohenlinden.') 
 
 The progressive appropriation of elementary sounds or 
 Roots to the various purposes of language, and the conse- 
 quent development of grammatical forms, remain to be ex- 
 plained. 
 
 In the first instance these Roots were, it would seem, em- 
 ployed alike both as Verbs and Nouns, &c. ; the requisite 
 distinction, it may be inferred, was made by Signs. In the 
 course of time the Noun was distinguished by characteristic 
 additions identical, as may be proved, with terms for < Man/ 
 
 This did not apply to the first four lines quoted above. 
 
ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. 105 
 
 This tendency to personify appears, as Du Ponceau observes, 
 to be "according to nature!" The English word Smith, 
 and the German Schmidt, are nouns of the primitive kind, 
 being mere transcripts of the Root. On the other hand, in 
 the English ' Join-er, Break-er/ we have examples of Nouns 
 distinguished as such by a grammatical suffix, e Er,' which, 
 in German, means ' He,' and in Turkish means e A Man.' 
 In the Pehlwi, an ancient dialect of Persia, which is intimately 
 connected with the English, and other Gothic languages, we 
 actually find the English word c Man/ used for the same 
 purpose as 'Er/ in the above example. Thus we have 
 Ruis-man, C A Head/ (Pehlwi,) Ras (Arabic), and Rosh, 
 6 A Head/ (Hebrew,) Lager-man, 'The Foot/ (Pehlwi,) 
 Lagyl (Wogut), Leg (English). 
 
 The Verb, and its different persons, were distinguished by 
 pronouns, annexed in various modes.* 
 
 Finally, it may be noticed, that since all other branches of 
 Human Language have been shown to be derivable from 
 terms originally applied to Material actions and objects, (see 
 pages 11, 12, 13;) and since these have been proved to be 
 products of the imitative faculty, it follows that all the 
 elements of language are ultimately traceable to the same 
 source. There is, however, an important exception. 
 
 There is a class of terms, including many of those expres- 
 sive of domestic relations, which cannot be traced to imita- 
 tion, but seem to consist of those sounds which are most 
 easy to pronounce. They may, in fact, be viewed as the 
 fruits of the first essays of the organs of articulation. t 
 
 * This is perfectly obvious in the Hebrew, and may be shown by Analysis in 
 other Languages. 
 
 f See Dr. Darwin's Zoonomia. 
 
106 ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES, 
 
 HEBREW 
 
 A . m. A Mother. Also, Amee A Father. (Mangree, 
 
 the lower arm (with the a Negro Dialect.) 
 
 hand) by which a child is Mamma, Mother, a Teat, a 
 
 supported. Breast, (Latin.) 
 
 A . m . e. A Maid Servant. Mamma.* A Father, (Geor- 
 
 A . m . n. A Nurse, To gian.) 
 
 support, nurse. A . m . e. A Nurse, (German.) 
 
 A . m . ou . n. A Child, Mam. A Mother, ( Welsh.) 
 
 &c. &c. Mamma (English). 
 
 It will be perceived that the application of terms from this 
 c Root' was not confined to parents, but was extended to 
 other objects familiar in childhood. 
 
 Other examples of the principle just noticed occur in 
 Abba, f Father,' (Hebreiv,) Ab-avus, Av-us, and Papa (Latin). 
 These words are clearly traceable to sounds which may be 
 readily pronounced in infancy. 
 
 The Hebrew, and some other ancient Oriental tongues, are 
 distinguished by the frequent occurrence of harsh aspirate* 
 and gutturals, and of vehement and discordant tones, which, 
 in many instances, are utterly incapable of representation by 
 means of any sounds in use among the nations of modern 
 Europe. Now if language had an imitative origin, and if 
 these ancient Oriental tongues can be viewed as specimens 
 of language near its source, and the European tongues as 
 specimens more altered by time, these features of contrast 
 will be satisfactorily explained. This will be evident from 
 the following considerations. 
 
 As Language in its incipient state must have been an im- 
 perfect medium of communication, it may be concluded that 
 
 * The occurrence in the Georgian, as a word for a « Father,' of this term, 
 which is generally used lor a < Mother,' is specially noticed by Adelung. Com- 
 pare the other example from the dialect of the Mangrees. 
 
ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. 107 
 
 the auxiliary aid of Signs was commonly resorted to ; violent 
 motions of the hands and the feet were probably combined 
 with intonations of the voice, expressive, even to exaggera- 
 tion, of the ideas intended to be conveyed. Now the influence 
 of this cause was obviously calculated to give to language in 
 its infancy the very qualities which are ascribed to the 
 Hebrew and some other ancient languages, viz., fulness, dis- 
 tinctness, and in some respects extreme harshness. 
 
 On the other hand, the natural progress of language will 
 account also for the opposite qualities displayed by the dialects 
 of modern Europe. As Society advanced, the severe features 
 that belonged to Language at its first commencement must 
 have gradually softened down. Words originally intelligible 
 only as imitations of the qualities of objects, or by reason of 
 the signs with which they were accompanied, must have 
 gradually acquired conventional meanings, calculated to ren- 
 der the use of signs and of rough and painful articulations 
 unnecessary. Compare, as examples, the words already 
 noticed, viz , the English word ' Crow/ and the German 
 guttural word ' Kr'a-he/ the English ' Owl,' and the Swedish 
 and Sanscrit ( Ulula/ and e Ulu-ka/ 
 
 Many writers on subjects of this nature appear to fall into 
 considerable confusion of thought in the eulogies which they 
 are prone to bestow on those particular languages to which 
 their studies have been chiefly directed. In some instances 
 we find a lans-uaire extolled for the fulness and clearness of 
 its sounds, while another is eulogized for its softness. These 
 different qualities cannot with consistency be regarded as 
 merits in languages that belong to the same stage of society. 
 A more judicious view of the subject would involve the con- 
 clusion to which the previous considerations must give rise, 
 viz., that a full and distinct language is the result of neces- 
 sity in the infancy of society, and that a soft and abbreviated 
 
108 ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. 
 
 language is the joint product of the dictates of convenience 
 and taste that influence its later stages. 
 
 It is probable that in the features under discussion the 
 ancient Oriental Tongues do not differ from the languages of 
 Europe more widely than the earliest differ from the latest 
 specimens of the latter class of languages. The difference 
 in this respect between the Anglo-Saxon and the modern 
 English has already been noticed. The abbreviated pronun- 
 ciation of the French, compared to the parent Latin, is 
 another instance of the same kind. The following is an ex- 
 ample of similar variations in three Celtic dialects, showing 
 a progressively contracted pronunciation : 
 
 
 WELSH. 
 
 IRISH. 
 
 MANX. 
 
 Arm. 
 
 Braich. 
 
 Brak (obsolete). 
 
 
 
 
 Raigh. 
 
 -Ri. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Ayr. 
 
 Or. 
 
 -Eer. 
 
 A Year. 
 
 Bluyddyn. 
 
 Bleadhain. 
 
 Blien. 
 
 The Isle of Man was not occupied by the Irish until the 
 fourth century. Yet the Manx differs from the Irish perhaps 
 even more widely than the Irish differs from the Welsh. 
 
 The desire to render language a more rapid and convenient 
 medium of thought may be regarded as the principal source 
 of changes of this nature. 
 
ORIGIN OF SYNONYM ES. 109 
 
 Section III. 
 
 Application of these Conclusions to the Question of the Unity 
 of the Human Race, 
 
 It may be objected that if language were in its origin 
 imitative, the identity of the various languages of the globe 
 shown in this work may be accounted for on that principle, 
 without ascribing that important fact to an original unity of 
 race. But an answer to this objection is involved in the 
 following passage from the Mithridates of Adelung and 
 Vater : 
 
 " In those instances in which the sound imitated is very 
 " definite and invariable, the imitation is so likewise (as in 
 " that of the name of the Cuckoo, which is nearly the same 
 " in all languages). But this is seldom the case. Generally 
 u the natural sound is very variable ; hence one people imitates 
 " one, and another a different change. A very striking ex- 
 " ample occurs in the names for Thunder. Distinct as this 
 " natural sound is, the impressions which it makes on the ear 
 u are very variable, and it has accordingly given rise to a great 
 u number of different names, which all betray, nevertheless, 
 " their origin in Nature. In my Ancient History of the 
 u German Language I have adduced, in proof of this propo- 
 * sition, 353 of these names from the European languages." 
 
 It appears, then, that the principle that language was 
 imitative in its origin does not involve the inference that there 
 is for that reason a tendency in human language to Unity. 
 On the contrary, this principle leads, as has been shown, to 
 the very opposite conclusion. Hence features of affinity dis- 
 played by different Tongues must be referred to original 
 unity of race. 
 
110 ORIGIN OF SYNONYM BI- 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 Recent Origin of the Human Race. 
 
 The Hebrew and Sanscrit, as pointed out in the previous 
 Sections, display certain features which cannot have long 
 survived the infancy of language. The caprices of custom, 
 the progress of the human mind, and the dictates of conve- 
 nience, are calculated to efface these features within a limited 
 period of time. Hence it follows, that the existence of lan- 
 guage, and of the Species by which it is employed, could not 
 have commenced at an era very remotely anterior to the date 
 of the earliest specimens of these ancient Tongues; for it 
 must be borne in mind that the identity of the Hebrew and 
 the Sanscrit with other Human Tongues having been proved 
 (see Appendix A), the vestiges of recent formation which 
 these two languages display furnish evidence of the recent 
 origin, not only of the ancient nations by whom they were 
 spoken, but also of the Human Race. As previously noticed, 
 no difficulty is felt in accounting for the descriptive character 
 of the scientific names which occur at page 95, on the ground 
 that the substances named have only lately become known 
 to man. The existence in the Sanscrit of numerous descrip- 
 tive Synonymes for the ' Sun 5 (see page 98), the most con- 
 spicuous object in nature, is an example which, as already 
 intimated, must suggest analogous reflections. 
 
 Viewed with reference to the lapse of a few centuries, the 
 changes language undergoes are too irregular to furnish a 
 safe test of the date of historical events. But adverting to 
 the progress of the European languages within the last 
 thousand years, we may infer, nevertheless, that the effect 
 of a long interval in producing extensive changes is certain. 
 
ORIGIN OF SYNONYMES. Ill 
 
 Judging from these data, I conceive it may reasonably be 
 concluded that the ancient Hebrew and Sanscrit remains 
 could not have preserved the descriptive or metaphorical 
 character to the same extent as they have done had the 
 Human species been introduced at a period anterior to the 
 date assigned to that event by our received systems of 
 chronology. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 ON THE ORIGINAL IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, WELSH, 
 HINDOOS, AND OTHER NATIONS CLASSED AS INDO- 
 EUROPEAN WITH THE JEWS, ARABIANS, ETC. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Sir William Jones's Opinion that the Languages and Religions 
 of these two Classes of Nations are quite distinct. The 
 Names of the Gods of Greece, Italy, and India significant 
 in the Hebrew, Arts brought by the Ancestors of the 
 European Nations from the East, Names of Fermented 
 Liquors, Arts of the Pastoral State. Words for Butter, 
 fyc. Close Connexion of the Hebrew with the English. 
 No specific difference between the Seme tic and Indo-Euro- 
 pean Tongues. 
 
 Among Orientalists, both in Germany and in this country, 
 an opinion prevails that there is a specific connexion among 
 certain Asiatic and European Nations, which they have 
 accordingly classed together as members of what they term 
 the Indo-European race. The principal Nations included 
 in this class are the Hindoos, Persians, Greeks, Romans, 
 Russians, and other Sclavonic Nations; the English, Ger- 
 mans, and other Gothic Nations ; the Irish and Welsh, and 
 other Celtic Nations, have more recently been ranged under 
 the same appellation, in consequence of the researches of 
 Dr. Prichard, M. Pictet, and Dr. Karl Meyer. The advo- 
 
IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, WELSH, ETC. 113 
 
 cates of a distinct Indo-European race assume either that 
 there is no connexion, or a comparatively slight one, between 
 the various languages of that race and those of the ancient 
 inhabitants of Judea, Arabia, and other contiguous nations. 
 This theory may be viewed as a modification of a conclusion 
 expressed by Sir William Jones in his Discourse on the 
 Origin and Families of Nations. 
 
 "That the first race of Persians and Indians, to whom we 
 " may add the Romans and Greeks, the Goths, and the old 
 "Egyptians or Ethiops, originally spoke the same language 
 "and professed the same popular faith, is capable, in my 
 "humble opinion, of incontestible proof; that the Jews and 
 " Arabs, the Assyrians or second Persian race, the people 
 "who spoke Syriack, and a numerous tribe of Abyssinians, 
 " used one primitive dialect wholly distinct from the idiom 
 "just mentioned, is, I believe, undisputed, and, I am sure, 
 " indisputable."* 
 
 While one class of writers have adopted the views of Sir 
 William Jones, another class have maintained a very opposite 
 opinion, viz. that the Hebrew is connected, not merely as a 
 sister but as a parent, with all the other languages of the 
 globe. The unreasonableness of this opinion, which is totally 
 unsupported by authority, sacred or profane, has been forcibly 
 pointed out by Adelung, who observes, ° Of all the Semetic 
 " languages the Hebrew is the youngest ; the Hebrew nation 
 " still slumbered in the loins of their patriarch Abraham at a 
 " time when the whole south-west of Asia, even including 
 "the eastern banks of the Tigris, was already filled with 
 " Semetic t nations and tongues." 
 
 • Sir William Jones's Works, vol. iii. p. 185. 
 
 t The term Semetic, i. e. descendants of Shero, for which Dr. Prichard has 
 proposed to substitute Syro-Phoenician, is applied to the ancient nations of Judea, 
 Syria, and Arabia. The common origin and specific connexion of most of these 
 nations which may be inferred from the Scriptural account, are distinctly apparent 
 
 8 
 
114 ORIGINAL IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, 
 
 The proofs of affinity between the Hebrew and other 
 tongues which have been adduced by the writers last referred 
 to, are in many instances perfectly sound and legitimate. 
 But owing to the untenable nature of the proposition with 
 which they are associated, they have had no influence in op- 
 position to the opinions of those celebrated men who have 
 denied the existence of any such affinity between the Hebrew 
 and the Indo-European tongues. 
 
 Truth in this, as in many other inquiries, has been lost in 
 the collision of opposite errors ! The Hebrew, it is true, is 
 not the Parent Tongue, but on the other hand, notwith- 
 standing the weight that must necessarily be attached to the 
 memorable passage quoted above, and also to the views of 
 recent Orientalists, it can be shown, by evidence too clear 
 and simple to be neutralized by any authority however emi- 
 nent, that the languages termed Indo-European are as closely 
 connected with the Hebrew as they are among themselves. 
 To these languages, the relation which it bears is that of an 
 ancient collateral, exhibiting many of the features of a parent 
 in consequence of the antiquity of its earliest remains, which 
 contain specimens of Language near to its source. This rela- 
 tion, except as regards the Sanscrit, is strikingly analogous 
 to that which specimens of the Scandinavian dialects near to 
 their common source have been shown to bear to the modern 
 languages of Denmark, Sweden, and Iceland. (See Propo- 
 sition 6, p. 46.) 
 
 As the proofs contained in Appendix A and in other parts 
 of this work, are sufficient to establish that such is the nature 
 of the connexion between the Hebrew and the Indo-Euro- 
 pean languages, I shall here confine myself to such illustra- 
 tions as possess an independent interest by reason of the 
 
 from the close affinity of their languages. These Tongues by the highest autho- 
 rities have been pronounced to be as nearly related as the Doric and Ionic dialects 
 of the Greek. 
 
WELSH, HINDOOS, JEWS, ARABIANS, ETC. 115 
 
 light they throw on the institutions and condition of ancient 
 nations. 
 
 The identity of the Gods of three of the principal Indo- 
 European nations has been shown by Sir William Jones in 
 his luminous and graceful Dissertation on the Gods of Greece, 
 Italy, and India. But in the passage above quoted from the 
 same great writer, the conclusion is conveyed that these Indo- 
 European nations, agreeing among themselves, fundamentally 
 differed with the Jews and other Syro- Phoenician nations in 
 two important points, viz. Religion and Language. 
 
 This conclusion will be found to involve many fallacies of 
 a very obvious nature. The Assyrians and other Syro- 
 Phoenician nations were idolaters, though the Jews were not ; 
 and even the Jews were constantly lapsing into the idolatrous 
 practices of the surrounding nations. We have no reason 
 for inferring with certainty that the superstitions of the land 
 of Canaan and of other Semetic countries were different from 
 those of the Greeks, Italians, and Indians; the evidence 
 rather favours the contrary supposition. Again, the ancient 
 Egyptians, whom Sir William Jones classes with the Indo- 
 European nations, from Language and Geographical position 
 may reasonably be pronounced to have been more nearly re- 
 lated to the Semetic nations of Palestine and Arabia. Such 
 are the errors even of an " all-accomplished" inquirer in ex- 
 ploring a new field ! 
 
 That the Jews differed in religion from the nations of 
 Greece, Italy, and India is a proposition which, in a general 
 sense, cannot be disputed. But it will now be shown that 
 this proposition must, nevertheless, be received with two 
 qualifications, which entirely destroy its application as a 
 proof of an aboriginal or remote difference of race, viz. 1. 
 The same conceptions of the Supreme Being as are unfolded 
 in the Hebrew Scriptures may be traced in the attributes of 
 the principal Heathen Deities. 2. The names of the inferior 
 
116 ORIGINAL IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, 
 
 Gods are perfectly preserved in the Hebrew language in ap- 
 propriate senses, which distinctly indicate the recent origin 
 of the superstitions of which they were the objects. While 
 these inferior divinities appear to have been mere personifi- 
 cations of the powers of nature or of the passions of Man, — 
 in the conceptions of the Creator of all things equally just and 
 sublime, — which rise above this mass of error in the character 
 of the Greek Zeus, the Latin Jupiter, and the Indian Brahma,* 
 the barrier which is supposed so abruptly to have separated 
 the primitive faith of these nations from that of the patriarchs 
 disappears ! 
 
 The following analysis of the names of Heathen divinities 
 may be regarded as a continuation of a similar analysis which 
 occurs at page 20. As regards the names and attributes of 
 the Indian Gods, I have availed myself of Sir W. Jones's 
 Dissertation on the Gods of Greece. Italy, and India : 
 
 THE GODS OF GREECE AND ITALY. 
 
 Jupiter, Jov-(es), Jov-(em), 'The Supreme Being,' 
 [Latin) ; Ee . e . v . e or J . ee . v . e, ' Jehovah, The Deity,' 
 from E . v . e, ' To Be,' ( Hebrew.) This name is believed to 
 be expressive of eternal existence.t 
 
 Zeus or Zen {Greek), 'The Supreme Being,' the same as 
 Jupiter; Zen, To Live, Ze, He Lives, Zoos, Living, {Greek.) 
 Esse, < To Be,' {Latin.) Ee . sh . e, < To Be,' A . ee . sh, ' A 
 Being,' Ee . sh . sh, ' Very old Ancient,' {Heb.) 
 
 Juno [Latin), Ere [Greek), 'The Goddess of the Firma- 
 ment and The Queen and Mother of the Gods.' [See p. 21.] 
 
 * See a Treatise by Rammohun Roy, showing that the ancient faith of the 
 Hindoos involved the unity of the Deity. 
 
 t Ju-piter is a compound of Pater, a Father, with « Joy," which is the basis. 
 
WELSH, HINDOOS, JEWS, ARABIANS, ETC. 117 
 
 Mercur-ius, ' The God of Commerce/ [Latin.) M . c . r, 
 'Merchandise, To Sell/ (Heb.) Merx, Mercari {Latin). 
 Market [English.) 
 
 Min-erva, The Goddess of Wisdom, [Latin.) Men, ' The 
 Mind.' 
 
 Min-os, 'The Supreme Judge in the Infernal Regions/ 
 [Latin fy Greek) M . n . e, 'To ordain, adjust, number/ 
 (Heb.) 
 
 Aurora [Latin), E-6-s [Greek), 'The^ Goddess of the 
 Dawn.' [See p. 20.] 
 
 Phaeton, ' Son of Apollo, or The Sun/ [Latin fy Greek.) 
 Phaethon, Shining, [Greek.) Pha . o, To Shine, [Greek.) 
 Ee . ph . o [Heb.) Phaethon in Greek was an epithet applied 
 to 'The Sun,' a word for 'The Day' and for 'The Star 
 Jupiter/ [Compare Phoibos, Fos, &c. p. 21.] 
 
 Phos-phor-us [Latin), Phs phor-os, The Morning 
 Star, [Greek,) from Phero, 'To Bear,' and Phos, Light. The 
 origin of this name will be plain from the last example and 
 from the analogous terms at p. 21. Phos, 'A Star,' [Japan,) 
 Fosseye, ' The Sun,' [Sere res, Negroes,) &c. &c. 
 
 Ares, 'The God of War/ [Greek.) War [English.) Or, 
 ' An Enemy ;' O . r . ee . ts, ' Formidable, Violent / O . r . ts, 
 E . r . s, Ee . ou . r . ee . sh, ' To break in pieces, demolish, 
 [Heb.) Eris, ' Strife/ (Greek.) 
 
 M-ars, Mart-is, M-avors, 'The God of War/ [Latin.) 
 M . Or . ts . c, ' Violence, Terror/ from O . r . ts with M. for- 
 mative. [See ' Ares/ above.] 
 
118 ORIGINAL IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, 
 
 Bell-on a, 'The Goddess of War. 5 Bellum, War, (Latin.) 
 Beli, Bela, War, (Welsh.) Beli, Bela, Havoc, Devastation, 
 ( Welsh.) B . 1 . ee, B . 1 . o (Hebrew.) 
 
 Vesta (Latin),* Hestia (Greek), 'The Goddess of Fire.' 
 " Her power was exercised about Altars and Houses." 
 Hestia also signifies a Hearth. Ee . ts . th, ' To Burn, Kindle, 
 To be kindled as fuel/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 Ceres, 'The Goddess of the Fruits of the Earth/ (Latin.) 
 G . r . sh 3 ' Corn trodden out,' ' To spring forth/ Tender, 
 Green, in full Verdure, Vegetables, (Hebrew.) Grass (German 
 fy English.) 
 
 Harp-y,e (Greek $ Latin), 'Winged Creatures, the fabu- 
 lous personifications of Hunger and Rapacity!'' [See ^Eneid 3.] 
 C'H.r.b, 'To Consume, waste/ 
 C H . r . b . e, ' Desolation/ (Hebrew.) 
 Harpazo, 'To Snatch/ (Greek.) 
 
 Morpheus, 'The God of Sleep/ [Greek > Latin,) 
 
 M.r.ph.e, 'Slothful/ (Heb.) 
 
 An interesting consideration deserves especial notice in this 
 place. On referring to the doubtful and unsatisfactory ex- 
 planations which have been suggested for many of these 
 names of the Gods of Greece and Italy, both by Cicero and 
 by modern writers, who have relied solely on the intrinsic 
 resources of the Classical languages, the superior clearness 
 and simplicity of the explanations afforded by the aid of the 
 Hebrew will be strikingly apparent. t 
 
 * Vesta is also used for Fire itself. 
 + Cicero de Natura Deoram. 
 
WELSH, HINDOOS, JEWS, ARABIANS, ETC. 119 
 
 THE GODS OF INDIA. 
 
 Brahma, 'The Creator/ {Indian.) B . r . a, 'To Create/ 
 applied to the creative act of the Deity in the First Chapter 
 of Genesis, ( Hebrew.) Beri or Peri, ' To Cause/ Bar, or Par, 
 < A Cause; (Welsh.) 
 
 Siva, * The Destroyer/ ( Indian. ) Sh . v . a . e, ' Desolate / 
 Sha-e, 'To Desolate/ (Heb.) 
 
 Vish-nu, 'The Preserver or Saviour/ (Ind.) Ee.sh.v.o.e, 
 ' Safety, Salvation/ [This root is applied to the Saviour with 
 the prefix ML in M|Ou.sh.oc, 'The Messiah.'] Ee.sho, 
 
 ■ To save/ (Heb.) 
 
 Rama, ' A conquering Deity, a great Deliverer/ the same 
 as the Greek Hercules, (Indian.) R. m, 'To be lifted up, 
 exalted.' R . m . e, 'To throw, cast down/ (Hebrew,) 
 
 Cam a, 'The Indian Cupid.' One of his titles is ' Depaca, 
 the Inflamer/ ' Love/ (Indian.) Ee . ch . m, ' To be lustful/ 
 Ch . in, Ch . m . e, ' Heat/ Ch . m . s, 'To ravish/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 Sur-ya, < A God of the Sun/ (Indian.) See p. 20. 
 
 Sat-yavrata, 'Saturn' of the Latins. Sat.ya, means 
 ' Truth or Probity/ (Indian.) Sh . th, 'To set, settle, fix/ 
 [Hence 'Sooth/ English, not from ' He saith/ as Home 
 Tooke conceived.] T . z . d . k, 'Just/ T . z . d . k . e, 'Justice, 
 righteousness/ ( Hebrew.) 
 
 I shall now advert to some features of considerable interest 
 in the condition of the primitive founders of the European 
 nation-, of which language furnishes evidence. 
 
120 ORIGINAL IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, 
 
 The first emigrants must in many instances have brought 
 with them from the East a knowledge of fermented liquors, 
 as is shown by the following examples : 
 
 Wine (English), Vin-um (Latin), Oin-os (Greek), 
 Ee . ee . n (Hebrew), primarily ' The expressed juice of the 
 grape/ from Ee . n . e, ' To press, squeeze/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 Osai, ' Cyder, sweet liquor/ (Welsh,) O.s.ee.s, 'Wine/ 
 (Hebrew,) from O . s, O . s . s, ' To trample', applied to the 
 Grapes. 
 
 M . th . k, ' Sweet, sweetness/ (Hebrew.) Metheg-lyn 
 (Welsh,) i.e. M.th.k, ' Sweet, (Hebrew,) and-Lyn, ' Li- 
 quor/ (Welsh.) Methu, 'Wine/ (Greek.) Methou, 'Drunk/ 
 (Welsh.) These terms may be regarded as primarily derived 
 from a word expressive 'of Honey/ and of the wine made from 
 that particular substance, as in Madhu, ' Honey/ (Sanscrit,) 
 'Mead 5 (English.) 
 
 Mel (Welsh), Mel (Latin), Meli (Greek), 'Honey/ 
 Melissa, ' A Bee/ ( Greek.) Mel-ys, ' Sweet/ ( Welsh.) Me- 
 litos, 'Honeyed, placid/ (Greek.) M .1 . ts, 'To sweeten, to 
 assuage/ (Hebrew.) Melith, ' Honey/ (Gothic.) 
 
 Writers on subjects of this nature have inferred that in the 
 earliest stage of society the human species subsisted on the 
 spontaneous fruits of the earth or by the chase ; the Pastoral 
 state was the next step, and the adoption of agricultural pur- 
 suits the last stage in the progress. The Celtic and other 
 European languages furnish very distinct evidence that some 
 of the European nations must have advanced as far as the 
 Pastoral state previously to their migration from the East. 
 
 The art of making 'Butter' is expressed in the Celtic by 
 a word of which the Oriental origin is clear : 
 
 Im,* * Butter/ (Gaelic.) 
 
 c'H . m . a . e, ' Butter/ from c'H . m . a, 'To agitate, to 
 churn/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 * Ymenyn (ff'elsh). 
 
WELSH, HINDOOS, JEWS, ARABIANS, ETC. 121 
 
 As this Celtic word is quite unlike the Latin, its Oriental 
 origin is clear. It also follows that the primitive art it de- 
 scribes could not have been borrowed from the Romans. 
 
 The evidence with regard to ' Cheese* is doubtful. Caseus 
 {Latin) may be viewed as allied to K . sh . e, c To harden, to 
 stiffen/ (Hebrew.) But as the Hebrew does not present the 
 secondary sense, there is no ground to infer that this art was 
 brought from the east. Nor, considering the resemblance of 
 the Latin Caseus and the Welsh Caws, 'Cheese/ can we 
 infer from language, as in the instance of l Butter/ that the 
 Celts did not borrow this process from the Romans, which 
 most probably they did. 
 
 The following is a comparison, showing at the same time 
 the identity of the names for some of the most common 
 animals in the Hebrew and the Indo-European languages, 
 and also the interesting fact, which is evident from several of 
 these examples, that many of the prevalent European names 
 for Chattels and Money are identical with Hebrew words for 
 Cattle, Sheep, &c, which form the only wealth of the Pastoral 
 state ! 
 
 B . k . r, < Cattle/ (Heb.) Pecora, plural of Pec-us, < Cattle/ 
 (Lat.) Hence, Pecunia, i Money/ (Lat.) Buwch, 'A cow/ 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 R.c.sh, t Cattle, Riches,' (Hebrew.) Reikis, ' Riches/ 
 ((lot hie.) Riches (English.) 
 
 A . 1 . ph, singular. A . 1 . ph-eem, plural, * Cattle/ (Heb.) 
 Alav, singular. Alav-oedd, plural, ' Cattle, Wealth/ (Welsh.) 
 
 < Sheep' ( English.) Schaaf ( German.) C . sh . b, C . b . sh 
 (Heb.) Sh . e, < A Lamb/ (Heb.) 
 
 < Sheep/ Kaora, (Irish.) Cor-lan, <A Sheep-fold/ ( Welsh.) 
 C . r, ' A Lamb, also a pasture or circuit for cattle/ (Heb.) 
 
 1 A Horse/ Ashwah Eshuus (Sanscrit.) S . w . s, or 
 
122 ORIGINAL IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, 
 
 S . ou , s,* ( Heb.) — Pferd (German,) Peerdt (Belgian,) in 
 the Hebrew, Ph . r . sh-eem, * Horsemen/ 
 
 'Cow' (English.) Go (Sanscrit.) G . o . e, 'To low like 
 an ox/ (Hebrew.) 
 
 ' A Cat/ C ' h . th . ou . 1, (Hebrew.) Cath ( Welsh.) Cat 
 (English.) 
 
 'A Monkey/ Kapi, {Sanscrit.) Kouph (Heb.) 
 
 ' Goat/ Aix Aig-os, (Greek.) Aja (Sans.) A . k . ou (Heb.) 
 ' A name given to the wild goat from its cry.'* 
 
 'Hog, Swine/ &c, Sukarah (Sans.) Khuk (Persian.) 
 Hog (Eng.) Houch ( Welsh.) Hus (Greek.) C ' H . z . ee . r 
 (Hebrew.) 
 
 'Serpent' (English.) Serpens (Latin.) Sarf (TFe/s//.) 
 Sh.r.ph (Hebrew.) Serpo, 'To Creep/ (Latin.) 
 
 'Reptile, Serpent/ &c., Neid-yr, 'A Serpent/ (Welsh.) 
 Newt, 'A small Lizard/ (English.) N . d . 1, 'A Reptile/ 
 (Chaldce.) 
 
 ' Turtle Dove' (English.) Turtur ( Latin.) T . r, T . ou . r 
 (Hebrew.) 
 
 The connexion between the Hebrew and the English is 
 remarkably complete, the same words occurring in both 
 languages unchanged in sound and sense ! A few examples 
 are subjoined, consisting in many cases of words of pure 
 Anglo-Saxon origin, rarely or never used by the refined 
 classes of society. 
 
 N.k.m, To avenge, (Hebrew,) To nick (English.) — 
 N . g . o, To touch, To draw nigh, (Hebrew,) Nudge, Nigh 
 (English.) — B . r, A Son, (Hebrew.) Bairn (L. Scotch,) 
 Brat (English.) — Sh . c. 1, To be wise, Wisdom, Chinning, 
 (Hebrew,) Skill (English.) — B . k . sh, To seek, To petition, 
 
 * This name is supposed by Hebrew scholars to be expressive of Bwiftaen 
 to be derived from S ,s, or Sh . sh, Active, Sprightity. 
 
WELSH, HINDOOS, JEWS, ARABIANS, ETC. 123 
 
 {Hebrew,) Bhikshati, Beggeth, (Sans.) Beg (English.) — 
 Sh.l.t, A Shield, (Hebreiv,) Shield (English,) Shalita, 
 Covered, (Sanscrit,) Shalitra, ' Shelter,' (Sanscrit,) Shelter 
 (English,) Shieling (L. Scotch.) — L.b, The Heart, Feeling, 
 Will, (Hebrew,) Lieb e, Love, (German,) Lief, Dear, 
 Willingly, ( English . ) 
 
 Colonel Vans Kennedy, to whom we are indebted for a 
 very able work conclusively showing the original identity of 
 the Sanscrit and English and other languages termed Indo- 
 European, is one of the most strenuous opponents of the 
 supposition that a connexion may be shown to exist between 
 these languages and the Hebrew, an idea which he treats as 
 in the highest degree visionary and delusive ! In the follow- 
 ing, as in some of the previous examples, the instances of re- 
 semblance between the Sanscrit and the English which this 
 writer has himself selected are compared with Hebrew words, 
 identical with these terms in sound and sense ! In many 
 cases it will be seen that the Hebrew terms are even nearer 
 to the English than the Sanscrit terms are ! 
 
 Muhatwah (Sous,) Might (Eng.) M.a.d, 'Might/ 
 (Hch.)— Rosha, Raga (Sans.) Rage (Eng.) R . g . z (Heb.)— 
 Kupam, A Receptacle, {Sans.) Coop (Eng.) K . ph . ts, 
 To shut, close up, contract, (Heb.) — Duhitr (Sans.) Daughter 
 (Eng.) Dochter (Scotch.) D . g, To multiply, (He b.) Tek-os, 
 Progeny; Tek-on, Bringing forth, (Greek.) — Shringa (Sans.) 
 Horn (Eng.) Cornu (Lat.) K . r . n (Heh.)-—h$*X, A Cala- 
 mity, (Sans.) Ab.ad.n, Destruction, (Heb.) — Balawan, 
 Powerful, (Sans.) B . o . 1, A Master, to have power, (Heb.) 
 'Baal,' i.e. The Ruler, name of an idol. — Shira, The Head, 
 (Sans.) Sh . r, A Prince, A Ruler, (Heb.) — Ghashati (Sans.) 
 Gusheth (Eng.) G , sh . m, To rain, A violent Shower, (Heb.) 
 t Geesers/ Fountains of Hot Water in Iceland. — Grushta 
 {Sans.) Grist (Eng.) G . r . s, To break, crush to pieces, 
 Wheat beaten out, (Heb.) — Torati (Sans.) Teareth, Tore, 
 
124 IDENTITY OF THE ENGLISH, WELSH, ETC. 
 
 (Eng.) T . r . ph, To tear off, To tear to pieces, (Heb.) Tori 
 Welsh.) — Diyati (Sans.) Dieth {Eng.) Dee . e, Blackness 
 of colour,* (Heb.) Dee.ou.a, The Devil, (Syriac.) Dee.ou.v, 
 Ink, (Heb.) Dee, Black, (Welsh.) — Pesati (Sans.) Paceth 
 (Eng.) Psh.o, To pass, a pace, (Heb.) — Ranati (Sans.) 
 Runneth (Eng.) R . n (Heb.) — Shara (Sans.) Gar. Arrow 
 (Ang.-Sax.) Sh . r . ee . e, A Dart, (Heb.) — Shatati (Sans.) 
 Shutteth; Sheath, (Eng.) S . th . m, To stop up, hide, 
 conceal, S . th . ee . m . e, A Secret, (Heb.) -Stum, Dumb, 
 (Ger.) 
 
 It must be quite evident that in these examples the affinity 
 in words between the Hebrew and the Indo-European lan- 
 guages is as close as that which exists among those languages 
 themselves. The difference of grammatical forms has been 
 much insisted upon. This ground, where it occurs, has al- 
 ready been proved to afford no evidence of a remote difference 
 of race. (See p. 89.) But in treating of the North Ameri- 
 can Indian dialects, I shall show that no such grammatical 
 difference does exist in this instance, the Hebrew pronouns, 
 which are the basis of its grammar, being identical with those 
 of the Welsh,f now considered to be a member of the Indo- 
 European group of tongues. 
 
 * From the change of hue the body undergoes in death. 
 
 t Other examples of the affinity of the Hebrew and the Welsh have been ex- 
 amined with great ability by Dr. William Owen Pughe, in the Cymrodorion 
 Transactions. There is also a valuable old work on the connexion of the Hebrew 
 with other languages, by Mr. Barker, schoolmaster, Carmarthen. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 DEXTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, 
 AND OTHER BRANCHES OF THE HUMAN RACE. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 Identity of the ancient Indian and Egyptian Mythology, fyc. 
 \ antes of the Egyptian Cods, signijicant in the Hebrew 
 and Indo-European Tongues. Dr. Lepsius's comments on 
 ( 'hanipo/liun's opinion that the Modern Egyptian does not 
 differ from the Egyptian of the oldest Monuments. 
 Proofs <f changes. Proofs from Language that the ori- 
 gin of the Egyptians cannot be referred to the very remote 
 date fixed by some writers. Causes of the primitive 
 fait/ires of the Hebrew and the Sanscrit. Identity of 
 Sanscrit and Scriptural account of the Creation and of the 
 Origin of the Human Race. Sir H illiam Jones's expla- 
 nation of this coincidence. High antiquity of the Indian 
 Vedas. 
 
 We are indebted to Dr. Prichard* for a comprehensive and 
 satisfactory demonstration of the resemblance in manners, 
 mythology, and in social and political institutions of the 
 ancient Egyptians and Indians. These Nations agreed in re- 
 ligious and philosophical dogmas, in a superstitious veneration 
 of animals and of the most conspicuous objects of nature, in 
 
 • Dr. Prichard on Egyptian Mythology. 
 
]26 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 the system of Castes, and in other features. Dr. Pilchard's 
 German translator, the celebrated A. W. Schlegel, has at- 
 tempted to account for these points of coincidence by the 
 ordinary tendencies of human nature under similar circum- 
 stances, a theory which, though maintained with distinguished 
 ability, must be felt to be essentially paradoxical. As Dr. 
 Prichard observes : " No person who fully considers the in- 
 " timate relation and almost exact parallelism that has been 
 "traced between the Egyptians and the Hindoos, will be 
 "perfectly satisfied with such a solution in that particular 
 "example."* 
 
 Dr. Prichard concludes that these features of resemblance 
 must be ascribed to a common origin. But in the adoption 
 of this conclusion he encounters a formidable difficulty, arising 
 from the consideration that the Egyptian Tongue cannot, 
 according to his views, be identified with the other languages 
 of mankind. 
 
 This difficulty, like many others of the same nature, will 
 be found to receive a satisfactory solution from the compa- 
 rison contained in Appendix A, in which are embodied a 
 greater number of words from the Egyptian than from any 
 other language of the African continent. It will thence be 
 evident that the failure which has attended the attempts of 
 the writers noticed by Dr. Prichard to identify the Egyptian 
 with the Asiatic languages, has arisen from the predominant 
 error of Philological writers, — viz. the expectation of finding 
 in every respect a close and peculiar affinity between the 
 languages of nations, who, though contiguous, must in all 
 probability have been separated in the earliest ages of the 
 world. Hence the unsuccessful issue of those researches of 
 which the object has been to show that the Egyptian is a 
 dialect of the Hebrew. But, notwithstanding the unfavorable 
 
 * Dr. Prichard on Man. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 127 
 
 result which has necessarily attended investigations conducted 
 on a false basis, it will be seen, nevertheless, that the adoption 
 of a wider range of comparison, agreeably to the principles 
 explained at p. 16 and p. 87, and earned out in Appendix A, 
 serves to render unequivocally manifest the original unity of 
 the Egyptians not only with the Jews and other nations of 
 Asia, but also with those of all the four continents. In this 
 place I shall introduce, in illustration of this proposition, some 
 additional examples, which possess an independent interest 
 in connexion with Dr. Prichard's inquiry into the mythology 
 of the Egyptians, and with the analogous inquiries pursued 
 in the last Chapter of this work. 
 
 The Names of most, if not all, of the Egyptian Gods are 
 susceptible of a perfectly unequivocal explanation by means 
 of the Hebrew and the Indo-European languages.* This 
 will be evident from the following analysis, in which I have 
 availed myself of the account of their names and attributes 
 given by a high authority — Mr. Wilkinson.t 
 
 'Neph, Phtah, and Khem,' the first three of the Egyptian 
 Gods noticed below, represent attributes of the Deity. 
 
 Kxeph, or, more properly, Neph or Nef, c The Spirit 
 of God which moved on the face of the Waters.'^ Nouf, 
 < Spirit.' Nife, < To breathe, to blow.' Nifi, ' Inspiration,' 
 [Egypt.) This word, Neph, has been shown to exist in the 
 same and in analogous senses in the Hebrew and Indo- 
 European tongues. It has also been pointed out as occurring 
 in a remarkable instance as a word for a ' Spirit,' and also as 
 
 * In some of these instances the Coptic or Egyptian has lost the original mean- 
 ing of these appellations, in others it has preserved them in common with the 
 Hebrew and Indo-European Tongues. 
 
 t Materia Hieroglyphiea. 
 
 t Wilkinson. 
 
/ 
 
 128 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 a name of the ' Supreme Being,' amon^the North American 
 Indians. (See p. 24.*) 
 
 Pthah, 'The Creative Power that made the World/ 
 styled 'The Father of the Gods/f 
 
 Pita, Pitre (Sanscrit,) 'A Father.' Phu-o, ' Gigno, Pro- 
 duco.' Phu teuo, ' Machinor SemTno.' Pat-er, ' A Father,' 
 (Greek.) 
 
 Khem, < The Sun/ (See p. 2 1 .) 
 
 Rah, ' Sun/ < The Material and Visible Orb.' (See App. 
 pp. 2 and 3.) 
 
 Ph-Ruh, ' Ph,' 'The/ and Rah, ' Sun.' Hence the name 
 ' Pharaoh/ applied to the Kings of Egypt. 
 
 Amun-Ra, ' The splendour and beneficent property of the 
 Sun/ ' Jupiter- Ammon ' of the classical nations. 
 
 The word A . m . n, in Hebrew, implies ' nurturing or 
 fostering care, to support, to sustain/ In Egypt there is a 
 verb Amoni 'To hold/ and Amoni < To feed.' Amoun in 
 Hebrew, and Mone in Egypt, mean ' A Nurse/ and in Egypt 
 'A Shepherd.' 
 
 Amoni, ' Patience/ (Egypt.) Amyn-edd ■ Patience/ Amoun 
 ' To defend/ M-ou yn, ' Kind/ ( Welsh.) 
 
 Neith or Maut, 'Minerva, called the Mother of the 
 Gods/ Mata (Satiscrit.) Mat-er {Latin.) Maau {Egypt.) 
 A . m . a (Heb.) < A Mother.' 
 
 The names of Osiris and Serapis have been explained at 
 p. 20; that of Hor ('Horus,') in Appendix A, p. 2; that 
 of Io, 'The Visible Body of the Moon. 'J in Appendix A. 
 pp. 24-25. 
 
 * Among the Egyptian Deities is Anep, Anepo, the classical Auubis, " The 
 Conductor of Souls." 
 
 t Wilkinson, p. 11, note 4. ♦ Ibid. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 129 
 
 It will be observed that the Egyptian mythology, like that 
 of the Indo-European nations, as noticed in the last section, 
 distinctly combines with Personifications of the powers of 
 nature, views of the attributes and agencies of the Supreme 
 Being which occur in the Hebrew Scriptures, as in the in- 
 stance of 'Neph.' It is remarkable that the same allusion 
 as this name presents, occurs in the Hindoo mythology in 
 Narayana, one of the names given to Vishnu, the Deity 
 viewed as a preserver or Saviour. Sir William Jones thus 
 explains this term in a quotation from a passage in which 
 Menu, the son of Brahma, begins his address to the Sages 
 who consulted him on the formation of the Universe. ct The 
 kf waters are called nurci, since they are the offspring of Nera, 
 "(or 1'swaka ;) and thence was Narayana named, because 
 " his first ayana or moving, was on them !"* 
 
 X-Eerooue means 'Waters' in Egyptian, from Eiero, 
 ' Water/ the plural being formed by N prefix. 
 
 Thus it is evident that a comparison of languages in those 
 very instances which arc connected with the subject, so far 
 from impugning the conclusion that the mythology of the 
 Hindoos and Egyptians had a common origin, affords irre- 
 sistible corroborative proofs of the correctness of that opinion. 
 Further, it is apparent in the instance of the Egyptian as of 
 the Indo-European race, that their religious system embodied, 
 in combination with an idolatrous superstructure, the same 
 views of the Supreme Being as arc developed in the Penta- 
 teuch. 
 
 In some of the foregoing instances, the words of which the 
 names of the Egyptian gods are composed have been preserved 
 in the Egyptian itself conjointly with the Hebrew and other 
 languages. But there are also several instances in which these 
 terms have been lost in the Egyptian, though preserved in 
 
 William Jour- on the Godfl of Greece, Italy, and India. 
 
130 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 other tongues. This is a distinct proof that the origin of the 
 Egyptian language is mainly ascribable to the same cause, 
 which has been previously pointed out as the principal source 
 of the gradual divergence of the different dialects of the 
 Celtic and Scandinavian, &c. The Egyptian cannot be said 
 to differ from the Hebrew or the Sanscrit more widely than 
 the Celtic and Gothic differ, though the common origin of 
 the two last may be shown indisputably. At what precise 
 periods the different changes in the Egyptian language took 
 place, we have not as yet the means of fully deciding. But 
 we are not altogether without historical evidence that this 
 language has undergone mutations, analogous to those which 
 have occurred in other tongues. Champollion, to whose 
 genius we are principally indebted for a solution of the 
 Egyptian system of hieroglyphics, was of opinion that the 
 Coptic or modern Egyptian is perfectly identical with the 
 language of the most ancient monuments. But this opinion 
 has been combated with ability and success by Dr. Lepsius, 
 to whom we owe much information with regard to the 
 ancient Egyptian remains, especially the brilliant discovery 
 that the alphabet of Egyptian hieroglyphics, supposed by 
 Champollion to consist of 300, is reducible to thirty letters.* 
 Dr. Lepsius points out many striking instances of deviation. 
 Thus he notices that Plutarch, in explaining the name of 
 Osiris, whose symbol was The Eye, informs us that the 
 Egyptians called the Eye <Iri/ a word not found in the 
 Coptic, in which ( BaP is the only term used for that organ. 
 
 Dr. Lepsius has also produced in illustration of his views 
 several examples, in which he infers from the mode of spell- 
 ing, that the same terms must have been pronounced in the 
 age of hieroglyphics in a different manner from what they 
 were in the Coptic. The following are instances : 
 
 * Lepsius Lettre a Rosselini. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 
 
 131 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN OF 
 THE AGE OF HIERO- 
 GLYPHICS. 
 
 MODERN EGYPTIAN OR 
 COPTIC. 
 
 The Sun 
 
 R.ba. 
 
 Ra. 
 
 Day 
 
 H .rou. 
 
 Hour. 
 
 The Sea 
 
 Imo. 
 
 Iom. 
 
 A Swine 
 
 R .r i. 
 
 Rir. 
 
 It has been previously shown by a comparison of tongues 
 of which the history can be traced, that language in its in- 
 fancy appears to have abounded in full and harsh tones and 
 in rough aspirates, which were gradually exchanged for softer 
 and more abbreviated forms during more advanced stages of 
 society. The conformity of these examples to this principle 
 will be obvious, especially when they are compared with the 
 instances of similar changes in the Manx and Irish, &c. 
 noticed at page 108, a comparison which must tend very 
 strongly to confirm the soundness of Dr. Lepsius's conclu- 
 sions. Since the recent origin of the Hebrew and Sanscrit 
 Language! and of the Hebrew and Indian nations have been 
 shown on the one hand, while on the other the identity of 
 the Egyptian with those tongues has also been established, it 
 follows that the origin of the Egyptian nation cannot be re- 
 ferred to a period anterior to that which our received systems 
 of chronology would lead us to adopt as the era of the sepa- 
 ration of nations. The harsh and full pronunciation which 
 seems to have characterized the most ancient specimens of 
 the Egyptian language tends strongly to support the same 
 conclusion. 
 
 In the previous pages a peculiarly primitive character has 
 been attributed to two ancient languages just adverted to, viz. 
 the Hebrew and the Sanscrit. Both these tongues, it has been 
 observed, display in a higher degree than any other the cha- 
 racteristic features of language near its source. As regards the 
 
132 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 former of these tongues, the Hebrew, there is an obvious reason 
 for the primitive forms of language it involves in the high 
 antiquity of a portion of its remains, viz. the first Books of 
 Scripture, which are more ancient by many centuries than 
 the poems of Homer, the most venerable literary remains of 
 Europe. It is a remarkable fact that there is every reason to 
 believe that the same explanation will be found to apply in 
 an equal degree to the Sanscrit. According to the opinions 
 of many of the most distinguished Orientalists, it would 
 appear that the earliest Vedas, the oldest mythological books 
 of the Indians, are not less ancient than the Pentateuch. 
 Sir William Jones, whose candour and love of truth were 
 not inferior to his accomplishments, concluded the Vedas to 
 have been written about J 500 years B.C. The soundness of 
 this opinion was at one time much questioned ; but it has 
 been confirmed by the sanction of some of the ablest of those 
 who, — with the advantage of more recently accumulated in- 
 formation, have in our time pursued the same path of inquiry 
 — in a manner that serves to place in a striking point of view 
 the vast knowledge and the bold and sagacious judgment of 
 its great author. Ritter, a distinguished German Orientalist, 
 concludes the Vedas to have been collected during the period 
 from 1400 to 1600, B.C.; and Mr. Colebrooke, whose 
 researches are of the highest value, appears to have shown 
 finally that the earliest Vedas were probably written about 
 1400 years B.C.* It is highly deserving of notice that these 
 various dates all fall about the time of the Exodus of the 
 Israelites from Egypt, 1490 B.C. 
 
 The account given in the Vedas of the early history of the 
 world coincides in its most important features with the Scrip- 
 tural relation in a manner not to be mistaken. Sir William 
 
 * See a short summary of Mr. Colebrooke's views in Dr. Prichard on Man. in 
 his observations on the Egyptians. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 133 
 
 Jones, struck with these features of resemblance, has inti- 
 mated an opinion that the Indian account of the Creation, of 
 the Deluge,* and other events may have been borrowed from 
 the Jewish nation.f It is remarkable that this opinion will 
 be found to involve a singular anachronism, if we adopt Sir 
 William Jones's own views with respect to the date of the 
 Yedas, viz. that they were written 1500 years B.C. This date 
 is ten years prior to the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, 
 an event from which their national existence and the compo- 
 sition of their earliest scriptures may be said to have com- 
 menced. 
 
 It is highly improbable in every point of view that the 
 Indians could have borrowed from the Jews some of the 
 most important doctrines of their religious belief. But the 
 coincidences noticed by Sir William Jones and other writers, 
 and tlie peculiarly vivid and distinct nature of the accounts 
 contained in the Yeclas, admit of a more simple and consistent 
 explanation. If, agreeably to the opinions of Mr. Colebrooke, 
 
 Mime these books to have been compiled about 1400 
 years B.C., it would follow that they embody a narrative much 
 nearer in point of date to the events they record than any 
 other, with the exception of the Pentateuch. 
 
 From the Deluge to 1400 B.C. there was a lapse of 948 
 
 only. Now we have satisfactory evidence that traditions 
 far less calculated to leave a lasting impression have been 
 
 vwd in many Instances among separate tribes with con- 
 siderable uniformity for a much longer period. Thus we 
 know that the Fairy Tales of the English and Germans, and 
 of the Welsh and Armoricans, agree in their main features, 
 though in both instances there has been a separation for an 
 interval of much greater duration. 
 
 • Sir William Jones on the Goda of Greece, Italy, and India. + Ibid. 
 
134 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 Traditions similar to those embodied in the Vedas occur 
 in the classical fable of Deucalion and Pyrrha, in the remains 
 of the Chaldeans, and of other primitive nations. It is only 
 in the Scriptural narrative that we meet with a relation of 
 the first incidents in the history of man unmingled with fables 
 derogatory to the attributes of his Creator. But though 
 clouded with mythological fictions, the remains of many 
 ancient nations impressively display a fresh and vivid remi- 
 niscence of the sublime events they record. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 135 
 
 Section II. 
 
 High Antiquity of the Egyptian Nation. Interesting Cha- 
 racter of Egyptian Remains. Extent of Egyptian Con- 
 quests. Tartars, Part hians, Turks, fyc. Figures of J ews 
 on Egyptian Monuments. Egyptian and Semetic Lan- 
 guages and Races connecting links between the Asiatic and 
 African Languages and Races. 
 
 The Egyptian annals of Manetho seem to convey the in- 
 ference that there must have been in Egypt a series of thirty 
 dynasties, whose reigns occupied a period of time reaching 
 far beyond the commencement of our received chronology. 
 It appears, however, that in the present age the most emi- 
 nent writers on the antiquities of Egypt are agreed in reject- 
 ing this conclusion. The long dynasties of these chronicles 
 are referred by some writers to repetition, by others to the 
 coexistence of distinct dynasties in different parts of Egypt. 
 
 But the same eminent writers who have agreed in repu- 
 diating the conclusion that seems to be conveyed by Manetho 
 may be said to be equally unanimous in referring the origin 
 of the Egyptians to a date which, tried by the standard of re- 
 ceived chronology, will be found to coincide with the very 
 first age in the history of nations. 
 
 " By a comparison of Manetho's work with the Theban 
 " table of Eratosthenes," observes Dr. Prichard,* "we find 
 "satisfactory data for fixing the origin of the Egyptian 
 "monarchy as deduced from these documents in the 24th 
 " century before our era." 
 
 Other eminent writers on this subject do not perfectly co- 
 incide with Dr. Prichard in adopting this precise date. But 
 
 • Prichard on Man, vol. ii. p. 199. 
 
136 
 
 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 they all fix on pretty nearly the same time, which, it will be 
 observed, is about the era of the Flood of Scripture, which 
 immediately preceded the diffusion of the human race. In 
 the annexed Table I have introduced a compendious statement 
 of the views of these writers, more especially of the author 
 of a work entitled ( A Monumental History of Egypt/ in a 
 form that will exhibit concurrently the principal Chronologi- 
 cal facts and the progress of Writing in Egypt. I may ob- 
 serve that Dr. Lepsius is of opinion that Hieroglyphics, which 
 is a mode of conveying ideas by representations of objects 
 without reference to their names, was the source, — (by means 
 of a gradual transition,) — of phonetic characters, which repre- 
 sented their names or words. 
 
 EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Doubtful Period, 
 The accession of Menai or 
 Menes, and earlier Egyptian 
 Kings.* 
 
 PROGRESS OF HIEROGLY- 
 PHICS AND WRITING. 
 
 First Pyramid built, ^ 
 it is supposed, B.C. / 
 
 2123 
 
 Historical. 
 Abraham visits Egypt . 1920 
 
 Osirtasen united Egypt -i 
 into one Monarchy J 
 
 Joseph in Egypt . . 1706 
 18th Dynasty . . 1575 
 
 No Hieroglyphics on this 
 Pyramid. 
 
 Hieroglyphics invented, 
 and gave rise to Phonetic 
 writing, between 2123 and 
 1740. 
 
 The name of Osirtasen, in 
 this reign the first known 
 specimen of Phonetic cha- 
 racters. {Monumental Hist.) 
 
 Age of MSS. (Dr. Lepsius.) 
 
 * Mr. Wilkinson refers the reign of Menes to -2320 b.c 
 
WITH THE INDIANS^ JEWS, ETC. 137 
 
 According to the author of the Monumental History, pre- 
 viously to the year 1740 B.C., the commencement of the reign 
 of Osirtasen, who is believed to have been the contemporary 
 and patron of Joseph, " we have little to guide us on the 
 u Monuments of ancient Egypt." According to the same 
 writer, he was the first who united Egypt into one kingdom, 
 that country, he maintains, having previously been divided 
 into little unimportant kingdoms. 
 
 The arguments of this able writer, however, do not impugn 
 the conclusion, that though the precise date may be uncertain, 
 the origin of the Egyptian nation must be referred to the first 
 ages of the human race. The condition of the Egyptians in 
 1740 n.c. implies a prior existence for many ages, of which 
 we have a distinct proof in the visit of (the Patriarch) Abraham 
 centuries previously. 
 1/ The marvellous discoveries made in our day by Champollion, 
 Belzoni, and others, may be said to have thrown a new r light 
 on the early history not only of Egypt but of the world ! 
 Proofs the most startling have been brought to light of the 
 vast political power and high civilization of the Egyptian 
 nation, combined with a knowledge of science in many branches 
 
 ircelj surpassed in the present and not equalled in the last 
 gem-ration of European nations ! In the Egyptian paintings 
 we have the most distinct portraits, representing not only 
 Negroes, Jews, and other neighbouring races, but also of 
 nations whose light complexions, peculiar physiognomy, and 
 equipments, combined as they sometimes are with delinea- 
 tions of the costumes or natural productions of the countries 
 of which they were natives, betoken the inhabitants of more / 
 northern latitudes, confirming the account of Tacitus, who 
 states " The Egyptians overran all Libya and Ethiopia, and 
 " subdued the Medes and Persians, the Bactrians and 
 " Scythians, with the extensive regions inhabited by the 
 
138 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 " Syrians, the Armenians, and the Cappadocians ; and by 
 " this conquest a tract of country extending from Bithynia 
 " on the Pontic Sea to the coast of Syria on the Mediterranean 
 ic was reduced to subjection." 
 
 The evidence seems to be clear that some of the nations 
 with whom the Egyptian armies fought, may be identified 
 with the principal Asiatic nations still inhabiting the borders 
 of the Caspian. 
 
 (i On six of the Phonetic Ovals (published by Champollion) 
 " are the names of the heads of the various countries con- 
 " quered by Sesostris. On one appears the generic name of 
 " the Scheti (spelt Sh . e . d . te) ; on the second, the generic 
 " name of the sons of Mosech or the Muscovites, spelt pre- 
 " cisely as in the Hebrew (M . s . ek) ; thirdly, the people of 
 " Arakan, spelt very nearly as that name is sounded (as, for 
 " example, Ar-rk-k-a-n) ; fourthly, the people of Casan (spelt 
 " C-a-s-n); the fifth is probably Susa, but the middle vowel is 
 " omitted, and it stands S-se."* 
 
 Casan is a Tartar province, conquered by Russia in the 
 16th century. 
 
 The Scheti, according to Champollion 's opinion, were the 
 Scythians of the classical nations, the modern Tartars.t 
 
 A conflict between the Egyptians and the Scheti or Scheta 
 forms the subject of one of the most interesting Egyptian 
 battle-pieces, which displays in a striking point of view the 
 high military discipline of the Egyptians. Mr. Wilkinson 
 describes the Scheti " as a nation who had made considerable 
 " progress in military tactics, both with respect to manoeuvres 
 " in the field and the art of fortifying towns, some of which 
 
 * Foreign Quarterly, 1836. I conceive, however, that the conclusion of the 
 ingenious reviewer as to the identity ofM.s.e.k with the name of the Musco- 
 vites, may require reconsideration. See Adelung on the Russians, and Vol. I. 
 p. 314. 
 
 t Adelung. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 139 
 
 " they surrounded with a double fosse. It is worthy of re- 
 u mark, that in these cases the approach to the place led over 
 " a bridge ; and the sculptures acquainting us with the fact 
 u are highly interesting, as they offer us the earliest indication 
 u of its use, having been executed in the reign of the great 
 " Ramesis, about 1350 years before our era/' 
 
 ***** 
 
 " Their arms were the bow, sword, and spear, and a wicker 
 
 shield." 
 
 ***** 
 
 " They had some cavalry, but large masses of infantry with 
 "a formidable body of chariots, constituted the principal 
 " force of their numerous and well-appointed army ; and if 
 " from the manner in which they posted their corps-de-reserve 
 '* \\( may infer them to have been a people skilled in war, 
 " some idea may also be formed of the strength of their army 
 "from the numbers composing that division, which amounted 
 *' to J4,000 men, drawn up in three close phalanxes, con- 
 sisting each of 8,000." 
 
 Mr. Wilkinson notices three other nations among those 
 who were connected with the Egyptians either as enemies 
 or allies, viz. 4 The Rebo,' ' The Shairetana/ and 'The 
 Tok-kari.' 
 
 The Rebo were among the most formidable enemies of the 
 Egyptians. They were distinguished by a light complexion, 
 blue eyes, an aquiline nose, and a costume very like that of 
 Persia or Parthia, indicating a northern as well as an 
 Asiatic country ; they wore earrings, and their chiefs some- 
 times tattoed their arms and legs; they appear as the type 
 of Asia in some of the Egyptian drawings. Their chief 
 weapons were a long straight sword, with a sharp point, and 
 a bow. Chainpollion concluded the Rebo to have been the 
 Parthians. 
 
140 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 Mr. Wilkinson expresses himself unable to trace the 
 Shairetana and the Tok-kari ; I conceive, however, that their 
 names and other circumstances serve to identify them with 
 the Sogdians or Bucharians and the Turks, whose territories 
 are intermingled. The name of the Tok-kari obviously re- 
 sembles that of the Turks, and, according to Adelung, the 
 Bucharians, from their dwelling in Towns, &c, are called 
 Sarti, a name resembling that of the Shairetana. The 
 Shairetana and Tok-kari revolted together against the 
 Egyptians, and were again subdued. The Tok-kari used 
 waggons with two solid wheels, and drawn by two oxen, 
 which appear to have been placed in the rear as in the 
 Sc} r thian or Tartar armies. Their women are seen carrying 
 off their children by drawing them into these waggons at the 
 moment of defeat. These are traits characteristic of the 
 Tartar race, of which the Turks are a branch. These nations 
 were occasionally allied with the Egyptians both against the 
 Scheti and the Rebo, which implies that their country was in- 
 termediate between that of the Parthians and the Tartars. 
 
 The Egyptian illustrations of Scriptural incidents and lo- 
 calities are of the highest interest : 
 
 Champollion found a portrait of a Hebrew, with all the 
 features of the race, in a group consisting of the chiefs of 
 thirty conquered nations, whom an Egyptian King is de- 
 picted dragging to the feet of the Theban Trinity. The 
 name of the Egyptian King was phonetically written 
 1 Shishak/ the name of the Jewish captive was written 
 ' Joudaha Melek,' King of Judea or the Jews. (See I. Kings, 
 14 chap. '2q and 26 v.) This picture, as Mr. Tattam* ob- 
 serves, may be considered as a commentary on this chapter ! 
 
 Portraits of Jews are frequent amongst the Egyptian re- 
 
 * Tattam's Egyptian Grammar. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 141 
 
 mains. "The costume of these Jews is always the same. 
 " They wear their black bushy hair occasionally bound by a 
 "red fillet; but sometimes they wear hats not unlike the 
 "hats dramatically assigned to the Jews of the dark ages. 
 "They wear sandals, the military petticoat or philibeg, a 
 " baldric crossing one shoulder, a girdle, to which is attached 
 " a short sword or dagger, and when engaged in warlike ope- 
 " rations, having the upper part of the body covered with a 
 " defensive coat, either of leather or armour, and wearing 
 "'above the whole a tippet like the cape of a great coat. In- 
 dependent of Phonetic language a mere glance at their 
 '• lineaments shows that they are Jews!"* 
 
 The early development of the vast political power and high 
 civilization of this extraordinary people corroborates the con- 
 clusion, that the origin of the Egyptian nation must be re- 
 ferred to a period sufficiently remote to render it extremely 
 improbable that a close specific resemblance should have con- 
 tinued to exist between their language and those of the 
 countries from which the first population of Egypt may have 
 emigrated. Tin- inference does not militate against the sup- 
 position that Egypt may have been first colonized from the 
 contiguous Semetic or Syro Phoenician regions of Judaea and 
 Arabia.f 
 
 The literature of ancient Egypt forms a treasure as yet 
 but imperfectly explored. * We possess," says Dr. Lepsius, 
 i( Hieratic MSS. as far back as the flourishing epoch of the 
 * eighteenth dynasty, (which began to reign B.C. 1575, i.e. 
 " eighty years before the departure of the Israelites,) and it 
 u is probable that this style was in use even earlier. We 
 
 • Foreign Quarterly Review. 
 
 + There Is an able pamphlet by Dr. Lbewe, in which he maintains the Hebrew 
 to be the Parent ol the Egyptian. Dr. Lbewe's examples appear to me to be 
 equally conclusive against the specific connexion he advocates, and in support of 
 the original unity of these tongues at a remote era. 
 
142 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 " have MSS. on History, Astrology, Magic, ' Registres de 
 " Compt abilities' and especially a great quantity of MSS. on 
 " Funeral matters/ 5 
 
 These remains are probably pregnant with information of 
 the profoundest interest with regard to the early history of 
 mankind ! Further inquiries similar to those conducted by 
 Dr. Lepsius with respect to the phases through which the 
 Egyptian Tongue has passed, will probably bring to light 
 numerous proofs of an increasing approximation in its most 
 ancient specimens to the languages of Asia and also to 
 those of the other regions of the continent of Africa. Even 
 in the present state of our knowledge, I may point out that 
 indications are not altogether wanting that the Hebrew and 
 other Semetic Tongues in some respects appear to form a 
 connecting link between the Egyptian and other African 
 languages, on the one hand, and the Sanscrit and other lan- 
 guages, termed Indo-European, on the other. These indica- 
 tions occur not in the words but in the structure of the 
 Semetic Tongues. 
 
 In explaining the origin of language, I have noticed that 
 the basis or Root of the Noun and Verb is the same, while 
 the requisite distinction between the different parts of speech 
 is made by appropriate additions, as in the instance of the 
 syllable Er, in Build-er. 
 
 It may be inferred that all additions now employed gram- 
 matically as prefixes or suffixes were in the first instance 
 used indifferently either before or after the Root. But we 
 find, in this respect, a marked difference between the Indo- 
 European and the Egyptian Tongues. In the former, these 
 grammatical agents are almost invariably placed after, while 
 in the Egyptian they in some instances follow, and in others 
 precede the Root. It will be evident, however, that these 
 grammatical forms themselves are, in numerous important 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 143 
 
 instances, the same in these two Classes of Tongues, and that 
 it is only the order in which they are placed that is different. 
 Thus, in forming the feminine from the masculine, the 
 Egyptians used a prefix, Th, which forms a suffix in the 
 Welsh, as in Son,* c A Brother,' Th-son, < A Sister,' {Egypt.) 
 Gen-eth, c A Girl/ ( Welsh.) Again, the Egyptian plural is 
 formed by prefixing N, as in Phe, Heaven, singular; N Pheou, 
 Heavens, plural, {Egypt.,) while in many of the Indo- 
 European tongues plurals are often formed by subjoining N, 
 as in Ox, Ox-en (Eng.), Ych, Ych-en (Welsh), &c. 
 
 Now in the Hebrew, Chaldee, &c, though suffixes are em- 
 ployed in numerous instances, formative prefixes are also 
 used, though not so generally as in the Egyptian, between 
 which language and the Indo-European tongues the Semetic 
 languages therefore occupy, in this respect, an intermediate 
 place. 
 
 There is, I conceive, pretty distinct evidence that these 
 characteristic peculiarities of the three classes of Tongues 
 just adverted to are results of comparatively recent conven- 
 tional changes. For a proof that the above noticed formative 
 of the plural was at one time prefixed, as well as affixed, in 
 the Indo-European Tongues, — see, as regards the Sanscrit, 
 the word Nara, corresponding with the Egyptian, p. 129; — 
 as regards the Welsh, see Appendix A, p. 38. On the other 
 hand, Dr. Lepsius^s researches have furnished me with a 
 decisive example of an approximation in the ancient Egyptian 
 to the Indo-European method. "In the age of Hieroglyphics/' 
 he observes, " the feminine termination Th," above noticed, 
 " always follows, while in Coptic it always precedes the 
 " Noun." 
 
 Changes of this nature may be considered trifling in them- 
 
 * Compare Sohn (German), Son (English). 
 
144 IDENTITY OF THE EGYPTIANS 
 
 selves ; but they will be found to afford an explanation, at 
 once simple and comprehensive, of the most striking of those 
 features which separate, by differences supposed to be funda- 
 mental, the languages of the Egyptian and Syro-Phcenician 
 races from those of the other families of mankind. In gram- 
 matical arrangement the African languages are supposed for 
 the most part to agree with the Egyptian.* 
 
 In physiological characteristics it has been very distinctly 
 established, by the interesting researches of Dr. Prichard, 
 that the Egyptian or Coptic race forms a connecting link 
 between the contiguous Asiatic nations and the Negroes of 
 the interior of Africa. It is worthy of remark, that Vater f 
 notices the projection of the nether jaw, f Unterkiefer,' as a 
 characteristic trait of the Jewish nation ! It is observable 
 that this is a point of approximation to the African nations ! 
 
 " If we may form an idea," says Dr. Prichard, u of the 
 " complexion of the Egyptians from the numerous paintings 
 " found in their temples, and in splendidly decorated tombs, 
 " in some of which the colours are known to be preserved in 
 " a very fresh state, we must conclude that this people were 
 " of a red-copper, or light chocolate colour, and that they 
 " resembled the reddest of the Fiilah and Kafir tribes now 
 " existing in Africa. This colour may be seen in the nu- 
 " merous plates in the ' Description de FEgypte/ and in the 
 " coloured figures given by Belzoni. A similar complexion 
 " is represented on the heads of the cases made of the 
 " sycamore-wood, which answer the purpose of sarcophagi, 
 " and in almost all Egyptian figures. This red colour is 
 " evidently intended to represent the complexion of the 
 " people, and is not put on in the want of a lighter paint, or 
 " flesh-colour, for when the limbs or bodies are represented 
 
 • See Dr. Prichard on Man. + Mithridates, under Africa. 
 
WITH THE INDIANS, JEWS, ETC. 145 
 
 " as seen through a thin veil, the tint used resembles the 
 " complexion of Europeans. The same shade might have 
 " been generally adopted if a darker one had not been pre- 
 " ferred, as more truly representing the national ccmplexion 
 " of the Egyptian race.* Female figures are sometimes dis- 
 " tinguished by a yellow or tawny colour." 
 
 " Speaking of the Copts, Volney says that they have a yel- 
 " lowish, dusky complexion, neither resembling the Grecian 
 " nor Arabian. He adds, that they have a puffed visage, 
 " stvoln eyes, fiat nose, and thick lips, and bear much resem- 
 u blance to Mulattoes. I have already cited Baron Larrey^s 
 description of the Copts, the principal traits of which are, 
 " a full countenance, a long aperture of the eyelids — f coupes 
 " en amand,' — projecting cheek-bones, dilated nostrils, thick 
 u lips, and hair and beard black and crisp. M. Pugnet, an 
 " intelligent physician and an ingenious and discriminating 
 u writer, has made an attempt to distinguish the Copts, or 
 " Qoubtes, as he terms them, into two divisions, those whose 
 M ancestry has been intermixed, and partly of Greek and 
 " Latin descent, and a class of purely Egyptian origin. He 
 " says that nothing is more striking than the contrast between 
 * the small and meagre Arabs and the large and fine stature 
 " of the Qoubtes. ' A l'exterieur chetif et miserable des pre- 
 " mieres, ceux-ci opposent un air de majeste et de puissance; 
 u a la rudesse de leurs traits, une affabilite soutenue ; a leur 
 " abord inquiet et soucieux, une figure tres epanouie/ " + 
 
 A few further examples of the connexion of the Egyptian 
 with other languages are subjoined. Onh, 'A Dwelling,' 
 [Egypt.,) Wohn-ung, Wohn-en {German), Onh, e To live/ 
 (Eg.,) On (Greek.)— Shage, c A Word, a Discourse,' (Eg.,) 
 
 • See Belzoni's Travels, p. 239. t Prichard on Man. 
 
 10 
 
146 IDENTITY OF EGYPTIANS WITH INDIANS, ETC. 
 
 Sage, Sag-en [German), Say {English). The e Sagas' of the 
 Gothic nations are venerable Oral traditions ! — Hinim, ' Sleep, ' 
 (-Eg.,) Heen (Welsh.) — Eshau, 6 A Sow, or Swine/ (Eg.,) 
 Hus (Greek), Sow (Etig.) — Iri, 'To do/ (Eg.,) a formative 
 expressive of Action ; Aud-ire, 'To hear/ Ire, f To go/ (Lat.) 
 -Ra.ma, 'Lofty/ (Eg.,) R.ou.m (Hebrew.)— Phath, 'Foot/ 
 (Eg.,) Pes, Ped-is (Lat.), Path (E?ig.)— E h e, 'An Ox/ 
 Eheou, 'Oxen/ (Eg.,) Ych, Ych-en ( Welsh.)— Ma, < A Place/ 
 (Eg.,) Ma (Welsh.) 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 <)\ THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 High Antiquity of the Chinese Empire and Remains discredited 
 by Sir William Jones and Adelung. But the Differences 
 between the Chinese Language and those of Western Asia 
 more ancient than the peculiarities which distinguish the 
 frican Langu m those of Europe and Western 
 
 Asia. These Differences not fundamental. Identity of 
 the ( 'hine.se with the Hebrew and with the English and 
 Other European Languages, fyc. 
 
 Adelung, liko Sir William Jones before him, quite dis- 
 credits the supposed antiquity of the Chinese Empire and 
 the claims set up by the Chinese to a high and ancient civili- 
 zation. The Great Wall, said by their historians to have 
 been built 240 years B.C., is not mentioned by early writers, 
 especially Marco Polo, who visited China from the West 
 in 1270. He regards the scientific knowledge of the Chinese 
 as inferior to that of several adjoining nations, and Confucius's 
 morality as nothing better than a medley of sound opinions, 
 such as any man of strong sense might have compiled ! The 
 materials of their paper are so frail that it is impossible any 
 of their MSS. can be very ancient, and in the fidelity or 
 
148 THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 knowledge of their Transcribers he places no confidence ! 
 Finally, he views the infantine character of their language, a 
 feature in which the Chinese are inferior to the wildest 
 American tribes, as forming in itself a proof of the absence 
 of a high culture, to which, he maintains, it constitutes an 
 almost insuperable obstacle. 
 
 On the other hand, unfavorable as its characteristics are to 
 the supposed antiquity and extent of their civilization, he 
 nevertheless considers these very peculiarities of their lan- 
 guage in the light of decisive proofs of the high antiquity of 
 the Chinese nation, viewed simply as a distinct branch of the 
 human race. 
 
 In the last chapter were discussed the peculiarities of 
 structure which distinguish the Egyptian and Semetic 
 tongues from those of the Indo-European class ; peculiarities 
 which were shown to consist, not in a fundamental difference 
 of elements, but simply in various conventional arrangements 
 of the same elements. This explanation will now be proved 
 to apply also to the characteristics which distinguish the 
 Chinese from the principal Asiatic and European languages, 
 with this qualification however, that these characteristics, as 
 contrasted with those of other classes of tongues, imply a 
 separation from a parent stock at a much earlier era in the 
 history of the human species than those which have been 
 noticed in the last chapter, as distinguishing the Indo- 
 European, Semetic, and Egyptian languages respectively. 
 
 According to Adelung^s lucid analysis, the following are 
 the principal steps by which language is formed. 1. The 
 first words are vowels, or sounds produced simply by the 
 opening of the mouth and the emission of the breath. 
 2. Next in order are monosyllables, consisting of a vowel 
 and a consonant preceding, as in P-a. 3. Arise mono- 
 syllables, formed of a vowel between two or more consonants. 
 
 
THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 149 
 
 as in P-a-p. 4. Lastly are constructed polysyllabic words, 
 formed by a combination into one word of two or more of the 
 monosyllabic terms. 
 
 The African, American,* European, and all the Asiatic 
 languages, with the exception of those spoken in China and 
 the contiguous countries of the south-west of Asia, display a 
 consummation of all these four stages. The Chinese exhibits 
 results of the first and second steps of the series only. In 
 other words, the Chinese may be described not simply as a 
 language purely monosyllabic, but as one in which the 
 monosyllables are of the most elementary and infantine cha- 
 racter, viz., those winch consist of one consonant and a vowel 
 (as in Pa). They have no words which have a second con- 
 sonant, as in P-A-P. 
 
 Having no polysyllables, the Chinese supply their place 
 by a minute variety in their vowel sounds. They have no 
 grammar :f the same word is at once an adjective, a sub- 
 stantive, and a verb ! Affixes and suffixes, such as occur in 
 iri\ c\ giv-er, gif-t, are unknown. The modifications of mean- 
 ing these forms convey are expressed either by altering the 
 position of the words or by additional terms. The plural is 
 the same as the singular ; though, to avoid obscurity, in 
 extreme cases the clumsy expedient of repetition is resorted 
 to, as in Tschin-tschin, ' Man-man ' (i. e. Men) ; or distinct 
 words indicative of number are prefixed, such as Muen, 
 'Many/ Tschung, ' All P 
 
 It was the opinion of Adelung that the Chinese language 
 differed not merely in its structure, but in its elements, from 
 the other languages of the human race. He supposed this 
 nation to have sprung from the same stock as those of wes- 
 
 • The African languages (as far as they are known to us), and the American, 
 
 irding to l)u Ponceau, are all polysyllabic. 
 + To (hi< rule, however, pronouns are an exception. 
 
150 THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 tern Asia. But their speech he conceives to have been 
 constructed after the separation. 
 
 The peculiar monosyllabic structure of the Chinese seems 
 to justify the conclusion, that the nations of Europe and 
 western Asia are more nearly allied in descent to the Negro 
 tribes of the interior of Africa and to the Indian tribes of 
 America than they are to the Chinese and the nations of the 
 contiguous countries of the south-west of Asia. But that 
 Adelung's conclusion, that the Chinese is a radically distinct 
 tongue is an erroneous one will now be shown by examples, 
 to which the peculiar structure of that language will only 
 serve to give additional* force ; for while in most of the 
 following examples the words compared are essentially the 
 same, the Chinese monosyllables being identical with Hebrew 
 or European monosyllables, or with terms which partake of 
 that character, in other instances it will be found that the 
 differences which occur have been caused solely by the 
 addition of the characteristic suffixes and affixes of the poly- 
 syllabic languages, which are not used in the Chinese ! Thus 
 we have Mu, 'A Mouse/ (Chin.,) Mu-s, Mu-os, Mu (Greek), 
 the root in the latter being the same as in the former ; Fo 
 and Foo Tsin, 'A Fa-ther,' (Chin.,) Moo and Moo Tsin, 
 'A Mo-ther/ (CAm.) 
 
 I shall commence these examples with the Chinese pro- 
 nouns, most of which are absolutely identical with those of 
 the polysyllabic languages. This branch of the comparison 
 will serve to place in a striking point of view the erroneous 
 nature of the opinion generally received among philologists, 
 that nations which agree are necessarily more nearly allied than 
 those which differf in their grammatical forms, the Chinese 
 being found in this respect to agree in an unequivocal man- 
 
 * Numerous examples also occur 'in Appendix A. 
 
 t Caeteris paribus, this is a correct view ; but not where grammatical resem- 
 blances are treated as more important evidence than other resemblances. 
 
THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 151 
 
 ner with the kindred English and German, in some of those 
 very points in which they mutually diner widely ! 
 
 Pronouns of the First Person, { I' and ' We. 5 — Ngan, 
 Ngoo Ngo, 'I' and ' We,' {Chinese.) I6nga, Egon, 'I,' 
 {Greek.) 
 
 Pronouns of the Second Person, ' Thou' and ' Ye.' — Irr, 
 'Thou' and 'Ye/ (Chinese.) Ihr, 'Ye,' {German.) Yu, 
 Yuh, 'Thou' and 'Ye,' {Chinese.) You, 'Ye,' {English.) 
 Yd {Provincial English). Eoh [Anglo-Saxon), 'Ye.' Nee, 
 Nai, Nyu, 'Thou' and 'Ye,' (Chinese.) Ne, 'You, 5 
 [Mandans, a North American Tribe.) 
 
 In these instances the English 'You' and the German 
 ' Ihr ' differ totally. Moreover, in each language separately 
 considered the plural differs altogether from the singular, 
 which id German is expressed by ' Du,' and in the English 
 hv • Thou.' The Chinese, which uses these terms, 'Ihr' and 
 *You,' conjointly and in both numbers, furnishes a satisfactory 
 clue to these anomalies ! 
 
 Pronouns of the Third Person.— E . e, 'He,' 'She,' 'It,' 
 
 (( 'hinese.) E . ee . a, E . v . e, {Hebrew.) He, masculine, 
 
 {English.) He, feminine, ( Welsh.)— Pee, 'He,' 'She,' 'It,' 
 
 That,' {Chinese.) Phe, Ph, 'This,' 'That,' {Hebrew.) 
 
 Pha or Pe, the article 'The,' {Egypt.) 
 
 Specimens of Chinese Words, identical with equivalent Terms 
 in the Languages of Europe and Western Asia, fyc. 
 
 Keuen. 'A Dog,' {Chinese), Ku6n {Greek), Coun (Plural, 
 
 Welsh), Can-is {Latin). — Ma, ' A Horse,' ( Chinese), Morin 
 
 Mantschu), Ma-hre {German), Ma-re {English), Ma-rch 
 
 Welsh.) — Mu, ' A Mouse,' {Chinese), Mu-s, Mu-os Mu 
 
152 THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 (Greek) , Mu-s (Latin.) — Lung,* ' A Wolf,' (Chinese), Lukon 
 (Greek), Lloun-og, 'A Fox/ ( Welsh.) — Ioang, long, Io, 
 'A Sheep/ (Chinese), Oin ( Greek), Oen, < A Lamb/ (TTeM), 
 Oi, Ai, Yi (Irish.) 
 
 Foo <A Father/ Moo 'A Mother/ also Fo6 Tsin <A 
 Father/ and Moo Tsin ( A Mother/ Tsin means ' A Re- 
 lation/ (Chinese.) The equivalent terms in the English and 
 other Gothic dialects consist of the Chinese root, and a 
 distinct suffix (answering the purpose of the separate Chinese 
 word Tsin.) Fa-der (Anglo-Saxon), Fa-ther (English), 
 Fa-ter (German), Mo-ther, (English), Mua-ter (Old high 
 German.)f 
 
 Nan and Yin, 'A Man/ (Chinese.) Ninetz, ■ Men/ then- 
 national name, (Samoieds.) Ninnee Inin, s A Man,' (Algon- 
 quyn Dialects of N. America.) 
 
 Nan 'A Son/ (Chinese,) N.n [Parturio] (Heb.) — Neang, 
 ' A young Lady/ {Chinese,) Non ( Mantschu,) Nonn-us {Lat.,) 
 Nun, « Tender/ (Chinese.) — Nyu, ' A Daughter/ (Chinese,) 
 Nea, Feminine, c Young/ [Juvenis] {Greek,) New (Eng.) — 
 Chan, ( To produce, bear/ (Chinese,) Gen-i (Welsh,) Genn-ao 
 (Greek.) — Chuen, e A Boat, or Ship/ (Chinese,) Kahn (Ger.,) 
 Cymba (Latin,) Kumbi (Greek.) 
 
 Chuy, < To blow, The Breath/ (Chinese,) Chwa (Welsh.) 
 — Fe, 'Fat/ (Chinese), Fe-tt (German,) Fa-t (English.)— Ho, 
 'Fire/ (Chinese,) Ho-t (English.) These words Ho-t and 
 Fe-tt seem to have been regularly formed as past participles 
 from Ho and Fe, the roots preserved in the Chinese. — Hoo, 
 
 * The occurrence of nasal sounds at the end of words, as in this instance, form 
 an apparent exception to the principle that Chinese words consist simply of one 
 consonant followed by a vowel. But these nasals Adelung states to be mere 
 evanescent intonations. 
 
 t Adelung, notwithstanding his opinion that the Chinese is a perfectly dis- 
 tinct language, was struck with the analogy between 'Foo Tsin,' and -Moo 
 Tsin/ and ' Fa-ther' and « Mo-ther.' 
 
THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 153 
 
 'To escort/ [Chinese,) Hii-ten (Ger.) — Fan, 'To subvert, 
 Contrary/ [Chinese,) Ph.n.e, [To turn, turn out] [Hebrew,) 
 Fun, 'To divide,' [Chinese,) Fun do, Fin do [Latin.) — Gan, 
 'Favor/ [Chinese,) Gbnn-en, Gun-st [German,) Gynn a 
 [Swedish,) c'H . n [Hebrew.) — Gaou, 'Proud/ [Chinese,) 
 Ga, Ga . ou . e, Ga . ee . oun [Hebrew,) Gang ' Lofty/ Ge 
 'The Forehead/ Ke 'To rise/ Ka.ou 'High/ [Chinese,) 
 Ga* e, 'To rise, [Heb.) — Kang, 'More/ [Chinese,) Chwaneg 
 (Welsh.) — Hae, 'A large River, The Sea/ [Chinese,) Aa 
 (Icelandic,) Eia (Ang.-Sax.,) Wy ( Welsh.) — Heuen, 'To 
 explain/ Heaou 'To understand,' Heo 'To learn/ [Chinese,) 
 c'Hou . e 'To show, explain, declare, [Hebrew,) He-ar (Eng.) 
 — Hw6, ' Living/ [Chinese,) c'Hee . a, E . ou . e [Hebrew.) — 
 Kwae, 'Prompt, active/ (Chinese,) Chwae (Welsh.) — Kia 
 'A Family/ Kiwo 'A Nation/ (Chinese,) Kiw (Welsh,) 
 Goxi.e (Heb.) — Keen, 'To see/* (Chinese), Ken (English,) 
 Kee, 'And/ (Chinese,) Kai (Greek and Algonquyn Tribes of 
 V America,) King 'To respect/ (Chinese,) Kun-eo (Greek,) 
 Kwan, 'Fatigued,' (Chin.,) Gwan (Welsh.) — Laou, 'Labour/ 
 (Chinese,) La . e (Hebrew), La-bor (Latin.) — Mae, 'To buy/ 
 (Chinese,) Emo (Latin.) — Lo, 'Green/ (Chinese,) L . c'he, 
 (Hebreiv.) — Leo, ' Small/ Lu, (Irish,) Low (English.) — 
 Miu'ii, 'Many/ (Chinese,) Many (English.) — Yaou Yo, 'To 
 will, desire/ (Chinese,) Aeo (Greek,) Aveo (Lat.) — Meen, 'To 
 dispose/ (Chinese,) M . n . e (Hebrew.) — Mien, 'The Face/ 
 (Chinese,) Mine (French,) Mien (English.) — Pew, 'Spotted 
 Tiger/ (Chinese,) Pie [Colour] (English,) Pei, ' To receive/ 
 (Chinese,) Piai, 'To possess/ ( Welsh.)— Pin, * Poor/ Penu- 
 ria (Latin.) — Sae, 'To agitate/ (Chinese,) Sway (English.)— 
 Saou, 'A Brush/ (Chinese,) Shoue, 'To rub/ (Hebrew.)— 
 Seun, 'To inspect/ (Chinese,) Sehen (German.) — Sha, 'To 
 
 • It is observable, that as in the above instances of Heuen and Keen, the 
 Chinese verbs very commonly terminate in a nasal n, as do those of the Persian 
 aiui Teutonic. 
 
154 THE CHINESE LANGUAGE. 
 
 kill/ {Chinese,) Sha . e {Hebrew.) — Shen, 'Good, Pious/ 
 {Chinese,) Sanctus {Latin,) Shin, 'A Spirit, God,' {Chinese.) 
 — Shing, 'To ascend/ {Chinese,) Scan-deo {Latin.) — Shwa, 
 'To sport, Play/ {Chinese,) Sho sho {Hebrew,) Soo, 'To 
 number/ {Chinese,) Shoue {Hebrew.) — Sung, 'To present to/ 
 {Chinese,) Schenk-en {German.) — Sing, 'A Star/ {Chinese,) 
 Schein-en, 'To shine/ {German,) Sun {English.) — Yun, 
 'Fog, Cloud/ Ying, 'Shadow/ Wan, 'Evening/ {Chinese,) 
 On . n, ' A Cloud, To cloud over/ {Hebrew.) — Wang, ' To 
 hope/ {Chinese,) Chwannawg, 'Desirous/ {Welsh.) — We, 
 'Taste/ {Chinese,) Chwae-th {Welsh.) 
 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 Identity of the American Tribes with the Nations of the other 
 Continents* High Mental and Moral qualities of the 
 North American Indians. Views of Cooper, Du Ponceau, 
 and Catlin. Clear nature of the proofs derivable from 
 Language of the Identity of the N. A. Indians with the 
 European and Asiatic Nations. Catlin s views as to the 
 Idcntiti/ of the Mandans, a Tribe of N. A. Indians, with 
 the Welsh. Union in the Dialects of the N. A. Indians, 
 oj Grreek, and other Indo-European and Tartar Inflections, 
 with the Pronouns of the Hebrew and the Welsh. Close 
 Approximation of these Dialects to the Greek and other 
 European Tongues, and to the Languages of the North 
 of Europe and Asia. 
 
 That the Tribes of the American Continent are descended 
 from the same stock as the Asiatic and European nations is 
 a proposition with respect to which the evidence contained 
 in Appendix: A must, I conceive, be felt to be conclusive when 
 combined with Dr. Prichard's proofs that the Physiology of 
 the Human race in different countries is the result of climate 
 and other external agencies. As regards the mental and 
 moral qualities of the native American nations, there seems 
 to be no solid ground for the inference maintained in some 
 
156 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 quarters that they are a different, because in these respects 
 an inferior, race. It is impossible to peruse Mr. Catlin's 
 living picture of the manners and social habits of the North 
 American Indians without being deeply impressed with the 
 conviction that these Tribes, both intellectually and morally, 
 are as highly gifted by nature as those nations who have in- 
 herited the blessings of a refined civilization. That the same 
 remark applies to the more Southern American populations, 
 such as the Mexicans and Peruvians, may be shown by an 
 appeal to numerous considerations. In this place, however, 
 I shall confine my observations to the Septs generally termed 
 North American Indians, the original inhabitants of the 
 United States and the regions in the same latitude. This 
 race of men has been thus described in a celebrated work of 
 fiction, which owes its chief interest to the vivid portraiture 
 it exhibits of Indian life and manners.* 
 
 "It is generally believed that the Aborigines of the 
 " American continent have had an Asiatic origin. There are 
 " many physical as well as moral facts which corroborate this 
 " opinion, and some few that would seem to weigh against it. 
 
 " The colour of the Indian, the writer believes, is peculiar 
 " to himself, and while his cheek-bones have a very striking 
 "indication of a Tartar origin, his eyes have not. Climate 
 " may have had great influence on the former, but it is diffi- 
 " cult to see how it can have produced the substantial dif- 
 ference which exists in the latter. The imagery of the 
 " Indian, both in his poetry and his oratory, is Oriental, 
 K chastened, and perhaps improved, by the limited range of 
 " his practical knowledge. He draws his metaphors from 
 " the clouds, the seasons, the birds, the beasts, and the vege- 
 " table world. In this, perhaps, he does no more than any 
 " other energetic and imaginative race would do, being com- 
 
 * Cooped Last of the Mohicans. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 157 
 
 " pelled to set bounds to his fancy by experience ; but the 
 " North American Indian clothes his ideas in a dress that is 
 u so different from that of the African for instance, and so 
 " Oriental in itself as to be remarked. His language, too, 
 " has the richness and sententious fulness of the Chinese. 
 " He will express a phrase in a word, and he will qualify the 
 " meaning of an entire sentence by a syllable ; he will even 
 u convey different significations by the simplest inflections of 
 " the voice. 
 
 " Philologists who have devoted much time to the study, 
 " have said that there were but two or three languages, pro- 
 " perly speaking, among all the numerous tribes which for- 
 " merly occupied the country that now composes the United 
 " States. They ascribe the known difficulty one people have 
 " in understanding one another to corruptions and dialects. 
 
 u The writer remembers to have been present at an inter- 
 " view between two chiefs of the Great Prairies west of the 
 " Mississippi, and when an interpreter was in attendance 
 u who spoke both their languages. The warriors appeared 
 " to be on the most friendly terms, and seemingly conversed 
 " much together, yet, according to the account of the inter- 
 " preter, each was absolutely ignorant of what the other said. 
 " They were of hostile tribes, brought together by the influ- 
 u ence of the American Government ; and it is worthy of re- 
 " mark that a common policy led them both to adopt the 
 u same subject. They mutually exhorted each other to be of 
 " use in the event of the chance of war throwing either of the 
 u parties into the hands of his enemies. Whatever may be 
 u the truth, as respects the root and the genius of the Indian 
 u tongues, it is quite certain they are now so distinct in their 
 " words as to possess most of the disadvantages of strange 
 " languages ; hence much of the embarrassment that has 
 " arisen in learning their histories, and most of the uncer- 
 tainty which exists in their traditions." 
 
158 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 The traits of character embodied in this passage are not 
 those of an inferior, but of a highly acute and imaginative 
 race! 
 
 The Philological objections to the proposition that the 
 North American Tribes are of Asiatic origin have by many 
 writers been regarded as insuperable. Du Ponceau, who has 
 given profound attention to the subject, dwells, 1, On the dif- 
 ferences in words among the American languages themselves ; 
 2, On the failure which he imputes to those writers who have 
 attempted to identify the Indians with some one individual 
 Asiatic nation, as the Chinese, the Tartars, or the Jews, &c. ; 
 and 3, On the differences in the Grammars of the North 
 American dialects and those of the languages of the Old 
 World, which he treats as a conclusive refutation of all argu- 
 ments in favour of original unity ! Mr. Catlin also lays 
 great stress on the first of these considerations, viz. the great 
 differences he found in the words of the dialects of the Tribes 
 he visited. 
 
 To every one of these objections the general principles de- 
 veloped in the previous pages will be found to involve a 
 complete answer. 1 . The differences apparently fundamental 
 in the words of American languages may be accounted for in 
 the same manner as similar differences in the languages of 
 the old world (the Gothic and Celtic for example,) have 
 already been explained, viz. by the tendency to abandon dif- 
 ferent synonymes. 2. That attempts to prove a close specific 
 relation between the North American dialects and any one 
 Asiatic language, such as the Chinese or the Hebrew, should 
 have failed, was to be expected as a consequence of the same 
 tendency. 3. Finally, differences of Grammar have been 
 shown to be fallacious evidence viewed separately and without 
 due regard to other features of language.* Moreover, it will 
 
 * See chapter on the Chinese. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 159 
 
 presently appear clearly that, even as regards the Grammar 
 of the Indian Dialects, Du Ponceau's impressions can be 
 distinctly proved to be erroneous, an extended comparison 
 serving to render manifest the interesting fact that, as re- 
 spects the elements of Grammar, these dialects perfectly agree 
 with the Asiatic and European languages, while in the 
 mode of combining those elements, they do not differ from 
 those languages more widely than the latter differ among 
 themselves. 
 
 If the ancestors of the American Indians emigrated at a 
 remote period from the opposite Asiatic Coasts, we have no 
 right to anticipate in their dialects a complete conformity to 
 any one language of the old world, but general and varying 
 features of resemblance to several. The kindred dialects of 
 the same Continent after the lapse of a considerable time do 
 not exhibit any other kind of resemblance ! Now this is the 
 species of relation which the North American Indian dialects 
 actually display when compared to the Languages of the Old 
 World! 
 
 The chief examples which I have selected as illustrations 
 of this proposition have been taken from the Algonquyn 
 dialects, the very class examined by Du Ponceau himself, to 
 which I have added a few corroborative instances from those 
 of the tribes of the regions to the west of the Mississippi which 
 have been lately described by Mr. Catlin. The dialects 
 termed Algonquyn by Du Ponceau were formerly spoken by 
 numerous tribes who, though not the sole inhabitants, were 
 originally spread through the whole of the present territory 
 of the United States, including the "Lenni Lenape, the 
 Ci Chippeways," and other powerful septs. 
 
 With regard to this class of Indian Dialects I propose to 
 show: 1. That as regards Words they bear a close resem- 
 blance to a great variety of Asiatic and European languages. 
 2. That their grammatical peculiarities, in like manner, com- 
 
160 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 bine those of various languages of the Old World, as in the 
 instance of their Verbs and Pronouns, in which the inflections 
 of the Greek and other Indo-European Tongues are found 
 united with separate Pronouns identical with those common 
 to the Welsh on the one hand and the Hebrew and its 
 kindred Semetic dialects on the other. 
 
 Words from the North American Indian Dialects of the 
 Algonquyn Class compared with analogous Terms in 
 Asiatic and European Languages. 
 
 Man ittou, 'The Deity, a Spirit,' (bid.,*) Mouno he ka, 
 ' Ghosts/ (Ma?ida?i,f) Manes, 'The Spirits of the Dead,' 
 (Latin,) Manus, 'The Mind/ (Sanscrit,) Men, 'The Mind,' 
 (Greek,) Mens, Ment-is (Latin), Pata-maw-os, 'The Deity/ 
 from Pata-maw-an, 'To adore/ (bid.,) Poth-emenai, 'To 
 seek, or pray to/ (Doric,) for Poth-ein (Greek), Peton, 'To 
 worship/ Peta, 'A Prayer/ (Old High German,) Bet-en, 
 Bitte (German)-, see, as to W iou and Nioueskou, two re- 
 markable words for ' The Deity/ (bid.,) pages 22, 23, 24. 
 For names of the Heavenly Bodies, see Appendix A. 
 
 ' Father/ Ooch, Oss {Ltd.), Ozha (Sclavon.), Otze (Dal- 
 matian) y Wosch (Lusatian), Otzie (Bohemian), Nosa (bid.), 
 Niza, Niesee (Samoieds). 
 
 'Mother/ Anna (Ind.), Ana (Turkish), Anya (Hungarian), 
 Nanna (Ind.), Nain J (Welsh), Ninge (Ind.), Naing (Irish), 
 Nik, Nekaoui [Ind.), N . k . be § (Hebrew). 
 
 'A Woman/ Panum, Phanem (bid.), Banen (Cornish), 
 Been ( Welsh), Pin, ■ A Female/ applied to animals, ( Chinese.) 
 
 * Ind. means N. A. Indian. This term (Ind.) is used here exclusively to 
 distinguish words from the dialects of the Algonquyn class, 
 f A Western Tribe visited by Mr. Catlin. 
 % Nain (Welsh) Grandmother. $ < A Woman.' See Parkhurst'* Lex. 
 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 161 
 
 < A Girl/ Kan-isswah (hid.), Gen eez (Pers.), Nunk-shoue, 
 Nunk* (Ind.), Neang [Chin.), Non (Mantschu). 
 
 ' Husband/ Nap-e, Nap eem {Ind.), Nub-o, Nuptise (Lett.), 
 Nuptials (Eng.)—' Husband/ Weew-ehsa, Wasuk (Ind.), 
 < Wife/ Weewo, Weowika {Ind.), ' Marriage/ Wiwaha 
 (Sanscrit), Wife (Eng.) 
 
 <A little Child/ Awusk, 'Awash ish (Ind.), 'A Child/ 
 Watsah (Sanscrit), ' Young,' Wuski (Ind.), 'A Youth/ Was 
 or Gwas (Welsh). 
 
 'High/ Hockunk (Ind.), Hoch, Hbhe, Hoheit (German), 
 High, Height (Eng.), Hitke 1 (Iroquois). 
 
 'The Earth/ Hacki, Ki, Ackour (Ind.), Ge (Greek), 
 Ager (Latin), Agr-os (Greek). 
 
 ' Foot/ Sit (Ind.), St . o, 'I stand/ (Latin). 
 
 'Good/ Wuilit (Ind.), Wohl (tfer.), Weal, Well, Wealth 
 ( Eng.), Ee . o . 1, ' To profit, benefit/ (Hebrew). 
 
 'To fight/ Pachg-amenJ (Ind.), P.g.ee (Heb.), Pug-no 
 (Latin). 
 
 'To give/ Mekan (Ind.), M . gn (Hebrew). 
 
 'Night,' Nukon (hid.), Nux (Greek), Nox (Latin), Noc 
 (Polish), Noc (Hungarian). 
 
 1 Blood/ M'huk, Mokum (Ind.), Mucum, Mucus (Latin). 
 
 'Cold/ Kisina (Ind.), Kuisne, 'Ice/ (Irish,) K . sh . a, 
 'To harden, stiffen/ 'A Cucumber,§ from its cooling pro- 
 perties/ (Hebrew). 
 
 'Sleep/ Nipu, Nip-awin, ' To sleep/ Nupp (Ind.), Nap 
 (Eng.), Hup-nos (Greek), Nim pamino, 'I sleep/ (Ind.), 
 N . m ., N . ou . m . e (Hebrew). 
 
 * Nunk (Indian) mean* ' Young.' 
 
 t This word is from the dialects of the Iroquois, another class of Indian Tribes, 
 who inhabited the present territory of the United States. 
 
 I ' War,' Aguwarrie, in the Iroquois dialects, Gewehr {German), Guerre 
 {French), War {English). 
 
 § Parkhur<t. 
 
 11 
 
162 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 ' To touch/ Aman damaog-an (Ltd.), Man-us (Latin). 
 
 'Man,' Nin (bid.), Ninetz 'Men/ (Samoieds,) a diminu- 
 tive race in the North-east of Asia. The national name they 
 have given to themselves is the above word, Ninetz 'Men.' 
 
 I shall add a few further illustrations from the specimens 
 of the languages of the Indian Tribes to the West of the 
 United States, which have been published by Mr. Catlin. 
 
 ' Spirits, Ghosts,' Mouno he ka (Mandan,) — and see 
 above, Manitto, 'A Spirit/ (hid.) — Manes, ' The Spirits of 
 the Dead,' (Latin). 
 
 'Bad/ Khe cush (Mandan), Kakos (Greek). 
 
 'A Bear/ Mah to (Mandan), Matto (Sioux), Medve 
 (Hungarian), Medvid (Sclavonian), Metzwetz (Lusatian), 
 Koonoghk (Riccaree), Chiung (Chinese). 
 
 ' Dog/ Shonka (Riccaree), Shunah (Sanscrit), Shun 
 (Armenian), A meeteh (Blackfeet), Meda (Taraikai, Xorth- 
 east of Asia), Madaidh (Irish). 
 
 'A Raven,' Kaka (Mandan), To kah ka (Riccaree), Kaka 
 (Sanscrit). 
 
 'River/ Pass ahah (Mandan). See Appendix A. p. 78. 
 
 'Ears,' Ookah nay* (Tuskaroras) , Ucho (Sclavonian), 
 Ochtowaga (Shawannos), Ohto kiss (Blackfeet), Ota 
 (Greek.) See p. 73, Appendix A. 
 
 ' Hand/ Onka (Mandan.) See Appendix, page 69. 
 Ohahna (Tuskaroras.) See Appendix, p. 68. 
 
 'Head/ Otahra (Tuskaroras), Otri (Ashantees Xegroes), 
 Utieri (Aminas Negroes.) 
 
 'Nose/ Pahoo (Mandan), Pei Pi (Chinese), Pah . soo 
 [Sioux), Ph.o.e, 'To Breathe/ (Hebrew), Phusa-o, * To 
 Breathe/ (Greek.) 
 
 * Nakoba (Mandan), Xoh gee ySiot/x). 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 163 
 
 Want of space, and the extensive nature of the evidence 
 contained in Appendix A, alone deter me from greatly 
 multiplying these examples. 
 
 2. As regards Grammatical forms : 
 
 Nothing can be more erroneous than the inference that 
 the North American Indian dialects differ in this respect 
 from those of Asia and Europe. In the previous comparison 
 numerous examples present themselves in which the same 
 words unequivocally exhibit at once both the roots and the 
 inflections of words belonging to the languages termed Indo- 
 European, as in Putam-awatt, Patam-awos, Kis-ina, M. huk, 
 Mole-urn, Khe-cush, \ imp-ammo, &c. ! 
 
 These are not isolated instances. I do not hesitate to 
 affirm that it may be shown by means of the very terms he 
 has selected for examination, that those North American 
 Indian dialects which Du Ponceau has analyzed, abound in 
 similar examples ! That the same remark is true with regard 
 to the dialects of the Western Tribes described by Mr. Catlin, 
 is ;t proposition which will now be illustrated in a remarkable 
 instance ! 
 
 Among the tribes with whom he resided this writer has 
 especially noticed a highly interesting sept, the Mandans, in 
 whose dialect he has pointed out a variety of instances of 
 close resemblance to the Welsh, which he has left to the 
 judgment of those who are conversant with that language. 
 On this subject I conceive there cannot be any difference of 
 opinion among those who are vernacularly acquainted with 
 the venerable tongue of the Cymry. Of the Mandan terms 
 selected by Mr. Catlin (which are subjoined below), the 
 majority must be admitted to present plain and unequivocal 
 features of resemblance, or rather of identity, to the equivalent 
 Welsh terms. 
 
164 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 Now, it will be seen that of these* examples of affinity the 
 greater number consist of terms which belong exclusively to 
 the province of Grammar ! 
 
 
 
 
 OTHER ASIATIC AND ECROPEAN 
 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 MANDAN. 
 
 WELSH. 
 
 LAXG CAGES. 
 
 I. 
 
 Me. 
 
 Me. 
 
 Me (Latin and Eng.), Eme 
 ( Greek.) 
 
 You. 
 
 Ne. 
 
 Chwe. 
 
 Nee, (Chinese.) 
 
 He. 
 
 E. 
 
 E. 
 
 E.ee .a, E.ou.e, or E.v.e, 
 < He, She, It,' ( Heb.) 
 
 She. 
 
 Ea. 
 
 E, Hee. 
 
 Ea, 'She,' (Latin.) 
 
 It. 
 
 Ount. 
 
 Hooynt, 'They' 
 (Plural.)f 
 
 Onuh, 'It, Him, Her,' 
 (Turkish.) 
 
 They. 
 
 Eonab, (Onuh 
 
 
 E.n.e, 'They,' (Hebreir), 
 
 
 ha, Honuh 
 
 Nhou, 'They,' 
 
 Oona, ' They,' also « He, 
 
 
 ha, 'They,' 
 
 Hyny, ' Those.' 
 
 She, It,' (Mixed Indian 
 
 
 Iroquois Dia- 
 
 
 Dialects of Asia.) 
 
 
 lects.) 
 
 
 Ainah, Ont, Ent, (Endings 
 of the third person plural 
 <f Indo- European I ~erbs.)\ 
 
 We. 
 
 Noo. 
 
 
 Noi (Greek), Nou, Nc'hnou 
 
 
 
 Nee. 
 
 (Hebrew.) 
 
 No, or, There 
 
 Megosh.§ 
 
 Nagoes, Nage. 
 
 
 is not. 
 
 
 
 
 Head. 
 
 Pan. 
 
 Pen. 
 
 
 The Great Spi- 
 
 Maho peneta. 
 
 Mawr|| Penae- 
 
 
 rit. 
 
 
 ther Yysprid 
 Mawr. 
 
 
 * They are chiefly composed of Pronouns, terms which form the I 
 Grammar. 
 
 t Hooynt does not mean 'It' in Welsh. In that language it is a plural and not 
 a singular, as Mr. Catlin supposes. This circumstance, however, does not render 
 the example less relevant, "Hooynt" (JVelsIt) being clearly identical with the 
 terms from the Mandan, Turkish, &c, with which it is compared above; for 
 pronouns, singular and plural, were originally the same words as they still are in 
 all cases in the Chinese, and in several instances in the above examples. 
 
 % Dr. Prichard, Eastern Origin of Celts, p. 134. 
 
 § This is an erroneous example, I conceive. " Megosh " is also a questionable 
 one. 
 
 || Dr. Prichard, Eastern Origin of Celts. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 165 
 
 By some of our countrymen it has been sanguinely main- 
 tained that the descendants of a body of Welsh, who left 
 their country under Prince Madoc in the twelfth century, 
 may be still traced by affinities of language among the 
 North American Indian Tribes. Struck by the resemblances 
 he has detected, Mr. Catlin has been led to favour the same 
 conclusion, and to suggest that the Mandans may probably 
 be shown to be the descendants of the lost Cambrian Colony ! 
 
 But the examples selected by this writer, however creditable 
 to his accuracy and research, do not tend, as he suggests, to 
 prove the existence of a specific connexion between the Welsh 
 and the Mandans I This will be evident from the words con- 
 tained in the right-hand column (which have been added by 
 the author of this work). An examination of the whole com- 
 parison will serve to >how clearly, that though in most of the 
 instances he has notice o" tin- resemblance displayed by the 
 Mandan to the \Yel>h is a close one, in many of them it dis- 
 an equally elose affinity to the Latin and Greek, &c, 
 while in some — this North American Indian dialect totally 
 differs from the Welsh tongue, and at the same time agrees 
 with — other languages of the Old World. Many of those ex- 
 amples which precede the Comparison are also illustrations 
 of the principle that the Mandan, like other North American 
 Indian dialects, exhibits a general resemblance to all, and 
 not a speeitie relation to anyone of the Asiatic and European 
 tongues. Thus Khecush, c Bad/ which is identical with the 
 Greek, but is totally unlike the Welsh, is a Mandan word ! 
 
 The prevalent theory, that there exists a group of Indo- 
 European languages and nations — peculiarly connected among 
 themselves — peculiarly isolated from others — will, T conceive, 
 be found to be fallacious ; and what is highly remarkable, 
 distinct proofs of its fallacy, as will presently be seen, are 
 derivable from the dialects of the North American Tribes ! 
 
 11 § 
 
166 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 The writers by whom this theory has been maintained have 
 overlooked, on the one hand, the numerous points of resem- 
 blance which connect the Indo-European languages with 
 other Tongues; while, on the other hand, they have also 
 overlooked the numerous points of difference which they mu- 
 tually display. On a close investigation it will be evident 
 that it is only in the basis of their Grammars that any of the 
 ancient languages of Asia and Europe, even those which are 
 very nearly related, agree ; they do not display an identity of 
 Grammatical forms ! Compare, for example, the inflections 
 of the Verbs in the Latin and the Greek, and the numerous 
 points of difference which they exhibit in almost every tense, 
 combined with mere partial coincidences. That these re- 
 marks are equally true of the relation displayed by the North 
 American Indian dialects compared to those of the Old 
 World will be apparent from the following examples, in which 
 it will be manifest that these dialects in their basis agree 
 with, and in their inflections and details only partially differ 
 from, the Asiatic and European languages ! 
 
 Present Tense of a Verb in two Dialects of the 
 Algonquyn Class. 
 
 'CHIPPEWAY' DIALECT. ' LEWI LENAPe' DIALECT. 
 
 (Root) Nond— 'Understand/ (Root) Pend—' Understand.'* 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 N> - nond - 
 i I understand/ 
 
 OM. 
 
 N 1 - pend - amen 
 •I understand.' 
 
 K' - nond - om. K' - pend - amen. 
 
 ( Thou understand-est/ < Thou understand - est/ 
 
 Nond - om. — _ Pend 
 
 amen. 
 
 i He understand - s/ ' He understand - $.' 
 
 * Compare Pemt-o [Latin). 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 167 
 
 Plural. Plural 
 
 N' - nond - am-in. N' - pend - amen-een. 
 
 < We understand.' We understand.' 
 
 K' - nond - am. * K' - pend- am-ohumo. 
 
 * Ye understand/ c Ye understand/ 
 
 — - Nond - UM-oG- — - Pend - amen-owo. 
 
 ' They understand.' ' They understand/ 
 
 It will be observed that the inflections of the Algonquyn 
 Verb, indicative of persons (corresponding to those in Leg-o, 
 Leg-is, Leg-it, Latin), are ' Om and Amen/ In another 
 form of the Algonquyn Veil), * Amo' is also used. 
 
 These forms, ( Om, Amo, Amen,' are the common inflec- 
 tions of the first person in all the Indo-European languages. 
 Dr. Prichard on the Eastern Origin of the Celtic 
 Nations, pp. 130, 136.) In the North American Indian 
 dialects it will be seen that they occur in all the three 
 persons. There are instances of the same kind in the Indo- 
 European Tongues for the Doric Greek Infinitive as in Poth- 
 emeii-ai, 'To desire,' and the Greek Passive Participle as in 
 Tupt-omen-os, Tupt-omen e, 'Struck,' are examples of the 
 application of ' Amen or Omen' to any individual of the 
 Human Race, in other words, to alt the three persons ! 
 
 This inflection ' Amen 3 exists in the Tartar dialects in the 
 first person, as in Bol-amen, ' I am,' Bol-asin, f Thou art,' &c. 
 
 The following are examples of its use for the first person 
 in the Greek : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Amen, used as an Inflection Amen, used as an Inflection 
 
 for 'I.' for c We.' 
 
 E-fiipt-diCENj ' I was struck.' Tupt-oyiEN, 'We strike.' 
 
 Tupt-oi-M*!*, * Would that I 
 were struck.' 
 
 n.I had been.' E-MEN, ' We were.' 
 
168 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 These examples will serve to illustrate the proposition 
 that in inflections and other grammatical details the North 
 American Indian dialects partially coincide with individual 
 Indo-European languages in the same manner as those lan- 
 guages partially agree among themselves ! It remains to be 
 pointed out that where these two groups of tongues differ, 
 the differences are such as time might have produced, and 
 that they have the same basis in common. 
 
 ( Om, Amo, Amen,' are according to Dr. Prichard, pro- 
 nouns confused with the verb. It is an interesting fact, 
 that c Amo'* is actually used as the separate pronoun of the 
 third person * He 5 in the dialect of the ' Blackfeet/ one of 
 the N. American Indian Tribes to the west of the Mississippi 
 visited by Mr. Catlin ! Now, as all pronouns were originallyf 
 nouns, names for a * Human Being/ (see p. 13,) words of this 
 class must have been in the first instance applied indifferently 
 to all the three Persons. But in the course of time — 1 , In some 
 languages different nouns were appropriated to different Per- 
 sons, — the most common noun being applied to the First ; 
 (this accounts for the occurrence of f Amo Om Amen/ probably 
 forms of the most primitive J noun — in the first Person of the 
 Indo-European languages !) — 2, In other tongues supple- 
 mentary pronouns were used to mark the requisite distinction 
 of Persons, the most common nouns being still used agree- 
 
 * Many of those differences displayed by the North American Indian languages 
 among themselves, and as compared to those of Asia, which have been assumed by 
 many writers to be fundamental, consist of mere transitions of application agreeably 
 to Home Tooke's principles ; terms which appear as pronoun inflections in one 
 dialect, occurring as pronouns, or as words for • Man' in others, d-c. Thus we 
 have Rauha pronoun of the third person ' He' (Iroquois.) Rehoje, ' Man Homo,' 
 (Tarahumarati.) R.ch.e, Rou .e, * Life, Soul, Spirit, Breath,' (Hebreic and 
 Arabic.) 
 
 t As to the identity of these inflections, « Om, Amo, Amen,' with pronouns 
 and nouns. (See Appendix A, pp. 53-4.) 
 
 X These terms seem to consist of the first essays of the organs of articulation. 
 (See p. 105.) 
 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 169 
 
 ably to previous habit,— (though no longer of practical ser- 
 vice)— in combination with the verb ; (this is the case in the 
 Algonquyn dialects in which the same inflection is repeated 
 in all the three persons, and the requisite distinction of persons 
 is made by means of pronoun prefixes or supplementary pro- 
 nouns, a distinction which, in the Greek, &c, is made by 
 varying the final inflections or original pronouns, as in 
 1 Tupt-oi-men, Tupt-oi-o/ &c.)* 
 
 The pronoun prefixes of these North American Indian 
 dialects, which as previously intimated, are common to the 
 Welsh and the Hebrew, and other S emetic tongues remain 
 to be noticed. 
 
 Algonquyn Pronoun Prefixes. 
 (See previous specimens of Algonquyn Verbs.) 
 
 N 5 - P and < We.' 
 
 This is an abbreviated form used in conjunction with the 
 verb as a prefix. The pronoun in full is Ni Nin ' 1/ Ninou 
 ' We.' Both the pronoun itself and the abbreviated form in 
 which it is used as a prefix, occur in the Hebrew in which 
 the latter is used as a suffix ! 
 
 This Algonquyn pronoun is identical with an Algonquyn 
 word for 'A Man,' which, it will be observed, renders the 
 proofs of affinity between the Semetic and Algonquyn dialects 
 in this instance complete. 
 
 • Ki-nondonim-i, * 1/ or * We understand you,' (Algonquyn dialects.) 
 Compare Einii, Tupt-oi-mi, (fee. {Greek.) Bha va-mi (Sans.) &c. 
 Compare ' Amo,' with 'I Am/ (EngUah y )&c. 
 
170 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 ALGONQUYN. 
 
 SEMETIC. 
 
 WELSH. 
 
 ' Man.' 
 
 1 1,' or ■ Me.' 
 
 1 1,' or * Me.' 
 
 Anini.* 
 
 A . nee, (Heb.) 
 A . n . a, (Arabic.) 
 
 Innai. 
 
 Iui. 
 
 ... 
 
 Innai. 
 
 N-nin. 
 
 
 
 « T,' or < Me.' 
 
 
 
 Nin. 
 
 
 
 Ni.f 
 
 Nee, (/fci.) 
 
 
 N\ 
 
 
 
 'We.' 
 
 ' We.' 
 A . n. ou, 
 
 ' We.' 
 
 
 A . n . c'h . n . ou, 
 
 Ni. 
 
 Nin-ou. 
 
 N.c'h.n.ou, (Heb.) 
 
 Nyni. 
 
 Nin-owin. 
 
 N.h.h.n, (Arabic.) 
 
 Nyninnou. 
 
 N'. 
 
 
 
 K> 5 'Thou' and <Ye.' + 
 
 This is also an abbreviation, the Pronoun in full is Ki, 
 K-in, K-il, ' Thou f Kin-owa, and Kil-ou, ' Ye.' 
 
 ALGONQUYN. 
 
 
 SEMETIC. 
 
 
 WELSH. 
 
 < Thou, Thine.' 
 
 « 
 
 Thee, 
 
 Thy.' 
 
 
 
 K'. 
 Kee. 
 
 C . ee. 
 
 
 (Heb.) 
 (Heb.) 
 
 
 
 ' Ye, Yours.' 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' Yt. 
 
 K'. 
 Ki. 
 
 Ki-nowa. 
 
 Kil-ou. 
 
 C-oun. 
 
 C-n. 
 
 C-m. 
 
 
 (Chald.) 
 (Heb.) 
 
 Chwi. 
 
 
 * See Appendix A, p. 56, for the origin of this word, 
 t Ni, 'I,' (Basque.^ 
 
 I This Pronoun does not occur in any Indo-European language except the 
 Welsh. The Pronoun of the first person occurs in a modified form in the Greek. 
 
 
ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 171 
 
 Du Ponceau notices another grammatical feature in which 
 it is clear, though he was unconscious of that fact, that these 
 North American Indian dialects form a connecting link be- 
 tween the Semetic and Indo-European languages. "We 
 u find," he observes, " many Nouns substantive with M pre- 
 " fixed in such a way as to form an integral part of the 
 " words." 
 
 This is a Semetic mode of forming a Noun from a Root ! 
 In Latin, Nouns are formed from Roots by the same Letter 
 placed at the end of words, as in Regn-um, a mode of which 
 we have also had an example in the Algonquyn dialects, in the 
 words M'-huk, Mok-um ! 
 
 Where lon^r intervals of time have elapsed, it is in all cases 
 difficult to discriminate between the proofs of a general and 
 remote, and those of a near and specific relation. Still I 
 conceive the previous examples tend, in some measure, to 
 render it probable that there is a closer affinity between the 
 North American Indians and the inhabitants of Northern 
 Asia and of Europe, especially the Russians, Hungarians, 
 and other nations located in its Northern and Western 
 Regions, than exists between these American Septs and the 
 inhabitants of Southern Asia. Should this proposition be 
 confirmed by further investigation, it will be found to be in 
 unison with Adelung's conclusion, that the route by which 
 the first Colonists of Europe came from Central Asia lay 
 through the Steppes which separate the Chinese and Russian 
 Empires. The Nomade Hordes of these vast plains, — the 
 great c Officina Gentium/ — were probably the parent Septs 
 of all or most of the European nations on the one hand, and 
 of the populations of the North-east of Asia and of the oppo- 
 site American coasts on the other ! 
 
172 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN TRIBES. 
 
 Of the general proposition, that the American Tribes and 
 the Nations of the Old World are descended from the same 
 Parent Stock, I conceive the evidence adduced in the pre- 
 vious pages will be deemed to be conclusive. 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 ANALYTICAL COMPARISON 
 
 OF SOME OF THE 
 
 MOST IMPORTANT WORDS IN THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 WITH THE ANALOGOUS WORDS 
 
 IX THE 
 
 LANGUAGES OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 This Comparison inll srrve to show : 
 
 1. The connexion between the Languages of the Negro population 
 
 of the Middle of Africa with those of the races in the 
 North and South of Africa who differ from the Negroes in 
 Physiognomy, Colour, and other Physical qualities. 
 
 2. The connexion between the Languages of every part of Africa 
 
 with those of Asia, Europe, and America. 
 
 3. The fundamental identity of the Languages of the four great 
 
 divisions of the Globe. 
 
COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Oue ini 
 
 and 
 Ouoini, Luminary Efful- 
 gence. [Probably con- 
 nected with ( Ooh' 
 Glory, 'Eoohu' Day.] 
 (Egyptian.) 
 
 R . Ou oein, to diffuse 
 Light, [Illuminare.] 
 (Egypt.) 
 
 Roongeh, 'Sun.' : 
 
 Ra, Re, Sun. (Egypt.) 
 
 I mine, ' Day. 5 
 
 H o r, ' Horns,' the God H uer, Day. 
 of Day. (Egypt.) 
 
 Horambe, Moon. 
 
 * The names for the Sun, Moon, and the Eye, are generally from the same roots. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 . een . n, Eye. (Heb.) 
 
 W ang, ' Light emitted 
 from a body.' (Chinese.) 
 
 Wawn or Gwawn, 'A 
 quick darting of rays, 
 (Dr. Owen Pughe's 
 Diet.) The Dawn.' 
 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 Ee.ou.m'Day,' (Heb.) 
 [Probably from ' Eoohu' 
 Day, (Egyptian,) and 
 the suffix 'M,' which 
 in Hebrew forms nouns 
 from roots, like the 
 English suffix 'er' in 
 Mak-<?r.*] 
 
 A rou, Behold! (Chald.) 
 R . a . e, to see. (Heb.) 
 
 Ur, Fire, (Kurd.) H u r, 
 Fire, and Or, Day. 
 (Armenian.) 
 
 Huere, Sun. (Zend.) 
 
 A . ou . r, Light, Daylight. 
 (Heb. & Chaldce.) 
 
 Arpi, Sun. (Armenian.) 
 
 Em ee . n 'Day.' (Greek.) 
 
 Ora-6, to see. (Greek.) 
 
 Re, Moon, Re alt, Star. 
 (Irish.) 
 
 Ur-o. 
 
 (Latin.) 
 
 Hora, Time, (Greek,) an 
 Hour, (Latin.) 
 
 Aurora, the Dawn. 
 
 (Latin.) 
 
 Uru, Day. 
 
 (Aymarans, S. A.) 
 
 Huarassi, Sun and Day. 
 (Omaguans, S. A.) 
 
 * Compare the unsatisfactory Etymology of Ee . ou . m, , usually adoptee lb, ^Hebrew 
 lexicographers, from E . m, Tumult, because there is "a tumultuous agitation of the 
 celestial fluid,'' at daybreak . 
 
COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Wurabe, Day. {Nubia.) 
 
 Re, the Sun, as above. 
 
 Iri, ' Eye.' * The symbol 
 of Osiris, the God of 
 Day. 
 
 Iris, the Dawn. (Egypt.) 
 
 Wurrhy, 'Moon/ 
 
 (Abyss.) 
 
 [Compare Wurabe, 'Day,' 
 
 above. (Nubian.) 
 
 K a mmer, 
 Ungmar, Moon. 
 
 Iirri, ' Sun. 
 
 Uhaaire, andYer, Oloon. 
 
 La, 'Fire.' 
 
 Leaw, ' Fire. 
 
 • This is an important word, as being one of the instances adduced by Dr. Leipsius, in 
 opposition to Champollion's opinion, that the modern Coptic is perfectly identical with the 
 ancient Egyptian. This word, Iri, ' an Eye,' and its signification, are onlv known to ns 
 through Plutarch. The term is obsolete in the Coptic— Leipsius, " Lettre" a Rossellini."' 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Or, Day. {Armenian.) 
 
 A.ou.r, Light, &c, as 
 above ; 
 
 Also with m prefix — 
 M . A . ou . r, An instru- 
 ment or source of Light, 
 applied to the Sun and 
 Moon. (Heb.) 
 
 Mihira, Sun. (Sa?iscrit.) 
 
 Mar, Sun. (Abassian.) 
 
 N. Mar, Sun. (Afghan.) 
 
 Iru, Sun. (Korea.) 
 
 Eiere, Day. (Zend.) 
 
 [Compare Yere, Moon, 
 (Samoied) below.] 
 
 Wurra, Moon. 
 
 (Sumbava.) 
 
 Win, Yere, and Irri, 
 
 Moon. (Samoied.) 
 
 Wawr, or Gwawr, the 
 Dawn. (Welsh.) 
 
 Awringo, Sun. (Finnish.) 
 
 Ourhenha, Day. 
 
 (Hurons, N. A.) 
 
 Iris, the Rainbow. 
 
 (Latin.) 
 
 Lohe, ' Flame.' 
 
 Lo-dern, ' To Burn.' 
 
 (German.) 
 
 Hello, Fire. 
 
 (Runsienes, N. A.) 
 
COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, 
 
 Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, H 
 
 eaven 
 
 
 Lo, <Day.' 
 
 - 
 
 Lp s h, ' Flame.' 
 
 
 Lelaffu, 'Fire.' 
 
 Lopsh, ' To Burn.' 
 
 (Egypt.) 
 
 - 
 
 - _ 
 
 
 
 Leetshaatsi, ' Sun.' 
 
 
 Lataa, ' Sun.' [See Lo, 
 La, above.] 
 
 
 
 La, 'Fire/ Lo, 'Day/ 
 as above. 
 
 Le aw, Fire, as above- 
 Also 
 Lilo, Fire.* 
 
 
 Lelegh, Day. 
 
 - 
 
 
 Elukwee, Heaven. 
 
 - 
 
 
 See Lelegh, 'Day,' as 
 above. 
 
 - 
 
 Mu lilo, Um lilo, also occur as words for Fire, in the South of Africa. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Hallo Alio, a Day. 
 
 (Corea.) 
 
 L . e . b . e, ' Flame.' 
 
 L . e . b, 'To burn.' 
 
 (Hebreiv.) 
 
 L.et, ' Flame,' 'To 
 flame, burn.' (Heb.) 
 
 L05 and La, f Day.' 
 
 (Irish.) 
 
 Licht. 
 Light. 
 
 (German.) 
 (English.) 
 
 Olo, Sun and Day. 
 
 (Vilellam, S.A.) 
 
 Hallo Alo, a Day. 
 
 (Coriac.) 
 
 Lo-dern, ' To burn.' 
 
 (German.) 
 [See Lobe, above.] 
 
 Olo, Sun and Day. 
 
 (Vilellans, S. A.) 
 
 Ele le dun, Flame. 
 
 Lux, Light. (Latin.) 
 Licht. (German.) 
 
 Lluched, Lightning. 
 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 •) 
 
 Uolok, Day. (Esquim.) 
 
 El eek, (Nootka Sound,) 
 and Hello, Fire, (Run- 
 sienes, N. A.) 
 
 Ali-gega, Sun. (M.Bay a, 
 extreme south of S. A.) 
 
COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, ^c.[ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Liklo, Ames-ligo, ' An 
 Eye.' 
 
 Eli-ang, the Sun. 
 
 Eli-ang, the Sun, as 
 above. 
 
 Lelangu, Sun. 
 
 Lainch, and Lainghitsi, 
 Heaven. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Lochatai, * He sees.' 
 
 (Sanscrit.) 
 
 E . 1 . To shine. E . 1 . 1 . 
 To shine brightly. 
 
 E . ee . 1 . 1 . Lucifer. 
 
 {Hebrew.) 
 
 Hailih, and Hailihs, the 
 Sun. (Sanscrit.) 
 
 Hallo, Alo, a Day. 
 
 (Coriac.) 
 Ali, Day. (Mbluccan.) 
 
 Alak, a Stai 
 
 Alagon, a Star. 
 (Kotowskians, N. Asia.) 
 
 Lun, Day. 
 
 (Sirjanian fy Permian.) 
 
 Languin, Heaven. (Mo- 
 luccas,.) [Also, in the 
 same language, Ah, 
 * Day. Compare El-iang, 
 above.] 
 
 Llygad, ' An Eye.' 
 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 Look-eth. (English.) 
 
 Eel-ios, the Sun. 
 
 (Greek.) 
 
 Hail, the Sun. (Welsh.) 
 Hell, Bright. (German.) 
 
 Eel-ios, the Sun. 
 
 (Greek.) 
 
 Lunus. 
 
 Luna. (Latin.) 
 
 Luan, Moon. (Irish 
 
 Gra-haulai, Sun. 
 
 (Abipones.) 
 Hello, Fire. 
 
 (Runsienes, N. A.) 
 
 Olo, Sun. 
 
 Allit, Moon. 
 
 (Vilellans, S. A.) 
 
 Alank, a heavenly Lumi- 
 nary, or Star. (Algon- 
 auyn dialects, N. A.) 
 
10 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 * N jellauma, Day. 
 
 (Pkellata dialect.) 
 
 *Leoure, Moon. 
 
 (Fulak dialect.) 
 
 Kalla, Coll, Moon. 
 
 * Liulu, Moon. 
 
 (Phellata.) 
 
 Woelau. 
 Volan, Moon. 
 
 Hyalla, Heaven. 
 
 Ellu, 
 Iulo, 
 I ewel, Heaven. 
 
 • N'jellauma, and Liulu, both occur in the dialect of the Phellatas, and Leonre occurs 
 in Unit of the Fulahs, who are a kindred race. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 11 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Gailgen, Moon. (Coriac.) 
 Glau h, Moon. (Sanscrit.) 
 
 Jwala, Light, Flame. 
 
 (Sanscrit.) 
 
 Glauh-r, Moon. [Formed 
 from Glauh, Moon, 
 above, by ' Sandhi.'] 
 (Sanscrit.) 
 
 Rlaida, 
 
 Klaidu, Moon, (Sanscrit.) 
 [This, and several of 
 the previous Sanscrit 
 words, have been com- 
 pared with the Welsh 
 by Dr. Prichard.] 
 
 Koilak, Heaven. (Tchu- 
 gassians, n.e. of Asia 
 and n.w. of America.) 
 
 Gealach, Moon. (Irish.) 
 
 Gwawl, 
 
 or 
 Wawl, Light. (Welsh.) 
 
 Lloer, Moon. (Welsh.) 
 Laor,Moon. (Armorican.) 
 
 Liu, Colour. (Welsh.) 
 
 Llei-ad, Moon. (Welsh.) 
 [The double LI gives to 
 the word a sound nearly 
 the same as CAleiad.] 
 
 Igaluk, Moon. (Kadjaks, 
 extreme n.w. o£N.A.) 
 
 Killa, Quilla, Moon. 
 
 (Quichuans, S.A.) 
 
 Killak. (Greenland.) 
 
 Killock, Heaven. 
 
 (Kadjaks.) 
 
 Igalack Moon, as above. 
 (Kadjaks.) 
 
12 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun. Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Serapis, 
 
 
 
 or 
 
 
 
 Soropis, the God of the 
 
 Sun, the same as Osiris. 
 
 (Egypt.) 
 
 - - - - 
 
 Sorohb, Sun. 
 
 Scharappa,* ' Moon.' 
 (Berber fy Dongolan.) 
 
 - 
 
 Sorrie, Sun. 
 
 Osiri, Osira, 
 
 (Osiris), believed to be 
 
 the God of the Sun. 
 
 (Egypt.) 
 
 
 Surrie, Sore, San. 
 f Soroka, Day. 
 
 
 Assara, Moon. 
 
 _ 
 
 
 Osran, Osseram, Osse- 
 ramme, Moon. 
 
 
 
 A - un, Sun. [See this 
 word more fully illus- 
 trated in another part 
 of this Analysis.] 
 
 Antu, a Day. 
 Andru, Day. 
 
 
 OmmaOngma, 'Moon.' 
 
 _ 
 
 • Burhum-Sa/am, The Sun, which occurs in one of the Negro dialects, seems to be 
 derivable from the same root. 
 
 t Mot-Sichari, Day, a word that occurs among the languages of the South of Africa, is 
 probably from the same root. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA 
 
 13 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Sh . r ph, to burn, a 
 Conflagration. 
 
 S . h . r ph . e . m, * Se- 
 raphs.' 
 
 S h . r .b, to burn, scorch. 
 Z e . r, to shine brightly. 
 
 Ts . e . r, a Light, Noon. 
 {Hebrew.) 
 
 Surya, the Indian God of 
 the Sun. His orb per- 
 sonified. {Sanscrit.) 
 
 Sara, 'Moon.' {Syrian, 
 Mongol, fy Calmuck.) 
 
 Ser, Stars. {Welsh.) 
 
 Scorch. 
 
 {English.) 
 
 Ser, Stars. {Welsh, as 
 above.) 
 
 • Indra,' the Indian God 
 of Day, Diespater 
 
 {Sanscrit.) 
 
 Mah, the Moon. 
 
 {Bucharian.) 
 
 Omnia, « Eye,' ' Face,' 
 also applied to ' Sun 
 and Moon.' {Greek.) 
 [Schneider.] 
 
 A no, Day. 
 
 {Caraibs, S. A.) 
 
 Antu Antu, Sun, Day. 
 
 {Araucan, S. A.) 
 
 Inti, Indi, Sun. (In 
 several other dialects 
 of S. A.) 
 
14 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 
 Fire, 
 
 Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 
 
 
 Mo Moe. 
 
 Muhta. 
 
 Mum Muhm, 'Eye.' 
 
 
 
 
 Moomo, ' Moon.' 
 
 Manga, Eye.* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mone, 'Moon.' 
 
 - 
 
 Missigh, 'Eye.'* 
 
 
 - 
 
 Massou, Massoo, Masso, 
 Massorohi, 'Eye.' 
 
 Masso-androu, Sun, (i. e. 
 'Eye of Day.'*) [See 
 Androu, Day, imme- 
 diately before.] 
 
 * It may be inferred, however, that the simple word, Masso, was applied originally as we 
 find it in the Georgian, to the Sun, before it was used for the Eye. It is an error to sup- 
 pose that the names for such organs as the ' Eye' belong to the first elements of language. 
 The name for the Eye is generally a mere derivative of words for ' Light,' ' Sun,' <fcc. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 15 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Mi -en, 'Face.' 
 
 (Chinese fy Burman.) 
 
 Ee m ee . n, 'the Eye,' or 
 Finger, (Heb.) [Simi- 
 liter 'Per-ception,' now 
 used for the 'Eye,' but 
 applied originally to 
 the hand.] 
 
 M . n . ee. A name un- 
 der which the idola* 
 trous Jews worshipped 
 the 'Material Heavens.' 
 
 Mondy, 'Sun.' 
 
 (Permian.) 
 
 Miezzi, 'Eye.' (Burman.) 
 
 f Moon.' (English.) 
 
 Mene, 'Month.' (Greek.) 
 Mensis, 'Month.' (Lat.) 
 Mana, 'Moon.' (Lapld.) 
 
 Manoak, 'Sun,' or 'Moon.' 
 (Algonquyn Dialects.) 
 
 Musseete, 'Day.' 
 
 (New England.) 
 
 Metzli, 'Moon.' 
 
 (Mexican.) 
 
16 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians,^. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Massch-ekka, ' Sun.' 
 [Apparently from Mis- 
 sigh,* 'Eye,' and Ika, 
 or Ik, 'Fire.' Compare 
 Massoandrou, ' Sun.' 
 South Africa.'] 
 {Berbers fy Dongolans.) 
 
 Sou Siou, Star. (Egypt.) 
 
 *Massu, 
 Mass-ge, 'Fire.' 
 
 Midding, 'Moon. 
 Wussuk, Fire. 
 
 Wis, Sun. 
 
 Att-aschi, Sun. 
 
 Zu, Sun. 
 
 * See Note in page 14. 
 
 Masso-anro, 
 Masso-anru, ' Sun.' 
 
 Masso-am, Sun. 
 Majava, 'Day.' 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA, 
 
 1/ 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Miaschta, 'Moon/ 
 
 {Afghan.) 
 
 Masi, 'Moon.' 
 
 (Sanscrit.) 
 
 *M . s . e, 
 
 and 
 M . j, 'Sun.' (Georgian.) 
 
 Ash, Fire. 
 
 Az-er, and 
 At-emsch. 
 
 (Heb.) 
 
 (Persian.) 
 
 At-emsch. (Pehli.) 
 
 Ath-eresch, Fire. (Zend.) 
 
 Mesaz, 'Moon.' 
 
 •) 
 Mis, 'Month.' (Welsh.) 
 
 Us- tue, burnt. (Latin.) 
 
 Ass- o, to roast. (Latin.) 
 
 fAzgo. 
 Ash-es. 
 
 (Gothic.) 
 (English.) 
 
 fAith-ein, to burn. 
 
 (Greek.) 
 
 Sah, the Sun and Moon. 
 (Chippeway.) 
 
 Soo, Moon. 
 
 (Penobscot, N. A.) 
 
 Sua, Sun. (Muy scans, 
 S.A., near the Isthmus 
 of Darien. 
 
 * See Note in page 14. 
 
 t These words,— Aithein, ' To burn, ; Greek, and < Ashes,' English, &c— are said by 
 
 erman scholars to be mutually connected. (Schwenk's Wbrterbuch.) 
 
 b 
 
 Usi Ussi, Fire. 
 
 (California, N. A.) 
 
 Is-chey, Fire. (Black 
 
 Feet Indians, N. A.) 
 
 Neetak Hasseh, Sun. 
 
 Hasche, Moon. 
 
 (Chikkasahs, N.A.) 
 
 Is-chey, Fire. (Black 
 Feet, N.A., as above.) 
 
 Assista, Fire. 
 
 (Hurons, N. A.) 
 
18 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North— Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Shah, Flame. 
 Shah shah, Heat, 
 
 {Egypt) 
 
 Njite, 'Fire.' {Phellata.) 
 
 So, Heaven. 
 
 Khem, God of the Sun. 
 {Egypt.) 
 
 Nissiek, 'Fire. 
 
 Ntzai, 'Sun.' 
 Gimoihu, Fire. 
 
 T'kaam 
 Gam, Moon 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 19 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Zee ou, Beams, Rays, 
 Splendour. 
 
 Zee, to be bright. (Heb.) 
 
 Schun, Sun. (Mantchu.) 
 Z.k. Flame. 
 
 Ts . c' h . e, to shine. 
 
 Ts . c' h, clear and parch- 
 ing. 
 
 Ts . c' h . ts c' h, violent 
 Heat, or Drought. 
 
 (Heb.) 
 
 N . sh . k, to kindle, to rise 
 in flame, to kindle a 
 fire. (Heb.) 
 
 C h m, Hot, Heat. 
 
 C h . m m, to be in- 
 flamed. 
 
 C'h.m.n.ee.n, Sun 
 (Heb.) 
 
 Sua, Fire. (Basque.) 
 
 Zeo, to be hot. (Greek.) 
 
 Sua, Fire. (Basque, as 
 above.) 
 
 Sun. 
 
 (English.) 
 
 Siccus, Dry. (Latin.) 
 Sych, Dry. (Welsh.) 
 
 Nitidus, Shining. 
 
 (Latin.) 
 
 Tscan-u, Sun. 
 Tschaan, Day. 
 
 Tschan-e, Moon. (Kinai 
 Tribe, extreme n.w. 
 ofiV^.) 
 
 Tcenoe, Moon. 
 
 (Cherokee.) 
 
 Sacche, Sun. 
 
 (Mossans, S.A.) 
 Sekkinek, Sun. 
 
 (Greenland, N. A.) 
 
 Kaumet, Sun. 
 
 Kaumei, Moon. 
 
 (Greenland.) 
 Gomma, Moon. 
 
 (California.) 
 Kyem, Moon. (Araucan.) 
 
20 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Chrom, 
 Grom, 
 Krom, Fire. 
 
 {Egypt.) 
 
 Grom, f Fire,' (Egyptian, 
 as above.) 
 
 Giom, Heaven 
 
 Giro, Sun 
 
 Karree, Moon 
 Korro, Moon 
 
 Giro, ' Sun,' as above. 
 
 T'koara, Sun. 
 T'kaukarah, Moon. 
 Konri, 'Moon.' 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 21 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Kumar, Heaven. 
 
 {Permian.) 
 
 C h r . a, Cli . r . e, to kin- 
 dle, burn up. (Heb.) 
 
 Chor. (Persian.) 
 
 Chorschid. (Pehli.) 
 
 Chorschid, Sun. 
 
 (Ossetian.) 
 
 G . r . m, Warm. (Pers.) 
 
 C'h.r.e, to burn. 
 
 (Heb. as above.) 
 
 Gorm, to heat, or warm. 
 (Irish.) 
 
 Warm.' (Eng. fy Germ.) 
 
 Gwr-es, Heat; 
 
 Greiaw, to burn ; 
 
 Grei-an, i.e. 'theBumer,' 
 the Sun. (Welsh.) 
 
 Coaracy, Cuarasi, Qua- 
 rassi, Sun. (Brazil.) 
 
 Chiriti, Moon. (Caraibs.) 
 
 Grau-haulai, Sun. 
 
 Grau-ek, Moon. 
 
 (Abipones, S. A.) 
 
 Grian. 
 
 Grag, Fire. (Armenian.) 
 
 E e . ph . c'h,* to breathe, 
 to pant. 
 
 Ph. on . c'h, to blow up- 
 on, kindle, inflame. 
 
 (Heb.) 
 
 (Irish.) 
 
 Gar-akou. (Hurons.) 
 
 Garocqua, Sun. 
 
 (Iroquois, N.A.) 
 
 Epee, Fire. 
 
 (Katabans, N. A) 
 
 Pioc Peez, Fire. 
 
 (Moxians, S.A.) 
 
 Paahteh, Fire. 
 
 (Nadowessians, N. A.) 
 Futui, Fire. 
 
 (Betoans, S. A.) 
 
 • It is observable that the Hebrew words, Ee . ph . c> h, and Ph . ou . C h, jre evidenUy 
 imitations of the act of Breathing, or Puffing. They may, I conceive, be regarded as the 
 roots of all the words for ' Fire,' &c, which tollow. 
 
22 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Teb re, Heaven. 
 Tuahhey, 'the Sun. 
 
 Bazu, 
 » and 
 Bazou, Fire. - 
 
 Fosseye, the Sun. 
 
 Aifi-am, Of-endi, the 
 Moon. 
 
 Tubhia, Tubia, Fire. 
 
 Ibida, 
 
 T'aib, Fire. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 23 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA, 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven 
 
 Ee . ph . c'h. (As above.) 
 
 Ph . ou . c'h. (As above.) 
 Aifi, Fire. (Sumbava.) 
 
 Fi. 
 Fei. 
 Vu-r. 
 Bi. 
 
 (Japan.) 
 
 (Siam.) 
 
 (Afghan.) 
 
 (Siberian.) 
 
 Phos, Fire, Flame. 
 
 Ee . ph-aistos, Vulcan, 
 the God of Fire. 
 
 (Greek.) 
 Foc-us. (Latin.) 
 
 Fire, Fei-er, (English fy 
 German,) formed from 
 the root by adding -er, 
 the formative of nouns. 
 
 B . sh . 1, to ripen in the 
 Sun, to boil. (Heb.) 
 
 Phos, Star. (Japan.) 
 
 Ee p h o, to shine forth. 
 (Heb.) 
 
 Ee p . h . o, Brightness, 
 Splendour. (Chald.) 
 
 Ee p . p h . e, very beau- 
 tiful. (Heb.) 
 
 A If, the Moon. (Kurdish.) 
 
 Af, the Sun, and 
 
 T'eb, the Sun. (Sanscr.) 
 
 Af-teb, the Sun. 
 
 *> (Persian.) 
 
 Tab, Heat. (Persian.) 
 T aw, ' Sun.' (Kurdish.) 
 
 Bask. 
 
 (English.) 
 
 Pho-s, Fire, Light. 
 
 (Greek.) 
 
 Pha-o, to shine. (Greek.) 
 
 Phoib-os, 'Phoebus,' the 
 Sun. (Greek.) 
 
 Tep-or. 
 
 (Lathi.) 
 
 Tea-s, or Deas, Sun- 
 beams. (Welsh.) 
 
 Tash, a Day. (Pimans, 
 
 south o£N. A.) 
 Tasi, Fire. (The Kinai, 
 
 extreme n.w. of N.A.) 
 Daazoa, Sun. 
 
 (Mokobis, S. A.) 
 
24 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 To trig, ' Moon. 
 
 Hauy, Fire. 
 
 {Nubia fy Abyss.) 
 
 Tedi, 'Moon.' 
 
 Tuah' hey, ' Sun.' 
 
 (Nubia fy Abyss.) 
 
 Haou, 
 
 and 
 Eoohu, Day. (Egypt.) 
 
 ' I . oh' Lunus, the God 
 of the Moon. (Egypt.) 
 
 JohOohOihOou, Glory. 
 (Egypt.) 
 
 Ot u, and 
 Hn, Fire. 
 
 Uwya, Awia, 
 
 Ua, and Ou, ' Sun. 
 Aou . eh, Moon. 
 
 
 Ei T.ei, and T'jih 
 < Fire.' 
 
 H u . n, Sun. [See Hu, 
 Fire, above.] 
 
 A u-n, and Uw i-n, ' Sun.' 
 [See Awia, and Ua, 
 Sun, above.] 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 25 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Tadi, ' Hot.' {Afghan) 
 
 Tab-dar, Hot. {Persian.) 
 
 Ot m, to be burnt up. 
 
 {Heb.) 
 ! Ho, 'Fire.' {Chinese.) 
 
 Ha, Hai, Hen, Sun. 
 
 {Core a.) 
 
 Hen, Sun (as above). 
 
 {Corea.) 
 
 Te k-o, to melt, consume. 
 {Greek.) 
 
 Tceda, a Torch. {Latin.) 
 
 Hot. 
 
 {English.) 
 
 Tata, Fire. 
 
 {Omaguans, N. A.) 
 
 To-atka, Fire. {Musgoh- 
 ges, S. Carolina, N.A.) 
 
 Ouato, Fire. 
 
 {Caribs, S. A.) 
 Otschichta, Fire. 
 
 {Onandagos, N. A.) 
 
 Oua, {Natchez,) and You, 
 
 Fire. {Woccons, N.A.) 
 
 E-o s, theDawn. {Greek.) 
 
 Huan, Phoebus, the Sun. 
 {Welsh.) 
 
 Hueiou, Weyo, Veio, 
 'Sun.' {Caraibs,S.A.) 
 
 Auhe, Oweeh, Moon. 
 
 {Choctans, N. A.) 
 
 Yehiha, Moon. 
 
 {Mobimans, S. A.) 
 Yachquau, Moon. 
 
 {Senekas, N. A.) 
 
26 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Ton-ik Fire, 
 
 To in, Sun. 
 
 {Nubia fy Abyssinia.) 
 
 Tan gu, Tan go, Tan goa, 
 Sun. 
 
 Ik, Ika, Fire. - 
 {Berbers fy Bongolans.) 
 
 Nahangue, 
 Nonge, Sun. - 
 {Fulahs fy Phellatahs.) 
 
 K o e, to burn. 
 ' Ko. h" th, Fire. 
 Koe, to burn. 
 
 {Egypt.) 
 
 Deemwa, Fire. 
 Diambo, Sun. 
 
 Ejia, Fire. 
 
 Agning, 
 Engink, Sun. 
 
 Danghitsi, Heaven. - 
 
 Ecy, Fire. 
 
 Inyanga, 
 Eanga, 
 Inganga, Moon. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 2/ 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Tschingochok, Sun, and 
 T angeik. (Tschugas 
 sians, n. e. of Asia 
 and n.w. of America.) 
 
 Tengri, Heaven. 
 
 (Tagurian.) 
 
 Ta-an, Fire. (Welsh.) 
 
 Teine, 'Fire,' also 'The 
 Sun.' (Irish.) 
 
 A g nih, Fire. (Sanscrit.) 
 
 Ee . c . b, and Cou e : 
 to burn. (Hebrew.) 
 
 Tee me, or Time, (Irish,) 
 and Dou y m, or 
 Touym, Heat, Hot. 
 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 Ta-ande, 
 and 
 
 Teinde. 
 
 (Algonquyn Dialects.) 
 
 To-natiuh, Sun. 
 
 (Mexican.) 
 
 T schingukuk, Sun. 
 (Kadjaks, n. w. of A.) 
 
 Toendi, Heaven. 
 
 (Hurons, N. A.) 
 
 Iigain, ' I Burn.' (Russ.) 
 Ignis, Ignem. (Latin.) 
 Okon, Fire. (Sclavonian.) 
 
 Kaio, to burn. (Greek.) 
 
 Ioak, Fire. 
 
 (Choktahs, N. A.) 
 
 Ig nach, 
 
 Ing nek, Fire. 
 
 (Greenland.) 
 
 Co oh, Fire. 
 
 (Sussees, N. A.) 
 Kuthal, Ktal, Fire. 
 
 (Araucan, S. A.) 
 
 Chuk kut. 
 
 (Na?'aga?isetts.) 
 
28 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Dag, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Kohth, Fire. 
 
 Shah, Flame. 
 Shah shah Heat. 
 
 {Egyptian.) 
 
 Ejia, 'Fire.' 
 Edja, 'Fire.' 
 
 Dio, 'Fire.' 
 Day, 'Sun.' 
 
 Eju, - - 
 Ejwyge, Sun. 
 
 Gajewoade, Fire. 
 
 Uk, 
 
 Igodu, Moon. 
 
 Ecy, Fire. 
 
 Ka, 
 
 and 
 K cha, Moon. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 29 
 
 ASIA, 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Djo, Djau, Heaven, Air. 
 (Sanscrit.) 
 
 Divasi, Day. 
 
 Diwaspiti (' Diespater'), 
 Jupiter, ' Father of 
 Day.' {Sanscrit.) 
 
 Die-s, Day. (Latin.) 
 
 Dio,Dios, (Jupiter, Father 
 of Day.) (Greek.) 
 
 Kohteoue, Kotawa, 
 (and used by the same 
 tribe.) 
 
 S cute, Fire. 
 
 (Miamis, N.A.) 
 
 Diespater. 
 
 (Latin.) 
 
 Equia, 
 
 and 
 Igus-guia, Sun. 
 
 Goiza, Morning. 
 
 (Basque.) 
 
 Kizho, 
 Kes-us, 
 Kissessua, 
 Gischi, 
 
 Geschu, Sun ; 
 Kijigah, Day. 
 
 (Algonquyn dialects:) 
 
 Hak,* Moon; 
 
 Io- hakta, a Star. (Algon- 
 quyn dialects, N. A.) 
 
 K'akh, Fire. (Yucatan.) 
 
 Kacha, Moon. (Ugaljach- 
 nuti, near Behring's 
 Straits, N. A.) 
 
 Cayacu, Moon. (Brazil.) 
 
 • Da Ponceau, whose principles arc here adopted as probably applicable to all ^"^ges, 
 states that in the Algonquyn Class of Dialects of North America the name, tor the Moon 
 a fdertd from tho^e foVthe Sun, with the addition of a word t -^^ g ^^S^ 
 word Hak, he says, is very generally thus used, for the Moon, with the requisite 
 
30 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 Fire, Sun, Dag, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Onafeja, Moon. 
 
 {Berber fy Dongolan 
 
 Onateja, Moon. 
 
 {Berber fy Dongolan.) 
 
 F jo, Moon. 
 
 T'jo, 'Moon. 
 
 Teelee, ' Sun.' 
 Duleh, 'Sun/ 
 
 Dalkah, 'Day/ 
 
 Dilko, 'Heaven.' 
 Dalkah, aDay, (as above.) 
 
 Genaa, 'Sun.' 
 Guiante, 'Sun.' 
 
 Gonde, Gonda, 'Moon.' 
 
 T' ga, Moon. 
 
 P.jih, Fire. 
 
 T ga, Moon. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 31 
 
 ASIA 
 
 EUROPE, 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 TuikiAt, Sun. (Coriac.) 
 D'ge, ■ Day.' (Georgian.) 
 
 Tagara, ' Heaven.' 
 
 (Jukutian.) 
 
 Tael, Tylys, Moon. 
 
 {Permian.) 
 
 Tjel, ■ Day.' 
 
 Tsjel-emi, 'Daily.' 
 
 (Ostiaks.) 
 
 Tag, 'Day,' (German.) 
 Day. (English.) 
 
 Tacock, Moon. 
 
 (Esquimaux.) 
 
 Taiki, Fire. 
 
 (Pimans, S. A.) 
 
 Taiki, Sun. 
 
 (Tarahumaran.) 
 
 Taglich. 
 Dai-ly. 
 
 Guin escli, 
 
 Gunes, ' Sun.' (Turk.) 
 
 Gun, 'Day.' (Casanians.) 
 
 Gundus, 'Day.' 
 
 (Tartar.) 
 
 Kun, Sun. (Tartar.) 
 
 (German.) 
 (English.) 
 
 Gunnei, or Cunnei, 'A 
 great Fire.' 
 
 Gunnes, 'Warm. 
 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 Tsele, Day. (Tarahu- 
 maran, s. of N. A.) 
 
 Talkon, a Day. (The 
 Kinai, extreme n. \v. 
 ofN. A.) 
 
 Kes-is Kesus, 'Sun.' 
 
 (Algonquyn.) 
 Coun,Fire. (Chipfjeivay.) 
 
 Cone, Sun. (New Erig.) 
 
3: 
 
 CO MFARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. \ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Agonne, Moon. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 33 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Kjun, Day. (Turk.) 
 
 Tschi, Schi, 'Day.' 
 (Morduins, n. e. of Asia.) 
 
 Egun, Day. (Basque.) 
 
 Kize-kun, Okene-gat,* 
 'Day.' 
 (Algonquyn dialects.) 
 
 Tes-Gessu, Sun. [Evi- 
 dently a compound of 
 Gischu or Kiz-ho, the 
 Sun, with 'Tesh.'fl 
 
 Hence, 
 
 Teshe-kow, 'Day.' 
 
 (Algonquyn Dialects.) 
 
 • According to Du Ponceau tlie words for ' Day,' in the Algonquyn tongues, are 
 modifications of the words for the ' Sun.' 
 
 t Tash, * A Day,' (Ptmaiis, south of N. A.) This word, Teas, or Tesh, has already 
 been traced through the various meanings of Fire, Sun, Day, &c 
 
34 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Dag, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 S & 
 
 *> / 
 
 ! O 
 
 II J 
 
 i a. 
 
 Tschukko, 'Heaven.' 
 K' tak. 
 
 Nglioi, 'Heaven.' [Also 
 'Thunder in the Air.'] 
 
 T' gachu, ' Heaven/ 
 
 Homma, 'Heaven.' [See 
 Omma, Moomo, anl 
 other analogous words 
 previously explained, 
 applied to 'Sun and 
 Moon.'] 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 35 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, 
 
 Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Kjok,* 'Heaven.' 
 
 
 Kez-hik, 
 
 (Turk.) 
 
 
 Keg-ik, Heaven. 
 
 Chok, 'Heaven.' (Tart.) 
 
 
 
 Kuk, 'Heaven.' (Casan.) 
 
 
 
 Kh' igan, ' Heaven.' 
 
 
 Gezhegonk, Heaven. 
 
 {Comae.) 
 
 
 (Algonquyn.) 
 
 Ko-chan, 'Heaven.' 
 
 
 
 (Kamschatka.) 
 
 
 
 Kundscku, ' Heaven.' 
 
 
 
 (Jukadshires.) 
 
 
 
 Shkai, ' Heaven.' 
 
 ' Sky.' (Eng. $> Ban.) 
 
 Ta k, Tack, ' Heaven. ' 
 
 (Morduins.) 
 
 
 {Esquimaux.) 
 
 Kesch^kewe, Heaven. 
 
 {Algonquyn.) 
 
 Kiusiu-luste. 
 
 
 
 (Tscheremessian.) 
 
 
 
 • Words for Heaven, in the languages of the North of Asia, which are evidently con- 
 nected with the North American Indian words for Heaven, and also with the North 
 American Indian names for the 'Sun,' from which they are derived. 
 
30 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, 
 
 Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, H 
 
 eaven. 
 
 Szemmey, Heaven. 
 
 {Nubia fy Abyssinia.) 
 
 
 
 Szemma, Heaven. 
 
 
 
 {Berbers fy Dongolans.) 
 
 
 
 Szemma, Heaven. 
 
 
 
 (Phellata.) 
 
 
 
 
 Szemma. 
 
 - 
 
 
 Szemma. 
 
 
 
 Szemma. 
 
 - 
 
 
 Szemma. 
 
 
 
 Assaman. 
 
 -mm. 
 
 
 Sambiam pungo. 
 Assamane, Heaven. 
 
 
 Ape, Ape, Aphe, 'Head. 
 
 A ph . o ph, a Giant. 
 
 CEgypt.) 
 
 Ibanju. - 
 
 Ivaq. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 37 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Sema, Heaven. (Arabic.) 
 
 Shmia, Heaven. 
 
 (Fehlwi.) 
 
 Asman, Heaven. 
 
 (Siberian Tartars.) 
 
 Upo. 
 Up. 
 
 (Greek.) 
 (English.) 
 
 Heavion, to rise, 
 
 Heafon, Heaven. 
 
 (Ang. Sax.) 
 
 Haupt. 
 
 (German.) 
 
 Heafod. (Ang. Sax.) 
 
 Huf-wud, Head. 
 
 (Swedish.) 
 
 A woso-gam6, Heaven. 
 [Literally 'En Haut/ 
 on high.] 
 
 (Algonquyn.) 
 
 Apez, Heaven. 
 
 (Moxian.) 
 
 I bag, Ibaca. (Brazil.) 
 
 Oubecon, (Caraibs,) 
 
 and 
 
 Ipigem, Heaven; 
 
 (Abipones.) 
 
38 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 [See this column, previous 
 page.] 
 
 Pe, 
 
 and 
 Phe, Heaven. 
 
 N e tl^Pe and Ne-Pheou 
 Heaven-s or Heaven. 
 
 Net-phe, an Egyptian 
 Goddess, the consort 
 of Seb or Saturn. Her 
 emblem was * The Fir- 
 mament.' 
 
 Ne-Pheou, Heaven-s or 
 Heaven. [Like the 
 Greek 'Ouranoi.'] 
 
 {Egypt.) 
 
 Sum, 'Heaven.' [Com- 
 pare preceding words.] 
 
 Isuhlu, Heaven. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 39 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Nebo, Heaven. 
 
 (Sclavon.) 
 
 Nev, Heaven. {Welsh.) 
 
 Ibo, 
 
 Ibunga, the Sun. 
 
 (California.) 
 
 S 1, to raise, elevate. 
 
 (Hebrew.) 
 
 Cel sus, Coelum. (Latin.) 
 
40 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North— Egyptians, fyc. | Middle — Negroes. \ South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 % Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Aineha. 
 
 Maaro, Heaven. [Com- 
 pare the formation of 
 M — / A . ou . r, a 
 Luminary, Hebrew, 
 from A our, Light,* as 
 previously explained.] 
 
 Aineha addela, Eye. 
 
 (Nubia fy Abyss.) 
 
 * According to the views of many Hebrew scholars, A .ou . r, * Light,' and A ou . ee . r, 
 'Air,' are probably from the same root — Ar, 'To flow,' — applied to Water, Air, 
 Light, &c. (See p. 5, Appendix A.) 
 
 Atem co. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 41 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 A ou . ee . r, Air, Space, 
 (Chald.) 
 from 
 A r, to flow. (H b.) 
 
 A wyr, the Air, the Sky. 
 
 •) 
 
 Arw, Heaven. 
 
 (Ossetian.) 
 
 Auwa, Heaven. 
 
 (Sib. Tartars.) 
 
 A er 
 
 and 
 
 E r e, Juno, the Atmos- 
 phere or Heavens per- 
 sonified. 
 
 A . 6, to blow, breathe. 
 (Greek.) 
 
 Aha, Breath. (German.) 
 
 A-them, Breath, Air. 
 
 (German.) 
 
 Atm-e, Atm-os, Breath, 
 Vapour. 
 
 Atmos-Sphaira, Atmos- 
 phere. (Greek.) 
 
 Atmosphere. (English.) 
 
 Chwa, a gust of Wind. 
 (Welsh.) 
 
 Wahwi, ' Heaven.' 
 
 (Algonquyn.) 
 [According to Du Pon- 
 ceau, of unknown ori- 
 gin, 'origine incon- 
 nue.' But see the ad- 
 joining column.] 
 
 Oeen, Eye. 
 
 Ene, Behold. (Heb.) 
 
 Yen, Eye. (Chinese.) 
 
 En, Behold. (Latin.) 
 
 Aino, Eye. 
 
 (Mossans, S. A.) 
 
 En-ourou, Yen-ourou, 
 Eye. (Caraibs, S. A.) 
 
42 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Neay. 
 Hinma,, Eye. 
 
 Neay (as above). 
 
 Nou kou, 
 Onukou, Eye. 
 
 'Ego at, Eye. 
 
 {Nubia fy Abyss.) 
 
 Khasso, Eye. 
 Guitte, Eye. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 43 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Ne, Eye. {Circassian.) 
 
 Achsi, Eye. {Sanscrit.) 
 
 Giosgus, Gus, Eye. 
 
 {Turk.) 
 
 Eage, Eye. {Any. Sax.) 
 Oko, Eye. {Sclavonian.) 
 Oculus, Eye. {Latin.) 
 
 Nahui,Eye. {Quichuans.) 
 
 Nagui, Eye. 
 
 {Quitenans, S. A.) 
 
 Ne, 
 
 Nege, Ge, 'Eye.' 
 
 {Araucan, S. A.) 
 
 Nigiiecogue, 
 Nigecogee, 'Eye.' 
 
 {M. Bayan.) 
 
 Natocle, * Eye/ {Abi- 
 pones, inhabitants of 
 the extreme s. of S. 
 America.) 
 
 Ishyik. 
 
 K heseoue, the Eye, 
 
 connected with 
 
 Kes.us, the Sun. 
 
 {Algonquyn* N.A.) 
 
 Kussee, Eye. 
 
 {Nootka Sound.) 
 
 • The names for the Eye, in the Algonquyn dialects of North America are stated by 
 Du Ponceau to be derivatives of names for the Sun. This is generally but not i would 
 seem, universally the case in all languages. Probably it would a^ bemore, correct as a 
 general rule, to say that the names for the Eye, and for the Sun, are from the same roots, 
 than that the latter are the roots of the former 
 
44 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc.\ Middle — Negroes. | South — Hottentots, ^c. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Zu, Sun (as before). 
 
 T saguh, Eye. 
 
 Szan-ko, Eye. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 45 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Sai, Saiwa, Saie, Eye. 
 
 (Samoied.) 
 
 Sagax, Quick of Sight. 
 (Latin.) 
 
 Sah, the Sun and Moon. 
 (Chippeway, as before.) 
 
 Zu, 
 
 and 
 Zuiake, Eye. 
 
 (Lulians, S. A.) 
 
 Sight. 
 
 See. 
 Sehen. 
 
 Schun, ( &\m.\Mantchu.) Sun. 
 
 (English.) 
 
 (English.) 
 (German.) 
 
 (English.) 
 
 Sein, Eye. (Ostiaks.) 
 
 •Sh.msh, Sun. (Heb.) 
 
 Schun, Sun. (Mantchu.) 
 
 Tchien, Eye. (Tibet.) 
 
 Szem, Eye. (Hungarian.) 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Shenek, Eye. 
 (Algon. dialects, N. A.) 
 
46 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 North — Egyptians, fyc. \ 
 
 AFRICA. 
 Middle — Negroes, j South — Hottentots, fyc. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 N> 
 
 O 53 
 
 o S 
 a. * 
 
 as b* 
 
 .- f 
 
 "a. c 
 
 T3 O 
 
 1§ 
 
 33 S 
 
 s * 
 
 S o 
 
 ^ o 
 
 J3 V. 
 
 
 
 be w 
 
 = S3 
 
 o 5 
 
 •3.S 
 
 fa 
 
 o y Bal, an Eye, 
 
 Bel, Eyes. 
 
 fflw'O 
 
 Belle, Blind. [Supposed 
 by Dr. Loewe to be 
 from Bel or Bal, and 
 the Hebrew negative 
 suffix </.'] {Egypt.) 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 47 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 E e d, the Hand. 
 
 E ed o, to feel, to per- 
 ceive, to know. 
 
 Do, Knowledge. (Heb.) 
 
 Do-eth re, Eye. (Zend.) 
 
 Bth, the Pupil of the 
 Eye. (Hebrew.) 
 
 R . ou . c' h, Air. 
 
 (Hebrew.) 
 
 Ruchs, Air. (Ossetian.) 
 
 Eido, to see, to know. 
 
 (Greek.) 
 
 Do-eth, Wise. (Welsh.) 
 
 Ball, Eyeball. (English.) 
 Bli-ck. (German.) 
 
 Blink. (English.) 
 
 [Compare this word 
 with the last.] 
 
 Blind, 
 Black. 
 
 (English.) 
 
 Yede, Eye. 
 
 (Zamucans, S. A.) 
 
 Toke, Eye. 
 
 (Fillelans, 8. A.) 
 
48 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The proofs involved in the previous Analysis of the original unity of 
 the different languages of the globe are distinct and vivid. It will be ob- 
 served that those irregularities of structure, which are to be found more 
 or less in each individual language, viewed separately, disappear when the 
 whole mass of human tongues are thus surveyed in combination as deri- 
 vative branches of one original speech. Moreover, it will be seen that the 
 greater the number of languages, and the wider the geographical surface 
 of the globe comprised in the comparison, the more minutely may be 
 traced the steps of the transition by which the languages of mankind 
 branched off from their common Original. This evidence is in its nature 
 demonstrative of the truths developed in these pages. 
 
 It will be apparent that the Heavenly Bodies were originally designated 
 by numerous synonymes applied to the Sun, Moon, and Stars alike. In 
 the course of time, a portion of these terms fell into disuse among each 
 different branch of the human family ; and as these various tribes did not, 
 except in individual instances, preserve the same terms, these changes 
 gave rise to differences, apparently fundamental. Moreover, in those in- 
 stances in which the same terms were retained, time produced important 
 conventional differences of application. For example, in order to distin- 
 guish the Sun, Moon, &c. from each other. 
 
 1. A portion of these synonymes, which were originally used for all 
 the Heavenly Bodies alike, were exclusively appropriated to the Sun, while 
 other synonymes were appropriated in like manner to the Moon, &c. ; 
 among different nations the same terms were frequently applied to different 
 luminaries. Thus, in conformity to this principle, the English words 
 ' Sun* and ' Moon' will be found to occur in the previous Analysis each 
 applied, in other languages, to both those luminaries. 
 
 2. In some cases the different luminaries were distinguished from each 
 other in a different manner, viz. two or more synonymes were united into 
 one compound word, which was employed as the distinctive name of one 
 of the Heavenly Bodies, as of the Sun, for example, while the ' Moon' and 
 the ' Stars' continued to be known by their original names, consisting of 
 simple synonymes ; or received new names, formed by means of distinct 
 compounds. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 49 
 
 Examples of the second class abound in the dialects of the American 
 continent. One example may suffice in this place, by way of illustration: 
 ' Tes-gessu' in some of these dialects means the Sun ; in other dialects 
 we find each of its component elements, ' Tei and ' Gessu,' used sepa- 
 rately as names of the same luminary. In common with many other 
 important truths, the nature and origin of these compounds are, I con- 
 ceive, rendered clearly apparent by an extended range of comparison, 
 though they seem to have been a source of embarrassment to the philoso- 
 phical mind of Du Ponceau, whose valuable inquiries were confined to a 
 particular class of the dialects of North America. 
 
 When the results of the previous Analysis are compared with the 
 previous collection of African synonymes, used as names of the Heavenly 
 Bodies, &c, it will be found that nearly every one of these synonymes has 
 been unequivocally connected with the languages of the other three great 
 divisions of the globe. The exceptions are too insignificant to be in any 
 respect deserving of attention, with reference to the objects of this investi- 
 gation. The completeness of this explanation of the African terms may, 
 in the first instance, form a subject of surprise. But, astonishing as the 
 results of the previous comparison in this respect undoubtedly are, they 
 are nevertheless precisely the same as we should be led a priori to expect, 
 on the assumption that the African nations are descended from the same 
 stock as the inhabitants of the other three continents.* • 
 
 * I need scarcely observe that the previous Analysis must necessarily be, in some 
 respects, philological ly incomplete. Agreska, Ogreska, (Nubia and Abyssinia,) seem 
 to be related to Agir, Fire, (Kurd.) We-taga, the Sun, (Negro,) seems to be a com- 
 pound of the second class above noticed from Awia, Uwia, and Tjo, T'ga, African words 
 for the Heavenly Bodies. Gjaubenje and Ma-undgage wodu, Fire, are plainly compounds 
 from Gajewodu, Fire, (Negro.) The evidence derived from words, of which the origin 
 is clearly traceable, is so complete, that all words of doubtful origin have been omitted 
 from the previous and from the following Tables. 
 
50 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 WORDS FOR 'MAN, WOMAN, HUMAN BEING.' 
 
 [In the following Analysis, the letter m. marks nouns masculine, ('Vir,' 
 Latin, 'Man/ English;) f. marks nouns feminine, (' Fosmina,' 
 Latin, 'Woman, 5 English;) h. marks terms applied to a 'Human 
 Being,' whether 'male' or 'female,' ('Homo,' Latin, 'Mensch,' 
 German;) there is no equivalent expression in the English 
 language.] 
 
 From the following Analysis, it will be apparent that, originally, the 
 same words were in most instances applied to individuals of the human 
 race, whether male or female, indiscriminately. Subsequently, a portion 
 of the synonymes, thus indiscriminately applied in the first instance to the 
 whole species, were separately appropriated to each of the two sexes ; 
 while another portion, as, for example, the Latin, 'Homo,' and the 
 German, ' Mensch,' continued to be used as general terms for an indi- 
 vidual of the species, without reference to sex. 
 
 As the appropriation of these words was purely conventional, the same 
 synonymes were very frequently appropriated, among different branches 
 of the human race, to different sexes : i. e. a word appropriated to ' Man' 
 (Vir) by some tribes was appropriated to the 'Female' sex (Foemina) by 
 other tribes. It is also evident that the terms thus appropriated consisted 
 in some instances of simple, in others of compound, synonymes. 
 
 These principles, which are precisely analogous to the results which 
 flow from a comparison of the names of ' The Heavenly Bodies' in the 
 African tongues and in the other languages of the globe* will be found to 
 afford a complete and consistent explanation of the phenomena displayed 
 by the following Analysis, viz. : As before suggested, we find the word* 
 applied to the human race in the different tongues of the globe the same; 
 it is only in the appropriation of those words, as regards the two sexes, 
 that we find a wide diversity in the various languages of the human race. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 51 
 
 Words for 'Man, Woman, 9 fyc. — Class I. 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 North Africa.— Fulahs fy Phellatahs Gour-ko, m., Gourk-o Mahedo, m. 
 
 Negro-land - Gourr, h., Garr, h., Core, h. 
 
 Gour-gne, m., Kerim, f. 
 
 Europe. — Welsh - Gour, m. 
 
 (A mighty man, a hero.) Gour-on, m. 
 
 Asia. — Taraikai - - Guru, h 
 
 Kamschatka - - Kur, h. 
 
 Pelu - - - Kor, h. 
 
 Negro-land (as above) - - Core. h. 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 South Africa. — Madagascar - Urun, h. 
 
 Orrang, m.* 
 
 Europe. — Welsh. (Modifications of Our, m., Ouron, m. 
 'Gour and Gour-on,' above.) 
 
 Asia. — Malay - Orang, m. 
 
 South America. — Qmcuans - Uar mi, f. 
 
 Negro-land (as above) - - Kerim, f. 
 
 There is a very obvious connexion between the above words for Man 
 and a word for c The Hand,' of which the extreme antiquity is apparent 
 from its occurring in the languages of races so widely separated as the 
 following, in whose tongues this word exists in the subjoined forms, which 
 cannot be said essentially to differ from each other: Gara (Mongol), 
 Kara (Sanscrit), Keir (Greek), c The Hand.'' [Compare the relation 
 shown in the following examples between Manus, 'The Hand' (Latin), and 
 Manus-zia (Sanscrit), and Men-sch (German), i. e. Homo, a ' Human 
 Being.'] 
 
 * Hence the name of the ' Ourang Outang.' 
 
52 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Words for ' Man, Woman? fyc. — Class II. 
 
 Europe. — English - 
 
 Welsh (Living, to live) 
 Greek (To live) 
 Greek (Life) 
 
 Asia. — Koibals, N. Asia - 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 To Be. 
 
 Biou. 
 
 Bio-o.* 
 
 Bi-os. 
 
 Biuse, m. 
 
 Buas-ja, f. 
 
 Words for ' Man, Woman/ fyc. — Class III. 
 
 first modification. 
 
 Europe. — Latin 
 South Africa. — Koosas 
 
 (A Child) 
 
 Homo, h. 
 
 Uhm-to, h. 
 Uhm-fasi, f. 
 Uhm-toano. 
 
 Negro-land. (A compound, appa- Bi-ommo, h. 
 rently, of Ommo and the 
 previous word ' Biou,' &c.) 
 
 South America. — Betoans 
 
 Humasoi, h. 
 Umasoi, h. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Um-ir, h. 
 Mo, H. 
 
 Asia. — Ossetians - 
 
 Mo, H. 
 
 South America. — Guaramians - 
 
 Me, m. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Amme, h., Emme, h. 
 Meame, h. 
 Mammoku, m. 
 Mangman, f. 
 
 • Obaini, m., Baning, m. (Negro), seem to be connected with Bio-6n (GrteJt), <A 
 BeiiJg, , (English.) 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 53 
 
 The following are examples of words of this class applied to the Female 
 
 Sex: 
 
 South America. — Mobimans 
 
 Mossans (' A Mother') 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 North Africa. — Egypt 
 
 Europe. — Basque - 
 
 Asia. — Karassians and Ostiaks - 
 
 Europe. — Fin. - 
 
 Ma, f. 
 Meme, f. 
 
 Ma, f., Mmi, f. 
 
 Hime, f., Himi, f. 
 
 Emea, f. 
 
 Ima, f., Ime, f. 
 
 Waimo, f. 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 Europe. — Latin (from Homo) 
 (Human) 
 (The Hand) - 
 
 Asia. — Sans. (A * Human Being') 
 
 Europe. — German (The same) 
 (A Man, Vir) 
 English - 
 Danish - 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 South Africa. — Lagoa Bay 
 Beetjuanas 
 
 Asia. — Kurd - 
 Ossetian 
 
 South America. — Omaguans 
 
 Ho-mm-em, h. 
 Ku-'man'-Hs. 
 ' man' -us. 
 
 Manus-zia, h. 
 
 Men-sch, h. 
 Mann, m. 
 Man, m. 
 Mand, m. 
 
 Manee, h., Mond, h., Mundu, h. 
 
 Monhee, h. 
 Muhn-to, h. 
 Mon-una, m. 
 
 Manno, m. 
 Moine Mo, h. 
 
 Mena, m. 
 
 The following are examples in which the Second Modification and the 
 transition from the first to the second form of these words are traceable 
 in words applied to the Female Sex 
 
 Europe. — Fin. (Woman, as above) Waimo, f. 
 
 Asia. — Sanscrit 
 E ur ope . — English 
 
 WaL-mani, f. 
 Wo-man, f. 
 
54 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 The words of this Class may be distinctly traced, in both their previous 
 modifications, as Pronouns in common use in the principal languages of 
 Europe and Asia. The value of this evidence will be understood when 
 Home Tooke's principle, that Pronouns are identical with Nouns, is borne 
 in mind. 
 
 1 . Pronouns identical with Amme, Emme, Meame, ' Man,' above : 
 
 Aham, ' 1/ Mam, < Me,' {Sanscrit.) 
 Erne, 'Me/ {Greek.) 
 
 2. Pronouns identical with M onhe, Mano, Manee, ' Man,' above. 
 
 Mon, f I,' {Ostia/c.) Men, I, {Persian.) 
 
 Menik, '1/ {Belutchee.) Menya, 'Me,' {Russian.) 
 
 f Mein/ {German and English.) 
 
 For other examples, see Observations on the Algonquyn Dialects of 
 North America. 
 
 There is another topic that calls for observation in this place. 
 
 The origin of the peculiar transition, observable in this class of words, 
 as, for example, in the instance of the Latin words ' Homo, Ko-tninis, 
 Hu-manus, Manus/ has been fully investigated in the Observations on the 
 Algonquyn Dialects of North America. Those observations are equally 
 applicable in this place, for the previous Analysis establishes the re- 
 markable fact that the African languages exhibit in this instance not only 
 the same words, but the principal subordinate modifications of those 
 words, which occur in the tongues of the other three continents. 
 
 Further, these modifications are completely traceable in the Negro dia- 
 lects separately considered. They are also completely traceable in the 
 dialects of South Africa separately considered. Moreover, it may be 
 added, that these gradations of inflexion actually coexist in one single 
 class of South African dialects : f Uhm-to, Muhn-to, Momma/ are all 
 found in the languages of the kindred tribes, the Koossas and Beetjuanas. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 55 
 
 Words for ' Man, Woman' #-c. — Class IV. 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 South America. — Abipones and Joal£, h. 
 Mokobis ... Aalo, f. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Europe. — Latin Pronouns 
 South Africa. — Madagascar 
 
 Alo, F. 
 
 IUe, IUa. 
 
 Lelay, m. 
 Lahe, m. 
 
 North Africa. — Egypt 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 South Africa. — Madagascar 
 
 Asia. — Malays of Formosa 
 
 N. America. — Algonquyn dialects 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 Lomi, h. 
 
 Olummi, m.* 
 
 Olon, h. 
 Oelun, h. 
 
 Aulon, h. 
 
 Ahlaniah, h. 
 Hlaniah, h. 
 Illenni, h. 
 Lenno, m. 
 Lennis, h. 
 
 Laniu, m. 
 Lung, f. 
 
 Words for 'Man, Woman,' fyc. — Class V. 
 Europe. — Welsh, * Full of Spirits' Nouv us. 
 Asia. — Hebrew. (Breath, Spirit, 
 
 A Man) 
 Negro-land 
 
 N . ph . sh, h. 
 
 Nipa, h., Nippa, h. 
 Nebeju, m., Enipa, h. 
 
 N. America. — Algonquyn dialects Nepiou, h., Napiou, h. 
 
 Nabou, h., L en-nape', M. 
 
 Ilium (Latin). 
 
56 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Referring to the foregoing American words, Nepio and Nabou, 
 Du Ponceau observes, <e Ces deux derniers semblent avoir quelque rapport 
 avec Len-ape." " The last two seem to have some connexion with Len-ape." 
 Lenape is plainly a compound of the two preceding roots, Lenno and 
 Napiou. The nature of these compounds, which, as above stated, may 
 be said to have escaped the observation of Du Ponceau, has been ex- 
 plained in the preceding remarks on ' The Heavenly Bodies.' Len-ape is 
 a compound formed to distinguish the Male sex. 
 
 Words for 'Man, Woman,' fyc. — Class VI. 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 North Africa— Egypt (To live) Anah . On . h. 
 
 Asia. — Heb. (To sigh, breathe) A . n . c . h. 
 
 A . n . sh, m., N . sh . e, f. 
 
 Kamschatka - - Ainu, m 
 
 Negro-land - Nu, m., In, f. 
 
 South Africa. — Bosjesmans - T'Na, m. 
 
 N. America. — Algonquyn dialects - Anini, h., Inin, m., Ninnee, m., 
 
 Inishiti, h. 
 
 Asia. — Hebrew (as above) - An . sh, m., N sh . e, f. 
 
 second modification. 
 
 Negro-land - Ungi, m. 
 
 Jankueh, f., Nga, f. 
 
 North Africa. — Phellatahs - Nekdo, h. 
 
 North America.— Iroquois - - Ongue, h. 
 Greenland - Innuk, h. 
 
 Agreeably to Home Tooke's principles, the following Pronouns in other 
 languages may be regarded as identical with the African Nouns in the 
 Analysis, viz. : 
 
 The Pronoun of the Second Person, Nyu, Nai, ' Thou' (Chinese), may 
 be identified with Nu, and T'na. The Pronouns of the First Person, '1/ 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 57 
 
 Anok (Egyptian), An . c . ee (Hebrew), Ionga (Greek), Ngoo (Chinese), 
 may be viewed as identical with Ungi Jankueh and Nga.* 
 
 Further examples of both the previous Modifications of Class VI. 
 Being words applied to the Female Sew. 
 
 Asia. — Malay 
 
 Turkish (A Mother) 
 
 ~ 
 
 Ina, f. 
 Anna, f. 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Anna, f. 
 
 South America. — Sapebocans 
 
 - 
 
 Anu, f. 
 
 Europe . — Hungari 
 
 an (A Mother) 
 
 Anya. 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Wan, f., Jankueh, f. 
 
 Asia. — Japan 
 
 Lieu Kieu 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Wonna, f., Wonago, f. 
 Einago, f. 
 
 Europe . — English 
 Gothic 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Wench. 
 
 Uen, f., Uens, f. 
 
 South Africa 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Honnes, f. 
 
 Asia. — Hebrew (as 
 Koibal 
 
 above) 
 
 - 
 
 A . n . sh, m., N . sh . e, f, 
 
 Niausa, f. 
 
 Words for ' Man, Woman,' fyc. — Class VII. 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 South Africa. — Coronas 
 
 Negroland - ' 
 
 South America. — Muyscans 
 Zamucans 
 
 North America. — Shawannos 
 
 Asia.— Heb. (A Body, A Person) 
 Kamschatka 
 Taraikai - 
 Lasian - - 
 
 Kouh, m., Kauh, m. 
 
 Cow, m., Kea, m., Kaikjai, m. 
 
 Koa, m., (plural.) 
 Chha, m. 
 Cheke, f. 
 
 Ochechee, m. 
 
 Gou . e. 
 Okkaijuh, m. 
 Okkai, m. 
 Akadju, m. 
 
 N. Africa. — Berbers fy Dongolans Agikh, m. 
 
 '» Ng-ummi, and Ng-umbo, (Negro names for 'Man,') seem obviously to be com- 
 pounds of the above words, < Ungi, Nga,' with Ommo, Uhm-to, <fec, another word 
 for * Man, Woman/ &c, elsewhere noticed in this Analysis. 
 
58 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Words applied chiefly to Nouns Feminine 
 Asia. — Mantschu - 
 
 S. America. — Zamucans (as above) 
 
 North America. — Cochimi 
 
 Europe. — English - 
 German 
 Latin Pronouns 
 
 Chache, m., or Haghe, m., 
 Cheche, f., or Heghe, f 
 
 Cheke, f. 
 
 Huagin, f. 
 
 Hag, f. 
 
 Hexe, f. 
 
 Hie, m., Haec, f. 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION.* 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentot Tribes - 
 
 Europe. — Latin Pronouns 
 
 Kouh, m., Kus, f., Kauh, m., 
 
 Chai-sas, f. 
 K'quique, m., K'quiqis, f. 
 Quoique, m., Kyoiqui-s, f. 
 Quai-scha, f. 
 
 Qui, Quis, Quisque. 
 
 South America. 
 
 -Salivians 
 Mobimans 
 
 Cocco, M. 
 Coucya, f. 
 
 Hakke, h., Icquoi-s, f. 
 Esqua, f., f Squaw/ f. 
 
 N. America. — Alyonquyn dialects, 
 (A Body, or Person) - 
 
 It will be observed that in the previous African words, as also in the 
 North American words introduced into the comparison, the Feminine is 
 formed by adding the letter ' s/ (as in the English Prince-ss) ; a form 
 which prevails widely in the most ancient languages of Europe. 
 
 Asia. — Taraikai (as above) 
 
 Okai, m. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Okee-tu, f., Uk-assi, f. 
 
 Asia. — Georgian 
 
 Samoied (Men) 
 Lasian 
 
 Kasi, m. 
 Chosowo. 
 Goz, H. 
 
 Europe. — Welsh 
 Basque 
 
 Gouas, m. 
 Giuzona, m. 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 Guiguienne, f., Guiacar, m. 
 
 * There is not, in every case, a regular or broadly marked distinction between these 
 ' Modifications,' which have been adopted to facilitate comparison rather than as being 
 based on strictly philological grounds. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 59 
 
 THIRD MODIFICATION. 
 
 Negro-land - Jakkek, m., Ackala, m.* 
 
 South America. — Caraibs - Oukele, h. 
 
 North America. — Mexico - Oquichetle, h. 
 
 Names for 'Man, Woman,' fyc. — Class VIII. 
 [A Modification of Class VII.] 
 
 Asia. — Hebrew (' Man,' as above) - Gou . e, or 
 
 Gov, h. 
 Pehlwi - Gebna, m. 
 
 Samoied - Chubb, m., Chyb, m. 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentots - Chaib, m., Kupp, m. 
 
 Names for 'Man, Woman,' fyc. — Class IX. 
 
 North Africa. — Egypt - - Hoout, h. 
 
 Nubia fy Abyssinia" Odey, h. 
 Otak, m. 
 Negro-land. Ot ga, m., Ot-jee, f. 
 
 Conformably to Home Tooke's principle, A . th . c ., 'Thou' {Hebrew,) 
 may be regarded as identical with Otak, Ot ga-, Ot-jee, the above names for 
 'Man, Woman/ &c. 
 
 Asia. — Tribes on the ' Jenisei' River Had-kip, m. 
 in Siberia - At-kub, m. 
 
 Hutt, h., Hitt, h. 
 Ket, h., Khitt, h. 
 
 These words are composed of simple and of compound synonymes, both 
 derived from the last two classes of words. 
 
 * Najakala and Bacala, m. (Negro), seem to be compounds derived from Ackala and 
 other roots. Ack-ala, Jakk-ela themselves seem to be compounds of * Kai, Hakke,' 
 &c. (the class of words analysed above,) with Alo, &c terms for ' Man,' noticed in 
 other parts of this Analysis. 
 
60 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Names for ' Man, Woman/ fyc. — Class X. 
 
 Negro-land 
 Europe. — Icelandic 
 Asia. — Kamschatka 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 Mad, h., Made, h., Mutte, h 
 Mad-ur, m. 
 Math, f. 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Asia. — Zend. 
 
 Taraikai 
 Motorian 
 
 Europe. — Sclavonian 
 Latin. 
 Armorican 
 
 South America. — Muyscans 
 
 Negro-land - - 
 
 Europe. — Dalmatian 
 
 Messhuhu, m., Muhsa, f. 
 Musee, f. 
 
 Meshio, m. 
 Mazy, f. 
 Misem, f. 
 
 Mosh, m. 
 Mas, m.* 
 Maues, f. 
 
 Muysca, m 
 
 Mogee, h. 
 
 Muux, m. 
 
 Words for ( Man, Woman,' fyc. — Class XI. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 South Africa - 
 South America. — Vilellans 
 
 Ibalu, m., Belb, m., Obellima, u, 
 Am-pele, f. 
 Pele, h. 
 
 * Mass-ari, Bass-ari, f. — South Africa. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 61 
 
 Words for 'Man, Woman,' fyc. — Class XII. 
 
 Europe. (Latin and Greek Pro- 'Is,' 'Os.' 
 nouns, and terminations of 
 Nouns) - 
 
 Latin (To Be) - - Esse. 
 
 Asm.— Hebrew ('To Be') 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentots 
 
 Europe. — Greek (Life) 
 
 (To live) 
 
 E e . sh. 
 
 A . ee . sh (Vir.) 
 
 A . sh.e (Fcemina.)* 
 
 Osse, h., See, h. 
 Uzu, M.f 
 
 Zohee, m., Zohee-s, f. 
 
 Zo-e. 
 Zoo. 
 
 Names for 'Man, Woman; £c— Class XIII. 
 
 Asia. — Afghan 
 Zend 
 Persian 
 Sanscrit 
 
 Europe. — Latin 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 Meru, m. 
 Merete, m. 
 Mard, m. 
 Mart-ja, m, 
 
 Mari-tus, m., Mar-is. 
 
 Asia. — Georgian 
 Africa. —Negro-land 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 K-mari, m. 
 K&mere, m. 
 
 THIRD MODIFICATION. 
 
 Negro-land - - - Nuwo. h. 
 
 North America.- Algon. dialects. M-marongh, h. 
 
 * She — English. 
 
 f Turkish— Uz, 'Self/ Himself, Myself- 
 
62 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Words for 'Man, Woman? #-c— Class XIV. 
 
 [Applied chiefly to the Female Sex.] 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 Europe. — Greek (A Woman) 
 Russian - 
 
 Latin ('The Mother of 
 the Gods') 
 
 Asia. — Sanscrit - 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 Gun . e, f. 
 Jena, f. 
 'Juno. 5 
 
 Jani, f. (Janoni, A Mother.) 
 Jonnu, f., Djonnu, f., Junoo, f. : 
 
 The identity of the Negro word ' Junoo' with the Latin ' Juno/ is a re- 
 markable feature in this comparison. 
 
 " Janoni, a Mother, in Sanscrit," it is observed in an able article in the 
 Edinburgh Review, f " is the manifest origin of the Latin appellation of 
 the mother of the Gods.' 3 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION 
 
 Words for ' Woman. 9 
 
 South America. — Mocobis - - Coenac, f. 
 
 Cunia, f. 
 
 Ankona, f. 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentots 
 
 * Negro-land 3 
 
 Kento, f. 
 
 Quinto, f. 
 
 Tjendo, f., Diguen, f. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Kwen, f. — Gothic. 
 Gune, f. — Greek. 
 Gean, f. — Gaelic. 
 Koinne, f. — 
 Koinnt, f. — 
 Quinde, f. — Banish. 
 
 * Two dominant ideas pervade the words of this class, viz. those of 1, Birth ; and 2, 
 Existence in the abstract. As words expressive of ideas of the second class are regarded 
 by philosophical writers as derivatives, the idea of Birth, as in the Greek words Genn-ao, 
 Gun-e, Genn-etor, may be viewed as the primary and proper sense. 
 
 t Vol. XIII., p. 373, Review of Wilkins's Sanscrit Grammar. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 63 
 
 Words for 'Man,' (Vir and Homo.) 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 Negro-land - Gonee, m. 
 
 Asia. — Mongol - Kun, m. 
 
 Jukadshires - Kun sch, m. 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 South Africa - T'kohn, h.* 
 
 N. America. — Algonquyn dialects Tchainan, h. 
 
 Asia. — Core a - Tchin, h. 
 
 Europe. — Irish and Welsh - Duine, h., Dean, h. 
 
 • Negro-land — Dikkom, Dim, m., Tewe, f. ; Irish— Dae, M. <fe r. 
 
64 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 NAMES OF 'THE HAND. 
 
 The African words of this Class collected by Adelung are thirty-six in 
 number. Of these, twenty-nine belong to the languages of the region of 
 pure Negroes. In the following Analysis the whole of these words have 
 been shown to be related to analogous words used in the other great 
 divisions of the Globe.* 
 
 Names of ' The Hand.' — Class I. 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 North America. — Mexico - - Tom. 
 
 North Africa. — Nubia 
 
 Tedembeton. ■ 
 
 Europe.— Welsh (' To feel') 
 English - 
 German (The Thumb) 
 
 Teim-law. 
 'Thumb.' 
 Daum. 
 
 Asia. — Hebrew - 
 
 (To perceive, discern, taste) 
 
 Tom. 
 
 Africa. — Hottentots (Tongue) - 
 
 Tamma, and T'inn. 
 
 Europe. — English - 
 
 Tongue. 
 
 There are numerous examples to show that the words for the Tongue 
 and the Taste of the Palate are in many, if not in all cases, terms thus 
 applied in a secondary sense, which, in their primary meaning, were ap- 
 plied to ' The Hand,' and its Perceptive Functions. Compare the words 
 which occur hereafter (under 'The Names for the Hand. — Class X.') 
 Tusso, ' The Hand' (Negro) ; Dast, < The Hand' (Persian) ; Tast-en, ' To 
 grope' (German); 'Taste' (English). 
 
 • There are only two African words of this class, which have been left unnoticed in 
 the analysis, viz. Blimozeh, ' The Hand,' a Negro word, apparently related to ' Bulla,' 
 another Negro word for 'The Hand/ probably allied also to 'Pal-ma,' (Latin ;) and 
 Neworeh. « The Hand, used by the Phellatahs, a tribe of North Africa, who inhabit a 
 tract contiguous to Negro-land. These exceptions are too trifling to call for any quali- 
 fication of the generality of the above statement. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 65 
 
 The names for 'The Hand,' and its Functions, have also given rise to 
 numerous words metaphorically expressive of mental operations, as in the 
 above examples: Tom, 'The Hand' (Mexican); Tom, To Taste To 
 Discern, Discernment, Judgment (Hebrew) ; Tam-ias, A Judge (Greek) • 
 Doom, 'Dooms-day' (English). & v '' 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 Negro-land - . Dinde, Ninde, Nindi. 
 
 South Africa.— Madagascar - Tangh, Tangam, Tangan. 
 
 Hottentots - T'unka. 
 
 Asia.— Malays - - . Tangan. 
 
 Tribes on the ' Jenisei' 
 
 River, in Siberia - Togon, Tono. 
 
 Kamschatka - - Tono. 
 
 North America. — Hudson's Bay 
 
 'The Hand' - Tene-law. 
 'The Tongue - Tene-thoun. 
 
 In these American dialects ' Tene' is a general prefix to the names of 
 the senses; 'Law' is the distinctive name of the Hand; 'Toun' the dis- 
 tinctive name of the Tongue, &c. 
 
 Europe.— English - - Tongue. 
 
 Latin Verbs - - Tang-o, Teneo. 
 
 Names of ' The Hand.'— Class II. 
 South Africa. — Coronas - - T'koam. 
 
 North America. — Poconchi - Cam. 
 
 Asia. — Hebrew (A Hand-fuR) - K . m . ts. 
 
 (To grasp, To lay hold of) - K . m . t. 
 
 Europe. — Welsh (To take) - Kum-meryd. 
 
 Names of ' The Hand.' — Class III. 
 
 Negro-land - Bulla. 
 
 (Hand and Arm) - Bulla. 
 
 Asia. — Persian (The Arm, - B 
 
6G 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 Names of ' The Hand.' — Class IV. 
 Obaa. 
 
 Europe. — Gothic fy Anglo-Saxon 
 
 (To have) - - Hab-an. 
 
 Hab-ban. 
 Latin - Hab-ere. 
 
 Names of * The Hand. 9 — Class V. 
 Negro-land - Ononuba. 
 
 South America. — Mossans - Nubou, Nuboupe. 
 
 Names of < The Hand.'— Class VI. 
 
 North Africa. — Egypt. 
 
 (The Hand and Front Arm) Koi. 
 (The Hand) - - Gig. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Kook Coco. 
 
 
 Kogo. 
 
 
 Okuh, Hukko, 
 
 Europe. — Finland - 
 
 Kchesi. 
 
 Lapland 
 
 Chketsch. 
 
 
 Chkatsch. 
 
 Hungarian 
 
 Keez. 
 
 Asia. — Arabic (Cubitus) 
 
 Caa. 
 
 Tamul (Hand) 
 
 Kei. 
 
 Georgian - 
 
 Che. 
 
 Persian - 
 
 Kef, or Gef. 
 
 Quasi Quumuq 
 
 Kuja. 
 
 Ossetian 
 
 Koch, Kuch. 
 
 N. America. — Nootka Sound 
 
 Kook-elixo. 
 
 Tschitketans 
 
 Katchicou. 
 
 Ugaljachmutsi 
 
 Kajak-az. 
 
 Senecas 
 
 Kaschuchta. 
 
 St. Barbara's 
 
 Huachaja. 
 
 S. America. — Araucans 
 
 Cuu, Cuugh. 
 
 Brazils 
 
 Gepo. 
 
 Yarurans 
 
 Icchi-mo. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 67 
 
 Names of ' The Hand:— Class VII. 
 
 The following may be regarded as modifications of the foregoing Class 
 of words : 
 
 North Africa.— Egypt [Allied to 
 Gig, ' The Hand,' {Egypt) 
 above mentioned] - - Shig. 
 
 South Africa. —Beetjuanas - Sseak-ja. 
 
 Asia. — [Language of the Garrau 
 
 Mountains, n.e. of Bengal] - Zjak. 
 Georgian - Shi. 
 
 Chinese Zj iu, Ziu. 
 
 Sheu. 
 
 N. America.— Fitzhugh Sound - Shou-shey. 
 
 Negro-land - Aschi. 
 
 Europe.— Basque - Escua. 
 
 The words used in the last two Classes of examples as ' Names' for 
 ' The Hand/ may be identified in the most unequivocal manner in other 
 instances, as Verbs descriptive of some distinctive Functions of the Hand. 
 
 Compare Coco, Okuh, Hukko, Negro names for ' The Hand,' with the 
 verbs K6, ' To take,' Ek-6, 'To hold, have, act' (Greek); Ago (Latin). 
 
 Compare Aschi (Negro), Escua (Basque), with Esch-on, Isch-ein, 
 Sch-ein, 'To hold,' 'To have* (Greek). 
 
 Compare Katchicou, North American, and Chkatsch, Lapland, names 
 for 'The Hand/ with 'Catch' (English). 
 
 Compare Kef, or Gef (Persian), and Gepo 'The Hand' (Brazilian), 
 with Give (English), Geb-en (German). 
 
 Compare Kaschuchtah, North American, and Khesi, Fin, names for the 
 Hand, with the verbs Keisio, 'To search for' (Welsh), Guess (English); 
 verbs derived from G . sh, ' To feel, search for, with the Hand' (Hebrew). 
 
68 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Names of ' The Hand.'— Class VIII. 
 
 Asia. — Hebrew (The Hand and 
 
 Forearm) - - A . m . e. 
 
 Hebrew ( f A Finger,' r Ee . m . ee . n. 
 
 ' The Right Hand') jEe.m.n.e. 
 
 v. Ee . m . ee . n . th. 
 
 North Africa. — Egypt. 
 
 (The Hand and Forearm) Mah, Mahe. 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentots (Hand) Omma. 
 
 South America. — Sapibocans - Erne. 
 [See A . m . e (Hebrew) above.] 
 
 Zamucans - Yumanai. 
 [See Ee . m . n . e {Hebrew) above.] 
 
 Salivians - Immomo. 
 
 The following may be viewed as modifications of the previous words : * 
 South Africa. — Lagoa Bay - Mundha. 
 
 Europe. — Latin - Manus. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 South Africa. — Caffres 
 
 Europe. — Latin (' Handle') 
 
 Latin (To seize or hold) 
 Danish, Icelandic, English, 
 
 and German - 
 Greek (To take) 
 
 Asia, North. — Tribes on the 'JeniseV 
 River, Siberia 
 
 Names of < The Hand.'— Class IX, 
 Ensah, Ensaa. 
 
 Fansah. 
 
 Ansa or Hansa.-f 
 Pre-hendo. 
 
 Haand, Hond, Hand. 
 Chandano. 
 
 Kenar, Kenaran. 
 
 • On this subject the analysis of Manee and other analogous African words for ' Man. 
 See also Observations on the Algonquyn Dialects of North America 
 
 t ' Ansa, for Hansa,' supine of Hendo. whence « Pre-hendo' (Latin).— Valpv's Eton. 
 Latin Diet. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 69 
 
 Names of < The Hand:— Class X. 
 North Africa. — Berber - - Idd-egh. 
 
 Asia. — Hebrew and Arabic - Eed, led. 
 
 Pehlwi - Jede-man.* 
 Samoied, Koibal, and Moto- 
 
 rian - Uda, Oda, Udam. 
 
 Names of ' The Hand.'— Class XI. 
 
 North Africa. — Phellatahs 
 Negro-land - 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentots of Sal- 
 dana Bay - 
 
 Youngo. 
 Nakoa. 
 
 Onekoa. 
 
 North America. — Cochimi 
 
 Nagona. 
 
 Miamis 
 
 Onexca. 
 
 
 Enahkee. 
 
 Iroquois 
 Algon. dialects 
 
 Eniage. 
 Nachk. 
 
 
 Naak. 
 
 Europe. — English (Adroitness in 
 any Handy-craft) 
 English (Joints of the 
 Fingers) 
 
 Knack. 
 Knuck-les. 
 
 South America. — Maipurans 
 
 Nucape. 
 
 Names of ' The Hand: — Class XII. 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 South Africa. — Bosjesmans - T'aa. 
 
 North America. — Mixtecans - Daha. 
 
 Europe.— Welsh (The Right Hand) Dahai. 
 
 Apparently a compound of Eed or led, and Man-us 
 
70 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 Asia. — Persian and Kurd - Da-st. 
 
 Armenian - Tzjern. 
 
 Negro-land - Tusso. 
 
 Europe. — German (A Claw, a Paw) Tatze. 
 
 German (To grope) - Tast-en. 
 English (applied to the 
 
 Palate) - - « Taste/ 
 
 THIRD MODIFICATION. 
 
 Asia. — Kamschatka - - Tegi. 
 
 Europe.— English (A Verb) - < Take.' 
 
 Asia. — Taraikai - Dek. 
 
 Europe. —Latin (The Right Hand) Dex-tra. 
 
 Greek (To take) - - Dekomai. 
 
 Names of < The Rand. 9 — Class XIII. 
 Negro-land ... - Be 
 
 Asia. —Tribes on the Jenisei 3 Siberia Phjaga. 
 Siam - Pfan. 
 
 Europe. — Welsh ... Pau-en. 
 
 English (applied to animals) Paw. 
 
 South America. — Brazils 
 
 Omaguans 
 
 Poh, Po. 
 Pua. 
 
 North America.— Mic-Macs 
 
 Peton. 
 
 Names of ' The Hand. 1 — Clas 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Alo, Alio. 
 
 Asia. — Turkish - 
 
 Ell, Elli. 
 
 Europe. — (An old Teutonic word 
 applied to the Cubit, 
 or Forearm) 
 English - 
 
 EU, EUe. 
 El-bow. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 71 
 
 Negro-land 
 Europe. — Welsh 
 
 SECOND MODIFICATION. 
 
 Loho. 
 La-o-u. 
 
 America. — Chippewayans - Lah. 
 
 Hudson's Bay (< The Hand') - Tene*-Law. 
 
 ('The Tongue') Tene-Thoun. 
 
 THIRD MODIFICATION. 
 
 Negro-land (Allied to the Negro 
 word Loho, ' The Hand/ 
 
 above) ... Loco. 
 
 North America. — Penobscot - Oleechee; 
 
 Asia. — Tibet ... Lag. 
 
 Georgian - Cheli. 
 
 Europe. — English (Applied to 
 
 animals) Claw. 
 
 Irish (The Hand) - Glak. 
 
 Asia. — Ingumian - Kulku. 
 
 FOURTH MODIFICATION. 
 
 Europe. — Greek (The Hand and 
 Front Arm, the Cubit) - 
 
 N. America. — Pennsylvania 
 
 New Sweden 
 
 Ole n . e. 
 
 Olcenskam. 
 Alcen-skam. 
 Olcenskan. 
 Alcenskan. 
 
 • Tene in this dialect is prefixed to the names of the senses generally. Law, for in- 
 stance, is the distinctive name of ' The Hand, 5 Thoun is that of ' The Tongue,' obviously 
 connected with ' Tongue/ {English, 
 
/2 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 WORDS FOR 'THE TONGUE.' 
 
 In the following Analysis all the South African words, and also all the 
 Negro words of this class, with the exception of ' Teckramme,' (probably 
 a compound,) have been shown to be unequivocally connected with im- 
 portant analogous terms in the languages of the other great Continents. 
 
 {South Africa, — Tamma Tamme, T'inn.*) See these words illustrated 
 among the words for ' The Hand.' See also, under the same head, for 
 examples of the principle that the words applied to ' The Tongue,' and its 
 Perceptive Functions, are in many, if not in most cases, secondary or 
 Metaphorical applications of words originally applied to ' The Hand,' and 
 its Perceptive Functions; as in Tasten, 'To grope,' German; 'Taste,' 
 applied to the 'Palate,' English. The next words present additional 
 examples of the same principle. 
 
 Negro-land — Lamai, Lammegue, Lamin, Laming. 
 
 Gaelic — Lam, ' The Hand ;' Greek — Lam-bano, ' To take ;' Latin — 
 Lam-bo, To lick with the Tongue. 
 
 Negro-land — Dali ;f Malays of Formosa — Dadila ; Turkish — Dil ; North 
 Am erica { Nagailers) — Thoida . 
 
 South Africa {Madagascar, fy Caffres) — Leila, Leula, Lolemi; North 
 America {Penobscot) — ^Vee-laulo ; Greek — Laleo, ' To speak ;' Lalia, 
 ' Speech.' 
 
 Negro-land — Ning; Georgian — Nina; La-sian— Nena, Nen ; South America 
 {Kiriri) — Nunu. 
 
 Egypt — La sh ; Hebrew — L . sh . ou . n ; Armenian — Ljesu ; South Africa 
 {Caffres) — Loodjem. 
 
 Negro-land — Essienko ; Old German — Zunka; Modern German — Zunge.J 
 
 South Africa {Koossas) — Miime ; Chinese — Mi ; Basque — Mihia, Minni. 
 
 North Africa {Berbers) — Xarka ; South America {Maupurian) — Nuore : 
 Caraibs — Nourou. 
 
 North Africa (Dongolan) — 'S&dk&; South America {Betoan)—Inec&. 
 
 •'Demgall, Dein gall' (Fu/a/is and Phellatahs, North Africa), seem to be com- 
 pounds of these word*, with another root. 
 
 t Delemme (Xegro-hind), 'The Tongue,' seem* to be a compound of the second 
 and third classes. 
 
 % Pehlwi, < Hosuan.' The close connexion between the German and the Pehlwi, and 
 the other dialects of Persia, is indisputable. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 73 
 
 WORDS FOR 'THE EAR.' 
 
 Negro-land — Szemman-ko ; Hebrew — Sh . m . o, 'To hear.' 
 
 Negro-land — Asse Asshabe ;* Abyssinia — Ishenha Ashenha; Hebrew— 
 A . z . n. 
 
 Negro-land— Uwasso ; Bohemian— Ussi; Greek— Ouas, Ous. 
 
 Negro-land— Otuh (Otto, 'Ears'); Greek— Ota ('Ears'); North America 
 (Knistenaux) — Otoweegie. 
 
 South Africa (Cajfres) — Gevea; Kurd— Guh; Samoied— Ko, Kuo. 
 
 North Africa {Berbers) — Ukkega; Sclavonian— Ucho; North America 
 (Shawannos) — Oc\itowdigdi; Greek— Akou-o ('To hear'). 
 
 iVorM Africa (Dongola)is) — Uluk ; Coriac — Wilugi; Chinese— Uhl. 
 
 South Africa— T'no-eingtu, T'naum, T'nunka; Bucharian— Dehan. 
 
 Eyypt— Meeje; Japan— Mimi. 
 
 Negro-land— 'Toy; Esquimaux— Tehui; Brazil— Ty. 
 
 The majority of the words of the next two Classes (names of ' The Foot' 
 and ' The Head,') Mill be found to admit of a satisfactory explanation. 
 The exceptions are more numerous than in the instance of the words for 
 ' The Hand ;' but it must be borne in mind that these exceptions do not 
 at all serve to invalidate the inferences that flow from numerous unequivocal 
 examples of a different nature. This combination of many features of 
 difference with numerous points of resemblance is the direct result of the 
 tendency of each race to abandon a portion of the synonymes originally 
 common to all the various races of mankind. 
 
 • South Africa, Zebe, &c. 
 
74 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 WORDS FOR 'THE FOOT/ 
 
 Negro-land— (Foot and Leg) Sing ; German — Schenkel ; English — Shank . 
 
 South Africa (Hottentots) — Coap and Tkeib ; Afghan— Chpe ; Abassian 
 — Sh pe ; South America (Mokobis) — Capiate. 
 
 Negro-land — Trippe ; German — Tripp-en, ' To go/ Treppen (' Steps') 
 English— 'Trip.' 
 
 Negro-land— Itta; Latin— It-er, 'A Journey,' It-um, 'Gone;' the par- 
 ticiple of the Latin verb Eo, 'To go ;' Zend— Jeieta, ' He goes.' 
 
 S.Africa (Hottentots) — Y and Yi ; Egypt— I, 'To go ;' Latin— Eo, 'I go.' 
 
 South Africa (Hottentots) — Ir-qua; South America (Zamucans) — Irie; 
 Latin— Ire, 'Togo;' Zend— Harra, ' I go.' 
 
 Negro-la)id—Gsnm; Greenland— Kannak; Germa n — Gehen, 'To go,' 
 (Gegangen, 'Gone'); Scotch— Gang; Negro-land— It-genge ; appa- 
 rently a compound of the last with a word previously explained. 
 
 Negro-land — Nugee; Sclavonic -^-Noga; South America QIaupurians) — 
 Nuchii, Nucsi. 
 
 Egypt— Kit; Welsh-Rodio, 'To walk.' 
 
 Negro-land— Afo ; South America (Yilellans)—k$k; Latin— P e, Pe-s. 
 
 North Africa (Fulahs and Phellatahs) — Kiissengal, Kavassongal; Jeni- 
 seians— Kassa ; Mingrelian — Kutchi; TFelsh — Koes, 'A Leg;' North 
 America (Shawannos) — Kussie . 
 
 Negro-land— Akkau, Ugod; n. w. of America and n. e. of Asia 
 (Tschuktsches) — Iguk ; (Kadjak) — Igugu ; Turkish— Ajak, Ajag. 
 
 Negro-land— Kulu, Kolo ; Mongol— Kull, Koll. 
 
 Negro-land— Tangue ; AVM America (Mixtecan) — Tohuan ' Feet ;' South 
 Africa— Tooh ; English — Toe; Saxon — Da; Butch — Deen. 
 
 Nubia— Regget ; Hebrew— Jl . g . 1. 
 
 S. Africa— -Lefack; English— Leg; Wogul—Lagjl; Pehlwi— Lager-man. 
 
 Negro-land— E'ns-zih, and (Caffre) En-jau, appear to be allied to the 
 Latin — Eo, Eundo ; Italian— And-are ; English— Wend, Went: 
 German — Wenden. 
 
 South Africa — Roots; Armenian— Oat, Woat; TTelsh — Wad-n; German — 
 Wad-en, 'Togo;' English— 'Wade ;' Latin — ' Yad-o.' 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 75 
 
 WORDS FOR 'THE HEAD/ 
 
 Negro-land— Kung, Koon, Ikkungee, Ukkoong; Brazilian— Acang, 
 Yahange; Irish— Ken; {German— Konig; English— King, i.e. 'A 
 Head.') 
 
 South Africa— Olo, Loha; Hebrew— 01, 'Above,' 'To ascend;' Motonan 
 -Ulu, 'A Head.' 
 
 tfowM Africa — Klogo; Irish— Kloigean; ZPi?M— Ben-glog, 'A Skull;' 
 Hebrew— Q . 1 . g . 1 . th, (The Human Skull, Golgotha) ; Armenian— 
 Kluch; Jeniseians— Kolka;* Sclavonian— Golowa 'A Head.' 
 
 Egypt— Kahi, Jo; Negro-land— Go, Ko, Kujuoo; iSWA 4A ?ca ~~K6hho; 
 Jeniseians — Ko'igo ; German — Kopf . 
 
 Negro-land— Ta, Tu; <SWA 4/™ Cfl! — Dooha; Georgian— T'awi; Chinese 
 — T'eu; North Jsnerica (Nagailers) — Thie. 
 
 Negro-land— Tabu ; Persian — Tab, ('Top;') German— Topp ; iVo^A 
 America (Mohegans)— Dup, Utup, ('Head.') 
 
 Fulahs and Phellatahs—Uore, Horde ; Hebrew— Or, 'To rise.' 
 
 SWA 4/"ma (Hottentots)— Biquaau; <SWA America (Aymarans) — 
 Pegke; iVor^A America (New England)— Bequoquo ; English— Feak, 
 Beak. 
 
 Hottentots— Minung ; Chinese— Mien, 'The Face;' English— ' Mien,' 
 and French—' Mine.' 
 
 Negro-land— Oitju, Ithu ; <SWA America (Zamucans) — Yatoitac ; Welsh— 
 Yaad; English— Head, Height. 
 
 Negro-land— Boppe, Bapp ; Som^ America (Yaoans)— Boppe ; (Caraibs) 
 — Opoupou; North America (JFoccorcs)— Poppe. 
 
 South Africa (Hottentots)- T'naa ; Jsfe o/ilfara-Tchynn. 
 • Hence, apparently, Lucko, Loko,— -Sow^A Africa. 
 
76 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 WORDS FOR ' WATER. 
 
 Class I. 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentots 
 
 Europe. 
 
 -Russian 
 Swedish 
 English 
 Latin ('Moist') 
 
 N. America. — Algonquyn dialects 
 Cora ('The Sea') 
 Mexico ('The Sea') 
 
 Ouata. 
 
 Ouade. 
 Wat-n. 
 
 Wat-er, 'Wet.' 
 Ud-us. 
 
 Wt-achsu. 
 
 Vaat.* 
 
 Veyat-1. 
 
 It will be observed that the root or common base of all these words is 
 the same as that of 'Wet, Wat-er,' {English.) They differ only in those 
 grammatical inflexions in which various words of the same language 
 differ. 
 
 Words for ' Water:— Class II. 
 North Africa. — Egypt (' Aquae') - Eiooue. 
 
 North America. - 
 
 •Woccons 
 
 Cheerokees 
 
 Muskohges 
 
 Eau.f 
 Auwa. 
 Wevra. 
 
 Europe. — Welsh - - - Wy, or Gwy. 
 
 [Hence the name of the River] ' The Wye.' 
 
 Icelandic 
 Anglo-Saxon 
 
 Asia. — Kamschatka - 
 Samoied 
 
 Negro-land ... 
 
 South America. — Guaranian 
 Brazilian 
 
 Aa. 
 
 Ea, Eia4 
 
 Ja, Ii. 
 Ii, I. 
 
 Ji. 
 
 I, I. 
 Y. 
 
 • 'Water,' Abti, Cora, — Atl, Mexico. 
 t Eau, ' Water,' French. 
 X la, 'Ice,' Welsh. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 Words for < Water:— Class III. 
 North America. — Chikkasahs - kah, Ookaw. 
 
 Europe. — Irish - Oixe. 
 
 Latin - - - Aqua. 
 
 South America. — Quicuans - Yacu. 
 
 Words for 
 
 < Water:— Class FV 
 
 South America. — Quicuans 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Unu. 
 Nu. 
 
 N. America. — Kolushians - 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Iin, Jin. 
 Inssuo, Ensu. 
 
 Words for « Water.'— Class V. 
 
 [The words of this Class appear to be compounds of words of the last 
 two Classes.] 
 
 Compare the previous words for Water, viz. : 
 Europe — Irish ... Oixe, 
 
 North America — Chikkasahs - Okah, Ookaw, 
 
 with the following words : 
 
 North America. — Oneiaas - Oghnacauno. 
 
 Europe. — Greek and Latin. keano, or 
 
 (The Ocean) - - Okeano-s. 
 
 North America. — Senecas - - Oneekanoosh. 
 
 Muynckussar - Oneegha. 
 
 Asia. — Anam - Nuock, Nak. 
 
 Coriac (The Sea) - - Anchon, Ancho. 
 
 Negro-land - Enchion.* 
 
 • There are other analogous words,— Endschey, 'Water/ Negro-land, -Elite, ' A 
 Duck,' i.e. 'A Water Fowl/ German. 
 
78 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Words for ' Water?— Class VI. 
 South Africa. — Gallas - - Bischan. 
 
 Asia. — Circassian - 
 Kurilians - 
 Samoied - 
 
 Pishi. 
 Pi, Peh. 
 Bi, Be. 
 
 North America. — Belawares 
 
 New Sweden - 
 
 Beh. 
 Bij. 
 
 Europe. — Greek (To drink) 
 Z#£m (To drink) 
 
 Pi-6. 
 Bi-b-o. 
 
 Words for ' Water.'— Class VII. 
 
 Negro4and - 
 
 Asioue.* 
 
 Asia. — Jieso - 
 
 Chinese - 
 Turkish - 
 
 Azui.-f 
 Shui. 
 Schuy, Su. 
 
 North America. — Bunsienes - Ziy. 
 
 Words for ( Water.'— Class VIII. 
 North Africa. — Bongolans - Esseg. 
 
 Europe. — Irish or Gaelic - - Eask, Uisge. 
 Welsh or Celtic of Britain. 
 [British Names of Streams] - The ' Esk,' The ' Usk.' 
 
 These Celtic words are the chief basis of Edward Llwyd's theory, that 
 the Britons were preceded by a Gaelic tribe, who gave names to these 
 streams. The extreme antiquity of these words is certain : 
 
 Swedish (To wash) - Wasc a. 
 
 Old German - Wask-en, Wasc-an. 
 
 * Mongol, Usu ; Tibet, ' Tschu.' 
 t North America {Azanax), Esleaes. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 79 
 
 The following five Classes of words, from VIII. to XIV., may be re- 
 garded as mutually connected. 
 
 Words for * Water.'— Class IX. 
 
 FIRST MODIFICATION. 
 
 North Africa. — Abyssinia - 
 Egypt 
 Egypt (Seas) 
 
 Negro-land (Water) - 
 
 Asia. — Chinese - 
 
 Pehlwi - 
 Hebrew - 
 
 Hebrew (The Sea) 
 Japan (The Sea) - 
 Arabic (Water) 
 
 South America. — Vilellans 
 Aymarans 
 
 North America. — Cherokees 
 
 [Compare the above Negro 
 word Am6h.] 
 
 Mi, Me. 
 Moou, Mau. 
 Amaiou. 
 
 Ameh. 
 
 Moi, Mui. 
 
 Mea. 
 
 Me, (Meem). 
 
 Ee . am, or Jam. 
 
 Umi. 
 
 Ma. 
 
 Ma. 
 Huma. 
 
 Amma. 
 
 Europe. — Latin - - - Hum-or. 
 
 Adjective, 'Wet' - Hum-idus. 
 [Compare Huma, c Water.' 
 
 South American, above ; and Umi, [' The Sea,' (Japan), above.] 
 
 Words for 
 
 < Water: — Class X 
 
 Negro-land - 
 
 Mage. 
 
 North America.— Greenland 
 
 Tschuktsches 
 
 Imack. 
 Emak, Mok. 
 
 South America. — Araucan 
 
 Mouke. 
 
 \ Europe.— Latin §- English 
 English 
 
 Muc-us. 
 
 Muggy. 
 
 Asia.— Hebrew (To flow, dissolve) M . g. 
 
80 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Words for ' Water:— Class XL 
 
 North Africa. — Egypt (To irrigate, 
 To drink) - - - 
 
 Matsos. 
 
 Negro-land, Water 
 
 Mazei. 
 Mazia. 
 Masa. 
 
 South Africa - 
 
 Maasi, Meetsi. 
 Matee. 
 
 Asia. — Japan - - - 
 
 Mizzu, Midz. 
 
 
 Misi. 
 
 Europe. — Latin (Wet) 
 English - 
 
 Mad-idus. 
 'Mizzle/ Moist, 
 Mist. 
 
 Words for ' Water.'— Class XII. 
 
 North Africa. — Berbers 
 
 Egypt (Ram) 
 (A Torrent, A Stream) 
 
 South Africa. — Caffre Tribes 
 
 Amanga. 
 Mounoshe. 
 Mouns-o r . em. 
 
 Amaansi. 
 Amaanzu. 
 
 N. America. — Nadowessians 
 
 Asia, — Koibal (A Stream) 
 Chaldee (Waters) - 
 
 Europe. — Latin (To flow) 
 
 Mena, Meneh. 
 
 Meanlai. 
 Main. 
 
 Man-o. 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
 81 
 
 Names for < Water.'— Class XIII. 
 
 [Apparently connected with Class IX.] 
 
 Asia.— Heb. 'The Sea,' (as above) Jam, or Ee . am, 
 Tibet ('The Sea') - - Gjiamzo. 
 
 Kurd (A Stream) - - Tcham. 
 
 South Africa. — Hottentot Tribes 
 (Water) 
 
 Kam, Kamme, Tkamme. 
 
 Words for < Water.' —Class XIV. 
 Negro-land - Koro. 
 
 North Africa.— Afnu - - Grua. 
 
 Asia. — Pelu (' Rain') 
 Tuschi ('Rain') 
 Kalmuck (Rain) 
 Armenian (Water) 
 
 Chuura. 
 Kare. 
 Chura. 
 Tschu r.* 
 
 Words for « Water.' -Class XV. 
 
 N. Africa. —Egypt (A Stream) - Eioor. 
 (Water) - Eron. 
 
 South Africa. — Madagascar - Rano, Rana. 
 
 Ranu. 
 
 Europe. — English - Rain, 
 
 and Anglo-Saxon ' Pluvia* Ren. 
 
 Greek 'Flowing' (ap- 
 plied to Water) - - Rheon. 
 
 Celtic (The name of a 
 
 stream in Gaul) - - 'The Rhone.'f 
 
 • Dour, Water, {Welsh) ; Jura, « The Sea,' (Lettish.) Ejern (Aoyssinian), * Water,' 
 seems also to be connected with < Tschur, 'Jura,' &c. 
 
 t Many examples serve to show that the names of Streams, &c, in Gaul, as preserved 
 by the French, are in many instances more faithful transcripts of the original Celtic ap- 
 pellations than the names preserved by Latin writers. 
 
82 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES. &C. 
 
 Negro-land 
 
 Words for < Water: -Class XVI. 
 
 Doc, Dock, M'dock. 
 
 Asia. — Tribes on the ' Jenisei' River, 
 
 Siberia - Dok. 
 
 Kamschatka (The Sea) - Adiicka. 
 
 Europe. — English (' To put under 
 water,' ' A water-fowl,' — 
 Dr. Johnson) - - Duck. 
 
 S. Africa.— Hottentots (Water) - Tkohaa. 
 
 The following words for ' Water' seem also to be unequivocally related 
 viz.: Basque — Itsassoa; Negro-land — Itchi; Samoieds — Ija, Ja; Sout 
 America (Cayubabans) — Y\at2i; North America (Katahbans) — Ejau. 
 
 END OF APPENDIX A. 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 (ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE TRIBES AND REGIONS OF AFRICA) 
 
 THE 
 
 AFRICAN WORDS COMPARED IN APPENDIX A, 
 WITH THE CORRESPONDING TERMS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 LANGUAGES OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 
 
84 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 AFRICAN WORDS GEOGRAPHICALLY ARRANGED. 
 
 FIRE, SUN, DAY, EYE, MOON, HEAVEN. 
 
 North Africa. 
 
 Egypt. — ' Fire/ Chrom, Grom, Krom, K6h-th, from Koe, ' To burn.' 
 ' Sun,' Ra, Re. * Names of the Gods of the Sun,' Khem, Hor, 
 Serapis, Osiri. 'Day/ Haou, Eoohu, — (connected with 'Glory,' 
 Joh, Ooh, Oih, and ' Moon,' Oou, ' Lunus/ Joh.) ' Eye,' Iri, Bal. 
 'Moon/ Joh, Oou. 'Heaven,' Pe, Phe, plural 'Heaven-s/ Neth-phe,f 
 Ne-pheou. ' Name of the Goddess of the Heavens, or Firmament,' 
 Net-phe. 
 
 Nubia and Abyssinia. — ' Fire,' Haiiy (Abyss.) ; Ton-ih, (Xub.) ' Sun,' 
 Tuahhey (Abyss.) ; Toin, (Nub.) ' Day,' Maaltih (Abyss.) ; Wtirabe, 
 (Nub.) ' Eye/ Aineha (Abyss.) ; Aina addela, Egoat, (Nub.) 
 ' Moon/ "Wurrhy (Abyss.) ; Totrig, (Nub.) ' Heaven/ Szemmey 
 (Abyss.) ; Tebre, (Nub.) 
 
 A A 
 
 Berbers and Dongolans. — ' Fire/ Ika (Ber.) ; Ik, (Don.) ' Sun/ 
 Maschekka (Ber.) ; Masilk, (Don.) ' Day/ Ogreska (Ber.) ; 
 Ogreska, (Don.) 'Eye/ Manga (Ber.) ; Missigh, (Don.) 'Moon/ 
 O'nateja (Ber.) ; Scharappa, (Don.) ' Heaven/ Szemma (Ber.) ; 
 Szemma, (Don.) 
 
 Phellatahs and Fulahs. — 'Fire/ Njite (Phel.) ; Gia-hingol, (Ful.) 'Sun/ 
 Nonge (Phel.) ; Nahangue, (Ful.) ' Day/ Njellauma, (Phel.) 
 ' Eye,' Giteh (PAeZ.) ; Hyterr, (Ful.) 'Moon/ Liulii (Phel.) ; Leoure, 
 (FwJ.) ' Heaven/ Szemma (Phel.) ; Hyalla, (*W.) 
 
 • The following Egyptian words are also included in the previous Analysis :— ' Flame,' 
 Shah; • Heat,' Shah-sbah ; ' A Star,' Sou, Siou ; ' Light Luminary,' Ouoini ; ' Flame/ 
 L p s h ; 'To burn,' Lopsh ; ' The Dawn,' Iris. 
 
 t Like the Greek, Ouranoi, ' A singular-plural.' 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 85 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Negro-land. 
 
 Jolofs and Sereres.—' Fire/ Safara, (Jol.) < Sun/ Ghiante-finkan, 
 Guiante, Burhum safara (Jol.) ; Fosseye, (Ser.) < Day/ Lelegh, 
 Huer, Benhuli, (Jol.) ' Eye/ Smabutt, Batte, Guitte, (Jol.) 
 < Moon/ Uhaaire, Verr, Burhum safara lionn (Jol.) ; Coll, (Ser.) 
 1 Heaven/ Assaman, Assamane (Jol.) ; Rogue, (Ser.) 
 
 Mandingoes. — ' Fire/ Deemwa. * Sun/ and also ' Day/ Teelee. « Day/ 
 Teelee. ' Eye/ Neay. « Moon/ Korro, Pandintee. « Heaven/ 
 Santo. 
 
 Jalunkan and Sokko.— < Sun/ Telle (Ja/.) ; Tillee, (#o£.) 'Moon/ 
 Karree (/a/.) ; Kalla, (#o£.) ' Heaven/ Margetangala (Jal.) ; 
 Bandee, (&>£.) 
 
 Kanga, Mangree, and Gien. — ' Sun/ Jiro (Kan.) ; Lataa (Man.) ; Jinaa, 
 (Gt<?w.) 'Moon/ Tjo (.fam.) ; Su, (Geerc.) 
 
 J'Ww, Fanti, and Gold Coast. — < Fire/ Edja, (Fetu.) ' Sun/ Egwju 
 (i^w.) ; Uwia, (G. Coast.) < Day/ Ada, (Fetu.) ' Eye/ Enniba, 
 (Fetu,) ; Eniba, (G. Coast.) * Moon/ Osran (Teta) ; Assara (G. 
 Coast.) ' Heaven/ *Araiani (Fetu) ; * Njame, (Fanti.) 
 
 Amina, Akkim, and Akripon. — c Sun/ Eiwiaa (Am.) ; Awia (Jf£.) ; Ou, 
 (Akr.) ' Moon/ Osseram (^fm.) ; Osseranni (^Ar.) ; Ofendi, (Akr.) 
 ' Heaven/ Jankombum (A.) ; Jahinee (Ak.) ; Aduankam, (Akr.) 
 
 Akrai and Tambi. — ' Fire/ La, (Ak.) ' Sun/ Hun (Ak.) ; Pum, (Tam.) 
 ' Eye/ Hinma, (4£.) * Moon/ Dubliman (Ak.) ; Horambi, (Tam.) 
 ' Heaven/ Jankombum (4£.) ; Nguai (A k.) ; Ngoi [which means 
 also, « Thunder in the Air/] (J$.) ; Giom, (Tam.) 
 
 Widah, Papah, and Watje.—'Swi; Wetaga (Pap.) ; Ua, (Wat.) 'Eye,* 
 Noucou [plural], (Wid.) ■ Moon/ Su-ede, (Pop.) ' Heaven/ 
 Jiwel, (Pap.) 
 
 • Omitted in previous Analysis : Araiani, 'Heaven' (Feta); Ouran-os, 'Heaven* 
 (Gree/t); Enniba, Eniba [above], < Eye.' [See Appendix A, pp. 42, 43.] Njame, see 
 Djau, 'Heaven/ 'Air' (Sanscrit); Ada, 'Day' (Fetu); from Edja, 'Fire,' Egwju, 
 'Sun' (Fetu;. 
 
£G COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Fire, Sun, Bay, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 Kongo and Angola. — * Fire/ Tubhia (Kon.) ; Tubia (Kon. fy Ang.) ; 
 Bazou, {Kon.) ' Sun/ N'tzai, Tangu, (Kon.) ■ Moon/ Gonde, 
 Gonda, (Kon.) ' Heaven/ Sullu (Kon.) ; Ulu, (Ang.) 
 
 Loango, Mandongo, and Camba. — * Fire/ Bazu, (Lo.) ' Sun/ Tangoa 
 (Lo.) ; Attaschi (Man.) ; Tango, (Cam.) ' Moon/ Gonda (Lo.) ; 
 Agonne (Man.) ; Gonda, (Cam.) ' Heaven/ Iru (Lo.) ; Sambiam- 
 pungo (Man.) ; Julo, (Cam.) 
 
 Karabari, Ibo, and Mokko. — ' Sun/ Anjam (Ka.) ; A-un, Anjau (Ibo) ; 
 Eju, (Mok.) 'Moon/ Omma (Ka.) ; Ongma, Aoueh (Ibo); Affiam, 
 (Mok.) ' Heaven/ Elukwee (Ka.) ; Tschukko, EUu (Ibo) ; 
 Ibanju, (Mok.) 
 
 Wawu and Tembu. — 'Sun/ Jirri (Wa.) ; Wis, (Tern.) 'Moon/ Mone 
 (Wa.); Igodu, (Tern.) 'Heaven/ Barriadad (Wa.) ; So, (Tern.) 
 
 Krepeers, Ashantees, and Kassenti. — ' Fire/ Dio (Kre.) ; Egia, (Ash.) 
 ' Sun/ Uwin, (Kas.) c Eye/ Onuku (Zre.) ; Wannua, (AsA.) 
 ' Moon/ Ungmar, (Kas.) * Heaven/ Ktak, (Kas.) 
 
 Afadeh.—' Fire/ Hu. ' Sun/ Zu. « Day/ Phadeenszo. * Eye/ Szanko. 
 'Moon/ Tedi. 'Heaven/ Dilko. 
 
 Mobba and Schilluck. — 'Yire,' Wussik (Mob.); Massze, (Sch.) 'Sun/ 
 Engik (Mob.); Roongeh, (Sch.) 'Day/ Dalkah, (Mob.) 'Moon/ 
 
 A 
 
 Uk, (Mob.) ' Heaven/ Szemma, (Mob.) 
 
 Bar Fur and Bar Runga. — ' Fire/ Otu (Bar F.) ; Nissiek, (Bar R.) 
 ' Sun/ Duleh (Dar F.) ; Agning, (Bar R.) ' Day/ Lo (D<fr F.) 
 ' Eye/ Nunjieh (Dar i? 1 .) ; Khasso, (Bar R.) ' Moon,' Kanimer 
 (Bar F.) ; Medding, (Bar R.) ' Heaven/ Szemma, (Bar F.) 
 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 87 
 
 Fire, Sun, Day, Eye, Moon, Heaven. 
 
 South Africa. 
 
 Gallas. — 'Fire/ Ibida. 'Heaven/ Ivaq. 
 
 Madagascar. — ' Fire,' Lelaffu. ' Sun/ Masso anro, Masso androu. (Eye 
 of Day), Massoam, Massoanrii. * Day/ Arcik ando Majava, Antu, 
 Andru. « Eye/ Massou, Massoo, Masso, Massorohi. « Moon/ 
 Woelau, Volan, Bo, Bolan, Volan. 'Heaven/ Atemco, Danghitsi, 
 Langhitsi, Lainch, Langhits. 
 
 Koossa, Beetjuanas, Lagoa Bay, and Caffres. — ' Fire/ Umlilo (Koos.) ; 
 Mulelo (Beet.); Lib, Leaw, (Caf.) ' Sun/ Manga, (Koos.); 
 Leetshaatsi (Beet.) ; Diambo (Lag. B.) ; Lelanga, Eliang, (Caf.) 
 'Day/ Imine (Koos.) ; Motsichari, (Beet.) 'Eye/ Amesligo (Koos.); 
 Liklo (Beet.) ; Tewho, (Lag. B.) ' Moon/ Injanga (Koos.) ; Kohri 
 (Beet.) ; Moomo (Lag. B.) ; Janga, Inyango, (Caf.) ' Heaven/ 
 Isuhlu (Koos.) ; Maaro, (Beet.) 
 
 Bosjemans, Coronas, Hottentots, and Saldanna Bay. — ' Fire/ Tjih (Bos.) ; 
 T'aib (Cor.) ; T'ei, T'ei eip, Neip, Ecy, Ei, (Hot.) ' Sun/ T'koara 
 (Bos.) ; Sorohb (Cor.) ; Sore, Sorrie, Sorre, Sorri, Surrie (Hot.) ; 
 Sore, (Sal. B.) 'Day/ T'gaa, (Bos.) ; Sorokoa, (Cor.) 'Eye/ 
 T'saguh (Bos.) ; Muhm (Cor.) ; Mo, Mu, Mum, Moe, (Hot.) 
 ' Moon/ T'kaukaruh (Bos.) ; T'khaam (Cor.) ; K'cha, T'ga, ToM, 
 Ka (Hot.) ; Gam, (Sal. B.) ' Heaven/ T'gachuh (Bos.) ; Homma, 
 (Sal. B.) 
 
88 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANOTJAGES. 
 
 MAN, WOMAN, HUMAN BEING. 
 
 [m. marks Nouns Masculine; f. Nouns Feminine ; h. words for a 
 Human Being, whether Male or Female.] 
 
 North Africa. 
 
 Egypt. — Hoout, m. and h., Himc, f., Himi, f., Lomi, f. and h.* 
 
 Abyssinia and Nubia. — Szebbat, h. (Ab.); Odey, h. {Nub.) ; Szcbbey, 
 m. (Ab.) ; Auadseh, m., Otak, m. (Nub.) ; Szebbeity, f. (Ab.) ; 
 Indaki', f., Tetakkat, f. (Nub.) 
 
 Berbers and Dongolans. — Ademga, m. (Ber.) ; Ogikh, m. (Don.); Edinga, 
 f. (Ber.) ; Enga, f. (Don.) 
 
 Phellatahs and Fulahs. — Nekdo, h., Gurko, m. (Phel.) ; Gorko mahodo, 
 M. (Ful.) ; Debbo, f. (Phel.) ; Debo, f. (Ful.) 
 
 Negro-land. 
 
 s and S'ereres. — Gour, h., Garr, h. (Iol.) ; Core, h. (Ser.) ; 
 Goourgne, m., Guiacar, m., Guiaccar, m. (Iol.) ; Cow, m. (Ser.) ; 
 Digin, f., Guiguienne, f., Diguen, f. (Iol.) ; Tewe, f. (Ser.) 
 
 . — Mo, h., Kea, m., Fato, m., Musha, f. 
 
 Jallunkans and Sokko. — Mogee, h. (Jal.) ; Manni, h. (Sob.) ; Kai, M. 
 (Jal.) ; Kja, m. (Sok.) ; Musee, f. (Jal.) ; Mussu, f. (Sok.) 
 
 • Also A . nah, « To live,' (Auok I.)—E*pt. 
 
"WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 89 
 
 Man, Woman, Human Being. 
 
 Kanga, Mangree, and Gien. — Ngumbo, h. {Kan.) ; Mia, h. (Man.) ; 
 Me, h. (Gien) ; Nebeju, m. (Kan.) ; Laniu, m. (Man.) ; Unsoibe, m. 
 (Gien) ; Junoo, f. (Kan.) ; Auwee, f. (Man.) ; Lung, f. (Gien). 
 
 Fetu, Fanti, and Gold Coast. — Enipa, h. (Fanti) ; Nipa, h., Baning, m., 
 Bubasja, f. (Fetu) ; Hiro, f. (6r. Coast.) 
 
 Amina, Akkim, and Akripon. — Ojippa, h. (Am.) ; Nippa, h. (Akkim) ; 
 Osse, h. (Akri.) ; Obaini, m. (Am.) ; Obellima, m. (Akkim) ; Unji, 
 M. (Akri.) ; Obbaa, f. (Am.) ; Obia, f. (Akkim) ; Otjee, (Akri.) 
 
 Akrai and Tambi. — Biomo, h., Biommo, h. (A k.) ; Numero, h. (Tarn.) ; 
 Nu, m. (Ak.) ; Njummu, m. (Tarn.) ; Nga, f., In, f. (Ak.) 
 
 Papah, and Watje. — Emme, h. (Pap.) ; Ammee, h. (Wat.) ; Mes- 
 subu, m. (Pap.) ; Uzu, m. (Wat.) ; Djonnu, f. (Pap.) ; Jonnu, f. 
 (Wat.) 
 
 Kongo. — Eiecala-muntu, h., Mundu, h., Ackala, m., Jakkela, m., Bacala, 
 m., Kentu, f., Quinto, f. 
 
 Loango, Mandongo, and Camba. — Mond, h. (Lo.) ; Matte, h. (Man.) ; 
 Monami, h. (Cam.) ; Bakala, m., Bakkara, m. (Lo.) ; Najalaka, m. 
 (Man.) ; Olummi, m. (Cam.) ; Kento, f., Tjendo, f. (Lo.) ; Okeetu, 
 f. (Man.) ; Ukassi, f. (Cam.) 
 
 Karabari, Ibo, and Mokko.—M&d, h. (Kar.) ; Made, h. (Ibo.) ; Auwo, H. 
 (Mok.) ; Mammoku, m. (Kar.) ; Mook, m., Dikkom, m., Dim, m., 
 (Ibo) ; Iden, m. (Mok.) ; Mangman, f. (Kar.) ; Mai, f., Wei, f. 
 (Ibo) ; Wan, f. (Mok.) 
 
 Wawu and Tembu.—See, h. (Wa.) ; Iraa, h. (Tern.) ; Gonee, m. (Wa.); 
 Ibalu, m. (Tern.) ; Anna, f. (Wa.) ; Alo, f. (Tern.) 
 
 Kassenti. — Umir, h., Otga, m., Uppi, f. 
 
 Affadeh.— Magu, h., Belo, m., Kerim, f. 
 
 Schilluck.— Tabanje, m.. Ureli, f. 
 
 Bdr FUr and Ddr Runga.—Koi, h., Dueh, m. (D. Fur.) ; KamSre, M. 
 (D. Run.) ; Jankueh, f. (D. Fur.) ; Mmi, f. (D. Run.) 
 
90 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Man, Woman, Human Being. 
 
 South Africa. 
 
 Madagascar. — Oelun, h., Olon, h., Urun, h., Lelay, m., Lahe, m., 
 Orrang, m., Vaiave, f., Bayave, f., Ampele, f. 
 
 Koossas, Beetjuanas, Lagoa Bay, and Caffres. — Uhmto, h. (Koos.) ; 
 Muhnto, h. (Beet.) ; Monhee, h. (L. Bay) ; Moniina, m, (Beet.) ; 
 Indoda, m. (Koos.) ; Doda, m., Abaandoo, m. (Caf.) ; Umfasi, f. 
 (Koos.) ; Massari, or Bassari, f. (Beet.) ; Aduhast, f. (L. Bay) ; 
 Omfaas, f. (Caf.) 
 
 Bosjemans, Coronas, Hottentots, and Saldannd Bay. — T'km, h. (Bos.) ; 
 T'kokn, h. (Cor.) ; T'na, m. (Bos.) ; Kouh, m., Kauh, m., Chaib, m 
 (Cor.) ; Kupp, m., K'quique, m., Zohee, m., Quoique, m., Quaina, 
 m. (Hot.) ; T'aifi, f. (Bos.) ; Chaisas, f. (Cor.) ; Ankona. f. 
 (Sal. B.) ; Honnes, f., Kus, f., K'quiquis, Zohees, f., Kyoiquis, f., 
 Quaishha, f. (Hot.) 
 
WITH THOSE OF ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 91 
 
 PARTS OF THE BODY, HAND, ARM, &c. 
 
 North Africa. 
 
 Egypt. — • Hand/ Gig, Shig [The Hand and Fore-Arm], Koi, Mah, Mahe. 
 ' Tongue/ Lash. 'Ear/ Meeje. *'Nose/ Sha. ' Foot/ Rat, 
 [I, 'To go/] 'Head/ Kahi, Jo. 
 
 Abystinia and Nubia. — 'Hand/ Tedembeton, (Nub.) 'Tongue/ Miilhassh 
 (Abyss.); E'midap, (Nub.) 'Ear/ A'shinha (Abyss.) ; Ishenah, 
 Wongwil, (Nub.) ' Nose/ Affinkjaha (Abyss.) ; A'ffinkjach, Ognuf, 
 (Nub.) ' Foot/ Tarekkas (Abyss.) ; Regget, (Nub.) < Head/ 
 Raassih (Abyss.) ; Dimmaha, O'giirma, (Nub.) 
 
 Berbers and Dongolans. — ' Hand/ Iddegh (Ber.) ; Ihg, (Don.) ' Tongue/ 
 Narka (Ber.) ; Nadka, (Don.) 'Ear/ U'kkega (Ber.) ; Uluk, (Dow.) 
 ' Nose/ Szurringa, (i?er. $- Don.) ' Foot/ Oentuga (Iter.) ; Ossen- 
 tuge, (Don.) 
 
 Phellatahs and Fulahs. — ' Hand/ NeVoreh (Phel.) ; Youngo, (Ful.) 
 'Tongue/ Demgal (Phel.); D'heingau, (Ful.) 'Ear/ Nuppi (Phel!) 
 Noppy, (Ful.) 'Nose/ Njelhinerat (Phel.); Hener, (Ful.) 'Foot/ 
 Kiissengal (Phel.) ; Kavassongal, (Ful.) ' Head/ Hore (Phel.) ; 
 Horde, (FwZ.) 
 
 Negro-land. 
 
 Zo/o/s and Sereres. — ' Hand/ Loho, Loco [properly the Arm], Lokoo 
 (Iol.); Bayie, (Ser.) 'Tongue/ Laming, Lamai, Lammegue, Lamin 
 (Iol.) ; Delemme, (Ser.) ' Ear/ Smanoppe, Nope, Noppe (Iol.) ; 
 None, (Ser.) 'Nose/ Smak-bookan, Bacann, Boucanne, Baceane 
 (Iol.); Guisse, (Ser.) 'Foot/ Simatank, Tangue (Iol.); Guiaf, 
 (Ser.) ' Head/ Smababb, Boppe, Bappe, Bop (Iol.) ; Coque, (Ser.) 
 
 • The great majority of the African words for the Nose (a class not included in 
 Appendix A) have been explained in other parts of this work. 
 
92 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES 
 
 Parts of the Body, Hand, Arm, fyc. 
 
 Mandingos. — f Hand/ Bulla, Boula [Hand and Arm]. 'Tongue/ Ning. 
 ' Ear/ Toola. ' Nose/ Noong. « Foot/ Sing. ' Head/ Kung, 
 Koon. 
 
 Jallunkans and Sokko. — ' Hand/ Ibolee (Jal.) ; Bulla, Blu, (Sok.) 
 'Foot/ Itgenge (J«Z.) ; Afo, (Sok.) 'Head/ Ikkunjee (JoJ.) ; 
 Ukkung, (Sok.) 
 
 Kanga, Mangree, and Gien. — ' Hand/ Nakoa (Kan.) ; Ikko, (Gien.) 
 ' Foot/ Namboo (Kan.) ; Trippi (Man.) ; Nugee, (Gien.) ' Head/ 
 Nandewu (Kan.) ; Tri (Man.) ; Ungo, (6riew. 
 
 .FVta 0/10* 6roZc? Coa^. — ' Hand/ Ensah, (Fetu.) ' Tongue/ Teckrema 
 (Fetu) ; Decrame, (6r. Coast.) ' Ear/ Asschaba (Fetu) ; Asso, 
 (6r. Coast.) ' Nose/ Engwinni (i^w) ; O-u-nom, (6r. Coast.) 
 ' Foot/ Anan, (Fetu.) ' Head/ Etyr (i^a) ; Eteri, (G. Coast.) 
 
 Amina, Akkim, and Akripon. — ' Hand/ En-saa, Obaa (Am. fy Akkim) ; 
 Obaa, (Akri.) ' Foot/ Onang (Am. fy Akkim) ; Djabi, (Akri.) 
 ' Head/ Utieri (Am.) ; Metih (Akkim) ; Nuntji, (Akri.) 
 
 Akrai and Tambi. — ' Hand/ Nindeh, Dinde, Ninde (Ak.) ; Nindi, (Tarn.) 
 ' Arm/ Nindeh, (Ak.) ' Ear/ Toy, (^.) ' Foot/ Nanne, Nande, 
 (^.) ; Nandi, (Tarn.) ' Head/ Itbu, Oitju (Ak.) ; Ii, (2W) 
 
 Widah, Papah, and Watje. — 'Hand/ Alo (Wid.) ; Alio (Pap.); Aschi, 
 (JT«*.) 'Ears/ Otto, (JFitf.) 'Nose/ Aonty, (Wid.) 'Foot/ 
 Affb (JPtrf.) ; Afo, (Pap. #■ JFa*.) 'Head/ Ta, (Pap. $■ JFa£.) 
 
 Kongo and Angolan. — ' Hand/ Moco [pi.], Kook, Coco, (Kon.) ' Foot/ 
 Malu (iTcw.) ; Quirio, (An.) ' Head,' Ontu, (Kon.) 
 
 Loango, Mandongo, and Camba. — ' Hand/ Kogo (Lo.) ; Koko, (Man. $• 
 Cam.) 'Foot/ Kulu (Lo. fy Cam.) ; Kolo, (Man.) 'Head/ Tu (Lo.) ; 
 Motu, (Marc. $* Cam.) 
 
 Karabari, Ibo, and Mokko. — ' Hand/ Okuh (Kar.) ; Hukko (Ibo) ; Ono- 
 nuba, (Mok.) ' Foot/ Akkah (Kar.) ; Akkau (Uo) ; Ugod, (Jfoft.) 
 ' Head/ Issi (Kar. fy Ibo) ; Iboil, (Mok.) 
 
 Wawu and Tembu.— ' Hand/ Be (7F«.); Nin, (7V/w.) 'Foot/ Garni 
 (Wa.); Navorre, (Tew.) 'Head/ Angora (JVa.) ; Kujuoo, {Tern.) 
 
WITH THOSE OP ASIA, EUROPE, AND AMERICA. 93 
 
 Parts of the Body, Hand, Arm, fyc. 
 
 Krepeer, Ashantees, and Kassenti. — 'Hand,' Inno, (Kas.) 'Arm/ Assij 
 (Kre.) ; Osa, (Ask.) ' Ear,' Otuh (Kre.) ; Uwasso, (Ash.) 'Nose,' 
 Amonthi (Kre.); Ohiiny, (Ash.) 'Foot,' Itta, (Kas.) ' Head/ 
 Ota (Kre.) ; Otri (^»A.) ; Diir, (JTo».) 
 
 Affadeh.— 1 Hand,' Blimszeh. ' Tongue/ Essienko. ' Ear/ Szemmanko. 
 •Nose/ Demulzungenko. 'Foot/ E'nszih. 'Head/ Go, Ko. 
 
 Bar Fur and Bar Runga.—< Hand/ Enkefly [Surface of the Hand], 
 (B.Fur.) 'Tongue/ Dali, (B. Fur.) 'Ear/ Dila (B. Fur.) ; 
 Nesso, (B. Run.) ' Nose/ Durmeh, (B. Fur.) ' Foot/ Tarinmufsaly 
 (B. Fur.) ; Itar, (D. 22wrc.) ■ Head/ Tabu, (D. *W.) 
 
 South Africa. 
 
 Beetjuana-Caffres, Corona-Hottentots, and Madagascar. — 'Hand/ T'koam 
 (Cor. -Hot, ,) ; Tang' am, (Mad.) 'Tongue,' Lolemi (Beet.-Kaf.) ; 
 Leila, Leula, (Mad.) 'Ears/ Zebe (Beet.-Kaf.); Soffi, (Jlfarf.) 
 ' Nose/ Ongko, (Beet.-Kaf.) ; Orong, (Matf.) 
 
 Madagascar. — 'Hand/ Tang' am, Tangan, Tangh. 'Tongue/ Leila, Leula, 
 Lela, Lela. 'Ear/ Souffy, Soon. 'Nose/ Orung, Urun, Oron. 
 ' Foot/ Hoots, Lefack, Ungoor, Lafatungu, Tombut. ' Head/ Loha, 
 Dooha, Lua. 
 
 Koosas, Beetjuanas, LagoaBay, and Caf res. — ' Hand,' Mundha (L. Bay); 
 Fansa (Caf.) ; Isanga (Koos.) ; Sseaakja, (Beet.) 'Tongue/ Mume 
 (Koos.); Lolemi (Beet.) ; Loodjem, (L.Bay.) 'Ear/ Elebe (Koos.); 
 Zebe (Beet.) ; Gevea, (L. Bay.) ' Nose/ Poomlu (Koos.) ; Ongko 
 (Beet.); Numpho, (L. Bay.) 'Foot/ Jenjao (Koos.); Lonao (Beet.); 
 Chizenda (L. Bay) ; Enjau, (Caf.) ' Head/ Klogo (Koos.) ; Kohho 
 (Beet.); Liicko (L.Bay); Loko, (£«/.) 
 
 Bosjemans, Coronas, Hottentots, and Saldanna Bay . — 'Hand,' T'aa (Bos.) ; 
 T'koam (Co?-.); Onecoa (Sal. B.) ; T'unka, Omma, (Hot.) 'Tongue/ 
 T'in (Bos.) ; Tamma (Cor. fy Hot.) ; Tamme, (Sal. B.) ' Ear/ 
 T'no-eingtu (Bos.) ; T'naum (Cor.) ; Naho (M. B.) ; Nouw [>/.], 
 (i?o£.) 'Nose/ T'nuhntu (Bo«.) ; T'geub (Cor.) ; Tui, Zakui (>SW. B.); 
 T'koi, Koyb, Qui, Ture, Thuke, Quoi, (JSirf.) 'Foot/ T'ooah 
 (Bos.) ; T'keib (Cor.) ; Coap (Sal. B.) ; Y, Itqua, Yi, (Hot.) 
 'Head/ T'naa (Bos.); Minuong (Cor.); Biquaau, Biqua, Biqua, (Hot.) 
 
94 COMPARISON OF THE AFRICAN LANGUAGES, &C. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 North Africa. 
 
 Egypt. — * Aquae/ Eiooue, Moou, Mau. * Seas,' Amaiou. ' Rain,' Mou- 
 noshe. ' A Torrent, A Stream,' Mouns-6 r . em. ■ To irrigate, To 
 drink,' Matsos. ' A Stream,' Eioor, Eron. 
 
 Abyssinia and Nubia. — Mi (Abyss.) ; Me, Ejern, (Nub.) 
 
 Berbers and Bongolans. — Amanga (Ber.) ; Esseg, (Bon.) 
 
 Negro-land. 
 
 Iolofs. — M'doch, Doc, Dock. 
 
 Mandingos. — Ji, Gee. 
 
 Fetu and Gold Coast. — Ensu (Fetu)± Enchion, (G. Coast.) 
 
 Akrai. — Nuh. 
 
 Widah. — Asioue. 
 
 Kongo and Angola. — Masa (Kon. fy Ang.) ; Mazia, (Ang.) 
 
 Loango. — Mazei. 
 
 Krepeer and Ashantees. — Itchi (Kre.) ; Inssuo, (Ash.) 
 
 Affadeh. — AmeTi. 
 
 Mobba and Schilluck. — E'ndsch'y (Mob.) ; Mage [also Cold], (Sch.) 
 
 Bar Fur and Bar Runga. — Koro, (B. Fur) ; Tta, (B. Run.) 
 
 South Africa. 
 
 Gallas . — Bischan . 
 
 Madagascar. — Rano, Rana, Rami. 
 
 Koosas, Beetjuanas, Lagoa Bay, and Caffres. — Ammaansi (Koos.) ; 
 Meetsi (Beet.) ; Matee (Lag. B.) ; Maasi, Ammaanzu, (Caf.) 
 
 Huswanas. — T'kae. 
 
 Bosjemans, Coronas, Hottentots, and Saldannd Bay. — T'kohaa (Bos.) , 
 T'kamma (Cor. $• Hot.) ; Kamma, Kamme, Kam (Hot.) ; Ouata, 
 (Sal. Bay.) 
 
 END OF APPENDIX B. 
 
APPENDIX C. 
 
 SHOWING THAT THE 
 
 CELTIC DIFFER ALMOST TOTALLY FROM THE 
 GOTHIC LANGUAGES. 
 
96 ALMOST TOTAL DIFFERENCE OF THE 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 In this Appendix the following propositions are proved by a comparison 
 of the most Common Words : 
 
 1. The close connexion of the various Gothic dialects and the close con- 
 
 nexion of the various Celtic dialects. 
 
 2. The total difference which, with a few trifling exceptions, prevails 
 
 between the Gothic and Celtic tongues in the most Common Terms. 
 
 3. These phenomena are proofs of the tendency of kindred dialects to 
 
 become totally unlike. For the original identity of the Celtic and 
 Gothic dialects, (notwithstanding the wide differences which they 
 now present,) will be apparent from the previous Appendix (A), and 
 from earlier portions of this work, in which it has been shown that 
 in other languages, especially those of Asia, the corresponding 
 Celtic and Gothic words — widely as they differ — are found united. 
 It must also be remarked, as a feature highly deserving of attention, 
 and as a proof of the completeness of the evidence which has been 
 adduced in this work of the conclusions herein maintained, that 
 (as regards those classes of words which have been examined, both 
 in the previous and in the following pages,) the very same words 
 which occur in this Appendix (C), as examples of the tendency of 
 individual languages to become totally different, may for the most 
 part be recognized in the previous Appendix (A), as links in the 
 chain of proof therein contained of the original unity of Human 
 languages viewed collectively. 
 
 4. The following Appendix also exhibits the rapid tendency to diver- 
 
 gence, even among dialects, which from distinct internal evidence 
 may be shown to be specifically connected. 
 Thus even the two branches of the Celtic — closely as they generally 
 approximate in the most common terms — differ totally in the first 
 class of words examined below, viz. * The Names of the Heavenly 
 Bodies,' though all these various terms, as will be observed from 
 the previous Appendix (A), occur in other parts of the globe, and 
 may be viewed as fragments of the primitive Language of mankind. 
 Again, the Scandinavian branch of the Gothic differs totally from 
 the German branch in the name for the Sun, agreeing at the same 
 time with the Latin. ' Sonne, Sun (Germ.), &c. ; Soel (Danish), 
 &c. ;' Sol (Latin.) 
 
CELTIC FROM THE GOTHIC LANGUAGES. 
 
 97 
 
 CO 
 
 
 i 
 
 . 
 
 ® i & * 
 
 J 
 
 55 
 
 -»: 
 S 
 a 
 w 
 o 
 
 
 O fl 
 &Cc7Q 
 
 if 
 
 § a 1 t • 
 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 cs3 
 
 to 
 
 en 
 
 <! 
 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 Stiern 
 
 DC 
 
 N 
 
 — i 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 m 
 
 xs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 c 
 Q 
 
 o 
 
 pi 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 QQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 i— i 
 
 
 
 QQ 
 
 ' Is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J xj .2 
 
 .2 o 
 
 O^ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ci 
 
 
 sO 
 
 
 ^"o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 14 
 
 
 CU 
 
 cS 
 
 
 o a> 
 
 
 
 03 S 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 >< 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x v 
 
 
 
 
 tt . 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 2 * 
 
 • 
 
 d 
 
 
 03 !h 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 >» ,« 
 
 d 
 
 
 ^» 2 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 »g 
 
 >- 
 
 
 <u o 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 
 CU 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 2Q 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 ■as 
 
 X3 C 
 
 tics 
 
 CU 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■a 
 
 OQ 
 
 (V 
 
 
 CO 5 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 fetfPS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 •g 
 
 
 
 03 . 
 
 
 
 gn 
 
 m OR GAE 
 
 Irisb 
 
 ■Is 
 
 or 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 EH 
 
 S § 
 
 i 
 
 9 
 
 ■3* 
 
 Ph Ph * i — i 
 
 s 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 •> /-~\ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 £45 
 
 
 
 5 "+>i 
 O <3 
 
 
 
 
 XJ 
 .2 
 "br. 
 
 2 "8 
 
 
 
 ** 
 
 . * 
 
 
 
 DQ CS 
 
 a 
 Ed 
 
 Eh O 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 o Sc 
 
 hD 
 
 O 
 
 i 
 
 e 
 
 CO 
 
98 
 
 THE CELTIC AND GOTHIC TONGUES DIFFER 
 
 Words for ' A Human Being,' marked h. ; 'Man, 
 and 'Woman,' marked f. 
 
 marked m. ; 
 
 CELTIC DIALECTS. 
 
 [In the following pages W. means 
 Welsh ; Corn., Cornish ; Arm., 
 Armorican ; Ir., Irish ; Manx, 
 the dialect of 'Man,' (Mona ;) 
 Sc. G., Scotch Gaelic] 
 
 Class.— Dyn, h. (W.) ; 
 Den, h. {Com.) ; Den, h. and m. 
 (Arm.) ; Gour, m., Gour-aig, f. 
 (W.) ; Gour, m., Gur-eg, f., 
 Gr-ak, f. (Arm.); Gwas, m.(W.); 
 Guaz,M. (Corn.); Byn,F., Benyu, 
 f. (W.) ; Banen, f., Moid, f. 
 (Corn.) ; Maues, f., Femellen, f. 
 (Arm.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Dae, h., Duine, h. 
 and m., Fear, m., *Fr-ag, f., 
 *Reachd, m., *Kearn, m. (Ir.) ; 
 Dune, m., Fer, m. (Sc. G.) ; 
 Dyny, m. (Manx) ; *Be, f., 
 Bean, f. (Ir.) ; Ben, f. (Sc. G.) ; 
 Ban, f. (Manx); *Geann, f., 
 *Koinne, f., *Koinnt, f., *Kom- 
 main, f., Aindear, f. (Ir.) 
 
 GOTHIC DIALECTS. 
 
 [In the following pages, Ger. signi- 
 fies German ; A. Sax., Anglo- 
 Saxon; Eng., English; Belg., 
 Belgian ; Goth., Gothic ; Swed., 
 Swedish ; IceL, Icelandic] 
 
 German Class. — Mensch, h. (Ger.); 
 Man, m. (Ger., Belg., and Eng.) ; 
 Weib, f., Frou, f. (Ger.) ; Wif. 
 f. (A. Sax.) ; Uino, f., Uens, f. 
 (Goth.) ; Woman, f., Wench, f. 
 (Eng.) 
 
 Scandinavian Class. — Man, m. 
 (Swed.) ; Mand, m. (Ban.) ; 
 Madur, m. (Icel.) ; Quinna, f., 
 Hustra, f. (Siced.) ; Quinde, f. 
 (Dan.) ; Vif, f., Konna, f., 
 Quinna, f., Mcer, f., Droos, f., 
 Ficera, f., Snoot, f., Sprund, f. 
 (Icel.) 
 
 Unlike as the Celtic and Gothic words of this class for the most part 
 are, there are still remaining many traces of original identity : Quinna, f. 
 (Swed.) ; Konna, f. (Icel.) ; are clearly allied to Koinne, f., Geann, f.« 
 (Ir.) Again, the origin of Fr-ou (Ger.) and Fi-cer-a (Icel.) may be satis- 
 factorily explained if these words are viewed as Feminines derived from 
 Fear, m. (Ir.), Ferfiu, m. (Hungarian), Vir (Latin). The application of 
 this remark will be more fully understood by referring to the observations 
 in Appendix A, p. 50, on the origin of terms of this Class, 'Words for 
 Human Being, Man, Woman,' &c 
 
 It will be observed that the Scandinavian presents many peculiar words 
 which are not extant in the other Gothic dialects. Most of these may be 
 clearly identified either with the Celtic, as in the former, or with the 
 Oriental languages, as in the following examples : Hustra, f. (Swed. ) 
 may be regarded as identical with ' Stri,' f. (Sa)iscrit), and Stree, f. 
 (Zend.) Again, Mcer, f. (Icel.) may be viewed as a feminine connected 
 with Martja, m. (Sa?iscrit), Merete, m. (Zend.), Mas, Mar-is (Lati/i). 
 
ALMOST TOTALLY IN THE MOST COMMON WORDS. 
 
 99 
 
 NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE HUMAN FRAME. 
 
 CELTIC DIALECTS. 
 
 GOTHIC DIALECTS. 
 
 1. 'The Head.' (Caput, Latin.') 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Pen or Ben [Tal- German Class. — Kopf, Haupt 
 
 cen, a Forehead] [W.)>, Pedn, (Ger.); Hooft, Cop, Head (Belg.); 
 
 *Pen {Cor.) ; Pen (Arm.) H.e&fod(A.Sax.); Rzuhid (Goth.); 
 
 Head, (Eng.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — [Ben, A Hill,] Scandinav. Class. — Hufwud (Sw.); 
 
 Keann, *Koll, Kutli (Jr.); Tchynn, Hoffuit (Dan.) ; Hoffud, (Icel.) 
 (Manx.) 
 
 2. 'The Arm,' (Brachium, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Braich (TV.) ; 
 Brech (Arm.) ; *Brech, Breh, 
 (Cor.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — [Brak, A Hand], 
 Raigh (Ir.) ; Ri, (Manx.) 
 
 German Class. — Arras (Goth.) ; 
 Earm (A. Sax.) ; Arm, (Ger., 
 Belg. fy Eng.) 
 
 Scandinavian Class. — Arm, (Swed.); 
 Armene (Dan.) ; Armur, Hand- 
 leggur, Armleggur, (Icel.) 
 
 3. 'The Hand,' (Manus, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Llaw, *Adav, German Class. — Handus (Goth.); 
 *Nedkair, Angod, Palv, Pauen Hand (Ger., Belg., fy Eng.); 
 
 (TV.); Law, Lov, (Cor.) Paw, (Eng.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Lav [spelt Lamh], Scandinav. Class. — Hand (Swed.) ; 
 *Lais (Ir.) ; Law, (Manx.) Haand (Dan.); Hond, Ramf 
 
 (Icel.) [from Ram-en, To seize] ; 
 Hreifa (Old Scand.) [from Hrifa, 
 To seize.] 
 
 f Rama, ' The Arm,'— Sclavonian. 
 
100 
 
 THE CELTIC AND GOTHIC TONGUES DIFFER 
 
 Names of the principal Parts of the Human Frame. 
 
 CELTIC DIALECTS, 
 
 GOTHIC DIALECTS. 
 
 4. ' The Fist.' (Pugnus, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Dwrn(JF.); Dwrn German Class. — Faust (Ger.); Fist, 
 [The Hand], (Cor. $> Ar.) (Eng.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Dwrn [The Palm of Scandinavian Class. 
 the Hand], (Jr.) 
 
 5. 'The Leg.' (Cms, Latin.) 
 Cymraeg Class. — Coes, {Welsh.) German Class. — Bein, (Ger.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Cos, (L'ish.) 
 
 Scandinav. Class. — Lagg (Sived.); 
 Laeg (Dan.) ; Fot-leggur, Bein, 
 (Icel.) 
 
 6. 'The Eye. (Oculus, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Llygad, *Treni, German Class. — Augo (Goth.); 
 
 Edrych [To look] (Welsh); La- Eage (A. Sax.); Auge (Ger.); 
 
 gaz, *Lagad (Cor.) ; Lagat, (Ar.) Ooge, (Belg.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Siul, *Kais, Rosg, Scandinavian Class. — Oga (Swed.); 
 
 *Deark, (Irish.) Swil, (Manx.) Oye (Dan.); Auge, (Icel.) 
 
 7. 'The Ear.' (Amis, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Klyst, Ysgyvarn German Class. — Auso (Goth.) ; 
 
 (W.); Skevarn, *Skovarn( Cor.): Eare (A. Sax.); Ohr (Ger.); 
 
 Skuarn, (Ar.) Oore, (Belg.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Kluas, *0, * Snout Scandinavian Class.— Ora. (Swed.); 
 
 (Ir.); Klyss, (Manx.) Ore (Dan.); Evra, (Icel.) 
 
ALMOST TOTALLY IN THE MOST COMMON WORDS. 101 
 
 Names of the principal Parts of the Human Frame. 
 CELTIC DIALECTS. GOTHIC DIALECTS. 
 
 8. 'The Tongue.' (Lingua, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Tavod [Lleyn, the German Class. — Tuggo (Goth.); 
 
 name of a promontory in Carnar- Zung [pronounced Tsung] (Ger.); 
 
 vonshire, apparently from ' Lin- Tungen (Sax.) ; Tonge, (Belg.) 
 gua/ Latin], (W.) ; Tavaz, *Ta- 
 vod (Cor.) ; Teaut, (Ar.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Teanga, *Ting (Ir.); Scandinav. Class. — Tunga (Swed.) ; 
 
 Tehama (Manx); Teanka, Teyngi, Tunge (Dan.) ; Tunga, (Icel.) 
 (H. Sc.) 
 
 9. ' The Nose/ (Nasus, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Trouyn ( W.) ; German Class. — Neosu, Nose, Nsese 
 
 Frigau (Cor.); Yx\(Ar.); *Trein (A. Sax.); Nase (Ger.); Nuese, 
 
 (Cor.) (Belg.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Sron, An Tron(2r.); Scandinavian Class. — Naesa, Nose 
 
 Stroan, (Manx.) (Swed.) ; Naesa, Nose (Dan.) ; 
 
 Nebbe, Nos, (Icel.) 
 
 10. 'The Breast/ (Pectus, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Bron [Dwyvron, German Class. — Brusts (Goth.); 
 the two Breasts] (W.) ; Peytrin, Brust (Ger.) ; Borste, (Belg.) 
 
 Krybuil (Arm.) ; * Klyd-duy- 
 vron,f (Cor.) 
 
 Gaelic Class.— *Bronn, Brainn [The Scandinav. Class.— Brost (Swed.); 
 Belly], *Kliathan, Longa bronn, Bryst (Dan.) ; Briost, (Icel.) 
 
 Kliav [means also the Trunk, also 
 the Trunk of the Belly], (Ir.) 
 
 t Dr. Paghe says this word exists in Welsh, and means the breast-bone. Clwyd 
 means any flat body. 
 
102 THE CELTIC AND GOTHIC TONGUES DIFFER 
 
 Names of the principal Parts of the Human Frame. 
 CELTIC DIALECTS. GOTHIC DIALECTS. 
 
 11. 'The Foot.' (Pes, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Troed (JV.); Truz, German Class. — Fot-us ( Goth.) ; 
 
 * Truyd (Cor) ; Troat, Pau, Fot, Vot (A. Sax.) ; Voet (Belg. 
 
 {Arm.) fy Sax.) ; Fuss, (Ger.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Troidh, *Treathan, Scandinavian Class. — Foot (Swed.); 
 
 *Kos, Rinn, *Lua, *Lat, Lorga, Foede (Ban.); Fotur, (Icel.) 
 (Ir.) 
 
 12. 'The Mouth.' (Os, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Gense, Savan ( W. ); German Class. — Mimths ( Goth . ) ; 
 
 Ganan, *Gene (Cor.) ; Genu, Muth (A. Sax.) ; Mund, Mai, 
 
 (Ar.) Gosch (Ger.) ; Mul, {Swiss.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Bel, * Bil, * Kel, Scandinav. Class. — Munn (Siced.) ; 
 
 *Men, *Gion (Ir.); Beyl (H.Sc); Mund (Dan.) ; Munnur, (Icel.) ; 
 Buel (Manx.) 
 
 13. 'The Back.' (Dorsum, Latin.) 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Kevn, Trym or German Class. — Bsec, Hrioge (A. 
 
 Drym(W.) ; Kein, Druim, Muin, Sax.); Rucken (Ger.) ; Rugge, 
 
 (Cor. fy Ar.) (Belg.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — Druim, Muin (Ir.) ; Scandinav. Class. — Rygg (Swed.); 
 
 Drym (Manx) ; Drim, (Scotch.) Rig (Dan.); Hriggur, Back, 
 
 (Icel.) 
 
ALMOST TOTALLY TN THE MOST COMMON WORDS. 
 
 103 
 
 WORDS FOR < WATER.' 
 
 CELTIC DIALECTS. 
 
 Cymraeg Class. — Dur, Duvr (W.)\ 
 "Dour, {Cor. $• Ar.) 
 
 Gaelic Class. — * Oixe, * Eask, 
 *Eask-ong, Uisge, *Byal, *Bea- 
 thra, *Bir, *Dovar, *An, *Ean, 
 *Fual, *Gil, *Lo {Ir.) ; Uishg 
 (Sc. G.) ; Wystee, (Manx.) 
 
 GOTHIC DIALECTS. 
 
 German Class. — Wasser (Germ.); 
 Waiter (Befy.); Water (Eng.); 
 Wate ( Goth.) ; Ea, Eia, (A . Sax. ) 
 
 Scandinav. Class. — Watn (Swed.); 
 Vand (Dan.) ; Aa, (Icel.) 
 
 END OF APPENDIX C. 
 
 RECEIVED. v * 
 
 ■&31a§£ 
 
C. ADLARD, PRINTER BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE. 
 
 * * >^ 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ ,6 -* ** 
 
 
 OCT 
 
 '"** 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 o <y 
 
 
 
 .^% 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o v » 
 
 
 
 
 
 %. V* 
 
 
 
 ^ ,#' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 v*. ' 
 
 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
 Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
 Treatment Date: June 2006 
 
 PreservationTechnologies 
 
 A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 
 
 1 1 1 Thomson Park Onve 
 Cranberry Township. PA 16066 
 !724)779-2111 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 ocO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ "% 
 
 
■ 
 ■ 
 
 ill 
 
 ill 
 
 ■ 
 ■ 
 
 m 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 §81 
 
 Ainu