ON C ^ ,% v-' . ^ A^ ^v •^^^ * 3 N ^ ^^i^ , , ^A V ^v^ 3 ! ^^^^• ■"OO^" ^^ v^ ../ ^^^'^- '-*-' '. ' r\ "C % ^^'^ ■V %..N^^ '"^^. v^' :# X^^^. " "::';-^ 'b , * ^ ' -■1'' •v \^ ■^- ^ Sf . .-i' ^ d. r-> ).N' c- > s ^ ' ° ' ,, " / >-v "^^^ .-^' -«o^ ^v> m \m V ^^WESTERN EARMER'S NEW AND UNIVERSAL [aaOIlE-IBDOK OK, AN IMPROVED AND COMPLETE GUIDE TBEATMENT OF SOILS: THE OPERATIONS OF PRODUCTIVE FIELD HUSBANDRY; KITCHEN GARDENING; DAIRY PRACTICE; FRUIT GROWING; MANAGEMENT AND DISEASES OF ANIMALS, FOWLS AND BEES; CULTURE OF FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, &c.; CONSTRUCTION OF FARM BUILDINGS; GRAFTING, BUDDING, PRUNING, TRAINING; THE GREAT DISEASES OF TREES AND PLANTS; INSECTS INJURIOUS TO ANIMALS, FRUIT-TREES, GRAIN, &o. THE WHOLE EMBODYING A PLAIN, PRACTICAL, AND COMPREHENSIVE DETAIL OF AGRI- CULTURAL ECONOMY, IN ALL ITS DEPARTMENTS, THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES AND THE CANADAS. ILLUSTRATED BY UPWARDS OF THREE HUNDRED SPLENDIDLY EXECUTED ENGRAVINGS. BY PRACTICAL AGRICULTURISTS. KEEN & LEE, 148 Lake Street, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. 1856.. 5501 i^ Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1856, by CHARLES DESILVER, in the Clerk's OfiBce of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsjlvania. PRINTED BY SMITH & PETERS, Franklin Buildings, Sixth Street, below Arch, Philadelphia. INTRODUCTION. In presenting to the American public a work on AaRicaLTORE and THE VARIOUS ArTS AND SCIENCES CONNECTED WITH ITS MORE PER- FECT Knowledge and Practice, we feel that we should hardly be satisfied with the common prize of authorial ambition, — the mere approval of our book by the community at large. We should be far better pleased, could the volume be the means of so stimulating scientific inquiry and advancing the noble cause of Agriculture, that the very work itself should soon be superseded by the improvements it may cause. It would be an easy, and by no means disagreeable task, to occupy, as is sometimes the practice with authors, a score of pages, or more, — in the form of a Preface or Introduction, — in demonstrating the importance of agriculture to mankind in the light of political econ- omy, and especially its vital connection with the continued advance- ment, in prosperity and power, of this mighty republic; and, from such premises, it would not be difficult to deduce abundant facts, principles and suggestions, valuab^p, in a social and economical point of view, alike to the cultivator of the soil and to all other classes of citizens. The value of many of the more difficult arts and sciences may, indeed, be appropriately dwelt upon, in text-books devoted to their discussion, from the fact that their importance is, as yet, far from being generally acknowledged, or their principles adequately understood. But who can be so blind, in this day of light-, as to need any studied accumulation of evidence to show the value and magnitude of agriculture and its kindred employments ? Argument can hardly enhance them ; eloquence, in its selectest phrases, can add no adornment to them. The earth itself is not more the foun- dation on which we stand, than the cultivation of the soil is the foundation of all national existence, all political stability, all sociiJ IV INTRODUCTION. and mental progress. What government — what community — could be sustained, what form of public or domestic happiness could be enjoyed, without food, clothing and shelter ? And do not all the means of food, clothing and shelter, come out of the earth ? and, with very inconsiderable exceptions, are they not the result of manual toil and culture ? A few things are of spontaneous produc- tion, but the limits of spontaneous production are soon reached. Without other resources, nine tenths of the present population of the globe would perish before another annual revolution of the sun. The agriculturist, then, feeds and clothes and shelters the world. Further improvements in this great department of human effort would enable it to feed and clothe and shelter the world with more adequacy, with greater comfort, with a higher ornament. Advanced still further, other tens and hundreds of millions of beings might rejoice in its bounties ; and human imagination cannot assign a limit beyond which the creative, or, at least, the sustaining power of agriculture cannot go, in filling the ranks and improving the races of mankind. The correctness of these views, however, it has been presumed, is the conviction of every intelligent agriculturist in this country; and if to this were added a due appreciation and improve- ment, on his part, of the means afforded him zealously to fulfil the duties and responsibilities of his vocation, the speedy attainment of comparative perfection in husbandry pursuits would no longer be problematical. To the realization of this end, — so earnestly to be desired, — these pages, it is humbly hoped, will contribute in no small degree. But, in addition to expatiating upon the political and physical relations of agriculture to mankind, it is not unusual for authors or editors of agricultural books, in order to excite, on the part of farmers and the community in general, an increased interest in the cause of agriculture, — as well as to commend their own labors to public; favor, — to indulge m elaborate encomiums on tne moral dignity of rural pursuits, and their adaptedness to ennoble the lives and char- acters of those who engage in thenti. Such encomiums are just, and, in their proper place, useful and gratifying. No reflective mind, however, whether that of a farmer or a tradesman, needs to be informed of the tendency of constant communion with the works and INTRODUCTIOPT. V phenomena of nature to purify the thoughts, and thus exert a largely restraining influence upon the dark passions of the human soul. No man works more in the immediate presence of his Creator than the husbandman. He sees Him not only " in the cool of the day," but in every waking moment; — in the purity and fragrance of the circumambient atmosphere, — in the untamed grandeur of Nature's mountains, rocks, fields, forests, and gushing waters, — in the germ- ination of every seed, — in the growth of every leaf and of every blade of grass, — by these, and numberless objects besides, is he impressed, not only with the power, wisdom and goodness, of Him who " causeth the grass to grow for the cattle, and herb for the service of man," but with the gracious course of His providence, which rewards every discovery of His laws, and every act of obedi- ence to them. It is uttering no harsh judgment, then, when we say, briefly, that the man who can live and labor, surrounded by so many and so palpable attestations of a beneficent and controling Power above, without realizing the nearness of his relations to that Power, or without hymning in his heart devout ascriptions of praise and gratitude, is a sad example of the derangement which sometimes characterizes man's moral machinery. And if, with the Book of Nature thus unfolded so luminously before him, his feelings fail to be voluntarily awakened to a just sense of the honorableness of his employment, and of his duty to improve every means and facility that will enable him to become skilful and thrifty in his calling, no words of rhetoric, however eloquent, will be able to arouse them. There is one topic, which, if its discussion here were compatible, with the extent of space required for the purpose, might, perhaps, be advantageously presented at some length; — this is, the necessity that exists for the formation, throughout the country, of exclusively Agricultural Libraries, to comprise every standard work, whether of American or foreign authorship, and be accessible, at all times, to farmers and others'. This powerful means of advancing the science of farming has hitherto been almost totally neglected ; and, with the exception of a few private collections, — foremost among which may be named the splendid library owned by that enlightened and distin- guished friend of agricultural improvement, Hon. John W. Lincoln of Worcester, Mass., — this species of literature, in a collective form, A* VI INTRODUCTION. is extremely scarce, and, consequently, the farmer's opportunities foi intellectual progress in his profession are few and linnited. The consideration of this interesting topic, however, as well as of those which have previously been alluded to, belongs more appropriately to the pages of a work differing somewhat, in its objects, from this volume. Beyond, therefore, the simple assurance, to those into whose hands this v/ork may fall, that it is the result of patient and laborious study, diligent investigation, and enlightened scientific experiment, con- firmed by careful and discriminating practice, — and that it embraces within its scope every important topic or subject treated of by the most eminent practical writers on Agricultural Economy, in all its ramifications, — introductory comment on the design and character of this volume is unnecessary. To those for whose use and benefit it has been prepared, — the Agriculturist — the Market Gardener — the Dairy Farmer — the Fruit Grower — the Stock Raiser — the Poultry Breeder — the Bee Keeper — the Florist — and the Rural Architect, — this volume is respectfully dedicated, with the earnest hope that it will prove to them a substantial and profitable aid. CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. rRONTISPIECE (LEICESTER SHEEP). raoNTispiECE (illustrative). AGRICULTURAL OPERATIONS. Pig. Fagt. 4. Root-grubber — mode of operating, 6 9. European dirt-shovel " 9 11. Appearance of badly-ploughed lakd, 12 12. Ploughing with double team, 13 14. Diagram of ridge-ploughing, 15 15. " " " 16 16. Transverse section of ridge-ploughing, 17 17. Illustration of casting, in ploughing, 17 18. " " " " " . 18 19. Illustration of cleaving, in ploughing, 18 20. Diagram of cross-ploughing 19 28. Earths an* springs, ' 34 29. Draining peat lands, 35 SO. " " " 35 31. Draining clay lands, 37 34. Meadow watering, 40 35. Catch-work irrigation, 41 55. Transverse section of potato-drills 71 56. " " " " 72 76. Modes of supporting RUNNING plants 101 83. Turnip culture 122 GRAINS, GRASSES, VEGETABLES, HERBS, ETC. 36. Different kinds of wheat 44 37. Classification OF wheat BY the grains, • . 44 41. " " barley " " " • 50 42. Different kinds of barley 51 44. The rye plant 53 46. Different kinds of oats 56 48. The Indian corn plant, 59 64. " buckwheat 68. " MILLET 69. " HEMP 60. " FLAX 62. * " LUCERN 63. " SAINFOIN 64. " TARE 67 75 77 80 83 85 86 * This cut, and the two which succeed it, represent plants which, though extensively cul- tivated in some countries, are grown only to a very limited extent in the United Stales ; they are described in this work merely for the purpose of making the agricultural or farming ioformatf.on, contained in these pages, as complete as possible. Vm CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 65. Different kinds of cloveb, 87 66. Meadow or green grass, 89 67. Timothy, cat's tail, or herd's grass, •• . . 90 68. Orchard grass, or cock's foot " 90 69. Meadow fescue " 91 70. Ray or kye " 91 71. Red top, herd's grass, or FOtJL meadow GRASS 91 72. Sweet-scented vernal grass, '92 73. Pony grass, 92 77. Hop plants, male and female, 110 78. The morel plant, 114 79. The mushroom plant, 114 80. Varieties of the mustard PLANT 115 81. The pea plant, 117 82. " rhubarb plant, 119 85. " caraway " 124 86. " coriander " 125 87. " lavender " 126 83. " LiClcrORICE " 127 89. " PARSLEY " 128 90. " SAFFRON " 129 y FRUITS. 98. Early harvest apple 165 99. Red Astrachan " 166 100. Williams's favorite apple, 166 101. Juneating " 167 102. Summer queen " 167 103. Maiden's blush " • . . 168 104. Ctravenstein " ■ 169 105. Rajieo " 169 106. Yellow BELLFLOWER " 170 107. Esopus Spitzenberg " 171 108. Baldwin " 171 109. Hubbardston nonsuch " 172 110. Westfield seek-no-further apple, 173 HI. Roxbury russet apple, 173 112. Golden PIPPIN " 174 113. Lady " 174 114. Harrison " 175 115. Red Siberian crab apple 176 116. Early apricot, 176 117. Peach " 177 118. Brussels " % 177 119. The barberry, 178 120. The blackberry, 179 121. Black heart cherry, 180 122. American amber " 180 123. Downer's late " 181 124. Early white heart cherry, 181 125. The cranberry, 182 127. White currant, 184 128. Black " 185 129. Melling's crown bob gooseberry, 187 130. Houghton's seedling " 187 131. Black Hamburgh grape, 189 132. Muscat of Alexandria (red and white) grape, 189 133. Catawba grape 190 134. Isabella " 190 135. The melon, 192 CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. DC 136. The mulperry, 193 137. Jaune lisse nectarine, 194 133. Musk violet " 194 139. Gross mignonne peach, 196 140. Alberge " 196 141. Red MAGDALEN " 197 142. Late heath " 198 14*3. Bartlett pear, • . • 200 144. Winter nelis pear, 201 145. Seckel " 201 146. Beurre bosc " 202 147. Muscadine " 203 143. Jefferson plum, 205 149. Green gage " 205 150. Purple favorite plum, 205 151. Bleecker's gage " 207 152. Duane's purple " 207 153. Frost gage " 208 154. Apple-shaped q,uiNCK, 210 155. Fastolff raspberry , 211 156. Franconia " 212 157. Large early scarlet strawberry, 214 158. Hovey's seedling 159. Swainstone's " 160. Ross Phosnix 161. PrOLIFC HAUTB0I3 162. Gushing 215 216 216 217 217 163. The fig, 218 164. " lemon, , 219 165. " lime, 220 166. " olive, 220 167. " orange 221 DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 170. Explanatory skeleton of the ox, 231 171. Prize DAIRY NATIVE cow " KAATSKILL," 233 172. Devon bull, 234 173. " ox, 235 174. " " 236 176. " cow, 237 177. Short-horned bull, 233 178. " cow, 239 179. Hereford cow, 240 180. Ayrshire bull, 241 181. " cow, 241 182. New Leicester cow 242 184. New Leicester sheep 249 135. Coltswood sheep, . . 250 186. South-Down ewe and lamb, 251 187. Black-faced or heath sheep, 252 188. Merino sheep, 253 189. Explanatory skeleton of the PIG, 255 190. China hog, , ;,*,-, 257 191. Berkshire hog, 258 192. Suffolk " 258 193. Siamese sow and litter, , 259 194. Explanatory figure of the horse, 202 195. Arabian horse, 263 196 American race horse, 264 197. " ROAD " 264 X CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 198. Norman (European) horse, 266 199. Thibet goat, 268 200. Newfoundland dog, 270 201. Shepherd's " 270 202. Teerieb " 27' I DOMESTIC FOWLS. 203. A.— Shanghai 290 203. Bankiva cock 291 204. Dorking fowls, 292 205. Jago or Spanish fowls 293 206. Crested or Poland " 294 207. Bantam cock, • 294 20S. Ostrich or Cochin-China fowls, 296 209.- Turkey; 300 210. Toulouse goose, 303 211. Common •' 304 212. Rouen or Rhone duck, 309 213. English OR Aylesbury WHITE duck, 309 214. Muscovy ducks 310 RURAL STRUCTURES, MECHANICAL OPERATIONS, ETC. ■ 32. Different kinds of drains, 38 220. Flower-pot hive, 332 221. Top for a " 333 222. Huish's " • 334 223. Gilmore's bee-house, 334 224. Construction of Gilmobe's hive, 335 225. " " " " 336 226. Back-side op " " 337 227. Boxes in " '« 337 228. Arrangement op " " 333 229. " " " " 339 230. " " " " 340 246. Arbor, for a gabden 379 247. Garden seat, ■ 379 248. Fountain for a garden, 380 249. Sun-dial, " " " 381 255. Ground-plan of a farm-house, -. • . . . 399 256. " " " ONE-STOSY house, 400 257. Model of a medium-sized " 400 258. Ground-plan of a " " 401 259. Side elevation of a medium-sized house, 401 260. Upper floor " " " " 402 261. Model of A large farm-house 402 262. Side elevation of a large farm-house, 403 263. Ground-plan " " " " 403 264. Bed-chamber floor of a large farm-house, 404 265. Tudor cottage, 405 266. Model of double cottage structure, 405 267. Ground-plan of double cottage structure, 406 268. Bed-chamber floor op" " " 406 269. Moderate-sized cottage, ^. . . . 407 270. Plan of dairy apartments, 408 271. Model of A complete DAIRY, 410 272. Ground-floor OP A COMPLETE DAIRY, 411 273. Side ELEVATION OP A " " 411 274. Upper floor " « « «« 412 875. Model of the Washington babh, 414 CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. XI 276. Model OP Bcel's BAEN, 415 277. End AND SIDE VIEW OF BuEL's BARN, 416 279. Arrangement of cattle-shed, 420 250. Apartment and apparatus for boiling food 423 251. Pig-house, 425 282. Improved nest, for hens, ••» 430 2S3. Plan of buildings for a large farm 432 234. " " " " " SMALL " 433 285. Cellular wali,-work, for greenhouse, 435 286. Mode of building stone wall, . , 433 287. " " " GATES, 439 HORTICULTURAL AND FLORICULTURAL OPERATIONS. 236. Plan foh a flower-garden, 362 240. " " " " 365 241. " " " «« 369 242. " " " «« 366 243. " " " " 366 244. " " " " 366 245. Weeping-willow arbor 378 289. The processes op grafting, 446 290. Grafting the vine, 448 291. The processes of budding 453 297. Training the grape-vine in a pot, 466 293. Balloon-training of the rose, 467 299. Spiral-cylinder training, .• 470 300. Spurring-in training, 471 301. Conical or quenouille training, 471 302. Fan training, in its first stage, 472 303. " " " " advanced stage, 473 304. Horizontal training, in its first stage, 474 305. " " " " advanced btage, .474 • FARMING IMPLEMENTS, MACHINES, UTENSILS, ETC. 1. Rounded shovel, 6 2. SciUARE SHOVEL, 5 3. Spade, 6 6. Root-puller, f 6. Bbamble-hooe, 8 7. Paring plough, 8 8. Dirt-scraper, or ground-leveler, , 9 10. Premium plough, eagle no. 1, 10 13. " " with lock-coulter, wheel, and draft-rod, .... 13 21. " subsoil plough, 19 22. Scotch harrow, 22 23. Geddes harrow, 23 24. Field roller, 24 25. Large six-pronged manure fork, 27 26. Small-sized " " 27 27. Improved Expanding cultivator, 28 33. Machine for irrigating, 39 38. Horse-drill, 47 * The publisher would acknowledge, in this place, his obligations to those eminent man- ufacturers of Agricultural Implements, Messrs. Ruggles, Noursb, Mason & Co., Bostoo, and Messrs. Martin & Co., Blackstone, Mass., for the use of several of the cuts of superiot farming utensils which ornament these pages. XII CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 39. Machine FOE DIBBLING WHEAT, 47 40, Fan-mill for cleaning chain, 49 43. HuMMELLING machine, 6? 45. Machine for cleaning smutty grain, &c., 55 47. Grain cradle 58 49. Corn planter, 62 50. Universal cultivator, 64 51. Corn cracker, 65 52. Corn shellij^r, 66 53. Corn and cob crusher, . 66 57. Broom-corn scraper, 74 61. Rippling machine, for flax, 82 74. Scythe, 93 75. Revolving horse hay-rake, 95 84. Vegetable cutter, • ... 123 91. Cheese press, 135 92. Self-acting press, 135 93. Thermometer churn, 136 94. Cylindrical churn, 137 95. Gault's churn, 137 96. Fruit gatherer, 164 97. " " 165 126. Cranberry rake 183 168. Ox chain and bull RING 225 169. Hay and STRAW CUTTER, 229 175. Ox YOKE, 236 183. Lactometer 245 233. Instrument foe fumigating bbe-hives, 348 234. Garden rake, 359 235. " SYRINGE, 360 237. " roller, 362 238. Grass-edge paeer, 363 239. Garden trowel, 363 250. Grass-edging and ladies' garden shears, 382 251. Scissors, for cutting flowers, 388 252. Machine for watering gardens, 390 253. Briar or bill hook, 391 254. Pruning shears, 391 278. Improved b.\rn-door rollers, 416 283. Grafting chisel, 443 292. Pruning chisel, 455 293. " scissors, • 456 294. Budding and pruning knives, 456 295. Pole-pruning shears, 457 296. Lopping and sliding pruning shears, 459 BEES AND OTHER INSECTS, AND THEIR OPERATIONS. 215. Queen bee, 313 216. Drone " 319 217. Working bee, 319 218. Form of the bee's sting, 321 219. Operations of bees in the cells, 322 231. Comb, or hexagonal cells, of bees, 341 232. Swarming of bees, 344 306. Horse bot-fly and larva, 513 307. Wire-worm, larva, and anatomy, 517 308. Hessian fly and its operations 519 309. Wheat midge, larva, and operations 520 SIO. Cabbage moth and cateepillae, 623 CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. Xm 311. Onion fly, laeva, &c., 526 312. Black-veined white butterfly, 526 313. Winter moth, 531 314. Apple weevil, 636 315. Peab " '.536 316. Pear chehmes, 640 317. Plant-louse or aphis, 641 318. Vine scale INSECT, 644 819. Locust, 660 B CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION, fi» CLASSIFIED LIST OF ENGRAVINGS vii CHAPTER I. SOILS: — THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. IHB COMPOSITION OF SOILS THEIR CLASSIFICATION — QUALITIES RELATION BETWEEN THE BOIL AND SUBSOIL MEANS OF INCREASING THEIR PRODUCTITB POWEBS, AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION, VIZ., ALTERING THE PROPORTION OF THEIR INGREDIENTS CLEARING PLOUGHING HARROWING — ROLLING — MANURING — DRAINING — IRRIGATINQ 1 CHAPTER II. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. WHEAT BARLEY RYE THE OAT INDIAN CORN BUCKWHEAT THE PO- lATO BROOM CORN MILLET HEMP FLAX LUCERN SAINFOIN THH TARE — CLOVER — THE GRASSES, 43 CHAPTER III. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. vegetables: — artichoke — asparagus — borage — BEAN — BEET — BORECOLR BROCCOLI CABBAGE — CARDOON CARROT CAULIFLOWER CELERY CHIVE CORN — COBN-SALAD CRESS — CUCUMBER DANDELION — • EGG-PLANT ENDIVE GARLIC HOP HORSE-RADISH — LEEK LETTUCE MOREL MUSHROOM MUSTARD ONION OKRA — PARSNIP PEA PEPPER PUMP- KIN RADISH RAPE RHUBARB SALSIFY SCORZONERA SEA-KALE — SHALLOT SKIRRET SPINACH SQUASH — TOJIATO TURNIP. HERBS, AC. : — ANISE BALM BASIL — CARAWAY CAMOMILE CORIANDER CHERVIL — DILL FENNEL FOXGLOVE HOREHOUND HYSSOP — LAVENDER UQUOBICE MARJOP^M MINT PARSLEY PENNY-ROYAL PEPPERMINT — • PURSLANE — ROSEMARY RUE SAFFRON — SAGE SAVORY TANSY — THYME; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS, 98 XVI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. THE DAIRY. DAIBT IMPLE5IENT3 — MANAGEMENT MILK BUTTER-MAKING — CHEESE-MAKING j HJCLTTDING AH THE MOST CELEBRATED AND ESTEEMED MODES, . . 134 CHAPTER V. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. aiANDABD KINDS : APPLE APRICOT BARBERRY — BLACKBERRY — CHERRY CRANBERRY — CURRANT GOOSEBERRY GRAPE MEDLAR — MELON MUL- BERRY NECTARINE PEACH PEAR — PLUM — QUINCE RASPBERRY — BTBAWBERRY. MISCELLANEOUS KINDS : — ALMOND — BLUEBERRY BUTTER- NUT CHESTNUT — FIG — FILBERT LEMON LIME — OLIVE ORANGE POMEGRANATE SHELLBARK WALNOT WHORTLEBERRY ; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS 164 CHAPTER VI. DOMESTIC OR FARM AOTMALS. . THE REARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF — THE BULL — THB OX — THE COW — SHEEP SWINE THE HORSE — THE ASS THB MULE THH GOAT — THE DOG, IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS, 225 CHAPTER VII. POULTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS. THE RAISING, BREEDING, DISEASES AND TREATMENT, OF THE COMMON BARN FOWM ; Also — THB TURKEY — THE GOOSE — THB DUCK — IN ALL THEIR IMPORTANT VARIETIES, 291 CHAPTER VIII. BEES. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF BEES — POSITION OF THE APIARY — HIVES AND BOXES - OBTAINING STOCK SWARMING THB HONEY HARVEST — MANAGEMENT DURING WINTER AND EARLY SPRING HOW TO TREAT THB PRODUCE OF THB HONEY HARVEST THE ENEMIES AND DISEASES OF BEES, 318 CHAPTER IX. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. THB CULTURE OF FLOWERS — PLANS FOR FLOWER-GARDENS — DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS — ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS ORNAMENTAL trees; — WITH A MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR, ..... 359 CONTENTS. XVn / CHAPTER X. -^ EURAL ARCHITECTURE. tHK CONSTRUCTION OP FAEM-DWELLING3 AND COTTAGES — DAIRIES — BARNS — STABLES — CART-SHEDS, AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES — GRANARIES — CATTLE-SHEDS — PIGGERIES — POULTRY-HOUSES — ARRANGEMENT OF THE FARMERY GREEN- HOUSES FENCES AND GATES, 398 CHAPTER XI. HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. THB IMPEOVED MODES OF GRAFTING — BUDDING — PRUNING — TRAINING, 442 CHAPTER XII. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. BUOHT OE BLAST — CANKER OR CAEIE3 — CONSUMPTION — CONTORTION — DE0P8T EEGOT — HONEY-DEW — CURL MILDEW — POTATO-ROT — SMUT, . 477 CHAPTER XIII. NOXIOUS INSECTS. IN8KCT8 WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OE IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PEOP- AGATB ON THEM — INSECTS WHICH INJUEE GRAIN — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS, 512 INDEX, 553 DEFINITION OF WORDS, — SCIENTIFIC, TECHNICAL AND PECULIAR, — COMMONLY USED IN CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED SUBJECTS, 575 CHAPTER I. SOILS : TIIEER NATURE AND TREATIilENT. THE COMPOSITION OF SOILS THEIR CLASSIFICATION QUALITIES RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL ME.VNS OF INCREASING THEIR PRODUCTIVK POWERS, AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION, VIZ., ALTERING THH PROPORTION OF THEIR INGREDIENTS CLEARING PL0UG1II5G HARROWINQ ROLLING MANURING DRAINING IRRIGATING. I GENERAL REMARKS. Nothing is more true than the fact, that, from the vague manner in which soils are usually described by writers assuming to instruct those who cul- tivate the soil, it is often difficult for a farmer, who reads accounts of agri- cultural operations in any other section of the country than that in which he resides, to judge what relation the soil which is the scene of such oper- ations bears to that which he himself cultivates. A certain acquaintance with a few of the plain principles and laws of chemistry in connection with the composition of soils is, therefore, very desirable ; for it is only in the accuracy in which soils are described, and their composition and character ascertained and understood, that a knowledge of the best methods of remedy- ing their defects, and improving them by the application of different matters, can be acquired. It will be consistent, then, with the design of our work, to give some account, in the first place, of the I. COMPOSITION OF SOILS. Though various in fertility and texture, all soils are resolvable into the same constituent parts. They consist of earthy and organic matters in a state of combination. What is commonly called earth may Be considered in two points of view, either as mixed or unmixed with animal and vegeta- ble remains. As originally produced from the crumbling or decomposition of rocks, earth is, of course, destitute of any of these matters ; but they very soon enter into its composition, and exist In a considerable proportion in all soils not completely barren. The principal mineral substances which enter into the composition of rocks and soils are silica, — found in quartz, flint, and sand; alumina, — 4 leading ingredient in the composition of clays, giving them that softness, 1 A 2 farmer's hand-book. plasticity, and adhesiveness, for which they are distinguished; lime, — cor stituting the numerous varieties of limestone, marl, chalk, and marble ; magnesia, — existing in various states of combination with acids and other earths, and is found in various mineral springs. Thus, v^here silica prevails, as in the case of many sands, the earth may be called silicious ; where clay prevails, the soil may be called aluminous ; where lime exists in quantity, as in the case of chalk, the soil is calcareous ; and where magnesia prevails to such an extent as to impart its distinctive nature to the soil, it may be called magnesian. Besides these, there is the oxide of iron, forming a constituent part of soils, though its influence on their productive powers has not been definitely ascertained II. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. Having spoken of the ingredients in soils, we will now classify them according to their peculiar properties and the kinds of crops they are severally best adapted to produce. The grand divisions are as follows : — Clayey Soils. — These are distinguished for the adhesion of their parts, and the retention of moisture. Farm lands of this description, — the richer clays, we mean, — generally produce crops of great abundance and of superior quality, but at extra cost. Much attention is necessary to the choice of suitable seasons for conducting the operations of tillage on these soils : if too dry, it turns up in hard masses, difficult of being made fine enough for sowing ; and if too wet, it is worked into mortar, and cannot be reduced by the harrow. At the first ploughing, the clay comes up in large clods ; but the oftener it is acted upon by the implements of tillage at the proper time, the more is its cohesion broken, and the more easily can the roots of plants penetrate. They must be worked when the clods can be" crushed by the roller. Sandy Soils. — These are distinguished by their small degree of adhesive- ness; and, with the aid of manures and consolidating substances, to counter- act their poverty and their susceptibility to drought, no land pays better for improvement. The richer class-of sands is fitted for the production of every kind of herbage and grain, bulbous and tuberous rooted plants. Gravelly Soils. — Between the gravelly and sandy soils there is a close resemblance, both containing a large portion of undecomposed rocky matter. The loose texture of gravelly soils renders them unfit for the production of wheat and beans, but they are admirably adapted to barley and oats. Peaty Soils. — While other soils consist, primarily, of the worn-ofF portions of rocks, combined with various animal and vegetable matters, it is otherwise with the peat soils. The matter comprising the soils of this class varies exceedingly, but in all cases it retains the general characteristics of SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 3 its origin, from the quantity of the stems and other parts of plants which it contains, either entire, or in a partial state of decay. At the surface, it may be fibrous, and of a brownish-gray color ; and lower, it may be friable, of a light-brown color, and with few fibres. Still lower, it may be compact, of a deep-brown color. Wherever wood, stems, or grass of any kind, goes to waste, or falls down and is decomposed, its remains are changed into moss, if the necessary degree of humidity be present ; and, a certain temperature being essential in producing this change, it is only in the cold and temperate parts of the earth that peat is formed. Loam Soils. — Under this denomination is included that kind of soil which appears to be an intimate mixture of all the others. It is friable in its com- position, and neither liable to be parched in summer, nor drenched and chilled with surface water in winter. It is suitable for every kind of crop, and every system of husbandry. The arrangement of the different kinds of soils which we have now made is sufficient for every practical purpose. There is, however, a more import- ant and interesting distinctioo to the farmer, and this is III. THE QUALITIES OF SOILS, AS DETERMINED BY THEIR COM- PARATIVE PRODUCTIVENESS. The fertility or powers of production of any soil may be judged of from its natural produce ; in part from the kinds of plants which are peculiar to it, and in part from the luxuriance with which they grow — more certainly by the latter. The soils of the poorest class produce mosses, low and stinted plants, and heaths. As the soil improves in quality, the grasses become intermixed with these inferior orders of vegetation ; and as improvement advances, the grasses increase in quantity, value, and variety. Cultivation and local circumstances having such influence on the peculiar vegetation of any particular section of country, little confidence can be placed in lists of plants indicative of different soils. We therefore pass to consider the IV. RELATION BETWEEN THE SOIL AND SUBSOIL. Clayey Subsoil. — The value of the soil for agricultural purposes is affected, in a great degree, by the nature of the subsoil upon which it lies. A retentive, clayey subsoil is in general highly injurious to vegetation ; for, where the soil rests on a subsoil of this quality, it is constantly soaked with water, and is tilled with difficulty. The retention of an undue quantity of moisture diminishes the beneficial action of the manures which have beeu applied to the land, and the crops on such soils make but little progress Hence, their grain is of inferior quality, and, when in grass, their herbage is coarse. 4 farmer's hand-book. Porous Subsoil. — A porous subsoil absorbs all superfluous moisture Below clay, and tbe difTerent varieties of loam, an open subsoil is particu- larly desirable. It is favorable to all the operations of husbandry ; it tenda to correct any undue absorbent power in the soil above ; and it promotes the beneficial action of manures, contributes to the growth and preservation of seeds in the soil, and insures the future prosperity of the plants. Hence it is that a thinner soil, with a favorable subsoil, will- produce better crops than a deeper one, resting on wet clay, or on cold or non-absorbent rock. Quality of Subsoil. — But not only is the soil affected by the depth and texture of the subsoil, but by its quality. There are cases when, from natural revolutions, that which is properly the soil forms the lower stratum or layer, as, for instance, where the original surface has been covered by the sand ; but, in general, the lower stratum is far less suited to the nourishment of plants, and in many cases contains matter which, if too abundant, is greatly injurious to vegetation. Depth of the Soil. — Whether the subsoil be retentive or porous, the soil which rests upon it should be of good depth ; and in proportion to that depth will it be affected by the nature of the subsoil. If a retentive subsoil is placed very near the surface, not only is the soil too shallow for the purposes of vegetation, but it is too easily affected by the alternations of dryness and moisture ; and if, again, a porous subsoil be very near the surface, the roots of the plants, as in the other case, not only have not sufficient space to extend themselves, but the moisture of the soil is too easily exhausted by heat, to the injury of vegetation. V. MEANS OF INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS OF SOILS, AND RENDERING THEM FIT FOR CULTIVATION. Having now explained the composition, varieties, and qualities of soils, and the connection between them and the subsoil, or lower strata, we shall pro- ceed to point out the various means which it is necessary for the farmer to use, in order to maintain and increase their fertility, and render them fit for the grand purpose of cultivation. These grand means are as follows : — 1. Altering the Proportion of the Different Ingredients in the Soil. — This is done by ascertaining the composition of the soil, and then adding to, or subtracting from, the ingredients in which it is deficient, or with which it superabounds. If a sterile soil is found to contain any of the salts of iron, or any acid matter, it may be ameliorated by applying quick- lime. A soil of good apparent texture, containing sulphate of iron, will be sterile ; but this may be remedied by a top-dressing with lime, which converts the sulphate into manure. If there be an excess of limy matter in the soil, it may be improved by the application of sand or clay. Soils too abundant SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATBIENT. & in sand are benefited by a dressing of clay, marl, or vegetable matter. Light sands are improved by using peat, and peats by a dressing of sand ; though the former is in its nature only a temporary improvement. When peats are acid, or contain iron, limy matter is necessary in bringing them into cultiva- tion. The^est natural soils are those of which the materials have been derived from diiferent strata or layers of the earth, which have been minutely divided by air and water, and are intimately blended together ; and, in im- proving soils artificially, the cultivator cannot do better than imitate the processes of nature. To do this, the necessary materials are seldom far distant ; coarse sand is often near by, and beds of sand and gravel are common below clay. The labor of improving the texture or constitution of the soil, by thus changing the character of its ingredients, is repaid by a great and permanent advantage, — less manure is required, and its fertility and productiveness insured. 2. Clearing. — It is seldom that tlie operation of altering the proportion of the different ingredients of the soil can be performed to any extent until after it has been cleared ; nevertheless, we have chosen this arrangement of Ficr. 1. p/o-. 2. Pis:-. 3. our suoject, believing it to be the one best adapted to promote the end which we have in view, namely, a plain and intelligible presentation of principles, ^cts, and modes. FAKMER S HAND-BOOK. That the chief part of waste and uncultivated lands might he turned to advantage, is undouhtedly true. Land covered with furz ; the soil of ancient forests, overrun with this plant, or covered by stagnant water ; those moving sands, which are often carried from place to place, in some sections of the country, by the wind ; neglected tracts, which yield nothing at all, or, at most, but a scanty return ; in short, almost all kinds of land are sus- ceptible of some kind of tillage, and capable of yielding certain varieties of produce. But operations of this nature are not always attended with profit, the land often costing as much, or more, in the end, as it would have been necessary to give for such as was already in a state of cultivation. Dt'finite Plan of Operations. — The first thing to be done is carefully to determine on the manner in which the land about to be cleared can best be turned to account ; then to lay down a plan of operation, drawn up with due regard to the nature of the soil and the ends proposed to be derived from it ; and, finally, to precisely and perseveringly adhere to such plan. It is im- portant that the improvement of the land should be commenced at that part which is most capable of being converted into meadow or pasture ground, even though it should be determined to submit this land to the plough at some future period ; by so doing, a supply of manure will be insured, and the fertility of those portions of land afterwards cleared will be increased. Clearing Forests. — It is upon the soil of forests that operations of this nature are usually performed, and it is upon such soils that they are attended Fiff. 4. with the greatest advantages and success, both as regards the person by whom they are undertaken, and society in general. The soil of forest land V SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 7 generally contains a sufficient quantity of nutritious matter to enable it to produce both crops of fodder and of corn, even without being manured with dung ; and, consequently, will yield an immediate return for the expenses of clearing, without being exhausted by so doing. The extirpation of trees and bushes often requires a great deal of labor ; and, to do it more easily, several machines have been invented. Trees must be grubbed up by the roots ; and it saves labor to cut the roots below the ground, while the tree is standing, and draw the tree over by means of ropes fixed to the top ; the stem becomes a lever, by which the roots are more easily drawn out. Useless shrubs are readily cut down, and serve for fuel. Their roots are seldom difficult to grub up ; a simple and very power- ful instrument for this purpose is a very strong iron three-pronged fork, the prongs twenty inches long, and a strong handle, twenty feet long, fixed firmly into it, to the end of which a rope is fastened ; this is driven slant- wise under the roots, and, by means of a log as a fulcrum, it forms a lever when pulled down by the ropes. Figure 4 represents this instrument ; and the succeeding cut is that of an implement now much used for the Bame purpose, the claws being attached to the bush close to the ground, and, by means of cattle fastened to it by a chain, the bushes or roots are easily drawn. Fig. 5. Clearing' Waste Lands. — Next to the soil of forests, waste lands and com- mon pasturages are most generally cleared. Land of this description ia usually in a most disordered condition, the surface being rugged and uneven, and covered with stumps of trees, and bushes, &c. After disposing of the latter, according to the mode just described, recourse may be had to the operation of half-ploughing, for the purpose of raising the furrow-slices of the turf. This may be performed with any plough which has a broad, sharp share, held in a somewhat inclined positV>n, so that on the side on which the yet unturned earth is situated the share may enter rather more deeply, and on that next the mould-board the divided furrovir-slice ixav be very thin, — so much so, indeed, that the lower angle of the plougbshair '■nay merely graze the surface of the ground. When the soil thus prepared r.,i-- remained for 8 farmer's hand-book. some time in this state, a strong harrow should be passed over it in a con trary direction to the ploughing, in order to tear in pieces and break up those slices raised by the plough. The ground will be covered with roots Pisr. 6. and fibres, and these must be burned. A bramble-hook, like that above, is also frequently used in cutting brush or brambles. Paring and Burning. — Comparative experiments prove that faring and burning is one of the best methods employed in clearing uncultivated lands of a marly nature, though many disapprove of the practice. The operation consists in paring oft' the turf to a depth of two or three inches, — generally by a breast-plough, worked by hand, or by a turf-paring plough, drawn by a Fig. 7. horse, — allowing it to dry, and then burning it in heaps. The result is a mixture of burned earth, charred vegetable fibre, and the ashes of that part which is entirely consumed, thus producing a powerful manure, impregnated with alkaline salts and carbonaceous matter, which, it is well known, are very powerful promoters of vegetation. Insects are also killed by the pro- cess. It is very easy to ascertain whether any soil will be improved or not I by paring and burning. A few sods may be taken and exposed to heat in an iron pot closely covered over ; the heat should not be so intense as to pro- duce light, but should be kept up for a considerable time, till the sods are consumed. If the ashes are red, and the whole is a fine powder, with par- ticles of charcoal in it, the soil from which it was taken may be safely pared and burned, especially if it forms a mud with water, and the earth is not readily deposited. But if it feels gritty, lets the water readily through, and soon settles when mixed with it, burning will not be advantageous. Levelling Uneven Surfaces. — Frequently, when the surface of newly- cleared land is uneven, it is necessary, in the first place, to smooth and level SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND "TREATMENT. 9 it, in order to cultivate it more easily. When the inequalities of the snr face cannot be reduced by a more simple process, it may be done, when the soil is loose and sandy, by an instrument like the following ; or by another, which is much used in Flanders, consisting of a wooden shovel, shod with iron, and having a long handle ; about the middle of this shovel, which is convex, are two hooks, one on each side, to which chains are fixed, which unite at the bar, to which the traces of a horse or horses are to be attached ; a rope fixed to the end of the handle completes the instrument. A man accustomed to the use of it raises the handle, and the shovel enters the ground, and is filled by the horse going on. By depressing the handle, the load is made to slide on the rounded bottom of the shovel, till it arrives at the place where it is to be deposited. By letting the handle go, retaining the rope, the whole is upset instantly, turning over on the edge ; the handle Btrikes on the bar, and the load is left behind in a heap. By pulling the Fig. 9. rope, the whole instrument resumes its original position, and is brought bacl( to th« place from which the earth is to be taken again, without any loss of 10 , ^ farmer's hand-book. time, or the slightest stoppage of the horses. About five cwts. of .oosa earth may be thus moved at each time. This instrument, which is now being superseded by others, is seen in the preceding cut. Removing Stones. — The removal of large stones often increases the dit ficulty of clearing an uncultivated soil to a considerable extent; and yet they must be removed, at least, as far below^ the surface of the soil as the plough ' penetrates in its courss, otherwise it is wholly impossible to till the ground properly. When they cannot be used for any valuable purpose, they may be sunk into the ground to a depth at which they will not interfere with any of the operations of agriculture. For this purpose, a trench deeper than the stone itself is dug all around it, and it is laid in the hollow thus formed. The width and depth of this hollow must be greater than the breadth and depth of stone, and its shape must be so contrived that the stone, when turned over, may not present either of its angles or edges to the ground. Very large stones must be blasted, especially if they are going to be used in building. The most useful mode of conducting this operation consists in the use of gunpowder ; but it should be done by those who understand the operation, and with proper instruments. Another method consists in heat- ing the stone to a high degree, by means of a fierce fire applied to one part of it only, which will cause it to expand. When the stone has been thus made intensely hot, water is poured upon it to make it crack, the effect being increased by powerful blows given with very heavy hammers. A third method consists in piercing the stone in the direction of its veins, and introducing into the hole a cleft cylinder of iron, and then driving a wedge of the same metal in between the two halves of the cylinder. Finally, a quantity of water may, during the winter season, be introduced into a hole made in the stone to a sufficient depth, the aperture to be then closed with a stopper closely driven into it. The water contained in this hole, ex- panding as it freezes, exerts a force sufficient to break in pieces the strong- est stone. 3. Ploughing. — Ploughing is justly considered the most important of agricultural operations, as on the manner in which this is performed depends tlie facility of executing all succeeding operations on the same piece SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. tV of land. The plough acts as a wedge, separating a portion of the soil, and turning it over at the same time. The manual operation of holding the plough in a proper position, and directing the horses or cattle which di-aw it at the same time, is only to be acquired by experience ; when once attained, it is, perhaps, the most agreeable and healthful of agricultural exercises, the body being kept upright, ti.e arms and legs brought into action, and also the eye and the mind, to keep the furrow straight and of regular width and depth, and the voice to speak to the animals. In the performance of this operation it is requisite. First. That the lines traced by the plough should be perfectly straight and parallel with one another ; the furrow slices all equal, and uniformly turned up, so that they may not overlap each other, or form any inequalities on the surface of the ground. If the slices are not of equal breadth, the operation becomes more difficult, because at every deviation from the straight line the resistance which the earth opposes to the instrument becomes increased. Second. That the plough advance at a regular and uniform depth, and on a line parallel to the surface of the soil ; that is to say, that it do not, as is the case when it is not well guided, sometimes cut thick and at others thin slices. Third. That the plough empty the furrow as completely as possible, so that the earth may not fall in again, after the instrument has passed ; and that the portion of soil not yet raised, but which has just been divided by the ploughshare, may form not an acute, but a right angle with the bottom of the furrow on which it borders. Fourth. That the furrow-slice be turned up at an angle of about 40 degrees, or so as to form with the surface of the ground, or the bottom of the furrow, an angle of from 40 to 50 degrees, which is in most cases the best inclination. Fifth. That the divided slices be always of the same breadth; and that it be such as is required by the nature of the soil itself, and the purpose of the operation. Sixth. That they likewise preserve the depth which it is desirable to give them. Seventh. That the ridges or heaps of earth between the furrows be of a suitable length and breadth, and that their sides be parallel to one another, so that they may not terminate in a point ; for such a form tends to increase the labor of ploughing considerably, by rendering it necessary to turn fre- quently. Eighth. That the ploughs be placed one after another, on different partg of the land to be ploughed, so that the operation may be executed in the best possible order, and with as little loss of time as possible. 12 ' farmer's hand-book. Ninth. That the horses or cattle be harnessed as near to the plough as they can be placed without retarding their free and easy movement ; for the nearer they are to the point of draught, the less exertion will be required to overcome the resistance. Tenth. That when ploughing with a pair abreast, the most powerful horse should be worked in the furrow ; but, if the team be harnessed in line, and there be any difference in the height of the cattle, the tallest should be put foremost, if he be in every respect equal to the other. Eleventh. That, when at work, they should be kept going at as regular and good a pace as the nature of the work will permit ; for they are thus more manageable, and the draught easier, than when slow. By attending to this, the heavy soil will cling less to the coulter, and the land will work more freely. Twelfth. That, the breadth and depth of the furrow being ascertained, the plough should be held upright, bearing equally all along on a straight sole, and be made to move forward in a regular line, without swerving to either side. The edge of the coulter should be set directly forward, so that the land-side of it may run in a parallel line with the land-side of the head, and in such a position that their slant or sweep may exactly correspond. Thirteenth. That the ploughman should walk with his body as nearly 33 possible upright, without leaning on the stilts, and without using force to any part, further than may be absolutely necessary to keep the implement steadily in a straight line. He should also be sparing of his voice, and of correction to the team : of the former, because too much cheering and order- ing only confuse the cattle, and because punishment, when often repeated, at length loses its effect. How to hold the Plough. — In ploughing, the instrument ought to be held vertically. If it is inclined to the left-hand side, the same work is per- formed in appearance, though not in reality, a portion of the ground below not being tilled at all, but left thus : Piff. 11. Construction of the Plough. — In the construction of ploughs, whatever be the sort used, there are a few general principles that ought invariably to be attended to; such as the giving the throat and breast — or that part which enters, perforates, and breaks up the ground — that sort of long, nar- row, clean, tapering, sharpened form, that affords the least resistance in passing through the land ; and to the mould-board that kind of hollowed out and twisted form, which not only tends to lessen friction, but also to con- SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. lU tribuU ^1 ally to the perfect turning over of tlie furrow-slice. The beam and mi iz e should also be so contrived as that the moving power, or team, may be attached in the most advantageous line of draught. With such an instrument, the farmer can cultivate his land to advantage. Depth of Ploughing. — This depends on the kind of crop to be cultivated, and other circumstances. In the field, all that can be arrived at is a kind of approximation to the true proportions. When the sods are considerably too wide in proportion to their depth, the ploughman will be admonished of this by their lying too flat, and too slightly overlapping one another. When their depth is considerably too great in proportion to their width, they will stand too upright, and be apt to fall back again into the furrow. The medium depth of good ploughing may be held to be seven inches, but this varies, according to the kind of crop to be cultivated, and the nature of the soil. The plough with lock coulter, wheel, and draft-rod, like the annexed, is most suitable for deep ploughing. risr. 13. Ridges. — The first operation in the forming of ridges is striking the fur- rows. Let it be supposed that a field has been laid level by previous ploughings, and that the marks of former ridges being obliterated, the lines of the new ones are to be laid out. The usual breadth of ridges is from 15 to 18 feet, and sometimes more. We may assume, in the following descriptions, fifteen feet to be the width of the ridges. 2 14 farbier's hand-book. Let a steady ploughman be famished with three or more poles of wood shod with iron, 8 or 9 feet in length, and divided into feet or half feet. The first operation is to mark off, at two sides of the field, what is termed a head-land. This is merely a ridge formed parallel to the side of the field, on which the horses are to turn ; to afford sufficient space for which, these ridges may be 18 feet wide. The lines of them are marked off before the other ridges, in order that the ploughman may know, on arriving at the end of the ridge, when to turn his horses. After the rest of the field is ploughed, the headlands themselves are ploughed, and formed into ridges. In the following diagram (Fig. 14), representing a field, let e f, g h, represent the lines of the headlands, drawn parallel to a b and c d, the sides or boundaries of the field, and at the distance from each of these sides of 18 feet. These lines the ploughman marks out by running a straight furrow with his plough, parallel to the two sides. Let him now, beginning at the side of the field a d, parallel to which it is intended to run the ridges, measure off with his pole e a, 7.^ feet. At the point a, let him place one of his poles. This is the point at which he is to enter his plough. But, leaving his horses, in the mean time, let him walk on to a convenient distance, as to i, and there, in like manner measur- ing off I ft, 7^ feet, let him set up his second pole at h; and then, at the further end of the field, on the line of the headland, at c, let him place his third pole. He has now three poles placed in a line ; but if, from the length of the field, or inequalities of the surface, more than three poles are neces- sary, more must be used, as there must be so many poles in sight as that the ploughman may be enabled to direct his plough, by means of them, in a straight line. He now returns to his plough, and enters it at the first pole, at a, keeping the other two poles in a line, so that he may be enabled to plough directly towards them. Having entered his plough at a, he stops his horses, and measures off 15 feet to d, where he plants the pole. He then returns to his plough, which is standing at a, and drives his horses, keeping the two poles before him as a guide, to the second pole, b. Having done this, and leaving his plough standing at b, he measures off from b to,e, 15 feet, and there he plants his pole. He then returns to his plough, and proceeds forward, making his furrow in a straight line, to the last pole, c, where, in like manner, he stops his horses, and, measuring off 15 feet, he plants his pole at /. In this manner he has placed his poles in a straight line, at the distance of 15 feet from their last position, and parallel, as before, to the line of the fence. He now turns his horses sharp about, and returns by the furrow which he has just drawn, cb a. By this second ploughing he throws the earth out in an opposite direction, so that he has formed a completely open SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 15 furrow. In returning, he takes care to correct any inequality or crookedness tliat may have taken place through the unsteady motion of the horses in his first track. The poles being now placed in a line, d e f,he brings his plough to rl, enters it, and stops it there. He measures off 15 feet with his pole, from d to g, and fixes his pole at g ; and then he proceeds with his plough to e and /, repeating the same operation with his poles as before, and returning by the trade of his last-made furrow, from / to d. In this manner he pro- ceeds throughout the whole field, forming parallel open furrows, at the dis- tance from each other of 15 feet. These furrows are to form the centres of the future ridges. The field is now prepared for being ploughed into ridges, and the manner of doing so is this : — The ploughman, beginning at the left-hand side of the open furrow, ploughs his first furrow-slice towards it. He then, returning by the oppo- site side, performs the same operation, causing the first two furrow-slices to rest upon each other. Thus, in forming his first ridge, he begins at the side of a, and, ploughing in the direction from a to c, he turns his first furrow- slice into the open furrow a c. When he arrives at c, he turns his plough right about, and returning from c to a, he lays his second furrow-slice upon the first one, as at c, Fig. 15. Fisc. 14. _ r * f j h i « i ? tt a. In this manner he continues, always turning to the right-hand side, and laying his furrow-slices towards the centre of the ridge, until he has reached 16 farmer's hand-book. the boundary of the ridge e h, on the one side, and the line o s, half-way between c a and d f, on the other. He has thus formed a ridge, of which c a is the crown or centre, and h e and o s the termination. By proceed- ing in this manner throughout the field, the whole is formed into ridges, of which the first-marked furrows are the centres. It has been said that the ploughman continues turning his horses to tht* right, and that thus, after having proceeded from a to c, he returns from c to «, and so on, always ploughing around a c, as a central line. When, how- ever, he has proceeded from c to c, he may turn his horses left about, and return from f to d, and so on, always laying his furrow-slices towards a c midf d, respectively. In this manner he will have ploughed the half of two adjoining ridges, and terminated at the space o s, half-way between them. This method, it will appear, has the same effect as turning the horses right about, and is the most convenient in practice. In Figure 15, in which c c, c c, c c, are the centres of the ridges, the manner in which the successive fiirrow-slices have been laid upon each other is shown. By this laying of the earth towards the centres, the ridges acquire a cer- tain curvature. By ploughing the earth away from the intervals a b, d e, F G, H I, the ground is hollowed at these parts, which now form the opai furrows. It is by these open furrows that the water which falls upori tl e surface finds a passage. Fiff. 15. A CDC F C H ..«ii3™7i!'!ii'i«oT,r"iiii;pitii!:i:"i,,. iiiiii B C E C G C A certain, though not a great, degree of curvature, is given to the ridge by this ploughing. It is frequently, however, necessary to give it a yet greater degree of curvature and elevation. This is done by ploughing the whole ridge a second time, and in a similar manner. SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 17 Gathering. — The plough is first driven along the centre of the ridge from c to c, forming an open furrow. Successive furrow^-slices are then laid towards this furrow, in the same manner as in the previous ploughing. This is done with the successive furrow-slices, until the plough reaches the open furrows a n, d e, f g, h i. In this manner the whole ridge is ploughed, and an increased elevation and curvature given to it. This operation is termed gathering. In performing the operation of gathering, it is import,ant that the ridge be formed with a uniform curvature, so that it shall not have what is techni- cally termed a shoulder, or hollow part, on each side of the crown. It is to prevent this defect that the open track is made along the crown, before the first two slices are laid together ; by which means the ploughman is better enabled to lay them upon each other in such a manner that they shall not overlap and form a protuberance at the crown of the ridge. A transverse section of the ridges, when gathered, will appear thus : Fig-. 16. B C E C G C I C Casting. — A ridge being already formed, it may be wished to plough it again, and yet to preserve it at the same curvature and elevation. In this case, the plough is to enter at the open furrow, and to lay the. successive furrow-slices towards it, until the two adjoining edges are ploughed. By this means, all the slices of the same ridge lie in the same direction, and the curvature and elevation of the whole remain as before. This operation is termed casting, and the manner in which the fuiTOW-slices rest upon each other will appear in the following cut. ^^e 24 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. repeatedly performed to grain crops in the spring months, as long as it can 1)6 continued without breaking the stems. A heavy roller is essential to the success of corn in tenacious soils, by closing up the fissures which dry weather occasions, and is useful for breaking down clods on fallows, in aid of the harrow, which then more easily separates them, and disengages weeds, bringing them to the surface. If the roller be heavy, — as it ought to be, in order to be really useful, — and require two horses, they should not be in line, unless the roller be constructed with only single shafts ; independently of the disadvantageous application of power in this case, the trampling of eight legs, instead of four, in the same track, will make, under particular circumstances, impressions which the roller will not so readily remove as if only the footsteps of a single horse in the track were imbedded. This is, of course, perfectly immaterial in preparing fallows for the succeeding plough and harrow, though it may be of some weight in the case of sown crops, where the surface is not to be stirred again. F!i On grass lands heavy rolling is highly efficacious, particularly if the surface has been rendered uneven by the treading of cattle, or by any other causes. On dry, absorbent land, when under grass, rolling will be most use- .ful after rain, if not so immoderate as to cause injury from the feet of the iinimals during the process ; and the earlier in the morning the better, in order to destroy vermin. Meadows are served by rolling immediately aftei the hay is removed, in order to press the seeds that had been diffused ovei SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 25 the surface into the earth, and thus promote their vegetation. The usual way of moving the roller, is to begin at one end of the field, and to leave at each bouting an interval precisely of the breadth of the roller, (in order to allow a sutficient sweep for the roller in each turning, without injuring the head-rig by tearing it, or distressing the horses,) and alternately to roll tliese intervening portions. When the land is in ridges, the rolling should be across them. Thel)ox which is seen attached to the roller represented on the preceding page, is to receive stones, &c., picked up in the field, and also for giving weight to the roller according to the work required. 6. Manuring. — This important subject will be treated of in its relation to the composition of manures and their application to the different soils. Action of Manures. — Manure acts upon the soil in two ways : First, by communicating to it those juices which are calculated for the nutrition of plants and vegetables ; and, secondly, by the Wiemical action which it exer- cises on those substances contained in the soil, decomposing them, and re-combining them under new forms, and thus facilitating their introduction into the suckers of plants ; and, perliaps, also by communicating that degree of energy .and activity to vegetation, which enables it to take up and appro- priate the suitable nutritive juices. Natural Manures. — All animal bodies, as dead carcasses, flesh, intestines, the refuse of the shambles, &c., when in a state of putrefaction, may be converted into manure ; and manures thus formed are far more active than any other. Yet, in general, the excrements and urine of animils, obtained from them while living, are set aside for manure, because a large quantity can thus be procured, and at much less cost. It is found very alvantageoua to mix these excrementitious substances with the remains cf vegetable matters, for Ijy this means the latter are made to putrefy more i ipidly, and do not lose so much of their actual substance, while, also, the fermentation of the animal bodies, which would otherwise be carried on with too great rapidity, is somewhat retarded. Manures thus formed are called " iiaturaSc manures," in order to distinguish them from others which are termed " arti- ficial." Besides, they are the kind best known, and, indeed, amo-ig many persons, are the only description which is known and used. Those excrements which are voided by animals through the intestinal canal are comjiosed not only of the food which they have taken, and of that portion of its filaments which could not be decomposed, but also of minute particles of the body of the animal itself, which are deposited in the intestinal canal after having performed their office. They consequently may be said to be -gntirely composed of animalized substances, and, even in animals fud almost entirely on vegetables, will be found to possess more of 3 26 farmer's hand-book. the animal than the vegetable nature. The properties of the dung, however, depend, to a certain extent, on the manner in which the beasts are fed, and their condition and breed. Hence arises the striking difference which exists between the dung yielded by cattle put up to fatten, or which are in a good state of keeping, and that which is voided by lean, badly-fed animals. Urine. — It is generally customary to mix urine with the solid excrements. This liquid, which is, in fact, composed chiefly of water, likewise contains a substance which is peculiar to itself, and various other very active matters, particularly ammonia. These matters are most beneficial when mixed up with the solid excrements, and collected by means of litter, or of substances peculiarly adapted for the purpose, which substances decompose one another, and give rise to the formation of new compounds. Common manure is com- posed of these two kinds of excrements, and of those vegetable substances which are used as litter, as straw, fern, or dry leaves, — chiefly the first of these three. This mixture is commonly termed stable-manure. The Various Kinds of Excrement. — When horse-dung, in a proper state of moisture, is exposed to air of a moderate temperature, it soon enters into fermentation ; and if it is not watered, instead of assuming the form of a thick paste or black-butter, as it is called, it becomes powdery, and wastes away, leaving scarcely anything but ashes behind. Manure produced by horn-cattle also begins to ferment very soon, provided that it is close and uniform in consistence, and contains only its proper moisture ; but its fer- mentation is less rapid than that of horse-dung, and, therefore, requires no watering, and does not waste away. Its effect on land is also more lasting, though less rapid. When placed in the soil, it does not appear to produce any very sensible increase of the temperature, and on this account it is adapted peculiarly for the manuring of warm soils. Sheep-dung, when kept in a compact heap, decomposes rapidly; but wher' * is loosely heaped, it decomposes much more slowly. When placed in the soil, or dropped upon it by the sheep, it produces a speedy and energetic effect, oflen- times giving too much vigor to the first crop, when it is used abundantly. The quality of pigs'-dung depends greatly on the kind of food they consume, also on the manner of collecting it. If the liquid portion of the excrements are mixed with the straw in such a manner as to prevent any running off, and the dung is placed in a situation favorable to its decomposition, a very active compound is produced. Poultry-dung can be obtained generally only in small quantities, but it is very active, and of great value. It is very differ- ent from that of quadrupeds, and contains a peculiar substance, mainly resembling the white of an egg. This kind of manure, in order to have its due effect on the soil, must be divided as minutely as possible, and be spread over the ground, without burying or covering it no SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 27 Nighi-Soil. — Human excrements, or night-soil, make a very active ma- nure. The best way of using it is to form it into a kind of compost, by mixing it with other substances, and especially by making it into heaps with turf, and adding a small quantity of burnt lime. By mixing and mingling it thoroughly with these substances, it loses its fetid odor, and should then be spread over the ground, without covering or burying. A powerful manure is manufactured from night-soil, called poudrette, on account of its form being that of a powder. Management of Manures. — Dung should be left in the stable as long aa possible, for its quality is thereby improved. But it should not be done at Fia;. 25. Fig-. 26. the expense of the cleanliness and comfort of the cattle, or keeping the stable dry. If the dung is suffered to remain under the cattle, great care must be taken that it does not collect in larger quantities under their hind than under their fore feet, for that would keep them in an unnatural attitude. In ordinary circumstances, it is more convenient to mingle the different species of' dung uniformly in the heap, so that the defects of one sort of manure may correct those of another ; and the result will be a regular and well-digested compound. As to *he time when manure should be carted into the fields, and the state in which the manure should be, it is pretty well ascertained that manure should not be removed whilst in a high state of fermentation, because at tha/ 28 farmer's hand-book. period an important part of some of its most active properties would evapo- rate ; but before fermentation has commenced, or after it has subsided, it appears to lose little by exposure to air, beyond what it regains in •inother manner. There are visible advantages attending the spreading upon the land fresh strawy manure, and to leave it till the ploughings of spring commence, taking care, however, that the water does not wash away the juices, and carry them beyond the field, but that it merely allows them to penetrate the earth. This method of covering the soil during winter renders it much more friable, and remarkably fertile. The practice of leaving the manure on the land in small heaps, as it is unloaded from the carts, is not judicious. The decomposition will be very irregular, the valuable gases will be carried away by the wind, the most valuable portion of the juices will all be absorbed by the soil immediately beneath the heap, and the places where these heaps have been will be marked by the rank growth of the crop, whilst the surrounding parts present an impoverished appearance. The proper time for carting manure varies much with the circumstances and economy pf the farm. Winter manure is best suited for seed crops, whilst fresh litter is particularly adapted to potatoes, especially in clay soils, because it diminishes their tenacity, and allows the plant to come in contact with the atmosphere. Other crops, and especially cabbages, do better with decomposed manures ; this being, on light lands, essential to their success. Afterwards, the manure for beans and peas may be carted, and this can Fi?. 27. either be buried or spread over the soil. To heavy clay lands a larger portion of manure must be given at a time, because they can bear it without risk of the crops being laid. Upon a light, hot soil, the manure is quickly decomposed, and a very abundant supply may have a bad effect, in causing SOILS : THEIR NATUKE AND TREATMENT. 20 ihe crops either to fall or to st'orch up. In mixing fine manures with the soil, the improved expanding culiivator (Fig. 27) is very useful. Forming Coihpoxts. — lu the formation of composts, two methods are pursued, 'n the one, the several matters of wiiich they are composed are divided into dilFcreiit layers, and placed one above the other ; at the bottom of the heap a bed of turf or of earth is placed, five or six feet larger on each side than the extended heap ; then a layer, about a foot thick, of the freshest dung that is to be had ; above this another layer of turf or earth. If there are any other matters capable of putrefaction , they are placed upon this bed, which is covered' with another layer of dung, and so on, till it has arrived at a heiglit of five or six feet ; it is then covered with another layer of earth. Quick-lime is often mixed with these composts, but tiie lime must not be in immediate contact with the dung, because it causes it to decom- pose too speedily and to too great an extent. Place it between two layera of earth, or between earth and any other substance difficult of decomposi- tion. When the sides of the bed of the dung-hill have become saturated with the liquor from the heaps, they are turned over and spread upon the surface. The compost then heats, and fermentation commences, and it is left till this fermentation ceases. When no more heat is felt in the interior of the heap, it is turned over, so that the part which was above becomes the bottom, and that which formed the sides is turned into the middle. Sometimes a fresh bed of earth is placed below the heap. The heap, when turned over, is long and narrow, resembling a roof, in order that it may be more exposed to the air ; because it is thought that by this means it is increased in weight and quality. In the other method which is pursued in forming composts, the various substances are all brought to the place where the dunghill is to be made, and are deposited separately around it. The bed of earth for the bottom of the heap is then formed in the middle ; the laborers then surround the heap, and each, with a shovel, throws the substances as they lie around it into the bed, by which means the whole mass is equally mixed throughout. Thus loam, earth, tufts of grass, moss, the leaves of trees, particularly of pine trees, saw-dust, and the remains of animal or vegetable matter, and very often, in addition to this, lime, ashes, soot, and fresh litter, are all incor- porated, and the mixture wetted with the liquid which drains from the manure, or with urine. This dunghill should, like the former, be allowed to remain quiet till the fermentation is past, when it should be turned over several times. Litter. — Where there is a scarcity of straw, various vegetable substances are used for the purpose of absorbing and retaining the excrementitioua matters, and forming a dry bed for the cattle, as well as for increasing the 3* 30 farmer's hand-book. quantity of the manure. The litter in most general use, after straw, is the leaves of trees, especially the pine ; and when once the decomposition has taken place, the dung is even superior in quality, because the pine-tree leaves contain a far greater proportion of nutritive juices than the straw. Oalt-leaves are not so good, and when mixed with manure before they are decomposed, must not be removed from the heap for a considerable period. The leaves of beech, walnut, and chestnut trees are apparently not greatly beneficial to vegetation, since little or no grass usually grows under them ; but, when mixed with dung, they soon lose their baneful properties, and rapidly decompose. Alder, willow, and poplar leaves decompose quickly, but they possess little consistence, and tend only slightly to increase the volume of the excrements which they receive. Heath, broom, reeds, rushes, aquatic plants, moss, fern, &c., may be used as litter, when nothing else can be obtained. Applying Liquid Manure. — The liquid manures, which should be carefully attended to, are specially devoted to those crops which will bear rich ameliorations. Some farmers reserve them for clovers and other artificial meadows, or for natural pastures. They are never so advan- tageous as when applied to sandy soils, which they render tolerably consistent, and more adapted for the retention of moisture ; but the use of liquid manure will never replace that of dung on hard or clayey soils. Folding. — Besides the various animal manures which we have named, there is that which arises from the folding or cotting of sheep or cattle on arable land. This practice is most usually followed with sheep. It is questionable, however, whether this close confinement of sheep be favorable to their health and fleece. It is only the strongest and most vigorous breeds that can support it. And, independently of the diflerence in the health of animals, folding at night in common, littered, combines all the advantages of folding on arable land, with this exception, that the latter method saves the labor and expense of carrying the manure. Dead Bodies, Bones, 4"C- — Animal bodies, when dead, form a peculiarly acme manure. If these are collected together in trenches, or enclosures walled around, covered with quick-lime, mixed with earth, and subse- quently, when they have lost their putrid and offensive smell, which is soon carried off by the lime, the whole mixture be stirred and mingled together, an exceedingly active manure will be obtained. Even bones are softened by the admixture of quick-lime, and when powdered and applied to land, produce a wonderful effect. Fish, covered with lime and mixed with earth, are very fertilizing. Horn, hoofs of animals, shamble refuse, hair and wool, sugar scum, and all kinds of filth, are good for manuring. Guano, which consists simply of the excrement of sea-fowls, ia SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 31 also a powerfuj manure, but must be applied more abundantly tlian is com- monly supposed, in order to be effective. It should not be applied in immediate contact with seeds, requires considerable moisture, and, if well mixed with three or four times its weight of finely sifted earth, and suffered to remain some weeks in this state before it is used by the drill, or applied broadcast, its effects will be more considerable. Vcgetalile Manures. — Purely vegetable manures are not nearly so active and energetic as those of animal origin ; but, on the other hand, their effects are more durable. There cannot be a doubt that all those weeds which are allowed to produce their flowers, and then buried by the action of the plough, tend to augment the fertility of the soil. There is not a single vegetable substance, even down to the stubble which most crops leave behind them, which does not restore some portion of mould to the soil ; and nothing tends to improve land more than the turf or accumulation of herbage which is successively formed during a number of years. Those plants, however, which are cultivated for the purpose of being buried as vegetable manure, should be such as will shoot up and flourish with all possible rapidity. The seed must not be expensive ; but of such a nature as that a small quantity will sow a considerable surface, — must be well adapted to keep the soil loose, and must be disposed to putrescence. There is no plant which combines these qualities so largely as what is called corn spurry ; also rape, peas, vetches, beans, and buckwheat. Sea-weeds and pond-weeds may likewise be entered in the class of vegetable substances which yield an active and energetic manure ; also the weed which is found at the bottom of rivers, ponds, and other places in which stagnant water has remained for any length of time. Peat is a substance which may also be employed for tlie amelioration of land, especially light, friable soils. Mineral Manures. — Of late years there has been considerable discussion concerning lime as a manure. This substance, especially when it has been recently calcined, or is, in other words, what we call quick-lime, absorbs the carbonic acid which is contained in the atmosphere ^vhich surrounds it, and afterwards communicating it to the plants, doubtless furnishes them with some nourishment : but this nutrition is very slight , the property to which it owes the chief power in promoting vegetation is that of decomposing the various inert vegetable or animal substances which it meets with in the soil, and transforming them into nutritive juices adapted to the nature of plants. The use of marl is always attended by evident and beneficial effects, especially when clayey marl is applied to a sandy soil ; and advantageous results have been obtained even when, after several years of rest, the land has appeared so exhausted and sterile as scarcely to be worth the trouble of 52 farmee's hand-book. sowing it. It is likewise advantageous to make use of marl mixed with dung, and with peat and mud, in the form of a compost. The eifects of gypsum are much greater on dry soils than on those which are moist or damp. It is chiefly used in the cultivation of clover, or other plants of a similar nature. It is applied both in a calcined and an uncalcined stale, without much difference in its effects, unless, indeed, a heavy rain falls immediately after this substance has been spread in the former state, when the powder will be converted into hard, strong lumps, and rendered useless. The most important point is to see that the gypsum is powdered as fine as possible, and strew it when there is but little wind. Ashes, of various kinds, are much used, especially abroad. "When thoroughly burned, ashes are composed of earths and potash, to which are sometimes added metallic oxides and different salts. Lime is always the predominating earth which enters into their composition, even when the plants whence they are derived have not sprung from a limy soil. Bleach- ers' and soap-boilers' ashes are much preferred. 7. Draining. — As a certain quantity of moisture is essential to vegeta- tion, so an excess of it is highly detrimental. In the removal of tliis excess consists the operation of draining. The Causes of Wetness in Lands. — The successful practice of draining depends, in a great measure, on a proper knowledge of the structure of the earth's upper crust ; that is, of the various layers Vof which it is composed, as well as of their relative degrees of porosity, or capability of admitting or rejecting the passage of water through them, and likewise the modes in which the water is formed, and conducted from the high or hilly situations to the low or level grounds. To perform properly the business of draining, attention should not only be paid to the differences in regard to the situation of the lands, or what is commonly called drainage land, but also to the nature, distribution, and depth of the materials that constitute the soils or more superficial parts of them, as upon each of these some variety, in respect to the effects arising from water retained in them, may depend. Wetness of land, so far as it respects agriculture, and is an object of draining, may generally depend on the two following causes : first, on the water which is formed and collected on or in the hills or higher grounds, filtrating and sliding down among some of the different beds of porous materials that he immediately upon the hard strata or layers, forming springs below and flowing over the surface, or stagnating underneath it, — and, secondly, on rain or other water becoming stagnant on the surface, from the retentive nature of the soil or surface materials, and the particular nature of the situa- tion of the ground. The particular wetness which shows itself in different eituatioris, in the forms of bogs, swamps, and morasses, for the most part SOILS •- THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 33 proceeds from the first of these causes ; but that superficial wetness which takes place in the stitf, tenacious, clayey soils, with little inclination of surface, generally originates from the latter. The most certain and expedi- tious method of draining, in such cases, is that of intercepting the descent of the water or spring, and thereby totally removing the cause of wetness. This may be done where the depth of the surface, and consequently of the spring, is not great, by making level drains of considerable length across the declivities of the hills, about where the low grounds of the valleys begin to form, and connecting these with others made for the purpose of conveying the water thus collected into the brooks or rivulets that may be near. Where the spring has naturally formed itself an outlet, it may frequently only be necessary to bore into it, or render it larger, and of more depth, which, by affording the water a more free and open passage, may evacuate and bring it off more quickly, or sink it to a level so greatly below that of the surface of the soil as to prevent it from flowing into or over it. Boggtj Lands, and the True Line of the Spring. — In the drainage of boggy or wet grounds, arising from springs of water beneath them, it is necessary to be fully acquainted with the nature and disposition of the strata composing the higher grounds, and the connection which they have with that which is to be rendered dry. The line of springs being ascertained, and also some knowledge of the under surface, a line of drain should be marked out above or below them, according to the nature of the strata, and excavated to such a depth as will intercept the water in the porous strata before it rises to the surface. The effect of such drains will often be greatly heightened by boring holes in their bottom with the auger. Where water issues forth on the surface at more places than one, it is necessary to deter- mine which is the real or principal spring, and that from which the other outlets are fed, as by removing the source, the others must of course be rendered dry. It may sometimes happen that where the highest are the strongest outlets, they may be the main or leading springs ; those which show themselves lower down in the land being merely formed by the water of the main spring overflowing, and finding itself a passage from an opening, or the porous nature of the materials of the soil near to the surface, and from being obstructed somewhat further down in the ground by some impenetrable layer. This circumstance must, therefore, be fully ascertained before the lines for the ditches or drains are marked out. In cases where the banks or rising grounds are formed in an irregular manner, and from the nature of the situation, or the force of the water underneath, springs abound around the bases of the protuberances, the ditches made for the purpose of draining should always be carried up, to a much higher level in the side of the elevated ground than that in which the wetness or water appears ; as far even as to c • 34 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. the firm, unchanged land. Where there is a difficulty in ascertaining the line of the spring, and consequently that of the cross drain, either from its not showing itself upon the surface, or from there not being any apparent outlet, it may generally be met with in carrying up the conducting drain for con- veying away the water ; as soon as the operator discovers the spring, he need not proceed any further, but form the cross drain on the level thus dis- covered to such a distance on each side of the tail, or terminating part of the strata, of whatever sort, that contains the water, as the nature of the land, "1 regard to situation or other circumstances, may demand. The following ligure, representing an uneven surface, will illustrate the nature of the strata which produce springs. Pig. 28. Suppose A A a porous gravel, through which the water filtrates readily ; B B a stratum of loam or clay, impervious to water. The water which comes through a a will run along the surface of b b towards s s, where it will spring to the surface, and form a lake or bog between s and s. Sup- pose another gravelly or pervious stratum under the last, as c c c, bend- ing as here represented, and filled with water running into it from a higher level ; it is evident that this stratum will be saturated with water up to the dotted line e f f, which is the level of the point in the lower rock, or impervious stratum, d, where the water can run over it. If the stratum B B has any crevices in it below the dotted line, the water will rise through these to the surface, and form springs rising from the bottom of the lake or bog ; and if b b were bored through and a pipe inserted, rising up to the dotted line, as c c», the water would rise and stand at o. If there were no springs at s s, the space below the dotted line might still be filled with water rising from stratum c c c. But if the boring took place at g, the water would not rise, but, on the contrary, if there were any on the surface, it would be carried down to the porous stratum c c c, and run off. Thus in one situation boring will bring water, and in another it wil) take it off. This principle being well understood, will greatly facilitate all drain- ings of springs. Wherever water springs, there must be a pervious and an impervious stratum to cause it, and the water either runs over the impervi- ous surface, or rises through the crevices in it. When the line of the springs is found, as at s s, the obvious remedy is to cut a channel with a BHfRcient declivity to take off the water in a direction across tbis line, and SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 35 Blink through the porous soil at the surface into the lower impervious earth. The place for this channel is where the porous soil is the shallowest above the breaking out, so as to require the least depth of drain ; but the solid stratum must be reached, or the draining will be imperfect. It \v«5 by at- tending to all these circumstances that Elkington acquired his celebrity in draining, and that he has been regarded as the father of the system. Drains, and Peat Lands. — When the drains cannot be carried to a sufficient depth to take the water out" of the porous stratum saturated with it, it is often useful to bore numerous holes with a proper auger irt the bottom of the drain through the stifler soil, and, according to the principle- explained in the preceding figure, the water will either rise through these bores into the drains, and be carried off, and the natural springs will be dried up, or it will sink down through them as at g, in the section, if it lies above. This method is often advantageous in the draining of peat-bogs, which generally lie on clay or stiif loam, with a layer of gravel between the loam and the peat, the whole lying in a basin or hollow, and often on a declivity. The peat, though it retains water, is not pervious, and drains may be cut into it which will hold water. When the drains are four or five feet deep, and the ])eat is much deeper, holes are bored down to the clay below, and the water is pressed up through these holes, by the weight of the whole body of p^at, into the drains, by which it is carried off. Figures 29 and 30, represent a common case of this kind ; h h (Fig. 30) are the sides of a hill ; tlie swampy lot, below, is filled with springs, which are, however, drained by running a ditch (b b) across it, and sinking Fiff. 30. Fig. 29 holes into the subsoil. One of these holes is seen in Fig. 29 (a h), and the manner in which it conveys the surface water away. The bottom of the 36 farmer's hand-book. drains is sometimes choked ^\'ith loose sand, which flows up with the water, and they require to be cleared repeatedly ; but this soon ceases after the first rush is past, and the water rises slowly and regularly. The surface of the peat, being dried, dressed with lime, and consolidated with earth and gravel, soon becomes productive. When a single large and deep drain will produce the desired effect, it is much better than when there are several smaller, as large drains are more easily kept open, and last longer, than smaller ones ; but this is only the case in tapping main springs, for, if the water is dilTused through the surrounding soil, numerous small drains are more effective. But, as soon as there is a sufficient body of water collected, the smaller drains should run into larger, and these into main drains, which should all, as far as is practicable, unite into one principal outlet, by which means there will be less chance of their being choked up. When the water springs into a drain from below, it is best to fill up that part of the drain which lies above the stones, or other materials which form the channel, with solid earth well pressed in, and made imper- vious to within a few inches of the bottom of the furrows in ploughed land, or the sod in pastures ; because the water running along the surface is apt to carry loose earth with it, and choke the drains. When the water comes in by the sides of the drains, loose stones, or gravel, or any porous material, should be laid in them to the line where the water comes in, and a little above it, over which the earth may be rammed in tight, so as to allow the horses to walk over the drain without sinking in. Hard Soils. — Another branch in the art of draining is the removal of water from hard soils which lie flat, or in hollows, where the water from rain, snow, or dews, which cannot sink into the soil, runs along the surface and stagnates in every cavity or depression. In this case a number of drains are required to lay the surface dry. There is often a layer of light earth immediately over a sub-layer of clay, and after continued rains this soil becomes filled with water, like a sponge, and no healthy vegetation can take place. To meet this, numerous drains must be made in the subsoil, and even the draining tiles or bushes, which may be laid at the bottom of the drains ; loose gravel or broken stones must be laid to within a foot of the surface, so that the plough shall not reach them. The water will gradually sink into these drains and be carried off, and the loose wet soil will become firm and dry. Direction of Drains. — It is very seldom that a field is absolutely leve/ ; the first thing, therefore, to be ascertained, is the greatest inclination, and its direction. The next object is to arrange drains so that each shall collect as much of the water in the soil as possible. Large drains, except as main Jrains, are inadmissible. The depth should be such only that the plough may SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 37 iiol r9ach it, if the land is arable, or the feet of cattle tread it in, if it be in pasture. All the drains which are to collect the water should lie as nearly at riglit angles to the inclination of the surface as is consistent with a suf- ficient fall in the drain to make them run. One foot is sufficient fall for a drain three hundred feet in length, provided the drains be not more than twenty feet apart. The main drains, by being laid obliquely, across the fall of the ground, will help to take off a part of the surface water. It is evident that the drains can seldom be in a straight line, unless the ground be perfectly even. They should, however, never have sudden turns, but be bent gradually where the direction is changed. Tlie flatter the surface and the stiller the soil, the greater number of drains will be required. It is a common practice with drainers to run a main drain directly down the slope, however rapid, and to carry smaller drains into this alternately on the right and left, which they call herring-bone fashion. But this can only be approved of where the ground is nearly level, and where th^re is very little fall for the main drain. A considerable fall is to be avoided as much as possible, and every drain should lie obliquely to the natural run of the water. It generally happens that, besides surface water, there are also some land springs arising from a variation in the soil ; these should be carefully ascer- tained, and the drains should be so laid as to cut then* off. Clay Land. — In draining clay land, where there is only a layer of a few inches of looser soil over a solid clay, which the plough never stirs, the drains need not be deeper than two feet in the solid clay, nor wider than they can be made without the sides falling in. The common draining tile, which is a flat tile bent in the form of half a cylinder, and wliich can be made at a very cheap rate, is the best for extensive surface draining. In solid clay it requires no flat tile under it ; it is merely an arch to carry the loose stones or earth with which the drain is filled up. Loose round stones or pebbles are the best where they can be procured, and in place of them, bushes, heath, or straw may be laid. In grass land the sod may be laid 38 farmer's hand-book. over the drain, after it has been filled up, so as to form a slight ridge ovei it. This will soon sink to a level with the surface. To save the expense of stone or tiles, drains are frequently made six inches wide at the bottom ; a narrow channel is cut in the solid clay, two or three inches wide and six deep («), leaving a shoulder on each side to support a sod, which is cut so as to fit the drain, and rest on the shoulder (b) ; this sod keeps the earth from filling the channel. It is filled up as previously described. Where the clay is not sufficiently tenacious, the bottom of the drain is sometimes cut with a sharp angle, and a twisted rope of straw is thrust into it. This keeps the earth from falling in, and the running of the water keeps the channel open ; the straw, not being exposed to the air, remains a long time without decaying. It is a common mistake to suppose that in these drains water enters from above ; — it rises from below. Varieties of Drains. — The different sorts of drains in use may be classed in two divisions, — drains of conveyance alone, and drains of conveyance and collection jointly. In the former, all that is necessary is a channel or passage for tlie water, of sufficient dimensions, which may be formed by pipes of different kinds, arched or barrel drains, and box or walled drains. We five cuts of these, as follows : • Fig. 32. 8. Irrigating. — Watering ^oor land, especially of a gravelly nature, ia one among the many useful means resorted to by intelligent farmers to improve it and make it fit for cultivation. Land, when once improved by irrigation, is put into a durable state of fertility, and becomes so productive as to yield a large bulk of hay, and the after-math is also valuable. In favor- able situations, it produces very early grass, which, on that account, is doubly valuable. The main object of irrigation in tropical climates seems merely to be to carry to the ground that quantity of water which is necessary for the growth SOILS : THEIR NATUKE AND TREATMENT. 39 and nourishment of tlie plants to be produced ; but this species of irrigation is very different from that to which the term is applied in this , country. In temperate climates, the purpose is not merely to supply the deficiency of water in the soil. The whole art of irrigation may be defined to be, the supplying a sufficiency of water during all the time the plants are growing, and, secondly, never to allow this water to accumulate so as to stagnate. The supply of water must come from natural lakes and rivers, or from wells and ponds. As the water must flow over the land, or in channels through it, the supply must be above the level of the land to be irrigated. This is generally the main object to be considered ; and the taking of the level is, therefore, the first step towards irrigating. The improved hydraulic ram, seen in the annexed cut, is an excellent machine ; h represents the spring or brook ; c, drive or supply pipe, from spring to ram ; g, pipe conveying water to house, or other point required for use; bd a e i, the ram ; j, the plank or other foundation to which the machine is secured. Fl£r. 33. Channels. — Along the banks of running streams nature points out the declivity. A channel which receives the water at a point higher tiian that to which the river flows, may be dug with a much smaller declivity than that of the bed of the river, and made to carry the water much higher than the natural banks ; it may thence be distributed so as to descend slowly, and water a considerable extent of ground, in its way to rejoin the stream. This is a common mode of irrigation, and the shape, size, and direction of tlia channels, are regulated by the nature of the surface, and other circumstances, which vary in almost every situation. 40 farmer's hand-book. Kind of Soils for the Purpose. — The soils most suitable for being watered are all those which are of a sandy or gravelly nature, as the improvement is not only more immediate, but the effect more powerful, on those than on any other descriptions of land. It is of advantage that the soil should be incum-^ bent on a warm and absorbent bottom ; for the subsoil of watered meadows is considered of more importance than the quality or depth of the surfacd soil. The best watered meadows are sometimes those in which the soil is only a few inches in depth, especially when the bottom is porous. Waters Best Adapted. — With regard to the quality of the waters most suitable for irrigation, those of rivers which flow through a rich and culti- vated country are to be preferred, as they are enriched by the animal and vegetable matters which they receive in their progress, and wliich are contained in them in a state of solution. A considerable portion of these matters is left on the surface of the land by the waters passing over it, and it is thereby greatly enriched. Water from bogs is considered inferior, from the antiseptic (resisting putrefaction) quality communicated to it from the peat. Water impregnated with iron has sometimes been used with good effect. Flor. 34. Mcadoiu Watering. — The above diagram represents a watered meadow. A is the main conductor, b the wear placed across the river to intercept the course of the water, and c cv c are the feeders taken off as directed from the main conductor, at right angles to it, bjr which a constant flow of water ia SOILS : THEIR NATURE AND TREATMENT. 41 maintained over the surface. The water is then carried off the meadow by means of the small drains e e e e, passing between the intervals of the former, and communicating with the main drain d d, which again conveys the water to tlie river. The dimensions of these smaller drains are seen to be greatest where they respectively join the main conductor and main drain, being then (about four inches deep and eight or ten inches wide, and gradually diminish- ing to a point, as seen in the figure. The dimensions of these drains, how- ever, as well as the distance between ttlem, must be regulated by the exten of the ground to be gone over, and the nature of the soil. It is frequently necessary that the water should be collected and conveyed to another main conductor for watering a meadow in a lower situation ; and when slight inequalities occur in the surface, or when it is wished to convey an addi- tional quantity of water in any particular direction, stops are used for the purpose, which consist of small pieces of sods placed in the drains to cause the water to flow over. Preparing the Surface. — In the preparation of the surface for irrigation, it is usual to form it into low ridges, the feeders being on the crowns of the ridges, and the drains for carrying off the water in the furrows. The plan illustrated in the preceding figure is designed only for situations in which "the inclination is not considerable. In the irrigation of lands with coneid- erable inclination of surface, the feeders cannot be carried along lengthwise, 4* 42 farmer's hand-book. as in the former case, but across the line of descent, so that the water flow- ing from one is intercepted by the next lower, and so on until it has covered the whole of the meadow. This is termed catch-work irrigation. The preceding figure is an example of irrigation where the soil is very porous, and gently inclined, the supply of water being abundant. A main carrier is led from the sluice (a) directly across the declivity {b), and side feeders (c) taken out from it at regular distances. These feeders have stops of turf, at regular distances (d), by wdiich means the water is dispersed. After watering a space of from twenty to forty feet in breadth, it is again collected by the small drains in the furrows, and returned lower down to another feeder. The Time to Operate. — The process of floating the meadow commences generally in the month of October, or as soon as possible after the after- math has been consuaied, or the last crop of hay removed. The water is first kept upon the ground for periods of a fortnight or three weeks at a time. It is then let off, and the ground left perfectly dry, for five or six days; and this process of alternate flooding and drying is continued for some time, care being taken to let off the water when it begins to freeze. As the spring advances and the grasses shoot forth, the periods of watering are shortened, so that the flooding shall not last more than a few days at a time. The formation and arrangement of surfaces for irrigation, however simple in principle, are, in practice, among the most diflicult operations of agricul- tural improvement. Whoever, therefore, contemplates the execution of thia kind of work to any considerable extent, will find it desirable to consult a person experienced in the matter. CHAPTER II. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. WHEAT BARLEY — KYE ■ — THE OAT — INDIAN CORN — BUCKWHEAT — THE PO- TATO BROOM CORN — MILLET — HEMP — FLAX LUCERN SAINFOIN — THB TARE — CLOVER — THE GRASSES. WHEAT. Classification . — Writers on agriculture enumerate something like one hundred varieties of wheat ; but the nice distinctions which are necessarily made in multiplying the sorts to such an extent are but of slight import- ance to the majority of -farmers. The best mode of classifying the plants included in this order is by natural marks, that is, by the ear and by the grain. In this way confusion is avoided in describing the ear and the grain. The farmer who grows the wheat plant, and sells it in the grain, should be acquainted with both ; but the baker, who is only acquainted with the grain, need know nothing of the ear. Were he, however, to receive an ear of each variety of grain he purchased, he would be best able to describe at once, to the farmer, what particular variety afforded him the flour best suited to his purpose. An examination of the ears of wheat proves that they may be consistently divided into three classes, as represented in the following figure, and dis- tinguishable thus : — a is a close or compact eared wheat, which is occasioned by the spikelets being set near each other on the rachis, and this position makes the chafF short and broad. The second class of ears is seen at b, the spikelets being of medium length and breadth, and placed just so close upon the rachis aa to screen it from view ; the ear is not so broad, but longer than a; the chaff is of medium length and breadth. The third class is seen at c, the spike- lets of which are set open, or so far asunder, tm to permit the rachis to be easily seen between them ; the ear is about the same length as the last specimen, but is much narrower ; the chaff is long and narrow. In d is represented a bearded wheat, to show the difference of appearance which the beard gives to the ear. The term bearded is applied the same as spring wheat ; beardless wheat, however, is as fit for sowing in spring as bearded, and the bearded may be sown in winter. 44 farmer's hand-book. In regard to classifying wheat by the grain, three heads may compi'ise all the varieties. (See Fig. 37.) The first class (a) is where all the grains Fig. 36. are short, round, and plump. The second class (J), where the grains are long and of medium size. The third class (c), where the grain is large Fig. 37. Wf ^\ and long to a greater degree than the last class. These three sorts are represented according to their natural size. THE HE AW OR FIELD CROPS. 45 Best Varieties for Cultivation. — The following are the names of the kinds of wheat most esteemed and cultivated in this country. White Flint : This is one of the most valuable kinds in the northern states. The heads .ire not too long, but well filled, with thirty to forty grains ; the kernel is white and flinty, large, and with thin bran ; the flour is very superior ; the perfect wheat weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the bushel. Harmon^s White Flint : A variety improved from the above ; the berry is larger, bran very tliin, flour superior ; this and the above are little injured by the Hessian fly, and will stand a good deal of wet weather. White Provence : Heads middling and bald, chaff bluish, berry large and white, bran thin, flour good ; it is early, but the straw is small, long, soft, and liable to fall. Old Genesee Red Chaff: An old favorite, but liable to rust and the fly ; red chaff, bald, long straw, berry white and large, bran thin, superior flour. Kcntucliij White-bearded, Hutchinson or Canada Flint: White chaff, bearded, heads short but heavy and well filled, shells readily, berries round, short and white, flour very good ; it litters a little ; the straw is strong, but liable to injury from insects. Indiana Wheat: White chaff, bald, berry white and large, bran thin, berry not so flinty as the white flint, but the straw is larger and longer ; shells easily ; is attacked by the insects, and it is more liable to be winter-killed. A variety of white wheat is much esteemed in western New York, which resembles an improved Indiana ; it is called Scotch Wheat. Virginia White May : White chaff, bald, and resembles the white flint in its growth and straw, though the heads are more clumped, the berry stands out more, and shells easier ; berry. white and hard, bran medium thick, flour good; matures early. Wheatland Red : Red chaff, bald, heads of medium length, red berry, good flour, very hardy, bright and large straw, ripens early. Red Bearded: Red chaff, beards standing out from the head, berry white, good flour, hardy, succeeds well after com, or on light soils. Mediterranean: Light red chaff, bearded, berry red and long, flinty, bran thick, inferior flour. Blue Stem: Has been grown in Virginia for about thirty years ; white chaff, bald, berry white, bran thin, superior flour, straw fair size and good product. The Yorkshire or English Flint, or Soilless Wheat : Recently introduced ; similar in its leading feat- arcs to the old Genesee. The Egyptian, Smyrna, Reed, Many-spiked, or Wild Goose Wheat : A hardy variety, with a thick straw, which prevents its lodging. The red wheat is usually grown upon the strongest clay land, and degen- erates when sown upon a soil of a lighter description. It is hardy, and so much better adapted to insure the production of a crop on wet and adhesive soils, that it is very generally sown on that class of lands ; but, on all tha 46 farmer's hand-book. better class of soils, the white or smooth-chaifed wheat is preferable, tho thinness of the husk rendering it more valuable to the miller. Winter wheat is sometimes confounded with spring wheat, the only dis- tinction being in the different periods of ripening. The produce of wheat sown in the spring acquires the habit of ripening earlier than the produce of that sown in autumn. This distinction is not, however, an absolute or permanent one. Soils. — The soils best adapted for the culture of wheat are the rich clays and the heavy ioams, though these are not, by any means, the only descrip- tions of soils on which it may be cultivated. Before the introduction of turnips and clover, all soiW but little adhesive were thought unfit for wheat ; but even on sandy soils it is now extensively cultivated, after either of these crops. Such soils, however, are not constitutionally disposed to the growth of wheat ; nor will they, under any management, bear such a frequent repe- tition of it as those already mentioned. To bring wheat to perfection, a dry and warm season is required. Time for Soiling. — The season of sowing wheat depends on the crop to which it succeeds. It is sown before winter, when the land can be then prepared for its reception, as after fallow or potatoes ; and it is sown in spring after turnips, cabbages, and such other crops as are not removed off :he land till that season. The time of sowing must depend, also, on the state of the land, as well as the season. It is, hoWever, generally recom- mended to put it into the ground as early as may be convenient in autumn ; and on strong soils it is not unfrequently sown in the latter end of Septem- ber, in the course of October, and the beginning of November. Seed Wheat. — Seed wheat is prepared by a process termed pickling, before being sown. This is intended to prevent rust, of which it is a pre- ventative. Various substances are employed as a pickle to wash the seed, the most common and useful being a solution of com.mon salt in water, sufficiently strong to buoy up a fresh egg. After being freed from all foreign substances, the seed is dried, and, if not sown immediately after, must be spread thinly over the floor, to prevent its heating. Culture. — When the seed is sown broadcast, it is covered by the action of the harrows sufficiently to cover the seed. A double turn along the ridge, a double turn across, and again a single turn along, will generally suffice, and oftentimes less than so much. As soon as the seed is hai- rowed in, the whole should be water-furrowed, to carry all excess of moisture off the land, by means of the double mould-board plough, with one horse, passing along the furrows of the field, and the furrows of the head-lands. Open furrows are also to be drawn through such hollow parta as the water might stagnate in, care being taken to sink all inequalities THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 47 that a passage may be afforded for the water to run off. The intersection of the furrows of the field with those of the head-lands are also to be cleared out, and cuts made occasionally through the head-lands. On the lighter class of soils, ploughing in the seed may be adopted. The seed is sown broadcast ; after which a shallow ploughing is given to the land, and, perhaps, a slight harrowing. The horse-drill, now much in vogue, will plant wheat, rye, Indian corn, &c., on all kinds of lands. See figure. Fig. 38. The dibbling of wheat has been tried in many places with success, and on rich and highly-cultivated lands there is no doubt that there are great advantages to be derived from the system, especially the saving of seed. It is a favorable mode for small farmers, one man being able to make holes fast enough with the common dibble to keep three persons depositing the eeed, which may be done by children. Annexed is a figure of one of these machines : — 48 farmer's hand-book. Quantity of Seed. — The quantity of seed necessarily depends on the time and mode of sowing, and the state of the land ; land sown early requiring less seed than the same land when sown late, and poor land being, at all times, allowed more seed than rich ; also, when sown broadcast, more seed is given than when either dibbled or sown in drills. The quantity, therefore, varies from two bushels, or less, to as many as four Winter wheat, when sown in spring, should always have considerable seed. Good and improved soils require less than soils not so good, and on the former the plants are less liable to be injured during the winter, and gener- ally all come to maturity. After-Culture. — The after-culture of wheat, or culture of the growing crop, is chiefly confined to harrowing, rolling, hoeing, and weeding. Har- rowing is found beneficial in penetrating the crust which is formed on tenacious soils, and raises a fresh supply of mould to the roots of the plants. Rolling in spring should be practised on dry, porous soils, which are fre- quently left in so loose a state by the winter frosts, that the roots are thrown out of the ground, and perish. Hoeing is performed when the row-culture is adopted, to pulverize the intervals between the rows, and to check the growth of weeds. Cutting and Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after the lowest part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is yet in the dough state, and easily compressible between the thumb and finger. If cut at this time, it will yield more in measure and weight,' and a larger quan- tity of sweet, white flour. If early cut, a longer time is required for curing, before storing or threshing. The latter operation is usually done, by extensive wheat-growers, with a large machine, taken into the field, and driven by horse-power ; with moderate farmers, a small single or double horse-machine, or hand-threshing in winter. If the grain is perfectly ripe, and the straw thoroughly dried, and the sheaves free from grass or weeds, wheat may be cut and stacked or housed the same day. It must, however, be effectually cured in the fields. To save it from wetting, some farmers lay it in the form of a cross, surmounted with a sheaf so disposed as to throw off any slight showers that may fall ; others place it in shocks, the sheaves two and two, standing on their butts, the heads of the sheaves inclined to each other, and the tops spread out so as to shield the standing sheaves as much as possible ; others, again, place lUeir wheat in the same position as the last, with the exception that all of the shock is left standing, and no sheaves are placed over the heads. Un- less very dry, it should be laid on scaffolds, when taken into the barn, to prevent heating and moulding. When placed in a ^tack, it should be well elevated from the ground, and, if the stack be large, a chimney of lattice or THE HEAVY OR FIELD PROPS. open-work should bs left from the bottom, extending to the top, to produce circulation. The straw or chaff yields good fodder, when cut or mixed with meal or roots ; it is also good for bedding cattle, for manure, and eliould never be wasted. The fan-mill, for cleaning grain, is too well known to be described in this place. Ficr. 40. Enemies of Wheat. — Wheat 'is subject to various diseases, principally the mildew, smut, and rust. Mildew is indicated by the presence of certain minute plants of the order o^ fungi, which grow upon the stem and leaves, and doubtless feed upon and exhaust the juices of the plant. The preva- lence of heavy fogs or mist, drizzling rains, and sudden changes of temper- ature, have been assigned as the cause of mildew, and it has been found that open, airy situations are much less subject to it than low sheltered lands. To remove this destrudive agent, the use of salt is highly recom- mended The quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and the applica- tion is more effectual if frequently repeated, and does no injury to the plants. If the application is not made during a cloudy day, it is best to defer it until evening. When wheat is infected with the smut, the farina of the grain, together with its proper coverings, and part of the husk, is converted into a black, 5 D 50 farmer's hand-book. soot-like powder. This disease does not affect the whole of the crop, but the smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed through it. If the seed be prepared in the way already described, the disease will rarely prevail to such an extent as to affect materially the value of the crop. Rust is another very prevalent disease, nearly allied to the mildew. It appears in the form of a brownish dust upon the stem, leaves, and seed, and, like the others, is produced by a parasitical plant. The roots of the wheat plant are liable to be attacked by grubs and worms, the larvae of various beetles ; among these are the wire-worm, and the red-headed large white grub, the larvae of the May-bug, cockchaffer, or black bug. These often do much injury, and late ploughing is the best mode of destroying them, by thus exposing them to the frosts ; when they appear in the summer, they are sometimes destroyed by being attracted towards large fires, kindled for the purpose, and perishing in them. But the insects that attack the wheat while growing and in the ear are by far the most powerful enemies which it encounters. These insects are the Hessian fly and the wheat fly. The former has a black head, thorax, and wings, with a brownish body ; the latter is of smaller size, of a yellow color, and clear wings. (See Chapter on Insects.) BARLEY. Classification. — The natural classification of barley by the ear is obvi- ously of three kinds, — four-rowed, six-rowed, and two-rowed, as in Fig. 42. In Fig. 42, a is the four-rowed, or here or bigg; c is the six-rowed; and h the two-rowed. .When classified by the grain, there are two kinds, here or bigg, and barley ; and though both are awned, they are sufficiently marked to consti- tute distinct varieties. In the here (Fig. 41, a), the median line of the bosam is so traced as to give the grain a twisted form, by which one of its sides is larger than the other, and the lengthened point is from where the awn has been broken off. In the barley {b), the median line passes straight, and divides the grain into two equal sides, and whose shortness and plumpness give to it a character of superiority. Both kinds are repre- Bented below, natural size : — THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS, 51 Fig:i2. In this country the two-rowed and the six-rowed are the varieties gen- erally cultivated, the two-rowed being the kind most esteemed. Kind of Soil. — The best soil for barley is a rich loam finely pulverized. It will neither grow well on a sandy or a soft soil, nor on strong clays, such as are suitable for wheat. It is rarely made to succeed summer fallow, wheat being, in an especial degree, suited to follow that process, and it being also the more valuable crop. For a like reason it seldom succeeds potatoes, as wheat may advantageously be sown at the period of the removal of the potato crop from the ground. But it succeeds turnips with greater propriety than any other crop, the turnip crop being cultivated on the lighter soils, which are the proper soils for barley. Barley ripens early in autumn, and it may, therefore, be sown later than any of the other corn crops in the spring. The best season may be said to be in the month of April or beginning of May, An increased quantity of straw is produced by late sowing, but the grain is surer the more early tha the crop is sown. 52 farmer's hand-book. Preparing the Land. — The preparation of land for barley is similai to that for wheat. After turnips, or other green crop removed in the sprir.g the land is to be ploughed once, after which the seed is to be immediately Bown. Two ploughings, however, will be necessary when barley succeeds any of the grain crops removed before winter, and, in this case, the land should have been drilled up after the removal of the crop, to keep it dry. As it is found of great importance, with a view to speedy and equal vegeta- tion, that the ground should be fresh and moist at the time of sowing, barley should then be sown as soon as possible after the seed-furrow is given. Sowing. — The modes of sowing barley are either broadcast or in rows. The broadcast system is almost universally employed in the cultivation of this plant, unless in lands much infested with annual weeds, where drilling and hand-hoeing, and, sometimes, horse-hoeiiig, may be adopted with advantage. The quantity of seed varies from two and a half to three bush- els to the acre, according to the kind of seed used, the nature of the soil, and the time of sowing. Liberal sowing is most profitable ; and, when sown late in the season, and in dry weather, the seed is sometimes steeped in water for a day, to promote a more early and uniform germination. Culture. — The seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown simultaneously •with the barley, the succeeding crop being invariably grass. In this case, the smaller seeds are sown immediately before the last turn of the harrows, and that turn covers them in. The land is to be rolled afterwards, in order to exclude drought, pulverize the soil, and cover the clover and grass seeds. Harvesting. — In the harvesting of barley more care and attention are requisite than in the case of any of the other grain crops, even in the best sea- sons ; and, in unfavorable seasons, it is almost impossible to save it without injury. Owing to the brittleness of the stem after it has reached a certain period, it must be cut down ; for when it is suffered to stand longer, much Fig-. 43. ,oss is sustained by the breaking off of the heads. On that account, it is cut at a time when the grain is soft, and the straw retains a great proportion of its THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 53 natural juices, and consequently requires a long- time in the field before either the gi-aiii is hardened or the straw sufficiently dry. Threshing and Dressing. — The threshing and dressing- of barley are attended with more labor than is the case with any other grain, owing to the tenacity with which the covers adhere to the seeds. After being threshed in the ordinary way, it is a frequent practice to put the threshed grain a second time through the machine, accompanied by a portion of straw. Should this not accomplish the work effectively, then the hummelling machine (Fig. 43) is used. Uses. — Barley is used in Europe 83 a staple article of food. It is inferior, however, to wheat and rye. In this country it is principally used for malting and brewing, and for distilling. When ground, it is good for fattening stock, though more especially swine. Enemies. — The diseases of barley are few. It is sometimes attacked by tlie larvaj of certain flies. It is also subject to smut, but of quite a different character from that which affects wheat, and one which, it is found, cannol be prevented by pickling and liming. RYE. Varieties. — Of rye, there is, strictly speaking, only one variety, although it is usually divided into winter and spring rye ; but these are produced merely by the different periods of sowing, and resemble each other so much, that, when sown together, they cannot be distinguished. Soil. — The soil for rye may be inferior to that chosen for wheat, and it will succeed with less culture and manure. The soils best suited to its 5* 54 farmer's hand-book. growth are those v/hich contain the greatest proportion of sand, and there are instances on record in which it succeeded on land containing eighty-five per cent, of this substance. Those soils, however, which contain a less proporti6n of sand are preferable ; for, though it will grow upon ground of the poorest description, yet the produce will be more abundant upon good land, provided it be not of a clayey nature. In this country it is grown in the north-eastern and middle Atlantic states, and on the light lands of Ohio and Michigan ; and, as the supporting elements of wheat become exhausted in the soil of the rich agricultural states of the West, rye will in a great measure take its place on their lighter soils. Time for Sowing. — Rye may be sown either in the autumn or in spring, and, as in the case of wheat, the period of ripening is affected by that of sowing. The quantity of seed may be two bushels and a half to the acre, but, when grown for straw plait, this quantity is more than doubled. As it vegetates more slowly, than wheat, it should be sown when the soil is dry ; otherwise, the grain is in danger of rotting in the ground before it has completely germinated. Culture. — Rye, being sown upon light and poor soils, obtains loss atten- tion in its production than wheat ; it also suffers less from being sown upon the stubble of another corn crop, or even upon its own ; and it is therefore not unusual to grow it successively two years upon the same land, but this is somewhat contrary to the principles of good husbandry, and cannot be recommended for imitation. The after-culture, harvesting, and threshing of the crop, are similar to those of wheat. The horizontal fan-mill, for cleaning grain, has been some- what popular in the Eastern States. The period of flowering is more decisive of the prospect to be entertained regarding the success of rye than in the case of any other grain ; and, until it be past, no opinion can be correctly formed on the subject. The ripening of the grain is earlier than that of wheat, and is denoted by the straw losing somewhat of its bright yellow color, becoming paler, and the knots of the straw losing their green color. The corn then sheds easily from the ear. When allowed to stand until very ripe, a shower of rain will occasion it to sprout. Product and Uses. — The produce of rye is nearly the same as that of moderate crops of wheat, but seldom amounts to those which are very large ; the quantity of straw is greater than that of any other grain. It grows to a greater height than the straw of wheat, and, though thinner in the stem, is stronger ; but being hard and wiry, it is not esteemed for fodder, and the chief use of it is for thatch. It is also valuable to brick-makers, and is extensively used in the manufacture of straw hats. For the latter purpose, THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 55 it is sown very thick, pulled green, and blanched by exposure to the air. It is also used both in the brewery and distillery; and in many' parts, after undergoing a species of bruising or coarse grinding, it is used alone, or mixed with barley, oats, beans, peas, or tares, which have undergone a similar operation, and formed into a kind of coarse bread, for feeding domes- tic animals, particularly horses. Its bread contains a less proportion of nutritive matter than that of wheat, but it is found to keep longer, and forms about the only bread eaten by the inhabitants of some countries where the soil and climate are unsuited for the growth of wheat. It contains a greater quantity of nutritive matter than either barley or oats, and the husk possesses an aromatic and slightly acid flavor, which renders it agreeable to the palate. The bran should not, therefore, be entirely separated from the flour, for, if the grain be ground fine, and divested of the husk, the bread will be deprived of much of its pleasant taste. When intended for consumption in the farmer's family, it is usual to mix a certain portion of wheat with the seed before sowing, or the mixture may be made after they are ground into flour, which is the better practice. The proportions may be one third of rye and two thirds of wheaten flour, and this combination makes a sweeter bread than that made solely of wheat. Fiff. 45. Enemies. — Rye is subject to most of the diseases which attack the order of plants to which it belongs, such as rust, mildew, burned-ear, and smut- ball. But there is one remarkable disease, which, although it is sometimes found in wheat, is much more common in rye. It is called the ergot, the French name of a cock's spur, which the diseased grain resembles in shape. b6 PARMER S HAND-BOOK. By some perversion of the vital functions of the plant, the embryo, oi germen, instead of 'growing into a regular seed filled with farina, shoots out a long, black, fungus-like substance, several times the length of a common seed, which rises above the chafF, and has the appearance of a slender pyra- mid, slightly bent on one side. This substance is soft, and easily broken or cut, and is uniform in its internal texture, without any husk or skin over it It is not only destructive to the grain, but very poisonous when eaten mixed with the flour. Figure 45 is Pilkinton's machine for cleaning smutty grain, and to take out chess, onions, and heavy grit. THE OAT. Varieties. — Of all the cultivated grains, oats are the easiest of culture, and the most certain and prolific in their product. There are several varieties. Fig. 46 represents two of the most marked and useful. Fi'sr. 46. That represented in the cut a is the White or Com^non Oat, known by its white husk and kernel, and is the kind most commonly cultivated. The Siberian or Tartarian Oat (b) is a black or brown grain, thin, rather small, and turned mostly to one side of the panicle or ear. The straw is large and reedy, but it is usually very productive, and is well calculated for poor soils and exposed situations. The Red Oat, known by its brownish-red husk, thin and flexible stem, and firmly attached grains, is an early variety, suffers but little from v.'inds, makes good meal, and suits exposed situations THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 57 and late climates. The Poland Oat is known by its thick, white husk, avvnlcss chaff, solitary grains, short, white kernel, and short, stiff straw ; it requires a dry, warm soil, and is very prolific ; the black Poland oat is regarded as one of the best varieties. The Dutch Oat has plump, thin- skinned, white grains, mostly double, and the large ones sometimes awned. It has larger straw than the Poland, but in other respects resembles it. The Potato Oat has large, plump, rather thick-skinned, white grains, double and treble, and with longer straw than either of the few preceding varieties. The Georgian Oat is a large-grained and very prolific variety. The Imperial Oat is the heaviest raised in the United States, and by many is preferred to all others; it is a clean, bright, plump, heavy grain, yielding a large proportion of flour and nutritive matter. It is hardy, and yields well in the Northern and Middle States. The Eygptian Oat is grown in large quantities south of Tennessee, and is very well adapted for the South. Soil. — The soil for the oat may be almost any kind whatever, from the stiffest clays, to moss, or bog, provided it be laid sufliciently dry. They will produce well on reclaimed bog and mountain ; but as these usually grow straw luxuriantly, especially if they have been improved by paring and burning the surface, a green crop should be taken the first year, which will allow time for the active properties of the ashes to subside ; and the follow- ing year oats may be considered a certain and productive crop. Preparing the Land. — The preparation of the land for oats is less than for any other crop. It is almost always the first crop on newly broken-up lands, and, as it succeeds best on a soil not too finely pulverized, it is sown after a single ploughing. In regular rotations, oats are chiefly sovni after grass. It is sometimes sown upon land not rich enough for wheat, that has teen previously under green crop. One ploughing is generally given to the grass lands, which should be done as soon in spring as the state of the weather and the other labors of the farm will allow. When oats succeed a green crop, the preparation of the land is the same as that for wheat. Sowing and Culture. — The period for sowing oats is generally from the beginning of March to the middle of April. The month of March is consid- ered by many to be the best for seed-time. They are sometimes sown in February, also in the autumn ; but the crops sown at a later period of the season have, in most cases, been greatly more productive. The quantity of seeds is from four to six bushels to the acre. In sowing oats, the quantity must be regulated by the shape and size of the grain, as well as by the condition of the soil. Land sown with potato oats, for instance, requirea less seed, in point of measure, than when any of the other sorts is used ; first, because this variety litters better than any other, and, having no awns, 58 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. a greater number of grains is contained in a bushel. Some varieties, too, are more leafy than others, and require to stand further apart ; in general, however, four bushels w^ill be necessary on medium soils, and, in poor, upland soils, as many as six may be required. Grass-seeds may be sown in spring with oats, in the same manner as with wheat or barley. The young clover and grass are, however, in danger of being smothered by the oat crop, unless when it is sown very thin. If, therefore, through necessity, this system should be adopted, the oats should be sown thin, on well-prepared land, and the smaller seeds harrowed in when the plants are sufficiently strong to bear the surface being stirred. When the land is in a highly pulverized state, it may be better to sow the seeds of the clovers and grasses immediately before giving the last turn of the harrows for coveriug the oats. Being usually sown after grass land, oats are more apt to be overrun with thistles, and other large weeds, than any other crop. These are to be cut over with the weed-hook, or pulled up by the weeding clips, before the crop comes into ear. Reaping. — The reaping of oats is performed with the scythe or sickle. It may, with great convenience, be performed with the scythe, and should be done when the grain becomes hard and the straw of a yellowish color. Fi^. 47. The crop should be cut before it is dead ripe, to prevent the shedding of the grain, and to increase the value of the straw for fodder. Enemies. — The diseases of the oat are few. Sometimes it is attacked by smut, but more commonly by the wire-worm, or larvae of insects, which generally abound in newly broken-up lands. To guard against these, delay ploughing the land, especially if long in grass, until immediately before THE HEAVY OR. FIELD CHOPS. 59 INDIAN CORN. Varieties. — The varieties of corn cultivated in this country are quite numerous, distinguished by peculiar characteristics of the grain, cob, &c., and are frequently enumerated and described as follows ; — Yellow Corn. — The Yellow Gourdseed, so called from the resemblance of its long narrow grains to the seed of the gourd ; this has 24, and occa- sionally even more rows. The genuine King Philip, with 8 rows ; a hardy plant. The Sioux, or yellow flint corn, with 12 rows ; also the Sioux variety grown in Pennsylvania ; also the Sioux and Gourdseed mixed, 16 rows. White Indian Corn. — This includes the White Flint, Wliite Flour Corn, and White Sugar or Sweet Corn, and the Wliite Gourdseed. The Genuine White Flint is the twelve-row corn, raised in Virginia. The White Flint nas 10 rows. The Early White Flint, and White Flour Corn, has 12 rows. The Peruvian Corn has 8 rows. The Pennsylvania — called, in Maryland, Smith's Early White — has 8 rows. The New Jersey has 8 rows. The New York, 10 rows; and Mandan Indian Corn. The Early Sugar Corn, with shrunken grains, has 12 rows. Blood-Red Indian Corn. — Varieties are as follows: — Common-sized Haemetite, with 12 rows and red cob ; red cob with white grains ; red cob with yellow grains ; red cob with brown grains ; red cob with white gourdseed ; red cob with gourdseed and yellow flint ; white cob with red 60 farmer's hand-book. grain ; speckled red and yellow grains on a white cob ; the same on a red cob : the dwarf Haemetite, commonly called Guinea corn ; blue corn with 10 rows ; the celebrated Button corn, &c., &c. Of these numerous varieties, some are best adapted to the Southern States ■ — the white and yellow gourdseeds ; others to the Middle States — the gourdseed and flint varieties, pure or mixed; whilst the heavy flinty- grained kinds are almost exclusively cultivated in the Northern and Eastern States, to which they are specially adapted by their disposition to grow and mature with great rapidity, and thus accommodate themselves to the short- ness of northern summers. Like all early maturing corn, they are dwarf- ish, though very productive. The effect of the longer and warmer sum- mers, in more southerly situations, is to favor greatly the growth of the stalk. The time taken by different varieties in growing and maturing dif- fers exceedingly. In the Southern and Middle States the crop occupies the ground from five to seven months, whilst in the Northern and Eastern States the ears come to maturity in three or four months. Among the varieties of corn cultivated for special purposes are the White Flint, used for making hommony ; the Flour Corn, with a round, thick grain, filled with a snowy white powder, resembling starch, much used for grind- ing up with buckwheat, in the proportion of about one fourth or one fifth of the corn, giving the buckwheat-meal a lighter color, and otherwise improv- ing it ; the Early Jersey truck corn, a middle-sized ear, with white and rather flinty grains, the earliest corn raised for the market, — two kinds, the white and the red cob ; and the Small Flinty-grained corn, usually raised for parching or popping. Preparation of the Land for Planting. — In the Middle States corn ia planted in all conditions of the land ; but in Virginia and Maryland it gener- ally follows the w'heat crop, upon which all the farm-yard manure has been spread. In the upper portion of Delaware and in Pennsylvania, the crop is generally put upon a grass sward or clover lay. Where the soil is a stiff clay, much labor is bestowed in ploughing deep, then rolling, and reducing to the finest tilth by means of harrows. As a general rule, after a sward has been turned, care is taken not to harrow so deep as to reach and drag up the sods, which are suffered to lie and decompose, thus furnishing nutriment to the corn, and keeping the ground loose and favorable to the spreading of the roots. . Many farmers spread lime upon the land intended for corn, in the autumn or winter, previously to ploughing. Others put the lime dress- ing on the ploughed ground. Season for Ploughing. — With regard to the best time for ploughing, this must depend much upon the character of the soil. Late fall or winter ploughing has been thought useful in turning up and exposing to perish the THE HEAVY OK FIELD CROPS. 61 ^rubs and other insects which have retreated below the siiTface for winter quarters ; but in Pennsylvania this practice is now generally abandoned in favor of spring ploughing. The roller, when used, must be drawn in the direction of the furrows, and never crosswise. Then follows the drag-harrow, in the same direction, being the last instrument which, on flushed ground, is employed preparatory to planting. The harrowing should be continued until the surface of the inverted sward is completely broken up and pulverized. In the Middle States, it is customary to prepare the ground for corn by a method' called listing, or double furrowing ; that is, ploughing so as at first to turn two furrow-slices together, leaving a middle space, which is afterwards ploughed out by turning an additional furrow on each side. This places the ground in narrow lands or ridges, consisting of four furrow- slices, with deep intervening trenches. The width from the middle of one land to the other is generally about four feet. In signing out for planting, a plough is^run across these narrow lands, so as to strike out rows generally four feet apart. The plough which performs this cross-ploughing is imme- diately followed by a boy who drops four, five, or seven grains of corn directly opposite the middle of each of the ridges, and the operation' of plant- . ing is completed by a man who covers the seed with a hoe. Corn should be planted as early in the spring as the weather will permit. The usual time of planting in the Floridas is early in March, whilst in the Eastern States it cannot be done, as a general rule^ before the middle of May. Planting. — After rolling, and then harrowing well, the rows are struck out very shallow, and the corn is planted in hills, 3, 4, 4^^, or 5 feet apart, or dropped in rows from three to five feet asunder, so as to leave the stalks, when thinned out, about one or two feet apart. In this last case, the tillage h^vs of course to be conducted in the direction of the rows, and never cross- wise, as is practised when the grain is in hills at regular distances. When the growth is high, and the soil rich, the rows should be further apart than where the growth is low, as is the case with the Northern varieties, which may be planted three feet apart. Manuring. — Whenever manure can be spared for the corn crop, it will always make a good return. It may be spread broadcast upon the land previously to ploughing, or, what is better, spread upon ground that has Deen flushed up in the autumn or winter, and then lightly ploughed in. In the ]Slorthern and Eastern States, where the summers are short, a liberal quantity of manure is generally required to assist in forcing the crop to early maturity. When not enough is at hand to afford a good dressing broadcast, it is advisable to apply a portion of short manure to each hill Hist before planting. Ashes are an excellent manure for Indian corn, and 6 62 farmer's hand-book. may be merely dropped upon the hills. It is common to make a mixture of these with lime and plaster ; but there is no doubt that the main benefit of the mixture proceeds from the live ashes. Poudrette is also applied, and A'ith good effect — one gill to each hill ; it pushes the young corn forward with such rapidity as to place it very soon beyond danger from the grub, cut-worm, and other insect depredators. The same end may also be pro- moted by soaking the seed twenty-four or thirty-six hours in solutions of saltpetre, urine, the drainings of the stables and the cattle-yards. Strong solutions of copperas, blue vitriol, are sometimes used. To protect the seed against its enemies, some farmers soak the seed twelve to twenty hours in hot water, in which are dissolved a few ounces of crude saltpetre, and then add (say to eight quarts of seed) half a pint of tar, previously warmed and diluted with a quart of warm water. The mass is well stirred, the corn taken out, and as much plaster added as will adhere to the grain. Thia impregnates and partially coats the seed with tar. Fisc. 49. • Number of Grains to the Hill, and Depth of Planting. — Where there is reason to apprehend much mischief to the young plants from blackbirds, crows, vermin, and other insects, it is best to drop from four to seven grains to each hill, so that some two or three may have' a chance to escape. The deficiency is usually attempted to be made up by replanting other grain, but the product of this replant is too often feeble, and so late in maturing as to be frequently injured by the frost in autumn. A better plan is to replant with the surplus of other hills, though this requires a damp and very favor- able condition of the weather. As to the proper depth of covering for the seed, much diflference of opinion exists. All covering which exceeds four or five inches must, under ordinary circumstances, be considered extrava- gant and injurious. It cannot be doubted, that where the mould is of a light texture, moderately deep covering answers best, as a general rule. To cover deep where the soil is a heavy clay loam, would either cause the grain to rot, prevent it from rising, or dispose it to come up twisted, unless opportunely assisted by rain, to soften the packed covering. Tillage. — The corn once planted, its tender blade pushes through the THE HEAVY OK FIELD CROPS. 63 ground, usually in about a week or ten days, and even sooner when the seed has been soaked. Although the field is generally left at rest until the plants have all fairly risen above ground, before tillage of the crop is com- menced, some begin with the harrows even before the corn is up. The first objects to be effected are to keep the ground stirred and free from grass and weeds. Where danger is apprehended from worms, by which it is so frequently attacked, many maintain that the tillage should not commence very soon, so that, some other vegetation being allowed to start up, the young corn will thus be in a measure spared ; whereas, if the ground is perfectly clean, the worms, having nothing else to feed upon,, will, of course, destroy all the young corn. Instances may occasionally occur where this practice may prove disadvantageous, but, as a general rule, the yovmg corn cannot be kept too clean, or the ground about it too loose. The modes of tillage vary exceedingly, not only with the variations in soil and climate, but with the views of different persons in the same locality. On stiff clay soils, there is no doubt that harrowing just before the proper time for the corn to come up favors this process, by loosening the tenacious soil, especially where a timely rain does not occur to soften the earth. After the corn appears, the harrow should be kept going until the ground is rendered perfectly loose, hands following with hoes or short rakes, to clear the corn which may be covered. Then comes the plough, which, in the Southern and lower portion of the Middle States, is often used to turn a furrow from the young corn. This operation is termed bar-ploughing, because the bar of the plough is run next to the plants. A few days after this, the process is renewed, and the mould-board being turned next the corn, the loose earth is thrown back again. Many think that this second ploughing, called moulding, ought not to be left longer than a few hours before the earth should be turned back again. In some places ploughs are still used for this purpose with wooden mould-boards, as these serve best to push the loose earth before them, crumbling and spreading it about the plants more advantageously than ploughs furnished with smooth and polished iron mould-boards. Some use narrow, deep-cut- ting ploughs, which do this work with comparatively little labor to the horse, and render the soil near the corn much more permeable by the roots, and at the same time quickly accessible to the rain and atmospheric influences. Whatever tends to favor the extension of the roots downwards, serves to place the crop beyond the vicissitudes of the season. There is, perhaps, no plant which withstands the effects of drought so well as Indian corn, whilst young ; but wHen its top blades begin to be heavy, its demands for moisture increase so as to cause it to suffer greatly from very dry weather. Heat and moisture are the great promoters of its growth. 64 farmer's hand-book. The fanners in some of the finest districts in Pennsylvania have, of late years, made much less use of the plough, in cultivating their corrt, than formerly. They now generally content themselves with moulding, or throwing a single furrow on each side of the young plants, leaving a space of from three to three and a half feet untouched. The space left is after- wards worked by means of shovel-ploughs, and cultivators (Fig. 50), which completely destroy the grass and loosen the ground. This mode of culture F.Sr. 50. is more easily and economically performed than the old plan of ploughing the whole space between the rows, and leaving the surface completely level. If the land be sufficiently loose and deeply stirred, there is little use in hill- ing it. It is sometimes said that corn requires hilling to support it. Nature disproves this, by the stiff, bracing roots thrown out by tliis plant at the time they are wanted, and for this very purpose. On wet lands, planting on ridges and hilling may be advisable, but such lands should not be chosen for corn. If wet, drain thoroughly, in the first placer. Allow no weeds to grow, and do not fear to stir the surface in dry weather. Many farmers deem the use of the plough altogether unnecessary, and even injurious, and conduct the tillage of the corn crop throughout, first with the drag-har- row, and successively with the cultivator, horse-hoe, and hand-hoe. Thinning and Suchcring. — As quickly as possible after it is ascertained that the plants are in a thrifty condition, and no longer in danger of being destroyed by the cut-worm and other enemies, they are thinned out, so as to leave only two or three in a hill. Or, should they stand in rows or drills, the plants are lefl apart one or two feet. The operation of suckering takes place some time after thinning, and consists in tearing off the side-shoots which often sprout from the bottom of the main stalk. It is thought, how- ever, by many, that this practice is more hurtful than beneficial, injuring THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 65 *he growth and development of the corn, a^d lessening the product of both rbdder and grain. Harvesting the Crop. — This is done differently in different parts of the country. In the Northern and Eastern States and Pennsylvania, the corn is usually cut off at the surface of the ground, as soon as the grain has become glazed, or hard upon the outside, and, whilst the blades are stil" green, put immediately into shoclcs, and thus left some time standing in the field. The corn, after becoming sufficiently dry, is husked and cribbed, and the stalks, with all the attached fodder and husks, are used for provender. In the Southern and southerly portions of the Middle States, the corn is commonly husked in the field, the stalks having previously had the blades stripped below the ears, and the tops lopped off above the ears. When, therefore, the ear has been separated, the naked stalk is left standing with the husk, which is soon after eaten by the cattle. In some parts of the Western States, where the crops are extremely luxuriant, with the absence of facilities to get the grain to market, it is common to husk out and secure enough of the corn for family use, and then turn the hogs and cattle into the field, to consume the remainder. Cracked corn is obtained by means of the machine called the corn-cracker, and is valuable in many cases. Fig. 51. By the first of these methods, the crop may be secured before the autumnal rains, with all its valuable fodder, and the ground cleared in time for a winter crop of wheat or rye. The juices retained by the stalk are sufficient to nourish the com to maturity. By the second mode, there is always a loss in the grain product, which is never so well filled after the Wades and topa have been removed in a green state. 6* E 66 farmer's hand-book. Preserving Corn. — This is usually done by stowing away the ears, cleared from the husks, in small or narrow granaries, called cribs, the sides and ends of which are constructed of logs or laths, so as to leave spaces of about an inch, or more, for the circulation of air. The engravings below represent a corn-sheller (a), and a corn and cob- crushing machme {b), now much in use. The first-named is made with a wooden frame, easy to be repaired^ and will shell from one hundred to one hundred and fifty bushels of corn per day. The crusher is used at the South and West for the purpose of cracking or crushing the corn and cob together, preparatory to grjnding between mill-stones. Flsr. 52. Fisc. 53. Diseases and Enemies. — Besides the birds, cut-worm, wire-worm, &c., that we have already alluded to, corn, suffers from other diseases, the chief one being a dark or blue-black spongy growth, which sometimes takes the place of the blighted ear of corn. The mass sometimes grows till five or six inches in diameter, and is to be considered a luxuriant or rank species of fungus. As the species of what are called parasitic plants, to which this belongs, are so readily destroyed by applications of common salt, there is reason to believe that soaking the seeds well in salt water, previously to planting, or scattering salt over the grounds, will prevent this disease. A reddish kind of rust sometimes appears on the leaves, but seldom doe* THE HEAVY OR FIELD -CROPS. 67 much apparent injury to the ears, unless it becomes extensive. However, the same rust sometimes fixes upon the stalks, and causes them to decay. When this is near the ear, or the decay is extensive, the plant produces but little grain. The cause is attributed by some to bruises and wounds in- flicted by inconsiderate cultivation, especially as the tassel, wrapped in its own leaves, may be seen formed in the plant when it is quite young. It sometimes happens, as the effect of storms, that the pollen is blown'or beaten off the tassel before all the silk has protruded from the ear. The conse- quence of this is a failure in the development of grains in the extremity, or other portion where the silk was deficient. It has been urged, among the reasons for allowing the suckers to grow, that, being later in tasseling and less exposed to high winds, they assist to promote the process of fecun- dation after the tassels of the main stalks have shed their pollen. As an evidence of this, it has been stated that the earliest ears are always best covered with grain, while those which push late often exhibit a quarter or a half of naked cob, — the consequence of imperfect impregnation. BUCKWHEAT. Description. — This is the grain produced by the Polygonum fagopyrum a) , tartaricum {b) , and a few other species. rig: 54. Soils. — This plant thrives well on soils which are too poor for all other kinds of grain, either of the spring or summer varieties. It grows on dry, Bandy soils, provided onlv that the drought be not felt precisely at the time 68 farmer's hand-book. when the plant stands most in need of moisture ; it then yields as plentiful a crop as any other kind of grain ; but if the ground be in a situation some- what more accessible to moisture, the crop is so much the more to be depended upon. It also thrives on heath and marsh lands, provided the latter have been previously drained. It is cultivated to great advantage on clearings of this description, and is very useful in preparing the soil for the reception of other kinds of grain. In sandy districts, buckwheat is the only crop which succeeds when sown alternately with rye ; in such situations, it takes the place of other fallow crops ; it is also sown on lands where ryp has been grown. It, however, thrives better as a fallow crop on land which has been used as pasturage, or left in repose for a few years. On richer soils the plant grows more vigorously, but only in the stalk, rarely producing so much seed as when grown on proper soils. A small quantity of manure is advantageous to it, but a large quantity makes it grow too strong in the stem. When the land on which buckwheat is to be grown requires manuring, it is usual to give it only half the usual quantity, the remainder being reserved till after the harvest. Manure furnished by furz is particularly well adapted to this kind of grain. Culture. — The sowing of buckwheat, even on the lightest soils, must always be preceded by two ploughings, in order to destroy the weeds. On account of its sensibility to cold, — the slightest hoar-frost injuring it, — the sowing must be deferred till all danger of cold nights is over. The middle of IMay is recommended ; and, if sown later, it is liable to be attacked by the white frosts of autumn, before its seed is ripe. The quan- tity of seed sown on a given extent of ground is about half of that used in sowing wheat ; sowing more thickly is injurious. The success of buckwheat is considerably affected by the weather to which it is exposed in the several stages of its growth, — more so, perhaps, than any other grain. It requires dry weather immediately after sowing, and springs up during the time of the greatest drought ; but, after putting forth its third leaf, it requires rain, in order that its leaves may be developed before the appearance of the flower, which soon follows. During the long time for which it continues in flower, this plant requires alternate rain and sunshine to facilitate its growth and enable its flowers to set. The flowers drop off during thunder-storms, or even on the occurrence of electrical phe- nomena unaccompanied by rain. Violent easterly winds also cause it to wither before its flowers are set. After flowering, the plant again requires dry weather to bring all its seed to maturity at the same time, and insure an early harvest. The success of buckwheat is therefore somewhat preca- rious, depending not only on the general state of the weather throughout tlie season, but also on the time of sowing, a week earlier or later often THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 69 malcinp: a great difference. By sowing it in three or four different portions, at different times, a crop may be made sure of. The seed should be simply covered up with the harrow, and not in furrows, and requires no further attention than guarding it against the depredations of birds, to wliioh it is very subject. Harvesting. — The ripening of the grain is very unequal, for the plant is continually flowering and setting. It must, therefore, be cut at the time when the greatest quantity of grain is ripe. It sometimes happens that the first flowers do not set, or that they produce nothing but barren seeds, des- titute of farina, while those which come out later yield better seed. But the grain will ripen, and even the flowers set, while the crop is lying ou the ground after cutting, especially if rain fall. This occurrence is, there- fore, considered favorable. The produce of buckwheat is, therefore, uncertain. When it is sown after a corn crop, one good harvest may be expected in about seven years ; in the same interval, three medium and three bad harvests may be expected. But when sown on land which has been left in repose, or laid down to grass for a few years, we may reckon upon one good crop out of two. Uses. — Buckwheat furnishes an important article of food for man. As a fodder-plant, too, it is excellent, and, when cultivated for this purpose, may be depended upon as well as any other plant. It may either be given to cattle as green-meat, or else made into hay. It dries but slowly, but does not spoil when left on the ground without being turned. The culti- vator who wishes to raise it for this latter purpose should choose a year in which the plant has been particularly successful, in order to obtain a good supply of seed ; this, he will find, will yield him as good a return as any other. When raised for this use, it may be sown on the stubble of a corn crop, or, still better, after vetches which have been mown early in the sea- son to be consumed as green-meat. Another purpose to which buckwheat has been applied, and for which it appears, from the usual rapidity and exuberance of its growth, peculiarly adapted, is the ploughing down, to add fertility to the land. This can be done when the soil is too far exhausted to produce clover for a similar purpose. It is one of the most economical and convenient manures which the farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, costing a mere trifle, sows a large surface, and gives a great crop. When in flower, first roll, and plough it in, and it will be soon converted into manure. This crop ia recommended as an effectual destroyer of that frequent pest of the field, called couch-grass, quick-grass, &c. For this purpose it must be sown aa early in the season as frost will permit, and, as soon as it gets into flowci; 70 farmer's hand-book. rolled down, and turned under with the plough. Another crop is then Bown on top of the first, and harrowed in ; and, if the season be not unfavor- able, it will ripen and afford a harvest before frost sets in. THE POTATO. Profagating. — The potato may be propagated from its seeds, and it is in this way that new sorts are obtained ; or it may be propagated by plant- ing the tubers, in which case plants similar to the old are produced. The approved practice is either to plant the tuber entire, or cut it into pieces, so that one eye shall be upon each, the tubers to be planted being those which were taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn. Varieties. — The varieties of the potato are numerous, the most obvious distinctions being the early and tlie late. First : the earliest kind, used by gardeners, generally termed forced potatoes, and not intended for field- culture. Second : early kinds, which may be subdivided according to their order, of ripening, as — the Early Shaw, American Early, Early Champion, and others, being the earliest sorts in cultivation ; the Early Red, Cape of Good Hope Kidney, and the Bread Fruit, an intermediate class. Third • the later kinds, forming the common subjects of cultivation in the field, such as the Red Apple, Bedfordshire Kidney, Lancashire Pink, and numer- ous others. Fourth : those of a large kind, but coarse, as the Late Cham- pion, Ox Noble, and the Surinam. Soils. — The soils best adapted to the potato are of the drier and lighter class. In wet clays the return is inferior in quality and productiveness. Deep, dark peat, often produces large crops; and it is one source of great value in this plant, ttjat it can be cultivated successfully even on soils of a peaty character. ' Culture and Tillage. — In the common course of farming, potatoes are cultivated by the plough, but they are frequently, also, and this, in many cases, with great convenience, cultivated by the spade ; thus, in woods in new countries, in plantations and steep banks inaccessible to the plough, or, in certain cases, in peat too soft to bear the treading of cattle, the spade may be beneficially substituted for the plough. Its cultivation, however, upon, he larger scale of farm-culture, must necessarily be performed ify the plough and the working cattle upon the farm. The potato forms a good preparative crop for any of the cereal or eatable grains, and it may follow any crop of corn. Sometimes potatoes are planted upon land newly broken-up from grass ; in this way they may be cultivated beneficially in regard to produce; it is, however, a deviation from the general i ule, that the potato should follow a crop of corn and be succeeded THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 71 by one. As in the case of preparing land for the summer fallow, the land intended for potatoes is to be ploughed before winter, receiving a furrow of eight or nine inches in depth. The ploughing should be lengthwise, so as to keep the ridges dry, and prepare the ground for early tillage in the spring, at which time, as soon as the other labors of the farmer will allow, and the land is sufficiently dry, it is to be cross-ploughed, and harrowed by repeated double turns of the harrow in every direction. The roller also, if necessary, is to be employed to reduce the soil, and all the root-weeds are to be carefully collected by the hand, and carried away to be formed into a compost. The land is next to be ploughed in a direction crossing the last ploughing ; or, rather, the ploughs may cross the field diagonally, because, as it is always desirable to make each alternate ploughing cross the pre- vious one, and as the next ploughing which forms the drills will be in the direction of the farmer ridges, all the ploughings will thus be made to traverse each other. When this second ploughing is given, the land is to be again harrowed and rolled, if necessary, and all the root-weeds are to be industriously collected and removed as before. The proper manure for the potato is common farm-yard dung, but any other putrescent manure that can be obtained may be applied. As soon as the dung is spread along the hollows of the drills, the potatoes are to be planted. The potato-sets should be cut ten or twelve days before planting them, by which the cut part acquires a skin or hard surface. The sets are placed directly upon the dung in the row, about ten inches from one an- other. The planters, carrying them in baskets, gently place them upon tlie dung, directed by the eye, as nearly as possible, at the distance required. A transverse section of the drills, with the dung and , potato-sets placed upon it, will appear thus : — ^he sets are now to be covered by splitting each drill so that the top of th?new drill formed is immediately above the bottom of the old one, and this simple series of operations completes the planting of the potato. The usual period of planting is during the month of April, continued till the middle of May. The early potatoes should be planted earlier. In a fortnight or more after planting, the whole field is to be harrowed. The effect of this tillage is to partially level the ground. When the plants have got above ground, and appear distinctly in rows, the horse-hoe is to 72 farmer's hand-book. pass along each inteiTal ; and, following this, the hand-hoers, each with the common hoe, are to hoe the rows of plants carefully, cutting up all weeds, &c. After an interval, as a fortnight or more, the horse-hoe, with side- coulters, is again to pass along the intervals. Immediately succeeding this, the hand-hoers are to follow as before. This is generally sufficient to clean the land in an effectual manner, though sometimes, when there are many weeds, a third hoeing may be necessary. The last operation is raising the earth to the stems of the plants. This is done by a double mould-board plough passing once along the intervals, and throwing up the earth towards each row. A transverse or cross section of the ground will then appear thus : — Fi.Si. 56. This, in all cases, completes the culture of the potato, the crop requiring no further attention until the tubers are ready to be taken up, when ripe, which may be done with a three-pronged fork, shovel, or a plough with the coulter detached, in dry weather and before frost. It has often been recommended to pinch oiF the blossoms of the late pota- toes, so as to prevent the formation of seeds, and to obtain a greater crop. Uses. — The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by simple means. It is perfectly nutritive, but does not undergo the panary or bread fermentation. It may be mixed with the flour of wheat in a given quantity, so as to produce good bread. It may be given in its raw state to nearly all our domestic animals. It requires merely to be washed, which is done by various simple means. But although potatoes may be given to live stock in their raw state, — and it is frequently convenient to give them in that state, — yet various benefits may arise from giving them steamed or boiled, and in this state they are relished by every class of domestic animals, affording food in a high degree nour- ishing. Even the dog will fatten upon them. Steamed potatoes, mixed with cut straw or hay, may be given to horses of every kind ; but it is observed that steamed food is not generally so good for ruminating as for THE HEAVY OK, FIELD CROPS. 73 Other animals. To hogs they are given with the best effect ; also to poultry, mixed with meal. Diseases. — The chief diseases of the potato are the curl, the worm, and the scab. The curl is indicated by the curling of the leaves, and their con- sequent diminutive size. To avoid this, seed from newly reclaimed or mountain land must be used. Using unripe tubers is also said to be a pre- ventative of the disease, and especially such as have not produced seeds. The worms sometimes attack the tubers in the ground, and greatly fnjure them in certain situations ; but they may be destroyed by spreading some salt on the ground before planting. The scab must be remedied by giving good tillage to the land. Independently, however, of the curl, and every other known enemy, a very extraordinary failure has taken place, since 1832, in the potato crop, extending, in many cases, over entire districts, and, in others, partially con- fined to portions of particular fields. This is generally termed the potato rot, and will be found treated at length in Chapter XII. BROOM CORN. Varieties. — According to Allen, a distinguished writer on agricultural subjects, there are four or five species of the broom grass. There are several varieties, of which the pine-tree kind is regarded the poorest, or the least advantageous for cultivation ; yet, as it is the earliest, — being three weeks earlier than the large kind, — in a short season, when its seed will ripen, while the seeds of the other kind fail to ripen, this may prove the most profitable crop. The North river crop is ordinarily the best crop, being ten days earlier than the large kind, and yields about seven hundred pounds of brush to the acre — the brush meaning the dried panicles, cleaned of the seed, with eight or twelve inches of the stalk. The New Jersey, or large kind, yields about one thousand pounds of brush per acre. The stalks and seed are large. In good seasons this is the most profitable crop. Alluvial lands are best adapted for the broom corn, more especially if warmly situated, protected by hills, and well manured. Method of Planting. — The broom corn is planted in rows, about two and a half or three feet apart, so that a horse may pass between them with a plough, or cultivator, or harrow. The hills in each row are from eighteen inches to two feet apart, or further, according to the quality of flie soil. The quantity of seed to be planted is estimated very differently by different farmers. Some say that half a peck is enough for an acre, while some others plant half a bushel, and some a bushel, in order to make it sure that the land sliall be well stocked. The rule with some is to cast a teaspoonful, or thirty or forty seeds, in a hill. The manure at the time of planting should be put 7 74 farmer's hand-book. into the hill, and old manure or compost is preferred, as being most free from worms. Culture. — The broom corn should be ploughed and hoed three times, — the last time when about three feet high, though some hoe it when it is six feet high, and when they are concealed by it as they are toiling in the field. The number of stalks in a hill should be from seven to ten ; if there are only five or six stalks, they will be larger and coarser, and if there are about eight, the brush v/ill be finer and more valuable. In the first hoeing, the superfluous stalks should be pulled up. Harvesting. — As the frost kills the seed, the broom corn is harvested at the commencement of the first frost. The long stalks are bent down at two or two and a half feet from the' ground, and by laying those of two rows across each other obliquely, a kind of table is made by every two rows, with a passage between each table for the convenience of harvesting. After drying for a few days, the brush is cut, leaving of the stalks from six to twelve inches. The longer it is cut, of course, the more it will weigh ; and, if the purchaser does not object, the benefit will accrue to the farmer. How- ever, the dry stalk weighs but little ; if its weight is excessive, the pur- chaser sometimes requires a deduction from the weight. As it is cut, it is spread on the tables, still further to dry. As it is carried into the barn, some bind it in sheaves, which is a great convenience for the further opera- tion of extracting the seed. Others throw the brush into the cart or wagon, unbound. Fig. 57. a Scraping. — The process of extracting the seed is called " scraping the brush." Two iron horizontal scrapers are prepared, — one movable, to be elevated a little, so that a handful of brush may be introduced between them. The upper scraper is then pressed down with one hand, and the brush drawn through with the other, the seed being scraped off. This is THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 15 the old method. A newly-invented scraper is superseding the old one. It is an upright instrument, of elastic wood or steel, inserted in a bench of con- venient height for the operator. The form (Fig. 57) is as follows : a is a piece of wood or steel, immovable ; b and c are pieces which are elastic, movable to the right and left at the top, but fastened to the central piece below. The degree of elasticity may be regulated by wedges in the plank d and/ — wedges in the hole through which the pieces pass. A quantity of brush is taken in the hand, and brought down upon the top of this instru ment. As it is forced down and drawn towards the body, it separates the elastic sticks from the central piece, but their elasticity presses sufficiently on the brush, so that the seed is scraped off. The advantage of this scraper is, that both hands may be applied to the brush, instead of only one hand, as in the other kind, and the elastic power of nature is substituted for the pressure of one of the hands. The instrument also seems to double the scraping surface. Uses. — For the manufacture of brooms it is unsurpassed. The seed is also used for feeding horses, cattle, and swine. It is ground and mixed with Indian meal, and is excellent food. It weighs forty pounds a bushel. MILLET. Varieties. — There are two kinds of Millet cultivated : the German Millet (a) and the Cultivated Millet {b). The cultivation required by both is about the same. Fig. 58. Soil. — Millet requires a warm, rich, sandy, well-pulverized soil. It succeeds better when sown after some crop which has been abundantly 76 farmer's hand-book. manured than it does when sown immediately after an amelioration of undecomposed manure. The soil must be tilled to a considerable depth for its reception, and ploughed three times, besides harrowing, rolling, and weeding. It is generally very successful on newly-drained land, provided it is in good condition, and also land which has been left in repose for several years ; in the latter case, a single ploughing is sufficient, if the soil is afterwards harrowed, and well broken-up with a roller, before the seed is put into it. Sowing. — Millet should be sown in May ; a harrow is then passed lightly over the soil, and, where the ground is dry, a roller must also be used. The seed must be wholly ripe, perfect, and free from disease. Culture. — As soon as weeds make their appearance among millet which is just shooting above ground, they must be eradicated ; thorough weeding is an indispensable operation in the culture of millet. Great attention is also requisite to seize on the exact time when the plant attains maturity, especially with common millet, which ripens very unequally, and is very liable to shed its seed. Those who only cultivate millet in patches cut off the spikes as they ripen, and carry them home in sacks ; but as this can only be done where this plant is cultivated but little, the reaping must be commenced as soon as the greater part of the plants are ripe, and performed in a careful manner with a sickle. The plant must not be left on the ground in swaths, because, if rain comes on, and it gets wetted, it sheds its grain. It should, on the contrary, be immediately carried to the barns, and there threshed, and freed from all impurities and foreign substances. The grain should then be spread, in very thin layers, over the floor, and stirred about every day with a rake, until perfectly dry ; other- wise, it will become heated and bitter. The straw is tied up, even though moist, and carried into the air to be dried ; if not properly dried, it will become mouldy on being stacked. This straw is much esteemed as proven- der for cattle. Although, when cultivated to any great extent, it is not possible to cut oif the ears separately as they ripen, it is well to gather all those in this man- ner which are to be used for seed. Grain which ripens thoroughly, and of which proper care has been taken, shoots up evenly, and produces perfect plants, free from disease, and especially from smut, which frequently mani- fests itself in this grain where proper precautions have not been taken. That portion of millet which is intended for seed should also be preserved in a dry and airy place, and should be threshed when wanted. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 77 HEMP. Pi^. 59. Soils. — The soils which produce this article best are those which are fresh, or which have lain some time in grass or clover. Manuring is not much practised, clover being used in place of it. Deep, black, putrid vege- table lands, which have a low situation, and somewhat inclined to moisture, as well as the deep, mellow, loamy or sandy sorts, are well adapted. Mel- low, rich, clayey loams do well, and so does old meadow-land. The preparation of the ground, for sowing the seed, is by the plough and horses, until the clods are sufficiently pulverized or dissolved, and the"- sur- face of the field is rendered even and smooth. Scarcely any other crop better rewards diligence and careful husbandry. Fall and winter ploughing is practised with advantage — it is indispensable in old meadows, or old pasture-grounds. Culture. — Plants for seed are ordinarily reared in a place distinct from that in which they are cultivated for the lint. The seeds intended to re- produce seeds for the crop of the next year are sowed in drills about four feet apart. When they are grown sufficiently to distinguish between the male and female stalks, the former are pulled and thrown away, and the latter are thinned, leaving the stalks separated seven or eight inches from each other. The male plant alone blossoms, and, when agitated, throws off farina, a yellow dust or flour which colors the ground, or any object with which it comes in contact. A few of the male plants had better be left, scattered through the drill, until the farina is wholly discharged, for an 7S farmer's hand-book. obvious reason. Between the drills a plough is run sufficiently often to keep the ground free from weeds and grass, and between the stalks in each drill the hoe is employed for the same object. The seed plants are gen- erally cut after the first smart frost, between the middle or last of Sep- tember and the middle of October, and carried to a barn or stackyard, where the seeds are easily detached by the common thrail. After the seeds are threshed out, spread them on a floor, to cure properly and prevent their rot- ting, before they are finally put away for use the next spring. The seeds — whether to reproduce seeds only, or the lint — are sowed about the same time, which time depends on the season, though it is generally agreed that all the month of May, and about the 10th of it especially, is the most favor- able time. When the object is to make a crop of hemp, the seeds are sown broadcast. The usual quantity is a bushel and a half to the acre, though some use more. When the seeds are sown, they are ploughed or harrowed in ; ploughing is best in old ground, as it avoids the injurious effect of a beating rain, and the consequent baking of the earth. It is also beneficial . afterwards to roll the ground with a heavy roller. Gathering. — After the seeds are sown, the labors of the cultivator are suspended until the plants are ripe, and in a state to be gathered — every- thing, in the intermediate time, being left to nature. If the season be favor- able until the plants are sufficiently high to shade the ground, (which they will do in a few weeks, at six or eight inches height,) there is a strong probability of a good crop. When they attain that height, but few article* sustain the effect of bad seasons better than hemp. It is generally ripe and ready to be gathered about the middle of August varying according to the time of sowing. Some sow at different periods, i order that the crop. may not all ripen at the same time, and that a press of labor, in reaping it, may be thus avoided. The maturity of the plant is determined by the evaporation of the farina, already noticed, and the leaves of the plant exhibiting a yellowish hue ; it is then generally supposed to be ripe, but it is safest to wait a few days longer. Two modes of gathering the plants are practised, — pulling and cutting ; the latter is now generally preferred. When pulled, it is done with the hand, which is better for the protection of an old leather glove. The laborer catches twenty or thirty plants together, with both hands, and, by a sudden jerk, draws them without much difficulty. The operation of cutting is performed with a knife, often made out of an old scythe, resembling a sickle, — not so long, but broader. This knife is applied much in the same way as the sickle, except that the laborer stoops more. But, whether pulled or cut, the plants are carefully laid on the ground, the evener the THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 79 better, to cure, which. they do in two or three clays, in dry weather. When cured, the plants are set up in the field in which they were produced, in shocks of convenient size, the roots or butt-ends resting on the ground, and the tops united above by a band made of the plant itself. Previously to putting them up in shocks, most cultivators tie the plants in small hand bundles. Before the shocks are formed, the leaves should be rapidly knocked off, with a rough paddle or hooked stick. The shocks are collected together and formed into stacks, which are sometimes permitted to remain over a year. Rolling. — Two methods of rotting are practised — the dew-rotting and the water-rotting. ,When dew-rotted, the plants are usually spread down from the middle of October to the middle of December. A farmer who has a large crop on hand puts them down at different times, for his convenience in handling and dressing them. Autumnal rotting is more apt to give the lint a dark and unsightly color than winter rotting. The best ground upon which to expose the plants is meadow or grass land. The length of time ikey ought to remain exposed depends upon the degree of moisture and the temperature of the weather that prevail. In a very wet and warm spell, five or six weeks may be long enough. To determine whether they have been sufficiently rotted, a handful is taken and broken by the hand or applied to the brake, when it can be easily ascertained, by the facility with which the lint can be detached from the stalk, if it be properly rotted. If the fibres remain on the ground too long, they lose some of their strength, though a few days longer than necessary, in cold weather, will do no injury. If they are taken up too soon, that is, before the lint can be easily separated from the woody part of the stalk, it is harsh, and the process of breaking is difficult. Snow-rotting, that is, when the plants, being spread out, remain long fenou^h to rot, (which, Jhowever, requires a greater length of time,) bleaches the lint, improves the quality, and makes it nearly as valuable as when water-rotted. Breaking and Dressing. — After the operation of rotting is performed, the plants are again collected together, put in shocks or stacks, or under some covering. Breaking and dressing are best performed in February and March ; and the best sort of weather, frosty nights, and clear, thawing days. The brake cannot be used advantageously in wet or moist weather. The usual daily task of an able-bodied hand at the brake is eighty pounds weight, though this depends on the weather and the condition of the stalks. The quantity of net hemp produced to the acre is from six hundred to one thousand pounds, varying according to the soil and the season. It is said that the quantity which any field will produce may be anticipated by the average height of the plants throughout the field. Thus, if the plants will 80 farmer's hand-book. average eight feet in height, the acre will yield eight hundred weight of hemp, each foot in height corresponding to a hundred weight of the lint. Hemp exhausts the soil slowly, if at all ; and nothing cleanses and prepares the earth better for other crops than hemp, especially for small grain or grasses. It eradicates all weeds, and, when it is taken off, leaves the field not only clean, but smooth and even. FLAX. Varieties. — The most important species of this plant — the only one form- ing the subject of cultivation — is the common flax, which has been applied to the making of cloth from time immemorial. Fisr- 60 Soils. — The soils best suited to the growth of flax are those which con- tain a large proportion of vegetable matter in their composition. Strong clays do not answer well, nor soils of a gravelly or dry, sandy nature. If the soil be too much enriched by the application of manures, the flax will grow too luxuriously, and produce a coarse fibre ; and if it be deficient in fertility, tlie produce will be scanty and unremunerative. Soils of the alluvial formation are peculiarly adapted ; also land having a black, mossy surface, or what is called gray land, and where the lower part of the soil is clay, resting on a retentive subsoil. Crops of flax of considerable value have often been reaped from land on which the produce of oats v/as inferior. In the preparation of the soil for flax, it is of importance that it should be reduced to a fine tilth, and be free from weeds. When the previous crop has been grass, e single ploughing only is given, which is to take place early in winter ; when the period of sowing arrives, the land is to be well har- THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 81 rowed, to prepare it for seed. When flax succeeds a corn crop, the land is also ploughed early. Two ploughings are generally required in the spring. Culture. — In the culture of flax, the broadcast system is universally adopted, and, after sowing, a double turn of the harrows is given to cover the seeds. In most cases it is advantageous that the whole should be rolled, and, in damp situations, vi'ater-furrowed. When it succeeds any of the green crops, the grass-seeds and clover-seeds are sown at the same time as the crop. In this case the preparation of the land is easy. The period of sowing is in the month of April or May. The quantity of seed sown will depend, in some measure, on the object in view in cultivating the plant. When the quality of the fibre is regarded rather than the quantity, thick sowing is advisable ; but if it be intended to save the seed of the crop for the purpose of reproduction, it should be sown thin, in order that the plants may have room to throw out their shoots, and to have free access of air in the blossoming and filling seasons. Three bushels of seed may be re- garded as the proper quantity ; but if fine fibre must be produced, an additional quarter of a bushel may be added ; when the seed is regarded, two bushels or two and a half may be sufficient to the acre. The quality of flax- seed is easily ascertained, and it is important that every farmer should be a judge of the different kinds. That which is fresh and proper for sowing should be smooth, slippery, bright, plump, and so heavy as to sink in water ; it should also taste sweet, and, on being broken, it should appear of a light yellowish-green color, and oily. The after culture of flax is chiefly confined to weeding. Gathering. — The state of ripeness at which the crop is to be taken up depends on the object in view in its cultivation. If to produce seeds, then a degree of ripeness is essential greater than when the quality of the fibre is the desideratum. In the latter case, it is well to pull the flax when it is somewhat green ; in the former case, the state of ripeness is denoted by the seed vessels becoming hardened, the stems assuming a yellow hue, and the leaves beginning to fall. When the seeds are not intended for sowing again, though intended to be saved for consumption on the farm, the best period of pulling is shortly after the plants have attained maturity with respect to the formation, but not to the full ripening of the seeds. Flax should never be pulled when it is in the least degree damp ; and, when it is pulled, the greatest care should be taken to sort it, keeping every kind by itself. When pulled up, the plants are bound into sheaves or bunches, binding with the flax itself. Rippling. — In the process of rippling, which is the next operation, a large cloth should be spread upon the ground, with the ripple placed in the centre of it. The rippling machine [Fig. 61) is an instrument like a comb, F 82 farmer's hand-book. with iron teeth, fixed upon a plank. The flax is separated into handfuls, and then draAVTi once or twice through the teeth of the machine, and thus the cap- sules or seed-vessels are separated. These capsules or pods should be spread in the sun to dry ; and those seeds which separate from the pods without bruising are the best and ripest, and may be set apart for sowing. The capsules are then broken, either by treading or threshing, and the seeds carefully winnowed and cleaned. Fiff. 61. Watering. — The next process is the separation of the fibres from the stem by steeping the flax in water, by which the softer part partially under- goes the putrefactive fermentation ; the best water being that which is clear, soft, and in standing pools. The bunches of flax should be built in the pool in nearly an upright position, the root-ends being uppermost. They are kept under water by means of stones. When the flax is properly watered, it will sink in the pool, and the fibres will separate freely from the stalk. In warm weather, eight or ten days will sometimes be enough, and only a few more, in any case ; but, if the fibres adhere to the stem, so as to be separated with difficulty, it must be continued in the water longer. When sufficiently watered, it is taken out of the pool ; and when drained, ia taken to a grass field, and spread thinly over it in rows, lying on the grass not more than eight or ten days, and, when brittle, is taken up and agair bound into sheaves or bunches, and then left till thoroughly dry, when they are sent to the mill, or carried home, or stored till wanted. Uses. — Besides the fibre of the plant, its seed is of considerable import- ance, being highly nutritive, and beneficial to every species of animal. It is given in the form of a jelly, mixed with various other matters. Given to calves, it is an excellent substitute for milk ; to horses and cattle it may be given, mixed with bruised oats, bran, or cut- hay, and straw ; but when intended for cattle, the chaflf" need not be separated from the seeds, but be all boiled together. LUCERN. Description. — This plant has a perennial root, and grows, when culti- vated, from a foot and a half to two feet high, and more. It is covered with THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 83 Jbaves, downy below, and slightly so on the upper surface ; bears a flower of a fine purplish violet, and flowers in June or July. Fisr. 62, Sot"?. — The soil adapted to its growth is deep, and of the lighter class, with a free or kindly subsoil. Culture and Tillage. — Two methods of raising this plant have been recommended and practised. The one is sowing it broadcast, in spring, sometimes along with a corn crop, in the sjime manner in which clover is sowed, and sometimes without a crop ; and the latter is the better practice, lucern not being suited to grow freely under the shade of other plants. The other method is, cultivating it in rows. Lucern, like other cultivated forage plants, gradually gives place to the grasses and hardier plants. When cultivated in rows, and carefully hoed, these native plants can be kept down, and the lucern preserved for a long period in the ground. But, when sown broadcast, this cannot be done in the same degree, and the lucern does not generally endure beyond nine or ten years. This is the main advantage which the row system possesses over the broadcast, in the cultivation of this plant. The best period of sowing lucern is about the middle of April. When sown broadcast, the quantity of seeds to the acre may be sixteen or eighteen pounds ; when sown in rows, ten pounds. The soil should be well prepared, by deep ploughing, and a previous summer fallow, or fallow crop, such as potatoes, turnips, or carrots. But when it is wished merely to possess a few acres of lucern for the convenience of soiling, it is better to have the ground deeply trenched, and well manured. When drilled, the rows need not be more than eighteen inches apart, which will give room for tilling the intervals by the horse or hand hoe. Afte* 84 ■ farmer's hand-book. the seeds are sown, care must be taken to keep down, by means of the hoe, all weeds that spring up amongst the plants and in the rows. In the month of August of the first year, when in flower, the crop may be mown, and, after this first cutting, the shoots may be kept down, by a slight pasturing with sheep, but not while the soil is wet, nor continued till a late period. Early in the following spring, the ground is to be horse or hand hoed, so that all weeds may be kept down, and the earth stirred about the roots of the plants. In the month of May the crop will be ready for the first cutting. After being- cut, it is to be horse-hoed in the intervals. It will now grow very rapidly ; and, when ready for cutting, is to be cut again, and, after each cutting, hand-hoed. In this manner it may be mown four or five times in the season. It does not, however, arrive at its full growth till its third year, after which it will yield rich and early foliage. But it requires to be manured at intervals, as every fourth or fifth year ; the manure may be farm-yard dung, spread upon the surface after the last cutting in autumn, or early in spring. When the system of broadcast is adopted, the difference in the method of tillage is, that, in place of horse and hand hoe, the common har- row is used, which, passing over the surface, stirs the soil about the roots of the plants, and drags up and destroys weeds ; the lucern itself, having a strong root striking downwards, is not torn up by this rough treatment, but is benefited by the stirring of the soil around its roots and stems. Uses. — This plant is eminently wholesome and nutritive. It is well suited for milch cows, causing them to yield good and abundant milk, and is perfectly adapted to the feeding of horses, which is one of the most common purposes to which it is applied. It may be used with the like advantage for the soiling of any kind of stock, and is valuable for the early feeding which it supplies, being in this respect considerably before the clovers. SAINFOIN. Description and Habits . — This is a deep-rooted plant, with a branching stem, bearing spikes of beautiful flowers. It grows wonderfully on rocky soils, stretching its roots to a prodigious depth amongst the crevices of rocks and open strata. It is, in truth, on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages of the cultivation of sainfoin are seen. Like lucern, although in a lesser degree, it is choked, and ultimately extirpated, by the prevalence of the grasses ; but in a soil perfectly suited to it, as in a chalky down, it will have a duration, perhaps, as long as any other plant. Although best adapted to the limy soils, it will also grow upon any light soil which has a free or open subsoil ; but on moist clays it will only last a few years, — some- times not above two. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 85 Oilture. — Sainfoin may be sown with a crop, in the same manner as the elovers and grasses. In the following season, it may be mown for hay or green forage, although it does not attain its full maturity until its third year. When this mode of management is adopted, the sainfoin should be rnixed with one or more of the clovers, the most suitable being white clover, which will add to the weight of the produce, without materially interfering with the growth of the sainfoin. It should be sowti broadcast, rather than culti- vated in rows, and the seeds should be of a good and tried kind, perfectly fresh. Fig. 63. It does not bear such frequent cutting as lucern. When used for soihng, it may be cut twice ; when used for hay, it should be cut once, and the after-math depastured. It may be used for herbage as well as for forage, and many farmers prefer depasturing it in the first year, so that in the second it may have attained its full growth before it is mown. When made into hay, it should be cut just when it comes into full flower. It is not very apt to be injured by heating, and therefore may be put up more quickly than other hay plants. If ground is to be mown for successive years for forage, then, on such soils as are suited to it, it is a good crop, being easily grown, hardy, and productive. Such a mode of cultivation, however, cannot be commended. When sown merely to produce one crop of hay, and then to be depastured for such a period as may be thought suited to the nature of the soil, it answers well ; but in this case it is recommended that it be sown with a proportion of white clover and rye grass. 8 86 farmer's hand-book. THE TARE. Description. — This is an annual plant, hardy, and comprising several varieties, one of which is distinguished by producing yellow seeds. The Fig. 64. varieties are chiefly two, the winter and spring tare, in choosing between which, everything must depend on the intention of the crop. If the object is to have early feed, the winter variety is to be preferred ; but where the land is foul, and requires to be two or three times ploughed in spring, or where a late crop is desired, or a crop for seed, then the spring variety will generally deserve the preference. Soil. — The best adapted is a clay, but they will grow in any rich soil, not over dry. In a moist climate, the haulm grows so luxuriant as to rot at bottom ; and in one over dry, it is deficient in length. A dry season is, on the whole, preferable. Preparing the Soil. — This seldom consists of more than one ploughing, if for autumnal sowing ; and of a winter and spring ploughing, when to be sown in spring. Time of Sowing. — The winter variety is sown in September and Octo- ber, and the first sowing in spring ought to be as early as the season will permit. The mode of sowing is mostly broadcast. Culture. — The quantity of seed to an acre is from two and a half to three and a half bushels, according to the time of sowing, and whether they are to be consumed green or left to stand for a crop. When intended for seed, less is sown than when grown for soiling or drying the haulm. THE HEAVY OB, FIELD CROPS. 87 CLOVER. Varieties. — There are three principal varieties, — Dutch clover, purple clover, and cow-grass, the most approved kind being the common red or broad clover, which is extensively cultivated in the United States, some- IHff. 65. times alone, and occasionally with other grasses. With timothy it makea hay of a very excellent kind, especially for neat cattle. Culture. — The seed is usually sown with winter wheat or other grain crops, late in February or in March, whilst the ground is still subject ta freezing and thawing, and the seed can thus gain admission into the soil. Or it may be sown with the oat, or other spring or summer crop, in which case, having the advantage of being harrowed in, it can generally be sown with even greater success than when put with a crop of winter grain. Too little seed is generally applied, the quantity required being from ten to four- teen pounds per acre. Clover is frequently turned under in the fall, to enrich the ground prepar- atory to a crop of wheat, or in the ensuing spring for the benefit of Indian corn. The best time for turning down is in the rankest and most juicy stage of its growth. Being a biennial plant, clover, of course, leaves the field after the second year, unless allowed to seed itself. When timothy has been sown with it, it obtains possession of the field, where it is gener- ally allowed to remain two or more years longer, affording the richest of all kinds of hay for horses, although for neat cattle the mixture of red clover and timothy is generally preferred. Clover hay, when fed unmixed to horses, often produces a cough. Thi« can always be removed by substituting timothy for a few weeks, after which, 88 farmer's hand-book, the feed may consist of half clover and half timothy, with little or no danger of producing cough. When the clover hay is fed from large troughs or mangers, instead of racks above the head, horses escape the cough. The first year's grow^th of clover is sometimes mown for hay and some- times pastured, and the second crops devoted to hay and furnishing seed. When the second crop is pastured in spring, the stock must not be turned on before the ground has become so firm that hoofs will not sink into the Bod, nor until the growth is such as to 'enable the cattle to thrive. The pasturage may be continued from the middle of April or first of May, for about six weeks, when the cattle are to be withdrawn, and the second crop allowed to go to seed for saving. The common practice of spreading clover hay from the swath causes the leaves and blossoms to dry and crumble before the haulm or stems are suf- ficiently cured. In this way, either the finer parts of the hay are lost, or the crop is housed with so much moisture as to cause it to heat, and often to spoil. It should only be spread when it has become wet with rain in the swath, and should be gathered again before the leaves dry and crumble. Both these evils may be avoided, and labor saved, by curing the grass wholly in swath and cock. The clover should be left to wilt in the swath, and when partially dried, either to turn the swaths or to make grass-cocks the same day, so as to secure the dried portions from the dew. These gTass-cocks are allowed to stand one, two, or three days, according as the weather is, and as the curing process has progressed, when they are opened at nine or ten o'clock on a fair day, the hay again turned over between eleven and three, and, soon after turning, gathered for the cart. Some care is required in making the codes. The grass is collected with forks and placed on dry ground between the swaths, in as small a compass as possible at the base, say two or three feet in diameter, and rising in a cone to the height of four or five feet. The advantages of this mode of curing clover are — 1. The labor of spreading from the swath is saved. 2. The labor of the hand-rake is abridged, or may be wholly dispensed with, if the horse-rake is used to glean the field when the hay is taken oiF. 3. It prevents, in a great measure, injury from dew and rain ; for these cocks, if rightly constructed, (not by rolling,) will withstand a rain of some days, without heating, or becoming more than superficially wet. 4. Clover hay made in this way may almost invariably be housed in good condition ; and, if rain falls after the grass is mownn, the quality of the hay is much superior in cocks to what it would be under the old process of curing. Many prefer mowing the clover before it gets very ripe, as then so much of the seed would not be shaken off" during the operations of curing, remov- ing, &c. As the hay of the seed-crop is seldom considered of much value, THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 89 except for litter and manure, it is frequently left long in the field to become thoroughly dry, so as to insure it against heating in the mow or stack, as this would be far more injurious to the seed than exposure to weather. Besides mowing the seed-crop in the usual manner for hay, several other methods have been devised. The one most usually resorted to in Pennsyl- vania is the employment of a scythe and cradle to cut off the heads, which are caught by a kind of bag attached to the lower fingers, the rest being removed. Or, the upper fingers being removed, the lower ones may be placed sufliciently close to catch the heads. Many contrivances are in use for gathering the heads in the field. In getting the seed from the heads, it has been common to employ the flail ; and, to clear it from the husk and chaff, recourse has been had to a clover-mill, worked either by water, steam, or horse power. The old method of threshing out clover-seed by the flail, or by the tramp- ing of horses, has been generally regarded as very tedious and disagreeable ; so much so, indeed, as to have discouraged most farmers from attempting to gather the seed at all ; but the introduction of threshing-machines has obvi- ated all difficulty of this kind. THE GRASSES. Varieties. — The species of grass which may be regarded as most valuable in our meadows and pastures are : — 1, Meadow or green grass ; 2, Tim- othy ; 3, Orchard grass ; 4, Meadow fescue ; 5, Blue grass ; 6, Ray grass ; 7, Red-top ; 8, Sweet-scented vernal grass. These, among the almost infinite varieties, are considered about the most valuable First, — Meadow or Green Grass, also called Spear or June Grass, highly esteemed for hay and pasture. It is a native variety, and abounds through 8* 90 farmer's hand-book. the country, but does not perfect itself north of the Ohio valley. It with stands the frost, and prefers a warm, dry, limy, or rich upland soil. Second, — The Timothy, Cafs Tail ox Herd'' s Grass. For the Northern States this is unsurpassed, flourishing in all soils except such as are wet, too light, dry, or sandy ; is easy of cultivation, hardy, and very productive For milch cows and young stock, it should be cut while it is juicy. May be sown upon wheat or rye, in the spring or early fall. Third, — The Orchard Grass, or Cadi's Foot, a native variety, well suited Fig. 68. to good arable lands. Should be cut before wholly ripe, and be fed closely Will grow in all parts of the United States. Fourth, — The Meadow Fescue; likes a rich, boggy soil, is quite produc- THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. live and forward, the grass being of a kind much relished by cattle, either green or hay. Fig. 69. Fifth, — The Blue Grass, or Flat-stalked Meadow; an early dwarfish grass, growing in the Middle and Northern States. It is hardy, but ia more valuable for pasture than hay. Sixth, — The Ray Grass, or Rye Grass ; extensively grown in some parts Fig. 70. of Europe, but does not do so well in this country, except in elevated and humid districts. Seventh, — The Red-top, Herd'' s Grass, Foul Meadotv, or Fine Bent ; a native perennial variety, valuable for hay and pasture, on lands adapted to its growth, which are reclaimed swamps and other moist grounds. Thia 92 farmer's hand-book. grass and timothy are fit for the scythe about the same time, and, ther©' fore, fit to be sown together. Fiff. 71. Eighth, — Tlie Sweet-scented Vernal Grass. This is a foreign perennia] grass, of dwarfish habit, sown principally on grounds intended for pasture, Fig-. 72. on account of the very early feed it affords, and for its growing quick aftef being cropped. It is delightfully fragrant. In addition to the preceding varieties, there is the Pony Grass (Fig. 73), which is considered one of the best winter grasses for the Western States THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. 93 It jn'ows in close, thick, elevated tufts, and continues green through the cold season. Lands Alternately in Grass and Tillage. — In laying down lands to grass, the most important primary object is duly to prepare them for the reception of the seeds. The soil ought to be brought into the highest possible degree of fertility ; for, although land may be too rich for the production of some crops, it is quite otherwise in the case of grass. Besides being rich, the land should also be well pulverized by tillage ; otherwise, the irregularity of the surface will not only occasion an irregularity in the produce of the crop, but it will be liable to be damaged by excessive droughts, before the plants can have extended their roots, or become firmly settled in the land. The time of sowing the seeds of the cultivated grasses depends on the nature of the land, tlie state of the weather, and the kind of crop amongst which they are sown. When sown with corn, the seed-time is invariably in the spring. The autumn is preferable when they are sown exclusively by themselves. This practice has been recommended, in the case of laying down lands to permanent grass, as being calculated to afford a thicker and better sward. The value of the grass crop is, no doubt, in some degree, affected by the exhaustion of the soil occasioned by the production of the preceding crop of corn, but not in a degree commensurate with the latter ; besides, the period in the rotation at which the smaller seeds should be sown is immediately after the land is manured, and, in this case, the sever- ity of the corn crop is felt. After being so"wn, the seeds quickly germinate, and, in favorable situations, they will have attained a considerable height before the commencement of the corn harvest ; and when the corn is cut down close to the ground, they are cut and winnowed with the straw, and add considerably to the value of the latter for fodder. After harvest, the ground may be slightly pastured with calves and sheep ; throughout the winter tha land is to remain untouched. In the succeeding spring, clear the land of 94 farmer's hand-book. stones, and afterwards the surface is to be raked to break down the stubble of the preceding crop, and further to prepare the land for the action of the Bcythe towards the first of June. When, however, the crop is set apart for pasturage, the earliest and richest herbage is to be obtained in the second year. Soiling. — When the practice of soiling, or cutting the crop and consum- ing it in a green state, is pursued, the part containing a large quantity of the clovers should be chosen, while that in which the grasses predominate may be made into hay. The crop may be cut for soiling earlier than for hay. Soiling is in many cases advantageous ; in others, it is not. Certain animals do not thrive unless enjoying the air and exercise attendant on pas- turage, and, in most cases, a portion of the farm is unavoidably in pasture, as, for instance, grass land in the second and third year. Soiling and depasturing may be somewhat combined by turning animals out to the pastures during the cool parts of the day, and feeding them in the house towards noon. Haying. — The portion of the crop which is not cut for soiling is made into hay. The period when the crop should be cut dowTi, when intended for hay, is just when the plants have attained their full size ; and the flowers, which just then are coming on, should not, in any degree, have begun to fade before the crop is cut down. The plants are laid in swaths by the action of the scythe, and as soon as these are dried on the top, they are completely turned over by a fork in such a manner as not to break or spread, and these swaths may be put into cocks in the evening, which are after- wards made into ricks or conveyed to the stack. When not dry enough to be carried from the small cocks to the stack, it must be formed into large cocks or ricks in the field, there to stay until fit to be stored in a larger stack. In forming the stacks, a layer of straw is usually spread over the bottom, or stand, and the hay is then regularly spread and trodden down, observing to keep the middle of the stack well raised. In this manner, it is carried up to the height of several feet, projecting slightly to the eaves, so as to overhang the sides, to guard the lower part from rain. The roof is then raised to a considerable height in a slanting form, with gable ends ; and, being thus formed, the loose hay which projects from the sides and ends of the stack is pulled, until all is smooth and regular, and the stack is then bound down with ropes. Salt, in small quantity, is sometimes strewed upon the hay, as the building of the stack proceeds, to stop fermentation and ender the hay palatable. Immediately after the hay is removed from the field, cattle may be turned in for several days. The length of time which the land is afterwards continued in grass depends on the course of cropping practised on the farm. According to the alternate husbandry, it cannot be THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS. longer than one or two seasons, for, under any circumstances, it is not good management to keep land more than three years in grass. The revolving horse hay-rake is in extensive use, and is highly commended. Fisr. 75 Lands Permanently in Grass. — The ' management of lands of this de- scription is somewhat different from that of grass land merely interposed in tlie course of cropping of arable lands, to prevent the exhaustion of the nutrient parts of the soil consequent upon incessant tillage. From the short period which the land is, in the latter case, in grass, manure is seldom applied to the surface, though often indispensable in the former. Various other operations are also performed to remedy those defects which are natural consequences resulting from lands being long kept in grass. Such lands naturally divide themselves into two classes — those fit either for mowing or pasture, and those fit for pasture only. Perennial Grass Lands jit for Mowing, or Meadow Lands. — Under the term meadow are included all such lands as are kept in grass chiefly for the Bake of the hay crop, though occasionally, and at particular seasons of the year, it may be depastured. The value of the natural meadow depends much on the situation, as well as on the quality, of the land. There are three descriptions of these meadows ; those on the banks of streams and rivers, those on the uplands or more elevated grounds, and bog meadows. The meadows situated along the banks of rivers and streams are, in gen- eral, by far the most valuable, and should never be converted into tillage. The principal defects to which such lands are liable are the oozing out of the springs towards their junction with the higher grounds, and the over 96 farmer's hand-book. flowing of the stream or river ; the former evil is to be remedied by drain» ing, and the latter by embanking. Upland meadows require more attention than valleys and holms, being: more difficult to drain, and requiring frequent manuring. The roots of grasses never strike deep into the soil; and thus, deriving their nourishment chiefly from the surface, the utility of top-dressing is obvious. The irreg- ular surface of uplands is frequently much injured by superfluous moisture, and the surface is generally covered by inferior herbage and by mosses, the remedy for these being simply a course of tillage. v Boggy land is generally least valuable. When thoroughly drained, the culture of herbage plants is about the most profitable way of occupying it. When under tillage, its cultivation is very difficult ; but when so far improved as to warrant its being laid down in grass, large crops may be obtained at comparatively small expense. More than one crop is rarely obtained from the natural meadows. The time of cutting the crop is later than that of the cultivated meadow, the proper time being just before, the formation of the seed. After being cut, the grass is allowed to remain for a short time in the swath, and is then scattered evenly over the surface of the ground. If the weather be fine, the grass is soon formed, with the rake, into what are called wind-rows, which, after standing a few hours, may be formed into cocks of small size, by simply grasping a quantity of the grass, which had been previously shaken in a heap, and placing it on a part of the surface that has been raked. The next day these cocks are again spread abroad, then formed into wind-rows, and again put into cocks, of a larger size, in the evening. In a day or two these will be ready for putting into ricks, if the weather be fine ; if it be not, a much longer time may be required, and the cocks will have to be again shaken out and re-formed into larger, before the hay is ready for the rick. In certain situations, the raising of hay on the natural meadow will be found the most simple and economical way of occupying such lands as are suited to it. Frequent manurings are, however, essential to their product- iveness, the best manure being composts of lime, to be applied in the spring. Permanent Pastures. — The drainage of lands permanently in grass greatly improves them. Cuts are made along the hollows of the field, which convey the water to the most convenient outlet, and small drains, formed either by a plough or spade, open into them. These need not be more than a foot deep, though numerous, especially in hollow places. Having removed the surface water, the tendency to rot will be removed. Weeds, shrubs, and mosses, should be thoroughly removed, which can be done by the hand, the plough, by draining, and by a course of tillage. THE HEAVY OR FIELD CROPS, 97 Lime applied to the surface of grass lands, either alone or combined with other matters, is beneficial, after superfluous moisture has been removed. When, from frequent rolling and the treading of animals, the surface of grass lands gets into a tenacious state, scarifying will go far to remove the evil. This operation is quite useful before any top-dressing is applied. The time of stocking pastures in spring must depend on the season ; and the state of growth which it is desirable the plants should attain before being stocked must, in some degree, be determined by the condition and description of the animals to be employed in consuming the herbage, — whether they are only in a young state, or approaching to fatness, — whether milch cows or sheep, or a mixture of animals of different species. The great objects to be aimed at are, that the stock, of whatever kind it^may be, ehall be carried forward faster or slower, according to the object in viftw, and that none of the herbage shall be wasted. CHAPTER III. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. i VEGETABLES : - — ARTICHOKE ASPABAGUS BORAGE BEAN BEET BORECOLB BROCCOLI CABBAGE CARDOON CARROT CAULIFLOWER CELERY — CHIVE CORN CORN-SALAD CRESS CUCUMBER DANDELION — EGG-PL,4.NT ENDIVE GARLIC HOP HORSE-RADISH LEEK LETTUCE MOREL MUSHROOM MUSTAUD ONION OKRA PARSNIP PEA PEPPER PUMP- KIN RADISH RAPE RHUBARB SALSIFY SCORZONEBA SEA-KALE SHALLOT SKIRRET SPINACH SQUASH TOMATO TURNIP. HERBS, &C. : • — ANISE BALM BASIL CARAWAY CAMOMILE CORIANDER CHERVIL DILL FENNEL FOXGLOVE HOREHOUND HYSSOP LAVENDER LIQUORICE MARJORAM MINT PARSLEY PENNY-ROYAL PEPPERMINT PURSLANE ROSEMARY — RUE SAFFRON SAGE SAVORY TANSY THYME ; WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. I. VEGETABLES. Artichoke. — There are only two or three varieties of this plant culti- vated, the Globe and the Green. The heads, in their immature state, and before their blue, thistle-like flow^ers open, are cut and boiled in salt and water, the edible part being the fleshy substance on the bottom of the scales, which, to be relishable, has to be dipped in a nicely-prepared sauce of butter and spices, though it is frequently eaten as a salad in a raw state. Culture, 4'C. — The artichoke is propagated from seed or from offsets. If by the former, sow the seed in rows a foot apart, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. Thin the plants to a foot apart, in the row ; and, in the fall of the ■ year, put out the plants in clumps pf four, in rows three feel apart, and the rows six feet asunder. They will produce their fruit the next year. When winter approaches, earth the roots up well, and before the frost sets in, cover all well over with litter. Open it at the breaking up of the frost, dig all the ground well between the rows, and level the earth down from the plants. The young ones, or offsets, which grow out from the sides, must be pulled off; and, if a new plantation is wanted, they may be set out, and will bear late the same year. Artichoke (Jerusalem). — This is a small sunflower, with nutritious *ubers, less in size than potatoes. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 99 Culture, (SfC. — It is usually propagated by sets from the roots, in April, and grows in any soil which is moist*, sandy, and light. It is cultivated like the potato. When raised for its tuber, it is liable to become troublesome, from the germinating power of even the smallest piece left in the soil. It keeps in the ground all winter, or may be preserved under sand. In the Middle States it thrives well. It yields from 150 to 200 bushels of roots, which are eagerly devoured by swine, and, when steamed or boiled, are quite palatable. Asparagus. — There are two principal varieties, the purple-topped and 'he green-topped, the first-named being generally preferred. Culture, dfc. — In the making of asparagus-beds, a proper soil is the first thing needed — one not too wet, nor too strong, nor stubborn, but mod- erately light and pliable, and well manured. The situation should be one exposed to the sun, ranging east and west. The seed may be sown from the middle of February to the middle of April, — usually about the last of March. Plant five or six inches apart, one inch in depth, putting two seeds in each hole, or sow in drills made the same distance asunder. When the weather is dry, water the beds moderately ; also destroy all weeds. Tow- ards the end of October, as soon as the stems are wholly withered, cut them down, and spread them over the ground mixed with dung. The next spring, every other plant must be transplanted into a bed, twelve inches apart, if it is intended that they should attain another, or two years' further growth, before being finally planted out ; or, they may be planted immedi- ately in the beds for production. Many gardeners judiciously sow the seed in beds where they are to remain for production. The best time for the final removal is the end of March, if the soil be dry and the season forward. The beds for regular production should be three feet wide ; the usual prac- tice is to trench the ground two spades deep, and then cover deep with well- rotted manure. Growing asparagus in single rows three feet apart, giving no dung in winter, merely clearing off the stalks and weeds in the fall, and pointing over the surface about two inches deep with a fork, leaving it rough as possible, is a mode highly commended. In the spring, when the surface is quite dry, it is raked down, and about two inches of soil drawn over the crowns from each side of the rows. When the gathering is nearly over, the ground is stirred again, to loosen the tramping made in gathering the crop. The hollow between the little ridges is then filled up with a powerful compost, and the whole is then drenched with liquid manure. This is summer cultivation. In May, or early in June, the beds are in full production of young shoots, which, when from two to five inches high, are fit for cutting, and as long as the head continues compact and firm. Cut carefully. The seed is usually 100 farmer's hand-book. ripe in September ; collect it ; and, when the pulp and husk decay, clean the seed with water, and then dry it. Forcing. — In forcing asparagus, such plants may be inserted in hot-beda as are five or six years old, and are of sufficient strength to produce vigor- ous shoots. To plant old shoots for the main forcing crop is, however, erroneous. The first plantation should be made about the first of October, and, if it works well, will begin to produce in the course of four or five weeks, and continue to do so for about three. The hot-bed may be made in the usual way, and topped with six inches of light rich earth, and kept at about 60° in the day time, and never below 50° at night. In planting, a furrow is drawn the whole length of the frame ; against one side of it the first row or course is to be placed, the crown upright, and a little earth drawn on to the lower end of the roots ; all round on the edge of the bed, some moist earth must be banked close to the outside roots. The foliage of this vegetable is liable to be destroyed by the larvae of two beetles, and the only remedy is to pick off and destroy the affected parts. Borage. — Its fresh leaves are boiled for a dinner dish, or are used in salads. It is aromatic, and therefore sometimes used to flavor wine. Culture, dfc. — A very fertile soil is not necessary ; a light and dry one is best suited. It is propagated by seed, sowm in March or April, in shallow drills, half a foot apart. Transplanting is but little advantageous or necessary. Bean. — The best varieties are the Early Dwarf, Early Mazagan, and the Early Long-pod, the Broad Windsor, and the Dutch Long-pod. The first is early, the second is later, the third is very prolific, the fourth is large and well-flavored, and the fifth best suited for a late crop. The bean comes up in a week, ten days or a fortnight. Culture, (5fc. — The times of sowing, and the situation, for the earliest crops, are the same as for the pea. The seeds may be deposited in drills, an inch and a half or two inches deep, covered and pressed down. It is some- times customary to plant beans in the same rows with cabbages, and also with potatoes ; a bean being planted alternately with every potato-set, or cabbage-plant. All the routine culture consists in destroying the weeds, slightly earthing up the stems, stirring the soil, and watering in very dry weather. A very late crop may be obtained by cutting over a summer crop, a few inches above the ground, as soon as the plants have come into flower. New stems will spring from the shoots in abundance, and continue bearing till frost. The Kidney Bean includes the common dwarf (our bush bean) , growing twelve or eighteen inches high, and the runner growing ten or twelve feet. For the dwarf sorts, the first sowing may be made in the beginning THE KITCHEN GARDEN. lOi of April, the second about the middle of the month, and after that till along towards August. The rows may be two feet asunder, and the beans depos- ited in drills from two to three inches apart, and covered to the depth of one to one and a half inches. The routine culture consists in watering in dry weather, where that operation is practicable, and using lime-water, if, which is often the case, the plants are attacked by snails or slugs. The twining sorts, being rather more tender than the dwarfs, are not sown until later in the season. If the soil is in good condition, and the culture thorough, one sowing in May will produce plants which will con- tinue bearing, from the middle of June, till the plants are destroyed by the frosts ; but the green pods should be gathered before the seeds formed in them begin to swell. The rows should be in the direction of north and south, should be at least four feet apart, and the beans should be placed in shallow drills, three inches asunder, and covered about two inches with soil. Where the plants come above ground, they may be slightly earthed up, and, in another week, when they begin to form runners, they should be sticked with branches or rods, of six or eight feet in length. In many cases, the scarlet runner may be planted where it will not only produce excellent crops, but afford shelter or shade to a walk, a grassplat or a cucumber-bed. Where sticks or rods are scarce, wires, or even twine, may be substituted, and in this way the scarlet runner may be trained against wooden walls, pales, or other fences, or made to cover walls. The following (Fig. 76) Pig. 76. IS a good mode of arranging thread or cord for the support of scarlet run ners. Take half-inch and two-inch wide laths or rods, join them at the top BO as to leave the ends a few inches beyond the junction, and stick th 9* 102 fakmek's hand-book. lower ends into the ground, just within the lines of the plants. Connect tliese triang^les by similar rods at the bottom, about three inches above the soil. Take a cord, fix it firmly to the lower bar, carry it over the upper bar, which is placed in the cross formed by the long ends left, as seen in the figure. Make a loop a yard long, carry the cord again over the plank (that is around it) , and fix the other end to the lower rod on the other side. In like manner, go on through the whole length, making the loops all of the same length, and through these suspend a long stick or bar (the section of which is shown at the right hand), and to this bar hang bags of sand, as many as may be wanted. Train the plants up the strings, and when they are well grown, the whole will be covered ; and when in flower, the appear- ance will be very fine. By this method, the cords, being fixed at the lower bars, will not pull the plants out of the earth, the tension and contraction of the cords being counteracted by the bar suspended in the loops, which is raised or lowered by every change of atmospheric moisture. Very abundant crops, however, may be obtained without any resort to staking, by merely stopping the plants after they begin to form pods. For general cultivation, the Early Mohawk, Early Six-Weehs, Early Valentine, Yellow Six-Weehs, Late Valentine, and the Lima, are highly thought of, and very extensively grown in this country. Beet. — Among the more common and useful varieties of this vegetable are the French Sugar, or Amber, Mangel- Wurtzel, Green, Yellow Turnip- rooted, Early Blood Turnip-rooted, Early Dwarf Blood, Early White Scar- city, Long Blood Red. Culture, <^c. — Sow beets fi"om the early part of May until June, in drills about three inches apart, thinned to ten or twelve inches in the row. For early use, a small bed of the early turnip-rooted may be sown as soon in the spring as the ground can be fitted for the seed, and these will give good roots in June or July. For fall or winter use, or for general crops, beets should not be sown too early, for such, if suffered to stand, become stringy and fibrous, and not unfrequently shoot up to *eed. A rich, deep soil, is best for the beet, and for all top-rooted plants ; and they should, after thinning, be kept free from weeds. They should be gathered before severe frosts occur, and may be pitted or put in cellars for winter use. The thinning of beets must be done while they are young, and the young plants are excellent for greens. Within a few years the culture of the sugar-beet has received much atten- tion in this country, not only for the purpose of sugar-making, but on ac- count of its being one of the most valuable roots grown for the feeding of animals during the fall, winter, or spring months. The ground should be prepared by deep ploughing or harrowing, until i( THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 103 is fine. Open two furrows with the plough two feet apart, and put in a suf- ficient quantity of manure, according to the state of the ground ; cover the dung with the plough by throwing a furrow of earth upon it, ridging as high as can be well done ; level the surface of the ridge over the dung, tak- ing care that there is a full proportion of earth over the manure for the seed to vegetate in. Sow with a drill or by the hand, and complete the process by rolling. To Keep Beets. — To preserve beets during the winter, put them in a dry cellar, with dry sand between them, taking care to expose them a day pre- vious to the air, to carry off the moisture. In quantities, they may be pre- served out-of-doors as follows : Take them up three weeks before the hard frost comes, cut off their leaves, let them lie two or three days upon straw or boards ; then lay a little straw upon the ground, and, in a fine, dry day, place ten bushels of beets — those that are good — upon it, in a conical form. Put a little straw smoothly over the heap ; then cover the whole with six or eight inches of earth, and place a green turf on the top, to prevent the earth from being washed by rain from the point, before the frost sets in. Tlie whole heap will freeze during the winter, but the frost will not injure the beets. Borecole. — The main varieties are Green Scotch Kale, German Curled, Purple, Jerusalem, and Thousand-headed Cabbage. The last two grow to four feet, and yield large numbers of sprouts. Culture, <^c. — Sow the seed in May ; plants are set out in July. They are better when touched slightly by the frost, and may be kept in the same manner as cabbages, during winter. The stocks, in spring, send out numer- ous tender shoots ; and one ounce of seed will produce nearly four thousand plants. Broccoli. — This vegetable is similar to the cauliflower in growth, appearance, and flavor, but it is cultivated more easily, and is more certain to head. Culture, dfC. — The Early White and the White Cape are considered superior, but the Purple Cape is the kind most cultivated. The seeds of the last are sown towards the end of May, in the Middle States, and later for winter supplies. In July, or when the plants are large enough, transplant into very rich, dunged, and mellow earth ; plant eighteen to twenty-four inches apart each way, moisten the earth frequently with liquid manure, and hoe and keep clean during their growth. If attacked by the " Black Fly," a solution of brown or soft soap is good to destroy them. Cabbage. — This is one of the most ancient and useful of all the cultivated vegetables. Culture, dfc. — The best soil is a strong, rich, substantial one, mora 104 farbier's hand-book. clayey than sandy, though it will grow in any soil, if it be well worked ano manured. They are grown either from hot-bed plants, or from seed in the open ground. If the seed of the earlier sorts has been sown in a hot-bed, they will be ready for removal when two or three inches high. In this case, as soon as the season will permit, prepare a bed, by digging out the ground a foot deep, four feet wide, and to as great a length as the extent of your operations will require. Fill this up with dung, cover with earth to ihe depth of four inches, and set your plants upon it in rows four inches apart, and two inches apart in the row. Water them lightly, and, if conve- nient, shade them for a day or two, and shelter them at night. In the open ground, put your seed rows at six inches distance, and put the seeds thin in the row ; when up, thin them to three inches in the row, and when two or three inches high, in order to perfect them, they may be taken from the seed-bed, and put into fresh-dug, well-broken ground, at six inches apart, every way. This is called pricking out. Where their distances will allow, it is better to dig between the cabbages once or twice during their growth ; and all the larger sorts should, about the time that their heads are beginning to form, be earthed up. Varieties. — The varieties of cabbage are numerous. The earliest is the Early Dwarf, then the Early Sea Green, then the Early York. The Sugar Loaf, a sweet and rich variety, comes in in July and August. For winter use, the Dwarf Green Savoy is much esteemed. For Drum Heads or other large kinds, sow and transplant same as the Savoy. The Red Cabbage is treated in the same manner as the Green Savoy. To keep Cabbages. — To preserve cabbages through the winter, lay out a piece of ground four feet wide, and as long as the quantity to be preserved may require ; dig on each side of it a small trench, a foot deep, and throw up the earth on the four-feet bed, the top of which should be made level and smooth. Lay some poles or rails at a foot apart lengthwise upon the bed, then put some smaller poles, or stout sticks, across, on the rails or poles, putting these last at five or six inches apart. Upon these lay corn-stalks, or twigs, or brush, not very thickly, but enough so to cover all over. Then, just as the frost is about to set in, take up the cabbages, knock off the dirt from their roots, take off all dead or yellow leaves, and also some of the out- side ones, put the cabbage-head downwards upon the bed, with the roots sticking up, and cover them nearly up to the root with straw. Do not pack them so that they will touch each other much ; and secure the straw from the operation of the wind. Out of this stack the cabbages may be taken green and good in the spring, when the frost breaks up, and from this stack a supply may be obtained through the whole winter. Diseases. — The diseases of the cabbage consist of clubbing of the roots I THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 105 which arises from worms, and is produced by growing them too long in one locality ; lice, which are destroyed by infusion of tobacco, lime-dust, and Bait ; and cut-worms and slugs, which should be caught and destroyed before Bunrise, — or soot, tobacco, lime, «&c., should be worked in about the roots with a trowel. Cardoon. — This is a species of artichoke, comprising some half a dozen principal varieties. Culture, - soil ploughing, and a clean furrow obtained, in the bottom of each furrovr manure being thrown. After this, planting should commence, — spring or autumn answering equally as well. The holes should be dug twice as large as the roots of the tree, and a foot and a half deep, and to each tree a liberal supply of good compost manure should be given. The branches should be shortened in, one half of the last year's growth, before the trees are set, and the roots should be saturated with water before being covered over with the earth. Press the earth moderately about the roots, and leave the soil around the trunk concave, like a saucer, to catch the showers. This will secure life and thrift to the trees. In orchard planting, the trees should be put out in rows twelve feet apart, the trees ten feet asunder. This will be near enough, in good soil, pre- pared as above. In three years they will bear, and will continue to do ao for thirty years. The open space between the trees may be profitably cropped with potatoes, and so forth. The pruning should be done in the autumn, just after the fall of the leaf. The operation consists in cutting out as little as possible, mainly old or decayed wood, or any quite superfluous branches. In November, fork in around the roots of each tree five or six shovel- fuls of fresh stable manure ; and when the spring opens, plough the ground between the rows, and lightly stir beneath the trees. Directly after this, give the whole a broadcast spread of salt, at the rate of ten bushels to the acre, or just a light coat, sufficient to half conceal the ground under each tree. The best salt for this purpose is the refuse salt of the packing- houses. VARIETIES. Apple-shaped. — This is also called Orange, a well-known, favorite variety. Fruit large, much resembling an apple in shape ; color brilliant yellow ; flesh solid, and of fine flavor. A very good bearer, and much esteemed as an excellent cooking variety, on account of the flesh becomins; soft when stewed. Fig. 154. Pear-shaped. — Medium size, oblong, contracting towards the stem, and in general form very similar to a pear; color yellow; flesh firmer and yields less when cooked than the Apple-shaped. It is not so finely flavored as tlie Apple, and not generally so much esteemed. 18* O 210 farmer's hand-book. Fiff. 154. Portugal. — This variety is more juicy, less liarsh, better colored and flavored, than the two preceding. Fruit large, oblong ; color mild yellovp ; not very productive. A very superior variety, though not so much raised as it deserves. Remarks. — There are two or three ornamental varieties, but they are not of sufficient importance to be described at length. THE RASPBERRY, Propagation, <^c. — The only mode of propagation is by suckers, except by seeds, which is only resorted to for new varieties. The suckers are separated in autumn, either by taking up the whole plant and dividing it, or by slipping them off from the sides and roots of the main stock. They may be planted at once where they are permanently to remain, in rows from north to south, four feet apart every way. They will grow in any good garden soil, but it is most prolific in fruit, and the fruit is better flavored, in a dry, substantial soil, and an open situation. In making a plantation, three or more suckers are allowed to each stool, and planted in a triangle at six inches apart. The plants will produce fruit the first year ; FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 211 but, if this fruit, or even a third part of it, can be dispensed with, the suckers for the succeeding year will be greatly strengthened by cutting the stems of the newly-set plants down to within six inches of the ground. The future treatment consists in going over the stools every year, early in May, and selecting six or seven of the strongest suckers from each stool for next year's bearing wood, and destroying all the rest, unless they are wanted for a new plantation. In autumn, as soon as the fruit is all gath- ered, the stems which have borne it should be cut down to the ground, to give light and air to the suckers ; but as these are liable to be injured by the frost, they should not be pruned till the following March. They may then be shortened to two thirds or three fourths of their length, by cutting off the weak wood at the extremities of the shoots. VARIETIES. Fastolff. — This is a very superior variety, conaidered by many the best Fig. 155. 212 farmer's hand-book. of all the reds. Fruit extra large size ; roundish-conical ; color brilliant red, purple tinge ; flesh rich, melting, finely flavored. It is not so much grown now as it undoubtedly will be when it is better known ; besides, the planta are scarce and high-priced. It is well adapted to the United States. Yellow Antwerp. — White Antwerp, and Double-Bearing Yellow, by some. A large, conical berry ; color lightish-yellow ; flesh sweet, very pleasant flavor. Worthy of cultivation. American Black. — A well-known popular variety ; size rather small, in its native growth ; color quite dark ; flesh rich, juicy, acid flavor. Red Antwerp. — Also called New Red, True Red, and Rowland'' s Red. Large size ; conical ; color pale red ; flesh sweet, juicy, excellent. It is early, productive, and ranks first-rate for eating and cooking. Franconia — Fruit large ; obtuse-conical; color purplish-red ; flesh firm, rich, tart, lively. Hardy, productive ; not so early as others, but superior fof preserving. Fig. 156. Piff. 156. Remarks. — The White Antwerp is an excellent sort, as is also the Gushing, and the Ohio. These, with the varieties previously described, constitute the principal cultivated kinds, the others being generally inferior. « THE STRAWBERRY. Propagation and Culture. — The usual time for transplanting strawberry plants is August. That time is chosen because they have then done bearing, and have made oflTsets, if the season has been favorable, of strong plants, set from their runners. Plantations made at this season will bear some fruit the next summer. But, if good, vigorous plants can be obtained in May of the preceding season, it should be planted then, as it saves nearly a year, the plants being ready to bear abundantly the next year. Gardeners have different habits and opinions as to trimming the plants^ FRUITS, FR7IT-TREES, VINES, ETC, 213 when they are put out. Some cut off all the old leaves, preserving only those in the centre of the plant. Others take off the dead or decayed leaves only, and plant with all the old healthy leaves on the plant. Many persons cut the roots in before they put them into the ground ; — all dead substances should be cut off, but not the roots. When the plants are put out, they should be kept free from weeds, and the ground should be kept loose about them. If the plants are strong, put but one to form the stools ; if weak, put two. As regards the distance at which plants should be set, cultivators differ. The common red strawberry, which is found in all our gardens, may be put eight inches apart, in rows nine inches or a foot from each other, and allowed to form a matted bed of about two feet wide, with a foot-path of a foot wide between them. But the larger and finer sorts should be planted in stools, in beds four and a half feet wide, with a path of fifteen inches or more between the beds. In these beds the plants should be set, by a line, fifteen to eighteen inches apart, both ways, taking care that they do not run together. The objection generally made to this mode of cultivation is, that the fruit is exposed to injury by lying upon the ground, where it is bruised, and covered with dirt, every time it rains. This, however, may be prevented by a little care. Moss, or straw, or the leaves of trees, may be put around the stools, so as to prevent the fruit from lying on the ground, and to prevent the moisture around the plant from evaporating. The strawberry may also be propagated by seeds ; and, if sown imme- diately after gathering, will produce plants which will come into bearing the following year. Soil and Situation. — The best soil is one that is light, warm, and gravelly ; and the manure to be applied should be vegetable, rather than animal. The common practice is to manure the ground with rotten dung, with a view to increase the size and quantity of the fruit ; but, in doing this, the flavor of the fruit is destroyed in proportion to the richness of the soil ; besides, high manuring produces strong, luxuriant vines, and little fruit. Rotten leaves, decayed wood, ashes, in small quantity, mixed with other vegetable substances in a compost heap, will make better manure for straw- berries than any animal substance whatever. As the vines which bear this fruit require great moisture to bring the fruit to its proper size, the soil and situation must not be too dry. Forcing. — Select for this purpose, in the middle of August, a sufficient number of the best runners, from approved kinds, to have choice from, and plant them six inches apart, in beds, upon a strong border, in a dry and sheltered situation. As soon as the leaves have withered, mulch them 214 farmer's hand-book. lightly willi manure ; and if very severe weather occur, protect them for a time with straw. They must he kept, the following spring, free from weeds and runners, removing also any flowers as they appear. Towards the latter end of May, or beginning of June, whenever dull or rainy weather may occur, remove them carefully into forty-eight-sized pots, putting one, two or three plants into each pot, according as the object may be, whether quality or quantity. Place them, when potted, in a situation where they can be readily shaded for a time, and receive regular supplies of water, if necessary. About the latter end of July, or early in August, these pots will be filled with roots, when the plants must be re-potted into flat thirty- two-sized pots, and at this time plunged in old tan or coal-ashes. The best mode of plunging them is to form beds wide enough to contain five rows of pots, when plunged, upon a hard or gravelly surface, to prevent them root- ing through, the sides supported by slabs of the same width as the depth of the pots, and filling them up with old tan or ashes ; the plants remain here until wanted to take in, and are easily protected from severe frosts. It will be found an excellent plan to preserve the latest forced plants, which are not much exhausted, for forcing the first, the next season. These, from their long period of rest, and well-ripened buds, are predisposed to break earlier and stronger than the others ; some of them, if the autumn is moist, will be excited, and produce flowers, which must be immediately pinched out. They should have their balls carefully reduced, and be re-potted in larger pots, early in August, protecting them from the late autumnal rains, and from frost. VARIETIES. Duke of Kent. — Fruit rather small size ; roundish-conical ; color bright, deep red ; flavor tart, and moderately good. It is, on the whole, considera- bly inferior to other sorts, but is an early ripener, — say the last of May, or first of June. Large Early Scarlet. — This also is an early fruit, and superior to the Fig. 157. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 215 Duke of Kent. Medium size ; roundish-oblong ; color brilliant red ; rieh, sprightly and excellent flavor. A certain and abundant bearer. Red Wood. — An old and favorite sort ; size small ; round ; color scarlet ; flesh sweet, finely flavored. Productive, ripening in midsummer. Blach Prince. — Also known as Black Imperial. Fruit large, handsome ; roundish ; color darkish-red ; flesh rich, finely flavored. Hardy and pro- lific. Hovetfs Seedling. — One of the finest and largest, and well suited to a northern climate ; form roundish-conical, regular ; color dark red ; texture and flavor very fine. A good bearer, ripening about the middle of June. The fruit, with commonly good culture, weighs about a quarter of an ounce, and is an inch and a quarter in diameter. It produces better if grown near some variety having perfect stamens, such as the Early Scarlet, or Rosa Phoenix. Swainstone's Seedling. — A comparatively recent sort, well thought of by those who have grown it. Large size ; ovate-conical ; color light, shiny scarlet; flesh compact, delicious flavor. Not over productive. Fig. 159. Ross Phoenix. — Large size to very large, with numerous seeds ; form generally more or less coxcombed or flattened, and surface uneven ; coloi dark crimson ; flavor and texture very fine for a large variety. Produc- tive ; ripens in June, and is considered nearly equal to Hovey's Seedling. Fig. 160. Prolific Hautbois. — Large size ; conical ; color purplish-red ; flesh rich, juicy, tender, highly flavored. It. bears very well, ripens early, and has a« good a reputation as any of the Hautbois variety. Fig. 161. 216 farmer's hand-book. Fig. 159. Fig. 160. Cushing. — Fruit very Inrg-R ; round, some of the berries with a shor neck; color light scarlet ; flesh juicy, tender, finely flavored ; good bearer Fig. 162. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. Fig. 161. 217 Fig. 162. Remarks. — The Hudson's Bay, British Queen, White Alpine, Whitt Wood, Bishop'' s Orange, Downton, Elton, Methvcn Scarlet, Boston Pine, and MyatCs Pine, are esteemed varieties. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS, NUTS, &c. Almond. — There are two kinds, — the common or sweet, and the bitter. The varieties best deserving culture are the Tender-shelled, the fruit of 19 21S farmer's hand-book. which is small ; the Sweet, which is larger ; and the Jordan, also large and sweet. These, and all the other kinds, are propagated by budding on the plum, and sometimes on seedling almonds for dry situations. Blueberry. — A well-known dwarf bush, bearing a small berry, tender, juicy, blue color, ripening in July and August, and much used for tarts and puddings. Not much cultivated ; grows wild in abundance. Butternut. — This is a species of walnut, growing in different parts of the United States, and sometimes called Oil Nut and White Walrcut. Its wood is used for various mechanical purposes, and its bark possesses vari- ous medicinal qualities. The fruit is eaten, but is more valuable as a pickle. Chestnut. — The true, sweet chestnut-tree thrives in any but moist or marshy soils. It is long-lived, and grows to a great size. Its wood is hard and durable, and used for various purposes ; the fruit is eaten raw, or boiled or roasted ; the bark, for tanning, is superior to oak. It is raised from the seeds, planted in the fall ; the second year they are transplanted, and fine varieties are extended by grafting. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut succeeds well in this country, producing fruit, in about seven years, from the seed. Its growth is more rapid tlian the native kind. It may be budded on the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock. Fig. — The figs most suitable for a garden are the large white Genoa, the riff. 163 early white, the Murray, the small brovm Ischia, and the black Ischia. Figs may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, aiid by ingraft- FRtJITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 219 ing ; the best mode being: by layers or cuttings, which beai the first oi second year. A warm climate is required for out-door culture. Filbert. — There are several varieties, — the Red, the Whitb, the Barce- lona, or Large Cob, and the Frizzled. Filberts require a deep, light, but naturally fertile soil, vv'ithout putrescent manures. They are propagated most easily from suckers, and should be vi^ell pruned. They bear in the fourth or fifth year. Lemon. — A small tree, with ovate-oblong leaves, pale-green, with a winged stalk. Flowers red externally ; fruit pale yellow, with a juicy and Fisc. 164. very acid pulp. Generally raised from seed in the Eastern countries. In this country it may be raised at the South in the open air. Lime. — The lime has obovate leaves on a wingless stalk, small white flowers, and roundish, pale-yellow fruit, with a nipple-like termination The leaves and general habit of the plant resemble those of the lemon , but the acid of the pulp of the fruit, instead of being sharp and powerful, is flat and slightly bitter. The figure ( 166) represents the South American lime. Olive. — The olive grows on a branchy, low, evergreen tree, requiring a warm climate and dry soil. The fruit is much in use for pickles, and in Europe a rich oil is extracted from the pulp, the fruit being first broken in a mill, and reduced to a sort of paste. It is then subjected to the action of a press, and the oil swims on the top of the water in the vessel beneath. In pickling, the fruit is simply preserved in salts and water. Fig. 165. 220 faumer's hand-book. Fig. 165. Fig. 166. Orange. — The orange thrives only in a warm climate, though it is quite generally raised in hot-houses in cold latitudes ; more, however, tor orna- ment and curiosity than for use. It rarely grows to any considerable height ; has deep green leaves, and, when fruited, makes a fine appearance. May be raised by seed or by cuttings. The principal varieties are the Bcrgamot, the Blood-Red, the Saint MichaeVs, Seville, China, Nice, Tangerine, Manda- rin. Fig. 167. Pomegranate. — A small, low tree, in its form and habits not unlike the common hawthorn. It is propagated by layers and cuttings, and by grafting on the common sort ; or, it may be trained in the fan manner. The chiet FKUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 221 Fig. 167. ■oris are the Swee^, the Add, and the Subacid; besides which, there are some ornamental varieties. The fruit is about the size of a common apple, and is very handsome ; skin hard ; color yellowish-orange, with a deep-red cheek. Grows in the Middle and Southern States Besides a dessert fruit, it is also used medicinally. Shellbark. — Also called ShagbarJc, and Hickory Nut. A large and towering tree, with oval leaves ; fruit roundish, sweet and relishing. The wood is much used for different mechanical purposes. Walnut. — Also called Madeira Nut. A tree of stately proportions, bearing in great quantity a large-sized and superior nut. May be propa- gated by seeds, and by grafting on the hickory nut. Excellent dessert fruit, and makes a good pickle. The kernel is four-lobed. Whortlkberry. — A small, dwarf shrub, comprising several varieties, and known generally by the name of Huckleberry, and Bilberry. It produces a round, sweet berry, much used in cooking, and also eaten raw. It grows wild, and is seldom cultivated in gardens. FRUIT CALENDAR. January. — Vinery : commence forcing for fruit in June ; begin with a temperature of 50°, and gradually increase it, the first month, to 60°. Peach-house: commence forcing for fruit in May; begin with a tempera- ture of 50°. Cherry-house: commence forcing with a temperature of 45°, by night. Figs : plants in pota may now be placed in a vinery. Strawberries : take plants in pots into a forcing house or pit twice in the 19* 222 fakmer's hand-book. month. Prune ,the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Gooseberry €urrant, and Raspberry, if the weather is not severe. Nail and tie wall and espalier trees. February. — Vinery: increase the heat ahove that for the preceding month. Peach-house : cease syringing when the trees are in flower. Cherry- house: give air at every favorable opportunity. Fig-house: commence forcing where the trees are planted in the borders. Melons : sow seeds for early crop. Strawberries: take into the forcing-house for succession. March. — Peach-house : remove all fore-right shoots from the trees, and, when the fruit is set, syringe them. Cherry-house : increase the heat, after the bloom is set and stoned. Fig-house: water freely, both at the root and over-head. Melons: plant out from last month's sowing. Strawberries: give air freely wliile in flower. Prune and nail Peaches and Nectarines, and afterwards protect them with nets, or other covering. Graft fruit-trees. April. — Vinery: when the grapes are set, keep a very moist tempera- ture, and commence thinning them immediately. Peach~house: partially thin the fruit before stoning ; afterwards, thin to the quantity required to ripen oiF; — syringe the trees daily in fine weather, and smoke them occasionally, to keep down insects. Fig-house : when the shoots have made three or four joints, stop them, to cause them to produce fruit in the autumn. Mel- ons : allow several of the main shoots to reach the sides of the frame before being stopped. Disbud Peaches and Nectarines. May. — Vinery: keep the laterals stopped to one joint; take away all useless shoots. Peach-house: when the fruit begins to ripen, withhold water both at the roots and overhead, — at the same time, admit air freely. Cherry-house : raise the temperature to 70^ when the fruit is swelling off. Fig-house: as the first crop approaches maturity, only sufficient water should be given to prevent the second crop of fruit falling off". Melons : regulate the vines at an early stage of their growth ; after the fruit is set, put pieces of slate beneath it. Continue to disbud wall-trees ; remove their coverings when danger from frost is over, and wash the trees with soap-suds when the fruit is set. Thin the fruit of the Apricot. June. — Vinery : as the fruit approaches maturity, keep a dry atmosphere ; — a few leaves may be taken off", or tied on one side, where they shade the fruit. Peach-house: suspend nets or mats beneath the trees, and place in them some soft material, for catching the falling fruit. Cherry-house : when the fruit is gathered, give the trees several good washings, to destroy insects, — the house should also he smoked. Figs: those in pots must be duly supplied with water. Melons: ridge out late crops; give air freely to ripening fruit. Summer-prune Vines against walls. Finally, thin Apricots Set traps for wasps. Net Cherry-trees. FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, VINES, ETC. 223 July. — Vinery : carefully avoid raising a dust when the fruit is ripe ; give air freely. Peach-house : when the fruit is all gathered, give the trees several good washings over-head, and give abundance of air till the leaves begin to decay, when the lights may be removed. Cherry-trees : if in pots, these should now be placed in a shady situation. Fig-house : when the first crop is gathered, water the trees liljerally, to bring forward the second crop. Melons : pay proper attention to the plants in the open air. Finally, thin wall-fruit. Prune and tie espalier trees. Bud fruit-trees. Pot Strawberry runners, for forcing. Mat Currants and Gooseberries, to preserve them. Stop the shoots of vines against walls, two joints above the fruit. August. — Vinery: syringe the vines, and give them a root- watering after the fruit is cut, to prevent the leaves decaying prfematurely. Peach- house : the light may be taken off the early house, and used for the purpose of forwarding Grapes against walls. Fig-house : syringe the trees fre- quently, to keep down insects. Make new plantations of Strawberries. Cut down the old canes of Raspberries, when the fruit is gathered. Keep the shoots of wall-trees nailed in, — displace all laterals. Stop the laterals of vines to one joint. Continue to bud fruit-trees, as in last month. September. — Vinery : the lights of the early forced-house should now be left open night and day ; or they may be taken off, if repairs are required. Peach-house : if any vacancies are to be filled up, take out the old soil, and replace it with fresh, ready for planting next month. Protect out-door Grapes from wasps, by bagging the bunches. Gather fruit as it ripens. Expose wall-fruit to the sun and aJr, to give it flavor and color. Continue to make new Strawberry plantations, as in last month. October. — Vinery : as soon as the leaves have fallen fi^om the vines, prune them, take off the loose, rough bark, and wash them. Peach-house : fill vacancies with trees from the walls in the open garden ; take up and plant carefully. Pot Cherry-trees for forcing. Withhold water from Fig- trees when the fruit is gathered. Melons : keep up the heat of the beds, to forward the ripening of the late fruit. Gather any remaining fruit. Plant fruit-trees of all sorts. Prune Currants and Gooseberries. November. — Vinei-y : protect the border where the vines of the early forcing-house are growing outside. Peach-house : prune and dress the trees as soon as the leaves are fallen. Cherry-house : if the lights have been taken off, they should now be replaced, but left open night and day, unless the weather is severe ; the trees should now be pruned. Pot J!!o--trees for forcing. Continue to plant all sorts of fruit-trees, as in last month. Protect F7^-trees. Prune the Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry i Filbert, Gooseberry, and Currant, as in last month ; also nail and tie those against walls, and espaliers. 224 farmer's hand-book. Look over the fruit and the fruit-room. Mulch newly planted fruit-trees, to protect them from frost. December. — Vinery: put on the lights, if they have been removed, so as to protect the vines from severe frost. Peach-house : after the trees are tied to the trellis, take away a little of the loose, dry-top soil ; slightly dig the border, so as not to injure the roots, and add some fresh soil. Cherry- house : fix the trees to the trellis, and make preparations for forcing next month. Fig-house : the frost should be kept out, and if the trees need any pruning, it should now be done. Continue to nail and prune in mild weather. Partially unnail the shoots of Peach and Nectarine trees. Protect Strawberries in pots, and all fruit-trees intended for forcing. Dig fruit quarters where priming is completed. CHAPTER VI. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. THE BEARING, BREEDING, DISEASES, AND GENERAL CARE OF — THE BULL — THE OX — THE COW SHEEP SWINE THE HORSE THE ASS THE MULE THB GOAT THE DOG IN ALL THEIR STANDARD VARIETIES; — WITH A MONTHLY CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS. I. HORNED OR NEAT CATTLE. Breeding and Rearing. — The objects to be kept in view, in breeding cat- tle, are a form either well adapted to fatten, for producing milk, or for labor. These three objects have each of them engaged the attention of agriculturists ; but experience has not altogether justified the expectation that has been entertained of combining all these desirable properties, in an eminent degree, in the same race. That form which indicates the property of yielding the most milk differs materially from that which we know, from experience, to be combined with early maturity and the most valuable car- cass ; and the breeds which are understood to give the greatest weight of meat for the food they consume, and to contain the least proportion of ofial, are not those which possess, in the highest degree, the strength and activity required in beasts of labor. A disposition to fatten, and a tendency to yield a large quantity of milk, cannot be united. The form of the animal most remarkable for the first is very different from that of the other ; — in place P 226 farmer's hand-book, of being flat in the sides, and big in the belly, as all great milkers are, it is high-sided and light-bellied, — in a word, the body of the animal well adapted to fatten is barrel-formed, while that of the milker is widest down- wards. Procreating Age. — The age at which bulls should be employed, and the number of seasons they should be allowed to serve, as well as the age at which the females should begin to breed, are points regarding which prac- tice is by no means uniform. Sometimes the bulls are pretty commonly allowed to leap while yearlings, and, if good stock-getters, are kept on as long as they can serve, — perhaps till they are ten oi* twelve years old ; in some places they are employed only three seasons, for the first time at two years old. The females, in many instances, bring their first calf at the age of two years, but more commonly, perhaps, not till they are a year older. Period of Gestation. — The period of gestation with cows has been found to be about forty weeks. Cows seldom bring more than one calf at a time. When they produce twins, one of them a male and the other a female, the latter, which is called a free martin, is commonly considered incapable of procreation, though there are a few instances to the contrary. Time of Impregnation. — The most desirable period for putting cows to the bull is midsummer, in order that they may be dropped in the spring, and have the whole of the grass season before them. Where no regular system is followed, and cows are sent to the bull merely because they are . in heat, calves will be dropped at all seasons ; but excepting when the fat- ting of calves is an object of importance, it is probably the most advan- tageous time, as the calves, having all the grass season before them, become sufficiently strong for enduring the change to a less agreeable food in the ensuing winter. A calf newly weaned seldom thrives well during that period, unless it is pampered with better food than usually falls to the share of young animals. By midsummer the cows are readier to take the bull than at any other season, and will bring calves in proper time. If a cow goes till after May before she calves, the calf will be too weak the winter following, and the dam will not be so ready to take the bull again, but will often grow barren. Rearing. — The mode of rearing calves differs in different places. The best method, according to some, is this : The calves suck a week or a fort- night, according to their strength ; new milk in the pail, a few meals ; next new milk and skim-milk mixed, a few meals more ; then, skim-milk alone ; or porridge, made with milk, water, ground oats, &c., and sometimes oil-cake, until cheese-making commences, after which, whey porridge, or sweet whey, in the field ; being careful to house them in the night, until warm weather sets in. This method of suckling is not, however, free from ' DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 227 objection ; and, in the ordinary practice of rearing calves, it is held to be a preferable plan to begin at once to teach them to drink from a pail. The calf that is fed from the teat must depend upon the milk of its dam, how- ever scanty or irregular it may be ; whereas, when fed from a dish, the quantity can be regulated according to its age, and various substitutes may be resorted to, by which a great part of the milk is saved for other purposes, or a greater number of calves reared on the same quantity. When fed from the pail, two gallons a day, for about three months, is enough ; but after it is three weeks old, it is best to give substitutes. When reared with skim-milk, it should be given about as warm as cow's milk when first drawn. If over-cold, the calves will purge, which, however, may be remedied by putting two or three spoonfuls of rennet into the milk. When dropped during the grass season, calves should be put into some small home-close of sweet, rich pasture, after they are eight or ten days old, not only for the sake of exercise, but also that they may the sooner take to eating grass. When they are dropped in the winter, or before the return of the grass season, a little short, soft hay or straw, or sliced turnips, should be laid in the trough or stall before them. The treatment of young cattle, from the time they are separated from their dams, or able to subsist on the common food of the other stock, must depend upon the farm on which they are reared. In summer, their pasture is often coarse, but abundant ; and in winter, all good breeders give them an allowance of succulent food along with their dry fodder. The first win- ter they have hay and turnips ; the following summer, coarse pasture ; the second winter, straw in the fold-yard, and a few turnips once a day, in an adjoining field, just sufficient to prevent the straw from binding them too much ; the next summer, tolerably good pasture, and the third winter, aa many turnips as they can eat, and treated as fatting cattle. Castrating. — There used to be a strange difference of opinion among farmers as to the time when this operation should be performed. In some places it is delayed until the animal is two years old : but this is done to the manifest injury of his form, his size, his propensity to fatten, the quality of his meat, and his docility and general usefulness as a working ox. The period which is now pretty generally selected is between the first and third months. The nearer it is to the last of the first month, the less danger attends the operation. Mode. — Some persons prepare the animals by the administration of a dose of physic ; but others proceed at once to the operation when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. Care, however, should be taken that the young animal is in perfect health. The mode formerly prac- tised was simple enough : — a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly aa 228 farmer's hand-book. possible around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus completely cut off, the bag and its contents soon became livid and dead, and were suf- fered to hang, by some careless operators, until they dropped off, or were cut off on the second or third day. It is now, however, the general prac- tice to grasp the scrotum in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and make an incision on one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, and long enough to admit of its escape. The testicle immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its cord. The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of small string around the cord, and having thus stopped the circulation, cuts through the cord half an inch below the ligature, and removes the testicle. He, how- ever, who has any feeling for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers that the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood-vessels and prevent after hemorrhage ; and therefore saves a great deal of unneces- sary torture, by including them alone in the ligature, and afterwards divid- ing the rest of the cord. The other testicle is proceeded with in the same way, and the operation is complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that it shall immediately retract into the scrotum, but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through the wounds. In the course of about a week, the strings will usually drop off, and the wounds will speedily heal. It will be rarely that any application to the scrotum will be n^essary, except fomentation of it, if much swelling should ensue. A few — but their practice cannot be justified — seize the testicle as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break the cord, and tear it out. It is certain that when a blood-vessel is thus ruptured, it forcibly con- tracts, and very little bleeding follows ; but if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the belly, considerable inflammation has sometimes ensued, and the beast has been lost. This tearing of the cord may be practised on small- er animals, as pigs, lambs, and rabbits, as their vessels are small, and there is but little substance to be torn asunder ; but, even there, the knife, some- what blunt, will be a more skilful and humane substitute. This laceration should never be permitted in the castration of the calf or the colt. The application of torsion, or the twisting of the arteries by means of a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them, promises to supersede every other mode of castration, both in the larger and the smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic artery is exposed, and seized with the forceps, which are then closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance ; the vessel is drawn a little out from its surrounding tissues, the forceps are turned round seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. It will be found per- fectly closed ; a small knot will have formed on its extremity ; it will retracl DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 229 into the svirrounding substance, and not a drop more blood will flow fronn it ; the cord may be then divided, and the bleeding from any little vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of the hot iron or of the wooden claws, whether with or without caustic, can be necessary in tlie castration of the calf. Fattening. — The common method of fattening Calves is, to allow them to suck, as by this metiiod the object is probably not only sooner, but more effectually, attained, than by any other means. The period necessary varies from five to nine weeks, — the time being much shorter where milk is very valuable. Another method is, to give them the milk to drink, morning and evening, warm from the cow ; the quantity being increased according to their age and strength. In whatever way they are managed, they should be kept in pens in a close house, and well littered, kept clean, and enjoy a due quantity of fiesh air. Meal, linseed boiled into a jelly, and such like arti- cles, are also given to calves while fattening. Fine. 109. The food on which Cattle are fatted is grass in summer, commonly on pastures, but sometimes on herbage cut and consumed in feeding-houses or 20 230 farmer's hand-book. fold-yards; and in winter, on turnips, along with hay or straw, oil-cake, carrots, potatoes, &c. The hay or straw is much more beneficial when cut by one of the machines now used for that purpose. The age at which cattle are fatted depends on the circumstance of theii being employed in breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or solely for the butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit for the sham- bles when about three years old, and very few of any large breed are kepi more than a year longer. As to cows and working oxen, in most instances the latter are put up to feed after working three years, or in the seventh ot eighth year of their age. In general, it may be said that the small breeds of cattle are fattened on pastures, though sometimes finished off on a few weeks' turnips ; and large cattle, at least in some parts, are chiefly fatted in stalls or fold-yards, by means of turnips, and other like substances. HOW TO JUDGE OF CATTLE FOR VARIOUS OBJECTS AND PURPOSES. The Bull. — The head should be rather long, and the muzzle fine ; eyes lively and prominent ; ears long and thin ; horns wide ; neck rising with a gentle curve from the shoulders, and small and fine where it joins the head ; shoulders moderately broad at the top, joining full to his chine or crops and chest backwards, and to the neck-vein forwards ; bosom open ; breast broad, and projecting well before his legs ; arms, or fore-thighs, muscular, and tapering to his knee ; legs clean, and very fine-boned ; chine and chest so full as to leave no hollows behind the shoulders ; plates strong, to keep his belly from sinking below the level of his breast ; back, or loin, broad, straight, and flat ; ribs rising one above another in such a manner that the last rib shall be rather the highest, leaving only a small space to the hips or hooks, the whole forming a round or barrel-like carcass ; hips should be wide-placed, round, and a little higher than the back ; the quarters, from the hip to the rump, long, tapering gradually from the hips backward, and the turls or pott-bones not protuberant ; rumps close to the tail ; tail broad, weil- haired, and in a horizontal line with his back. Bulls should be constantly well fed, and kept in proper enclosures. The Ox. — The head ought to be rather long, and muzzle fine ; counte- nance calm and placid ; horns fine ; neck light, particularly where it joins the head ; breast wide, and projecting well before the legs ; shoulders moderately broad at the top, and the joints well in, and, when the animal is in good condition, the chine so full as to leave no hollow behind them ; the fore flank well filled up, and the girth behind the shoulders deep ; J)ack straight, wide, and flat ; ribs broad, and the space between them and the hips small ; flank full and hea*y ; belly well kept in, and not sinking low in the middle ; hips round, wide across, and on a level with the back DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 231 itself; the hind quarters, that is, from the hips to the extremity of the rump, long and straight ; the rump points fat, and coming well up to the tail ; the twist wide, and the seam in the middle of it so well filled, that the whole may very nearly form a plane, perpendicular to the line of the back ; the lower part of the thigh small ; tail broad and fat towards the top, but the lower part thin ; legs long and strong ; feet and hoofs broad and hardy ; and, when the animal is in fine condition, the skin of a rich and silky appearance. Fisc. 170. Skeleton of the Ox. a, The upper jaw bone. b, The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. c, The lachrymal bone. d, The malar, or cheek bone. e, The frontal, or forehead bone. J", The horns, being processes or contin- uations of the frontal. ff, The temporal bone. h, The parietal bone, low in the tempo- ral fossa. f, The occipital bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. j, The lower jaw. k, The grinders. 4 The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. m, The ligament of the neck, and its attachments, n. The atlas, o. The dentata. p, The orbit of the eye. q, The vertebrce, or bones of the neck. r, The bones of the back. s, The bones of the loins. /, The sacrum, w. The bones of the tail. V if" w, The haunch and pelvis. X, The eight true ribs. y, The false ribs, with cartilages. 2-, The sternum. 1, The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 232 farmer's hand-book. 2, The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 3, The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 4, The ulna, its upper part, forming the elbow. 5, The small bones of the knee. 6, The large metacarpal or shank bone. 7, The smaller or splint bone. 8, The sessamoid bones. 9, The bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. 10, The two smaller pasterns to eacn foot. 11, The two coffin bones to each foot. 12, The navicular bones. 13, The thighbone. 14, The patella, or bone of the knee. 15, The tibia, or proper leg bone. IG, The point of the hock. 17, 17, The small bones of the hock. 18, 18, The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 19, 19, The pasterns and feet. The Cow. — Wide horns ; head and neck thin ; dewlap large ; full breast ; broad back ; large, deep belly ; the udder capacious, but not too fleshy ; the milk-veins prominent, and the bag tending far behind, teats large and long ; buttocks broad and fleshy, tail long and pliable, legs in good propor- tion, and the joints short. To these may be added a gentle disposition, and free from vicious tricks. Age of Cattle. — This is determined by the teeth and horns. At the end of about ten years, they shed their first four teeth, which are replaced by others, larger, but not so white ; before five years, all the incisive teeth are renewed. These teeth are at first equal, long, and pretty white ; but, as the animals advance in years, they wear down, and become unequal and black. These animals likewise shed their horns at the end of three years, and are replaced by other horns, which, like the second teeth, continue. The manner of the growth of these horns is not uniform, nor the shooting of them equal. The first year, — that is, the fourth year of the animal's age, — two small pointed horns make their appearance, neatly formed, smooth, and towards the head terminated by a kind of button. The following year this button moves from the head, being impelled by a horny cylinder, which, lengthening in the same manner, is also terminated by another button ; and so on, for the horns continue growing as long as the aniiuals live. These Duttons become annular joints or rings, which are easily distinguished in the horns, and by which the age of the creature may be easily known, — counting three years for the point of the horn, and one for each of the joints or rings. The cow is useful for twenty years, — much longer than the bull. Names of Cattle at Different Ages. — A young castrated male, £.ftei the' first year, is called a stot, stirk, or steer ; at five years old, an ox. A female, after the first year, is called an heifer, or quey ; at five years old, a cow ; and afterwards a castrated female is called a spayed heifer or cow. Bullock is the general term for any full-grown cattle, male or female, fat or lean. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 233 DIFFERENT BREEDS. Native. — The best of American native stock is, almost without excep- tion, descended from some one or other of the imported sorts, but which, on account of the antiquity or uncertainty of its origin, or the remote resem- blance which it bears to any of the standard breeds, occasioned by various crossings, cannot be distinctly referred to any particular and well-known pedigree, and is, therefore, called native, with such fancy designation as may please the raiser. The number or quantity of this kind of stock is therefore very large, and, of course, comprises about as many different qualities, — some very superior, however, as in Fig. 171, of the Kaatskill, a prize dairy cow, of Dutchess County, New York. When kept simply on Fig. in. grass, this cow gave thirty-eight and a half quarts of milk per day, yielding nearly twenty-three pounds of butter per week, which is good proof that the beautiful appearance of the animal was consistent with her good qualities. In some parts of our country, especially in the Eastern States, the pre- vailing stock is believed to be derived from the North Devons, many of the fine points and qualities of which they possess. The most valuable working oxen are usually of this breed, thus affording the excellent beef to be found in the Boston, New York, and Philadelphia markets. By means of this stock, and the improvement constantly being made in it by the importations made from the old country, the cattle of the Middle and Western States are 20* 234 farmer's hand-book. beings vastly improved. In the West, the short-horned animals have been generally preferred, but the Durhams are now coming into vogue very exten- sively, on account of their superior adaptedness to travel to the Eastern markets without sensibly deteriorating in weight and quality. The English Herefords are now being paid particular attention to, as they are supposed to be well calculated for the Western graziers ; the West Highland breed is also recommended. Devon. — The true Devon cattle are gentle, agile, and peculiarly adapted to active laoor. Their shoulders have that obliquity which enables them to lift freely their fore extremities ; and their quarters behind are relatively long, a characteristic connected with the power of active motion. Their bodies, too, are light, and their limbs long, muscular to the hock and knee, and below these joints sinewy. They have the faculty of muscular exertion in a high degree, trot well in harness, and will keep pace with a horse in the ordinary labors of the farm. Devon Bull. — The figure below represents a fine specimen of a genuine Fig. 172. Devon bull. The horn of the Devon bull ought to be neither too low nor too high, tapering at the points, not too thick at the root, and of a yellow or waxy color. The eye should be clear, bright, and prominent, showing much of the white, and it ought to have around it a circle of a variable color, bu) I DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 235 usually a dark orange. The forehead should be flat, indented, and small, the purity of the breed being very niuch determined by the latter character- istic. The cheek should be small, the muzzle fine, the nose clear yellow, the nostril high and open, the hair curled about the head, and tha neck quite thick. Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not materially differ from that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There are some exceptions, however, to this rule, as the two figures which follow indicate, these representing the offspring of the bull exliibited in Fig. 172. Fig. 173. -^HtU^ Vwa/^^' \?^^ Devon Ox. — The head of the Devon ox is quite small, with a great breadth of forehead ; clean and free from flesh about the jaws ; prominent eye ; vivacious countenance ; long and thin neck ; light in the withers ; the Bhoulders a little oblique ; breast deep ; bosom open and wide ; fore-legs wide apart ; the point of the shoulder rarely seen ; no projection of bone, as in the horse, but a kind of level line running on to the neck ; skin, notwith- standing the curly hair, exceedingly mellow and elastic ; color a blood red, which is usually indicative of purity of breed, though there are many animals, of great excellence, of a chestnut hue, and even bay brown. Those of a yellowish hue are said to be subject to steal (diarrhoea). The preceding figure is an accurate likeness of an ox beginning to fatten, but his character- 236 farmer's hand-book. Istic points not yet concealed. The cut below is that of a working Devon ox, embodying almost all the good points which have been enumerated. Fa A selection from the most perfect animals of the true breed, — the bone still small and the neck fine, but the brisket deep and wide, and down to the knees, and not an atom of flatness all over the side, — or oae cross, and only one, with the Hereford, and that stealthily made, — these have improved the strength and bulk of the Devon ox, without impairing, in the slightest degree, his activity, beauty, or his propensity to fatten. Fig. 175. Devon Cow. — There are few things more remarkable about the Devon- shire cattle than the comparative smallness of the cow. The bull is a great deal less than the ox, and the cow almost as much smaller than the bull. This is somewhat of a disadvantage, on the whole, a roomy cow being very desirable for breeding. But, though small, the Devon possesses that roundness DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 237 and projection of the last two or three ribs, which renders it more roomy than a careless examination would lead one to suppose. She is particularly distinguished for her full, round, clear eye, the gold-colored circle around the eye, and the same color prevailing on the inside skin of the ear ; coun- tenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or yellow, but the rest of the face having nothing of black, or even white, about it ; jaws free from thickness, and the throat free from dewlap. The points of the back and the hind quarters dif- fer from those of other breeds, having more roandness and beauty, and being free from most of those angles by which good milkers are sometimes dis- tinguished. The following is a j)ortrait of a Devon cow, rising four years old. With Flir. ITG. '7y^^^^^^.^/%fH^^^^ regard to size, she is a favorable specimen, and it will be seen at once how much more roomy and fit for breeding she is than even her somewhat superior bulk would at first indicate. She is, perhaps, in a little better condition than cows generally are, or should be, in order to yield their full quantity of milk. Remarks. — The qualities of the Devon cattle may be referred to three points — their working, fattening, and milking. Where the ground is not too heavy, the Devonshire oxen are unrivaled at the plough. They are quick, active, docile, and capable. They are usually taken in to work when about two years old. If kept idle till fiva 238 farmer's hand-book. or six years of age, they will be stinted in growth. At six to si* and a half, they reach their full stature. At nine years, or older, they decline in value. With regard to their disposition to fatten, they have few rivals here. They do not, indeed, attain the great weight of some breeds, but, in a given time, they acquire more flesh, and with less consumption of food; and their flesh is beautiful in its kind, pleasing to the eye, and to the taste. For milking, the Devons are inferior to several other breeds. The milk is good, yielding more than an average proportion of cream and butter, but it is deficient in quantity. Some, however, deny that the latter is true. Durham, OR SHORT-HORN. — The short-horned, sometimes called the Dutch breed, is known by a variety of names, such as the Holderness, the Tees- water, the Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, and others. Applying the points of judging live-stock to the short-horns, it is found, that for quantity and well-laid-on beef, the short-horned ox is quite full in every valuable Fiff. 177. part. In regard to quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even predominat- ing proportion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed, and even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clean bones of the legs and head, with the soft, mellow touch of the skin, and the benign aspect of the eye. indicate in a remarkable degree the disposition to fatten ; while the uniform colors of the skin, red or white, or both combined in DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 239 various degrees, mark distinctly the purity of the blood. They are at once distinguished from any of the other breeds by their additional size, and their more square and massy form. Their bones are exceedingly small, compared with the size of the animal ; their skin possesses that peculiar touch so characteristic of a good feeder ; they arrive early at maturity ; and, further, they combine the valuable qualities of milking and fattening in an unsur- passed degree. Fig. 177 exhibits one of the truest specimens of Short-horned bulls, and may be relied on for its faithful delineation. The Short-horned cow gives a large quantity of milk, and is, in all respects, a superior animal. Having given some account of the excellent qualities distinguishing the breed generally, we close with presenting a life- likeness of one of the female species. Fig. 178. Herefordshire. — The Herefordshire white-faced breed may be thus dis- tinguished : The countenance cheerful, pleasant, open ; the forehead broad ; eye full and lively ; horns bright, taper, and spreading ; head small ; chap lean ; neck long and tapering ; chest deep and full ; bosom broad, and pro- ejecting forward ; shoulder-bone thin, flat, full, and mellow in flesh ; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rump even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor standing high and sharp above the quarters; tail slender and neatly haired ; barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout deep and well-spread ; ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth, even barrel, — the hindmost large and full of length ; round bone small, snug, and 240 farmer's hand-book. not prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly tapering ; legs upright and short below the knee, and hock small ; feet of middle size ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs ; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and buckle ; coat neatly haired, bright ana silky ; color a middle red, with a bald face, characteristic of the true breed. They fatten to a much greater weight than the Devons, and at an early age. They are far worse milkers, however, than the latter, but will thrive and grow fat where a Devon would scarcely live. A cross of the Devon and Hereford will often improve each other, the former acquiring bulk and hardihood, and the latter a finer form and activity. The Hereford cow (Fig. 179) is apparently a very inferior animal. Not only is she a poor milker, but her form is defective, — small, delicate, and ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in common condition, and Fls-. 179. '^-'-^!5?«i«»=^ C beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suflfered to proceed; but when she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and accumulates fat at a most extraordinary rate. The Hereford ox fattens speedily at a very early age, and it is therefore generally more advantageous that he should go to market at three years old than be kept longer to be employed as a beast of draught. DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 241 Ayrshire. — This breed has been much improved. It is short in the leg-, tlie neck a little thicker at the shoulder, but finely shaped towards the head ; the horns are smaller than those of the Highland breed, but clear and smooth, pointing forwards, and turning upwards, tapering to a point. Fig. 181. 242 farmer's hand-book. They are deep in the carcass, but not round and ample, and especially not so in the loins and haunches. Fig 180 represents an improved A3rrshire bull. It is said that the Ayrshire farmers prefer their dairy bulls according to the feminine aspect of their heads and necks, and wish them not round behind, but broad at the hook-bones and hips, and full in the flanks. The Ayrshire cow is a valuable dairy cow, the quantity of milk yielded by her being very great, considering her size. Five gallons daily, for two or three months after calving, may be considered as not more than an aver- age ; three gallons daily will be given for the next three months, and one gallon and a half during the succeeding four months. Three gallons and a half of this milk will yield about a pound of butter ; thus fully establishing the reputation of the Ayrshire cow, so far as the dairy is concerned. Fig. 181 represents one of these beautiful animals. New Leicester. — This breed may be substantially distinguished by the following characteristics : The fore end long, but light to a degree of ele- Fig. 182. gance ; neck thin ; chap clean ; the head fine, but long and tapering ; eye large, bright, and prominent ; the horns of the bulls comparatively short, of the oxen extremely long, as are, also, those of the cow, and most of them DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 243 hang downward by the side of the cheeks ; shoulders fine and thin aa to bone, but thick as to flesh, without any protuberance of bone ; girth small, compared with the short-horns and middle-horns ; chine quite full when fat ; loin broad, hip quite wide and protuberant ; quarters long and level, the nache of a middle width, and the tail set on variously ; round bones small, but thighs fleshy, tapering; legs small, clean, somewhat long; feet neat, middling size ; the carcass as nearly a cylinder as the natural form of the animal will allow ; ribs standing out full from the spine ; belly small ; hide middling thick ; color various, — the brindle, the finch-back, and the pye, are common. The fattening quality, when the breed is in a state of maturity, is indisputably good. As grazier's stock, they rank high. The principle of the utility of form has been strictly attended to. As dairy stock, their merit is less evident. As beasts of draught, many of them are sufficiently powerful, and are more active than some other breeds used for the plough, or on roads ; but their horns form something of an objection to such use of them. Fig. 182 is that of a New Leicester cow. Remarks. — Some of the other most noted breeds, which are coming into extensive favor in this country, are the Holderness, the Galloway, the Sus- sex, the Alderney, the Suffijlk, and the Kyloe ; these, however, we do not design to notice in detail, but shall close our notes on neat cattle with a few remarks on some of the characteristics and general management of DAIRY cows. Qualities. — We have already expressed, in the preceding pages, the general opinions entertained as to the adaptedness of particular breeds for dairy purposes. Where butter is the main object, such cows should always be chosen as are known to afl!brd the best and largest quantities of milk and cream, of whatever breed they may be. But the quantity of butter to be made from a given number of cows must always depend on the size and goodness of the beasts, the kind and quantity of food, and the distance of time from calving. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early maturity and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a dispo- sition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy cow, like a feeding animal, should Kave a skin soft and mellow to the touch, — should have the back straight, the loins broad, the extremities small and delicate ; but she need not, as in the case of the feeding animal, have the chest broad and prom- inent before. She should rather have the fore-quarters light, and the hind- quarters relatively broad, capacious, and deep ; and she should have a large well-formed udder. There should be no breeding in-and-in, as in the case of a feeding stock. The purpose in rearing cows for the dairy is not to pro- 244 farmer's hand-book. duce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and of good constitution. By long attention to the characters that indicate a disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has become greatly more esteemed for the dairy than other animals much superior to them in size and feeding qualities. Feeding. — With respect to the manner of feeding dairy cows, the most economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the summer, and on roots in winter. But, as to the effect of food, notwith- standing all that may justly be said respecting the nutritive properties of peculiar roots and artificial grasses, no food can excel that of good natural pastures, for milch cows ; for not only do they yield a greater quantity of milk when fed on pastures, but the flavor of grass butter may always be distinguished, by its superior richness and delicacy, from that which has been made from milk produced from soiling in the house. This, however, should not deter the farmer from feeding his dairy stock in that manner, for the difference in the quality of the produce is not so great as to counter- balance the many advantages resulting from a due extent and proper kind of soiling. But in a country where cultivation has not been carried to its fullest extent, and a considerable proportion of the land is necessarily devoted to the production of grass, the cows may be kept, with great advantage, on the pastures, during summer. Keeping in Good Condition. — Dairy cows should be kept constantly in good condition. When they are suffered to fall oflT in flesh, particularly in the winter season, it is impossible that they can be brought to yield a large quantity of milk, by getting them into better condition in the summer months. When cows are lean at the period of calving, no management afler wards is capable of bringing them to afford, for that season, anjrthing near the proportion of milk they would have yielded if they had been sup- . ported in proper condition during the winter. Food of the most nourishing and succulent kinds should, therefore, be regularly given, in suitable pro- portions, in the cold, inclement months, and they should be kept tolerably warm, and well supplied with pure water. It will be equally conducive to the health of cows as to that of feeding cattle, to comb them regularly, and to make such other arrangements as are conducive to cleanliness. Milking. — In summer, the cows are milked in the field, or they are driven gently home to their stalls, and milked there. The cows, when in full milk, should be milked three times a day, and, at other times, twice in the day will sufiice. On the physiological principle of the secretions of animals being increased in proportion as the secreted fluid is more frequently withdrawn, the propriety of frequent milkings is apparent, in order to increase or maintain the supply of milk produced by cows. There can be DOMESTIC OR FARM ANIMALS. 245 little doubt but that, by accustoming the secretory organs to more frequent action, such a habit may be established in them as will afford a larger pro- portion of milk in a given time. But, in order to effect this in the most perfect manner, it will be necessary to have the cows highly fed, to observe the greatest regularity and exactness in the hours of milking, and to be careful that every drop of milk is drawn away each time. If any milk is allowed to remain in the udder after the operation of milking, it is well ascertained that the cow will yield a smaller quantity at the next milking. A milch cow is usually considered in her prime at five years old, and will generally continue in as good milking state until ten years old, or upwards, depending much on the constitution of the animal, — some cows, like other animals, exhibiting symptoms of old age sooner than others. Ascertaining the Quality of Milk. — The value of milk, and the propor- tion of either butter or cheese that it produces, depends much upon its quality. As the milk of some cows is so greatly superior to that of others, where regularity is observed, it is important that the milk of each should be placed by itself until its quality is ascertained. This is effected by churning it separately ; but a more expeditious and convenient method is to ascertain its strength by means of the lactometer, an instrument which we have described in the chapter on the dairy, and a cut of which we annex. Fis: 183. n. SHEEP. Rearing, . 236. oeds of flowers, with little gravel openings, or be plain gravel, as may be Fig. 237. FLOWERS, ORNAJMENTAL TREES, ETC. 363 preferred. The walks should be smoothed and hardened by means of a garden roller. There may be a conservatory into which the parlor-room windows facing the south may open, and on the other side there should be a shrubbery to unite it with the lawn. In the centre of the flower-garden there may be a fountain. As the flower-garden is to be seen principally from the dwelling-house windows, the nearest beds should be planted with dwarf- flowers, so that those in the back beds may be seen ; the shrubbery behind to consist of laurustinus and arbutus, so as to afford a handsome green back- ground to the flowers in summer, and yet afford a few flowers themselves in winter and spring, when flowers are scarce in the beds. When the walks are bordered with grass, an implement like the following, fitted to a straight handle, is used for paring the edges. Fig. 23S. A Planting. — Get a few pots of Californian and other annuals usually raised in pots, and plant them, putting three potfuls in each bed. In No. 1, Fig. 239. put Phlox Drummondiy the flowers of which are crimson of various shades, and let the stems be pegged down, so as to spread over the bed. No. 2 may be Lasthenia Californica, the flowers of which are yellow, and the stems generally procumbent ; but they may be pegged down to keep them in their proper places, that is, to spread completely and regularly over the bed. No. 3 should be Nemophila insignis, the flowers of which are of a beautiful blue, and which will not require pegging down. No. 4 may be Erysimum Petrowskiknum, the flowers of which are of a bright orange ; but the stems must be pegged down, or they will grow tall and straggling. No. 5 may be Nolkna atriplicifolia, the flowers of which are blue, and 364 farmer's hand-book. resemble those of a convolvulus ; this is a procumbent plant, and will not need pegging. No. 6 may be Nemophila atomaria, which has white flowers, and is a dwarf plant. No. 7 may be Leptosiphon densiflorus, a dwarf plant, with pale purple flowers. No. 8 may be Gilia bicolor, a dwarf plant, with nearly white flowers. No. 9 may be Gilia tricolor, a dwarf plant, the flowers of which are white and very dark purple. No. 11 may be Leptosiphon androsaceus, a dwarf plant, with pale lilac flowers. And No. 12, Schizopetalon Walkerl, the flowers of which are white, and the stems must be pegged down. These are all annuals, which, if properly treated by pegging down, and not planted too close, will produce a mass of flowers in each bed only just above the surface of the ground, and will have a charming effect from the windows. Most of them like a poor, clayey soil best, and they will only require turning out of the pots', without breaking the ball, into the places prepared for them. If it is thought there are too many white beds, substitute Sanvitolia procumbens, the flower^s of which are yel- low, for No. 8, — but the seeds must have been sown the previous autumn to bring it forward, as otherwise it will not flower till late in the summer ; and Bartonia aurea, the flowers of which are of a golden yellow, may be planted instead of No. 12. Cladanthus arabicus, formerly called Anthemis arabica, which has yellow flowers, may be planted in No. 8, if Sanvitolia cannot be obtained. Florists, however, can generally furnish these sorts. Autumnal Flowers. — As most of the annuals will begin to look shabby in July or the early part of August, we give the following list of half-hardy plants for autumn : No. 1, Verbena Melindres, bright scarlet; No. 2, Eno- thera Drummondi, yellow ; No. 3, Lobelia bicolor, blue ; No. 4, Calceolaria rugosa, pegged down ; No. 5, Verbena Tweediana, crimson ; No. 6, common White Petunia; No. 7, Verbena Arraniana, or Henderson's purple; No. 8, Calceolaria integrifolia, yellow ; No. 9, Purple Petunia ; No. 10, Verbena teucrioides, white ; No. 11, Frogmore Pelargonium, bright scarlet: No. 12, Musk plant, yellow. In October the following bulbs and other plants maybe put in for flovi^ering in early spring. No. 1, Van Thon tulips ; No. 2, Cloth of gold, or common yellow crocuses; No. 3, Blue hepatica ; No. 4, Yellow crocuses, or White Anemone ; No. 5, Scilla verna and sibirica, blue ; No. 6, Arabis albida, white ; No. 7, Double pink hepatica ; No. 8, Winter aconite ; No. 9, Purple crocuses; No. 10, Snowdrops ; No. 11, Primroses ; No. 12, White hepatica. or Arabis alpina. Laying out the Flower-garden. — If the above plan for a garden does not meet the fancy, one can be drawn of any figure desired. In the first place, the ground must be dug over, raked, and made perfectly smooth. The pattern, if a complicated one, should then be drawn on paper, covered with FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 365 regular squares, and the ground to be laid out must be covered with similar squares, but larger, the usual proportion being that a square inch on the paper represents a square foot on the ground. The squares on the ground are usually formed by sticking in wooden pegs at regular distances, and fastening strings from peg to peg, till the whole ground is covered with a kind of lattice-work of string. Each string is then chalked, and made to thrill by pulling it up sharply and letting it go again, which transfers the chalk from the string to the ground. When the ground is thus marked with white squares, it is easy to trace upon it, with a sharp-pointed stick, any pattern which may have been drawn on the paper ; the portion in each square on the ground being copied on a larger scale from that on the paper. Simple patterns, like that of the following figure, consisting of straight liaes, need only to be measured, and pieces of string stretched from pegs put Fig. 240. m at the proper distances, so as to form straight lines, oblongs, squares, tri- angles, or diamonds. If a circle is to be traced, it is done by getting a piece of string half the length of the diameter of the circle, with a piece of stick tied to each end. One stick is then driven into the ground in the centre of the circle, and a line is traced with the stick at the other extremity of the string, which is drawn out quite tight. An oval is made by tracing two circles, the circumscribing line of one of which just touches the centre of the other; short lines are afterwards made at the top and bottom, and the central lines are obliterated. A square only requires a peg at each corner, wim a chalked string drawn from peg to peg ; and an oblong, or parallel- ogram, is made by joining two common squares, and taking off tlie corners, U" rcxiuired. A heart-shaped pattern is made by drawing a straight line from 31* 366 farmer's hakd-book. a 10 5 (Fig. 240) , and then fixing a peg with a string tied to it half the length of the straight line, and another peg at the end, exactly in the middle Fig. 241. of the line, and drawing half a circle with it ; then taking a peg with a string half the length of the other, and another peg to the end, and tracing with it the smaller half circles, c and d. With the same strings and pegs you may easily trace, or have traced, the following figures. Even the latter, which F\g. 242. Fig. a43. * appears at first sight a very difficult figure to form on the ground, will be just as easily traced as the others. It will be observed that in all these figures the straight line is only to serve as a guide to show the proper places for fixing the pegs ; and that it is only to be formed by a piece of string stretched by pegs from one end of the figure to the other, which is to be removed as soon as the figure is sketched, and which is not to be traced on the ground at all. With the aid of these figures, and the pegs and strings, several very complicated gardens may be formed ; for instance, that shown in the fol- lowing outline. This garden is composed of a bed in the centre for a tree- rose, with a circle of dwarf-roses ; a gravel-walk surrounds these ; and there are five heart-shaped beds, which may be planted with scarlet pelargo- niums, yellow calceolarias, petunias white and purple, and tall yellow mimulus ; and the crescent-shaped beds wnich are on grass may all be planted with different kinds of verbenas. This plan is also a good design for a rosery, — the roses to be planted in the beds, and in the FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. .36T half-crescents, which must be on grass, with gravel-walks between the grass-plots. All the beds intended for bulbs and half-hardy plants should be particu- larly well drained ; and the best way of doing this is to dig out the soil to the depth of two feet or more, and then put in a layer of hrick-bats and other rubbish, to the depth of nine inches or a foot. On thic may be placed a Ficr. 244. layer of rich, marly soil, in which the bulbs are to be planted. Dahlias, hollyhocks, and other tall-growing, showy-flowered plants, should have Binoilar beds prepared for them ; but the soil should be made very rich by the addition of the remains of an old hot-bed, or some other kind of half- rotten animal manure. Arrangement of Colors. — In the directions which have now been given for planning and planting the beds, it has been intended merely to say what maybe done, and not what is absolutely necessary. Indeed, it will be better for each cultivator to vary the flowers as much as possible, according to taste, provided care is taken that the plants are, as nearly as possible, of the same height, or that they rise gradually, and that the colors contrast well. The rule in the latter case is, always to put one of the primitive colors — red, blue, and yellow — next another of these colors, or some color compounded of the other two, using white wherever you cannot find any handsome plants of a color that will suit the bed for which they are wanted. Thus, for example, 368 farmer's hand-book. if one bed be planted with red, the next may be planted with blue, yellow, »reen, hair-brown, or white, but never with any shade of purple, as red enters into the composition of that color ; nor with any shade of reddish brown ; purple, indeed, must alwi^ys be next to yellow, hair-brown or white, but never next blue, red-brown, or red. Orange will not look well near yellow or ren, and lilac must not approach blue or pink. A little practice will generally do more than any lengthened details. Generally speaking, you may take the same taste to guide the arrangement of the colors of the flowers in the parterre that is used in choosing the colors of female dress. Fragrant Flowers. — When it is settled what to plant in the beds of the garden, — supposing the plan of Fig. 236 to be chosen, — the next thing to be thought of is the beds around it. These should, on the whole, remain unplanted, unless they are sown with mignonette, or something of that kind. The shrubberies should consist chiefly of the finer kinds of hardy evergreens, — at least, that which is opposite the windows of the house ; — the other shrubbery may be planted with rhododendrons, acacias, and kal- mias, — the rhododendrons being furthest from the walk, and carried a little out into the adjoining grounds, so as to make a broken line, projecting in some places and receding in others, and here and there mixed with bushes of phillyrea, alaternus, holly of various kinds, and craloegus. With regard to the beds near the house, let there be a lonicera flexuosa trained over each window, on account of its delightful fragrance in summer. For a similar reason, have chimonanthus fragrans against the walls between tlie win- dows, and mignonettes and violets in the beds. The flowers of the ever- green magnolia, and those of the orange, have a slightly oppressive fragrance, as have those of the heliotrope and the tuberose ; but those of the mignonette, the lemon-scented verbena, the rose, the violet, and lonicera flexuosa, are refreshing, at the same time yielding delicious pprfume. Cullivating Bulbs. — In giving some hints on the cultivation of flowers, we begin with the hulhs, as they flower first in the spring. The crocuses and snow-drops should be planted, five or six together, as close as possible, 80 as to form little tufts; and these, when once planted, should never be removed, unless they should grow out of bounds, so as to spoil the shape of the bed. The tulips, on the contrary, should be taken up as soon as heir leaves begin to decay, and kept in a dry place till the proper time for planting themlnext year. There are three kinds of plants which are said to have bulbous roots, — those which are solid, and which should be properly called corms, — such as the crocus, the corn-flag, and many of the half-hardy plants with similar FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 369 half-tubular flowers ; the tunicated bulbs, which may be peeled off in scales, Euch as the onion, the hyacinth, and the tulip ; and the scaly bulbs, such as the lily. Now, the real roots of all these plants are the long fibres sent down by the lower part of the bulb, which may be seen plainly in hyacinths jrrown in glasses, and in any of the kinds, if taken up while in a growing state ; and what is called the bulb is, in all the corms, only a contracted stem ; but, in the tunicated and acaly bulbs, the bulbous part is formed of a contracted stem and metamorphosed leaves. On examining a hyacinth, there will be found at the base of the bulb a flat, fleshy substance, called the root-plate, and this is, in fact, the contracted stem of the plant ; while the tunics or scales are metamorphosed leaves. It will be useful to remem- ber these distinctions in cultivating the garden, as all plants having corms never flower- well till they have been allowed to form a mass, which they will not do till they have been in the ground three or four years. Many persons fancy that the Cape bulbs require to be taken up every year, but this is a mistake ; all the kinds of gladiolus, ixia, tritonia, and other similar plants, will live in the open ground, and flower well, if suffered to grow in masses, and be warmly covered in winter. Some persons practise success- fully the plan of manuring the beds of tulips and hyacinths every year, so that they may be grown together in the same beds without taking up, for several years in succession. Reserve Garden Spot. — It is well, in order to keep the flower-garden in a proper state, to have what may be called a reserved plot of ground, in which the plants are to be brought forward, till they are in a proper state for transplanting into the proper flower-garden. This reserve garden is generally placed near the stable, both to have it out of sight and for the convenience of manure, as it must contain hot-beds and frames, for rearing tender annuals, striking cuttings, and, in short, for performing all those gardening operations which require to be carried on out of sight. In thi3 spot the Californian annuals are to be brought forward. Choose a piece of hard ground, — a walk will do, — or any place that has been much trodden on, and cover it about an inch thick with light, rich soil. In this the seeds of the annuals should be sown in September, and suffered to remain till the bulbs have faded, and the annuals are wanted to cover the beds, which will probably be about April. The annuals must then be taken up with the spade, in patches, and being removed to the Hower-garden, they must be laid carefully on the beds, so as to cover thera exactly; — the spaces between the patches being filled with soil, and pressed gently down, so that the surface of the beds may be as even as pos- pible. These annuals will come into blossom in May, but they are killed by •he dry heat of summer ; and, though they would sow themselves if pe> Z 370 farmer's hand-book. mitted to seed, it is better to remove them as soon as they have done flower iug. The worst of permitting plants to sow themselves is, that early in autumn the flower-beds will have a very untidy appearance, as the ground not only becomes rough, but it is covered with dead stalks and leaves, which have always a most desolate appearance ; and these cannot be removed till the seed has fallen, while the beds must not be forked over and raked, for fear of destroying the seedlings. It is, therefore, much better, as soon as the annuals have done flowering, to take them up and throw them away, — a supply of seed being preserved by having left some plants in the reserve- ground for that purpose. A second or spring sowing of the Californian annuals may be made in the reserve-ground, for use, if needed, in the autumn. Culture of Annuals. — Annuals'are plants that live only one year, or, rather, only a few months, for they are generally sown early in spring, and die as soon as they have ripened their seeds, at the latter end of summer, or the beginning of autumn. These plants are of three kinds, — hardy, half- hardy, and tender. The hardy annuals are sown in March, April, or May, but the second month is to be preferred, if the weather is tolerably open. The ground in which they are to be sown is then forked over and raked, and a little round, firm place is made by pressing the bottom of the saucer of a flower-pot on the ground, and then scattering a few seeds on the firm place, taking great care that the seeds do not lie one upon another. The seeds are then firmed, as the gardeners call it, by pressing the saucer again on them, and some earth is strewed lightly over to finish the operation. Instead of the saucer of a flower-pot, regular gardeners perform that part of the process with their spades. The idea is, to securely fix every seed in the ground before it begins to germinate, in order to produce a strong and healthy plant. After the seeds are sown, it is customary to put a piece of stick into the ground, with the name of the seeds written upon it, to mark the place ; or, if preferred, write the name on a card, or a bit of pasteboard, and stick it in a notch or cleft made in the stick. When the seeds have come up, — which, in the spring, is generally from a fortnight to six weeks after sowing, according to their natures, — the seedlings may be thinned out, and the supernumerary plants either trans- planted or thrown away. If the seedlings are to be transplanted, care should be taken not to break or injure the roots, and a little hole should be made with a stick for each seedling in the place to which it is to be removed ; the earth being pressed close to the root at the bottom of the hole Defore the rest of the hole is filled in, as, if any hollow place is left around the root, it will decay, instead of growing. Seedling hardy annuals are, FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 371 nowever, very seldom worth the trouble of transplanting. Many persons turn a flower-pot over every patch of seeds, from the idea that it will make them come up sooner, and protect them from birds. It is, however, a bad plan, as air and light are particularly necessary to seedling plants, and, when they are even partially deprived of these important agents, they become drawn up, with weak, slender stems, and thin, discolored leaves. Some annuals, such as the mignonette and the larkspur, are much longer before they vegetate than others, and they are better sown in autumn. Others, such as the Erysimum Perowskianum, the eschscholtzia, and the coreopsis, will often last two or three years, especially if they happen to be late in flowering the first season. These also do best sown in autumn ; but they must be protected, if the winter should be severe, by laying a mat over the bed. Half-hardy Annuals. — The half-hardy annuals, such as the French and African marigolds, the Chinese and German asters, the zinnias, the purple jacobaea, the sweet sultan, the purple and yellow everlastings, and other similar plants, maybe sown in pots, and plunged into a slight hot-bed in Feb- ruary or March. As soon as they come up, and have got their second pair of leaves, the earth should be turned out of the pots, and the seedlings, being carefully picked out, should be transplanted into other pots, three or five in each, according to the size they are expected to attain when full grown, and the pots again plunged into the hot-bed. Sometimes they are transplanted a second time ; but they are generally left till May, when they are removed to the open border, to the places where they are intended to flower. Wher they are planted in the border, they may be transplanted in the ordinary way, or the ball of earth may be turned entire from the pot into a hole made to receive it. This is generally considered the best plan, as it prevents the plants from receiving any check by their removal. Bromp ton, ten-week, and German stocks, though quite nardy, make better plants when treated like half-hardy annuals, as they flower earlier and more vigorously. Tender Annuals. — The tender annuals, such as balsams, cock's combs, globe amaranths, &c., must be sown in February or March, in pots of light, rich earth, and plunged in a hot-bed. As soon as the plants come up, they should be transplanted into pots of the very smallest size, one in each pot ; and these small pots should be set in the hot-bed again, as near the glass as possible, and slightly shaded during sunshine. In a week or two, as soon as the roots have made their appearance on the outside of the ball of earth within the pot, — which is known by turning the bail of earth, with the plant in it, carefully out of the pot, without breaking it, — the plants are shifted into pots a size larger than what they were in before, an,d the spacefilled up 372 farmer's hand-book. with light, rich soil. In another week or two the piants must be shifted again into pots a little larger, always using light, rich mould to fill up the pots, and taking care that the pots are well drained, by putting pieces of broken pot at the bottom. As soon as the plants are shifted, the pots must be replunged in the hot-bed, and shaded for the remainder of the day. The shifting and replunging must be continued till the plants begin to show flower-buds, after which they must neither be shifted nor plunged in the tiot-bed any more, but gradually hardened, by the frame in which they are placed being left open all day, and, at last, only partially closed, even at night, till the plants will bear setting out entirely in the open air, unlesa they should be intended to flower in a green-house, in which case they may be removed to the green-house very soon after they have shown flower-buds. Perennials. — Perennials are those permanent plants which are not woody, and yet remain in the ground as long as most kinds of shrubs, pro- ducing flowers and seeds every year. Perennials are of two kinds, — those that die down to the ground every autumn, and send up fresh stems from the root the following spring, — and those which remain green all the year, as, for example, those that have tuberous roots, such as the dahlia. Bulbs are also perennials; but of these we have already spoken. Most kinds of perennials are propagated by dividing the roots ; but, in the case of the dahlia, ranunculus, and anemone, care must be taken to choose only those portions of the tubers that have buds or eyes, as they are called, as otherwise the tuber, though it will send out fibrous roots, will not pro- duce a stem; and, in dividing fibrous-rooted plants, care must be taken that the divided part is furnished with buds. Almost all kinds of perennials may also be propagated by cuttings ; and those of pinks and carnations are called pipings, because, instead of being cut, they are pulled asunder at a joint, and this gives the separated parts a hollow appearance, like small pipes. Tubers are frequently taken up every autumn, and those of the ra- nunculus and anemone are replanted in November or January, the former season being rather preferable. The tubers of the dahlia are generally taken up in November, and replanted in May or June. Most perennials are improved by taking up occasionally, and replanting them in another place. This used to be accounted for by supposing that plants threw out excrementitious matter, which, after a few years, poisoned the soil in which they grew ; but it is now supposed that, as every plant requires peculiar earths for its nourishment, they must be removed when they have exhausted all the particular kind of earth they want which growa within their reach. It is rather difficult to explain this without entering ■.nto long details ; but it will be sufficient for our present purpose merely to »ute the fact that plants do require their roots to have a constant supply of FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 373 fresh earth, and, to meet this want, nature has provided that the roots of trees, and of all plants that are intended to remain several years in the soil, elongate themselves every year, so as to be continually able to obtain a fresh supply of nourishment. In gardens, however, the constant digging that is going on for the culture of annual plants is unfavorable to the elongation of tne roots of the perennials, and consequently it is absolutely necessary that those plants should occasionally be taken up and replanted. The season for taking up and replanting perennial plants is either in autumn, after they have done growing, or in spring, before they begin to shoot; and, if the soil about the roots looks black and wet, or, as the gardeners express it, sour, the roots should be washed quite clean before transplanting. When the roots of plants are divided, it is either done with a sharp spade or a knife, care being taken, in both cases, to make a clean cut, and not leave any part braised or jagged. Biennials. — These are plants raised from seeds, which do not flower till the second year, but which generally die as soon as they have ripened their seeds. Biennials are usually sown in a bed of light, rich earth, in the open year in the reserve ground, and then transplanted, in September, to the place where they are to flower the ensuing year. The finer kinds, such as the Brompton stocks and hollyhocks, should have a bed or pit prepared for them, of rich, loamy soil, in which they are planted, with a small quantity of manure. Wall-flowers, snap-dragons, and CanterUiry bells, do not require any further care than transplanting to the border ; and, though they are called biennials, they will frequently live and flower for a succession of years. The Hot-bed. — A hot-bed may be made of any material that will ferment, so as to produce heat. Stable manure and dead leaves are, however, gener- ally preferred to all other materials, and stable manure is unquestionably the best. A cart-load of this manure will make a hot-bed sufficiently large for rearing tender annuals ; and when it is taken out of the stable, it consists partly of the dung of the horse, and partly of what is called long litter, — that is, straw moistened and discolored, but not decayed. When in this state, if it is thrown together so as to form a heap, a most violent heat ia produced by the fermentation of the straw while decomposing, and, as this heat would be too powerful for any plant exposed to it, it is necessary to let the heap remain for a fortnight or so, turning it over two or three times, during that period, with a fork, till the straw is sufficiently decomposed to be easily torn to pieces with the dung-fork. When the manure is in this state, it is fit to be used. The hot-bed should be formed in an open situation, on a surface raised about six inches from the surrounding ground, with a gutter or shallow ditch cut around it, to allow the water to drain off". The bed 32 374 ' farmer's hand-book. is then made, and, if only intended for raising annuals and striking cuttings, it may be five feet long by four feet wide. The manure should be regularly spread over the lower part of the bed, and in successive layers, made as smooth and level as possible, till the whole of the cart-load of manure has been used. As soon as the bed is finished the frame should be set on it. The frame consists of a box without a bottom, and with a movable top, formed of a glazed sash or sashes. A frame for such a bed as has been mentioned will only require one sash or light ; and it should be three feet wide and four feet long, so that the bed may be half a foot larger than the frame on every side. The back of the box may be two feet high, and the front one foot, so that the glass may slope from the back to the front. About two days after the bed is made, the fermentation will recommence, and a steam will be observable on the glass. The surface of the bed should now be covered, two or three inches thick, with light garden mould, and any common seeds may be sown in this. It is more general, however, to sow the seeds in pots, and then either to set them on the surface of the bed, or to plunge them into it up to the rim. No bed for raising annuals should ever be hotter than 60° ; and when it exceeds this heat, the glasses should be left open so as to cool it. The thermometer for ascertaining the heat should be put on the surface of the bed, with the glass shut above it ; and it should be examined in this situation, as it will fall a,degree or two immediately on being taken into the open air, if the weather should be ^ery cold. A hot-bed of two or three lights will require tw« or three cart-loads of manure, and will, of course, produce a great deal of heat, from the immense mass of fermenting materials it contains •• and, unless properly regulated, the plants will turn black, and the leaves be shriveled up, or, as the gardeners term it, burnt, from the too great heat of the bed. There is also danger of a hot-bed getting too cold, instead of being too hot ; and, when this is the case, the heat should be renewed by the application of dung-linings, that is, a quantity of fresh stable manure around the outside of the bed. Linings are sometimes made of dead leaves piled up around the outside of the bed ; but, if the hot-beds are to be used only for raising seeds, they will not want any linings, as it will be advantageous for the young seedlings if the beds are allowed gradually to become cool as the plants increase in size, BO that they may acquire strength and hardiness before they are turned into the open ground. Green-house Plants. — A few words on the green-house plants that will be wanted for planting in the open ground in the flower-garden may not be amiss. Petunias may be all raised from seeds with the other half-hardy annuals, as seedling plants both grow and flower much more vigorously FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 375 when planted out into the open ground, than plants that have been raised from layers or cuttings. Celsia or Alonsoa urticifolia may also be raised from seeds, as may Thunbergia alata, and its white variety. Phlox Drum- mondi is almost always raised in this manner, as are the beautiful climbing plants, Lophospermum scandens and its varieties, Maurandya Barclayana, Cobaea scandens, Eccremocarpus orCalampelis scabra, Rhodochiton volubile, the beautiful canary-bird flower ( TroptBolum peregrinum) , the most splendid of the ipomeeas, and several other well-known plants. Geraniums, or pelargoniums, as they are called, being half-shrubby plants, require to be raised by cuttings. These are generally taken off the points of the shoots in autumn, and, a good many being put into one pot, they are plunged into the hot-bed till they have struck root, and then gradually hard- ened and placed on the back shelf of a green-house, or in a cold frame, till the spring, when they are removed to separate pots till they are w-anted for planting out. Some gardeners do not put themselves to the trouble of pot- ting them, but keep them in the same pots in which the cuttings were struck till they are wanted for planting out ; but this is an indifferent mode of cul- ture, as, when the plants are kept so long in one pot, they become drawn up, and do not have the compact, bushy appearance that they have when properly transplanted early in spring. Verbenas may be either pr^erved by cuttings or layers, or raised afresh from seed. The usual way of propa- gating them, however, is by layers, as they strike soot readily at the joints, if the joints are covered with a little earth. All the other green-house plants which are wanted to grow for planting out may be treated in the same manner as those which have been mentioned. Cold Frame. — This is a bottomless box of the kind described for a hot- bed, but formed of brick or stone, instead of wood. These frames have a glass sash at the top, but contain no manure ; and they are generally sunk in the soil, that the warmth of the soil around may aid in protecting the plants they contain from the frost. These frames, if they have only one light, are generally five feet in width, that is, from the back to the front ; but, if they have two or three lights, the width is generally seven feet, as these £Cre the dimensions of the frames used for hot-beds in kitchen-gardens. The green-house plants that are to be preserved in the cold frame are merely set in their pots close together, and, the glass sashes being then closed, mats and other coverings are laid on to keep out the frost. Sometimes green-house plants which are left in the open ground are preserved from the frost by coverings of wicker-work, like bee-hives, being put over them, or tin hoops over which mats have been stretched ; or, where the plants are small, a flower-pot may be turned over them, or a hand-glass used for the same purpose. It is seldom, however, worth while to take 376 farmer's hand-book, much pains to preserve green-house plants that have flowered in the open air. The ordinary way is to make abundance of cuttings in autumn ; to strike them in a hot-bed, and then, after hardening them by degrees, to pre- serve them in a small green-house, or in a cold pit, till the time for planting out next year. Winter Management. — Many persons injure green-house plants by keep- ing them too warm and giving them too little air during winter, and then are surprised that their plants become sickly and remain without flowering, notwithstanding all the care and expense that have been bestowed upon them. No green-house ought to be kept at a greater heat, during night, than from 35° to 40° ; and in the day-time it should not be allowed to rise above 50°, or at most 52°. "When there happens to be sunshine, the fire ought to be lessened ; and whenever the air is not frosty, the windows ought to be open from twelve till two every day. If a green-house is kept too warm, it will induce premature vegetation, and the plant will waste its strength in an attempt to produce flowers and fruit at a season when nature requires it to be kept in a state of complete repose. Green-house plants should be watered generally every morning ; but in frosty weather water need not be given every day, and some plants will not require watering oftener than once a week. This, however, must depend in a great measure on circumstances ; and, as a general rule, it may be observed that water may always be given in small quantities when the surface of the earth con- tained in the pot looks dry. The pots should not be allowed to stand in saucers, as stagnant water is peculiarly injurious in winter. Whenever the earth in the pot looks black and sodden, the plant should be turned out of the pot ; and, after the black earth has been carefully shaken from the roots, it should be repotted in fresh soil, an inch or more in the bottom of the pot being filled in with small pieces of broken china and earthen ware. In February or March the plants should be looked over, and repotted where necessary ; those that are too tall should be cut in, and cuttings made of their shoots. The young plants, raised from cuttings made in autumn, Bhould be repotted in larger pots for flowering ; and where the plants do not require fresh potting, but have the surface of their mould become green and mossy, the moss should be taken off, and the ground slightly stirred with a flat stick, taking care, however, not to go so deep as to injure the roots. When trouble is not an object, all green-house plants are the better for repotting every year, either in spring or autumn ; and when the ball is taken out of the pot for this purpose, it should be carefully examined, and all the decayed parts of the roots should be cut off. Sometimes, when the ball of earth is turned out, nearly half of it will fall off almost without touch- ing it ; and when this is the cuss, it will generally be found that there is a FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 377 worm in the pot. Worms do a great deal of mischief to green-house plants in cutting through the roots, as their instinct teaches them to make their way through the earth straight across the pot and back again, and they can- not do this without tearing the roots asunder every time they pass. Another point to be attended to in the management of a green-house is, keeping the plants as near as possible to the glass, as, unless this be done, the plants will become what gardeners call " drawn up," and unnaturally tall and slender, from the efforts they make to reach the light. Repotting. — As this process has been frequently mentioned, we here give the best mode of performing the operation. The pot to which the plant is to be removed should always have been previously washed quite clean, and be perfectly dry. Some bits of broken earthen pots should then be put at the bottom of the pot, the quantity varying from three to four pieces, so as just to cover the hole, to a mass an inch in depth, depending upon the nature of the plant. If the plant has not been in a pot before, the roots are then placed just above the broken bits just mentioned, and the earth is filled in, the plant being occasionally shaken, so as to allow the earth to get amongst its roots. The soil in the pots is next consolidated, by shaking it, and then lifting it up and setting it down again with a jerk ; the soil being rendered firm and neat around the rim of the pot by means of a broad, smooth piece of stick, shaped somewhat like a table-knife, and called a potting-stick. When a plant has been in a pot before, and is repotted, or shifted, as it is called, into a pot a size larger, the plant is turned out of its old pot by put- ting the hand upon the earth and turning the pot upside down ; or, if the ball of earth does not come out readily, striking the rim of the pot against the edge of the potting-table or shelf. The ball containing the plant will thus drop out into the left hand ; and the bits of earthen ware that adhere to the bottom of the ball having been picked off, and any part of the root that appears decayed having been removed, a little mould is put on the drainage in the new pot ; and the ball of earth containing the plant having been placed in the centre, the space between it and the pot is filled in with light, rich mould, and made firm with the potting-stick. The operation is concluded by shaking the pot, and then taking hold of the rim with both hands, and striking the bottom of the pot two or three times, with a jerk, against the potting-bench. The plant is then watered, and set in the shade for the remainder of the day. Heaths are very difficult plants to manage, but a great improvement has taken place in their culture within the last few years. They are grown in a sort of mould, formed by a mixture of peat and sand ; and when tlxis eartli is put into the ppt, it is mixed with good-sized pebbles, some of which ar© Bufiered to protrude through the surface of the soil. The roots of heath ara 378 FARMER S HAND-BOOK, extremely fine and hair-like, and the shelter afforded jy the pebbles is so congenial to them, that, if one of the stones be taken out, a cluster of fine, white, vigorous roots will be found below it. The plants are always potted high, so as to let the base of the stem be above the level of the rim of the pot, as the plants are very apt to damp off, if the collar of the plant be buried in the ground. Heaths should never be suffered to become too dry, and never kept too wet. They require very little heat ; and many experienced cultivators never apply fire-heat to their heatheries at all, but merely keep out the frost by having wooden shutters to the sashes, and covering them with mats. When growing rapidly, they should be repotted whenever the roots shall fill the pot ; but they should not be shifted too often, and, when they have attained their full growth, they may be suffered to remain in the same pots, for a succession of years, without injury. • Garden Decorations. — The decorations usual in flower-gardens are intro- duced either with a view to utility, to convenience, or simply by way of pleasing ornaments; which, if managed with taste and skill, may be brought into according harmony or pleasing contrast with the natural beauties of the flowers, or with the artificial arrangement of their forms and colors. We will specify a few of these different ornamental designs, in order to add to the interest of our remarks in this department. First come arbors, which may be either purely natural, partly natural and partly artificial, or entirely Pig. 245. the result of art. Of the first are those formed by the banyan-fig, in tropi- sal climes, whose lateral and widely extended branches send down numer- FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 379 ous shoots, which fix themselves in the ground. Such are those formed bj our various weeping varieties of forest trees, — the weeping-ash, birch, oeech, ehn, willow, and the like. These trees, with their lithe and tenuous branches, waving with every breeze, are the most natural, and perhaps the most delightful, of arbors. To the second kind belong all those which are formed by the hand of man, aided by some natural suitability of circum- stances, or accidental advantages. Thus an aged forest tree may have some appropriate climbing plant placed at its roots, so as to run through its branches and foliage, and ultimately descend gracefully from the extremi- ties, until it nearly touches the ground. The construction of the third kind of arbor depends much on the chances of situation ; and many designs, or minute instructions, would be, therefore, superfluous, as they must be famil- iar, in their various forms, to almost every reader. The following figure represents a pretty design for an arbor of permanent construction. Garden Seats add much to the beauty and attractiveness of a flower-garden These may be placed either in arbors or under some embowering shade, 03 Fig-. 247. 380 farmer's hand-book. in the open garden ; and may be composed of hazel-rods, or straight, small branches of any other tough wood. Five or more young trees, of the moun- tain-ash, the oak, or spruce fir, bound together, form good rustic columns, around which climbing roses may be trained, and the whole covered in with •> a light roof, with rampant ivy, clematis, or jasmine, as in Fig. 247. For occasional convenience, the various forms of the Turkish tent may be adopted ; and when pitched on a lawn, amongst clumps of flowers in the modern style, Fig. 248. has a very agreeable effect. Besides arbors and garden-seats, vases may be introduced with good effect ; also, fountains, flower-stands, aviaries, and sun-dials, in all the different styles of workmanship. The latter, when set m an unshaded part of the garden, and mounted on a column, aroupi which FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 381 some flowering plant has been trained to climb, will form a very pleasing object. We give a cut of one of these. Fig. 249. DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD VARIETIES OF FLOWERS. Althea Frutex. — This is a beautiful shrub, requiring a warm and shel- tered situation in the Northern States. Sow the seeds in spring, and protect the young plants during the winter. Almond {Dovhle Flowering). — A shrubby plant, bearing beautiful rose- like flowers in the spring. It is propagated by suckers. Amaranthus Tricolor. — An annual plant, with a beautifully variegated foliage of red, green, and yellow. The seed is found in little tufts about the stalk, and may be sown in April or May. Animated Oats. — An annual plant, and resembles the common oats while growing. The seeds are clothed with a stiff down, and have appendages like the legs of some insect, with apparent joints. They are affected by the changes of the weather, and, of course, are continually moving. If they be wet, they will turn over several times, and twist about. If wet, and held to a lighted lamp, they exhibit such motions of apparent agony as an insect would, placed in a like situation. Aster, China. — An annual, producing many splendid flowers. There are several varieties, as red, white, purple, yellow, striped, quilled, &c. The seed should be sown early in the spring. It flowers late, but is destroyed by severe frost. Auricula. — There are several species. It may be raised from seed, but like does not produce like, in all cases. They are best raised by dividing the roots, which send out several young plants annually. They are tender, and. if planted in open ground, they must be well covered, and be kept from severe frost and rain during the winter. They are well adapted for pots, to flower in the house. Azalea Nudijlora. — It is commonly known as the American Honeysuckle, 382 farmer's hand-book. and includes several species. It bears abundantly, the flowers having a fino perfume and making a very handsome show. Box. — A lew, delicate shrub, which may be pruned to any shape to please the fancy. It is an evergreen, hardy, and suitable for borders. It is grown by cuttings, or by dividing the roots. If a plant be placed deep in the earth, and the soil be brought in close contact with the small branches (being spread as much as possible), they will send out roots, and furnish a large number of small plants. In trimming this shrub, let the operation be done well, using the proper utensils. Flsr. 250. Brier, Sweet. — A well-known rose-bush, hardy, adapting itself to a poor soil. The foliage and flowers are bright, and delightfully fragrant. Canterbury Bell. — A biennial plant, bearing large blue flowers, which are much admired, and make a fine appearance. Carnation. — A biennial and perennial, comprising several superb va- rieties. May be grown by layers. While it is in flower, it sends out several side shoots near the root ; these are pinned down in August, a little under the earth, leaving the extreme part erect ; in a little time they take root, and the new plant must be severed from the old, and transplanted. The old plant does not always stand another winter ; therefore its branches are used to continue the species. Carnations are rather tender as to frost, and must be covered, in the Northern States, to live through the winter. It is best to put them into large pots, and keep them in a green-house or parlor, or in some place where they can have air and light during winter. Cassia Marylandica. — This is a perennial plant, producing many small yellow flowers, suitable only to stand in a border. It is hardy, and is propagated by seed. FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 3S3 Caialpa. — A beautiful tree, raised by seed. Much admired for its foliage and showy flowers, which are very ornamental in the garden. Chcrri/, Double-Jlowering . — This is one of the most beautiful trees in the flower-garden or shrubbery ; cultivated the same as the common cherry- tree. Chrysanthemum Tndicum. — A fine perennial plant, hardy, flowering brilliantly late in the autumn, and comprising several varieties. The plants may remain in the open ground until late in the fall, and then be taken up and placed in pots. When the frosts appear, keep them in a warm room until after flowering, and then put the roots in the cellar or open ground. They will flower in the garden, if carefully attended to. Raise by dividing the roots. Clematis, Austrian. — A perennial plant, producing very pretty flowers. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. Clethra. — A well-known plant, bearing clusters of fragrant flowers in the fall. Columbine. — A very common perennial, including different species; very neat. Convolvulus. — Many species — annual . Convolvulus major is commonly called Morning Glory. It is a vine, and a great runner — many colors. Convolvulus minor, called Beauty of the Night, because it blossoms at evening — many colors. Sow the seed early in the spring. Corchorus Japonicus. — A shrub frequently cultivated in green-houses, but may be grown in the garden. It bears wreaths of golden-yellow flowers. Crocus. — A bulbous-rooted plant, hardy, early; colors, blue, yellow, white, purple, &c. It is grown by the bulbs. A pretty pot-flower. Cupid^s Car, or Monk^s Hood. — A fine, vigorous annual, bearing a profusion of pretty blue flowers, during the summer and fall. Propagated by a division of the roots. A very neat plant for the flower-garden. Dahlia. — A beautiful Mexican flower, embracing many varieties of color and shade. A somewhat sandy or gravelly soil is thought best, in order to prevent their growing too luxuriant, and to obtain more flowers. They may be raised by seed, or by a division of the roots. Sow the seed in March, in pots, and place in a hot-bed or green-house. About the middle of May, or when there is no danger from frost, plant them out in the borders, or wherever they are to stand ; and as they increase in height, let them be well supported by stakes, to prevent the wind breaking them down. The roots are tuberous, resembling a sweet potato, and should be taken up in October or November, and preserved through the winter in a box filled 384 -' farmer's hand-book. with dry sand, placed out of reach of the frost. Plant only those which have a bud, and divide the roots carefully. Daisy. — A small, delicate, perennial plant, producing small but attract- ive flowers. It is hardy, and will bear flowers through the winter, if kep in pots or boxes, in the house. Raised by offsets. Dwarf Basil. — A very fragrant annual, raised from the seeds. Eupatorium {Blue) . — Perennial ; bearing a profusion of beautiful flow ers, and propagated most readily by dividing the roots. Euphorbia Lathijris. — This is a biennial plant, commonly known as the Coper-tree. It is singular in its foliage. Rather tender. Propagated by seed. Fading Beauty, or Morning Bride. — An annual plant, producing hand- some flowers, which last but a few hours, or less. Plant the seed in spring. Foxglove. — A handsome flowering biennial and perennial plant, com- prising several varieties. Sow the seed in spring, covering lightly with earth. Fringe Tree. — A handsome shrub, covered with white flowers. Hardy, and will grow in any soil, but flourishes best in moist ground. Geranium. — There are many varieties of this much-admired plant. Some give flowers, with little or no leaf; others possess beauty of leaf, as well as of flowers : some give no perfume ; others are delightfully fragrant. It is easily propagated by cuttings from any part of the plant, old wood or young, and placed in pots. In a green-house, or parlor, they will bloom in winter. Garden Angelica. — Perennial ; bold and showy when in flower. Raised from the seed, and well adapted for some situations in the garden. Glycine. — A perennial vine, bearing variegated flowers. It will grow on the side of a house or wall to a great extent, making a fine appearance. It is propagated both from seed and layers. Golden Coreopsis. — This is an annual, bearing a profusion of rich, bril- liant yellow flowers, having a purple centre. It is easily raised from the seed. Golden Everlasting. — A somewhat peculiar plant, bearing a late, bright yellow flower, which, if taken off" before the seed ripens, will retain its brightness for many years. Plant the seed early in the spring. Hollyhock. — A hardy, perennial plant — showy for a shrubbery. There are several varieties, — the single, double, white, red, yellow, dark, &c. Honeysuckle. — This plant is very beautiful in its place: it climbs up houses, and over hedges ; it forms arbors and bowers ; it blooms in clusters. There are several varieties. The Italian produces an abundance of change- able flowers early in the season, diffusing a rich fragrance all around. The FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 385 Variegated blooms monthly, and is very fragrant. The Scarlet Trumpet also blooms monthly, — scarlet flowers, making a handsome appearance. It may be grown by seeds and cuttings, but best by layers. Hyacinth. — A bulbous-rooted plant, and, like all other plants of this class, is perennial. It is an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It will bloom in glasses filled with water, in a room, but better in pots of eanh. It is best propagated by offsets. While the parent root is blowing, it Bends out several young ones. They should be planted at a depth of four inches. There are many varieties of this admired flower, both single and double ; the former have the brightest colors, but the latter are generally preferred. Hydrangea. — This is a small shrub, producing large and changeable flowers, being at first green, then becoming gradually rose-colored, and after- wards green, occupying about six months. It is a house-plant — will bear some frost, but should be kept, during the winter, in a green-house, parlor, or a cellar where there is some light. Propagate by cuttings. Ice Plant. — A well-known annual, having a peculiar icy appearance. Plant the seeds in pots, in the spring. Impatiens Balsamina. — Commonly known as Balsamine. A very fine annual plant, bearing a profusion of gaudy flowers. There are several varieties, — single and double, rose-colored, red, white, crimson, purple, and variegated. It commences flowering in July, and continues till cold weather. Sow the seed in May. Iris, or Flower-de-lis. — A hardy, perennial plant, comprising many varieties, both large and small ; a favorite plant, raised by dividing the roots. Lagentrcenia Indica. — A flowering shrub, which endures the winter of the Middle and Southern States, but requires attention further North. Laburnum. — A tall and handsome shrub, loaded, when in bloom, with yellow flowers. Sometimes called Golden Chain. It is raised from seed, and requires a warm and sheltered situation. Larkspur. — An annual plant, of no fragrance, but of great variety of colors. It makes a pretty appearance, and is raised from the seed. Laurel {Broad-leaved). — This is an evergreen shrub, bearing flowers of great delicacy and beauty, being white, tinged with red. Lilac. — A large, shrubby tree, hardy, and handsome when in bloom, having large bunches of fragrant flowers. The white and the purple may be easily grafted or inoculated into each other, and when the shrub, with a handsome head, is thus managed, some branches producing purple and others white flowers, the show is very fine. It is raised from suckers, of which it sends out a great many, but from which it should be freed as much 33 a2 386 farmer's hand-book. as possible. The Persian lilac is a neater shrub, bearing delicate white flowers. It is propagated by suckers. Ldly. — There are many varieties of this plant. The White grows three or four feet high, and bears large, white, sweet-smelling flowers. The Tiger grows one or two feet higher, producing gaudy spotted flowers. The Martagon is similar to the latter, but more delicate : all these are bulbous- rooted, and are best propagated from offsets. The Asphodel grows to the height of two feet, and bears handsome yellow flowers ; it is propagated by seed or offsets. The Lily of the Valley is a small dwarf plant, that thrives best in the shade, producing small, delicate flowers, of a sweet odor. Raised by offsets. Lime Plant. — A singular plant, the stem, foliage, flower, and fruit, being formed in the earth, and, after the plant has come up, there is nothing more than the extension of parts. The stems, when from eight to twelve inches high, branch out in two arms, at the extremity of each of which is a large palmated leaf. In the fork proceeds the fruit-stem. The first that is seen in the spring is a delicate membraneous cap, which is soon burst open by the flower-bud, which is large, round, and. white. Next appear the shoulders and arms, lying close to the stem or trunk ; and as the plant rises, the fruit-stem elongates and the arms elevate themselves. The fruit is about the size of a large lime, — green while growing, and yellow when ripe. A moist soil, in a shady situation, is best. Propagate by seed, or by dividing the roots, which are creeping and jointed. Lychnadia. — A perennial plant, comprising several varieties, — purple, white, striped, &c. The plant is hardy, bears an abundance of delicate flowers, and continues long in bloom. It is best propagated by dividing the roots. Mezereon. — This is a small and beautiful shrub, blooming in the month of March, with a profusion of fragrant flowers. Hardy ; raised by seed. Musk Geranium. — An annual plant, having a strong musky odor. It will stand the winter in a common hot-bed. Plant the seed early. Myrtle (Evergreen). — An evergreen vine, including several species bearing a pretty blue flower. A favorite plant for ornamental purposes. Narcissus. — A bulbous-rooted plant, managed like the hyacinth. It bears an early, beautiful, and fragrant flower. It is hardy, and well adapted to bloom in a pot in the green-house or parlor. Raised by bulbous oflfeets, which increase every year. Polyanthus Narcissus and Jonquils, both elegant flowering plants, are propagated and cultivated in the same manner. Nasturtium. — An annual plant, with showy flowers. The seeds are FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 387 enveloped in fleshy pods, and should be sown very early in spring. The plants should be supported from the ground by bushy sticks. Passion Flower. — This is a beautiful and celebrated flovsrer, growing on a perennial vine ; the name originating from the large cross in the middle of the flower, surrounded by appendages resembling a glory. The plant has a succession of flowers for a long time. It is tender, suitable for the green-house, but will not endure a northern winter in open ground. It is best raised from cuttings. PcEony. — A perennial plant, bearing a gorgeous but short-lived flower. There are several species. Propagate from offsets. Pea (Sweet). — There are many species of this annual, varying in color and scent. The Everlasting Pea is'perennial, and produces many clusters of showy flowers, which remain in bloom a long time. Plant the seed early in spring. Peach (Double Flowering). — A very showy tree, bearing flowers of the size of a small rose. It is hardy, and managed like other peach-trees. Pinli. — A well-known perennial plant, fragrant, and embracing many varieties as respects size and color. A fine flower, and easily grown by seeds, layers, &c. Perennial Sun-flower (Double). — A common, but large, fine plant, easily raised by seed, or by dividing the roots. Polyanthus. — A hardy, perennial plant, bearing handsome flowers. There are many varieties, and the plant blooms best in a shady situation ; best propagated by dividing the roots. Polyanthus Narcissus is a very pretty perennial, bulbous-rooted, and easily grown by ofl^sets. Pyrethrum Parthenium. — Commonly called Double Feverfew. — A hardy perennial, producing large quantities of white flowers, and continuing in bloom a long time. It is easily propagated by the seed. Poppy. — An annual plant, admired for its great variety in size and in flower. The double are very showy, but of short duration. Easily grown by seed. Purple Hyacinth Bean. — An annual runner, bearing large clusters of purple flowers, much admired. Plant the seeds early, and preserve from frost. Rose. — Of this deservedly popular flower there are many varieties, as to size, foliage, beauty, and fragrance. They may be propagated from seed or by suckers, — the latter being the most certain and easy mode. The suckers should be those which come out near the old stems, during the summer, and, when planted, should be cut down to four or five inches of the ground. Plant in October, November, or April. Keep the ground good and dig it every autumn. They should, except when trained against a 388 farmer's hand-book. wall, be cut down to a certain height, according to their natural size; for when the stems and limbs are long, they produce fewer flowers. All the weak, dead or dying wood should be pruned out close, without leaving anj ugly stubs. The Yellow Rose requires an airy situation and a gravelly soil, and every autumn one half of the old wood should be cut down within four inches of the ground ; by this means a succession of thrifty, blooming shoots will- be kept up. The Chinese Monthly Rose is grown by cuttings, taken in the spring and properly placed in moist earth. It is a tender plant, and should be taken into a green-house or parlor during the winter. Some of them, however, are hardy, and withstand the frost. When gathering roses Fig. 251. and other flowers having thorny stems, a pair of scissors, combining tweezers or pincers (Fig. 251), are very useful. Rose Acacia. — This is a singular shrub, producing many clusters of flowers, much admired. Propagated by shoots from the roots. Rose-colored Hibiscus. — A perennial plant, producing very showy flowers, and making a good appearance in a border. Raised by seed. Rudbeckia. — A perennial plant, producing many flowers, which are very durable, and much admired. Propagated best by dividing the roots. Scarlet Cacalia. — A small annual plant, producing numerous scarlet flowers, very showy. Easily raised from the seed. Scarlet Lychnis. — A perennial plant of two kinds, the single and the double, the latter being very handsome. The former is propagated from seed, and the latter by dividing the roots. Snowberry. — A small shrub, producing clusters of beautiful white, wax- like berries, in autumn. Propagated best by suckers. SpideriDort. — A singular perennial plant, in bloom for a long time. The blue is more admired than the white. It requires a light covering during tlie severity of winter weather. Propagated by dividing the roots. Spiraa. — A small shrub, loaded with delicate flowers in the season of its blooming. Propagated by suckers. Syringa, or Mock Orange. — A shrub, bearing flowers quite similar to those of the orange, and making a very pleasing appearance when growing with other shrubbery. Propagated by suckers. Strawberry Tree. — This is a handsome shrub, bearing, in autumn, an FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 389 abundance of fruit, somewhat resembling the strawberry. The European is preferred to the American. Grown by seed and by suckers. Sweet Bay. — This is a very pretty evergreen shrub, well calculated to stand, in a large pot, in the parlor, during winter. It is propagated very easily, by suckers. Sweet William. — An imperfect perennial, producing very beautiful flowers of small size. It is grown by seed, the plants of which do not pro- duce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. It may be propagated by dividing the roots. Tulip. — In no family of plants has nature so multiplied her beautiful tints as in this, — there being several hundred varieties. It may be raised from seed, but the plants do not produce flowers like those of the parent plant, except by chance. They are raised best by bulbs. After flowering, the foliage and roots decay, and a bulb or bulbs are formed of the juices of the old plant. A bulb contains all the parts of the future plant, and soon becomes as much disengaged from the decayed plant as the ripe acorn is disengaged from its parent tree. At this time they may be carried, like many other bulbs, any length of distance, in dry moss or dry sand. They should be planted out, about three inches below the surface, in a rich soil, in August or September ; after which, they throw out roots, and prepare for an early appearance in the ensuing spring. If the bulbs be kept through the winter and planted in the spring, they vvill not thrive so well that season. The nicer varieties should be taken up after the decay of the old plants, every year, air-dried, and kept until September or October, and then planted. Violet. — This little plant is perennial ; the flowers blue, double, and fra- grant, blooming early and long Propagate by dividing the roots. n. SHRUBS. Soil. — With respect to soil, hardy shrubs may be conveniently consid- ered as constituting two great divisions ; one requiring any common garden soil, and the other requiring a large portion of peat or leaf-mould. With regard to the first division, a rich, light, hazel loam is suitable to the greater number of the plants, though some will thrive in the poorest soils ; but in this there is great diversity. After having taken out the original soil of the border, about a foot and a half or two feet deep, — though three feet will do no harm, — fill in the vacancy thus formed with peat or compost raised above the garden level, to allow for subsequent sinking. Seasons and Modes of Planting. — With respect to shrubs that shed theii leaves on the approach of winter, they may be removed with safety as soon 33* • 390 farmer's hand-book. as the leaves have begun to fall in October. With respect to shrubs which do not shed their leaves and are evergreen, they may, if carefully taken up, be planted at any season of the year, provided advantage is taken of dull or dripping weather. But, notwithstanding, there are particular seasons when they will thrive better and grow more freely than at others. If the situation be dry, and the soil light and sandy, evergreens, with the exception of hollies, should be planted as late in November as the weather will permit. But in the case of a bad situation, with a soil reten- tive of moisture, May is the preferable season. Hollies should always be removed in June. When the plants are large or rather old, good balls should, if possible, be taken up with them, and all the fibres of the roots that can be got up with- out bruising or injury. Whatever may be the state of the weather, it is important to keep the roots af short time exposed to the air as possible. If only a few minutes, so much the better. In all seasons, situations, and soils, the plants should be well soaked with water as soon as the earth is put about the roots. As soon as a plant has been put into its place, the earth should be filled in, leaving a sufficient hollow around the stem, and as far as the roots extend, to hold water, which should then be poured in, in sufficient quaKlity to soak the ground down to the lowest parts of the root. By this practice, which is particularly necessary in spring and autumn planting, the earih is carried down by the water, and every crevice among the roots is filled. Care must always be taken to have as much earth about the roots of the plants as will prevent them from being exposed when the Fig. 252. water has subsided. After the first watering has dried up, the earth should be leveled around the stem of the plant, and as far out as the water has been put on, but not trodden. If the plants are large, a second watering is sometimes necessary, but in ordinary-sized plants one watering is quite suf- FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 391 ficient ; and after remaining twenty-four hours, more or less, according to the nature of the soil, the earth about the stem and over the roots should be trodden as firm as possible, and after treading should be dressed with a rake. The garden engine is now much used, in watering gardens, nurseries, &c. Fig. 252. After-managemeid. — If the season be very dry, it will be important to lay round the roots a quantity of moss, or cut grass. Whilst the plants are small, care must be taken not to let them be stifled or choked with rank- growing weeds, nor by the increasing growth of contiguous shrubs, and to clear away all rubbish that might retard their shooting ; also stir the sur- face of the ground frequently with a hoe, to prevent the surface becoming hard and caked in dry weather. The branches must be trimmed off, too, which may be done by means of the implement below, — called a briar or bill hook, — as they grow too large or luxuriant, or overhang and smother each other. Fig. 253. Situation and Arrangement. — Some shrubs thrive best in a dry and ele- vated situation, and will not grow when crowded amongst others, or in low, damp ground, where other sorts grow the most luxuriantly. These and other circumstances must be attended to, in the disposal of the several roots. The beauty of the plants cannot be displayed, indeed, when they are too much crowded, as they are then certain to be drawn into unnatural shapes. The more frequently, therefore, that open spaces can be omitted, the more Fig. 254. will the shrubs exhibit themselves to advantage. Keep them well trimmed, using the prunmg-shears (Fig. 254) freely, whenever necessary. 392 farmer's hand-book. One of the most important thing-s, in planting shrubs, is to attend partic olarly to the shades of green, especially where the view from the house oi lawn catches the trees. Flowers, which Pliny elegantly calls the joy of trees, continue but for a short period in comparison with the duration of the leaves, and, therefore, the more permanent picture should be executed by judiciously contrasting the greens. Even the effect of perspective may be con- siderably increased by the proper arrangement of hues. Shrubs, whose leaves are of a gray or bluish tint, when seen over or between shrubs of a yellow- ish or bright green, will seem thrown into the distance. Those, again, with small or tremulous leaves should wave over or before those with large, broad-fixed foliage. The light and elegant acacia, for example, has a more beautiful effect when its branches float over the firm and dark holly, or sweet bay. When the situation will permit, three or five lilacs may be grouped together in one place, and as many laburnums in another, so as to give effect in various parts by a mass of color. The guelder rose should appear as if escaping from the bosom of evergreens, and not a plant should be set in the ground without adding to the harmony of the whole. A shrubbery should be planted as a court or stage dress is ornamented — for general effect, and not for particular and partial inspection. Boldness of design, which seems to be more the offspring of nature and chance than of art and study, should be attempted ; but all harshness or too great abrupt- ness must be avoided, by a judicious mixture of plants whose colors will blend easily into one another. The most beautiful shrubs should, of course, be planted in the most conspicuous and prominent places ; a projecting part of the shrubbery, for instance, should be reserved for the rhododendron, the azalea, and other similar sorts, with which may be planted the hardier heaths. With respect to evergreens considerable judgment is required, in order to relieve their uniform appearance during winter. This may be done by skilfully arranging different kinds, and those with variegated leaves, such as aucuba, japonica, and green holly, or those which retain their brilliant berries during the cold months, such as pyracantha. A well-planted shrubbery depends not so much for its beauty on the ex- pense or rarity of the plants it contains, as on the selection of the sorts which succeed each other in blossoming throughout the year, or whose vari- ous-colored fruits grace them for the longest duration of time. It is not, accordingly, so much the shrubs, exclusively the ornament of the summer months, which alone require attention, but such also as will contribute to the gayety of the morning and evening of the year ; so that the gloom may be banished at all times, as much as possible, from the grove, and nature's repose shortened between the plaintive good-night of autumn and the cheerful o-ood-morrow of spring. For this purpose, plant the hazel and FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 393 filbert, as among- the trees which blossom first ; and even the furz-bush is a great enlivener of the shrubbery at this dull season, particularly when ita golden blossoms are expanded at the foot of some dark-foliaged evergreen. Varieties. — Among the numerous kinds of ornamental shrubs may be mentioned, for a select assortment, — Rose Acacia, dwarf white-flowering Horse Chestnut, scarlet-flowering Chestnut, Strawberry tree, double-flow- ering Almond, Snow-ball, Japan Sophora, Spice-bush, Rose of Sharon, Lilac, Carolina Syringa, Spirea, Mountain Rose, Mountain Laurel, Azalea, Calycanthus, Honeysuckle, Hawthorn, Prim, Juniper. III. ORNAMENTAL TREES. Varieties. — The most common, hardy, and esteemed ornamental trees are as follows : Ailanthus, Ash, Horse Chestnut, Rock Maple, Sugar Ma- ple, Cypress, Elm, Larch, Pine, Locust, Willow, Linden, Abele, Bass- wood, Hemlock, Tulip-tree, Fir, and Spruce. MONTHLY FLORICULTURAL CALENDAR. January. — The chief business of this month is increasing the stock of potted flowering-plants, some of which will require the assistance of a slight hot-bed to bring them forward. This is to be understood as a means of preventing them going back, rather than forcing them prematurely for- ward ; it will also be a means of advancyig seedlings fit for pricking out into other hot-beds, next month. A very moderate degree of artificial heat is sufficient. February. — The business of this month depends much on the kind of weather which prevails. If cold, wet, and inclement, very little can be done in the open garden, except protecting the bed-plants ; but if the weather be remarkably open and dry, something may be done in the way of preparing the ground for the hardier annuals. A slight hot-bed will be required to raise seedlings of various sorts of annual flowers, and to receive seedlings of former sowings ; thus, by keeping up a stock of desirable things, in different stages of growth, the garden may be replenished as soon as the cold season is fairly past. March. — This being the first month of spring, renders the garden a busy scene, especially if the weather be open ; and everything recommended for last month should be continued during the present, with the addition of many other things of equal importance. The bed-flower plants, particularly tulips, must be carefully guarded against sharp frosts following snow or rain ; if the state of the ground permit, all the plots and borders may now be smoothed by the rake, preparatory to sowing the first general crop of 394 farmer's hand-book. hardy annuals. Dahlia-seed may perhaps be sown in pans, and the old tubers placed in dry leaf-mould, on a mild hot-bed, or on a bark bed in a Btove, to raise shoots of which young plants are made for flowering. All green-house plants, which flower so readily and so beautifully in the open air in summer, should now, if not done in the autumn, be propagated abun- dantly by cuttings, on hot-bed heat, so as to be ready for the borders in June. All the different sorts of what are called tender annuals may now be sown in hot-beds, to raise plants ready for potting as soon as they are large enough to handle ; all potted flowers, as the auricula, carnation, pinks, stocks, wall-flowers, &c., should now receive their spring top-dressing of fresh compost, to assist them to flower strongly. April. — The flowers of some of the bulbs have now appeared ; those on the auricula stage and on the different beds are coming forward, and require constant care. Tulips and hyacinths will need to be sheltered from wind, rain, or other injurious weather. Many seedlings which have been kept in frames will be fit for transplanting. Another sowing of both hardy and tender annuals may, towards the end of the month, be made to succeed those sown previously. Seedling dahlias, and all the tender annuals, require attention to get them forward. Cuttings of dahlias, and the slips or cuttings of Chinese chrysanthemums, also, must be got forward, by pot- ting singly and keeping them on a little heat, till fairly rooted, and ready to go into other pots, or to their places in the open air. May. — Sow another succession of hardy annuals and biennials, and thin and transplant some of those previously sown. Tender annuals, dahlias, chrysanthemums, &c., lately potted and in frames, must be guarded by mats against the cold of nights, and shaded, till they are well-rooted, from the sun by day ; such as are intended to be put out in the open air should be gradually hardened by leaving off the shading, propping, and defending from insects. Carnation-seed may be sown. A small bed of ranunculus may be planted to flower in August, and new beds of violets made. Rose- trees may now be pruned back, to obtain a late bloom ; and all other shrubs which produce their flowers on the shoots of the present year may, by cut- ting back at this time, be made to flower again in autumn. June. — All serious fears of the eflfects of night frosts are now over, and therefore all the more tender kinds of flowering plants may be planted abroad with impunity. Dahlias must now, if not done before, be placed in their blooming stations, with stout stakes for their support. The situation should be sheltered, but not shady, and is better if treated with a fresh com- post of rich loam and road-sand, well mixed, to grow in. Pot off seedlings if not already done. Auriculas may now be shifted ; and tulip, hyacinth^ and ranunculus beds may still require attention, to preserve the beauty of the FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 395 'ate flowers, by shading or other care. Carnations now need attention to insure vigorous growth and perfect blossoms. Continue to plant out tender annuals, as well as any green-house plants which can be spared, to add to the gayety of the garden ; transplant annuals previously sown and standing too thick ; sow biennials, and propagate by cuttings every plant of which a supply may be wanted. July. — Whatever was omitted to be done in June should now be exe- cuted without delay. Take up bulbs and tubers when the leaves have with- ered ; sow and transplant annuals to bloom late ; propagate pinks, rockets, carnations, &c. Divide auriculas and repot them, keeping them shaded ; also, all other plants in pots, as Chinese primroses ; propagate pansies by division ; sow biennials ; prop Chinese chrysanthemums, and lay down some of the long shoots to make bushy plants of the tops. Regulate the patches of previously-sovm annuals, and shift those of the green-house or stove. In short, sowing, transplanting, shifting into larger pots, propagat- ing by layers and cuttings, propping, shading, and watering when neces- sary, form the constant employment of the flower-gardener during this month. August. — If any bulbs which have done flowering yet remain in the ground, they should now be taken up, dried, and stored in a safe place. Cuttings of azaleas, ericas, and such similar plants, may yet be put in ; those of less woody character, as dahlias, chrysanthemums, geraniums carnations, pinks, and other herbaceous perennials, may still be rooted. Roses may be budded. Calceolarias intended to flower late should be cut in, and at the same time receive a top-dressing of rich compost. Another bed or two of pansies should be made to bloom before severe frosts set in. Mignonette should be sown in pots and window-boxes, to stand the winter in frames. Cyclamen persicum may now be turned out of the pots in which they flowered, and placed in a dry border to gain strength during their tor- pid state. Chrysanthemums, dahlias, and all other tall or climbing plants, should have supports. Carnations, whether on stage, bed, or border, neatly tied up and shaded, and layering for next year's stock finished. Seedlings may be bedded out. Shorten the first shoots of the rose-acacia, to cause a second birth of late flowers. Ranunculuses already planted for blooming in October must be kept rather moist, and the soil about them pretty firm. Violets increased by dividing, and place some in a frame for early flowers. Biennials may still be sown, and bulbs intended to flower in autumn planted. September. — In this month there is usually much irregularity of grovt^h, decayed flowers, stems and leaves, required to be cleared away, in order that the flower-pots may not present the appearance of wildness or neglect. 396 farmer's hand-book. Seedling's of biennials and perennials should be thinned, and some of them placed in pots, or transplanted to beds or places where they are intended to remain ; all cuttings, pipings, or layers, which are sufficiently rooted, should also be removed to their final or temporary stations. Auriculas should be freed from dead leaves, the earth on the surface of the pots fresh- ened up, a little compost added, and, if any require to be shifted, it may now be done. The seeds of ranunculus and anemone may be sown in pans or boxes, if not already done. Dahlias are now in full beauty ; and the Chinese chrysanthemums, whether in pots or in the open air, require fre- quent watering, not only at the root, but over the leaves, to prevent their flagging under the sun's heat. Seeds of fine annuals, now ripe, should be gathered and saved ; and valuable green-house plants which have flowered in the borders should now be repotted. It is now, also, the proper time to prepare the beds intended for tulips, hyacinths, and ranunculuses, in order that they may be properly settled by planting-time; and, indeed, much of the beauty and neatness of a flower-garden the next season depends on the preparation and disposition made at or soon after this time, whether it be in improving the quality of the soil or in altering the forms of the beds ; and also many annuals may be sown in pots about this time, to be nursed under glass in the winter, ready to be turned out early in spring. This is a prac- tice which the florist should repeat frequently during the winter months. October. — Dahlias are still in beauty, and only require firm staking against the wind. If any new seedlings have not yet flowered, and are ex- pected or promise to prove excellent, they should be guarded by some tem- - porary covering against being nipped by an unexpected night-frost. Chinese chrysanthemums standing in the open borders are in the same predicament ; their flower-buds may be destroyed before they are open, if not protected by Bome slight covering ; those in pots can be removed to a place of safety. Pinks may still be bedded out, and carnation layers potted. These last, together with all other flowers in pots, must be duly supplied with water. About the end of the month, prepare a heap of light and fresh sandy loam, and a sufficient number of proper-sized pots, for the reception of as many bulbs and tubers, such as polyanthus-narcissus, tulips, hyacinths, irises, crocus, &c., as may be required for early and late forcing ; prepare also the beds for tulips, hyacinths, anemones, and ranunculuses, to be planted about the beginning of next month. Dig the plots or clumps intended for the hardier sorts of bulbs and tubers, which now require to be put in, namely, narcissus of all sorts, snowdrops, scillas, aconite, &c. Pot roses, Persian lilac, and the different sorts of American shrubs, and other plants proper for forcing. Sow some more pots and boxes of mignonette and other flowers, to go into frames. Perennials may be taken up, parted, and replanted; FLOWERS, ORNAMENTAL TREES, ETC. 397 some of the more showy sorts may be potted to go into frames, to advance their flowering in spring. Roseries may be pruned and regulated, laying down the long shoots and straggling branches, keeping the whole pretty close to the ground. Standard roses require to be close-pruned and well staked. November. — The previously planted beds for tulips, hyacinths, poly- anthus-narcissus, ranunculus and anemones, should all be planted early. Where these flowers are cultivated in' the best style, the collections are named, and require much precision in placing them in the beds ; but when executed according to the approved rule, the success is never doubtful. The other business of the season is taking up the tubers of dahlias, marvel 01 Peru, or others which would be in jeopardy from frost ; pruning shrubs, as well to keep them in form as to encourage flowering. All dead or de- caying stems or leaves should be cleared off, the ground dug, the patches of perennial flowers reduced, vacancies filled up, edgings repaired, and the whole garden receive a general brush over, laying all as neatly for winter as possible. December. — There is little or nothing to be done in the flower-garden this month. The young seedlings of mignonette, and other flowers in frames, must not be forgotten ; indeed, everything liable to be hurt by frost must have sufiicient protection. A few more pots of bulbs and tubers, and also another succession of annual flowers, may be sown in pots to go into frames, and be forwarded for planting abroad in the spring. 34 CHAPTER X, RURAL ARCHITECTURE. IBE CONSTRUCTION OF FARM-DWEIiLINGS AND COTTAGES — DAIRIEg — BARNS — STABLES CART-SHEDS AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES GRANARIES CATTLE-SHEDS PIGGERIES POULTRY-HOUSES ARRANGEMENT OF THE FARMERY GREEN- HOUSES FENCES AND GATES. I. FARBI-DWELLINGS AND COTTAGES. The edifices of this class which are necessary upon the farm are those intended as residences for the farmer himself, and also for one or more of the persons engaged in the cultivation of it. The character and extent of these are regulated altogether by the extent of the farm, and the taste of its occupier ; but even when of the smallest size and simplest construction, the farmer's house should not be deficient in anything essentially requisite for the health, comfort and convenience, of even the most luxurious of mankind. General Principles to be Observed. — The chief condition to be observed, in the construction of these, is utility ; for, in fact, there can be nothing really ornamental, especially about the class of buildings which is now under con- sideration, that is not founded on this basis ; and the size, style, and character of the building, are to be modified according to the pecuniary means available for its construction. As general rules in the erection of farm- houses, it may be observed, that it is always desirable that they should be placed upon a platform or terrace, with a view of keeping the ground floor of the several apartments dry, and consequently rendering them warmer and healthier ; that the chimneys should be placed in the interior walls rather than in the exterior ones, this arrangement being better calculated to retain the greatest portion of the heat coming from the fires within the house, and, by the additional heat contained within the central mass of masonry, to make the flues draw better ; and that the ground plan should approach as near as possible to a square, as being that form which is calculated to afford the greatest accommodation with a given amount of cost. Plans for Buildings. — Keeping these principles in view, and accommo- dating them to the particular situation in which the structure is to be erected, every intelligent farmer will easily make out such a form and arrangement as may suit his peculiar circumstances. RURAL AECHITECTtJRE. 399 Model of a Moderate-sized Farm-house. — As a model for the construction of a farm-house containing suitable accommodation for a farmer moderately well off, the annexed plan may be referred to. From the entrance and stair case, A, there is a kitchen, b, with back kitchen or store-room, c, and pantry, Fig. 255. D. There are two good parlors, e and f ; a store-room and cellar, g, which may be connected with the kitchen, or entered from the outside, as may be thought necessary. The three small apartments, h, i, k, may be used as store-rooms for some of the smaller implements. It will perhaps be conve- nient that one of them should be a water-closet, and another may be fitted up as a carpenter's work-shop, in which such jobbing may be done as the persons employed on the farm can do, and thus save the time occupied in carrying the articles to the workman. On the second floor there are three good bed-rooms, one above the kitchen, and the others above the front rooms, with a dressing-closet over the entrance. The apartments on each side of the kitchen have lean-to roofs, and are not carried to the height of the other parts of the building. Model of a One-story House. — The ground plan of a house consisting of one story only, and calculated for the accommodation of a farmer of quite moderate means, is represented in the following figure. From the vestibule, A, a door leads to the kitchen, b, from which is partitioned off a small bed- room, c. The bed-room, d, has a dark closet, £, and a light one, f. The small apartment, g, may be used as a store-room, in the ceiling of w,hich 400. farmer's hand-book. there may be a trap-door, with a suitable ladder reaching to the roof, in which may be two sleeping apartments. Fig. 256. Model of a Medium-sized Horise. — The following design is for a farm- house of medium size, in which a portion of the front, and the whole of the kitchen part, are of two stories, and the remainder of one story. Fig. 257 is the front elevation of this house. Pis:. 257. The ground-plan of this structure is seen in the following cut, which may be explained thus : — a, outer lobby ; b, inner lobby ; c, dining-room ; c, closet ; D, parlor ; d, press ; e, passage under the stairs ; e, press ; f, back RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 258. 2,0 10 1 ^ 401 ? Mi 402 farmer's hand-book. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. Fiff. 262. 403 Fig. 263. 404 farmer's hand-book. passage; g, kitchen ; h, back-kitchen or store-room: s, sink; t,oven, a, boiler; i, coal-house, or wood-house ; k, a sleeping apartment; l, store- eloset, or pantry ; m, milk-house ; m, m, stone shelves ; n, closet under the stairs, which may be a water-closet. Fig. 259 represents a side elevation of the same house : The upper floor, as seen in Fig. 260, may be explained as follows ; — n, stair-landing ; o, p, q, r, bed-rooms ; q, press ; s, t, closets. Model of a Large Farm-house, d a 6L 1 ^ 1 c 1 1 e c 1 1 and grain, eighteen feet wide and ninety-two feet long ; c, c, stables for cat- tle and horses, thirteen feet wide in the clear ; d, d, passages to stables, four feet wide ; c, e, mangers for feeding, two and one half feet wide ; f,f, great doors, fourteen feet wide ; g, g, stable-doors, five feet wide, double. Length of barn, one hundred feet; width, fifty feet; posts, eighteen feet; pitch of roof, twelve and one half feet ; height of lean-to posts, seven feet ; pitch of stable-roof, eight feet ; length of side lean-tos, one hundred feet ; length of end lean-tos, thirty-eight feet. The end view (A) and the side view (B) are seen in Fig. 277. The barn is framed as if to stand alone, omitting the lower girt at the ends on each side of the large doors. The lean- tos are then framed on to the barn in the simplest manner, the passage being round the main body of the barn, excepting at the ends, where the passage is in the main barn, and the lean-tos there only sixteen feet wide 416 FARMER S HAND-BOOK, and the manger is fitted up to the main barn. Only one passage is made to go into the short stables at the ends. Stalls are made seven and one half Fiff. 277. feet wide, and boarded between ; and each ox or cow is tied next to the partition side of the stall, which prevents their getting together, and saves inuch room. The doors are sufficiently wide to drive in a pair of oxen Fisc. 273. yoked, and large spikes are driven in the plates all round the stables, to hang harness, yokes, and chains upon. The bottoms of the mangers are raised RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 417 len inches from the floor and laid double : the sides of the stable are also t)attened with thin boards inside, which makes them perfectly tight and warm; windows, with sliding shutters, are made in the sides, to throw out the manure. Girts run parallel with the main floor in the posts, across which are laid poles, nine feet above the floor, on which hay or grain can be piled up to the peak. This barn will hold two hundred tons of hay, and forty-six yoke of oxen, or one hundred cows or horses. If only ordinary stock is kept, the long lean-tos need be only eighteen feet wide, and the bliort ones fourteen feet. Granaries can be partitioned off from the bays or stables, as may be convenient. If a threshing-machine is used, a part of the stable can accommodate it. On this model barns of any size may be built,. The improved barn-door roller, of which we give samples, ought to be used by every barn-builder. (Fig. 278.) IV. STABLES. Site. — Stables should be placed in such a position that ready access may be had to them, without the necessity of passing through courts or yards where any animals are kept. They may have a court in front for containing the dung and soiled litter; but it is better that they be contiguous to the yards where the cattle are kept, so that the dung may be mixed with that of the other animals. If circumstances allow, there should be an adjoining cistern for holding water. It is better, for the regularity of superintendence, that all the farm-houses be under one roof, and, if more than one stable is necessary, that all the stables be together. Light and Air. — The essential point, in the construction of the stable, is to afford sufficient cubical space for air and ventilation, and sufficient area for the animals and the workmen who attend them. The most suitable breadth for farm-stables is eighteen feet within walls, though sixteen will do, and seventeen may be regarded as a convenient medium. There is no great objection to the extension of the breadth of stables and other buildings, except the expense of roofing, which, from the greater size of the timbers necessary, increases in a great proportion with the extension in breadth. The whole space should be left free to the roof, no lofts of any kind being suffered to be erected above the horses, so that the benefits of sufficient space and ventilation may be secured in the fullest degree. No point is more necessary to be attended to than this, in the farm-stable occupied by a great number of animals. The proper manner of ventilating stables, as of all apartments where animals are kept, is by openings at the ridge of the roof, by which means tha heated vapor of the stable is suffered to escape. If these ventilators are of •he proper number and size, there is no need of apertures in the walls, aft c2 41S farmer's hand-book, some recommend, and seem to think necessary. We may be certain, that if we allow the heated air to escape above, the colder will descend to occupy its place. The air within the stable will, indeed, be kept above the medium temperature without, but in no such degree as to injure the health of the animals. It will suffice, when the horses are out of the stables at work, to open the windows and doors, so as to remove the effluvia which have been evolved from the dung and litter ; and, in warm weather, the windows may be opened when the horses are feeding. The ventilators may be formed by frames with louvre-boards, inclining so as to prevent the entrance of rain. But they may be simply and conveniently formed by making openings on each side of the ridge, defended from the weather by the roof-boarding and the ridge-lead. The windows of the stable may be formed with a glazed upper part, and sliding frames, below, as in the case of those of the granary. Stalls. — Each horse should have his own stall, which should be six feet wide. Horses are always reluctant to lie down when they have not sufficient space, and many will scarcely lie down in the stable at all. The partitions of the stalls should be eight feet long, five or six feet high behind, and seven in front. They are almost always formed of boards mortised into posts, one near the wall, and one at the other end of the partition. The hinder post may be sunk deep in the floor, and be of the height of the partition, or it may be carried up to a beam extending along all the stalls ; this last method of construction is both substantial and adapted to the long line of stalls in the stable, and in this case, also, the hinder posts are not sunk into the ground, but let into stone sockets. Racks and Mangers. — The horse receives his food from racks and mangers. The rack may either be elevated above the head of the horse, or rest upon the ground. In the former case, the horse pulls down his food in mouthfuls, and this is attended with less inconvenience than, from the awkward position of the racks, might be inferred. In this way, too, it is generally believed that there is less waste of hay than when the rack is on the ground. But, however this may be, this species of rack is found sufficiently suitable in common practice : It consists of two horizontal rails, into which are fixed upright pins, slightly inclining outwards from the lower rail. The pins may be two inches in diameter and three inches apart, and the lower rail may be four feet six inches from the floor. This rack should extend the whole width of the stalls, and the slighter the inclination given to the upright pins, the better. It is common to make smaller racks of iron, projecting from the wall. The upper rack, for hay, does not supersede ihe propriety of having a lower one, for straw and green forage, which are best supplied from a low rack. It has been often proposed that racks shall be altogether done away with, and the horses fed entirely on cut straw and hay, mixed with farinaceous food. RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 419 There is an apparent economy in this practice, but experience shows, thai, in the case of the farm-horse, it is better that there be a system of racks, in which food is placed before the animals at all times. The manger is an oblong box, open at top, and placed at one side of the stall. Its dimensions may be fifteen inches wide at top, twelve inches at bottom, and nine inches deep. In this box the corn of the horse is placed at stated times, and in a given quantity ; and when boiled or prepared food is given, it is likewise placed in it. The system of partially feeding horses with prepared food, as potatoes or turnips boiled, mixed with farinaceous food, is an excellent one. To suit this method of treatment, the manger should be of sufficient capacity, as of the dimensions above stated, and two and one half feet long. What is not occupied by the manger is occupied by the lower rack. The outer edge of both the manger and rack should be formed of a continuous bar of stout wood, three inches thick, and four inches deep. Into this bar is to be fixed a ring, through which is to pass the end of the halter which attaches the horse, with a little iron weight at its extremity, to keep it tight. Often, however, though not so properly, the end of the halter is merely tied to the ring. V. CART-SHED AND IMPLEMENT-HOUSES. Site, djfc. — The injurious effects of the exposure to the weather on struc- tures of wood are well known, and they have suggested the utility of placing the carts and other implements of the farm in situations where they would be free from exposure. The carts and larger implements are usually placed in sheds open in front, but defended on all other sides. The circumstances to be attended to in their construction are to place the open side in that direc- tion which is most sheltered, and to preserve the implements in it from rain. It is not, however, necessary that the whole of the apartment should be devoted to that purpose, and it has accordingly been found an economical arrangement to have the granary, or some other store-room, above the cart- shed. Connected with the cart-shed there may be some apartment for hold- ing the smaller implements, which is to be secured by a door and lock. One part of it may be devoted to the carpenters' tools. VI. GRANARIES. Site, dfc. — Among the buildings used as repositories, the granary may be mentioned ; but, except on the larger class of farms, a separate building will not be necessary for holding grain. The most convenient situation however, for the granary, is above the cart-shed. In barns with threshing- machines, it is sometimes formed immediately above the floor on which tha machine works, which admits of the corn being immediately raised to 420 farmer's hand-book. from the ground-floor, either by the threshing-machine itself, or by a wind lass, easily worked by one man. In this case, as well as in every other in which the granary is placed over another building, it is always convenient to have a windlass to it, either immediately over a trap-door in the floor, or over a door in the outside wall. VII. CATTLE-SHEDS. Uses and Requisites. — Cattle-sheds are used either for lodging milch cows or young cattle, or for stall-feeding for the butcher. The principal requisites, in buildings of this description, are to be capable of being properly ventilated, to be constructed so as to require the least possible labor in feeding the cattle and cleaning away the dung, and to have the stalls so formed as to keep the animals dry and clean, with sufiicient drains to carry away, and reservoirs to collect, the urine and dung. Arrangement of Cattle-sheds. — The common method of arrangement in these houses is to place a long beam of wood, about five feet high and two feet from the wall, at the heads of the animals ; and to this beam the posts are fastened to which the cattle are attached. The usual distance of these posts is about four feet. A movable ring is placed round each post, from which a chain is extended round the neck of the cattle, and they feed from a low manger or trough, formed merely of a raised edge of stone or wood, between which and the wall the food is placed. A more perfect arrangement is now adopted. This consists in placing Fig. 279. c~ry the heads of the animals at such a distance from the wall as to leave a nar- row pathway in front, by which the food can be more easily placed before RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 421 the cattle, and placing each animal in a separate stall, the stalls heing divided by low partitions, just of sufficient size to prevent them from inter- fering with each other. A movable ring and chain are also here used for attaching the animals, the ring being, in this case, moving on a vertical rod, instead of the wooden post. This arrangement is represented in Fig. 279. A, A, A, are the partitions between the animals; B, B, B, the upright iron rods, to which are fixed the rings and chains by means of which the cattle are tied ; C, C, C, represent the raised edges, or curb-stone, of the manger in front ; D, D, D, the partition separating the manger from the path- way by which the food is conveyed to the stalls ; E, the pathway in front ; and F, that behind the animals. In the internal arrangement of cattle-sheds for cows or oxen, the animals may he made to stand either across or along the building. When ranged lengthwise, the width of the house should be, at least, sixteen feet, and the space allowed for each of the animals of the larger kind should be six feet. The distance from the manger to the wall, being the passage for carrying along the food, may be four feet, to admit the attendant to supply the animals with their food with facility. A distinguishing feature in the arrangement of houses in which cattle are tied up is the open gutter behind, which is rendered necessary on account of the comparatively fluid nature of the animals' dung. The space between the manger and gutter is regulated by the size of the animals which are to occupy the stalls. The gutter is generally made a foot broad, and three or four inches deep, and it is usually made perpendicular in the sides. The organization of cattle being less delicate than that of the horse, they are not so liable to suffer from vicissitudes of temperature as that animal, and the same precautions for maintaining an uniform- eequence of the development of the secretion called cambium, the alburnum of the scion and that of the stock become united, and the scion may be cut off below the point where it is imited with the stock, leaving the former to be nourished only by the lattci^, The principal use of grafting by approach is to propagate plants of rarity and value which it is found difficult to increase by any other means, and of which it is not desirable to risk the loss of any part, by attempting an in- crease by means of detached scions or cuttings. 38* e2 450 farmer's hand-book. II. BUDDING. Uses of Budding. — Budding, or grafting by detached buds, consists in transferring a portion of bark containing one or more buds, and forming the scion, to the wood of another plant, forming the stock, a portion of the bark of the stock being raised up or taken off to receive the scion. The buds of trees are originated in the young shoots in the axils of the leaves, and when the bud begins to grow, its connection with the marrow sheath ceases ; or, at all events, the bud, if detached and properly placed on the alburnum of another plant, will become vitally united to it. On these facts the art of budding is founded. This mode of grafting is chiefly applicable to woody vegetation, and the scion may, in general, be secured to the stock, and sufficiently protected there, by bandages of bast mat, or thread, without the use of grafting-clay or wax. The union between the scion and the stock takes place, in the first instance, in consequence of the exudation of organizable matter from the soft wood of the stock ; and it is rendered permanent by the returning sap from the leaves of the stock, or from those of the shoot made by the bud. All the different modes of budding may be reduced to two ; — shield buddings in which the scion is a piece of bark, commonly in the shape of a shield, containing a single bud, — and flute budding, in which the scion consists of a ring or tube of bark, containing several buds. In both modes, the bark of one year is chosen in preference ; and the operation is more certain of suc- cess when the bud of the scion is placed exactly over the situation of a bud on the stock. The shield may, however, be placed on the internodes, or a piece of bark without buds may be put on as a scion, and yet a vital union may take place between the parts, because the marrow rays exist every- where in the wood, and it is by them, during the process of organization, that the layer of wood of one year, in a growing state, is joined to that of the year before. When the bud is placed on the stock, its point is almost always made to turn upwards, as being its natural position ; but, in budding trees which are liable to gum, the bud is made to point downwards. There are two seasons at which budding is practised, namely, when the sap rises in spring ; when the bud inserted is developed immediately, in the same manner as in detached ligneous scions ; and in the end of summer, when the sap is descending, the operation being then performed with a bud formed during the preceding summer, which does not develop itself till the follow- ing spring. In budding, the stock is not generally cut over in the first instance, as in grafting by detached ligneous scions, but a tight ligature is frequently placed above the graft, with the intention of forcing a part of the ascending sap to nourish the graft. HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 451 The uses of budding, in addition to those of the other modes of grafting, are, also, to propagate some kinds with which the other modes of grafting are not so successful ; to perform the operation of grafting with greater rapidity than with detached scions, or inarching, as in the case of most fi uit- trees, to unite early vegetating trees with late vegetating ones, — a? the apricot with the plum, they being both in the same degree of vegetation during the budding season ; to graft without the risk of injuring the stock in case of want of success, as in side budding, and in flute budding, without heading down ; to introduce a number of species or varieties on the same stem, which could not be done by any other mode of grafting without dis- figuring the stock, in the event of the want of success ; to prove the blossoms or fruits of any tree, in which case blossom-buds are chosen instead of leaf- buds ; and finally, as the easiest mode of distributing a great many kinds on the branches of a tree, as in the case of roses, camellias, and fruit-trees. Perfonning the Operation. — In performing the operation, mild, cloudy weather should be chosen, because, during hot, dry, windy weather, the viscous surfaces exposed to the air are speedily dried by evaporation, by which the healing operation is retarded ; besides, the bark never rises so well as it does in weather which is still, warm, and cloudy, but without rain. The first step is to ascertain that the bark of the scion and that of the stock will separate freely from the wood beneath them ; then procure the cutting from which the shields or tubes of bark are to be taken. If the budding is to be performed in spring, the cuttings from which the buds are to be taken should be cut — always using the proper kind of knife — from the tree the preceding autumn, and kept through the winter, by burying their lower ends in the ground, in a cool, shady situation, as in the case of grafting by detached scions. When these cuttings are to be used, their lower ends should be placed in water, to keep them fresh while the opera- tion of cutting shields or rings from them is going on. If, on the other hand, the budding is to be performed in summer, then the cutting from which the buds are to be taken is not to be cut oflf" the parent tree till just before the operation is to be performed. The cutting should be a shoot of the current year's wood, which has done growing, or nearly so, and its leaves should be cut off, to prevent the waste of sap by evaporation, as soon as it is taken from the tree ; the end of the cutting should then be put in water to keep it fresh, and the buds taken oiF as wanted. When the leaves are cut off, care should be taken to leave part of the petiole of each, to handle the shipld or ring by when putting it on the stock. A slit is next made in the stock, or a ring of bark taken off; and the shield or ring from the cutting, containing a bud or buds which are ripe or nearly so, is intro- duceji in the manner which will presently be described. Tying the bud on 452 farmer's hand-book. the stock generally completes the operation, though sometimes grafting- wax is employed to cover the junction of the shield or ring. Transmitting Scions. — Scions for budding may be sent a considerable distance by letter, if the leaves are cut off and the scion closely wrapped up in oiled paper, or coated over with mastic. They may also be left for several weeks, by immersing them in honey. When bulk is not an objec- tion, they may be packed up in long grass, or in moist moss, or in several folds of moistened brown paper, and covered with drawn wheat-straw, to serve as a non-conductor of heat and moisture. Wax for Budding. — Prepared wax for budding may be composed of turpentine, bees-wax, resin, and a little tallow, melted together. It may be put on in the same manner as grafting-clay, but should not be more than a quarter of an inch in thickness ; or it may be very thinly spread on cotton cloth, and used in shreds, like sticking-plaster. In this last state, it serves both as a ligature for retaining the scion in its place, and as a covering for excluding the air. In very delicate budding or grafting, fine moss or cotton wool is frequently used as a substitute for grafting-clay or grafting-wax, tlie moss or cotton being tied firmly on with coarse thread or fine strands of bast matting. Plastic wax, or grafting-wax, which the heat of the hand, or breathing on, will render sufficiently soft for use, is thus prepared : — lake common sealing-wax, — of any color, except green, — one part ; mut- ton fat, one part ; white wax, one part ; and honey, one eighth of a part The white wax and the fat are to be first melted, and then the sealing-was is to be added gradually, in small pieces, — the mixture being kept con stantly stirred ; — and lastly, the honey must be put in just before taking i( off the fire. It should be poured hot into paper or tin moulds, and kepi slightly agitated till it begins to congeal. Shield Budding. — This is about the only mode in use in British nurseries, where it is generally performed in July or August. A cross cut and slit are made in the stock, in the form of the letter T, and if possible through a bud. (Fig. 291, a.) From a shoot of the present year deprived of its leaves, a slice of bark and wood, containing a bud, b, is then cut out, and the wood is removed from the slice by the point of the knife. This is done by holding the shield by the remains of the leaf, with one hand, and enter- ing the point of the knife at the under extremity of the shield, and between it and the thumb ; and then raising and drawing out the wood by a double motion outwards from the bark, and downwards from the upper to the lower extremity of the shield. The bud being now prepared, as at c, the bark on each side of the slit in the stock is raised up by the spatula end of the budding-knife, and the shield inserted beneath it ; its upper part being cut straight across, as at d, so as to admit of its joining accurately with the HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 453 inner bark of the stock, as at-e, so as to receive its descending sap. A bandage of soft matting is now applied, so as to exclude the air from the wounded parts, and to show only the bud and the petiole, as at /, and the Fig. 291. operation is complete. At /, the bud is shown developing its leaves, and at g it has produced a shoot of some length, which is tied for a short time to the upper part of the stock ; but that part of the latter which is shown by dotted lines is cut oft" in July. The portion of wood left attached to the base of the bud should generally be about a third of the length of the shield ; the latter being from an inch to an inch and a half in length, and the eye should be situated about a third from the top. Spines, prickles, and leaves should be carefully cut off", or shortened. Sometimes, in taking out the splinter of wood from the scion, which is done with a quick, jerking motion, the base of the bud, which is woody, is torn out also, leaving a small cavity, instead of an even surface ; the surface, when the bud is in a proper state, being either quite even, or only gently raised above the surrounding bark, in consequence of the woody base of the bud being left in. AVhen this latter has been torn out, so as to leave a cavity, it is safest not to use the bud, but to prepare another ; though, when the cavity left is not very deep, and a small portion of wood is seen in it, the bud will sometimes grow. Only those buds must be taken from the scion that are nearly mature, which is readily known both by the size of the bud and by the full expansion and firm texture of the disk of the leaf, in the axil of which it grows. \ Shield Budding without a Bud or Eye. — This is used simply to cover a wound or blemish in one tree by a portion of the live bark of another. Circular Shield Budding. — Budding with a circular shield, with a portion of wood attached, is employed to equalize the flower-buds over a tree, by 454 farmer's hand-book. removine some from places whore there are too many to other places m which there are too few. With the point of a penknife, in spring, cut a Bmall cone of bark and wood containing a bud, and insert it in an orifice made in the same manner, securing the edges with grafting-wax. Budding with a shield stamped out hy a punch is considered excellent for budding old trees, the thick and rugged bark of which is not suitable for being taken off with the budding-knife. "With a mallet the punch is driven through the bark of the scion, and then through that of the stock, and the piece which comes out of the former is inserted in the cavity formed by the piece taken out of the latter. Shield budding with a terminal bud is supposed to produce a more vigorous shoot than when a lateral eye is used, and it is, therefore, recommended for supplying a leader to a shoot that has lost one. Flute Budding. — There are several modifications of this mode of budding, which is a good deal used, in some countries, for trees that are difficult to take, — such as the walnut and the chestnut, — and for several oaks, as well as for the white mulberry. Annular Budding. — This is performed either at the principal movement of the sap in spring, or at the end of its principal movement in August. In either case, the top of the stock is kept on ; and if the ring of bark contain- ing a bud or buds taken from the scion is larger than the space prepared for it on the stock, a piece must be taken from it longitudinally, so as to make it fit exactly. After-care. — The after-care of grafts by budding consists, in all cases, in removing the bandages or plasters as soon as it is ascertained that the buds or scions have adhered to the stock. This may generally be known in two or three weeks, by the healthy appearance of the bark and its bud or buds, and by the dropping off of the petiole, which, in the case of the bud, withers and adheres. The next operation is to head down the stock to within an inch or two of the bud, — the stump being left for a week or two as a prop, to which the shoot produced by the bud of the scion may be tied, till it acquires vigor enough to support itself. The stump is then cut off in a sloping direction, close above the bud. In general, any buds which develop themselves on this stump should be rubbed off ; but in the case of very weak scions, one or more buds may be left on the stump, to draw up the sap till the graft has taken. When budding is performed in spring, the stock should have been headed down before the ascent of the sap ; but in autumn budding, as no shoot is produced till the spring following, heading down is deferred till that season, and takes place just before the sap is in motion. Where a number of grafts by buds are introduced on one stem or on one branch, heading down can, of course, only take place above the uppermost HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 455 bud ; and in terminal flute budding, it is performed as a necessary part of the operation. m. PRUNING. Uses of Pruning. — Pruning- consists in depriving a plant of a portion of its branches, huds, leaves, bark, or roots, in order to produce particular effects on the part of the plant which remains. The different kinds of pruning may be included under knife-pruning, which is applied to small branches ; lopping, which is applied to large branches ; clipping, which is applied to small shoots in masses ; and disbudding, disleafing, and disbark- ing, which are applied to buds, leaves and bark. Girdling and felling may also be included. The instruments necessary for these operations are chiefly the pruning-knife, the bill, the saw, the cutting-shears, and the clip- ping-shears ; but there are some other instruments, such as the pruning- chisel, the girdling-machine, &c., which are occasionally used for peculiar purposes. The approved pattern of pruning chisels is seen in the follow- ing cut. Mff-. 292. Pruning Forest-trees. — In forest-trees pruning is of the greatest use in modifying the quantity of timber produced. Thus, by commencing when the tree is quite young, and shortening the side-branches and encouraging the leading shoot, the whole of the timber produced is thrown into the main stem. On the other hand, should crooked timber he desired, pruning by destroying the leading shoot, and encouraging those that have a suitable direction, tend to attain the end in view ; and, by the aid of training, this end can be completely effected. Trees which are stunted in their growth, from being hide-bound (a disease which is brought on by the sudden exposure of the trees to the weather after they have been drawn up by shelter, and, in the case of young trees, by being planted of too large a size in proportion to their roots) , may in general be made to shoot vigorously by being cut down or headed in. Again, trees which are in particular situations, where it is feared they will grow too large, may be arrested in their growth, or stunted, by amputating the larger roots. Pruning Ornamental Trees. — This is chiefly employed to remove dis- eased branches, because much of the effect of these trees depends on the development of their natural form and character. Pruning Ornamental Shrubs. — Those which are grown for their flowers produce them of much stronger and brighter colors when the shoots art 456 farmer's hand-book. thinned out, or shortened, or both ; and it is useful when the plants are prevented from exhausting themselves by the removal of decaying blossoms, so as to prevent them from maturing their seeds. A pair of pruniiig-sci»- sors are useful in case of rose-bushes, &c. Fig. 293. Pruning Fruit-trees and Shrubs. — These, above all other plants, are benefited by pruning, which is indeed by far the most important part of their culture. The most general object of pruning is to create an abundant supply of sap during summer, by the production of leaf-shoots, by which the general strength of the tree is augmented, and to limit the distribution of this sap when it ascends from the roots in the following spring, by dimin- ishing th'fe number of buds. The effect of this is to increase the vigor of the shoots or fruits produced by these buds ; and if this be done in such a manner as to obtain also the greatest advantages from light and air, the pruning will have answered its purpose. If a ^ruit-tree were not deprived every year of a part of the wood or the buds which it produces, its shoots and fruits would gradually diminish in size, and though the iVuit would be HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 457 more numerous, it would be deficient in succulence and flavor, as is found to be the case in old neglected orchard-trees. The application of pruning to truit-trees differs so much, according to the species of tree, that the sub- ject can only be properly treated by taking each class separately. Thus kernel-fruits, whfch are produced on wood of two or more years' growth, require to be pruned in a different manner from such fruits as the peach, which is produced from the shoots of the current year. The production of blossoms, or the enlargement of fruits and the acceleration of their maturity by ringing, is a species of pruning peculiarly applicable to fruit-trees. In pruning high branches, an instrument called an avarrancator — pole pruning shears — is found to be very convenient. See Fig. 295. Prvning TIerhaceous Plants. — To herbaceous plants pruning is appli- cable, not only when they are being transplanted, when both roots and top are frequently cut in, but also to fruit-bearing kinds, such as tlie melon tribe, the tomato, &c. It is even useful to the cabbage tribe, when it is wished that, after the head is cut off, the stem should throw out sprouts, which is found to be accelerated by splitting it down an inch or two. The topping of beans, and the picking off of potato-blossoms, are operations belonging to pruning, as are the cutting off of withered flowers for the Bake of neatness, &c. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PRUNING. These may be included under close priming, shortening-in, lore-shorten- ing, spurring-in, heading-in, lopping, snag-lopping, lopping-in, stopping, pinching-out, disbarking, disbudding, disleafing, slitting, bruising or tear- ing, root-pruning, girdling, and felling. Close Pruning. — This consists in cutting off shoots close to the branch or stem from whence they spring, leaving as small a section as possible, in order that it may be speedily healed over. In performing the operation, care should be taken to make the wounded section no larger than the base of the shoot, in order that it may be healed over as quickly as possible ; and at the same time to make it no smaller, because this would leave latent buds, which would be liable to be developed, and thus occasion the operation 39 458 farmer's hand-book. to be performed a second time. This mode of pruning is only adopted vhere the object is to produce stems or trunks clear of branches, or of any kind of protuberance, as in the case of standard trees in gardens, especially fruit-trees, and in the case of forest-trees grown for their timber. If the branch cut off is under an inch in diameter, the wound will generally heal over in two seasons, and in this case the timber sustains no practical injury ; but if it is larger, it will probably begin to decay in the centre, and thus occasion a blemish in the timber. Sliortening-in. — This term is applied when side-shoots are shortened at the distance of from two to four or five feet from the stem, the cut being always made to a bud. Exceeding that distance, it is called fore-shortening , and is chiefly applicable to timber-trees in hedge-rows ; and under that dis- tance it is called spurring-in. In the culture of fruit-trees, it is applied in connection with spurring-in, to produce trees of conical forms, with branches which, never being allowed to attain a timber size, are prolific in fruit-bear- ing spurs. Whenever the branches exceed two inches in diameter, they are cut off within an inch of the stem, and one of the young shoots which are produced there is trained to take its place. Fore-shortening. — When the lateral branches of a standard tree extend further than is desirable, a portion of their extremities is cut off; the cut being always made close above a branch of sufficient thickness to form a leader of sufficient strength to keep the branch alive and healthy, but not so strong as to cause it to produce much timber, or in any way to come into competition with the trunk of the tree. The object is to prevent the lateral branches of the trees from injuriously shading the plants under them ; and hence it is chiefly used in the case of trees in hedge-rows. Spurring-in. — The apple, the pear, the cherry, the plum, and other fruit-trees, or fruit-shrubs, produce what are called spurs, or very short shoots or knobs, covered with blossom-buds, naturally ; and the object of spurring-in pruning is to produce these knobs artificially. This can only be done with lateral shoots, to which the sap is not impelled with the same vigor as to the growing point, because the great object in producing spurs is to obtain blossom-buds, and these are never produced on the most vigor- ous shoots. A lateral shoot of the present year being produced, may be shortened to two or three visible buds, either in the beginning of summer, after that shoot has grown a few inches in length, or in the following winter ; but the former is in general the better season, because it is not desirable to encourage the production of wood, and, consequently, of sap, but rather to lessen their production, so as to produce stunted branches, tvhich are, in fact, the spurs. The second and third years the shoots pro- duced are shortened in the same manner as they were the first, and it will HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 459 generally be found that the leaf-buds left on the lower ends of the shoots, when cut down, will the year after become blossom-buds. As by the pro- cess of continually shortening the shoots the spurs in a few years become inconveniently large, they are, from time to time, cut out, and new spura formed by the same process as before ; and finally, after a certain time, the entire branch bearing- the spurs is cut out close to the main stem of the tree, and renewed, as spurs are, by a young shoot produced from its base. It must be confessed, however, that pruning has but little to do with the production of spurs that are prolific in blossoms ; that depends far more on adjusting the nourishment supplied by the root to the demands of the fruit- bearing branches, to the mode of training, the kind of tree, and other par- ticulars, which, when attended to, spurs are produced naturally. Heading-in. — This is cutting off all the branches which form the head of a tree close to the top of the stem, leaving, however, their base to pro- duce buds. This is done with what are called polled or pollard trees peri- odically, for the sake of the branches produced as fagot or fence wood, and with fruit-trees when they are to be regrafted. It is also done with stunted forest-trees, for the sake of concentrating the sap into a few main shoots, instead of distributing it over a great many ; and it is done in transplanting trees of considerable size, intended to form avenues, or single trees in parksA^ The branches, if under two inches in diameter, are cut off clean with a bill 460 farmer's hand-book. at one stroke ; or, if they are larger, they are first sawn off, aiid afterwards the section is made smooth with the bill-axe or the knife, but generally with what is called the bill-knife. Lopping. — This term is very generally applied to heading-in, but :t is also as generally used to signify the cutting off large branches from the sides of stems, and in this sense we shall here treat of it. Lopping is per- formed in three manners, two of which are highly injurious to the timber of the trunk of the tree, and the other not so. The close and snag lopping are the modes which are injurious ; the only mode of lopping large branches from the sides of the trunks of trees, without injuring the timber in these trunks, is to shorten them to a branch of sufficient size to heal the wound at its base, or, at all events, to maintain the growth of the whole of the part of the branch left, and prevent decay from reaching the trunk. This mode is called hpping-in. Fig. 296 represents one of the lopping or branch shears, also the sliding pruning-shears. Cutting Down. — Cutting down the stem or trunk of a tree to the ground is an important operation, because, in some cases, such as that of resinous or needle-leaved trees, it kills the tree, while in others, or what are called trees that stole, which is a property of most broad-leaved trees, it affords the means of renewing the tree. Fruit-trees cannot generally be so treated, because the graft is for the most part only a few inches above the surface of the soil ; but even with fruit-trees, when they are stunted, there is no better mode of restoring them to vigor than by cutting them down to the graft. Stopping and Pinching-ovf . — When the point of a shbot is cut off, or pinched out, while that shoot is in a growing state, it is said to be stopped ; that is, the shoot is prevented from extending its length, and the sap, which was before impelled to its growing point, is now expended in adding to the largeness or succulence of the leaves or fruits which may be on the shoot, or in swelling or developing the buds, or in some cases changing them from leaf-buds into flower-buds. The principal uses of stopping, however, are to promote the setting and the swelling of the fruit, either on the shoot of the current year, as in the case of the vine and melon, or at its base, as in the case of the peach. Much of the winter pruning of trees might be prevented Dy stopping the shoots early in summer, provided the state of the tree did not require that the shoots should be allowed to grow their full length, in order to send down nutriment to the increase of the roots, in consequence of which greater vigor is in turn imparted to the stem and branches. In this case of pruning, as in every other, the state of the tree, and a variety »f circumstances connected with it, require to be taken into consideration. Disbarking. — This includes two distinct operations, — the removal of HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 461 coarse, loose, outside bark, to admit of the swelling of the inner bark and the alburnum by the returning sap, and the removal of a ring of both inner and outer bark, with a view to the interruption of the returning sap. The removal of old bark is an operation chiefly performed with old fruit-trees in orchards, for the sake partly of getting rid of lichens and mosses, and partly to remove crevices which might harbor insects. It is also practised on the stems of old vines for the latter purpose ; one effect of removing the loose outer bark of any stem being to increase its susceptibility of suffering from changes of temperature and moisture, it may therefore often be more injuri- ous than useful. Disbarking for the tanner consists in removing the whole of the bark, and is best performed in spring, when, in consequence of the abundance of ascending sap, the bark separates easily from the wood. Scraping trees, to keep them clean, is also considerably practised. Ringing. — This operation consists in taking off a narrow ring of bark from a stem or branch, or even from a root, the object of which is to check the returning sap, and force it to expand itself among the leaves, flowers, or fruit, which are situated above the incision. The ring of bark taken off varies in width from a sixteenth to half an inch or an inch, and its depth is always equal to that of both outer and inner bark. In general, the width of the ring taken off should not be greater than the tree has the power of re-covering with bark, during the same or the following year. The operation maybe performed at any season, but its effects will only be rendered obvious when the plant is in leaf, because at other seasons there is little or no sap elaborated to be returned. Compressing the bark by a ligature of wire or cord, or by a mass of Roman cement, put on like the clay of a graft, pro- duces the same effect as ringing. In the case of fruit-trees, it is frequently executed on the branches to produce blossom-buds, and by the same means seedling plants are sooner thrown into blossom than they otherwise would be. It has little effect on stone fruits ; and while it succeeds on the goose- berry, it is said not to do so on the currant. Judiciously applied, it may often serve as a substitute for root pruning and top pruning. Disbudding. — This is the removal of buds early in spring, just when they are beginning to develop their leaves ; and is commonly performed with the finger and thumb, the object being to lessen the number of shoots or of blossom-buds to be produced. By lessening the number of blossom-buds, it will add to the strength and probability of setting of those wh ch remain, and the same increase of strength will take place in respect to the shoots, whilst, at the same time, the number of these is reduced to an approximation of that which can ultimately be retained for training. By applying this mode of pruning judiciously on such trees as the peach, apricot, and plum, especially when trained against walls, the use of the knife may be in a great 39* 462 farmee's hand-book. measure dispensed with, excepting- for cutting out diseased or decaying Bhoots. In removing the huds, care should be taken not to injure the bark of the shoot. The buds ought not to be all disbudded at the same time ; the fore-right ones should be first removed, and the others successively, at inter- vals of several days, in order not to check the circulation of sap by a too great privation of foliage at once. Disleafing. — By taking the leaves off a growing shoot as fast as they are unfolded, no buds are matured in their axils ; and thus, while the superfluous vigor of the tree is expended, no sap is returned to the root. Disleafing in this manner the summer's shoots of a tree, as they proceed in growth, has been found the simplest mode of reducing the strength of an over-luxuriant tree. When a tree fills the space allotted to it against a wall, and shows a disposition to still further growth, by throwing up strong vertical shoots above the wall, and luxurious breast-wood on the main boughs, instead of checking this disposition by any of the ordinary modes of pruning, some gardeners assist the tree to throw off the superabundant sap, by disleafing the breast-wood and vertical shoots, and in the winter pruning all the buds on such shoots as are displaced, even those on the points, after which they die off by degrees, and are cut out. Disleafing is frequently practised with fruit- bearing plants, both woody and herbaceous, with a view to admit the sun and air to the fruit, and sometimes also to assist in ripening wood by stop- ping growth. Slitling and Splitting. — These may be classed under modes of pruning, the first being occasionally employed to relieve hide-bound trees, — a practice of doubtful utility, — and the second to stimulate the stems to the production of roots or shoots. Hide-bound trees are relieved by slitting the bark longi- tudinally from the collar as high up the stem and along the branches as may be considered necessary. The lower extremities of cuttings are sometimes slit up, and shoots are split or fractured to excite buds. Bruising and Tearing. — Bruising and tearing oflT the stems of plants from their roots are in some cases found to be more effective than cutting them off with a smooth section. A very full crop of pears has been obtained from trees which before had not borne at all, by twisting and breaking down the young shoots late in the autumn, when the wood had become tough, and after the sap had retreated. This practice has been found successful with branches on which ringing had been tried without success, and the pendent branches continued perfectly healthy. Clipping. — This is confined chiefly to common hedges and box edgings. Root Pruning. — As the nourishment of a plant is absorbed from the soil by the roots, it is evident that the supply will be diminished by partially cut- ling off its source. The effect of cutting through the stronger roots of trees HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 463 is analogous in its first effects to that of ringing; with this diffbrence, that the returning sap is stagnated throughout the whole tree, instead only in the parts above the ring. The immediate effect is to check the luxuriancy of wood-shoots, and induce the formation of fruit-buds. The operation, how- ever, should not be carried so far as to reduce too much the vigor of the tree/ and prevent the second result, — that of pushing a number of fibrous roots from those amputated ; for, in defect of these, the health of the tree must decline under the load of, in that case, imperfectly nourished fruit. With a view to the production of a greater number of fibrous roots, old trees may be subjected to a cautious root pruning ; but it must not be performed on subjects unable to bear the shock, or on those in which the power of throw- ing out fresh roots is very weak. If, however, it is found that fresh roots have been emitted from one amputation, others may be performed, as the roots resulting from each preceding operation come into action. Root prun- ing is generally performed with a sharp spade, and generally only on the main roots, at the distance of several feet from the stem, according to the magnitude of the tree. Though this mode is chiefly employed to check the luxuriance of young fruit-trees and throw them into blossom, yet it may be employed for these purposes with all trees and shrubs whatever. Girdling and Felling. — This is very common in this country, not for the sake of improving the timber, but to destroy life and facilitate the destruction of the tree. It is strongly recommended to disbark trees in the spring, before they are to be felled, and the effect of this, in hardening the timber, is very great ; bftt, in a hot summer, the exposed alburnum is apt to split more or less. A better mode has been found to be that of merely cutting out clean a rim, about four inches in width, of the bark, close to the ground. By girdling, the whole of what would otherwise be mere alburnum becomes similar to the heart-wood, and this may be one reason why the boards made from such trees are found not to warp. Larches are particularly susceptible to this process. Seasons for Pruning. — The seasons for pruning vary according to the object in view. Where wood is to be cut out or buds removed, so as to throw strength into the remaining parts of the tree, the sooner the operation is performed, after the fall of the leaf, the better ; because, as the sap is more or less in motion, and consequently impelled to all the buds, throughout the whole of the winter, that which would have been employed on the shoots and buds cut off is saved, and those which remain are invigorated by it. Next to autumn, — according to tlie opinions of some of the most experi- enced growers, — winter is to be preferred, for the same reason ; but in this season mild weather is always to be chosen, because the frost, if severe, will seize on the moisture of newly-made wounds, and rupture therr surface. 464 farmer's hand-book. The worst season in which any description of wood pruning can be performed is the spring, just before the expansion of the leaves, when the sap is rising with the greatest vigor. The slightest wound made in many plants, both woody and herbaceous, at this season, especially young, vigorous ones^, where the sap-vessels are large, occasions a great loss of sap, which must neces- sarily weaken the plant, unless speedily checked by the only effectual mode in which this can be done, the expansion of the leaves. For disbudding and ringing, spring is the most suitable season, — at least, for the latter practice, for nothing is gained by ringing before the leaves begin to expand. Buds which are to be removed should remain as short a time as possible after they are formed by the leaves ; but as the labor is much greater in taking them off in autumn and winter, when they are small, than in spring, when all their parts are more or less expanded, the operation is generally deferred till the latter season. For disleafing, it is necessary to commence as soon as the leaves begin to expand, and continue it as long as they are produced. The advantages of pruning just before midsummer are, that the wounds may be partially healed over the same season, and that the sap which would have been employed in maturing the shoots cut off is thrown into those which remain. The disadvantages are, that the sap which would have been elabo- rated by the leaves cut off, and which woiild have added to the strength of the tree and its roots, is lost. In the case of trees already sufficiently strong, this is no disadvantage ; but in the case of those which are too weak, it is a positive loss. The summer season is found better than any other for prun- ing trees which gum, such as the cherry and the plum, provided too much foliage is not thereby taken away ; and it is also considered favorable for resinous trees. The autumn, on the other hand, is considered the best for trees that are apt to suffer from bleeding, such as the vine, the birch, and some species of maple. IV. TRAINING. Uses of Training. — To train a plant is to support or conduct its stem and branches in some form or position, either natural or artificial, for purposes of use or ornament. It is effected partly by pruning and thinning, but chiefly by pegging down to the ground, tying and fastening to rods, stakes, or trellises, or nailing to walls. The articles more immediately required are hooked pegs, ties, nails, and lists, with props of various kinds, and ladders. Principles of Training. — The principles upon which training is founded vary according to the object in view, but they all depend more or less on these facts : — that the sap of a plant is generally impelled with the greatest force to its highest point, and that, in general, whatever promotes this ten- dency encourages the production of leaves and shoots, and whatever represses HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 465 h promotes the formation of blossom-buds. When a plant is to be trained over the surface of the ground, it must be borne in mind, that, as the tendency of the sap is always to the highest bud, the shoots pegged down should be allowed to turn up at the points, in order to promote their extension. When the object is to produce blossoms or fruitfulness, a contrary practice should be followed, and the points of »he shoots kept down, or, in the case of upright grown plants, trained horizontally, f"" "^.ven in a downward direction. This should also be done when the object is t<^ r'^strain over-luxuriance, and a contrary practice when a weak or sickly plant or ♦ree is to be invigorated. When the object is to economize space, the plants are trained against a trellis, as occupying length, but very little breadth ; and when it is to increase temperature, they are trained or spread out against a wall, which prevents the conducting of heat and moisture from the branches, by acting as a screen against winds, and increases heat, by reflecting the rays of t*'e sun during the day, and giving out heat during the night, and whenever the atmosphere is at a lower temperature than the wall. Manual Operations of Training. — The tie or the list, by which the shoots are fastened to the wall or trellis, should be placed in the internode, and always immediately behind a bud or joint ; because, when tying or nailing takes place in the summer season, and near the points of the growing shoots, the latter sometimes elongate after being fastened, and if this elongation is prevented from taking place in a straight line, by the fastening being made immediately before a bud or leaf, instead of immediately behind it, the shoot will be forced in a curved direction, and the bud and its leaf injured. The bast ties are gently twisted before being tied into a knot, in order that it may be the firmer, and not liable to be torn during the operation of tying. Osier ties, which are frequently used for espalier- trees, are fastened by twisting together the two ends, and turning them down in a manner sooner and easier done than described. In fastening shoots with nails and shreds, when any restraint is required to retain the shoot in its position, the pressure must always be against the shred, and never against the nail, as the latter would gall the shoot, and in stone-fruits generate gum. The shred ought not to be placed in the hollow of a bend in the branch to be attached ; for there it is worse than useless. On the Contrary, the shreds should be put on so as to pull the external bends inwards towards the direct line in which it is dcsira- ole the branch should be trained. Nails an inch in length are suflicient for ordinary branches, but twice that length is necessary for very large ones ; they should, in general, be driven into the joints, and not into the backs, because the joints are easily repaired. Shreds of woollen are preferred to those of any other cloth, or to leather, as being softer, and less influenced by the weather. Their length should be such as to contain a shoot double the f2 466 fakbier's hand-book. size of that for which they are intended, in order that they may never coni« press the shoots so much as to impede the returning sap, and their breadth may be from half to three quarters of an inch to a whole inch. They should be folded up a little at each end, so that in driving the nail through the shred it will pierce four times its thickness, and be in no danger of tearing. Training Hfrbaceous and Shrubby Plants in Pots. — These, being in a highly artificial state, when they require training should have straight rods, or symmetrical frames of laths or of wire-work. A common mode for the grape is seen in the annexed cut ; formed of rods and rings of stout wire the whole being painted according to the taste of the grower. Pise. 297. Training Hardy Flowering Shrubs in the Open Ground. — Trailing and creeping shrubs seldom require any assistance from art, excepting when they are made to grow upright on posts, trellises, or walls. The cut which follows represents a climbing rose, trained down from a ring which forms the top to an iron rod. This is called the balloon manner of training, and was first applied to apple-trees. When the rod is fixed in the ground, the ring at the top should stand an inch or two higher than the graft at the top of the stock, or than the head formed on the stem of the plant, if it should not have been grafted. Six or eight of the strongest shoots are then to be selected, and tied to the ring with tarred twine ; and if, from their length, they are liable to blow about, their ends are attached to twine, continued from the wire to pegs stuck in the ground, as shown in the figure. Training Fruit-trees. — By far the most important application of training is to fruit-trees, whether for the purpose of rendering them more prolific, improving the quality of the fruit, growing fruit in the open air which could not otl^erwise be grown, except under glass, or confining the trees within a limited space. Fruit-trees are trained either as protuberant bushes or 'jeea in the open garden, or spread out on flat surfaces against walls or espaliers. HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 467 In either case, the operation is founded on the principle of suppressing the direct channel of the sap, by which it is more equally distributed over the Fisr. 298. 8^- tree, the tendency to produce over-vigorous shoots from the highest part is diminished, and the production of flowers from every part increased. We find that trees in a state of nature always produce their first flowers from lateral branches, to which the sap flows less abundantly than to those which are vertical ; and the object of training may be said to be, to give all the parts of a tree the character of lateral branches. With a view to this, certain rules have been derived from the principle of the suppression of the sap, which it may be useful to notice as of general application to every mode of training: — 1. Branches left loose, and capable of being put in motion by the wind, grow more vigorously than those which are attached ; and hence the rule to nail or tie in the stronger shoots first, and to leave the weaker shoots to acquire more vigor. Hence, also, the advantage of training with fixed branches against walls, as compared witu training with loose branches in the open garden, when greater fruitAilnesa is the object. 2. Upright shoots grow more freely than inclined shoots. Therefore, when two shoots of unequal vigor are to be reduced to an equality, 463 farmek's hand-book. the weuker must be elevated and the stronger depressed. 3. The shoots cu the upper side of an inclined branch will always be more luxuriant than those on the lower side ; therefore preserve, at the period of pruning or di»- budding, only the strongest shoots below, and only the weakest above. 4. The lower branches of every tree and shrub decay naturally before the upper branches ; therefore bestow the principal care on them, whether in dwarf bushes in the open garden, or with trees trained on espaliers or walls. When they are weak, cut them out, and bring down others to supply their place ; or turn up their extreme points, which will attract a larger portion of sap to every part of the branch. Different Modes of Training Bushes and Trees in the Open Garden.— These are chiefly the conical form for tall trees or standards, and some modification of the globe or cylinder for dwarfs ; but it may be remarked that unless these and all otlier artificial forms are constantly watched, to check the tendency to return to nature, they are much better dispensed with. By careful attention, some of these artificial forms will bring trees sooner into' a bearing state, and a greater quantity of fruit will also be produced in a limited space ; but if the continued care requisite for these objects is with- drawn for two or three years, the growth of the tree, while returning to ita natural character, will produce a degree of confusion in the branches that will not be remedied till all the constrained branches have been cut away. Wherever, therefore, fruit is to be grown on a large scale, and in the most economical manner, in orchards or in the open garden, it is found best to let every tree take its natural shape, and confine the pruner and trainer to such operations as do not greatly interfere with it. These are chiefly keeping the tree erect with a straight stem, keeping the head well balanced, and thinning out the branches where they are crowded or cross each other, or become weak or diseased. There are, however, many persons who have small gardens, and who have leisure or means to attend to all the minutiaj of cul- ture ; and to these some of the modes of training protuberant dwarfs and standards may be of considerable importance, by bringing the trees into a bearing state sooner than would be the case if they were left to nature, and by producing much fruit in little space. Different Modes of Training Fruit-trees against Walls or Espaliers. — These may all be reduced to three forms or systems : — the fan or palmate form, which is tlie most natural mode, and that most generally applicable ; the horizontal system, which is adapted to trees with strong stems, and of long duration ; and the perpendicular system, which is chiefly adapted to climbers, such as the vine. Trees trained by any of the preceding modes, against a wall or espalier, are much more under the control of art than can ever be the case with trees or bushes in the open garden ; because, in the HORTICXTLTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 469 .atter case, the whole tree, as well as its branches, is at all times more or less liable to be put in motion by the wind, whereas against a wall they are fixed, and have not the aid of motion to increase their thickness. For these reasons, and also because flat training is applied to trees which, as protuber- ant bushes in the open garden, would scarcely produce fruit at all, flat train- ing cannot be dispensed with. In making choice of a mode of flat training, the nature of the tree, the climate, soil, and the object in view, must be jointly taken into consideration. Trees of temporary duration, which natu- rally produce numerous divergent branches, such as the peach and the apricot, are best adapted for fan training, where the climate is favorable ; but in a cold climate an approach to the horizontal manner may be preferable, by lessening the quantity of wood produced, and thus facilitating its ripening. The horizontal system of training produces the greatest constraint on nature, and is therefore adapted for fruit-trees of the most vigorous growth, and of large size, such as the pear and apple, which are almost always trained in this manner, whether on walls or espaliers. For plants producing shoots having little or no tendency to ramify, and which are of comparatively short duration, the perpendicular manner is the most natural and the easiest; nevertheless, by disbudding and training, plants of this kind can be made to assume the fan form, and thus be rendered more productive in blossoms and fruit than if trained in a manner which is more natural to them ; and in the case of the vine, even the horizontal system may be adopted, because its shoots are of great duration. Training Dwarfs in the Open Garden. — These are trained in the form of hollow bushes, concave, or shaped like cups, urns, goblets, or barrels, the form being, in every case, produced by training the shoots to a frame- work of rods and hoops. Dwarfs are also trained in the form of globes, balloons, cylinders, low cones, pyramids, triangles, and sometimes with the branches in regular stages, like a girandole. All dwarfs, whether to be left to nature or trained artificially, are grafted on stocks naturally of humble growth, such as the quince or the mountain-ash for the pear, &c., &C. Spiral Cylinders. — Prune and manage the tree so that it shall form from three to six branches, of as nearly equal size as possible, within about six or eight inches of the ground ; and as soon as the branches are grown from three to five feet long, fix six rods, or stakes, into the earth, for supporting them, in a circle about the root. Each branch is then to be brought down, and being fixed to the rod near its base, the branch is to be carried round in a spiral manner, on such an elevation as will form an inclination of about fifteen degrees, and each branch is to be fixed in the same manner, one after another ; thus all will move in the same direction, one above the other, like EO many cork-screws following in the same course, as shown in the annexed 40 • ^ 470 farmer's itAND-BOOK. figure. As, from this position of the branches, the point bud of each leader will present the most vertical channel for the sap, the strongest shoot will form there, and thus afford the means of continuing the leaders to a great height, afld for a great length of time, without crossing or obstructing each Fig. 299. Other, or throwing out useless collaterals ; at the same time, by the depressed position of the leading branches, enough sap will be pushed out on their sides to form and maintain vigorous fruiting spurs. As trees trained in this manner need never exceed the bounds allotted them on a border or bed, a greater number of trees may be planted, and a greater quantity of fruit pro- duced, in a given space, than can be the case when they are trained in any other manner. But as pear and apple trees on free stocks may be found to grow too rude and large, after a few years, those best answer which are grafted on dwarf-growing stocks. However, to keep dwarf trees from growing too luxuriant and rude, it is a good practice to take them up and replant them every three or four years ; if this be done with due care, as soon as the leaves are off the trees in the fall of the year, it will not injure them, nor prevent them bearing a full crop of fruit the following year. Spurring-in. — Choose a tree that has a leading shoot in an upright direction ; having planted it, shorten the side shoot, leaving only two or three buds, and shorten also the leading shoot, according to its strength, so that no more buds may be left on it than will produce shoots. The first summer there will be a produce of shoots, and if before mid-summer the leading shoot be shortened, it will probably throw out side shoots the same season. At the winter pruning, all the side shoots maybe shortened to two or three buds, and the leading shoot to such a number as it is believed will be developed. These are to be shortened, and the process of shortening is to be repeated every year, till the tree has the appearance of Fig. 300 ; or until it has attained the height required, or which the kind of tree is calcu- lated to attain. HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. Fig. 300. 471 Conical Standards. — Conical standards, or, as they are erroneously called, pyramidal standards, may be produced from trees partially spurred-in, but Fig. 301. ' the most general mode is, to cut in the side branches ; after passing through 472 farmer's hand-book. Beveral successive stages, the tree is brought to its regular shape, and the Bame tree, with the branches of the current year, tied down in the quenou- illc manner, is represented in Fig. 301. From the experience of French gardeners, it would appear that trees trained in the conical manner and en quenouiUe do not last longer than ten or twelve years. Copper wire is used for tying down the branches, and the lower ends of the wires are attached to the stouter branches, to the main stem,. to hooked pegs stuck in the ground, or to a wooden frame fixed a few inches above its surface. Fan Training. — The maiden plant is to be headed down to four eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw out two shoots on each side, as shown in the following figure. The following season, the two uppermost shoota Fig. 302. x. are to be headed down to three eyes, placed in such a manner as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on each side ; the two lowermost shoots are to be headed down to two eyes, so as to throw out one leading shoot, and one shoot on the uppermost side. We have now five leading shoots on each side, well placed, to form our future tree. Each of these shoots must be placed in the exact position in which it is to remain ; and as it is these shoots which are to form the leading character of the future tree, none of them are to be shortened. The tree should by no means be suffered to bear any fruit this year. Each shoot must now be suffered to produce, besides the leading shoot at the extremity, two other shoots on the uppermost side, one near to the bottom, and one about midway up the stem ; there must also be one shoot on the undermost side, placed al)out midway between the other two. All the other shoots must be pinched off in their infant state. From the third year it may be allowed to bear what crop of fruit the gar- dener thinks it able to carry ; in determining which, he ought never to overrate the vigor of the tree. All of these shoots, except the leading ones, must be shortened at the proper season, but to what length must be left entirely to the judgment of the gardener, it, of course, depending upon the vigor of the tree. In shortening the shoot, care should be taken to cut back to a bud that will produce a shoot for the following year. Cut close to the bud, so that the wound may heal the following season. The follow ing season, each shoot at the extremities of the leading branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one on the upper and two on the under HORTICULTURAL SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 473 part, more or less, according to the vigor of the tree ; whilst each of the Becontlary branches should produce, besides the leading shoot, one other placed near to the bottom : for the grand art of pruning, in all systems to which this class of trees are subjected, consists in preserving a sufficient quantity of young wood at the bottom of the tree ; and on no account must the gardener cut clean away any shoots so placed, without well consider- ing if they will be wanted, not only for the present but for the future good appearance of the tree. The quantity of young wood annually laid in mus' depend upon the vigor of the tree. But if any of the leading shoots mani- fest a disposition to outstrip the others, a larger portion of young wood must be laid in, and a greater quantity of fruit than usual suffered to ripen on the over-vigorous branch ; at the same time, a smaller quantity of fruit than usual must be left to ripen on the weaker branch. This will tend to restore the equilibrium better than any other method. The following figure is that Fiff. 303. of a tree in a more advanced state, well balanced, and well calculated for an equal distribution of sap all over its surface. Whenever any of the lower shoots have advanced so far as to incommode the others, they should be cut back to a yearling shoot ; this will give them room, and keep the lower part of the tree in order. In nailing, care must be taken not to bruise any part of the shoot ; the wounds made by the knife heal quickly, but a bruise often proves incurable. In nailing in the young shoots, dispose them as straight and as regular as possible. Whatever system of training is pursued, the leading branches should be laid in in the exact position they are to remain ; for wherever a large branch is brought down to fill the lower part of the wall, the free ascent of the sap is obstructed by the extension of the upper and contraction of the lower parts of the branch. It is thus robbed of part 40* 474 farmer's hand-book. of its former vigor, whilst it seldom fails to throw out immediately behind the part most bent one or more vigorous shoots. Horizontal Training. — This is practised either with one or two stems, and either with the upright stem straight or in a zigzag direction, to stimu- late the lateral buds to develop themselves. From this upright stem, the branches proceed at right angles, — generally at nine inches apart for apples, cherries, and plums, and from ten inches to a foot, or eighteen inches, for pears. A maiden plant with three shoots having been procured, the two side ones are laid in horizontally, and the centre one upright, as in Fig. 304, which shows the first stage of horizontal training. All the buds being Fig. 304. rubbed off the latter but three, viz., one next the top for a vertical leader, and one on each side, as near the top as possible, for horizontal branches. In the course of the first summer after planting, the shoots may be allowed to grow without being stopped. In the autumn of the first year, the two laterals produced are nailed in, and also the shoots produced from the ex- tremities of the lower laterals, the centre shoot being headed down as before. But in the second summer, when the main shoot has attained the length of Fig. 305. ten inches, or twelve inches, it may be stopped ; which, if the plant is in proper vigor, will cause it to throw out two horizontal branches, in addition HORTICULTURAL sAlENTIFIC OPERATIONS. 475 to those which were thrown out from the wood of the precedingf year. Tlie tree will be now in its second summer ,4ind will have four horizontal branches on each side of the upright stem ; and, by persevering- in this system, four horizontal branches will be produced in each year, till the tree reaches the top of the wall, when the upright stem must terminate in two horizontal branches. In the following autumn the tree will have the appearance of Fig. 305, supposing an apple-tree be the plant to be trained, and that it consists of a single shoot from a bud. Lot it be planted early in autumn, and next spring head it down to seven buds. Every bud pushing two or three shoots, the third and fourth, counting upwards, must be rubbed off when they are three inches in length ; the uppermost shoot must be trained straight up the wall, for a leading stem, and the remaining four horizontally along the wall. The leading shoot having attained about fifteen inches in length, cut it down to eleven inches. From the shoots that will thus be produced, select three, one to be trained as a leader, and two as side branches. Proceeding in this way for seven years, the ti-ee will have reached the top of a wall twelve feet high. With weak trees, or trees in "very cold, late situations, this practice will not be advisable, as the wood produced from the summer shoots would be too weak, or would not ripen ; but in all ordinary situations the plan will succeed. Perpendicular Training. — This is comparatively little Used, excepting for climbing shrubs, such as roses, the vine, and the gooseberry and currant, when trained against a wall or espalier rail. The principle is to have two horizontal main stems on the lowest part of the wall or trellis, and to train from these upright shoots at regular distances. Sometimes four horizontal main stems are used, — two at the bottom, and the other two half way up the wall or espalier ; but this mode is chiefly pursued with the vine. Comparative View of the Different Modes of Training. — Of the various modes of training explained in the foregoing pages, any modification may be adopted when circumstances may require, provided the general princi- ples are kept in view. Ornamental shrubs are easily managed, because they have not a tendency to rear themselves by forming a strong stem ; but with regard to fruit-trees the case is otherwise. These, it is well known, if left to nature, form one strong stem, supporting a top which . reaches the height of twenty, thirty, or forty feet, or more. In order to attain this, the sap rushes, whilst the tree is young and vigorous, towards the leading shoot ; and if lateral branches occasionally are produced, the flow of sap is not strongly directed towards them, compared to that which 13 impelled towards the more upright part. At length, however, a ramifica- tion does take place, in comparison with which the leading shoot becomes less and less predominant, till it becomes ultimately lost among its com- 476 farmer's hand-book. peers. A tolerably equal distribution of sap then results, and a conical oi spherical top is formed, bearing fruit, not generally in the concavity, where it would be greatly excluded from light, but at the external surface, where the fruit itself, and the leaves immediately connected with the buds pro- ducing it, can be fully exposed to light, air, and dews. Lateral branches are occasionally produced on the stem, in the progress of its ascent. When the top is formed, these are placed at great disadvantage, owing to their being overshaded ; and they are then apt to decay, the tree assuming the charac- ter of a large, elevated top, supported on a strong, naked stem. This is the natural disposition of trees, and to this it is necessary to attend, in order that it may be counteracted where the natural form of the tree cannot be admitted. It should be borne in mind that the disposition to form an elevated naked stem is still strongly evinced in dwarf trees ; although sub- divided, yet each branch possesses its share of the original disposition, and its lower and horizontal shoots are left to become weak, in comparison with the upper, and those that are vertical. CHAPTER XII. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. BUOBT OR BLVST CANKER OR CARIES — CONSUMPTION — CONTORTION — DROPSY ERGOT — HONET-DEW CURL MILDEW — POTATO ROT SMUT. BLIGHT, OR BLAST. Description. — Blight is any disease which seriously damages or prevents the fructification of a crop. Some of the most familiar and devastating kinds of it have been fully investigated, and are known to be caused by insects, by fungi, or by well-defined chemical or meteorological agencies; and have been described with an accuracy and minuteness which enable us readily to distinguish them from one another, to designate them by distinct- ive names, — such as Mildew, Smut, Rust, &c., — and to point out their origin, their indications, and their prevention, alleviation, or cure. There are however, one or two kinds of blight still mentioned by writers under the name of blight, and which are either principally or wholly ascribable to meteorological influence; and these may here be noticed. Different Kinds of Blight. — One kind of blight is occasioned by prema- turely mild weather, followed by sharp frosts and easterly winds, in spring, which are liable to arrest the flow of sap from the roots, occasion the young leaves and shoots to shrivel and die, and cause the arrested juices to swell and burst the lender vessels, and to become the prey of innumerable aphides. The general result is either the death of the plant, the destruction of its growth for the season, or at least the infliction upon it of a great degree of temporary feebleness. The aphides which feed upon the extravasated juices, though but a consequence of the blight, are sometimes mistakingly regarded as the cause of it, and supposed to be wafted by the east wind. Unskilful gardeners sometimes aggravate the blight by closely matting up the trees, or keeping them protected during the day, thus rendering tliem so exceedingly tender that even a slight subsequent frost does them materia, damage. The sudden evaporation of hoar-frost from the opening leaflets of a young hedge, by a powerful sun, in a calm vernal atmosphere, sometimes 60 utterly destroys the incipient shoots, and kills all the young folinge, as to produce, in a few days, the appearance of a severe scorching by fire. A 478 farmer's hand-book. hedge thus hli^^hted occasionally remains leafless throughout the summer, or only shows some feehle symptoms of exfoliation toward the beginning of autumn ; and it ought, in every case, to be left untouched till, by its own vitality, or without any artificial appliance, it has recovered strength and vigor. Another kind of blight sometimes occurs in summer, when farm crops have attained their full growth, and is usually ascribed to sultry and pesti- lential vapor, — the plants being shrunken and shriveled up to less than half their former size, with a withered and blasted appearance. Though such instances as this are ascribed wholly to atmospherical causes, a care- ful inspection of the straw might possibly detect the presence of minute parasitic fungi. A third kind of blight, called by many the white blight, is occasioned by deficiency or failure of proper nourishment. It occasionally attacks all kinds of plants, both wild and cultivated ; is most common in thin, gravelly, irretentive soils, in very dry seasons ; and it usually consists in throwing the plants prematurely into blossom, and ripening the ear or pod before the body, or more than the mere embryo of the seed, is formed. The only known palliatives or preventives of these three kinds of blight are, proper condition and thorough treatment of the soil. CANKER, OR CARIES, Description. — This is a disease in fruit-trees, elms, larches and other trees. It chiefly corrupts the juices, corrodes the substance, and destroys the vitality of the young shoots and branches of fruit-trees, and it has long been known and deplored as a most formidable enemy of orchards. Its symptoms vary considerably in trees of the same species, and very widely in trees of dif- ferent genera. In some instances of its attack, a black speck appears on the epidermis of a tree, assumes the character of an erosion, and gradually eats away the organism, till the branch becomes utterly enfeebled, and readily breaks ; in other instances, a scrofulous-looking ring surrounds the branch, and eats its way inward till it reaches the pith ; and in others, a black and thread-like line of disease originates in the pith itself, and exerts, in the direction of the exterior, a killing power upon all the branch's functions. The first of these, however, is the most common commencing symptom of the disease, -find this is usually accompanied with an enlargement of the vessels of the bark, but in some instances is dry, and in others watery. The swelling or enlargement of the vessels of the bark, which constitutes so conspicuous a symptom of some of the ordinary kinds of canker, invaria- bly and prominently attends it in the apple-tree, invariably but less promi- nently attends it in the pear-tree, frequently but not always attends it in the THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 479 elm and the oak, and very seldom, if ever, attends it in the peach. The swelling is soon communicated to the wood, w4iich, if laid open to view, on its first appearance, by the removal of the bark, exhibits no marks of dis- ease beyond the mere unnatural enlargement. In the course of a few years, — less in number, in proportion to the advanced age of the tree, and the unfavorable circumstances under which it is vegetating, — the swelling is greatly increased in size, and the alburnum has become extensively dead ; the superincumbent bark cracks, rises in discolored scales, and decays even more rapidly than the wood beneath. If the canker is upon a mod- erately-sized branch, the decay . soon completely encircles it, extending through the whole alburnum and bark. The circulation of the sap being thus entirely prevented, all the parts above the disease of necessity perish. The first appearance of the disease in the peach is so very slight, that an unexperienced observer of it would suppose it to be of no consequence. Small brown circular spots constitute the whole of this appearance, and may easily be cut out with the knife, so as to let the subsequent vegetation be as vigorous as if they had never existed. But let the spots be forgotten for a few days, and when the observer returns to examine them, they will be found to have spread far and corroded deeply. Origin. — The causes assigned for canker have been very various and conflicting, and the subject of much controversy. Some writers think that it is occasioned by coldness and churlishness of climate ; others regard it as a tropical disease in the parts immediately affected, brought on by some bruise or other injury, and exasperated by an unhealthy sap, consequent upon unfavorableness of situation, soil and culture ; others view it as an effect of the lodgment of minute, parasitic fungi, growing from spores, either taken up from the soil through the spongioles, or received from diffusion through the atmosphere into cracks or wounds in the bark ; and others think that it is a disease in the constitution or whole organic system of trees, — that it springs from a vitiated and peccant state of all the juices, and that it will again and again break out, independently of any external injury or agency, so long as tlie juices continue to be unaltered. Opinions as to fungi being the cause of canker are exceedingly various and conflicting. Minute parasitic fungi unquestionably attend most instances of canker, and sometimes exist in such myriads as to impart a peculiar tinge to the whole stem of cankered trees ; but very different fungi attack different trees, several kinds sometimes attack the same species, and possibly some are either causes or aggravations of canker, while most are merely innocuous effects. The stramatospharia nmlticcps so commonly and greatly abounds on cankered pear-trees, particularly on the jargonelle, the Windsor, the swan's egg, the summer bergamot and the autumn bergamot 4.80 farmer's hand-book. varieties, and seeming to make their young shoots, and even their oldei branches, die away toward the extre^nity, that it has been regarded by some close observers as the sole cause of their canker ; — a kind of fungus totally different from this accompanies, and has been thought by some persons to rouse, precisely similar symptoms of canker in apple-trees. The opinion that canker is occasioned by the weakness of a tree's consti- tution, by a distemper in all its juices, or by a deficiency in its functional energies, and by a consequent inability to imbibe and elaborate sufficient nourishment for existing organs, and sufficient matter for the formation of new parts, — this opinion makes very ample allowance for the malign influ- ence of bad climate, bad soil, bad cultivation, bad variety of tree, and all sorts of accidents and unfavorable circumstances; and, as maintained by some writers, it even seems to speak of constitutional distemper as a convenient general expression for the operation of all kinds of conceivable causes. Johnson maintains that all facts unite in confirming the opinion that canker arises from the tree's weakness. It matters not whether its energy is broken down by an unnatural rapidity of growth, by a disproporlioned excess of branches over the mass of roots, by old age, or by the disorganization of the roots in an ungenial soil ; they render the tree incapable of extracting sufficient nourishment from the soil, — consequently incapable of developing a sufficient foliage, and therefore unable to digest and elaborate even the scanty sap that is supplied to them. Both soil and subsoil, in spite of the assertion of a few writers to the contrary, appear to exert a very considerable influence. A wet, retentive subsoil does not permit sufficient aeration, cannot perform sufficient diges- tion, and will not allow a sufficiency of perfectly fresh elements of healthy Bap ; and therefore must act malignly, not alone as a reservoir of cankering vapors, but as an originator of impoverishing and poisonous juices. A deep and very rich soil gives trees a plethoric and dropsical habit, and, in conse- quence, occasions so powerful a predisposition to canker, that a cure for this disease in an orchard has sometimes been found in the simple process of wheeling away one stratum of the soil, and diluting the remaining stratum. If a subsoil either be ill-drained or consist of ferruginojjs gravel, or if a soil be clayey and not kept w'ell drained and porous, all trees which grow upoij it, but especially fruit-trees, are exceedingly liable to become cankered. A soil exhausted by long cropping, or charged with the sporidia of accumulated growths of minute emphytic fungi, is peculiarly unfavorable ; and hence an old worn-out orchard, if replanted with fruit-trees, is almost certain to communicate canker to even the most vigorous young plants wiiich can be selected. A cold situation, frequency of raw fogs, and th» prevalence of piercing and moist east winds, in the spring, seem to be the principal cankering elements in climate. Injudicious pruning, bruises, THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 481 damage to the bark, and all similar accidents, if tliey do not originate canker, seldom fail to aggravate it. Trees of every age are liable to canker ; but, as a general rule, all become increasingly so as they advance in age, and. particularly such as have had a vigorous growth in their youth. All grafting varieties of fruit-trees, also, become more and more cankerable as they multiply in reproduction, till they eventually acquire such an accumulation of peccant humor as to be continually diseased, and no lonrrer propagable. The scions of an old variety of fruit-trees merely multiply an aged individual ; and though they acquire temporary vigor from the young and stimulating sap of the stocks on which they are grafted, they become, in a few years, as cankerable and decrepit as the parent tree. The golden- pippin, one of the oldest varieties of the apple-tree at present cultivated, is frequently and severely attacked by the canker, — more so, according to some writers, than any other kind. Remedy. — The prevention and cure of canker are necessarily various, and must, in any one instance, be directed against the special forms which the dis- ease assumes, or the particular cause by which it is excited. If coldness of climate be the only cause which can fairly be assigned for it in any par- ticular orchard, covering with glass is the chief preventative ; and this, of course, can be applied to only a few select wall-trees. If fungi can, in any instance, be regarded as a chief exciting cause, a proper remedy might probably be the free use of the knife, and a subsequent copious washing with caustic lime-water. If plethoric or dropsical habits seem to be form- ing, or have already formed, one of the main roots of the tree may be removed, and an admixture of poor loam, sandy mould, or even of drift sand, or any other diluting matter, may be worked into the soil. If mere weak- ness of constitution, or defect of functional energy, appears to be the cause, while no one kind of exciting influence can be detected or inferred, a very efficient remedy is, to cut away all the infected parts, and make a judicious pruning among the remaining branches ; and even if such exciting circum- stances as unfavorable climate, ungenial soil, or previous bad culture, can be detected, an excellent effect may be produced by the gradual sawing and cutting away of exuberant branches and shoots. If canker in a fruit-tree is a consequence of old age, it is probably a premature senility, induced by injudicious management. Unless in the last stage of decay, a tree mayjje recovered by giving it mor.e air and light, by carefully heading-in, pruning, improving the soil, and cleansing the bark. If the soil, by its ungenial character, induces the disease, the obvious and only remedy is its amelior- ation ; and if the subsoil is the cause of the mischief, the roots must be prevented striking into it. In all cases, it is the best practice to remove the tap-root. Some persons recommend, and many successfully practise, the 41 g2 4S2 iarmer's hand-book. removal of all decayed or exuviated bark, and the application of various liquid washes, such as a solution of common salt, or a diluted liquid com- pound of cow-dung, soap-suds, and urine. When any bruise or other injury is inflicted, of a kind likely to induce or develop canker, a piece of living bark from another tree might be exactly fitted into the incision, in the same manner as in the operation of budding. The grand preventative of canker in larch-trees, — which are frequently and severely the subjects of this disease, — is to select, for plantations, such situations and soils as shall not subject the trees to combined coldness and moisture. CONSUMPTION. This is the gradual enfeeblement and eventual wasting away and death of a plant. This must be viewed less as any one disease than as the com- mon or aggregate character of a number of diseases. It originates variously, in too frequent and profuse flowering, in bad planting, in mechanical dam- age to the roots, in poverty of soil, in excessive drought, in severe and sud- den vicissitudes of weather, in unusually tempestuous winds, and probably in some other causes equally distinct ; and it may be supposed to have a variety in its modes of action, or in its distinctive characters, corresponding to the variety of these causes. The preventative of most kinds of it is man- ifestly good culture. CONTORTION. This is the effect of the injury inflicted on the leaves of plants by the puncture of insects, particularly of the aphides. The leaves of the peach, the apricot, the nectarine, and the apple-tree, are very liable to contortion. The only sure preventative of the evil is to destroy the little creatures which cause it. DROPSY. Dropsy is a watery and diseased swelling in some parts of plants. It occurs chiefly in plants of a succulent nature, and principally in bulbs, tubers, and fruits. It appears to arise from the absorption of more moisture by the spongioles than can be secreted in the plant or throw;n off by the leaves ; and it is known to be caused by excessive manuring, excessive artificial watering, and an unusual abundance of rain. Bulbs and roots affected with it are watery and swelled ; fruits are watery and insipid, and fall before being ripe ; and leaves, though continuing green and apparently sound, suddenly and prematurely fall. ERGOT. This is a disease in the growing grain or seed of some of the grasses, particularly of rye. It is the most mysterious of all the diseases with whicb THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 483 the cereal gfrasses are affected ; and, after multitudinous and most learned investigations, continues to be the subject of conflicting opinions as to its nature, its origin, and its mode of development. The substance called the ergot either issues from between the glumes, and occupies the place of the grain, or it is the grain itself, in both a monstrous form and a chemically altered condition. It lengthens to more than double the natural size of the grain ; protrudes beyond the chaff; is angled, grooved, and furrowed ; has a deep, purplish-brown color, and often assumes a curved form, somewhat resembling that of a cock's spur. Its surface, when seen through a micro- scope, is profusely marked with white, shining, transparent, angular dots ; and its interior, when laid open with a sharp instrument, and seen in water under a microscope, appears to consist of white flocculent threads, with spherical sporules. It has a spongy texture, a heavy, disagreeable odor, and a nauseous, acrid, burning taste; and when put in contact with the flame of a candle, it catches fire like an oily substance, and burns like an almond. It is supposed by some naturalists to be an excrescence similar to the oak-apple and the nut-gall, and to be occasioned by the puncture of some insect ; by others, to be a monstrous development or morbid swelling of the seed, occasioned by some disturbance in the organs of circulation or secretion ; and by others, to be a foreign or super-imposed vegetable growth, occasioned by a parasitic fungus. The last of these opinions is probably the best supported. Whatever be its origin and its physical nature, ergot exerts a dreadfully noxious power upon the system of any men or brutes who receive even very small portions of it in their food. It has been ascertained, by experiment upon many of the lower animals, to produce the most horrible gangrenes, rotting of the extremities, internal tortures, and agonizing death ; it has been known to slough and kill not a few human beings who have eaten grain or flour infected with it. HONEY-DEW. Honey-dew, so called, is a clear, colorless, viscid, sweet liquid, found often on the leaves of plants, and sometimes on the ground beneath them. It tastes somewhat like honey ; it is perfectly fluid in warm weather, but is somewhat consolidated or candied in cold weather ; and, when evaporated from paper, it leaves a gummy mark, not unlike that left by solution of gum-Arabic. It appears sometimes in blotches upon leaves ; sometimes in suffusion over the whole surface of the lower leaves ; sometimes in globulai drops, of various sizes ; but, in all ordinary instances, it appears merely upon leaves, and only in such quantity as to seem like exudations on their urface. All ants and wasps and bees are extremely fond of it. 484 farmer's hand-book. The opinions of different writers are very conflicting as to the origin, and BO forth, of honey-dew. The most intelligent supposition respecting it is, that it is entirely the deposit of minute insects, — small flies, perhaps a species of the genus thrips, — which emit a sweet clammy liquor on the leaves of the tree it lives on. This opinion is fortified by the fact of there having frequently been noticed a great concourse of thripses, as well as aphides, on trees infested with honey-dew. The aphides, however, are by many persons considered the chief or sole producers of it, and it accompanies their flights and colonizations. They differ very widely, in some principal parts of their economj', from all other animals ; and cannot be regarded with greater wonder as ejectors of a viscid saccharine liquid, than as propagators of their species through a series of progenies as the effect of a single impregnation. They live wholly on liquid food, and discharge no solid excrements, and are provided not only with an anal vent, but with two long, horn-like rump tubes, for ejecting such refuse or portion of their food as is unnecessary for their nourishment. If they were regarded as forming the saccharine matter of the honey-dew in their interior organism, they would no doubt be a nota ble exception to the otherwise uniform origin of all saccharine substances ; but, when their peculiar economy of feeding and structure is considered, they may easily be supposed to act as simple living ducts of the saccharine matter from the vegetable vesicles in which they find it to the surface of the leaves on which they deposit it ; or, in other words, they receive the sac- charine matter ready made in their liquid food, and simply part with unde. composed portions of it in their ejections. The particular species which deposit most honey-dew are Aphis brassiccc, Aphis rapa;, Aphis ubui, Erios oma populi, and Eriosama mali. Honey-dew possesses an incidental value as an occasional and sometimes a principal food for bees. But, on the whole, honey-dew is a serious evil, partly by disfiguring the foliage of fruit-trees, and stickily attracting dust to plums and cherries, but chiefly by arising, through the medium of the aphides, from an enormous abstraction of the healthy juices out of plants. The only effectual preventive or cure of it, of course, is to ward off or destroy the aphides ; and some of the chief means of dealing with the species are noticed in our chapter on Insects. But a weak solution of common salt, applied to the soil around infected trees, has been found to be effectual. CURL. This is a disease in potato plants. It is developed before the plants rise to the surface of the ground, and it affects them through all the future stages of their existence. The stem of the infected plants is puny and stinted ; the THE GREAT DISEASES OP PLANTS. 485 leaves are meagre, sickly and crumpled ; and the tubers are small, and, if used for sets, are certain to propagate the disease. Of the various causes of this disease assigned by different writers, the true one appears to be the diminution of the vital energy of the tubers, either by over-ripening, by bad keeping, by sprouting, or by too deep planting. The vi^ant of strength to develop a full, healthy plant, is the disease itself in embryo ; and this is occasioned by any circumstance which diminishes the store of nourishment contained in the tubers for the support of the young plants. The means of preventing curl are distinctly suggested by the nature of its cause ; and some of these means will, at the same time, prevent other dis- eases of the potato, and promote the general health and vigor of the plants. Tubers intended for sets ought to be simply matured and not over-ripened ; they ought to be kept, throughout the winter and till the time when they are wanted, in a condition of dryness, coolness, and exclusion from light and air ; and if, through mismanagement or accident, they be allowed to shoot, or even to exhibit decided symptoms of begun vegetation, they ought to be rejected from the uses of planting. The sets ought to be immediately planted after they are cut, and ought to be kept from exposure, during even the briefest time, to the play of sunshine, to a very high temperature, or to the current of a drying wind. The manure ought to be regularly spread and mixed with the soil, and not laid along a trench, or put in immediate contact with the sets. Potatoes ought not to be planted, for a succession of years, on the same field or plot ; and the tubers used for planting ought, every year, or as frequently as possible, to be obtained from another kind of soil, particularly from a poorer one than that in which they are to be planted. When the seed-stock is carefully pitted, and not exposed to th^ air, in the spring, the crop has seldom any curl ; but where the seed-stock is put into barns, and other similar places, for months together, such crop seldom escapes turning out in some measure curled ; and if but few curl the first year, if they are planted again, it is more than probable the half of them will curl the next season. MILDEW. Tlie Use of the Word or Term. — This is the appropriate name of a specific, devastating, and dismally common disease in wheat and other grasses, and is now the only thing meant by the word mildew, in the writ- ings of the most intelligent and scientific agricultural writers. Its Nature. — With respect to its nature, all botanists now believe that mildew, in its normal form, as a spotting and blotching on the stalks of wheat, is the regular parasitic growth of minute fungi, — Puccinia grarni- nis; and several of the most eminent writers think that the diseases called 41* 4S6 farmer's hand-book. rust, red -bag, red-robin, and red-gum, which infest the leaves and chaff- scales of wheat, and produce a discoloration similar to that of iron-rust or of burning, are simply modifications of varieties of the normal mildew, or Puccinia graminis. Growth and Phenomena of Mildew. — Though one of the minutest objects in the vegetable world, mildew is so prodigiously prolific and immensely multitudinous as to be one of the mightiest physical scourges, as well as one of the oldest ; and yet, even at this advanced period, it hardly begins to be properly understood. The name Puccinia is formed from a Greek word, which signifies " closely," or " thickly," and alludes to the crowded man- ner in which the minute fungi are packed in the tufts and patches in which they grow. A stalk of wheat, wlien beginning to be mildewed, exhibits a number of dark-colored spots beneath the epidermis, some of an orange hue and others of a dark-brown tinge ; and, in a short time, it suffers ruptures and openings of the outer cuticle, and displays, in protrusion through these, dark, musty clusters of spores, amassed in dense, diffuse tufts, and often con- fluent into one another, so as to constitute long parallel lines, and commonly possessing at first a brownish-yellow color, and changing afterwards to black. Any intelligent person, with the aid of a proper microscope, and of a good brilliant light, may easily show to the farmer the forms and appearances of mildew. First strip off a little bit of the affected straw, and let it be viewed as an opaque object. The thick clustering of the spores might be easily pointed out, as well as the way in which they rupture the cuticle, — a half- inch achromatic object-glass, with a low eye-piece, will sufiice for this; with a higher power, and bits of cuticle and straw cut so thin that the light may easily be shown through them from the mirror, the stomata would be seen, and the vegetation of the spores on the mycetium in the cavities beneath them. Lastly, a small piece of one of the dark patches might be taken off with the point of a pin, or of a small penknife, and laid on a strip of glass. Moisten this with a little drop of water, and cover it with a small fragment of the very thin glass sold by opticians for such purposes. Place t on the stage of the microscope, show the light through it, and look at it with a quarter of an inch achromatic. The structure of the spores, the division of the cliambers, the stalks, and every part of them, will become distinctly seen. The Puccinia graminis affects, not wheat only, but other cereal grasses, and even several species of reeds ; and it is common to almost all countries in the world. A growth of it, when seen unmagnified upon the leaves of other plants, presents nearly the same appearance as on wheat, and may instantly be detected by an observer of it upon the latter. It may often be detected in the lower part of the stalk of wheat, — generally on the shoot-blade. THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 487 80 early as the second week of June ; but it never makes any very serious appearance, nor even affords decided indication of being about to make any considerable devastation, till some time in July. If the weather in July be hot and dry, even though the fungus may have recently devastated the dis trict, it will seldom make an extensive or very hurtful development ; but if the weather in July be close, moist, and cloudy, even though the fungus may have been recently scarce in the district, it will possibly make a great, and somewhat sudden, and very menacing appearance. The farmer, in the latter case, ought diligently to examine his wheat crop, especially such as seems to be strongest and most luxuriant ; and if he detects any considerable number of tufts of the fungus upon the stalks, he ought promptly to bring into play such methods of treatment as have been found most effectual for subduing mildew. When the sporules of puccinia have entered the stomata of wheat, and effected a lodgment beneath the epidermis, and begun to vegetate within the stalk, they both prey upon the tissues and intercept a portion of the sap which ascends from the spongioles of the roots for the forming and nourish- ing of the grain. But the exterior portion or sheath of the grain is generally formed before any considerable mildewing occurs ; and the period of the formation and growth of the inner portion, or farinaceous substance, or flour, is precisely the period of the most general and vigorous development of the sporules into spores and full-grown fungi ; so that, usually in the proportion of the number of the fungi which infest a stalk, the grain becomes shriveled while growing, and contains comparatively much bran and little flour when reaped and threshed. The sample of a seriously mildewed crop of wheat, in every instance, looks poor to the eye, is deficient in flour, and contains a superabundance of bran. The JJredo linearis and Uredo rubigo', though believed to be mere varieties o{ Puccinia graminis , a.ni though sometimes assuming appearances closely akin to those which are popularly called mildew, generally have different habits, and follow somewhat different laws, and take from the popular vocabulary of farmers the names of rust, red-rust, red-robin, red-rag, and red- gum. The U. linearis takes its name from the oblong form of its spores ; and the U. rubigo takes its name from its reddish-rusty color, and has nearly spherical spores. Both vary in color from an orange tint to a brov/nish hue, and make the parts of plants infested with them to appear as if dusted with an orange or a brownish rustiness. They occur on the old or young leaves of the plants, on the chaff-scales, and on the stalks; and they infest the plants at all stages of their growth, and may be regarded as occurring principally on the young blades in spring, principally on the stalks when developed about the same time as the Puccinia graminis, or in mixture with 488 farmer's hand-book. it, and principally on the old leaves and on tlie glumes and paleee in autumn. Their presence in the chaff-scales is indicated by rows and clusters of some- what ovular minute spots ; and the matter composing them exudes from the inner surface like a reddish gummy substance. A very destructive fungus attacks the common cabbage, and appears upon it as a mildew. It appears upon cabbage-leaves, in clusters resembling small white patches, or specks, or frosty incrustations. All the spores are filled with sporules, and burst when they are ripe, scattering them in every direction ; and whenever these find their way to the leaves of cabbages, they take root upon them, and prop agate. Provocatives, Preventives, and Correctives. — The extermination oi Puc- dnia graminis, Uredo linearis, and Uredo rubigo, from any district or coun- try, seems to be impossible. But the mildew can manifestly be very greatly controlled, and, in an aggregate of years upon any farm, may be exceed- ingly diminished. The conditions of soil, of crop, of culture, and even of climate, which predispose to it, by either rendering it prolific, or giving high vivacity to its sporules, or producing an aptitude in the stomata of plants to imbibe them, or disposing the tissues and juices of the plant to foster and develop them, may be very powerfully modified by the skill and the arts of enlightened husbandry. A generally healthy state of the plant, without any over-luxuriance of vegetation, is most likely to secure a crop against the attacks of the rust and mildew fungi ; but whatever tends to render the plant sickly, — whether it be excess of heat or cold, drought or wet, sudden changes of temperature, poverty of soil, over-manuring, shade, &c., &c., — must be considered as a predisposing cause to these diseases. Wherever the farming is of the best kind, and where drainage is good, the mildew fungus will not be found in any alarming degree. The mildew fungi multiply and flourish most in a moist atmosphere, in a subdued light, and in a gentle warmth ; and are therefore most abundant and destructive in climates and situations which are subject to what farmers ex- pressively call " muggy weather." This may appear, at first sight, to be a cause of mildew entirely beyond the control of farmers. Yet something may be done to escape it, by practising such methods of culture, and adopting such times of sowing, and using such varieties of seed-stock, as are best fitted to bring the crop into a state of the utmost possible maturity and vigor at the particular season when the moistness or mugginess is, on the average of years, most prevalent. Foggy weather, in some circumstances, seems to be even a stronger provocative to mildew than ordinary moist weather ; and, when preceded by a time of great drought, occasions an unusually great mildew- ing of wheat crops. All soils are very seriously subject to mildew, yet some yield more readily THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 489 and abundantly to it than others. Tenacious clays seem .to offer it the Greatest resistance, and light moorish or light limy soils seem to offer it but slightly. The soils most liable to have their crops injured, particularly that of wheat, are the following, and in the order stated: — peat or moor, limy, limy loams, sand, sandy loams, and another kind not found in any great breadth, but in patches, chiefly, but not exclusively, in clayey soils, — the practical farmer calls it gray earth. Whatever has a tendency to check a quick and great loss of heat in the substances which surround vegetables, particularly their roots, will be best calculated to save them from the injury inflicted by sudden vicissitudes of temperature ; consequently, those earths which are the worst conductors of heat, or, in other words, are the longest in heating or cooling, will be the most favorable in resisting any sudden alteration, and the vegetable growing on them will be the least injured when so assailed. The improvement of light soils by abundant intermix- tures of clay, therefore, — in addition to the great advantages of better tex- ture and richer supply of inorganic food, — involves the benefit of appreciably and permanently diminishing liability to mildew. All varieties of wheat are seriously liable to mildew, but some are rather more liable than others. The white is generally the earliest affected, and the bearded or rivet is generally the Jatest. Any variety of wheat which has a comparatively soft epidermis is probably more subject to mildew than one with a comparatively hard epidermis. The time of sowing, regarded correlatively to the time of its maturing and to the principal time of mildewing, is important. Early-sown wheat-plants are more likely than late-sown ones to pass the time of blooming before being extensively attacked ; and when they can begin to form their seeds before the mildew sets in, they suffer far less damage from it, or are far less embarrassed and impoverished during the process of seedhig, than if they were attacked in an earlier stage of their growth. Late-sown plants, too, are green and sappy at the very season when the chills and fogs and courses of moist weather, which specially induce mildew, are most abundant ; and they are, therefore, liable to be both vigorously and very extensively attacked. Yet, in some cases, early-sown crops, almost or quite as much as late-sown ones, are preyed upon by mildew. Rank or excessive manuring, or any combination of circumstances which occasions excessive luxuriance in a corn crop, both invites mildew, and greatly invigorates and spreads it. The application of farm-yard manure immediately before sowing may both make such an evolution of gases as to attract the sporules floating in the atmosphere, and promote such a tempo- rary plethoric growth in the crop as is eminently suited to the lodgment of the sporules and the development of the fungi. Excessive early luxuriance, 490 farmer's hand-book. whether from immediate manuring, from over-richness of the soil, or from unusual forwardness and warmth in the weather, ought to be checked by feeding down with sheep during a few hours in the day-time, or by any other method which experience and local peculiarities may suggest. A clean or a foul state of the ground, during the early stages of the growth of a crop, has, in all cases, a great influence upon eventual mildewing ; weeds serve as nests of the mildew fungi, and nurse, and feed, and multiply them, preparatory to extensive and severe attacks upon the corn ; and, in all the early stages of the growth of drilled wheat, they ought to be completely kept down, and all the surface stratum of the soil, at the same time, kept in a perfectly sweet and well aerated condition, by the free use of the hoe. Mildew will seldom prevail to any extent where this precaution is taken ; but wherever there are many weeds on the land, the straw will be generally found more or less affected by it. Many methods have been recommended to prevent or destroy mildew ; but almost all of them are impracticable or worthless. A Solution of com- mon salt, however, when applied, not to the soil, but to the crop itself, in the manner of either a vapor or a sprinkle bath, seems to kill the mildew fungus, and to operate, if not as a preventive against an attack of mildew, at least as a cure of actual mildew ilisease. The wheat on the seaside is little damaged by the mildew ; yet, within a very few miles inland, the crops are as much affected as those still further from the sea. The safest quantity of salt per gallon is eight ounces, and then the application may be rendered more effectual by frequent repetition, without any danger of injury to the plants. If the application is not made during a clouded day, it is best to defer it till the evening. As to the idea that the harherry has a considerable influence in the com- munication of the mildew to wheat, the conclusion arrived at by those who have investigated the matter, and whose judgment is entitled to respect, is, that no such influence is exerted or produced by that plant. POTATO ROT. Description. — The murrain, or rot, or mildew, or whatever else the modern potato disease may be called, exhibits a great diversity of phenomena, and probably comprises many and wide sub-varieties of character. Itsgreatfeat- ures are commencement after the formation, or even towards the ripening, of the tubers, and total, irretrievable, putrefactive-looking decay of the whole plant. It is said by some persons to begin in the leaf, — by others, in the stem, — and by others, in the tubers; it sometimes slowly works the plant to decay through a period of five or six weeks, and sometimes scatliingly and scorchingly overwhelms it in the course of twenty-four hours, or in a THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 491 Bingle night; and, in not a few instances in which it seemed to have kept aloof from plants till they were harvested, it has burst out among- the tubers and rotted them in the pit. No descriptions of it, for the present race of cultivators, are needed ; and the very best descriptions of it which have been penned are tinged with theory, and controlled by its own diversities, and are therefore very conflicting ; yet two brief notices of it, by two of the most distinguished observers, may be here recorded. That eminent Euro- pean agriculturist, Mr. George Phillips, gives it as his opinion that the stem is the part where it commences. He also says : — The first external appearance of disease was marked by a deepening of color, accompanied by an enlargement of the affected part, and succeeded by a weeping or exuda- tion. As the disease advanced, the part of the stem affected became soft and pulpy, and the color changed to a yellowish-brown. The stem was generally, if not universally, first affected at a joint, or the part from whence a lateral branch springs, and the leaves above the diseased part blackened, drooped, and died. Seven plants (says Mr. Phillips) were forwarded to me by a gentlem:rn of great practical knowledge, and better specimens for the purpose could not be desired. The stems were all connected with the parent sets, so that the foliage, stems, young tubers, roots, and sets, were complete. The upper part of the st«ms and leaves of the diseased plants had the dull and heavy appearance so characteristic of the disease ; and nearly the whole of the stems were more or less affected at one or the other joints whence the lateral branches sprang from. In some of the plants the stem was most affected at a particular joint ; in others, the smallest branches and leaves were the most injured. No trace of fungi or insects was discov- erable in some of the affected stems beyond the immediate localities of the diseased joints. The disease in these cases had not extended itself, and was confined to a space not exceeding one inch of the length of the foot-stalk In other cases, the disease had spread both ways for a considerable distance from the wound, confining itself chiefly to the medulla. Fungi of the boleti and stellate kind were observable in all the diseased stems ; and at the parts where putrescence existed, the eel-like animalcula abounded. According to another learned observer, the disease usually commences in a semi-trans- parent blotch on the underground parts, which is formed by brown, shiny, extravasated fluid between the epidermis and inner bark, sometimes only on one side of the stem or roots ; and, if the soil becomes dry and the weather fair, it penetrates through the bark rather slowly, but progresses rapidly in a damp soil, with a close, humid atmosphere. Several of these blotches, in their transparent state, were marked, as soon as found, with bits of thread, and it was seen that, sooner or later, according to the circumstances above mentioned, they assumed a scui-vy, opaque appearance outside ; but, by cut- 492 farmer's hand-book. ting through this, the shiny fluid might generally be seen within. The blotches in the tubers change in a similar manner, and the progress of the gangrene in them is accelerated or retarded by the like circumstances. Similar blotches appear about the same time, or soon after, on the roots and cords. Sometimes, however, the leaves are blotched first of all. Many very large plants have been found with nearly every leaf and the stalks likewise blotched, the leaves being covered with botrytis, while the roots and lower parts of the stems remained quite clear ; but (says the same writer), I have never seen, until the 24th of October, diseased roots or cankered stems supporting healthy foliager Hence it appears that the dis- ease does not uniformly originate in the underground parts, but that the plant is stricken throughout its system by an ungenial, or, rather, by a per- nicious state of the atmosphere, — the effects of which, as amongst animals, break out sometimes in one part and sometimes in another. As to the diseased tubers, at whatever time they were first affected, whether in the field or in the pit, many of them soon became rotten to the core ; others rotted in patches, and acquired an appearance similar to that of an apple bruised by a fall ; and a few, after being dried and carefully stored, ceased to be further injured. The diseased parts, in an advanced stage, commonly formed irregular ulcers, and emitted au offensive odor ; the parts around the eyes, in many instances, became mouldy ; and the part next the stem, in general, was the soonest and most severely affected. The tainted tubers were largely employed for the feeding of cattle and hogs, and are not reported to have done any injury to their health ; and, when boiled, their tainted portion, in its earliest stage, was sweet-tasted, and had a disagree- able smell. A report, in the Highland Society's Transactions, of special communica- tions from intelligent farmers in most of the affected districts of Scotland, in 1845, affords the following observations : — The disease appeared chiefly in the latter part of August, and in September and October, yet broke out in some places in July, and did not break out in others till the tubers were lifted and stored ; the weather was prevailingly cold and ungenial, but no precise state of it could be identified with the breaking out of the disease ; early varieties, which were matured soon in the season, either escaped the disease, or were much less affected by it than the later varieties ; all varie- ties whatever, except the earliest ones, were more or less attacked, but in different degrees, and the varieties which escaped best were the Second Early, the Irish Cup, the American Early, and the Common Cup ; potatoes raised recently from seeds, in the great majority of cases, were as subject to the disease as those which had long been propagated from the tubers, and, in many cases, were even more subject to it, though this fact militates noth- THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 493 ing against the desirableness or necessity of raising new varieties from seed, but only shows that they must be raised with skill and caution, and under all the conditions which are essential to real reinvigoration ; the extent and pro- gress of the disease were but little influenced by either the previous culture, the nature of the soil, or the kind of manure ; the disease did not appear, at all events, to propagate itself by contagion, or to extend from diseased to sound tubers after they were taken from the ground ; the most effective store-heaps were found to be small or moderately-sized ones, not too heavily loaded with earth ; and mixtures of lime, or of other substances, with the potatoes in the heaps, were not found to be more beneficial than the old prac- tice of storing the potatoes alone, dry, and in good condition. Causes. — Many predisposing causes of the disease, both old and new, neaj and remote, have been assigned by theorists. Among the old ones are all the most remarkable which were ever at any time assigned for taint and curl, particularly degeneracy, over ripeness, bad storing, bad conditions of plant- ing, high manuring, atmospheric influence, and epidemic miasmata ; and some of these have also been regarded as special causes, or as immediately producing the virus, and defining the character of the disease. The chief of the newly-alleged predisposing causes were the wetness of the summer of 1844, the severe frost of March 1845, the great heat of the fore part of the summer of 1845, the uncommon luxuriance of the crop, the use of some special manures, and a fancied novelty in the condition of the earth, or sub- terrane heat of the soil and sub-strata. But while some of the alleged pre- disposing causes were real enough, perhaps, and ought to suggest to all cultivators the necessity of care and wisdom in all time to come, others are either doubtful, vague, or wildly fantastical, and no two or more of them oan at all account for the origination of the disease, or point to any specific or very promising remedy. The special causes assigned by various theo rists, including many of the most distinguished agriculturists, and phytolo ■• gists, and organic chemists, in the world, are as numerous, as conflicting, and, we might add, as aggregately uninstructive, as the alleged predisposing causes. We will, however, give a brief statement of those which are most remarkable for either their plausibleness, their learning, or the degree of public attention which they have excited. The abnormal chemical condition of the potato-plant, or the too early arrival of it to chemical maturity, is modestly and suggestingly stated by Mr. Fromberg as the most probable special cause. According to his views, every species of plant appears to require a certain definite proportion of substances in its organism, to make it operate regularly for its healthy growth. Too great a deviation, exceeding a certain maximum or minimum, will have an injurious influence upon the growth, by either accelerating or 42 494 farmer's hand-book. retarding- it in too great a degree. As soon as, in a plant, both the parts that live in the air atid those placed in the soil Jiave obtained their proper quantity of constituents, the growth is completed. After that, it will take up nothing, or little more ; and being continually placed in the midst of sub- stances that are always in a state of decomposition, — which was before a requisition for the growth of the plant, — this state will, after the growth is completed, communicate itself to the plant and its constituents. This will be the case, even although the plant be perfectly sound (and we do well, therefore, to remove a product from the plant when ripe and full- grovi'n), but much more rapidly when it is in a state of ill health. Both the want of activity of the cells and their contents when the growth is too languid, and their too great activity when the growth is too quick and strong, will predispose the plant to this chemical change. The altered energy of the action of the matter of which it is composed will continue after the growth has ceased, but now it will proceed in another direction ; all the peculiar properties and combinations of matter which present them- selves during lifetime, and on whose existence the vital actions depend, being now obtained and produced, another series of properties exhibit them- selves, and a number of other combinations is formed. If the growth has been too languid, these combinations, necessary for the performance of the vital functions, will not be produced in sufficient quantity, and the altered activity of matter will commence before the growth is completed. In case the growth were too rapid and strong, the same increased activity of matter will combine after the plant has reached its maximum of growth, but will now, of necessity, take another course ; the plant absorbing nothing more, and, consequently, vital action resting, decomposition sets in, and the degree of its action is entirely dependent upon the activity of matter, which again is determined by the quantity of substances fit for undergoing decomposition in a certain space, and upon the cooperation of temperature, air, and humid- ity. It might be of some importance to view, in connection with this, the early appearance of the disease in 1846, although it seems uncertain whether the time of ripening or full growth had also arrived sooner. It is a fact that diseased potatoes sprout with remarkable rapidity, whilst the experi- ments of some chemists show that perfectly sound potatoes remain in the soil without . any signs of sprouting being perceptible. This fact does not contradict the above-mentioned idea, and will actually tend to corroborate it, if it may be proved, by experience, that diseased tubers, although producing plants that remain healthy for a time, will, however, make them inherit, as it were, their own unnatural rapidity and luxuriance of growth, and the consequences attending these. * Tlie oxidation of the debilitated tissues, the change of azotized matter in THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 495 the stems, and the liability of the incrusting matter to undertro decomposi- tion, have been suggested by Dr. Playfair, the well known Dutch chemist, INIulder, and by others, as the most probable special causes. But the notion of oxidation by the agency of the air acting more freely upon the organic matter of the weakened cell-walls, does not certainly show a very great amount of physiological knowledge, which requires that the progress of tlie phenomena should be followed step by step, and which does not permit that the mentioning of final results, even if they were correct, should serve as an explanation. The theory of changes of azotizod matter either has refer- ence to absolute decomposition or putrefaction, — and then it is closely allied to the oxidation theory, and partakes fully of its objcctionableness, — or it refers to the transmutation of one nitrogenous proximate principle into an- other, and, in that case, it is contradicted by the doctrines of the protein compounds. And as to the liability of the incrusting matter to undergo decomposition, this, if at all probable, does not afford much explanation, and could scarcely serve to suggest means for recovery ; for the nature of the incrusting matter, and its relation to inorganic bases, are at present far too little known to found a theory on their pretended action. Putrescence, resulting remotely from atmospheric action, and proximately from internal chemical derangement, is supposed by Mr. Phillips to have been the cause. This theory somewhat combines the preceding ones with the theory of a series of predisposing causes, and addresses itself very plausi- bly to the understanding; but it is by no means definite enough, and can scarcely, if at all, apply to the cases of sudden and overwhelming outbreak of the disease, and does not perceptibly lead to any very obvious practical conclusion. Mr. P. states, in illustration of his theory, that the season was unusually cold, and was marked by a continual absence of sunshine, — that the disease was more fatal on heavy wet lands than on light dry lands, and generally more so on wet soils than on dry soils, — that exhalation and evaporation were at a low point during the months of July and August, — that the plants generally throve till after the cold and wet weather set in, and did not indicate prevailing unhealthiness till after it had continued about two months, — and that, at the time when the most unfavorable weather appeared, the late plants were in full work, and were forming their tubers : and he adds, that a plant cannot elaborate its products without the direct action of the sun's rays; and when the vital principle ceases its action, even tempo- rarily, a chemical one commences by an oxidation of the carbon and a liber- ation of carbonic acid, and if this action continue, ammonia is formed. What is the effect of this? If ammonia be formed in a nlant like the potato, which in its normal state is acid, we have not only a subversion of the condition of the juices, but we have also an agent equal to effect all that we have seen in 496 farmer's hand-book. the disease. B-iit the change is a work of time in the plant, and necessarily involves many phases. A species of botrytis, which had not been before observed, and which haS" been variously called B. infestans, B.faUax and B. devastatrix, was supposed, by Professor Morren, of Liege, and by many others, to be the special cause Some supposed the fungus to develop itself from the interior or cellular tissue, and to extend its ramifications through tlie pores or stomata in such a way as to close them completely up, and to make the plant die from want of perspiration and absorption ; others supposed it to make a lodgment by its sporules from without, to feed upon the plant in the manner of an external parasite, and to rob it to exhaustion of its nourishing sap ; and others, without troubling themselves to explain either its habits, its nature, or the chemistry of its action, supposed it to do its deadly work simply as a poisoner of the plant's juices. When first observed, the fungus was said to thrive only on the living leaves of the potato-plant, sparing even the stems ; but afterwards it was seen to attack both the stems and the tubers ; and soon, and far and wide, it could not be traced at all in some diseased plants, and was not traceable in others till after the disease was obviously established. The theory of the fungus was by far the most popular one in 1845, and made the learned part of the agricultural world ring with talk about Botrytis infestans, but it was speedily discovered to be fallacious, and is now universally aban- doned. Yet, though the botrytis was not the cause of the disease, it was generally a very close attendant on it ; and, under peculiar conditions of the atmosphere, it undoubtedly acts as a very powerful agent in accelerating the decay and havoc which the disease begins. A number of insects — particularly Eiipterix solani, Eupterix picta, Tkrips minutissima, Ceraphron carpentcri, a molobrus, an attica, a smynthurus, and several aphides — were supposed, by various close observers, to be either originators of some forms or accompaniments of the disease, or powerful accelerators of its general progress. Swarms of some of them seem un- doubtedly to have infested the potato crop, — probably to a degree far greater than ever before occurred ; and, though not at all likely, in even one instance, to have originated the disease, they must have seriously aggravated it, and perhaps sometimes complicated it, by puncturing the plant's organs, abstracting its juices, and laying it widely open to chemical disarrangement, fungal lodgment, and atmospheric action. A particular theory, however, selected the Aphis rapes or Aphis vastator, as the grand depredator, and even cried it up as the certain and sole parent of the whole. This theory was the most popular one in England in 1846 ; insomuch that, for months together; multitudes talked incessantly of the aphis, and seemed to have gone into an aphis-mania, and would not listen to another theory. Yet, though both facts THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 497 and philosophy now pour derision on this theory, they fully admit every abounding aphis to be very mischievous, and loudly warn all cultivators to adopt every preventive or remedial means against it in their power. Common canker, or vegetable gangrene, exactly similar to the canker of fruit-trees, and to the " damping " or " shanking off" of badly-wintered cauli- flowers, and of cucumbers and melon-plants, is believed, by the eminent Mr. Graham, to have been the true cause. According to him, the potato-plant, having been rendered partially inert by the repellent action of cold, wet, and gloomy weather, uncongenial to its nature as an exotic from a warm climate, at that critical period of its growth when in the course of ordiilary seasons it would have been about to acquire a strength and hardness, but during which time it was incapable of perfectly evaporating its redundant juices, for want of sunshine, — they accumulated in consequence, and became vitiated by stagnation in that crude state ; and when fine hot weather ensued afterwards, tlie sudden rufch of sap was too great for its debilitated tissues, and the dis- eased fluid showed itself at the surface in various places, on the leaves and stalks, sometimes in spots not larger than a pin's head, at others in blotches, which rapidly increased if the stimulus of heat was kept up ; and the virus of these spots, being of an ulcerous nature, eventually descended into the potatoes. The only effectual remedy, if it may be so called, is to pull up the haulm entirely, as soon as the disease has seized on the stalks ; cutting off the haulm will not be so effectual, in many instances, as the lower parts of the stalk are often as bad as the upper parts. After all, however, Mr. Graham himself admits that the disease sometimes begins in the tubers, and even states that it usually commences in the underground parts. A peculiar atmospheric action, similar to what produces influenza in man, is supposed by Liebig and Klotzsch to be the special cause. Liebig, in his work on the Motions of the Fluids in the Animal Body, after explaining the great importance of the cutaneous and pulmonary transpiration to the life and health of animals, goes on to contend that in plants the transpiration from the leaves is the chief cause, aided by the pressure of the atmosphere, of the motion of the sap. He then refers to the old but valuable researches of Hales, who demonstrated the importance, as well as the extraordinary power, of the transpiration of plants, and explained the frequent blight in hops, and other plants, by the action of an atmosphere saturated with moist- ure, and therefore unfit to support transpiration, in suppressing the transpi- ration from the leaves, and thus arresting the motion of the sap, which then putrefies and leads to the death of the plant. The putrid sap becomes a fer- tile soil for the seeds of microscopic plants, fungi, &c., and these are further propagated by seed, so that the soil may become infested by them. Liebig then proceeds to contend that the potato-plant is one of those which, like tha 42* h2 49S farmer's hand-book. hop, suffers greatly from suppressed or impeded transpiration ; and that the potato rot has long been known, and was even very accurately described by Parmentier, who introduced the potato into France ; but that the peculiar atmospheric condition to which he ascribes the disease had never till of late years occurred over whole countries, but only locally. He considers the real cause of the disease to be an atmosphere loaded with moisture and cold, these being the conditions most unfavorable to evaporation; and he shows that in 1845, and 1846, when the disease overran Europe, damp, cold, and rainy weather followed heat and drought, just at the period of the most luxuriant growth of the potatoes. This state of the atmosphere he considers to be the same as that which causes influenza in the human subject, by suppressing the cutaneous transpiration. He further shows that the very life of a plant depends on the resistance it offers to the destructive influences of the atmosphere ; and that the life and health of plants depend on the equilibrium of external causes, only one of which, — the state of the soil, — is much in the power of the agriculturist. One day, or a few degrees of cold, may be decisive as to the life or death of a plant ; so that it is of the utmost importance to strengthen the plant, so as to enable it to resist the external influences tending to destroy it. Now, Dr. Klotzsch has come to similar conclusions, — and shows that, as the potato is cultivated for its tubers, there is a great loss of nutrient matter if it be allowed to form flowers and fruit ; and he concludes that if this be prevented, the nutrient matter will be sent in the direction of the tubers and roots, and thus the plant will be strengthened, and enabled to resist disease. He proposes, therefore, when the plants are from six to nine inches above ground, to pinch off the ends of the stems and branches for half an inch only downwards from the- point, and to repeat this four weeks later. In some experiments made by him, in which the alternate rows were treated in this way, the result was, that the rows not so treated were straggling and sickly, and had scabby tubers, liable to rot ; while the rows so treated were bushy, luxuriant, dark-green, with very numerous tubers, clean, and free from all disease whatever. But whatever may be thought of the remedy, or however fair or deserving a subject of experiment it may be as to the general strengthening of the potato-plant, the alleged cause seems a great deal more than doubtful. To say nothing of grave physiological objections to it, the very facts on which it rests are contested. A diminution of temperature to the extent of six or eight degrees is exceed- ingly trivial, and must often have occurred in former years, when this disease did not occur. Nor is the potato-plant of so delicate a texture as to be unable to stand much greater diminution and irregularities of temperature than what occurred in 1845. The fact that it grows equally well in the Shetland Isles, with an average temperature of 46 3 , or even in hot-houses, with a temperature THE GEEAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 499 of thirty or forty degrees higher, must satisfy any one that the temperature of 1845, though undoubtedly lower than usual, and irregular in its progression, cannot account for the failure. The heat of 1816, too, when the disease was more virulent and extensive than in 1845, instead of being below the average, was actually a little above it; and the fall of rain, as ascertained at a great many places, though unusually fitful, and sometimes exceedingly heavy, was not aggregately much above the average, and did not anywhere produce an excess of cloudiness, or any material excess of moisture. An atmospheric influence of some less specific or more diffusive kind than that contended for by Liebig and Klotzsch has been regarded by many dis- tinguished British agriculturists as the cause. But the views entertained respecting it are at once various, conflicting, and vague. Some say that it was merely a decrease in the temperature about the time of ripening of the tuber, by which this disease was caused. Now, in 1846, it returned at a much earlier period than in 1845. Was the time of ripening hastened 1 and if so, by what cause 1 And is there any evidence that such a decrease in tem- perature took place in 1846? or that it existed everywhere in 1845'? Other defenders of the same theory assume that it was the sudden change of wet and cold to hot wejther by which this calamity was occasioned ; and others state, in addition, that the unripe condition of the seed from the former year, and the protracted cold of the ensuing winter, preventing the due preparation of the land, were either the aggravating or the chief causes of the disease. Did these circumstances occur in 1846, and were they general wherever the disease prevailed 1 If we further come to the man- ner in which this atmospheric influence is said to have acted, then we meet again several vague expressions, and find that unproved things are taken for granted. Some speak of the organism of the potato having become repleted with moisture, and, therefore, the pores being checked by some of the above circumstances, exceedingly liable to undergo putrefaction. Others are of opinion, that one constituent of the organism of the potato has been produced to the disadvantage, at the expense of, or at least in greater proportions than the others ; and that this, no matter in what way, has been the cause of a weakened organism, and consequently of the disease. Others, again, explain the action o/"the atmosphere as merely serving as a vehicle to myriads of minute seeds of fungi, which, when the air is in a comparative rest, should be enabled to enter into the minute pores or stomata, which exist chiefly (m the surface of the leaves. This is merely a modification of the fungal theory. Some miasmatic substance, or deleterious gas, or ot^ier subtle and unusual body in the atmosphere, is supposed, by Count Gasparin, Milne, and others, to have been the cause. The principal, real, or alleged facts, 500 farmer's hand-book. appealed to in support of this theory, are that the disease was averted from some localities by screens, shelter, and other means of protection from the external air, — that, in the successive years of its ravages, it moved off from some districts and countries, and made invasion upon others, — thai, during the ^ummer and autumn of 1840, it broke out, in a progress from south to north, on the continent and in Great Britain, as if it proceeded in a some- what regular march, — and that it did not attack portions of fields which were exposed to the smoke of steam-engines and of copper-works. It is inferred from the last of these facts that the noxious substance was some acrid gas or vapor capable of being neutralized or altered in its nature by chlorine, common smoke, and the fumes of arsenious and sulphurous acids ; and, in support of this view, an experiment of Professor Christison is cited showing that sulphurous-acid gas, when mixed with atmospheric air in the minute proportion of one part to nine thousand, injures the leaves of a mignonette, of a laburnum, and of a larch-tree, placed in it for forty hours. But, though the gaseous or miasmatic theory accords well with some of the plienomena and circumstances, it seems violfently incompatible with others. A peculiar state of the electricity of the atmosphere is sup- posed by some persons to have been the cause. Electricity is now known to act a powerful part in all normal vegetation ; ordinary electricity acts constantly, in seeming concurrence with all the chemical processes of decomposition and recombination, both upon plants and within them ; extraordinary electricity, or great and sudden disturbances of the normal electric conditions of the atmosphere, or of the normal relations between the electricity of the air and the electricity of the earth, seem to produce effects analogous to those of either invigorating or overwhelming excitement ; and the electric phenomena of a large portion of the period of both 1845 and 1846, throughout which the potato disease broke out and spread, were not a little remarkable for at once singularity, unsettledness, violence, and aggre- gate duration. The results of an experiment in electro-cukure, reported to the Royal Dublin Society, were also most arresting ; — the rods had been put up, according to Dr. Forster's method, in a remote part of a potato-field, in order to test their effect upon the invigoration of the crop, — and they were afterwards neglected or forgotten, in consequence of the apparent seizure of the whole field with the potato disease ; — but when the spot which they protected came eventually to be examined , all the potatoes in it were found to be sound and excellent, while those of the rest of the field had died and rotted. Other remarkable facts, directly ascribable to electric influence, or apparently resulting from it, or controlled by it, were observed ; and several theories corresponding to them, but widely differing as to both the modus operandi of the electric influence and the most suitable or effective means THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 501 pf averting deleterious effects, were formed and advocated, and have been received more or less extensively as plausible. The present state of scien- tific knowledge, however, is far too obscure to enable any man to follow out a speculation on the supposed connection of peculiar electric conditions with the originating of disease in plants ; and the utmost which the speculation about electricity and the potato can do, is to suggest a hope, that in some more advanced stage of the rapidly-careering progress of scientific discovery, a subject wiiich is now so mysterious and bewildering may come to be per- fectly explained. Remedies. — We have now gone over all the chief and most plausible theories ; and, since the result is unmixed uncertainty or utter confusion, we might seem to have had all our labof for worse than nothing. But, when it is Been how entirely the most distinguished savans have been baffled, and how completely all science and experience and observation have been stultified, by the potato disease, all persons must readily assent to the suggestion that the potato can no longer be depended on as an extensive and staple article of sustenance for the human family, and that its loss must be made up by the substitution of another and more reliable vegetable production. Whatever others may say or think, it is certain that, until the cause of this disease is known, no efficacious remedy can reasonably be expected to be found. It is the department of science to proceed from fixed points, from caused into pffects ; and every other way is hardly deserving of any other name than that of empiricism. We would go further still, and say, that even although the cause were duly known, however indispensable this may be, we could not, however, from the defective state of our knowledge of the physiology and pathology of plants, undertake the cure with the same confidence of success with which the physician places himself before his patient, to attack and overcome an illness. But still, without being acquainted with the cause of the disease, a variety of remedies will be tried in vain, and, what is worse, remedies which may easily injure a plant which has frequently been unnaturally cultivated. The steeping in dilute sulphuric acid, dusting with lime and gypsum, the application of sulphate of copper, arsenic, &c., may prove beneficial for the moment ; but how all this will affect or alter the nature of the potato, it is only for future experience to make out. Such kinds of treatment will be resorted to, if we proceed upon the belief that a fungus acts as the cause of the disease. The purpose is to kill the enemy ; but does one always sufficiently consider that the injury intended for it may not also affect its victim? But if we adhere to the opinion that the unfavor- able state of the weather has been the direct cause of the disease, by — no matter in what way — altering the functions of the plant, then there is cer- 'ainly something true in Morren'a remark, that this theory, in point of 502 FARMER'S HAND-BOOK. curing the disease, is dangerous in its effects upon the mass of farmers who, being- powerless against such an enemy, may easily fall into that state of indifference which in former times was too characteristic of their class. The remedy which results from the application of the epidemic theory seems certainly to be entirely in the power of the farmer, without being attended with the injurious effects that may follow from the attempt of destroying the parasite directly, — we mean the enclosure of the potato- fields, to prevent the supposed introduction of the imagined seeds of the parasites by currents of air. Yet, if this remedy, as is likely, might prove ineffectual, the opportunity of preserving the crop is gone, and the evil will rage on undisturbed. But there is something more reasonable in the idea, to turn the whole attention to the diseased plant itself, — to allow those plants to he lost that are hopelessly attacked, to be cautious in attempting to employ the less diseased for seed, and to be satisfied with employing what has hitherto escaped, either of fine or of coarse varieties. If this be accompanied with judicious cultivation, — if sound seed, chiefly from varieties that have suffered least, be planted in soils similar to those where the disease has least prevailed, — and if the methods be imitated of those who have had small or moderate, but comparatively sound crops, — as well in regard to treatment, kind and quantity of manure, and period of applica- tiop, as to depth of planting, distance between the plants, and time and mode of cutting, — then something is put into the power of the farmer, which, being faithfully copied from the prescriptions of nature, may justify the persevering man in expecting a slow but gradual and continual remedy, and recovery of what has been lost. A method was discovered, about the year 1840, by M. Zauder, of evading the attacks of all potato diseases, by raising full-grown tubers from seed in one season ; and this method was reported by Mr. Hogan to the meeting of the British Association at Oxford, and was ascertained, from his personal observation of it in two widely separated localities in Germany, to have proved perfectly efficient as respected its yearly or current success, yet waa declared to need confirmation and improvement, by many experiments, in various places, and under various circumstances, before it could be relied on for rendering seedlings healthy or disease-proof, in years subsequent to their being produced. The statement of M. Zauder himself, in his own language, is as follows : — I first raised potatoes from seed seven years ago. I sowed an eighth of an ounce, and obtained nearly seven sacks of full- grown, perfectly sound potatoes, although in the same year almost all the potatoes in the same neighborhood were affected by pock-mark and dry-rot. I have regularly raised potatoes from seed ever since, and they have remained sound during the whole time ; and in the year 1845, when the disease had THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS, 503 Bpread over all Europe, and attained the greatest virulence in this neighbor- hood, those potatoes which I had previously raised from seed, as well as those of the preceding year, continued perfectly exempt from disease. I have given potatoes raised from seed toothers, and those have also remained perfectly free from the universally prevailing disease. From an ounce of seed may be raised upwards of fifty ordinary-sized sacks of potatoes. The seed is saved in the following manner : the berries should be gathered in autumn, before the frost sets in, and be preserved in a dry place, where frost cannot reach them, imtil the end of January, when the berries should be broken by the hand, and placed in a tub or other vessel, for six or eight days, to ferment ; water should then be thrown on them and well stirred, in order to separate the pulp and husks from the seed, which should then be dried and cleaned, and kept in a warm, dry place, until the middle of March. At the latter time, or in the beginning of April, the seed should be thinly sown in a hot-bed, and by the middle of May there will be fine healthy plants, which may be put out into the field ; care should be taken to put them out before they form tubers, and the seed-bed should be kept moder- ately moist while they remain in it. They should be planted out after rain, and be put at about the same distance from one another as potatoes gener- ally stand in the field. SMUT. Description. — This is a disease of the ears of growing grain, filling the grain with a fine, sooty-looking powder, in the room of farina. It arises entirely from two minute coniomycetous fungi, — the Uredo segetum and the Uredo fcetida ; but it attacks all sorts of corn grain, and presents a great diver- sity of appearance, and bears a number of popular names, and has been erro- neously ascribed, by all classes of cultivators, to a great diversity of causes. Some farmers, seeing only a very few ears of a crop perceptibly affected with smut, regard the evil as of small consequence, and are totally unaware that when no more than one smutted ear can be found in a sheaf, tlie straw of the apparently sound plants may want so much as one third of its average weight, and the grain so much as three sevenths ; and other farmers, who may have a correct opinion enough of the mischievousness of smut, are so misled by false notions of its cause, as either to reject all suitable prevent- ives and remedies of it, or to adopt them empirically, and without suflacient confidence and vigor. Causes and Phenomena. — Some of the many erroneous causes which have been assigned for smut have no connection with it whatever ; and others are mere contingencies, which either aggravate its symptoms or accelerate its progress. One alleged cause is, deficient fecundity, in consequence either of the pollen being washed away with rains, or of its undergoing some 504 farmer's hand-book. chemical change of a putrefactive nature ; but smut is found to affect the organs of fructification, and either to impair or to destroy them, long before the pollen can be formed. Another alleged cause, sanctioned, long ago, by the distinguished Jethro Tull, is humidity of the atmosphere, or the preva- lence of fogs, or the bursting out of intense sunshine while the crop is in a moist condition ; but this notion has been disproved by some carefully con- ducted appeals to experiment, and is disproved also by the general fact that smut is sometimes observable in an early stage of the plant's vegetation, long before it has escaped from the leafy envelopes. A third alleged cause is, excessive moistness of the soil, — and certainly this, though not a cause, is a very powerful provocative, insomuch that well-drained and thoroughly aerated Boils are incomparably freer from attacks of smut than wet ones ; but the disease occurs on even the driest land, and may often be observed as rife in the dry parts of a field as in the wet parts. A fourth alleged cause, sanc- tioned by such names as Somerville, Walker, and Linnaeus, is the hatching and feeding of minute insects ; but this opinion has been refuted by express and searching observation, and may be exploded also by the general fact that acari and aphides, and other minute insects, feed more or less on all sorts of plants, whether affected by smut or not, and almost always abound on decaying vegetable matter, or on plants which are in a diseased or enfeebled condition. A fifth alleged cause is, the abrasion of the seed-corn in the process of threshing ; but seeds threshed in exactly the same way run to smut in some seasons, and do not run to it in others ; and numerous grains of wheat of different sizes have been experimentally bruised with a ham- mer, previous to sow^ig, and have not been found to produce smutted plants. A sixth cause alleged is, monstrosity of embryo ; but male flowers, or male parts of flowers, as well as female ones, are liable to smut, and they have no embryo. A seventh alleged cause is, deficiency of nourishment, occasioned by poverty of soil, or by crowdedness of crop ; but diseases closely akin to smut attack the fructification of some perennial plants, whose roots and stems, from year to year, are so vigorous as to indicate the presence of ample nutrition. An eighth alleged cause is, fermentation within the ears of corn, occasioned by natural humidity, or by excessive slowness of devel- opment and deficiency of evaporation ; but, if this were a true cause, it would account for the appearance of smut only after the seeds begin to be formed, and might be expected always to produce the disease in far greater ^extent than it is generally found to exist. Most other alleged causes are akin to some of those already named, or are exceedingly fanciful, or con- found smut with some other and widely different diseases. The two species of fungi which produce smut, or whose spores constitate the fine, powdery, sooty-looking substance of the disease, possess a some- THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 505 what close resemblance to each other, and are usually described under one general name ; yet not only have they separate specific characters, but they make specifically diflferent developments in grain plants, a,nd produce essen- tially different economical effects on crops ; and they therefore require to be separately studied, and distinctively understood. The JJredo scgetum is much more minute than most other coniomycetous fungi which attack gra- mineous plants ; and, in particular, is not half the size of Uredo fcetida. Its spores are so extremely small that not fevrer than seven millions eight hun- dred and forty thousand would be required to cover one square inch. It first BO injures the interior portions of the flowers of the plants which it attacks as to render them abortive ; it next makes the pedicels or little stalks of the florets swell and become very fleshy ; it next consumes the whole of this fleshy mass ; and it finally comes through the epidermis, and appears be- tween the chaff-scales in the form of a black, soot-like powder, and looks as if adhering, by means of some gummy substance, to the young ear. It oper- ates alike on wheat and barle)f and oats, and is essentially the same in them all ; but it differs widely in aggregate coherence upon wheat and barley, — and differs also in the microscopic appearance of its spores, — but probably owes the differences entirely to the different action of the matrices in which it grows. It commonly attains maturity some weeks before the crop which it infests is ready for the sickle ; and it then is a light, loose powder, resembling very fine lampblack, and is swept away and scattered by the winds, so that, even when it has made great havoc upon a crop, it is seldom seen to any considerable extent at the time of harvest. It has some- times been found to attack the leaves and the culms of corn-plants ; but, in general, it attacks only the ear, and this it completely destroys. It is com- paratively rare in wheat, and does not seem to occur at all in rye ; but is very common in barley, and still more so in oats. It has also been observed in several of the forage grasses. Some farmers absurdly think that a little of it in the barley crop is a good sign ; and most regard it as far less mis- chievous than Uredo foetida. But, in so far as it exists, it is always and entirely a desolating evil ; and it both escapes the observation of superficial observers, and eludes some of the common methods of preventing or extir- pating it, by the early maturation and profuse dispersion of its spores ; and though really a less evil, comparatively, than Uredo foetida, it is a much greater one absolutely than most farmers suppose. Grain containing some mixture of smut has not been observed to injure fowls who eat it ; and yet, the straw of smutted plants is asserted to be dis- tasteful to cattle. The effect of the fungus upon the wholesomeness of crops, in fact, is little understood, and does not seem to have been tested by any good published experiments ; yet it may be pretty closely estimated b) 43 506 farmer's hand-book. reference to the known chemical composition of smutted grain. Chemical analysis has demonstrated that the Uredo segetum effects an entire decom- position of the vegetable constituents of the grain it infects, the saline con- stituents of the grain remaining nearly unaltered. Parmentier, Cornet, Girod Chautrans, Fourcroy, and Vauguelin, have successively examined it; and the result of their researches is, that smutted grains of wheat are com- posed, first, of about one third their own weight of a green, butyraceous, fetid, and acrid oil ; second, nearly one fourth of a vegeto-animal sub- stance, perfectly similar to that which comes from putrid gluten ; third, a black coal, one fifth of their weight, similar to that which is found in all remnants of putrefied organic compounds; fourth, free phosphoric acid, amounting scarcely to more than .004 of the smut, — and fifth, phosphates of ammonia, magnesia, and lime, in the proportions of a few thousandths. It is stated that, in one examination of putrefied gluten, characters were found very similar to those of the smut of wheat ; and that the products of the one are so like those of the other, as to render it difficult, in certain cases, not to confound them together. It requires a man to be well practised in chem- ical experiments, to discern the slight differences that exist between these two putrefied matters, because the differences are only delicate shades, not easily discernible. The contagion attacks especially the gluten, and precedes, — indeed, prevents, — the formation of the starch ; since we know positively that this fecula, no traces of which are found in the smut of wheat, suffers no alteration from that septic process, which so powerfully attacks the glutinous substance. Tlie Uredo fatida occurs only in the grain of wheat, and is a well-known and much dreaded disease. It may be detected in the young seed, even in the very earliest states of the flower-bud ; and when fully ripe, it most frequently occupies the whole interior of the grain. The earliest period at which M. Bauer discovered it within the cavity of the ovule of a young plant of wheat was sixteen days before the ear emerged from the base, and about twenty days before the sound ears, springing from the same root, were in bloom. At that early stage, the inner cavity of the ovum is very small, and, after fecundation, is filled with the albumen or farinaceous substance of the seed, and already occupied by many young fungi, which, from their jelly- like root or spawn, adhere to the membrane which lines the cavity, and from which they can be easily detached, in small flakes, with that spawn. In that state, their very small pedicels may be distinctly seen. At first, the fungi are of a pure white color, and when the ear emerges from its base, the ovum is much enlarged, but still retains its original shape ; and, the fungi rapidly multiplying, many of them have then nearly come to maturity assumed a dark color, and, having separated from the spawn, lie loose ia THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 507 the cavity of the ovum. The infected grains continue grovving-, and the fungi continue to multiply, till the sound grains have attained their maturity and full size, when the infected grains are easily distinguished from the sound ones, by their being generally larger and of a darker green color ; and, if opened, they appear to be filled to excess with these dark-colored fungi. But the grains infected with the Uredo foetida very rarely burst, and these fungi are seldom found on the outside oP the grain ; but if a grain be bruised, they readily emit their offensive smell, which is worse than that from putrid fish. When the sound grains are perfectly ripe and dry, and assume their light-brown color, the infected grains also change, but to a somewhat darker brown, retaining, however, the same shape which the ovum had at its formation, the rudiments of the stigma also remaining un- altered. The spores which fill the grain constitute a fine, black, disgust- ing, fetid powder, and amount to about four millions in a single grain, and may be easily distinguished and examined through a microscope, and have then the appearance of articulated globules growing in a bundled manner upon threads ; but the sporules which they contain, and which propagate the smut in the same general way in which seeds propagate phenogamous plants, are so surpassingly minute as to be scarcely distinguishable under very high powers of the microscope, appearing then only like a faint cloud or vapor in a puffy escape from the spores. The Urcdo faiida not only destroys all the grains or plants which it directly attacks, but greatly deteriorates the value of the sound part of the general crop. The disgusting odor which it emits may be perceived on passing through a field where it prevails ; and becomes cohesive to the fingers, and intolerable to the sense, when an infected ear or two are broken in the hand ; and diffuses itself sufficiently through the sound grains, by the contacts of growing and harvesting, to render the flour made from them perceptibly malodorous, and comparatively unfit for bread. Ready purchas- ers, however, are found among the manufacturers of gingerbread, &c., in some countries, who have discovered that the treacle, and whatever else they mix up with it, effectually disguise the odor of the fungus ; and while such a mode of employing the tainted flour would be perfectly unobjection- able if the odor were innoxious, it becomes censurable and wicked when good reason exists for suspecting the odor to be seriously unwholesome. The sporules of both Urcdo segetum and Uredo fmtida were long believed and have been proved to find their way into corn-plants, by entering their spongioles with the moisture, and ascending their interior with the sap. There is little doubt, according to Johnson, but that the mode in which smut is imparted to the plant is by its roots imbibing the extremely minute seeds of the fungus along with the moisture of the soil ; and this opinion ia 508 farmer's hand-book, confirmed by the observation that the disease is most prevalent when the winter has been mild, and the spring wet, — for in such seasons the abundant moisture passing through the soil is most likely to convey the seeds to the mouths of the plant's radical fibres. The distinguished Mr. Sidney remarks, that, though the surmise of most observers has been that the sporules enter by the roots and circulate in the plant, still, no one has yet seen them grow ; nor would this be the normal mode of growth. The spores themselves are undoubtedly too large to enter either by the stomata of the leaves or the spongioles of the roots. Some ingenious experiments have been made, that appear to establish the theory that these contents of the spores do enter the plant in the way suspected, and grow. The mode of proceeding was to immerse some seeds of wheat in water containing bunt. One of the first appearances was a curious mould, with peculiar spores, that sprung upon the spores of bunt. The plants which came up from these seeds were evidently affected ; but no communication whatever could be traced between the cells of these plants and the shoots thrown out by the spores. No intrusion whatever of the mycelium developed by the bunt- spores into the wheat could be discovered. This looks, therefore, as if the fine contents of the spores do certainly propagate the fungus. Professor Henslam states, that, although the bunt-fungus confines its attacks to the young seed, it seems to be a condition essential to its propagation that it should be introduced into the plant during the early stages of its growth, and that its sporules are most readily absorbed by the root during the germina- tion of the seed from which the plant has sprung. It has been clearly proved that wheat-plants may be easily infected, and the disease thus prop- agated, by simply rubbing the seeds, before they are sown, with the black Dowder, or spores, of the fungus. It is also as clearly ascertained that, if seeds thus tainted be thoroughly cleansed, the plants raised from them will not be infected ; and this fact is now so well established, that the practice of washing or steeping seed-wheat in certain solutions almost universally prevails. Preventives. — The chief preventive of smut in wheat is the steeping of the seed-corn in some suitable solution. The spores which, at the time of thresh- ing, are dispersed from smutted ears in the form of a fine powder, and which attach themselves to the sound grains, adhere with considerable obstinacy by means of an oily or greasy matter in their own substance, and cannot be thor- oughly cleaned away except by means either of an alkali which shall combine with the oily matter and convert it into soap, or of some powerful substance, which shall be adverse enough to vegetable life to kill the spores, and yet not so adverse as to kill or injure the grains. The substances most com- monly employed in alkaline steeps are lime, and salts of soda, potash, and THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 509 ammonia ; and those of a killing kind most commonly employed are arsenic, sulphate of copper, nitric acid, muriatic acid, and sulphuric acid. The use of poisons, however, — particularly violent ones, — is altogether unnecessary, and very dangerous, and not a little culpahle ; and the use even of exces- sively pungent substances, which are not strictly poisonous, is never so politic, and perhaps never so efficient, as that of the alkalies, or of common salt, or of some mixture of saline substances. The experiments of Mr. Bevan indicate that lime-water is the most effective of these preparations ; and if this be adopted, it may be prepared by mixing one pound of fresh lime with three gallons of boiling water, allowing these to stand for two hours, and the clear liquor then to be poured off, and immediately used. In this liquid the wheat should be soaked for twelve hours, stirred twice or thrice during the time, and then mixed, upon a floor, with the powder made by pouring three gallons of boiling water upon five pounds of lime. He remarks further, that he has had no experi- ence of the effects of lime-water as a preventive of the smut ; but, with stale urine and a solution of common salt, numerous and expensive experi- ments were made, the results being, without exception, favorable, and nearly similar ; and this being the case, a preference is to be given to common salt, as being decidedly the best in all material points. The mode observed to be the most effective is to wash the seed with pure water, pouring this off with all the floating grains, and then allowing the seed to soak for twelve hours in a solution of common salt, having a strength, or specific gravity, sufficient to float a common hen's egg. A solution of sulphate of soda, in cooperation with an application of lime, was found by M. dc Dombaslf, after many experiments, to be the most efficient steep. The solution requires about 17.^ lbs. of the sulphate in' 22 gallons of water ; and as this salt does not very readily dissolve, the solution ought to be commenced a day or so before it is wanted, and frequently stirred, till all the salt is dis- solved. The grain is to be formed in heaps on the floor, which are to be completely moistened with the above wash, by means of a watering vessel. During the time the wash is being poured over the heaps of grain, they must be kept constantly stirred about, by means of wooden shovels, till the whole be perfectly moist, which is known by the wash running from the heaps after they are sufficiently saturated. After the grain is well moist- ened, lime, in powder, is to be immediately thrown over the heaps, in the proportion of nearly 4^ lbs. to the 22 gallons of grain ; this is done grad- ually, while the grain is to be turned over in every direction, so that the whole may be intimately combined. When this is done, the grain may^be either sown immediately, or kept for some days, in which case it may be turned ov6r every three or four days. 43* I 510 farmer's HAJiD-BOOK. The use of any kind of steep, however, is a preventive of smut only as propagated by the adhesion of spores to the grains of the seed-corn, and can have no efficiency whatever against the germination of spores which lie lodged in the soil independently of the seed-corn. Mr. Johnson remarks, in addition, that, although it is very apparent that the smut is generally imparted to a wheat crop by the agency of the seed sown, yet he is by no means of the opinion that this is the only source of infection. He had kept ears of wheat, that were covered and destroyed by the Uredo, during more than twelve months, in a situation where they experienced the vicissitudes of temperature during all the seasons, unprotected by more than the paper envelope in which they were suspended in an out-building. Yet, when the Uredo that had been thus exposed was mixed with healthy, well-washed seed-wheat, this produced diseased plants in a triplicate proportion more numerous' than that not so mixed. This experiment demonstrates that frost and drought, acting in concert with a damp atmosphere, do not destroy the vegetating power of the Uredo^s seed. Such being the fact, why may not this seed remain in the soil, ready to impart the plague? We know that, owing to its lightness, this seed floats buoyantly in the air, and may be car- ried by winds to distant soils, which, in the autumn of the same year, before any extremity of cold has been endured, will have to bear the wheat crop for the following harvest. The opinion that the soil is one source of infec- tion is sustained by the fact that fields in the vicinity of the sea are rarely injured, and never extensively, by the ravages of the smut. Such soils are impregnated more than any other with common salt, and the effect of this saline compound upon the Uredo has been noticed already. The spores of Uredo segetum, too, are so generally shed and dispersed before the har- vesting of the crop, that they may be supposed to lie lodged in immense numbers in every part of the field, or farm, or district, where they were produced ; and even in so far as they adhere to the grains of barley and oats in the same manner in which those of Uredo foetida adhere to the grains of wheat, they have such a peculiarly strong hold in connection with the integuments of these grains, that they cannot very readily be reduced or killed by means of steeps. As regards some smutted wheat-lands, there- fore, and especially as regards all smutted barley-lands, and all smutted oat- lands, other preventives and remedies must be brought into requisition, and should be such as to secure the utmost possible cleanness of both the seed-corn and the land, and will, after all, be found incompetent to effect an entire cure. The obtaining of seed-corn for any farm from other and dis- ta,nt soils is recommended by TuU, Donat, Lignerolle, and others ; but, however beneficial this may be for securing other desirable effects, it can be THE GREAT DISEASES OF PLANTS. 511 useful in regard to smut only when the seed-corn is brought from a district remarkably free from that disease. All the preventives and remedies which address themselves to the state of the land, or consist in special pro- cesses or methods of culture are the same in the case of smut as in the caae ol' mildew. CHAPTER XIII. NOXIOUS INSECTS. tNSECTS WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND PROP- AGATE ON THEM INSECTd WHICH INJURE GRAIN. — INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS. I. INSECTS "WHICH LIVE CONSTANTLY ON OR IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS, . AND PROPAGATE ON THEM. Lice. — Among insects which continually live on domestic animals, prop- agate on them, and, when their numbers are too great, cause serious injury to them, the various species of lice hold the first place. These animals are much to be dreaded when they have increased so as to produce the disease called Phthiriasis, and when this settles into a confirmed chronic evil. In horned-cattle lice have no particular favorite place. They run up and down over the body of sheep, causing a separation of the wool from the skin. They swarm in every part of swine, and even grow into the skin, muscles, &c. They may be occasioned by dirt, insufficient food, or want of bodily exercise, or by previous disease. The remedy prescribed is, to take a common pair of bellows, and a bellows-pipe fixed to its side, which is to be filled with inferior tobacco, and set fire to; one man holds the sheep between his legs, another parts the fleece in various places, and a third blows the tobacco-smoke on the skin, fumigating by degrees the whole body. The sheep must be kept some time in the open air after this. Ox-lice are to be expelled by washing with an infusion of Staphysagria powder and crushed pepper in strong vinegar. For lice in swine, use internally the black sul- phuret of mercury, mixed with salt, and wash the parts most infested with arsenic acid. Horse Bot. — The horse bot is the larva of a fly resembling a humble-bee, with two wings. The female lays her eggs on the shoulders, manes, and knees of horses, which they lick off and swallow. They hatch in the stomach, feed in the larva state all the winter on the mucilage, and in spring are found in the horse's stomach, sometimes in great numbers. They resemble in size and form a date-stone, having two hooks at the fore end, with which they adhere to the inner coat of the stomach, often pea- J NOXIOUS INSECTS. 513 etrating from 4 to ^ an inch deep into the white insensible tissue, and become as if distorted by it. *If numerous, they cause violent pain ; and, as they irritate the stomach, and extract a great deal of nourishment from the Fig. 306. animaJ, they necessarily injure digestion. The American arbor vitae, administered inwardly, and the expressed juice of the common elder, either alone or mixed with tar, will be found effectual in protecting cattle from bots and intestinal worms. The leaves and young shoots of the arbor vitas are to be beaten in a mortar with a little water, and the juice expressed. The horse is to take a quart, as a preventive remedy, every quarter of a year, on an empty stomach ; and if the animal is very ill, this quantity is to be given thrice a week. An effectual mode of preventing the introduction of the hots into the stomach is also said to be, the washing off the eggs from the knees, mane, and sides of the horses, or removing them with a pair of scissors. Fundament Bol. — The female of this bot lays her eggs on the lips of the horse, whence they are licked off and swallowed, and thus get into the stomach. The bot-fly itself is half an inch long, brown, unspotted wings, dark abdomen, with white base and reddish-yellow extremity. The larva resembles the preceding, and is also found with it in spring in the stomach of horses. Their color is not so red, their body has two rings less, and their hooks are longer and sharper. Their presence is known by the horse voiding them with excrement, or by their being found on the closing muscles of the anal opening. When thus convinced of their presence, injections of animal oil are applied, which kill the larvae, and they are voided. Ox Warble. — This insect is larger than the house-fly, and resembles the humble-bee. It has brown, unspotted wings, and on the abdomen, which is covered at the end with reddish-yellow hair, a black band. The eggs are laid on the skin of the back of oxen, one at a time. The eggs are hatched by the animal heat, and the larvae cause swellings, generally about the size of a pigeon's egg, and are called warbles — worm-holes. The larva is without feet is dotted on the upper surface with very small grains, which i2 514 farmer's hand-book. appear under the magnifier like short, triangular, yellow prickles, which create an irritation in the skin of the cattle, and also transport the larva to another place, when it has left its first station. It lives in the tumor from August till the next June, then pushes itself through and falls to the ground. Usually only from four to five tumors are found in one beast Young, healthy, and fat cattle are most liable to be selected. The tumors may in many cases contribute to the health of the cattle, but when very numerous, the cattle grow lean, and the cows give less milk. To rid cattle of this torment, enlarge the opening of the tumor with a knife, and press the sides of the swelling, when the larva protrudes itself. The wound must be kept clean, and heals without further remedy. Red Bot. — About the size of the honey-bee ; thorax rose-colored ; wings inspotted ; abdomen black at the base, whitish-gray, set with yellow hairs at the further end. The female lays her eggs in the animal's nostrils, and the larvae cause an itching in these tender parts, — frequently get into the cavities of the gullet, and cause much pain. They feed upon the mucus which they find in these parts, and when large enough tickle by their crawling, and are then thrown out by the sneezing of the animal. Sheep die when these insects are numerous in them. Sheep Bot. — The thorax in the winged insect is brownish-black and dotted with white ; the abdomen white, spotted with gray and black ; the forehead ash-gray, covered with many small, deep punctures ; the wings shining and dotted at the base. Lives in sheltered places, where it is numerous in warm days. The females lay their eggs in the nostrils ; more than three or four are seldom found in one sheep, but they produce the staggers, and torment the animal greatly. The symptoms of their presence are nausea, weakness, sneezing, slow pace, turning the head, holding it down, and pushing itself against the nearest object ; a shining, pus-like matter flows from the nostrils, often adhering so firmly to the apertures as to close them up, and cause difficulty of breathing. Besides these, dulness and indilTerence, swelling of gums and mouth, ulceration and convulsions, are produced by it. It also makes the sheep turn round frequently, exactly as if they were infested with the hydatids, which occasion the disease called the gid. The hydatid worm appears in lambs, much seldotaer in yearlings, and still more rarely in full-growa sheep ; it causes no defluxion from the nose, no symptoms of a disease, no sneezing, staggering, &c. ; but the sick animal is lost Avithout remedy. But in the disease caused by the sheep bot, the sheep in many cases cure themselves ; the lambs are only attacked when out at pasture ; and the diseased state of the pituitous tunic of the nose is a clear sign that it is the sheep bot, and not the hydatid worm, that affects them. To' remedy sheep thus affected, they are eithei NOXIOUS INSECTS. 515 tal{en out alive, by trepanning *fce skull, as for the hydatids, or an attempt IS made, by injections into the nostril of animal oil diluted with water, to kill them. Do not put sheep in pastures infested with the flies of sheep bot. Horse Fly, or Forest Fly. — The fore-part of the body is depressed ; head triangular; abdomen large and roundish, somewhat resembling that of a spider, — hence it has also obtained the name of spider-fly. The thorax is speckled with buff; the other parts are brown ; the blunt, membraneous w-inga lie crosswise over each other. It prefers the abdome^ of the animals, and attaches itself firmly to it. These flies are produced, or increase very rapidly, on animals that are unclean, or are in bad condition ; and as they torment the animals very much, the following remedy must be applied, by which they can be got rid of in a day. Of mineral earth, take 8 oz., and of lard 1 lb., and make into a salve ; rub it on here and there upon the hair, working it in with a wisp of straw. After twenty-four hours, wash off the salve with warm water in which brown soap has been dissolved. Keep the horse from getting cold. Sheep Tick. — This animal has no wings. The fore part of the body is very small ; abdomen thick-roundish, and proportionally very large. It sits sometimes on the skin of the sheep, under the wool, and sucks itself full of blood. Its color is pale red, the abdomen lighter, with an irregular white line on each side, and a red» spot on the back. It lays only one egg, fastened to the wool ; it is first white, then brown, and finally the perfect insect escapes from it. As a remedy for this insect, wash the infested sheep with a decoction of the crushed or bruised leaves of the common maple. Bird Spider Fly. — Scarcely half as large as the forest fly, apple-green flat above, and has small, transparent, black-veined wings. It is found both on large and small fowls, clings firmly to the skin under the feathers, and annoys by its greediness for blood. It is difficult to rid the birds of this insect, for it runs backwards and forwards so fast that it can scarcely be caught. It finds out the bird, even when covered with the hand, and creeps unperceived again under the feathers. ]\Iany, that are thought to be killed when taken from the bird, fly back immediately. They leave the bird as soon as it is dead, as the head-louse leaves a human corpse. Cleanliness is the only remedy for this insect, ^id frequently sweeping and whitening the hen-house. II. INSECTS WHICH INJURE GRAIN. Gibbous Ground Beetle. — This is a beetle whicn mjures wheat, rye, and barley. The eggs are laid together, and not smgly, oy the mother ; and the larvs are, apparently, three years before thev undergo their transformation. 516 farmer's hand-book. The length of the full-grown larva is rataer more tnan an inch ; it is flat, narrow, and nearly of equal width througnout , the head is vtry flatly pressed, armed with strong forceps, like jaws, lo diminish their number, it is recommended to catch them by the hand, which may be done by chil- dren. The common net — a linen bag, stretched on a hoop of strong wire — may also be stretched at night on the corn, and the insects feeding on the ears be caught in it. In the day-time they must be looked for under stones and clods. In the autumn, when the first slight frosts set in, the farmer should plough those fields which have had crops of wheat, barley, and ry^, as deeply as possible. Many larvae which have by this time retired to their winter quarters will thus be turned up in a benumbed state, and will either be killed by the next frost or devoured by the crows and other birds in search of food. But this ploughing should be performed for many years successively, and by all the neighboring farmers simultaneously, or it will not be eflicacious. Those fields which have been sown in autumn should be strewn with peat-ashes — when peat is to be had, and is used as fuel — in spring, when the supervening rains will disengage the sulphuric acid, which will kill the insects. . German or Field Cockchaffer. — An insect injurious to the ears of wheat and rye. It has a square abdomen, rather flat ; its whole length is half an inch, and its breadth one fourth of an inch ; the color of the wing-cases is mostly brown, but sometimes a small square spot is seen at their base, and another larger saddle-like spot of the same color in their middle ; the head and thorax of a dark-green ; the under side of the body and legs are black. These insects are found singly, or three or four together, sitting on the ears, and gnawing the still soft grains of rye, or of wheat. Crows, moles, and field-mice, are its greatest enemies. The perfect insect can only be diminished and destroyed by picking it off the plant. Children may be employed for this purpose, and must collect the insects in bags. The insects must be crushed or destroyed by putting hot water on them, and then given to the poultry, which will become very fat by feeding on them. The hand-picking must be early in the morning, while the dew is on the plants, as then the beetle hangs lazy and benumbed on the ears of corn. Lined Click Beetle, — Larva, the Wire-worm. — A beetle particularly inju- rious to oats The larva of this beetle ^— known under the name of the wire-worm — appears sometimes in great numbers, devastating corn by attacking the roots. This larva is slender and linear, flat, shining, smooth, slightly hairy, and brown. It resembles the meal-worm. The beetle is blackish, with gray hairs ; the feelers and legs are brownish-yellow, and the wing-covers striped with gray. The best means of destroying them is to mow the oats, and ^ugh up the ground frequently, when crows and NOXIOUS INSECTS. 5n other birds will pick up the larvae. In Fig. 307, a, is the larva of Elater Begetis ; h, under side of the terminal segment of the body ; c, the head seen from beneath ; d, perfect insect, natural size ; e, magnified ; f, larva of the Fisc. 307. true wire-worm ; g, the larva of ditto, as described by some writers, being another species. Winter or Dart Moth. — A moth that injures winter grain. The cater- pillar or larva of a moth, which, from its food in the larva state, is called the winter corn-moth, is one of the most troublesome of the insect tribe. This caterpillar attacks both the leaves and the roots of the corn ; also the roots of lettuce, turnips, and spinach. It appears generally in August, sitting quietly on the ground in the day-time, and flying about and pairing at night. When at rest, its wings are folded together flat over the body, and it is then nearly an inch long, and half an inch wide. Its colors are dirty-gray, and dark brown, or earth-color, except on the under wing;*, which are covered as it sits, and which are sometimes whitish-gray, sometimes cream-color. On the upper wings a faint, blackish, ringlike mark is seen, and a cone-shaped spot on a wavy line, a kidney-shaped stain almost in the middle, and towards the lower edge two other wavy or notched transverse lines. The most simple and certain mode of extirpating the noxious seed-eating caterpillar from the soil is, to repair to the fields, and collect the caterpillars as soon as they ap- pear. The only question is, how the hand-picking is to be set about, without spending time unnecessarily. A person unacquainted with the habits of the creature would seek for it in vain in his fields. They lie in the day-time under stones, clods, or buried in the earth ; these must therefore be carefully turned up, in search of the enemy. When they are changing their skins, they come out of their lurking-places, even in the day-time, and can easily be ga,hered. Immediately after sunset they come out in great numbers, and 44 518 farmer's hand-book. feed greedily or: the young corn. At this time, therefore, the work must bs carried on vigorously, and even till late at night, with artificial light. Whiie-iine Dart Moth. — A moth injurious to buckwheat and autumn-sown grain. The caterpillar is upwards of an inch long, and of the thickness of a slender writing-quill. On the back it is dirty olive-green, with a mixture of yellow. The head is brown ; the abdomen and feet are dirty-yellow. It lives in the day-time in the earth, coming out only at night. The remedies proposed are — hand-picking, applying a strong dressing of lime to the land in the spring, strewing the ground with ashes, rolling the fields with heavy rollers, and lastly, driving flocks of sheep over the field. Botrjs. — A moth, the caterpillar of which is injurious to millet. It is destroyed as follows : — As soon as the millet is reaped and carried away, let the stubble be pulled up, and burnt in a heap, with the caterpillars in it. Corn Moth. — A moth injurious to grain laid up in magazines. The perfect insect or moth measures, from the head to the tips of the wings, from six to seven lines. The body is brown, with a little white on the back ; the head has a thick tuft of whitish hairs ; eyes black ; upper wings more or less white, with brownish and dusky dots, varying in form and size. The most decided and certain mark is a spot of the same color at the base, followed by an almost square spot on the outer border ; behind this, in a slanting direction, runs a band-shaped spot almost through the whole breadth of the wings. Behind this are two dots on the anterior border, and just above the tips of the wings a larger brown spot, The posterior border is furnished with long brown and white mottled fringes. The under wings are smaller and shorter, brownish, with long fringes at the posterior edge. This insect appears as a moth in May, June, and July, in buildings where grain is stored ; it rests in the day-time, and only flies about at night, attack- ing rye, oats, barley, and wheat. The remedies proposed are — to fill up the nracks and holes, sprinkle the floor with a mixture of strong white-wine vinegar and salt before laying up the corn, sweeping the floor and walls thoroughly before stowage, and, if the moth has laid her eggs on the grain, common salt may be mixed with the grain. Other remedies are recom- mended, such as garlic, tobacco, wormwood, hemp, hops, elder-flowers, turpentine, and brimstone. Corn Weevil. — A small insect, linear-shape, narrow rostrum, the elytra marked by impressed lines of dots. The female deposits her eggs upon corn in granaries, and the young larva at once burrows into the grain, of which it eats the interior. Various plans have been suggested for its destruction ; perfect ventilation and a constant shifting of the grain are great preservatives. Hessian riy. — A small midge, injurious to wheat. Its body is covered with short black hairs ; the thorax is much arched, smooth, and shining ; NOXIOUS INSECTS. 519 the scutellum projecting, rounded posteriorly ; the breast sometimes golden- yellow ; the abdomen brownish ; the wings blackish ; the golden-yellow of the base is sometimes continued to the veins, where it appears lighter, and disappears by degrees about the middle. The halteres are yellowish-white ; Fig. 308. the legs golden-yellow at the base of the thigh. The female has a black streak on the abdomen. The larva is spindle-shaped, and whitish ; the posterior end suddenly diminished ; the head bent inwards, and transparent above. A short line is remarked within, which is the intestinal canal. It is dirty white below ; in younger specimens this coloring appears like nine spots on each side, and has a row of still smaller spots in the middle. When the larvae are fully grown, they unite in regular segments round the wheat ; they are then provided with very small hooks or notches towards the head. Their length is three twentieths of an inch, and their breadth one twentieth. The perfect insect appears in June, and perhaps later ; the female lays from one to eight eggs, in the autumn. The only practicable mode of destroying this insect is to wait till the grain is reaped, and then burn the stubble in which the pupae lie concealed. If it should be impossible to do this, sow the fields next year with any other grain than wheat ; better, perhaps, not to sow wheat anywhere near them, that the flies may not carry their eggs there. Wheat Midge. — This is another small species of midge, injurious to wheat. When the wheat is in blossom, it is sometimes attacked by a small fly, of an orange-color, which lays its eggs in the middle of the blossom. When the eggs are hatched, the larvas prevent the fructification of the grains, probably by eating the pollen. The perfect insect slightly resembles the common midge, but is sanaller. The body is orange-yellow ; the wings clear and transparent, and hairy at the edges ; the eyes are black ; the antennae neck- lace-shaped, longer than the thorax, and the feet rather long. The smallnesa of this insect, both in its ^rva and perfect state, with the circumstance ot the 520 FARMER S HAND-BOOK. destruction of the wheat when it is in blossom, allows of but little that can be effected by human aid. The safest and almost only certain means of F!sr. 309. liminishing such an evil, for the next year, consists in not sowing wheat again on the same field, nor in its neighborhood. The larvae quit the wheat in August, and pass the winter in the ground. III. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CULINARY VEGETABLES. Spring Beetle or Skip-jack. — Gardeners remark, often to their great annoyance, that many newly-transplanted lettuces begin suddenly to wither and perish ; this happens chiefly in spring and summer. If we seek for the cause, we find in the roots of the withering plants a worm, which is the larva of one of the Elateridee, which much resembles the meal-worm. It eats, by degrees, the root of the lettuce as far as the collar from which the leaves are developed. It is light yellow, from six to seven lines long, of the thick- ness of a pigeon's quill ; its body is cylindrical, somewhat flatly compressed at the head, rather pointed behind, with strong, black, and shining jaws. The pupa or nymph is shorter than the larva, paler in color, and thicker. The beetle, which is developed from the pupa in fourteen days, is from four to five lines long, one and a half lines broad, and has the usual form of spring beetles ; it is slightly curved ; head and thorax dark-brown ; wing-cases yellowish, striped, with dots ; the feelers are slender, notched, and yellow- ish-brown ; the under side of the body also brownish. To get rid of this pest, pull up every plant that begins to wither, and kill the enemy within, or in the earth near the plant. Asparagus Beetle. — There are two kinds. One is blackish-green, the thorax red with two black dots, yellow wing-cases, the suture and three spots united to it on both sides black ; and the other, called the Twelve- spotted Leaf-beetle, is red, the wing-cases lighter, each having six black NOXIOUS INSECTS. 521 dots ; the horns, eyes, breast, edge of the abdomen, tips of the thighs and palpi, black. The first-named is called the asparagus beetle. The larva is spindle-shaped, flat beneath, arched, fleshy, wrinkled, covered with single hairs, bordered at the sides, of an olive-color ; the head and legs black. The only remedy is to pick off and kill both beetles and larvae. Earth-flea Beetles. — This name is applied to several species of very small beetles, one of which is called the turnip-fly. They make great leaps, by means of their thick hind-legs ; color generally shining-green, with a brown or yellowish hue. They attack cabbage, cauliflower, colewort, radish, cresses, flax, tobacco, hops, sainfoin, and summer and winter turnips. Shade, coolness, and rainy weather, are the surest protection of young plants from its attacks. The remedies are various. Pour boiling water on a hand- ful of fresh or dry vFormwood, and let it stand from twelve to twenty-four hours, to get cold ; then put the plants that are to be planted out into the decoction, with their leaves downwards as far as the stem, so that their roots may not be wet, and then put into a cellar, or some cool place, and in six to ten hours afterwards, they may be planted vi^ithout risk of attack. Young plants and seed-beds may also be sprinkled with this infusion. Plants may also be rescued, by applying road-dust after dew has fallen. These two modes of remedy are also applicable to field cultivation. Mole CricJict, Churr Worm, Jair Worm, Eve Churr, or Earth Crab. — This insect is very destructive to culinary vegetables, meadows, and corn- fields. When full-grown the mole cricket measures nearly two inches in length, and four lines in breadth. Its color is dark-brown ; head oval, small and longish ; two bristle-shaped and strong feelers ; thorax covered with fine woolly hair; wings very broad and triangular, when expanded; abdomen soft ; the two fore feet proportionally short, hut broad and strong, adapted to dig in the earth. The surest and most efl[icacious remedy is to destroy the brood in June or July. First pour water into their holes, and then a few drops of any sort of oil ; they leave their holes when they feel the water, and when touched by the oil, die immediately. Also, pits may be dug, two or three feet deep and a foot wide ; after the frost, all the mole crickets will collect in these for shelter, when they may be destroyed in heaps. Painted Field Bug. — A dangerous enemy to the cabbage tribe, particu- larly in dry summers, since in its larva, as well as in its perfect state, it pierces the leaves, till it makes them like a sieve. The perfect insect is about one fourth of an inch long, and only a little less broad, and rather flat. Its ground-color is red or white, its upper side spotted with dark-green ; head dark-green, bordered at the sides with red or white before the eyes. On the wing-covers, or upper wings, the dark color prevails ; they are bordered with red or white as far as the terminal third part ; this border ia 44* 522 farmer's hand-boor, wavy, and has a green spot. The under side is reddish or whitish the turned-up edge of the abdomen is marked with dark-green spots, also, on both sides. The larva has nearly the same markings, and only differs from the perfect insect by its want of wings. The only way to destroy these insects is to pick them off and kill them. Plant Lice (Aphis). — These are especial enemies to various sorts of culinary vegetables. They, indeed, spare no plant ; but they prefer juicy vegetables, — the different sorts of the cabbage tribe, peas, and beans. Ley and vapor of tobacco are recommended as the best means of killing the aphides, but these remedies cannot well be applied to culinary vegetables. Large Cabbage White Butterfly. — The wings are white ; upper wings with broad black tips, and the female has two black spots on the middle. The under side of the under wings is light-yellow. Appears from May to October. The caterpillar is bluish-green, thinly-haired, sprinkled with black dots, having a yellow stripe on the back, and some on the sides. Found on all sorts of cabbages, horse-radish, radishes, mustard, and similar plants, as well as on water-cresses. The pupae are yellowish-green, with black dots, with a point on the head, and five on the back. The best way to destroy them is picking off and killing the caterpillars, as well as the pupae, excepting those which have a brown appearance, as these are full of the larvce of ichneumons, and other allied parasites, which are the great scourge of these caterpillars. Small While Butterfly. — This resembles the former insect, but is smaller, and the black tint at the points of the upper wings is fainter, and not visible on the outer edge. The caterpillar is of a dull green, with very fine hairs, yellow stripe on the back, and yellow spots on the sides, on a pale ground. In some years, it is very injurious to the cabbage and turnip plants. The pupa is yellowish, or greenish-gray, with three yellow stripes. Destroyed in the same manner as the foregoing insect. Grecn-vcincd White Butterfly. — The wings are white, with the tips of the upper ones black. The male has one black spot, the female two ot three. The veins on the outer edge of the female's under wings are black. The under wings are yellow on the under side, with greenish-powdered veins. It flies about in April and July, and is of the size of the preceding. The caterpillar, which lives on the leaves of cabbages and turnips, is finely- haired, of a faint or brownish green, lighter at the sides, with reddish- yellow spiracles, small white warts, and black punctures. The pupa is yellowish-green, with'points on the head, and its back is rather lighter than the foregoing species. Destroyed by the same means as the two preceding species. Gamma Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth is so plentiful in soma NOXIOUS INSECTS. 523 years that it does great damage to vegetables, peas, and various sorts of fodder-herbage. The ground-color of tliis moth is light, and dark-gray, mixed with rust-color. The head and collar are of brownish-gray, edged with light-gray lines, as well as the crested back and shoulders. The abdomen is yellowish-gray, with elevated brown tufts of hair. The upper wings are marbled, and have a metallic lustre ; the inner edge is wavy, and toothed near the fringes. The notched cross-lines are silvery ; towards the inner border is a shining mark, resembling the Greek letter gamma ; the under wings are yellowish-brown at the base above the fringes, with black bands. The blackish-brown pupa is inclosed in a white cocoon. The cater- pillar is green, beset with single hairs, has twelve feet, and a brownish- green head. On the back are four very small yellowish or whitish lines; the feet have a yellow stripe. The spiracles are blackish-green. These caterpillars are found from spring to autumn, in a variety of generations. Tlie only possible means of destroying them is by shaking them oft" and hand-picking. Cabbage Moth. — The caterpillar of the cabbage moth is a great enemy to diflTcrent sorts of culinary vegetables. The moth is of middling size, one inch and a half broad, when the wings are extended ; its head, collar, and Fi^. 310. back, are blackish-gray, intermixed with whitish and yellowish hairs. Tl e back has a thick double crest ; the abdomen is dark ash-gray, the upper half beset with black tufts in the middle. The upper wings are gray, with a mixture of yellow and white ; the under wings are light gray, with dark vems, and central spois, — blackish towards the outer edge. Th^ moth appears in May and June, sits in the day-time, and flies only at night. The 524 farmer's hand-book. caterpillar is green, more or less covered with gray or black ; it has a darli stripe on the back, on which there is a pale, indistinct line. Above, it is Bometimes furnished with dark or pale spots, placed lengthwise. At the sides is a dirty-yellow stripe, which becomes reddish above ; close above this spot are two white spiracles, surrounded with black, each in a small black spot. When this caterpillar is numerous, it does considerable damage to cabbages, lettuces, &c., by eating out the heart. It appears in July, August and September. To look for them and kill them is a troublesome, but the only sure way of getting rid of them. White Line Brown-eyed Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth sometimes does a great deal of damage to different sorts of culinary plants, in the same manner as the moth last described. The moth is dark rusty brown ; the feelers have white scales ; abdomen ash-gray, with brown tufts ; feet gray- ish-brown, yellow-ringed below ; the fore wings have no connected cross- lines ; the round middle spot is surrounded with white ; the under wings are ochre-yellow, or dirty-white, with darker shades towards the whitish fringes. The reddish or yellowish brown caterpillar has on the back, and on each side, a dark stripe, and a whitish one nearly over the feet ; the under side and feet are light-brown ; it is dotted with black between the dark stripes. The pupa is shining reddish-brown, and remains in the earth during winter. Destroyed only by hand-picking. Cabbage-garden Pebble Moth. — Of the family Pyralidce, a small group of moths, this species only deserves to be mentioned, as its caterpillar some- times greatly injures several sorts of vegetables. The head, back, and upper wings of the moth, are hazel-brown, and brownish-gold ; the feelers light- brown ; the abdomen and under wings whitish. The first brood flies in May, and the second in August. The caterpillar is found in May and June, and the second generation in the fall. It has a light-brown head, and a yellowish-green body, with blackish stripes running lengthwise, and black- ish dots, having fine white lines between. Its length is about two thirds of an inch. Destroy by shaking them off and burying immediately, or killing. Carrot Moth. — The caterpillar of this small moth is a great enemy of carrots. The moth has a head and back reddish-brown, with single black atoms ; abdomen and feet ash-gray, the former with white incisions ; the upper wings are of a reddish-brown color ; there are also black streaks and white atoms, and fringes which surround an indistinct row of dots ; the under wings are of ash-gray, lightest nearer the base, with yellowish fringes ; on the under side, the upper wings are dark, the under wings light- gray. The caterpillar lives on carrots, and eats the flower and seeds. It is greenish-gray, inclining to yellow, strewed with black tubercles, emitting hairs ; the head and upper side of the thorax are browr . It attains the NOXIOUS INSECTS. 525 length of half an inch. The means of its destruction are simply hand-pick- in?- RocseVs Tinea. — The little caterpillars of this moth sometimes do sensi- ble injury to the choicest vegetables. The caterpillars are yellowish-green ; liead shining blackish-brown. Look for them, and kill them. Onion Fly. — The larva or maggot of a small fly, damaging the various sorts of onions. The perfect insect or fly is entirely of an ash-gray color in- the female, or with black stripes on the back of the male, the wings clear like glass, with yellowish-brown veins. In the figure, a is the grub or larva ; b, magnified ; c, pauparium, within which is the real pupa ; magnified ; e, perfect insect magnified ; the cross-lines showing the natural size. The fly lays her eggs on the leaves of the onion, close to the earth ; the newly-hatched maggot bores through the first leaf, and then descends between the leaves into the onion to its base, when it entirely destroys the bulb, which soon becomes rotten. To destroy them, strew ashes and pounded charcoal ; also remove all the infested onions early out of the beds, before the flies are developed ; and these onions are easily known by their outward leaves turning yellow. Cabbage Fly. — This is another small fly, which attacks the cabbage. The perfect insect is ash-gray ; the thorax has three indistinct black streaks ou the back ; the wings are clear, like glass ; the abdomen is linear, with black stripes on the back of the male, or entirely ash-gray on the female ; the length is three lines. The larva much resembles that of the onion fly, but is thicker. The only way of diminishing this destructive fly is to pull up, and carry away betimes, the plants attacked by the larva;, which may ba known by their dull lead-color, and the withering of their leaves in the sun- Bhine. Lettuce Fly. — This fly is rather smaller than the former ; it is blackish- 526 farmer's hand-book. brown ; the under part and sides of the segments of the abdomen varying gray ; length nearly one fourth of an inch. It flies in July. The larva resembles the former, but is smaller and smoother, and its color varies more into yellow. It destroys lettuce-seeds, and other salad plants. It is almost impossible to get rid of these insects. Neffro Fly. — This insect, in its perfect state, is slightly haired, shining black, rather of a metallic-green ; head reddish-yellow ; legs light-yellow ; balancers white ; wings clear, like glass : one sixth of an inch long. The larva lives in the carrot, particularly near the extremity of the main root. The carrots die off by degrees, or at least lose their sweet taste, and become rusty, by the passages of the maggots. The larva of the carrot fly is cylin- drical, pointed anteriorly, like parchment, shining, smooth, bare, pale-yel- low. The only way to diminish their number is to pull up the sickly infested carrots, known by their yellow outer leaves and early withering, and to destroy the insects contained in them, before they change into pupae. IV. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS, FRUIT-TREES, SHRUBS, AND VINES. Black-veined White Butterfly, or Hawthorn Pontia. — This is a four-winged insect, which only flies by day, seeks its necessary food, and fulfils the work of propagation. It is large, wholly white, excepting that the ribs or veins of the wings, and a short oblique stripe from the second to the third vein of the upper wings, are black, which distinguishes it from the cabbage butter- fly. Eggs shining, yellow, cylindrical ; the newly-hatched caterpillars are dirty-yellow, and covered with hair ; the head is black, and there is a black tmg round the neck, and a brownish stripe on both sides. The first warm NOXIOUS INSECTS. 527 sunshine in spring, which causes the sap to flow, entices the caterpillars to leave their nest ; and as the blossom-buds begin to shoot, they are attacked and consumed, as are also the leaf-buds. At the second change of their skin, the caterpillars acquire two rows of yellow spots down the back, close to and between which extends a black line ; the back is covered with yel- low and white hairs, and from the black stripes on the sides extend oblique ash-gray stripes, parallel to each other, to the upper side of the body. There is also a third change, when the caterpillars have a black stripe in the mid- dle of the back, which extends to the posterior part of the body ; the yellow dots, to which the yellow hairs were attached, are not so perceptible, and the white hairs become more thinly scattered. The pupa is whitish- yellow, beset with black dots and stripes. At the beginning of June, the butterfly appears and propagates its species. The best way of destroying these caterpillars on low fruit-trees is by seeking out the eggs or young caterpillars, on tlie branches, and killing them. The hawthorn butterfly prefers the lower apple-tree, to lay her eggs on ; and they may be seen on the leaf, conspicuous from their shining yellow color, while the caterpillars are betrayed by their web, and the adjacent gnawed leaves. When there are no low trees, the high ones will be infested ; and in this case, the mode of destruction must be delayed till the leaves have fallen off, when the nests of the caterpillars w-ill become visible. Lastly, a person provided with a butterfly-net can take the insect on the blossoms of plants and shrubs, on which it delights to sit in June, and suck the honey. Ydloio-tailed Moth. — This is a destructive insect in the orchard, the larvae of the moth often infesting fruit-trees to such a degree that not a leaf or fruit remains uninjured. It flies about at night, and in the day-time sits quietly on a leaf, or on a wall, and suffers itself to be caught in the hand. The posterior part of the body is covered with a round mass of golden yellow hair ; its fore wings are dazzling white, as is also the greater part of its body, only the principal vein of the fore wing of the male is brown on its under side, and sometimes has a few black dots on its wings. The male has a smaller abdomen, a smaller tuft of hair on the tail, and strongly- teethed feelers or horns. The moth appears in June, and propagates, the eggs being lain on the under side of the leaf, covered with hair. The cater- pillars arc usually hatched in July ; they are dirty-yellow, black-headed, with a black ring round the neck, tliickly-haired, and four rows of blackish dots on the back. They feed on the piembrane of the leaf. They change their skins in August ; cease feeding in September, and become benumbed in November, passing the winter in their nest. Before the buds on the trees have begun to burst in spring, some of the caterpillars ecnie out of their nests, and eat the unfolded leaves ; at the end of April, they change tlieir 528 farmer's hand-book. skins for the second time, and again in May, when they become reddish- brown, marked on both sides with white spots, as far as the extremity of the body, which is thickly set with hair along the back ; they now disperse over the different fruit-trees in the garden. To destroy them, the means are — the destruction of the eggs, killing the caterpillars soon after their birth ; collect the pupae at a later period, pursue the moth in July and August, take their nests from the trees in autumn and spring, and seek out and destroy the half-grown caterpillars in their new webs in May. Lackey, or Barred Tree Lachey Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth attacks all kinds of trees. The perfect insect is rarely seen, as it only flies at night, and conceals itself during the day. This moth is of the middle size ; the male, which is usually smaller than the female, measures, with spread wings, from tip to tip, from one to one and a fourth inches. The ground- color of the whole insect is either light-yellow, or reddish-yellow ochre ; the upper wings have always a darker band in the middle, which is bordered by two lighter cross-lines ; the fringes are whitish, and brown-spotted ; the under wings are always of a uniform color, light-yellow or brownish ; the horns are strongly teethed in the male, which has also a thinner abdomen. This moth usually appears in July. In spring, the caterpillars are devel- oped about the first of May, and they live in society till the third molting. They are usually met with early in the morning, or on rainy days, at the forks of the twigs in a large nest, closely spun over with a silky substance ; and, when disturbed, they let themselves down by threads to the ground, and disperse. In the month of June, the caterpillar is fully grow^n ; it is often an inch in length, sofl, thinly-haired, striped with blue, red, and yellow, — hence its fanciful name, — with a white line down the back ; the head is bluish-gray, marked with two black spots. To get rid of this insect, crush the whole colony, in May, with a stick, or sweep them down into a pot and destroy them. From the middle of June, and during July, search should be made for their cocoons, which will be found either fastened between two leaves, on trees or shrubs, or lying in the roofs of houses, on the tops of walls, or in hedges ; — tread on these cocoons. On low fruit-trees, the rings of eggs may be discovered, after some practice, when the leaves have fallen off; and, when found, they must be removed from the tree and burnt. Gypsy Moth. — Early in spring, before the leaves of the fruit-trees are fully out, the little caterpillars are hatched, and spread over the bursting buds ; the head is large yellow spotted ; six pair of red dots on the hinder part of the back ; tufts of hair on each side of the body, and single hairs on the back. After changing their skin, a pair of blue tubercles appear on the fore part of the back, — that is, on each of the first four figments of the>body, by which they may be identified at once. Towards the end of June, the NOXIOUS INSECTS. 529 caterpillars form their cocoons on the fruit-trees ; the moth appears in August ; the males are dark-brown, and their fore wings have three or four undulating blackish stripes ; the females are whitish-gray, their fore wings traversed by brownish stripes. The moth lays her eggs in various places in the fall. To get rid of these insects, first find out the egg masses, and crush them. As they are large, and usually in open places, we cannot avoid see- ing them, if we look carefully, which should be done in autumn, or early in spring, before the caterpillars are hatched. Goat Moth. — The caterpillar of this moth lives on the wood, instead of the foliage of the trees, thus materially injuring it. It is very large, smooth and shining, with here and there single hairs. It is dark-red on the back, also on the spiracles situated at both sides ; the sides and lower part of the body are flesh-colored ; the head is black, the first segment also marked with black above. It discharges a corrosive fluid at its persecutors, and also diffuses an extremely oflfensive smell. After remaining more than two years in the larva state, and casting its skin eight times, the caterpillar becomes of a light ochre-yellow hue shortly before pupation, which usually takes place in spring. The abdomen of the pupa is yellow, and the seg- ments are deeply indented, and capable of much extension. The coeoon ia situated immediately within the opening of the tree, so that the pupa, when matured, can press itself half out of the hole,, when the shell bursts, and the moth comes forth usually in June or July. It is difficult to apply any rem- edies. When the existence of one of these creatures in a trunk is ascer- tained, by the extruded excrement, relief comes too late for the tree, even if the caterpillar may be killed ; still, the caterpillar should be reached, if possible, by enlarging the opening with a garden-knife, or endeavor to kill it by thrusting a piece of pointed wire up the hole of the tree. Wood Leopard Moth. — This insect injures the trunks of trees in the same manner as the foregoing, to which it perfectly assimilates in its habits, and is destroyed by the same means. It is smaller, however ; is hatched in August, molts in September, and is full-grown the next June. From its first existence till its transformation, it is yellow, with raised, shiny black dots, on each of which there is a fine short hair ; there are two black spots on the head. The moth appears in August ; its ground-color is white, with scattered steel-blue dots ; it measures, with spread wings, two inches and a half. Figure-of-8 Moth. — This insect feeds on the foliage of fruit-trees. In June, when almost full-grown, this caterpillar measures nearly two inches ; it is very juicy, of a yellowish-green color, with black tubercles ; it has a very small bluish head, with two black round spots on it. When young, it is lighter, and is often nearly white on the back ; but when old, becomes of 45 k2 530 farmer's hand-book. a bluish color. The pupa is small, cylindrical, reddish-brown, dull, in some degree powdered with blue ; the moth appears in October, or in the following spring. The perfect insect or moth measures, with spread wings, from tip to tip, about one and three fourths inches. The whitish- yellow spot in the middle of the fore wings, which is divided by three incisions at the sides, and is situated between two blackish, undulated cross- lines, has been sometimes compared to the figure 8. A white wavy line forms a small white spot behind the second stripe at the anal angle ; the toothed external edge has ash-gray, shining fringes, bounded with a line ; the under wings, which are ash-gray, have a dull middle spot, and an indis- tinct band, with a small, black, streaky spot at the anal angle ; the color of the feelers, which are toothed in the male, and filiform in the female, is rusty-brown ; the thorax alaovq is the same color as the fore wings, and the abdomen, with the extremity of the body, — which in the male has a tuft of hair, and in the female is cylindrical and downy, — is of the same color as the hinder wings. To destroy or diminish these insects, hand-pick them as soon as they appear. This is best done in rainy weather, when they take refuge under the branches and on dry places of the stem. Their presence can be detected by their rather elevated oval form, and they may be destroyed by the garden-knife, or a piece of wood. Lunar Spotted Pinion Moth. — The caterpillars of this moth are rather thick and fleshy, light-green, with a whitish stripe along the back, and two darker liaes along the sides ; on the segments are whitish-yellow warts, furnished with fine, small hairs ; over the feet and along the first three segments runs a yellow stripe, bordered with black. As soon as the fruit- trees are in leaf, this insect is on hand. They are fully grown about the first of June, and become pupae of a blue, frosted appearance, on the trees themselves. In a few weeks the moth comes out ; the fore-wings are brownish-red, with several undulating dark-brown transverse lines, and also have a whitish semi-circular spot, nearly at the tip ; near to this, almost at the outer edge, is a rather lai-ge black spot ; the under w'ings are light-gray, rather darker towards the fringes, which are yellow. To get rid of the insect, throw them down, by shaking the branches. The moths also usually fall from the tree, if the branches are struck in June and July. Winter Moth. — The green-looped caterpillar produced by this moth is a ruinous insect to fruit-trees. It appears late in the autumn, and proceeds from a light-brown pupa, which lies from June to the end of October, either a few inches under the earth, or under stones and clods. The male is winged, — the female is almost wingless ; the male is of a yellowish-gray, with pale-gray wings, traversed with delicate, darkish cross-lines ; the female has a much thicker body, of an ash-gray color. It is a nocturnal NOXIOUS INSECTS. 531 insect ; the eggs are laid singly, at the top of the tree, and are small and greenish. The caterpillars are hatched in spring, are at first gray, and Fig. 313. then light-green ; black head, without ventral feet. They devour the leaves, buds, and fruit, and occasionally the trees do not recover for some time. The winter moths do not all appear in autumn, but many of them lay their eggs on the trees in the following spring. To prevent their attacks, it is recommended to surround the base of the stem with a wooden frame, or box, and daub it on the outside with tar ; others recommend the placing of a layer of bird-lime around the trunk of the tree, which is said to have equal effect, and does not require daily renewing. Pah Brindled Beauty Moth. — It appears very early on the fruit-trees, — generally on the pear. The male is rather large ; the fore-wings are greenish-gray, covered with fine brownish dots, and traversed by interrupted gray cross-stripes, interspersed with whitish spots between ; the hind- wings are more or less white, and through the middle of them runs a brownish wavy cross-stripe ; before tlie fringes is another gray, dark stripe ; the body of the male is also grayish-green, with long hairs ; the female is without wings, small, coffee-brown, with angular tufts of fine hair, and long feet, annulated with white and brown. In March, the female deposits her eggs on a small side-twig, in rows downwards, covering them with long gray hairs. As soon as the leaves begin to unfold on the twigs, the young caterpillars are hatched. 532 faemer's hand-book. Lime Looker, or Mottled JJnihre Moth. — Takes its name from the lime- tree, on which it likes to feed, as also on fruit-trees. This caterpillar, when full-grown, is of a reddish color, and has a yellow stripe on each side. It goes into the earth in May or June, and is transformed into a brownish-red pupa. The moth comes out of the earth in the beginning of November, and lays her eggs on a fruit-tree. The male is as large again as that of the winter moth ; its broad fore wings are of a reddish-yellow, covered with blackish dots ; the under wings are dirty-white, dotted with brown, and in the middle of the wings is a black dot. The female has no wings, is much larger than that of the winter moth ; the head and body are whitish, covered with black streaks and dots, and the feet annulated with yellow and black. To guard against its ravages, the same contrivance as for the winter moth is to be resorted to, or strike the branches of the tree with a long pole in May, to throw dovvn the caterpillars. Small Ermine Moth. — This is a small, nocturnal, four-winged insect ; the feet, feelers, abdomen, and fore wings, are white, — the latter covered with about twenty black dots ; the under wings are blackish. The female lays her eggs, at the end of June or first of July, near a blossom-bud, or a leaf-bud. The caterpillars are hatched the same autumn, and as soon the next spring as the leaves of the apple-trees begin to be formed, these cater- pillars take possession of them. The caterpillars mature about the middle of June, when they are dirty-yellow, or lead-color, with a black head ; and on the side of each abdominal segment is a longish black spot, and near it small dots, each furnished with a hair. In June the moths are found on the fruit-trees. They may be taken from the tree by the hand, and destroyed. Codling Moth. — A small, reddish-white grub, met with in early apples or pears. The fore wings have a light-gray ground, on which are scattered many delicate streaks of a dark hue, intermixed with others that are broad and cup-shaped. On the posterior border of the fore wings is a large red- ciish-brown spot, surrounded by a golden mark in the form of a horse-shoe. The hind wings are of a sparkling brownish-red, inclining to yellow, and are surrounded on the outer border by a broad, light fringe. The thorax and abdomen are of yellow and brownish-gray. This moth is to be seen in the evening, in May, on the apple and pear trees, busily depositing its eggs, either on the calyx, or in the hollow part of the fruit at the stalk end. In favorable weather, the little grubs are hatched in a few days, so that in May apples and pears are infested by them. At first the grub is white, with a black head and collar, and black, slanting double dots, which run in four rows from the head to the abdomen ; it afterwards becomes more of a flesh-color, the head and collar turriing brovra, the dots gray and indistinct NOXIOUS INSECTS. 533 The little grub immediately becomes a pupa in the web, and in a few days the moth comes out, which shortly pairs, and deposits eggs on the fruit. To diminish this insect in some degree, collect the fallen apples every day, and take them out of the garden ; also remove all fruit from the tree which has grubs in it, and clear the trees of all loose bark, before the middle of April. Red Grub of the Plum. — Injurious to the early plums. It produces a moth ; its fore wings are black, changing to a metallic hue in the sun ; on the outer edge of the fore wings, and reaching up, there is the appearance of very fine silver dust ; the black spot on the extreme point of the fore wings is surrounded with a white border, and has the appearance of an eye. This moth appears in June ; the eggs are hatched when the weather becomes warm ; in July, the grub penetrates deeply into the plum, and the outward wound, which it made in entering, soon heals up, and the plum becomes filled with the excrement of the caterpillar. There are few means in our power to destroy this insect. The tree must be shaken, and every plum which falls must be removed. Also remove the loose or split bark. Bed Bud Caterpillar. — The moth which proceeds from this is somewhat larger than the one above described, has a white, broad, transverse band, studded with gray spots, extending through the middle of the fore wings from one edge to the other, and occupies more than a third part of their whole surface ; the other parts of the fore legs are gray. It is found on the fruit-trees in May ; lays its eggs in June, which hatch the next spring, and attack the buds. A honey-drop is not unfrequently seen on the bud, which, issuing from the wound made by the insect, is evidence that it will expand no more ; should no sap, however, issue from the wound, the bud will con- tinue to grow, with the little caterpillar in it. The caterpillar attains its full size in four or five weeks ; it then spins itself a white cocoon, in which it changes to a light-brown pupa, and appears again in May as a moth. To diminish the number of this insect, we must search for the caterpillar on the fresh flower-buds, taking it out with a penknife ; if we search for all the closely-adhering leaf and flower buds on the dwarf trees, during the blossoming season, and separate them, no bud-eating caterpillars will escape us. Plum-tree Tortrix. — This larva, when fully grown, is about one fourth of an inch long, of a dirty-green color, with a red head, and is the cater- pillar of a very small moth. It has three pairs of feet, and five pairs of fleshy prolegs. The body is sprinkled with a few small hairs. The lar\'a lurks, during nearly the whole year, under the bark of the trees ; the per- fect insect appears first in June, and again in harvest. The female lays hei 45* 534 farmer's hand-book. eggs on the outer bark, from which the young caterpillars, by degrees, pen- etrate to the inner bark. To prevent the moth from laying her eggs on the tree, or to prevent the caterpillars from entering the inner bark, wash the stem of the tree with a solution of lime, in June and September; also brush the tree, and when there is seen the smallest heap of red dust, introduce a needle, wire, or knife, into the opening, and destroy the larva. The moth, which, on account of its size and color, is difficult to be caught, is about half an inch long ; fore wings dark-brown and yellow ; silvery lines and yellow spots on the front edge ; a dark-brown stain on the upper part of the wings, softened oflf at the edges, and surrounded by three red lines ; the under hind wings are brown. The pupa is brown, and lies under the bark. Copper-colored Weevil. — Among those insects which feed on fruits is the copper-colored weevil, Curculio, or Rhynchites ciipreus. It is somewhat larger than the apple weevil, and its horny wing-cases are furrowed and metallic copper-colored. Its body and 'feet are of a somewhat deeper shade, and its proboscis and feelers are black. It appears in spring, on different fruit-trees ; also called the plum-borer. When the plum is nearly the size of a large almond, the female weevil selects one in which to lay her eggs; and as soon as this is done, she cuts through the stalk with her pro- boscis, and by various cunning means causes the plum to drop off. The egg does not remain long dormant in the plum or the ground, for, if the weather is favorable, the larva is hatched in a few days, and it then pro- ceeds to eat the pulp of the plum, which it does in about six weeks ; and, being now fully grown, it buries itself in the earth, and awaits its transform- ation in the next spring, when it appears as a beetle, and again begins the work of regeneration. It is very difficult to catch these beetles on the trees, but much easier to destroy their young. Pick up the fallen plums, and frequently shake the trees, from June to July. However strong the wind may be, it seldom throws down healthy, half-grown plums. Bacchus, or Purple Apple Weevil. — This beetle is of a purple and gold color, with dark blue proboscis, feelers, and tarsi. Its size is various. It is found early in spring on the apple-tree ; begins the work of regeneration in midsummer, by boring a hole in the apple, laying an egg at the entrance, and pushing it inside with its proboscis, covering the hole in an ingenious manner ; it proceeds in this way, depositing three or four eggs in different parts of one apple, and then leaves for another. The grub, which is whit- ish, with a black head, is hatched in a few days, and at once begins to eat the apple, and makes a passage to the surface, to throw cut its excrement or admit more air. The larva^s full-grown in three or four weeks, and, like the larva of all weevils, has no feet. It leaves the apple when ready NOXIOUS INSECTS. 535 for transformation, conceals itself in the earth, and reappears the next spring- as the weevil. To lessen their number, pick up and remove the injured pierced apples ; also shake the trees well in June and July, to throw down the beetles and kill them. Stem-boring Weevil. — This is a small beetle, entirely of a blue-steel, or a steel-green, shining, metallic color. As soon as the blossom and leaf buds begin to unfold, the beetle appears on the trees. The female selects a suitable part of the shoot, and bores to its middle ; she then places herself over the entrance, lays an egg, pushes it into the proper place, and then, by piercing and cutting the shoot, causes it to fall ; after this is done, she rests and feeds, and then bores another hole, if there be room, near the first, and lays another egg, and this operation is busily continued for some weeks. The egg in the shoot is hatched in about eight days, and a white grub, with a black head, then appears, feeding on the pith of the shoot ; it is full-growii in a month, and then buries itself in the earth till spring, when it again appears as a steel-blue colored weevil ; and when the tree begins to sprout, it gets upon it, and propagates its species. To diminish the number of these insects, look out for the full-grown insect, which is easily taken at the time of pairing, and is clearly seen by the splendid steel-blue color. Dexterity is necessary in capturing them. As we cannot, however, remove all of them, the shoots that lie on the ground, or which still hang on the tree, which have been attacked, must be collected and destroyed. Many of these kinds of beetles, about half the size of the one mentioned, lay their eggs in the pith of the petiole instead of the shoot; the female puncturing it to the right and left of the part where the egg is deposited, causing the leaf to wither and fall off; the grub then taking up its abode in the earth, and changing to a beetle. These leaves, which may be known by their rum- pling up and becoming withered, ought to be taken off and destroyed as soon as possible. Apple Weevil. — A small beetle; wing-cases dark-brown, with whitish- gray stripes ; its rostrum, eyes, and under part of abdomen, black. It appears as soon as the sap is in motion in the trees in spring; and when the blossom-buds are pretty full of sap, the eggs are deposited, and the grubs are hatched, early or late in April, according to the weather. It bores a hole with its proboscis into the best blossom-buds ; the female then fixes herself at the entrance, laj's an egg, and pushes it into the hole ; this oper- ation is afterwards repeated on the same or on fresh buds ; the grub or larva often comes out on the fifth or sixth day, and commences to devour the innermost parts of the blossom ; but the blossom-bud continues to swell, and the petals to open, till it is almost expanded ; but all at once its growth ceases, because not merely the blossom, — that is, the stamens and pistils jf 586 farmer's hand-book. the flower, — but the receptacle itself on which they stand, is devoured. The petals, therefore, which remain partially closed, forming a kind of cap wither by degrees, and at last appear scorched. To lessen the number of the apple weevils, remove all loose stones, and the leaves which fall in autumn ; clear away the loose or broken bark ; and on dwarf trees, take the pierced blossoms from the trees when the flower-cap begins to be formed, and before it appears burnt. Pear Weevil. — While the apple weevil contents itself with only single blossoms of the apple-trees, this one attacks blossoms, blossom-buds, and Fiff. 315. leaf-buds, together. If a pear-tree is examined at the time of blossoming, many buds will be seen to be brown at the points, and on nearer inspection, there will be found a dirty-white rugose maggot, with a dark-brown head, which in time is changed to a small weevil. Early in spring the female lays her eggs in the buds, causing them to become brown, and then to fall off when the insect is perfect. Should their attacks become too numerous, take off the pierced buds and burn them ; also shake the trees early in spring, spreading a white cloth under the trees, so that the fallen insecta may be seen ; also bind strips of paper covered with tar around the stems, to prevent the beetles ascending. Oblong Weevil. — This is one of a class of small, destructive beetles. It has a short rostrum ; its head, thorax, and body, are black ; its feelers and feet reddish, and its elytra furrowed, and reddish-brown or blackish. It appears early in spring, and selects the best leaves of fruit-trees. They pair in spring ; in June, the female lays her eggs in the earth, and the grub NOXIOUS INSECTS. 531 that is produced feeds on the roots of plants, passes the winter in the earth, and, in the spring, appears transformed into a beetle. They should be watched in the spring, and, with caution, may then be caught by the hand. Red-footed Beetle. — Another small insect, feeding on the leaves of fruit- trees. It is shining black throughout, except its red feet ; the tips of the feelers are black, and the basal part reddish. It appears generally in May, and continues a long while. It may be caught by the hand. Garden Beetle. — The Melolontha (or Anisoplia) horlicola is another leaf-eating beetle. It is larger than the oblong weevil ; its wing-cases are red-brown, but somewhat shining, and not reaching to the extreme point of the body. Its body, thorax, and head, are dark-green ; its feelers reddish, with a dark-green, strongly-cleft terminal club. They appear somewhat later than the one just mentioned. The female lays her eggs in the earth, and the larvae, when hatched, feed on the roots of plants, are transformed to beetles, and appear again as such in the spring. It feeds on the leaves of fruit-trees, and is particularly injurious to the apples, because it feeds on them when they are very small. When numerous, they often gnaw all the leaves till they resemble a sieve, thus checking the growth of the tree, and causing the fruit to fall. As these insects are tolerably large, they are easily seen, and can be removed with comparatively little difficulty. Apple-bark Beetle. — So called because it prefers the apple-tree in which ' to deposit its eggs. It is small ; head and thorax black ; the extremity of the palpi and feelers reddish ; the longish wing-cases blackish, and some- what hairy; the feet dilated, and of a reddish-yellow ; the thighs black. When the female finds a suitable place, she bores a completely round hole in the tree, penetrating to the centre, the minute particles of wood thrown out serving as a sign of the insect's presence. At the end of the entrance, snow-white, longish eggs are laid, which ^re also the, characteristics of the larvae that are hatched in May. The larvae grow very rapidly. This vari- ety of insect belongs to. a tribe of beetles whose economy is well known, and in which the larvae of all the species whose habits have hitherto been noticed burrow beneath the bark, devour the soft inner bark, or wood Deneath the bark, and form distinct channels, diverging from the place where the eggs were deposited. The only way to destroy them is to cut off the branches infested with their eggs ; and should the trunk be also attacked, the whole tree had better be cut down and conveyed away. Small-bark Beetle. — This beetle is the Scolytus haemorrhous. It is black, the ends of the wing-cases generally reddish ; the feet brownish-red, and the wing-cases furrowed lengthwise, and distinctly spotted. They make small holes in the stem, penetrating deep into the bark. It is evident, that when any tree is attacked by this insect in great numbers, it must 53S farmer's hand-book. perish, because no tree can continue to grow with an injured hark and pierced sap wood. The insects cannot easily be eradicated, or, at least, diminished in numbers, but by removing the trees attacked by them. Common Elm-destroying Scolytus — An insect allied to the apple-tree scolytus, committing ravages on fruit and other trees. The perfect insect or beetle is small, cylindrically formed, and tolerably firm to the touch. The head and thorax form the principal part of its body. They are black and shining, finely and thickly dotted, the former covered with short yellowish- gray hairs ; the feelers are light pitch-brown, ending in a knob ; the wing- cases are, as it were, obliquely cut off behind, and at the base near the thorax somewhat hollowed, — are marked in lines which are dotted, as are also the spaces between them, — their color is pitch-brown ; the abdomen, from the base to the apex, is as if slantingly lopped off, and, like the thorax, of a dark pitch-brown, thickly dotted ; the legs are reddish-brown, with the second joint tolerably broad. The larva is yellowish- white, with a large shining head, a brown mouth, and a whitish-transparent swelling between the head and the first ring on the throat. They confine themselve^ to the inner bark, destroying that part by degrees, and causing the tree, or some of its branches, to perish. The only remedy is to fell and carry off the trees attacked, and burn them, in the autumn, in winter, or in early spring, at the time when the insect is still in the larva state. Plum Saw-fly. — The green gage and round plums are sometimes attacked, when hardly the size of a pea, causing them to fall off, by a saw- fiy, which makes use of the pulp as food for her offspring. It resembles the house-fly, but has four wings ; the head and body are black, and the feet reddish-yellow. As soon as the blossom-buds begin to expand, the insect appears, pairs, and then begins to lay its eggs, — selecting the largest kinds of plums, — in the uppfer part of the green envelope of the blossom, cutting in and piercing it through, and immediately introduces the egg into the deep- est part. The egg is small, and is hatched in a few days, appearing a delicate whitish larva, with a dark-brown head, six pairs of middle feet, three pairs of fore feet, and one pair of anal feet. It fixes itself in the centre of the plum-stone, which it eats; in six weeks it is fully grown, and the plum then drops to the ground, the insect buries itself in the earth till the next spring, when it appears again as a perfect saw-fly, ascends the plum- tree, and continues its species. To diminish the number of this insect, take the plums infested by the larva from the tree, and destroy them ; — these are known by a small black opening in the plum ; — also pick up and convey away all the plums that fall. Pear Saw-fly. — This insect attacks the pear-tree to lodge her young there. It measures, from the front of the head to the extreme point of the NOXIOUS INSECTS. 539 Dody, J of an inch and one sixth in breadth. Its long feelers consist of numerous joints, the basal part of which is very thick and loner, the second much thinner and shorter, and the third the longest, The head is black, with a yellow triangular spot between the feelers ; the breast and the upper side of the thorax are quite black; the first abdominal segment likewise black, but surrounded with yellow ; the other segments are orange-yellow from the plates to the two edges, by which the upper part of the abdomen is united to the belly ; these plates are of a light-yellow color ; the wings look glossy, with a dark-brown mark round the edge, and an obscure kind of stripe, which extends across the whole breadth ; the three pairs of feet are of an orange-color. It appears in May and June ; the eggs are laid on the under side of the leaf; and the caterpillar, which is hatched in a few days, is first whitish-yellow, but becomes darker every day. It has a black head, and just under the throat are two black dots ; the other parts of the body are ochre-colored, and transparent, without hairs. In five weeks they ai"e full- grown ; then leave the tree, bui-y themselves in the earth, and do not appear again as saw-flies, till the next spring, to propagate their species. Their webs must be removed from the trees. Peach or Poplar Saiu-Jly. — To those insects which only attack the leaves of fruit-trees, and use them as food, belongs the peach saw-fly. It is a little longer than the common house-fly, is black, and only on the hinder part of the body, the back and tlie abdomen, are seen whitish square incisions, extending on both sides towards the middle ; the feelers are simply jointAl, the palpi and feet are yellow, the thighs black. They ap- pear in April or May, laying their eggs firmly on a leaf, a white-greenish grub being produced in a few days, which eats the leaves ; they are full- grown in five or six weeks, are about the size of the green lopper of the winter moth, of a light-green color, with black heads, three pairs of fore and one pair of hind feet; they now retire into the ground, remaining there till spring, when they again appear as saw-flies to propagate their species. The larvee is very destructive, the trees looking as though covered with spiders' webs, instead of leaves. Examine the trees carefully when the leaves are expanded, and the pale-yellow eggs, which usually lie together on the point or edge of the leaf, are easily seen. If these are destroyed as soon as they are laid, the leaves will not be consumed. The green larvae cannot escape notice, as they are always surrounded with a web, and rolled up in the leaves they have gnawed. Pear Chernies. — These creatures beset the young shoots and bearing wood of dwarf pear-trees. It is an insect nearly allied to the plant-lice {aphides) . It has wings, and is about the size of a large aphis. It has a broad head, terminating in front in two cones ; but there is no opening foi 540 farmer's hand-book. the mouth in the head, it being situated in the middle of the breast. The rostrum stands out perpendicularly, and ends in a pomt, from the latter issuing the very long delicate tongue with which it sucks its food. The female is mostly crimson-colored ; the male in some parts more shaded with black ; the wings of both are membranous and snow-white. As soon as the buds appear, the winged chermes appears, and the eggs, which ar^ longish and yellow, are deposited on the young leaves and blossoms, or on the newly-formed fruits and shoots. They are hatched in a few days, and resemble the apterous plant-lice, have six feet, and are dark-yellow. After a few days, they change their skins, and become darker ; and when they have molted for the last time, and have attained full size, the body swells gradu- ally and becomes cylindrical. They then leave their associates, and, before they lay aside their nymph-like covering, they fasten themselves firmly to a leaf ; after a few minutes the skin splits on the upper part of the covering, and a winged insect proceeds from it, of a pleasant green color, red eyes, and snow-white wings. After a few days, this chermes has assumed the colors of the perfect insect ; the head, collar, and thorax, are of an orange- color, and only the abdomen retains its green hue. Late in the autumn it selects a place for protection from the cold, and in spring appears in its crimson black-shaded clothing, to begin the work of regeneration. To clear the trees from them, brush the young off with a stiff brush, and tread upon them ; or, search out and take away the winged chermes from the dwarf pear-trees, as soon as the blossoms appear and the shoots begin to grow. Their red color and long wings discover them, and as they are not shy, they are easily caught by the hand. Apple Chermes. — The eggs are laid in September, on different places of the twigs of an apple-tree, usually, however, in the furrows of the knots. In the formation of the body of the perfect insect, it exactly resembles the pear chermes ; it is, however, different from that species in color, the eyes, instead of being red, are of a snowy-white, with a black pupil ; the back of NOXIOUS INSECTS. 541 the thorax is of a light- green, the abdomen is marked with yellow rings, and the membranous wings with strongly-marked snow-white veins. The snout, which contains the setiform tongue, is situated, like that of all the species of chermes, in the middle of the breast. When very numerous, these in- sects cause considerable destruction ; because, when all the single standing blossoms are completely covered with blisters, broken filaments, and small hairs, as is usually the case, and the flower-buds have been weakened by the previous sucking of these insects, no fruit can be produced. To secure the blossom and fruit of trees in pots, or dwarf trees, brush away the young chermes with a fine brush, when they appear, or at latest when the first changing of the skin takes place in April. It is also necessary to examine the small apple-trees in spring, when the blossoms begin to appear, to ascertain if any aphides are upon them, and if so, to destroy them. Plant-louse, or Aphis. — There are particularly three species of aphides which are very destructive to fruit-trees, namely, the apple, plum, and peach aphides. Aphis pyri mali, Aphis pruni, and Aphis persicoe. The apple aphis is grass-green, the plum aphis light-green, and the peach aphis dark-green. The old females are known by dark-brown spots on their bodisiB. They all Fiff. 317. appear as soon as the fruit-trees leaf. The peach aphides appear the first, and are seen upon the trees when the buds are very young ; they proceed from eggs which were laid on the shoots the previous autumn, and are only females without wings. No sooner do they see the light than they disperse over the leaves and shoots near them, and begin to suck out the sap. In twelve days they are fully formed, and at once produce young. The ofT- spring of the second generation is, if the weather be warm, again ready to bring forth in ten days, at the latest. It often happens that sixteen genera- tions in all are produced, — some of the progeny having wings, and others 46 542 farmer's hand-book. none ; the latter never leaving the tree unless driven by force, and the formei pairing and producing their young wherever it may suit them. In Sep- tember, males and females are produced from the last generation ; the apple aphis producing males which do not obtain wings, and the peach aphis those that do. When these newly-born males and females are full-grown, pairing takes place. The females then no longer produce living young ones, but lay eggs, from which the mothers of the forthcoming generations proceed. They lay their eggs on the twig or shoot itself, and either all around it, like the apple aphis, or on or near the buds, like the plum and peach aphides ; the females, having thus provided for their future spring progeny, die off in the autumn ; the eggs survive the winter. With regard to the apple aphis, there is no method more effective than destroying the eggs soon after they are laid. They may be seen late in the autumn, or early in spring, on the dwarf apple and pear trees, especially the young trees that have high stems, because the eggs lie exposed close together on the shoots, like grains of gunpowder, and yield a green juice, if pressed. We should not, however, press them, but the shoots should be washed over with liquid loam, garden earth, or whitewash, which will kill the eggs. With regard to the plum and peach aphides, we must wait till they are hatched and sitting on the leaves or blossom-buds, when, being of a dark- brown, they are easily seen. When the peach-trees begin to put out their leaves, examine them thoroughly on account of the aphides, because, at a later period, when they are numerous, the trees cannot easily be freed from them. Prune off the shoots infested by the aphides, and brush the tree, carefully examining every tree in June, July, and August, because the third and following generations bring many into the world, that soon obtain wings and disperse themselves. Small and Large. Pear Midges. — This species of midge is very small ; the feelers are cylindrical, finely-haired, and composed of sixteen joints, with the two basal-joints thicker than the others ; the abdomen is slender, seven-ringed, and finely-haired ; there is a knobby two-jointed pair of forceps on the extreme point of the body of the male, and the same part of the female is pointed ; the wings lie in a parallel direction; the feet are long, thin, and finely- haired. According to some, it is a species belonging to the genus Sciara; others call it Molobrus. The small pear midge lays her eggs in the blossoms when they are still closed. The large pear midge, female, is little more than one twelfth of an inch long, and half as thick ; the male is more slender, and shorter. The feelers are blackish, and not so long as the body ; the head is black and shining, as is also the thorax ; the proboscis ash-gray ; the abdomen of the male a deep black, — that of the female browner, with black rings ; and the anal point is quite black ; the feet are ash-gray, the tarsi and wings black. NOXIOUS INSECTS. 543 The pears infested by these insects will, on being opened, be found with the core eaten out and empty, or half rotten, causing the fruit to fall to the ground, while some will be found but little decayed, though containing several yellowish larvae, one twelfth of an inch long, and a third as thick, with ten segments without feet ; and each having a pointed head, on which two black spots stand close together. Black Gall Midge. — There are a number of species of this insect. The thorax is black, varying to ash-gray backwards, with black lines on the back ; the scutellum is grayish; the abdomen blackish, with yellow incisions; the feet are of a pale-gray, and the feelers are blackish-brown. They are found to lay their eggs in the blossom of the pear-tree, as soon as the buds are so far developed that in the single blossoms a petal is seen between the seg- ments of the calyx. It fixes itself almost perpendicularly in the middle of a single blossom, and, piercing the petal through, the eggs are laid on the anther of the still-closed blossom. The eggs are hatched in a few days, and the small larvae bore into the blossom, in or near the stem of the calyx. When they have consumed the pulp of the small fruit, they are full-grown, and then they leave the tree, to bury themselves in the ground, or else remain in the core till the pear falls to the ground. They issue from the earth in spring, to propagate their species. Paradoxical Pear Platygaster. — This is a small insect, said to have the male organs of generation on the under side of the thorax, and those of the female at the extremity of the horn arising from the base of the abdomen, and curved over the head. As it is generally thought to be simply parasiti- cal upon other insects, we shall not describe it further. JRhynchites {Curculio) Belulcti. — Rhynchites Bacchus, Sch., has hitherto been considered as the peculiar enemy of the vine ; it is, however, never found on vines, but only on other kinds of fruit-trees, and is essentially dis- tinguished from the Rh. Betulcti by its shining copper-color. The latter insect is a small weevil, of a metallic-green or steel-blue color. It is one third of an inch long, including the rostrum, — the latter being nearly a third of the whole length ; it is tolerably broad, and turned downwards. On the thorax of the male, towards the front on both sides, are observed short spines; the abdomen is almost quadrangular. The spines are wanting on the thorax of the female, and her rostrum is shorter. The beetle appears in .spring, as soon as the trees are in full foliage, and begins its work of destruction in May. It makes use of the leaf of the vine partly for a dwelling, and partly for the food of its young. When the female has selected a suitable leaf, she cuts the petiole with her rostrum almost half through, bo that it hangs down. She then begins to roll the leaf together, generally alone, but sometimes assisted by the male. While this operation is going forward, she also lays> Iter eggs ; 544 farmer's hand-book. that is, she pierces the roll, lays an egg in the opening^, and pushes it in with her rostrum in such a manner that it remains on the inner surface of the leaf. When she has thus introduced five or six eggs, between the different folds, she rolls the remaining part of the leaf entirely together, so that it is impossible to discover, from the outward appearance, in what manner the eggs were deposited. This beetle also finds the leaves of the pear-tree suit- able for its purpose, rolling up the leaves of the leaf-buds. In a few days the eggs are hatched in the rolls, and a whitish small worm comes out of each egg, with black oblique stripes over the back, and a reddish head. In four or five weeks it is fully grown. In the mean time, the petiole and the roll have become so dry that they are easily torn off by a moderately high wind, and fall to the earth. If this does not take place till the worm is fully grown , it leaves the partly-consumed roll, buries itself in the earth, and appears ,again in spring as a weevil. This beetle, therefore, is the real weevil of the vine, defoliating it, and preventing the grapes from ripening. As it is toler- ably large, it may easily be perceived, and may consequently be destroyed, particularly as it allows itself to be taken without flying away. When it is numerous in orchards, it should be taken off, and the leaf-rolls pulled off, and burnt or crushed. Vine Scale Insect. — This insect forms a longish, marbled-brown scale. In old age the scale becomes blackish-brown, hemispherical and wrinkled. The eggs, which are laid under the body of the female, are covered with long white wool. They are found on vines, particularly in gardens. Their destruction is best effected by dry-brushing in autumn or spring Fler. 318. NOXIOUS INSECTS. 545 Vine Beetle. — It issues from the earth in spring when the vine has begun to shoot, creeps upon the branches, bites off the leaf and flower buds. The largest male specimens are little more than two thirds of an inch long, and half an inch broad, black and shining; head large; thorax broad ; abdomen short ; legs rather strong. To protect the vine, the only way is to collect and kill the beetle, which carries on its evil practices in open day, and is discernible on account of its form and size. Vine Saw-fly. — The saw-fly of the vine is of a jet-black color, except the upper side of the thorax, which is red, and the fore legs and under side of the other legs, which are pale-yellow or whitish. The wings are semi- transparent, smoky-color, with dark-brown veins. The body of the female is one fourth of an inch in length ; that of the male is somewhat shorter. These flies rise from the ground in the spring, and lay their eggs on the lower side of the terminal leaves of the vine. In the month of July the false caterpillars, hatched from these eggs, may be seen on the leaves, in little swarms. Beginning at the edge, they eat the whole of the leaf to the stalk, and thus proceed from leaf to leaf, till they have grown to their full size. They then average five eighths of an inch in length ; have twenty-two legs ; the head and the tip of the tail are black ; the body, above, is light- green, paler before and behind, — the lower side of the body is yellowish. As a remedy, it is recommended to strew air-slacked lime upon them, and also upon the ground under the vines. Canker Worm. — This insect is most abundant on apple and elm trees : but cherry, plum, and lime trees, as well as some others, and many shrubs, suflfer from them. The leaves first attacked will be found pierced with small holes ; these become larger and more irregular when the worms increase in size, and, at last, the latter eat nearly all the pulpy parts of the leaves. There is a great diflerence of color even among the same species, of the same age and size. When very young, they have two minute warts on the top of the last ring ; and they are then generally of a blackish or dusky-brown color, with a yellowish stripe on each side of the body ; there are two whitish bands across the head, and the belly is also whitish. When fully grown, they become ash-colored on the back, and black on the sides, below which the pale-yellowish line remains. Some are found of a dull greenish-yellow, and others of a clay-color, with slender blackish lines on the sides, and small black spots on. the back. When not eating, they remain stretched out at full length, and resting on their fore and hind legs, beneath the leaves. They leave oflf eating when about four weeks old, and begin to quit the trees. After reaching the ground, they immediately burrow in the earth, to the depth of from two to six inches, and they are there transformed. To prevent the ravages of this worm, one method is to bar the ascent of tha ^46* l2 546 farmer's hand-book. wingless female up the stem of the tree. This is done by taking two pretty wide pieces of board ; plane them ; make semi-circular notches in each, fitting them to the stem or body of the tree, and fasten them together securely at the ends. The crevices between the boards and the tree may be easily stopped with rags or tow ; then smear the under side of the boards with tar. The tar, being defended from the direct rays of the sun, will hold its tenacity longer, and therefore need not be frequently renewed. The trees, in this way, will be less liable to be injured by the drippings of the tar, by leaving a margin of two or three inches on those parts of the boards which are next to the trees, to which no tar is applied. Another mode of intercepting the insect's path is to enclose the trees with collars, or circular slips of tin or zinc. And" still another mode — though these are only three out of nearly a hundred that are practised — is, to dig around the trees, and lay the earth smooth ; then take air-slacked lime, and strew an inch thick around the trees, to the extent of two or three feet from the roots ; then tar the trees. Apple-tree Borer. — They are the larvae of a beetle called Saperda hivittala, — the two-striped or the brown and white striped Saperda. This beetle varies in length from a little more than one half to three fourths of an inch. It comes forth from the trunks of the trees, in its perfected state, early in June, making its escape in the night, during which time only it uses its ample wings in going from tree to tree in search of companions and food. Tlie trees and shrubs principally attacked by this borer are the apple-tree, the quince, mountain-ash, hawthorn and other thorn-bushes. The larvae are fleshy whitish grubs, nearly cylindrical ; the head is small, horny, and brown ; the first ring is much larger than the others ; the next two are very short, and, with the first, are covered with punctures and minute hairs ; the following rings, to the tenth inclusive, are each furnished, on the upper and under side, with two fleshy warts, close together ; the eleventh and twelfth rings are very short ; no appearance of legs ; the grub cuts a cylindrical passage through the bark, and pushes its castings backwards out of the hole, from time to time, while it bores upwards into the wood. The larva state con- tinues two or three years, during which the borer will be found to have, penetrated eight or ten inches upwards in the trunk of the tree, its burrow at the end approaching to, and being covered only by, the bark. Here its transformation takes place. The pupa does not differ much from other pupae of beetles ; but it has a transverse row of minute prickles on each of the rings of the back, and several at the tip of the abdomen. The final change occurs about the first of June, soon after which, the beetle gnaws through the bark that covers the end of its burrow, and comes out of its place of confinement NOXIOUS INSECTS. 547 in the night. Killing- it by a wire thrust into the holes it has made, is one of the oldest, safest and most successful methods. V. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FLOWER-PLANTS. Earwig. — This well-known insect, considered, without cause, as very dangerous to mankind, must find a place among those chiefly injurious to fruit and flowers. Its size varies according to its age and sex. When fully grown it measures almost an inch, including the forcep-like appendage at the end of the abdomen ; its breadth is one sixth of an inch. The l)ody is light- brown, free from hair ; it has very short wing-cases, under which the wings lie concealed, folded both longitudinally and transversely. It is usually under the bark of trees, in the hollow stems of trees, in rolled-up leaves, and under Btones. In orchards, it particularly injures the fruit of trees which are trained as espaliers, such as peaches and apricots, which are often entirely pierced through in warm weather.- Tliey also attack the other sorts of fruits, par- ticularly apples and pears. In flower-gardens they destroy carnations, pinks, and dahlias, in particular. The only certain method of destroying earwigs is by catching them, which is best effected by hollow tubes, laid here and there, in orchards and flower-gardens. The common reed is fit for this pur- pose, but the hollow stem of the sunflower is even more so, as the insects are eager in the pursuit of the remains of the sweet pith. They are also easily caught between the folds of paper, or in pieces of cloth and linen laid on the ground. They creep into these traps in the morning after their noc- turnal rambles, and may easily be shaken out and killed at any time of the day. Some place the flower-stands in vessels of water, which prevents the earwigs from creeping, but not from flying, upon the plants. Orange Scale. Insect. — ^^It appears like an elliptical nut-brown shield, and is very plentiful on green-house plants, particularly on orange-trees, fasten- ing itself upon the branches and leaves, particularly when the trees are kept rather warm. It is best destroyed by washing the branches and leaves. If this be done in autumn, it is a great advantage, as the old ones cannot creep up again. Mealy Bug. — This species is reddish, and strewed with white dust. At the sides of the twelve segments of the body it is provided with small tuber- cles. The male is slender and gnat-like, with two rather broad wings, and two long, brush-shaped tail filaments. It attacks a number of species of plants, and can only be diminished in number by brushing them ofl^ carefully with soft brushes, and crushing them. Oleander Scale Insect. — The female appears as a yellowish, round, fla shield, almost destitute of limbs, which sucks plants with its rostrum. The shield of the male larva is smaller than that of the female, and quite white 548 farmer's hand-book. The perfect male is brownish-yellow, dusted with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. It lives in amazing numbers on differenl kinds of plants, particularly on oleanders, acacias, aloes, palms, &;c., and can only be gotten rid of by careful brushings. Ros3 Scale. — The female is like that of the former. The male pupa is linear, doubly furrowed on the back. The perfect male is pale-red, dusted with white, and white wings. Length, one thirty-sixth of an inch. They live on the stems and old twigs of rose-trees, which are sometimes entirely covered with them, and look mouldy. The best way of getting rid of them is brushing them off with strong brushes before the rose-trees sprout. Rose-trees are much injured by these insects. .^ . Cactus Scale. — The female bears a great resemblance to the oleander scile, only that the muscle-shaped shield is more oblong and darker. The male is orange-yellow, the pupa linear, doubly furrowed, powdery-gray. Lives principally on the different species of cactus. Sweet Bay Scale. — The shield of the female is oval-shaped, brown, with a reddish-yellow elevation before. The male is pale cherry-red ; the body flat ; the horns or feelers rather shorter than the body. The shield of the larva the same as the female, but narrower. It is difficult to remove, as it is so firmly seated that brushing is not always sufficient ; a pointed stick must therefore be had recourse to. Rose Moth. — In early spring, as soon as the rose-tree begins to bud, a very dangerous enemy to the growth of its leaves and blossoms arrives. It is the more to be dreaded, as, from its smallness and peculiarity of form, it is easily overlooked. If the new leaf-shoots are closely examined, a little brownish scale is found here and there attached to them ; and upon nearer inspection, we shall be convinced that it is a little case, in which a worm, the larva of a small moth, is concealed, which gnaws the tender shoots. When it has devoured one shoot, it removes with its house, and attacks another ; and thus, in a short time, one of these larvae can strip a whole branch of its shoots. The larva which lies in the little case is about half an inch long ; yellow, with a black head, and black-spotted collar. It under- goes pupation in its case, which enlarges from time to time, as necessity requires. The moth appears at the end of May. The whole body is silvery shining gray ; the upper wings strewed with minute black dots, deeply fringed at the posterior edge ; the under wings are narrow, pointed, with very long fringes. The only certain way of preserving rose-trees from this enemy is to look for the small cases in early spring, before the foliage is developed, when an experienced eye will easily discover them. They must be crushed immediately. Plant Mite, or Red Spider. — A small insect of the spider class. It ia \ NOXIOUS INSECTS. 549 Bcarcely visible to the naked eye ; has eight legs ; its color changes from yellowish to brown and reddish, and on each side of the back is a blackish Bpot. In the open air it usually attacks. kidney-beans. Among trees, the young limes mostly suffer, and the mites are found in thousands on the under- side of the leaves. These leaves assume a dirty-yellow or brownish appear- ance, and in the middle of summer the trees acquire an autumnal hue. Frequently sprinkling the plants with cold water has been found efficient as a means of destroying these insects. Also repeatedly fumigating the hot- houses with strong tobacco-smoke injures them in some degree. VI. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO MEADOWS. General Remarks. — Most of the insects that choose the various sorts of corn for their food do not reject the other sorts of grasses, in the meadows. The herbage of the meadows suffers from the roots of the grass-plants being injured, which is chiefly occasioned by the larvae of various species of cock- chaffers living in the earth. When bare spots are seen on meadows, we may be sure that the larvae of the cockchaffer are there carrying on their work of destruction. But the large swarms of those smaller species of cock- chaffers sometimes seen flying about, towards evening, in the meadows, in the spring, and at the beginning of summer, and the round holes which we frequently find in meadows, through which they had crept out of the earth., clearly show that they had passed the first period of their life there, and at the expense of the herbage. Unspotted Lady-bird. — An insect injurious to many of the artificial grasses. It has been observed on the common tare, sanfoin, and the differ- ent sorts of clover. This larva is only one sixth of an inch long, yellowish- white, with single green spots, and the upper side of the body covered with prickles. Its transformation takes place on the leaves. The pupa is light- yellow, covered with minute hairs of the same color. The perfect insect is almost globular, yellowish-red on the upper side, with a brownish-red spot on the thorax. The abdomen is brownish-black, and the legs reddish, or reddish- brown. A good soil and moist weather, which will cause the herbage to grow quickly and luxuriantly, and to be often mown, are the chief requi- sites for diminishing the insect. By often removing the cut fodder from the field, the insect will be disturbed in its propagation. Migratory Locust. — An insect destructive to all vegetation. Their native country is in the plains of Asili, between the Black and Caspian Seas, Syria, Palestine, the northern coast of Africa, Egypt, &c., where they sometimes increase to an incredible multitude ; and after eating up everything in their native country, favored by the wind, they perform great journeys in prodigious swarms. Their swarms often measure several hun 550 farmer's hand-book. dred fathoms in diameter, and are capable of darkening the sun, like thick clouds. When they have alighted in a place, they spare nothing that theit Fig. 319. ■^®fessswoodtree, 393 Bean. Varieties and culture, 100 Twinins sorts, 101 Beard's hive, 333 Beauty of the night, 383 Bees. Different classes, queen, 318 Drone, working, 319 Structure, 320 Position of the apiary, aspect, . . . .321 Location, 322 Water, shrubs and trees, sun, .... 323 Houses 323 Diseases and enemies, 356 Hives and Boxes. Requisites 324 Nult 324 Collateral, 325 Straw, 323 Size 329 Huber'sleaf, '. . 330 Simple and cheap, 331 Glass, Huish's 332 Beard's, Culton'a, Cutting's, Weeks', Miner's 333 Gilmore's hives, house, and boxes, . . 334 Obtaining Slock. Spring stock, autumn stock, 342 To secure good hives, 343 Biearming. Tiine, indications, 343 To prevent, 344 To secure one that has settled, .... 345 Effects of swarming, 345 To avoid, in the case of collateral boxes, 346 Adapledness of the different hives, . .347 J'he Honey Han^est. Time and mode, . . . , 347 Fumigation, 348 Tapping or driving, 349 Fir.st harvest, second harvest, .... 3.50 Examining and weighing, 351 Honey-comb 341 Duration of hives, food for bees, . . .352 Management during Winter and Early Spring. Autumn and winter care, feeding, nar- rowing the entrance, and covering, . 353 Dampness and ventilation, materials for covering, spring care, 354 How to Treat the Product of the Honey Harcest. Removing the comb, obtaining and pre- paring the wax, 355 Beet. Varieties and culture, 102 To keep, 103 Beetles, 50 Also see Insects. Bell cranberry, 182 Berkshire swine 257 Biennial flowers, 372 Bilberry, 221 Bird spider-fly, 515 Blackleg disease in animals, 273 Black quarter in animals, 272 Black water in animals, 272 Blachberry. Propagation 178 Trailing, High, White, Double White Flowering, Double Pink Flowering, . 179 Black-faced or heath sheep, 251 Blast. Description, different kinds, 477 Blasting stones, 10 Blight. Description, ditTerent kinds, 477 Blond joint felon disease, blood striking disease, 272 Bloody flux in fowls 317 Blueberry, 218 Boggy lands, draining 33 Bog-spavin disease 273 Boiling food for animals, 422 Bone-spavin disease 273 Borage, 100 Borecole, 103 Borer insect, 535, 546 See Insects. Bott. Horse, 512 Fundament 513 Red, sheep, 5H Botts, 272 Botys, 518 Bowels, inflammation of, in animals. . . . 273 Box plant 382 Boxes for bees, see Bees. Brain, inflammation of, in animals, .... 273 Breaking and dressing hemp, 79 Breeding and Rearing. Neat cattle, 225 Sheep 245 Swine 253 Horses, 260 556 INDEX. Barn fowla, 297 Ass 266 Mule, goal 267 Dog, 268 BreeOs of animals, and fowls, see each kind under its head. Brier, sweet, 382 Brittleiiess of hoof, 274 Broccoli, 103 Broken knees, broken wind, 274 Bronchitis in animals 274 Broom- corn. Varieties, method of planting, .... 73 Culture, harvesting, scraping, .... 74 Uses, 75 Brown- water disease, 272 Bruises in animals, 279 " fowls, 317 Buckwheat. Description, soils, 67 Culture, 68 Harvesting, uses, 69 Diseases 477 Insects injurious to, 515 Budding. Uses 4-50 Performing the operation, 451 Transmitting scions, wax for budding, shield building, 452 Shield budding without a bud or eye, circular shield budding, 453 Flute budding, annular budding, after- care, ' . 454 Buss, 60 Also see Insects. Buildings, farm and rural, 393 Bulbs, culture, 363 Bull. Breeding and rearing, 225 Ca.straling 227 Fatlenin? 229 Age, . .' 232 Names at different ages 233 Varieties, — Native, 233 Devon, • 234 Short-horned 239 Ayrshire, New Leicester, 242 Holderness. Galloway, Sussex, Alder^ ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 Diseases, 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .235 Insects injurious to 512 Burning and paring soils, 8 Bushes, see Shrubs and Trees. Butter. General remarks, cream 139 Clotted-cream, 141 Whole-milk, churning, 142 Washing, salting 144 Butterflies, destructive, see Insects. Butternut, .' 218 C. Cabbage. Varieties and culture, 103 To keep, 101 Diseases, 477 Bug, 521 Butterfly 522 Moth, 523, 524 Fly, 525 Cacalia plant 388 Calendar of Monthly Operations. Kitchen-garden, 139 Fruit, 821 Live-stock, 28S Floricullural, 393 Calves. Rearing, 226 Fattenfng, 229 Diseases, 271 See Cattle. Calycanthus plant, 393 Camomile 125 Canadian horses, 265 Canker. In horses' feet, 274 Dogs' ears, 274 In vegetation, — description, origin, . . 473 Remedy, 481 Canker-worm, 545 Canteleup melon, 192 Canterbury bell plant, 382 Caper-tree 334 Caponizing, 299 Caraway, 124 Cardoon, 105 Carnation plant 382 Carolina syringa plant, 393 Carrot, 105 " moth, 521 Casting, 17 Cassia plant, 332 Castrating. Neat cattle, 22T Sheep 246 Swine, 254 Horses 261 Fowls 299 Catalpa plant, 383 Catarrh in animals, 274 Catarrhal fever in animals 275 Caterpillars, destructive, see Insects. Cattle. Horned or Neat. Breeding, rearing, 225 Gestation, time of impregnation, . . .226 Castrating 227 Fattening, . . . . w 229 Age, 2.32 Names of, at different ages, 233 The Bull. How to judge of, 2.30 Native, 233 Devon, 2:54 Ayrshire, New Leicester, 242 Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 The Cow. How to judge of, Celery, 106 Channels, water, 39 Cheap and simple hive, 331 Ghke.se. Presses, 134, 145 Different modes of preparing rennet, . . 14.5 Wlinle-milk, dryiiig 149 Slore-rooni, Kreen-whey, 150 Mode of making celebrated kinds, — Cheshire m Gloucester, l.'jS Pillion 157 Dunlop, 1.5.9 Cream, new 161 Parmesan 162 Potato, green or sage, ........ 163 See Dairy. Cheniisiry, acquaintance with, 1 Chermes, apple and pear, 540 Cherry. Propagation, soil, situation 179 Varieties. — American Amber ISl Ansell's Fine Black 179 Belle de Choisy, H2 Bigarreau isn Black Caroon 179 Black Circassian, Black Eagle, .... 181 Black Heart, Black Russian, 179 Black Tartarean, IRl Davenport's Early Black, 179 Doctor 132 Downer's Late, 181 Downton, 1S2 Early Amber, 181 Early Ihike, 18(1 Early White Heart, ISl Elliott's Favorite, 182 Elton, ISl Florence, Holland Bigarreau 182 Holman's Duke ISO Hyde's Seedling, 182 June Duke ISO Kentish. Knight's Early Black, Man- ning's Moitled, 182 May Duke 180 Morello. Napoleon Bigarreau, .... 182 New Honey, 131 New BTay Duke 179 Oxheart, Ronald's Black Heart, . • .181 Spanish Black Heart 179 White Bigarreau, White Tartarean, Yellow Spanish 180 Wild Cherry, 182 Choke Cherry, 182 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Disea.se3 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Chervil, 125 Cheshire cheese, 151 Chestnut, 218 Cheviot sheep 251 Chickens, fattening, 299 See Pdwls. China swine, 256 China aster plant, 331 47* Chinese goose 303 Chinese monthly rose, 3fi8 Cliiliagong fowls, 292 Chive, 106 Choke cherry, 182 Choking of animals 275 Chrysanthemum plant, 383 Churning, 136, 142 Chur7is. Thermometer 136 Kendall's cylindrical, 137 Gault's, Tillinghasl's, . . . 138 Churr worm, 521 Cider Apples. Harrison. Camfield, Hugh's Virginia Crab, Red Streak 175 Classification of soils, ' 2 Clayey soils, subsoil, 3 " " draining, 37 Clearing lands, 5, 7 Cleaving 13 Cleft grafting, 447 Clematis, or virgin's bower 383 Clelhra plant, 3s3 Click beetle 516 Close pruning, 457 Clotted cream, 141 Clover, 53 Varieties and culture, 87 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 549 Clydesdale horses, 266 Cochin-china fowls, 296 Cock, varieties, &c., see Foir!s. Cockchaffer, field, ^\li Cock's spur, 55 Codling moth, 532 Cold frame, 375 Colic in animals, 275 Colors, arrangement of, in flower-gardens, . 367 Colton's hive, 333 Colts. Training and managing, 261 See HoTSP.. Columbine plant, 383 Common black currant 186 Common goose, 303 Common red barberry, 178 Composition of Soils. Clayey, sandy, gravelly, peaty, .... 2 Loam, 3 Composts, forming, 29 Construction of the plough, , 12 Consumption in fowls, 316 " in plants 482 Contortion in plants, 482 Contracted foot in animals, . , 275 Convolvulus plant 383 Copper-colored weevil, . . . , 534 Coriander, 125 Corn. Varieties of, ,59 Preparation of land for planting, season for ploughing, 60 Planting, manuring, 61 Number of grains to the hill, depth of ploughing, tillage 62 Thinning and suckering, 64 Harvesting, 65 Preserving 66 Varieties and culture for the table, . . \W 558 Diseases and enemies, 66, 477 Insects injurious to, 515 Corn-salad, 107 Corns in fowls, 316 Costiveness in fowls, 317 Cottases and farm-dwellings, 39S Coush in animals, 275 Coverings for flowers, 360 Cow. Breeding and rearing, 225 Gestation, lime of impregnation, . • .226 Faiieaing 229 Age, how to judge of, 232 Names at different ages, 233 Varieties, — Native, 233 l5evon, 236 Short-horned, 239 Hereford, 240 Ayrshire, New Leicester, 242 Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk, Kyloe, 243 Dairy qualities of, 243 Feeding, keeping in good condition, milking, 244 Ascertaining the quality of milk, . . . 245 Diseases of cows 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .235 Insects injurious to, 512 Crab Apples. Ked Siberian, 175 Yellow Siberian, 17G Cranberry, culture 1S2 " to keep, 184 Cream. Butter 139 Clotted, 141 Cheese, 161 Creeper fowls, 295 Cress, 107 Crib-biting, 275 Cricket, mole 521 See Insects. Crocus plant 3S3 Crops. Heavy, or field, 43 See each plant, under its head ; also Soils. Cross-ploughing, 18 Cucumher. Varieties and culture 107 Forcing, enemies, 108 Cud, loss of, 275 Cultivation, rendering soils fit for, .... 4 Culture of plants, &c., — see each kind under its head. Cupid's car, or monk's-hood plant 383 Curb disease 275 Curculio 534 See Insects. Curing bams, 255 Curl disease 484 Currant. Propagation, 185 Soil, situation, 186 Varieties, — Black Naples. Champagne, Common Black, Knight's Early Ked, May's Victoria, Morgan's Red, Mor- gan's White, Red Dutch, Red Grape, Reeve's White, Striped-frniicd, White Crysuil, White Dutch, White Leg- horn* 186 Mi'Uthly Calendar of Operations, . . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, train- ing 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Cutting and harvesting, — see each plant, under its head. Cutting's hive, 333 Cypress-tree, 393 D. Dahlia, 333 Dairy. Implements. General remarks, different kinds of cheese-presses 134 Thermometer churn, 136 Kendall's cylindrical churn, 137 Gault's churn, TiUinghast's chum, . . 138 Cleanliness in dairying 138 Milk. Management, 138 Butter. General remarks, cream butter, .... 139 Clotted cream, 141 Whole-milk butter, churning, .... 142 Washing, salting 144 Cheese. General remarks, different modes of pre- paring and treating rennet, 145 Whole-milk, drying, 149 The store-room, green whey 1.50 Cheshire 151 Gloucester, 155 Stilton, 157 Dunlop 158 Skim-milk, cream, new, 161 Parmesan, 162 Potato, green or sage, 163 Dairy-house. General remarks, different apartments, site, 40S Temperature, arrangement, 409 Store-loft or upper rooms, model of a complete dairy, 410 Daisy, 384 Dandelion, 108 Dart moth 517,518 Deceyriber. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 133 Fruit calendar 224 Live-stock calendar 297 Floricultural calendar, 397 Decorations for the garden, 378 Devon animals, — bull 234 " ox 235 " cow, 235 " working, fattening, and various qual- ities of, 237 Diabetes in animals 284 Diarrhea in calves, 274 " " fowls, 316 " " other animals, 275 " " bees, 356 Dibbling wheat, 47 Dill, . 125 Directions for ploughing, H Disbudding 461 Diseases. 0/ Animals. Abscess, Apoplexy, ... 271 INDEX. 559 Black Le", Black Quarter, Black Wa- ter, Blood Joint Felon, Blood Striking, 272 Bog Spavin, Bolts. Bowel Innumnialion,273 Britlleness of Hoof, Broken Knees, Broken Wind, Bronchitis, 274 Brown Water, 272 Bruises, 279 Canker in Horses' Feet, Canker in Dogd' Ears, Capped Hock, Catarrh, . 274 Catarrhal Fever, Choking, Colic, Con- tracted Feet, 275 Costiveness, 274 Cough, Crib-biting, Cud loss of. Curb, . 275 Diabetes, 284 Diarrhea 275 Distemper, Distention of the Rumen or Grain Sick, 276 Dunt, • 2S1 Dysentery orScouring Rot, Epilepsy or Fits, Eye Inflammation, Eye Weak- ness, Farcy, 276 Feet Inflammation, Fever; Fistulous Withers, Flooding, Fly, Foot Dis- ease, Fool Rot, Foul Foot, 277 Frenzy, 273 Garget, Glanders, 273 Gleet 2S2 Goggles, or Giddy, 234 Grain Sick 276 Grease, Griping, Grogginess, Heart In- flamnialion, Healing Dogs' Ears, Hide Bound 278 Hoof Brittleness, 274 Hoove, Hydrocephalus 279 Inflammation of Bowels, ditto of Brain, 273 Ditto of He^rt 278 Ditto of Kidneys 279 Ditto of Liver, 230 Ditto of Lungs, 2S2 Ditto of Womb, 2S5 Inflammatory Evil, 272 Influenza, 274 Jaundice or Yellows, Joint Felon or Rheumatism, Kicks and other Bruises, Kidney Inflammation, . . . 279 Lameness of Shoulder, Lampas. Lice, Liver Inflammation, Locked Jaw, . . 2S0 Loss of Cud, 275 Lough, 273 Malfenders and Sallenders, 280 Mange, Megrims, Miscarriage 281 Nasal Gleet, Navel 111, PaFsy, Pneu- monia or Inflammation of Lungs, Poisons 282 Poll Evil 283 Pumiced Feet, 277 Quarter Evil. Quarter 111, Red Water, . 272 King Bone, Rheumatism, Roaring, Rol, Round-bone Sprain, Saddle-galls, . . 2S3 Sallenders 2S0 Scab. Scour 283 Shoulder Lameness, 280 Sit-fasts 283 Sore Teats, Splint, 284 Sprain of Round-bone, 233 Spavin Bog. Spavin Bone, 273 Staggers or Apoplexy, 27^. Staling, Stifle Lameness, Straneles. Sur- feit, Swelled Legs, Thick Wind, Thoroushpin, 284 Thrush, '. 277 Ticks, 284 Tread 277 Turnsick 234 Ulcers. Warbles, Warts, 2S£ Water in the Head, 27i Withers Fistula 277 Womb Inflammation, Worms, Wounds, 285 Yellows, 279 0/ Bees. Diarrhea, Dysentery, 356 Attacks by vermin, 357 Of Fottls. Apoplexy, Asthma, 316 Bloody Flux, Bruises, 317 Consumption, Corns, 316 Costiveness, 317 Diarrhea, Fever, 316 Fractures, 317 Gout, Indigestion, 316 Lo.ss of Feathers, . .- 317 Molting, Pip, 314 Roup 315 Ulcers 317 0/ Plants, Trees, ^c. "Bli?ht or blast, — description, different kinds 477 Canker or caries, — description, . . .473 Origin, 479 Remedy, 481 Consumption, 482 Contortion, 482 Dropsy 432 Ergot, 482 Honey-dew, 483 ■ Curl 484 Mildew. Use of the term, nature, 485 Growth and phenomena, 486 Provocatives, preventives, and correct- ives 488 Potti!o-rot. Description, 490 Causes, 493 Remedies, 501 Smut. Description, causes and phenomena, . . 503 Preventives, 508 See also each plant, under its head. Dishley sheep, 249 Distemper in animals, • • •% 276 Distention of rumen, 276 Dog. Rearing, breeding 268 Newfoundland, 269 Shepherd's 279 Drover's, Setter, Terrier, Pointer, dis- eases, 271 Domestic fowls 291 See each kind, under its head. Domestic or farm animals, see Animals. Dorking fc/wls, 292 Double white flowering Blackberry, double pink flowering do., - 179 Double Feverfew plant, 387 Double flowering Almond, 381 Double flowerins Cherry, 383 Double flowering Peach, 387 Draining Causes of wetness ;n lands, 33 Boggy lands, and the iru; line of the spring, 33 560 INDEX. Drains in peat lands, 35 Hani soils, direction of drains, .... 36 Clay lauds 37 Varieties of drains, 3S Drainage of farmery, 433 Dressing barley, 63 Drone-bee, 319 Dropsy in animals, 276 " " plants 482 Drover's dog, 271 Drying hops, Ill " cheese, 149 Duck. Koiien or Rhone, English or Aylesbury White, 309 Muscovy 310 The duck-pond, food, 310 Hatching and care of ducklings 312 Fattening, 313 Pairins and laying, eggs, diseases, . . 314 Dunghill fowls, 291 Dunlop cheese, 158 Dunl in animals 2S4 Durham or short-horned cattle, 238 Dutch fowls, 293 Dwarf or creeper fowls, 295 Dwarf basil plant, 334 Dwellings and cottages, rural, 393 Dysentery in animads, 276 " " bees, 356 R Earths, — see Soils. Earwig, 547 Egg plant, 109 Eggs, — see Fotels. Elm tree, 393 Endive 109 English or Aylesbury duck, 309 Enriching garden soils, 360 Epilepsy in animals, 276 Ergot 55, 482 Espalier-trees, 468 European horses, — Clydesdale, Suffolk, Norinan 266 Everlasting pea 387 Every-day or ever-laying fowls, 293 Excrements, various kinds of, 26 Extirpating trees and shrubs, 7 Eyes, inflamed and weak, in animals, . . . 276 F. Fading beauty, or morning bride plant, . .384 Fall Apples. Varieties, — Bars, 170 Belmont 172 Bread and Cheese, Early Joe, Fair- banks 170 Fall Pippin 169 Fall Wine 170 Fameuse, 172 Gilpin, 170 Golden Ball, 172 Golden Sweet 170 Gravenslein, 169 Herefordshire Pearmain, Hurlbut, , . 172 Jersey Sweeting 17(1 Jewett'a Red, 172 Leland Pippin'J Lowell, Lyman's Large Summer 170 Lyscom, Magnolia, 172 Mexico, Moses Wood, Pomme Royal, . 170 Porter 163 Rambo, Richardson, Romanile, Sassa- fras or Haskell Sweet, Seek-no-fur- tlier, Summer Bellflower, Superb Sweet, 170 Thompkins, 172 Wiuthrop, Yellow Bellflower, .... 170 Fallowing, uses, different kinds, 20 " benefit of, rules for, 21 Fan training, . .■ 472 Farcy in animals, 276 Farm or domestic animals, 225 See Animals and Cattle. Fattening Anirnals. Calves, • 229 Cattle 229 Devon cattle, 238 Barn fowls, 299 Turkeys, • . , 302 Geese, 307 Ducks 313 Feathers, loss of, 317 Pefirvary. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 130 Fruit calendar, 222 Live-stock calendar, 287 Floriculturai calendar, 393 Feeding. Dairy cows 244 Swine, 254 Turkeys, 302 Geese, 304 Ducks, 310 Bees, 352, 353 Feet iiiHamniation in animals, 277 " various diseases of, 277 Felling 463 Fences, 437 Fennel, 126 Fever in the horse, 277 " " fowls 316 " catarrhal, 275 Fig, 218 Figure-of-S moth, 529 Filbert 219 Fir-tree, 393 Fistulous withers, 277 Fits in animals, 276 Flax. Varieties, soils, 80 Culture, gathering, rippling, 81 Watering, uses, 82 Diseases 477 Fleas, destructive, — see Insects. Flies, destructive, — see Insects. Flooding in animals, 277 Flowers, Ornamental Trees, &c. Flotcers. General remarks, friability of soil, . .359 Enriching, coverings, &c., 360 Plan of garden, 361 Planting, 363 Autumnal flowers, 364 Laying out the garden, 364 Various patterns 36!i Arrangement of colors, 367 INDEX. 561 Fragrant flowers, 36S Cultivating bulbs, 368 Reserve g:iiden spot 369 Culture of annuala, hardy, 370 Halfhanly, tender 371 Perennials, 372 Biennialti, the liot-bcd 373 Greenluuise plants, 374 Cold frame, 375 Winter management, 376 Repotting, 377 Garden decorations, — arbors,. . -.378 Seals, 379 Vases, fountains, flower-stands, avia- ries, sun-dials, 380 Diseases of flower-plants, 477 Insects injurious to, 547,548 Description of Standard Varieties. Acacia, . . 3SS Almond (double flowering), Althea Frutex.AmaranthusTricolor.Amer- ican Honeysuckle, Animated Oats, 3S1 Asphodel, 386 Aster (China), Auricula, Azalea Nu- diflora 391 Balsamine, 3S5 Beauty of the Night, 3S3 Box, Brier (Sweet), 382 Cacalia, 338 Canterbury Bell 382 Caper Tree, 384 Carnation, Cassia Marylandica, . . . 332 Catalpa, Cherry (double flowering), . 383 China Aster, 331 Chinese Monthly Rose 388 Chrysanthemum, Clematis or Virgin's Bower, Clethra, Columbine, Con- volvulus, Corchorus Japonicus, Cro- cus. Cupid's Car or Monk's Hood, Dahlia, 383 Daisy, 334 Double Feverfew 337 Double flowering Almond, 331 Double flowering Cherry, 383 Double flowering Peach, 387 Dwarf Basil, Eupatorium (Blue), Eu- phorbia Lathy ris, 384 Everlasting Pea, 387 Fading Beauty or Morning Bride, . . 384 Flower-delis, 385 Foxglove, Fringe-tree, Geranium, Garden Angelica, Glycine, .... 384 Golden Chain 385 Golden Coreopsis, Golden Everlast- ing, 384 Hibiscus, 338 Hollyhock, Honeysuckle, 384 Hyacinth, Hydrangea, Ice Plant, Im- patiens Balsamina, Iris or Flower- de-lis 385 Jonquils, 386 Laburnum, Lagentrienialndica, Lark- spur, Laurel, Lilac, ...'.... 385 Lily, Lily of the Valley,' Lime Plant, Lychnadia, 386 Lychnis, 383' Mezereon 386 Mock Orange, • . 388 Musk Geraniuirf, Myrtle, Narcissus, Nasturtium 3S8 Passion Flower, Paeony, Pea. Peach (double flowering). Pink, Polyan- thus. Pyrelliium Parthenium, Pop- py, Purple Hyacinth Bean, Rose, Rose Acacia, Rosecoloied Hibis- cus, Rudbeckia, Scarlet Cacalia, Scarlet Lychnis, Snowberry, Spi- derwort, Spirjea, Syringa or Block Orange, Strawberry-tree, 388 Sweet Bay, 389 Sweet Pea, 387 Sweet William, Tulip, Violet, . . . 339 Ti.ger Lily, White Lily, 386 Yellow Rose 388 Ornamental Shrubs. Soil, seasons and modes, 389 After-management, situation and ar- rangement, . . 391 Varieties— Azalea, Calycanlhus, Car- olina Syringa, Double flowering Almond, Dwarf White flowering Horse-chestnut, Hawthorn. Honey- suckle, Japan Suphora, Juniper, Lilac, Monnlain Laurel, Mountain Rose, Primrose, Rose Acacia, Ro?e of Sharon, Scarlet flowering Chest- nut. Snowball, Spice-bush, Spirea, Strawberry-tree, 393 Ornamerital Trees. Abeie, Ailanthus, Ash, Basswood, Cypress, Elm, Fir, Hemlock, Horse- chestnnt, Larch, Linden, Locust, Pine, Rock Maple. Spruce, Sugar Maple, Tulip-tree, Willow 393 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .393 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526,547 Flute budding, 454 Fly in sheep, 277 Folding, 30 Foot-rot, 277 , Forcing plants, — asparagus, 100 " cucumber, 103 " lettuce, 113 " radish, 118 " rhubarb H9 " strawberry, 213 Fore-shortening, _. • 458 Forests, clearing, • • 6 Forest tly, 515 Foul foot, 277 Fowls. Barn. Bankiva, Dunghill, 291 Game, Dorking, Malay or Chitta- gong, .292 Paduan or Jago, Crested, Handjurgh, Dutch, Every-day or Ever-laying, Poland, 293 Spanish, Bantam, 294 Dwarf or Creeper, Acaho, Rumkin, Frizzled, Silky, Russian or Siberi- an, Barbary, Java, 295 Ostrich or Cochin-China, 296 Raising, breeding, number of hens for a cock, qualities of a giod cock 29/ Selecting hens, silling, hatching, . . 25^ Fattening, caponizing, health, . . . 299 m2 562 INDEX. Poultry-houses, — general principles and requisites, situation, form, . . 426 Roosting-perches and nests, .... 427 Conveniences for hatching, appurte- nances, air and space, &c., .... 423 TAe Turkey. V Varieties, 299 Keeping, qualities 300 Laying, sitting, hatching, 301 Treatment of the young, fattening, feeding, 302 The Goose. Toulouse, 302 Chinese, Hong Kong, Poland, Com- mon, '.303 General management, food, 304 Pairing, laying, 305 Hatching, goslings, 306 Fattening, 307 7'ke Duck. Rouen or Rhone, English or Aylesbury White 309 Muscovy, 310 Ducli-pond, food, 310 Pairing and laying, eggs, 311 Hatching and care of ducklings, . . . 312 Fattening 313 Diseases of fowls, 314 Foxglove, 126, 3S4 Fractures, bruises, and wounds, in ani- mals 235 Fractures, bruises, and wounds, in fowls, 317 Fragrant flowers, 363 Fringe-tree, 3S4 Frizzled fowls, 295 Fruit calendar, monthly 221 Fruits, Fruit-trees, Vines, &c. The Apple. Propagation, soil and situation, mode of bearing, pruning and keeping, . 164 Varieties, — Stunmer sorts, 165 Fall sorts, IGS Winter and spring sorts, 172 Cider sorts, crab sorts, 175 The Apricot. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 176 TTie Barberry. Culture, varieties, 173 The Blackberry. Propagation, 178 Varieties, n 179 The Cherry. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 179 The Cranberry. General culture, &c., varieties, . . . 182 To keep, ISA The Currant. Propagation 185 Soil and situation, varieties, . . . \. 1S6 The Gooseberry. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 186 The Grape. Propagation, soil and situation, cul-" ture, pruning, training, 183 Varieties, 189 The Medlar. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eiies, 191 The Melon. Propagation, soil and situation, vari- eties, 191 The Mulberry. Propagation, soil and situation, . . . 192 Varieties, 193 The Nectarine. Remarks on, varieties, 193 The Peach. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, varieties, 195 The Pear. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, 199 Varieties, 200 The Plum. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, varieties, 204 The Quince. Propagation, &c., 208 Varieties, 209 The Raspberry. Propagation, &c. 210 Varieties, 211 The Strawberry. Propagation and culture, 212 Soil and situation, forcing, 213 Varieties 214 The Almond, 217 The Blueberry, the Butternut, the Chestnut, the Fig, 213 The Filbert, the Lemon, the Lime, the Olive 219 The Orange, the Pomsgranate, .... 220 The Shellbark, the Walnut, the Whor- tleberry, 221 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . 221 Grafting, budding, pruning, and train- ing trees, vines, &c., 442 Diseases of fruit-trees, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Fumigating hives, 343 Fundament hot 5i3 Furrows, striking the, &c. 13 G. Galloway cattle, 243 Gamma moth, 522 Game fowls, 292 Garden, — see Kitchen- garden and Flowers. Garget, 278 Garlic, 109 Gates 439 Gathering, in ploughing 17 " apples, 164 Gault's churn, 138 Geese 302 Gelding, — see Castrating. Geranium plant 384 Gestation of neat cattle, 226 " horse, 260 " " sheep, „ 245 " " swine, 253 Giddy in animals, 234 Gilford horse, 265 Gilmore's bee-house 334 hive 335 Girdling, 463 Glanders, 278 INDEX. 563 Blass hives, 332 Gloucester cheese, 155 Glycine plant 3S4 Goal, — (iescription, &c., 267 " varieties, 263 Gogsles ill animals 2S4 Golden-chain plant, 385 Golden coreopsis do., golden everlasting do., 3S4 Goose. Toulouse .302 Chinese, Hong Kong, Poland, Common, 303 General management, food, 304 Pairing, laying, 305 Hatching, goslings, . . ' 306 Fattening, 307 Diseases, 314 Gooseberry. Propagation, soil, situation, 186 Varieties, — Capper's Top Sawyer, . .186 Coleworth's White Lion, Cromplon's Sheba Queen, Early Green Hairy, Early Sulphur, Early White, Far- row's Roaring Lion, Hill's Golden Gourd, Houghton's Seedling, Keene'a Seedling, 187 Melling's Crown Bob 186 Nixon's Green Myrtle, Old Rough Red, Parkinson's Laurel, Pilmaston Green Gage, Prophet's Rockwood, Red Warrington, Wellin?ton Glory, White Honey, Woodward's Whitesmith, Yellow Ball, 187 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . 221 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Goslings, 306 Goss horse, 265 Gout in fowls, 316 Grafting. Uses 442 Different kinds, utensils and materials, 443 By detached scions, ■. . . . 444 Splice grafting, 445 Splice grafting the peach, nectarine, apricot, &c., cleft grafting, rind graft- ing, 447 Cleft grafting the vine, saddle grafting, side grafting, 448 Wedge grafting, root grafting, herba- ceous grafting, grafting by approach, or inarching, 449 Gr.vin. Culture, varieties, treatment of, Ac, . 43 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, ... , 515 See J/p.ari/ or Field Crops, — also «ach kind under its head. Grain-sick, 276 (Jraiiaries, site, &c., 419 Grapb. Propagation, soil and situation, culturt, pruning, training, 188 Varieties, — Alexander, 190 Black 191 Black Hamburgh, 189 Black Prince, Black Sweetwater,Bland, 191 Catawba, 190 Clinton, Cunninghain, Diana, Early Black July, Elsinburgh, Grizzly, . . 191 Isabella, 190 Lenoir, 191 Miller's Burgundy 189 Missouri. Norton's Virginia, Ohio, . . 191 Red and White Muscat of Alexandria, . 189 Royal Muscadine 191 Schuylkill Muscadel. Scuppernong, . 190 Warren's Madeira, White Frontignan, White Sweetwater, Winnie 191 Monthly Calendar of Operations, ... 221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Grass. Meadow or Green, Spear or June, ... 89 Timothy, Cat's Tail or Herd's Grass, Orchard or Cock's-foot, Meadow Fescue 90 Blue, Flat-stalked Meadow, Ray or Rye, Red-top, Foul Meadow, Fine Bent, 91 Sweet-scented Vernal, Pony, 92 Lands alternately in grass and tillage, . 93 Soiling, haying 94 Lands permanently in grass, perennial grass-lands fit for mowing, meadow lands, 95 Permanent pastures, 96 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 549 Grass-lands, operations on, 24 Gravelly soils, 2 Grease-disease in animals, 278 Green-house plants, 374 Green-house. May be easily constructed, — materials and mode of building, 434 Arrangement of the lights, 435 Flues for heating, 436 Green or sage cheese, 163 Green whey, ISO Greening apples, 174 Griping in animals, 278 Grogginess in horses, 273 Ground beetle, 515 Growing : grains, vegetables, fruits, &c., — see each kind under its head. Grubs and worms, 50 Also see Insects. Gypsy moth, 528 H. Half-hardy annual flowers, 371 H.amburgh fowls, 293 Haras, — preparing, 255 " Westphalia, 256 Hard soils, draining, 36 Hardy annual flowers, 370 Harrowing, uses and modes, 22 Harvesting. M^heat, 48 Barley, 52 Corn, 65 Buckwheat, 69 Broom corn, 74 Hatching chickens, 298 " turkey-chickens, 301 " goslings, 306 " ducklings, 312 Hawthorn-tree, 393 Haying »* Heading-in, 459 \ 564 INDEX. Health of fowls, 299 Heai't, inflammalion of in animals, . . . .278 Heavv or Field Crops. Wheat. Classification, 43 Best varieties for cultivation 45 Soils, lime for sowing, seed, culture, . 46 Quantity of seed, afterculture, cutting and harvesting, 48 Diseases and enemies, 49 Barlei/. Classification, 50 Kind Df soil, 51 Preparing the land, sowing, culture, harvesting, 52 Threshing and dressing, uses, diseases and enemies, 53 Rye. Varieties, soil, 53 Time for sowing, culture, product, uses, 54 Diseases and enemies, 55 The Oat. Varieties, 56 Soil, preparing the land, sowing, cul- ture, 57 Reaping, diseases and enemies, .... 53 Indian Corn. Varieties, 59 Preparation of the land for planting, season for ploughing, 60 Planting, manuring, 61 Number of grains to the hill, depth of planting, tillage, 62 Thinning and suckering 64 Harvesting 65 Preserving, diseases and enemies, . . 66 Bucktchent. Description, soils, 67 Culture 68 Harvesting, uses, 69 Tlie Potato. Propagating, varieties, soils, culture and tillage, 70 Uses 72 Diseases and enemies, 73 Broom Corn. Varieties, method of planting, .... 73 Culture, harvesting, scraping, .... 74 Uses, 75 Millet. Varieties, ss'l, 75 Culture, 76 Hemp. Soils, culture, 77 Gathering 78 Rotting, breaking, dressing, 79 Flax. Varieties, soils, 60 Culture, gathering, rippling 81 W^atering, uses, 82 Lucern. Description, 82 Soil, culture, tillage, 83 Uses, 84 Saivfoin. Description and habits, . '. 84 Culture, 85 The Tare. Description, soil, preparing the soil, time of sowing, culture, 86 The Clovers. Varieties, culture, 87 Mowing 88 Getting the seed, threshing 89 The Grasses. Varieties, 89 Lands alternately in grass and tillage, . 93 Soiling, haying 94 Lands permanently in grass, perennial grass-lands fit for mowing, meadow lands, 95 Permanent pastures, 96 Slocking pastures, 97 Diseases, 477 In.«ects injurious to, 515 Heifers, — see Cattle. Hemlock-tree, 393 Hemp. Soils, culture, 77 Gathering 78 Rotting, breaking, dressing, 79 Hens, — see Fotrls. Herbaceous grafting 449 " priming, 457 " training, 466 Herbs 124 See Kitchen-garden, also each kind under its head. Hereford cow, t 240 " ox 240 Hessian fly, 518 Hibiscus plant, 3-i8 Hickory nut 221 Hide-bound, 278 Higli blackberry, 179 Hives and boxes, 323 Hog, — see Stnitie. Holderness cattle, 243 Hollyhock 384 Honey, — see Bees. Honey-dew, 483 Honeysuckle, 384 Hong Kong goose, 303 Hoof brittleness of, 274 Hoose di.sease, 274 Hoove disease, 279 Hop. Culture, 109 After-culture, 110 Taking the crop, drying, Ill Assorting, 112 Dis^a.ses, 477 Horehound, 126 Horned or neat cattle, 225 See each kind, under its head. HOKSE. Rearing, breeding, weaning, 260 Castrating, training and managing colts, ". 261 Feeding, anatomy, 262 Varieties, — Arabian, 263 American, Mexican, Canadian, United States, Morgan, Gifford, Goss, ... 265 European, Norman, Clydesdale, Suf- folk 2RG Diseases 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .285 Slables, site and construction, . . . .417 Stalls, racks, mangers, 418 Insects injurious to, 512 Horse-chestnut tree, 393 INDEX. 565 Horse-radish 112 HoRTlCUr.TURAI. SCIENTIFIC OPERATIONS. Uiafling. Uses 442 Uilierenl kinds, utensils and materials, 443 Grafliii; hy detached scions, 444 Splice grafiiiig 445 Splice grafting the peach, nectarine, apricot, &c., cleft grafting, rind grariiug, 447 Cleft grafting the vine, saddle grafting, side grafting 448 Wedge grafting, root grafting, herba- ceuiis grafting, grafting by approach, or inarching, 449 Budding. Uses 450 Performing the operation, 451 Transmitting scions, wax for budding, shield budding, 452 Shield budding withoul a bud or eye, circular shield budding, 453 Flute budding, annular budding, after- care, 454 PTuning. Uses, forest-trees, ornamental trees, or- namental shrubs 455 Fruit trees and shrubs, 456 Herbaceous plants, 457 Close pruning 457 Shortening- in, fore-shortening,spurring- in 453 Heading-in 4-59 Lopping, cutting down, slopping and pinching out 460 Rinsing, disbudding, 461 Disleafing, slitting and splitting, bruis- ing and tearing, root pruning, . . .462 Girdling and felling, seasons for prun- ing 463 Training. Uses, principles, 461 IVlaiiual operations, 465 Training herbaceous and shrubby plants in pots, training hardy flowering shrubs in the open ground, training fruit-trees, 466 Different modes of training bushes and trees in the open garden, and fruit- Irees against walls or espaliers, . . . 463 Training dwarfs in the open garden, spiral cylinders, 469 Spurring-in, 470 Conical standards, 471 Fan training, 472 Horizontal training 474 Perpendicular training, comparative view of the ditferenl modes of train- ing, 475 Hotbeds, 373 Houses, how to construct the various farm 398 How to judge of cattle, for various objects and purposes, 230 Ruber's leaf hive, 330 Huckleberry, 221 Hyacinth, 385 Hydrangea plant, 335 Hydrocephalu? in animals, 279 Hyssop 126 48 I. Ice plant 385 Implements, — see each kind under its liead. Implement-houses, 420 Inarching, 449 Increasing the productive powers of soils, . 4 Indian Coun. Culture, varieties, &c., 59, 106 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 515 Indigestion in fowls ; . . . 316 Inflaramalion of bowels in animals, . . . .273 " '' brain, 273 " " eves, 276 " " feet 277 " " heart, 278 " " kidneys 279 " " liver, 280 " " lungs 282 " " womb, 335 Inflammatory evil in animals, 272 Influenza, 274 Insects, Noxious. Insects which live constantly on or in Domestic Animals, and propagate on them. Lice, horse hot, 512 Ftnidamenl hot, ox warble, 513 Red bot, sheep bot, 514 Horse fly, forest fly, spider fly, sheep tick, bird spider fly, 515 Insects injurious to Grain. 6il)bous ground beetle, 515 German or field cockchatfer, lined click beetle, wire-worm, '516 Winter or dart moth, 517 While-line dart molh, botys, corn moth, corn weevil, Hessian fly 518 Wheal midge, 519 Insects injurious to Vesetables. Spring beetle or skip-jack, asparagus beetle, Iwelve-spotled leaf-beelie, . . 520 Earth-flea beetle, turnip fly, mole cricket, churr worm, jarr worm, eve churr, earth crab, painted field-bug, cabbage-bug, 521 Plant lice, aphis, large cabbage while buuerfly, small while butterfly, green-veined while butterfly, gamma molh 522 ■•Cabbage molh, 523 While-line brown-eyed molh, cabbage- garden pebble molh, carrot molh, . . 524 Roesel's liny caterpillar, onion fly, cab- base fly, lettuce fly, 525 Negro fly, 526 Insects injurious to Fruit, Fruit-trees, Shrxibs and Vines. Black-veined while butterfly, or haw- thorn ponlia, 526 Yellow-tailed molh, 527 Lackey molh, gypsy moth, 523 Goal moth, wood-leopard moth, Cgure- of-8 molh 529 Lunar-spotted pinion molh, winter moth 530 Pale-brindle beauty ninth, 531 Lime-looi)er or mottled umbre moth, small ermine moth, codling molh, . . 532 566 INDIX. Red grub of the plum, red bud caterpil- lar, plum-tree lortrix, 533 Copper-colored weevil, ciirculio, bac- clui3 or purple apple weevil 534 Slem-boriiig weevil, borer, apple weevil, 535 Pear weevil, oblong weevil 536 Red-looted beetle, garden beetle, apple- bark beetle, small bark beetle, . . . 537 Common elm-destroying scholytus, plum saw-fly, 533 Penr saw-fly, peach or poplar saw-fly, 539 Pear chermes, apple chermes, .... 540 Plant louse, or aphis 541 Small and large pear midges, 542 Black gall midge, paradoxical pear platygasier, curculio, 543 Vine beetle, vine scale insect, vine saw-fly, 544 Canker-worm, 545 Apple tree borer, 546 Insects injurious to Flower-plmits. Earwig, orange scale insect, mealy bug, oleander scale insect, 547 Rose scale, cactus scale, sweet-bay scale, rose moth, plant mite or red spider, 548 Insects injurious to Meadows. General remarks, unspotted lady-bird, migratory locust, 549 Rye-grass moth, 550 Anller or grass jnoth 551 Iris plant, 335 Irrigating, 33 " channels, 39 " kind of soils for the purpose, waters best adapted, meadow- watering, 40 " preparing the surface, 41 " time to operate, 42 Isabella grape, 190 J. Jago fowls, 293 January. Kitchen garden calendar for, 130 Fruit calendar, 221 Live-stock calendar, 287 Floricultural calendar, 393 Japonicns plant 333 Jarr worm, 521 Jaundice in animals 279 Java fowls, 295 Jerusalem artichoke, 93 Joint-felon in animals, 279 Jonquil plant, 386 Julij. "Kitchen-garden calendar for, 132 Fruit calendar, 223 Live-stock calendar, 239 Floricultural calendar, 395 June. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 131 Fruit calendar, 222 Live stock calendar, 289 Floricultural calendar, 394 Juniper-tree, 393 K. Keeping apples, 164 " cranberries, 184 Kendall's cylindrical chum, 13T Kicks and other bruises, 279 Kidneys, inflanunalion of in animals, . . .279 Kitchen-garden. Vegetables. Culture of, &c., — Asparagus, .... 99 Borage, Bean 100 Beet 102 Borecole, Broccoli, Cabbage 103 Cardoon, Carrot, 105 Celery, Chive, Corn 106 Corn-salad, Cress, Cucumber, 107 Dandelion, 1C8 Egg-plant, Endive, Garlic, Hop, . . .109 Horse-radish, .Leek, 112 Lettuce, Morel 113 Mushroom, Mustard, 114 Onion 115 Okra, Parsnip, Pea 116 Pepper, 117 Pumpkin, Radish, Rhubarb, 118 Rape, Salsify, 119 Scorzonera, Sea-kale, Shallot, Skirrel, Spinach, 12f Squash, Tomato, Turnip, 121 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . . 13C Diseases 477 Insects injurious to, 523 Herbs. Culture of, &c., — Anise, Balm, Basil, Caraway, 124 Coriander, Camomile, Chervil, Dill, . . 125 Fennel, Foxglove, Horehound, Hyssop, Lavender 126 Liquorice, Marjoram, Mint 127 Parsley. Penny-royal, Peppermint, Purs- lane, Rosemary, 128 Rue. Saffron, Sa?e 129 Savory, Tansy, thyme, 130 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . . 130 Kyloe cattle, 243 L. Laburnum plant, 385 Lackey moth, 528 Lactometer, use of, 245 Lambs, — see Sheep. Lameness of shoulders in animals, .... 280 Lampas in horses, 280 Land. Clearing waste, 7 Alternately in grass and tillage 93 Permanently in grass, meadow, ... 95 See Soils. Larch tree, 393 Larkspur plant, 385 Larva, — see Insects. Laurel plant, 385 Lavender plant, 126 Laying, — hens, 297 " turkeys, 301 " geese, 305 " ducks, 311 Leaf hive, 320 Leek 112 Lemon 219 Lettuce, varieties and culture, 113 " fly, 525 Leveling uneven surfaces, '. . . 3 Lice in cattle, 280 INDEX. 567 Also see Insects. Lilac bush, 335, 393 Lily, 3S6 Lime, manuring with, 31 Lime-tree, 219 Lime plant, 3.S6 Lime looper or moth, 532 Linden-tree 393 Liquorice plant, 127 Litter 29 Live slock, — see Animals. Liver, inflammation of in animals, . . . .280 Loam soils, 3 Locked- 'aw in animals, 280 Locust, 549 Locust-tree, 393 Long-wooled sheep, 249 Lopping, 460 Loss orcud, 275 " " feathers 317 Lucern, — description, S2 " soil, culture, tillage, 83 " uses 84 Lunar-spotted pinion moth, 529 Lungs, inflammation of in animals, .... 282 Lychiiadia plant, 336 Lychnis plant, 383 M. Maggots, — see Insects. Malay or Chittagong fowls, 292 Mallenders in horses, . 280 Mange, 281 Mangers 418 Manurino. Action of manures, natural manures, . 25 Urine, various kinds of excreme[it, . . 26 Nigm-soil, management of manures, . 27 Forming composts, litter, 29 Applying liquid manures, folding, dead bodies, bones, &c., 30 Vegetable manures, mineral manures — lime, marl, gypsum, ashes, . . .31,32 Manuring plants, trees, &c., — see each kind under its head. Maple-tree, 393 March. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 131 Fruit calendar, 222 Live-stock calendar, 288 Floricultural calendar, 393 Marjoram, 127 Marl 31 May. Kitchen-garden calendar for, 131 Fruit calendar, 222 Live-stock calendar, 283 Floricultural calendar, 394 May-bug, 50 Meadows, operations on, 24 " watering, 40 " grass, 95 " insects injurious to, 549 Mealy-hug, 547 Medlar. Propagation, soil and situation, varie- ties, — Blake's Large, German or Dutch, Nolliireham, Stoneless, ... 191 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to 526 Megrims in horses, 281 Melon. Propagation, soil and situation, . . . 191 Varieties, — (Water-melons), Imperial, Carolina, New Jersey, Spanish, Cit- ron 191 (Musk-melons), Keising, Green Hoosai- nee, Large Germek, Early Canteleup, Nutmes, Green Citron. Palermo, Orange Canteleup, Black Rock, Sweet Ispahan, 192 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . . 221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Merino sheep 252 Mezereon plant, 386 Midges, destructive, — see Insects. Mildew. Uses of the term, nature, 485 Girowth and phenomena 486 Provocatives, preventives, correctives, 488 Milk. Management, 138 Whole-milk cheese, 149 Skim-milk cheese, 161 Whole-milk butter, 142 Milking, 244 Ascertaining the quality of, 245 See Daijji/ and Cattle. Millet, — varieties, soil, 75 " sowing, culture, 76 Mineral manures, 31 Miner's bee-hive 333 Mint, 127 Miscarriage in animals, 281 Mock orange plant 38S Models of Rural Buildings. Farmhouse, 399 One-story house, 399 Medium-sized house, 400 Large farm-house, 404 Tudor cottage 405 Double cottase, 406 Dairy, ..." 409 Complete dairy, 410 Mole cricket 521 Molting of fowls, season of, ifec, . . .297,314 Monthly Calendar of Operations. Kitchen-garden, 130 Fruit, 221 Live-stock, 285 Floricultural, 393 Moor-ill in animals, 272 Morel 113 Morgan horse 265 Moths, destructive, — see Insects. Mottled umbre moth, 532 Mountain sheep, 248 Mountain laurel-tree, mountain rose, . . . 3^ Mowing 95 ' MtTLBERRV. Propagation, soil and situation 192 Varieties, — Red, Black, Johnson, White 193 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, . 448 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 568 Mule, — rearing, brepding, &c., 267 Musliroom, 114 Musk geranium, 3S6 Musk-melon, 192 MusUird, varieties and culture, 114 Myrtle plant, 33G N. Names of cattle at different agea, . . . .232 Narcissus plant, 356 Nasal gleet in horses, . . . , • .... 232 \asturtium, 336 Native cattle, 233 Nature and treatment of soils, 1 Navel'iU in animals, 282 Neat Cattle. Rearing, treatment, varieties, &c., . 225 Insects injurious to, 512 Nectarine. Remarks on, 193 Varieties, — Boston 193 Brnmtield, Downton, Due du Tellier, Early Violet, 195 Elruge, 194 Hunt's Tawney, 195 Jaune Lisse 194 Lewis's, 193 Musk Violet, New White, 195 Perkins's Seedling, 193 Pitmaston's Orange, 195 Red Roman, 193 Ro^issanne, 194 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 New cheese, 161 Newfoundland dog, 269 New Leicester cattle, 242 Night-soil 27 Norman horse, 265 November, Kiiclien-garden calendar for, .... 133 Fruit calendar, 223 Live-stock calendar, 2S5 Floricultural calendar, 397 Noxious insects, 512 See Insects. Nuts. Culture,&c., — Butternut, Chestnut, 218 Filbert, 219 Shellbark, Walnut, . . • 221 Nut hive and bee-boxes, 324 O. Oat. Varieties, 56 Soil, preparing the land, sowing, cul- ture, 57 Reaping, 58 Diseases and enemies, 58, 477 Insects injurious to, 515 October. ■■' Kitchen-garden calendar for, . . . .132 Fruit calendar, 223 Live-stock calendar, 239 Floricultural calendar, 396 Okra, 116 Olive, 219 Onion. Varieties and culture, 115 Diseases, 477 Fly 625 Orange 220 Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Culture, soil, sea.sons and modes, . . 389 After-management, situation and ar- rangement, . . . . , 391 Varieties, 393 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .393 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, ....... . 526 Ostrich fowls, 296 Ox. Breeding and rearing, 225 Fattening, 229 Age, .232 Names at different ages, .....'. 233 How to judge of, &c., 230 Explanatory skeleton of, 231 Native, .2.33 Devon, 235 Short-horned, 233 Hereford 240 Ayrshire, 241 New Leicester, 242 Holderness, Galloway, Sussex, Alder- ney, Suffolk; Kyloe, 243 Diseases, 271 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .285 Insects injurious to, 512 • P. Paduan or Jago fowls, 293 Pairing of geese 305 " " ducks, 311 Pale-brindle beauty moth, 531 Palsy in animals, 282 Paring and burning land, 8 Parmesan cheese, 162 Parsley, 128 Parsnip, varieties and culture, 116 Passion-flower, 338 Pastures. Permanent, 98 Stocking, 97 Pea. Varieties 116 Culture, enemies, 117 Everlasting, 337 Peach. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, •. 195 Varieties, — Alberge, 196 Belle de Vitry, 198 Bergen's Yellow ... 197 Catharine. Chancellor, .... . 198 Coolidge's Favorite , . 195 Crawford's Late, 197 Early Tillotson, 198 Early York. George the Fourth, ... 195 Golden Ball, 193 Gross Mignonne, . . • ....... 195 Hyslop's Cling, Incomparable, Late Admirable, Late Heath, Late Pur- ple, Lemon Freestone, Malta, Monstrous Cling, 198 INDEX. 569 Morris, Noblesse 197 Nutmeg. Old Newington, 198 Oldniixoii Freestone, 197 Prei!iilent 19S Red Cheek Melocoton, 195 Red Maadalen, Red Rareripe, .... 197 Ward's Late Free, 198 Wiiite 197 White Imperial, 193 Yellow Rareripe 197 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .221 Grafting, budding, prunin^g, training, 442 Diseases 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Pbar. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture 199 Varieties, — Bartlett, 200 Belle ei Bonne, Belle Lucrative, . . 204 Beurre Bosc, 202 Beurre de Aniaulis, Beurre Diel, Bleeker'3 Meadow, 204 Bloodgood 203 Colmar, Columbia, Gushing, .... 204 Dearborn's Seedling, 200 Easier Beurre, 204 Flemish Beauty 203 Frederick of Wurtemburg, Fulton, Glout Morcean 204 Golden Beurre of Bilboa, 2(13 Honey, Jargonelle, 204 Madeleine, 200 Marie Louise, 204 Muscadme, 203 Passe Colmar, Pound, Rousselet de Rheinis, 204 Seckel 202 St. Germaine, St. Michael, Slevens'a Genesee, Summer Melting, .... 204 Summer Frank Real, 203 Swan's Egg, . 201 Tyson 202 »'Vergouleuse, 204 Winter Nelis 200 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to 52G Peaty soils 2 Draining 35 Penny-royal, 123 Peony, 338 Pepper, 117 Peppermint 123 Perennial flowers, 372 Pickling pork, ..." 255 Pig. See Swhie. Pine-tree, 393 Pink 3bS Pip in fowls, 314 Plans of flower-gardens, 301 " " farm-buildings, 398 Plants and Planting, — see each plant under its head. Ploughing. Remarks on 10 Rules :or, 11 How to hold the plough, construction of the plough, 12 48* Ridges, 13 General operation, 14 Gathering, casting, 17 Cleaving, cross-ploughing, 13 Subsoil 19 Fallow, 20 Varieties of ploughs, — lock coulter, wheel, and draft-rod, 13 Subsoil, 19 Paring, S Field, 10 Plum. Propagation, soil and situation, cul- ture, &c., 204 Varieties, — Bleeeker'sGace 206 Black Dawson, Blue Dwarf Gage, . .208 Cloth of Gold, Cue's Golden Drop, . . 206 Dawson 208 Drap d'Or 206 Duane's Purple, 207 Elfrey, Early Royal, 208 Favorite, 206 Flushing Gage, Frost Gage, 208 Green Gage, 204 Huling's Superb, Imperial Ottoman, . 203 Jefterson 204 Lombard 208 Long Scarlet, 206 M'Laughlin, 208 Morocco, 206 Prince's Imperial Gage 208 Purple Favorite, Red Gage, 206 Royal Hative, 208 Scarlet Gage, 206 Smith's Orleans 208 Washington, 204 Montlily Calendar of Operations, . . 221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 443 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 Pneumonia, or inflammation of lungs in animals, 282 Pointer dog, 271 Poisons, liow to treat, 282 Poland goose, 303 Poll-evil in animals, 283 Polyanthus plant, 3S8 Pomegranate, 220 Poppy, 383 Pork, pickling, 205 Porous subsoil, . 4 Position of the apiary, 321 Potato. Propagating, varieties, soils, culture, tillage, 70 Uses 72 Diseases and enemies, 73 The Rot. Description, 490 Causes, 493 Remedies, 501 PotTLTRY, OR THE VARIOUS DOMESTIC FOWLS, 491 Presses, cheese, 1-54 Pricked or wounded feet in animals, . . . 277 Procreating age of Cattle, 226 " " Sheep, 215 " " " Swine 253 '« " " Horse, 260 " " " Ass, 266 670 INDEX. Procreating age of Dog 26S " " " Goat 267 Propagating, — see Animals, Vegetables, Fruits, ^c. PRUNINa. Uses, forest-trees, ornamental trees, ornamental shrubs, 455 Fruit trees and shrubs, 456 Herbaceous plants, 457 Close pruning, 457 Shortening-in, fore-shortening, spur- ring-in, . . . , 453 Heading-in, . . 459 Lopping, cutting down, stopping, and pinching out, . 460 Ringing, disbudding 461 J-i?leafing, slitting and splitting, bruising and tearing, root pruning, 462 Girdling and felling, seasons for prun- ing, 463 Pucciniagraminis 4S6 Pumiced feet in animals. . . .• 277 Purapicin, varieties and culture, . . . .118 Purple apple weevil, 531 Purslane, 123 Q. Qualities of dairy cows, 243 " " soils, 3 Quarter-evil or quar.ter-ill in animals, . . 272 Queen-bee, 313 Quince. Propagation, &c., 208 Varieties, — Apple-shaped, Orange Pear-shaped, 209 Portugal, 210 Monthly Calendar of Operations, . .221 Grafting, budding, pruning, training, 442 Diseases, 477 Insects injurious to, 526 R. Racks, 418 Radisli, varieties, culture, forcing, . . .113 Rape plant, 119 Raspberry. Propagation, &c., 210 Varieties, — American Black, Cush- ing. Double-bearing Yellow, . . . 212 Fastolff, 211 Franconia. Howland's Red, New Red, Ohio, Red Antwerp, True Red, While Antwerp, Yellow Antwerp, . 212 Reaping grain. See each kind of grain. Rearing Live-stock. Neat cattle, 225 Sheep 245 Swiae, 253 ■ Horse, 260 Ass, 266 Mule, Goat, 267 Dog, 263 Fowls, 297 Red bot 513 " grub of the plum, red bud caterpillar, 533 Red-footed beetle 537 Sed spider, 543 Relation between soil and subsoil, .... 3 Removing stones, 10 Rennet, different modes of preparing and treating, 145 Repotting flowers, 377 Rheumatism in animals, 279, 283 Rhubarb. Varieties and culture, 118 Forcing 119 Ridge-ploughing,' 15 Rind grafting, 447 Ring-bone in horses, 233 Rippling flax, 81 Roaring in animals, 233 Rock-maple tree, 393 Rolling 23 Root grafting, 449 " pruning, 462 Rose-bush, 338 " acacia, of Sharon 393 " training, 466 Rosemary 123 Rot. In animals 276, 283 Putalo-rot. Description 490 Causes, 493 Remedies, 501 Rotting hemp, 79 Rouen or Rhone duck, 309 Round-bone, sprained, in animals, .... 233 Roup in fowls, 315 Rudbeckia plant, 338 Rue, 129 Kunikin fowls, 295 Rural Ar-chitecture. Farm-dwellings and Cottagns. General principles to be observed, plans for buiklines, 398 Model of a moderate-sized farm-house, model of a one-story house 399 Model of a medium-sized house, . . . 400 Model of a large farm-house, 404^ Tudor style of cottage, 405^ Model of double cottage structure, . .406 Modifications of plans, 407 Dairies. General remarks, different apartments of the dairyhou^e. site 403 To secure a proper lemperature,arrange- ment of the ap.irlments, 409 Store-loft or upper rooms, model of a complete dairy, 410 Barns. Plan of apartments, light and air, to prevent depredations of vermin, . . 413 Model of the Washington barn, .... 414 Buel's barn, 415 Stables. Site, light and air 417 Stalls, racks and mangers, 418 Cart-sheds and Implement-houses. Site, &c., 419 Granaries. Site, ii;emenl of the Farmery. Situation, 430 Kind of buildings, disposition of the dif- ferent buildings, 431 Plan of buildings for a large farm, . . . 432 Plan of buildings for a small farm, . .433 Slack-yard, drainage of farmery, . . .433 Green-houses. May be easily constructed, materials and mode of building, 434 Arrangement of the lights, 435 Flues for healing, 436 Fences and Gates. Different kinds, building stone wall, . . 437 Materials, implements, rules to be ob- served, 43S Advantages of stone wall, 439 Form and method of constructing gates, 439 Hanging, hinges, latch, gate-posts, . . 440 Arbors " 378 Garden seats f . . 379 Bee-hou:/ii/ue. — Not direct ; slanting. Olitong, — Longer than broad. Oborute. — Having the narrow end downward. Obtuse. — Blimt ; not pointed or acute. Occipital. — Pertaining to the back part of the head. Offset. — A shoot ; a sprout from the roots of a plant. Organic bodies. — Bodies with organs on the action of which depend their growth and perfection. Osier. — Willow twig. Oval. — Of the shape or figure of an egg. Ovary. — Tlie part where eggs are formed, or in which the fetus is supposed to bo formed. Ovate. — Egg-shaped. Ovule. — A body destined to become a seed. Ovum. — Egg-shaped. Oxygen. — That part of air which may bo breathed ; vital air, or the basis of it. Pad. — A road ; an easy -paced horse; a soft saddle ; to beat a way smooth and level. Paddock. — A small enclosure for animals. Palmated. — Having the shape of a hand ; webbed. Palpi. — Feelers. Panary. — Pertaining to bread. Panicle. — A species of flowering; unfolding of blossoms. Parallelogram. — A figure whose opposite sides are equally distant throughout. Parasitic. — Growing on the stem or branch of another plant. Parietal. — Bones forming the sides and upper part of the skull. Parterre. — Level ground laid out and fur- nished with evergreens and flowers. Pastern. — Part of a horse's leg between tho joint next the foot and the coronet of the hoof. Peccant. — Morbid ; bad ; not healthy. Pedicel. — The final division of a cominoa stem or stalk. Pellet. — A little ball. Pellicle. — A thin skin or film. Pelt. — A beast's skin, with hair on it : a raw hide. Pelvis. — The cavity of the body forming the lower part of the abdomen. Perch. — A pole ; a roost for fowls. Perennial. — Lasting through the year; a plant which lives more than two years. Per/orate. — To bore through; to make a hole or holes through anything. Permeable. — That may be passed through without displacement of its parts. Perspective — View in the distance. Pervious. — That may be penetrated by anoth- er body or sub.-itance. Petal. — A flower-leaf. Petiole. — A leaf -stalk ; the foot-stalk of a leaf. 57S DEFINITION OF WORDS. Phenogamous. — Having stamens and pistils distinctly visible. Phosp/iiile. — A salt formed by a combination of pliosplioric acid with a base of earth, alliali or melal. Pistil. — All organ of female flowers adhering to the fruit, for tlie reception of the poUen. Ptait. — A fold ; a tress ; braid. Pledget. — A small, tlal roll of lint or linen. Pollard. — A tree lopped. Pollen. — The fine fecundating dust or flour contained in flowers. Porous. — Passages in the skin or substance of a body. Posterior. — Coming after ; the hinder. Postern. — Baclc ; any small door or gate. Probang. — An instrument of whalebone and sponge, for clearing the tliroat or gullet. Prolegs. — Fore legs. Propolis. — A thick, odorous substance, re- sembling wax. Pupa. —An insect in that state in whicli it resembles an infant in swaddling clothes. Purgative. — Having tlie power of cleansing ; evacuating the boweis. Purge. — A medicine that evacuates the body by stool. Pus. — The white or yellowish matter gener- ated in ulcers and wounds. Quadrangular. — S(}uare ; having four sides, and four prominent angles. Q,uickliiiie. — Any limy substance deprived of its fixed or carbonic air. Rachis. — A stem tliat proceeds from the base to the top of the flower. Rectangular. — Right-angled. Rectum. — The tliird and last of the large intestines. Rick. — A long pile of grain or hay, sheltered with a kind of roof Rugose. — A leaf with veins more contracted than the surface. Rump. — The end of the back- bone of an animal, with the parts adjacent. Saline. — Consisting of salt. Scarify. — To scratch ; to make small incis- ions in the skin with an instrument. Scion. — A youni' slioot, twig, or sprout of a tree. Scrotwn. — The place containing the organs of generation. Scullery. — A place where dishes, kettles, &c., are kept. Seedling. — A young plant or root just sprung from the seed. Segment. — A part cut off or divided. Semilunar. — Resembling in form a half moon. Septic. — Promotive of putrefaction. Serous. — Thin ; watery. Serration. — Formation in the shape of a saw. Serum. — Thin, transparent part of blood; the thin part of milk. Setiform. — Having the form of a bristle. Seton. — Small threads, or a twist of silk, drawn through the skin by a large needle, for the discharge of liumors. Shock. — Sixteen sheaves of wheat, rye, &c. Slot. — A broad, flat, wooden bar. Sole. — The bottom of a thing, and iii which it stands upon the ground. Spatula. — A slice ; an instrument for spread- ing plasters, &c. Spermatic. — Consisting of seed, or pertain- ing to the elements of production. Spikelet. — A small species of flowering. Spiracle. — A small aperture in animal and vegetable bodies through which air passes ; any small hole or vent. Spongiole. — A supposed expansion of minute parts at the termination of roots, like a sponge, for absorbing the nutriment of plants. Spore, SporuiB. — The part of flowerlesa plants which performs the function of seeds. Stallion. — A male horse not castrated. Stamen. — An organ of flowers for the prep- aration of the pollen or fecundating dust. Stellate. — When more leaves than two sur- round the stem in a ring; resembling a star ; radiated. Sternum. — The breast-bone. Stijie. — The joint of a horse next to the but- tock. Stigma. — The top of the organ of female flowers. Stomata. — Oval spaces between the sides of cells, in plants, opening into other cavi- ties and Ijordered by a rim. Stool. — A sucker; a shoot from the bottom of the stem or root of a plant. Strata. — Beds; layers. Style. — The middle portion of the organ of female flowers, connecting the stigma with the germ. Subsoil. — The bed or layer of earth which lies between the surface soil and the base on which they rest. Succulent. — Full of juice ; juicy. Sucker. — Tlie shoot of a plant from the roota or lower part of tite stem. Sulphate. — A neutral salt, formed by sul- phuric acid in combination with any base. Sulphuric. — Containing sulphur. Suture. — The seam or joint which unites the bones of the skull. Stcard. — The grassy surface of land; turf. Swath. — The whole breadth or sweep of a scythe, in mowing or cradling. Talc. — Isinglass; tallow; magnesian earth, in broad, flat plates. Tarsi. — Belonging to the feet. Tassels. — Pieces of boards that lie under tha mantel-tree ; a burr. Temporal. — Pertaining to the temple or temples of the liead. Tension. — Strained or stretched. Tenuous. — Thin; small; minute. Tepid. — iVIoderately warm. Terminal. — Growing at the end of a branch or stem ; terminating. Terrace. — A raised bank of earth, with slop- ing sides ; a balcony. Testicles. — Male organs of generation. Thorax. — The bones or the cavity of th« chest. DEFINITION OF WOKDS. 579 Tmiii:. - ■ \ meilicine thai gives visiir and aolioii 10 ihe sycilein. Trnrisiiirdlion. — Passing off through the [lures of the sl -S." .^■^ ^^ V •^, •\ 0' c .■^ ^v\^ V - ''' - O' civ ' "' ^N