THE STORY OF EUROPE HARDING THE LAKE HISTORY STORIES I Class .^Jj/^^^__ Gmn0}i°J^l/^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT The Lake History Stories The Lake History Stories THE HARDING BOOKS GREEK GODS, HEROES, AND MEN, by Samuel B. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 202 pages, 12 full page illustrations. Price $0.50 THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, by Samuel B. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 274 pages, 38 illustrations and maps. Price 50 THE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES, by Samuel B. Harding. New edition, revised and enlarged. 256 pages, 79 illustrations and maps. Price 50 THE STORY OF ENGLAND, by Samuel B. Harding and William F. Harding. 384 pages, 7 maps, and 138 illustrations. Price 60 Teachers' Manual, 73 pages, price 25 cents. THE STORY OF EUROPE, from the Times of the Ancient Greeks to the Colonization of America. Based on the report of the Committee of Eight to the American Historical Association. By Samuel B. Harding and Margaret Snodgrass. 384 pages, 128 illustrations and maps. Price 60 THE EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE, by Edwin E. Sparks, M.A., Ph.D., State College, Pennsylvania. 472 pages, 184 illustrations and maps. Price 60 SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY Chicago New York If ^msm^am s^ : «a^ 1 t^j^jp—iif^- m*-^ il ^--i*^- -.^3&^i ^S jl ^^ig^^Bliy -^ A it- ^B H^^HHB.fH'' > l*^^^^^B^^^m "|-i^:;:%' kj^l,^ X-i-^^^M ^i' i:S» WBmM ■***^^*':«c-«i3i 1^ ^,eg^ if 1 id! ^ >- THE STORY OF EUROPE FROM THE TIMES OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS TO THE COLONIZATION OF AMERICA AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY FOR THE SIXTH GRADE, BASED UPON THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF EIGHT TO THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION BY SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF EUROPEAN HISTORT IN INDIANA UNIVERSITY ASSISTED BY MARGARET SNODGRASS, A.M. TEACHER OF HISTORY IN SHORTRIDGE HIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK 1^1 %- COPYRIGHT, 19X2 BY SCOir. FORESMAN AND COMPANY CC1.A316146 CONTENTS To THE Teacher , ix THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE LEARNED FROM THEM I. Greece and the Greeks 1 II. Achilles and the War Against Troy 9 III. Sparta and Athens 15 IV. The War of the Greeks and the Persians.. 19 V. The Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis . . 23 VI. Athens Under Pericles 30 VII. Socrates the Philosopher 35 VIII. Alexander the Great 39 IX. The Spread of Greek Culture 45 THE ROMANS— WHAT THEY LEARNED FROM THE GREEKS AND WHAT THEY HAVE TAUGHT US X. Early Days of Rome 49 XL The Story of Cincinnatus 56 XII. The Gauls in Rome 61 XIII. Rome's Wars with Carthage 68 XIV. Rome and the Mediterranean World 76 XV. The Romans in the West 81 XVI. Rome the Capital of an Empire 91 XVII. Rome and Christianity 105 THE GERMANS THE HEIRS OF THE ROMANS— UFE OF THE MIDDLE AGES XVIII. The Ancient Germans 114 XIX. The Germans Invade the Empire 123 XX. The Founding of England 135 XXI. King Alfred and the Northmen 145 XXII. The Normans Conquer England 155 V VI CONTENTS XXIII. King John and the Great Charter 163 XXIV. The Rise of Parliament 169 XXV. Life in the Castles 178 XXVI. Life in the Villages 192 XXVII. Life in the Medieval Towns 201 XXVIII. The Church in the Middle Ages 213 PILGRIMAGES, CRUSADES, AND COMMERCE XXIX. Pilgrimages of the Middle Ages 226 XXX, The First Crusade 232 XXXI. The Crusade of Richard the Lion-Hearted 242 XXXII. Results of the Crusades 251 THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD XXXIII. The Beginnings of Discovery 259 XXXIV. The Voyages of Columbus 269 XXXV. The Successors to Columbus 278 XXXVI. Spanish Conquests in America 285 EUROPEAN RIVALRIES WHICH INFLUENCED AMERICAN CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION XXXVII. England in the Days of Elizabeth 297 XXXVIII. French Rivalry with Spain 311 XXXIX. The Dutch Revolt Against Spain 319 XL. England Defeats the Spanish Armada 327 XLI. English Colonization Begun 337 XLII. Summary: The Growth of Civilization 349 CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 354 INDEX (with Pronunciation of Proper Names). . . 359 LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS MAPS Page Map of Greece xvi Map of Alexander's Empire 42 Map of Italy 50 Roman Empire 92 Page Map of Saxon Kingdoms 138 Map of the Crusades 236 Map Showing Voyages and Discoveries 268 The Spanish Armada 331 ILLUSTRATIONS A Vassal in the Middle Ages doing Homage to his Lord Frontispiece Statue of Apollo 4 Bust of Zeus (Jupiter) 5 Statue of Aphrodite (Venus) 7 A Greek Warship of the 5th Century B. C 10 Athens as it is Now 17 Return of the Victors from Salamis. . 27 The Acropolis of Athens 31 Statue of Athena 33 Statue of Alexander the Great 40 Alexander Defeating the Persians. ... 43 A Temple on the Acropolis (Erech- theum) 46 Attendants upon a King or Consul.. . 52 Roman Plow 57 A Roman Soldier 58 Roman Standard Bearer 59 Gallic Soldier 62 The Roman Forum (Restoration) .... 64 View of the Capitol 66 Hannibal 69 Ruins of a Roman Acqueduct 77 A Roman Road Across a Marsh 78 Bust of Julius Caesar 82 Roman Chariot Race 84 Gladiators Fighting 85 Part of the Roman Wall in Britain.. . 90 Interior of a House at Pompeii 97 Lamp and Stand 98 Spoon and Drinking Bowl from Pompeii 99 Drawing on the Outer Wall of a House in Pompeii 100 Roman Books and Writing Materials . 102 Toga-Front 103 Toga-Back 103 Persecution of the Christians 108 A Bishop on His Throne 112 A Monk 112 An Old German Village 115 Woden 120 Thor 121 A Hun Warrior 125 Goths on the March 126 Franks Crossing the Rhine 129 Arms of Franks 130 A Frankish Chief 131 Baptism of Clovis 132 Old English Ships 136 Old EngUsh Warriors 137 An Early English Church 142 Remains of a Viking Ship Found in Sweden :..;.. 146 An English King 150 Woman's Costume 150 Gold Jewel of Alfred 151 Old English Horn Lantern 152 House of an English Noble 153 William the Conqueror 156 William of Normandy Landing in England 157 Death of Harold 158 A Norman Castle in England 160 John Granting the Charter 165 Portion of the Great Charter 166 Seal of Edward 1 172 The New Houses of Parliament in London 173 Interior View of the House of Com- mons Today 175 A Castle of the Eleventh Century 179 The "Saucy Castle" of Richard the Lion-Hearted 183 Falconry 187 LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Page Arming the Knight 189 A Great Feast in the P2th Century. . 190 Plan of Village 193 Peasants Plowing 195 Peasants Breaking Clods with Mallets 195 Harrowing 196 Men and Women Reaping 196 Threshing 197 A German Town 202 Attack upon a City in the Later Middle Ages 205 A Medieval Shop 207 Canterbury Cathedral 209 A Fair in the 13th Century 211 Cathedral of Cologne 214 Head of a Bishop's Staff 215 A German Monastery 218 A French Cloister 219 Monk in Scriptorium 221 Illuminated Initial 223 A Pilgrim 227 Canterbury Pilgrims 228 A Crusader 233 Crusaders on the March 235 A Machine for Hurling Stones 240 Knight Templar 243 Richard the Lion-Hearted 245 Shield of Richard 246 Movable Tower 247 Pack Armor of the Time of King Richard . . . 249 Venetian Merchant Ship 254 The Grand Canal of Venice 255 Plaza of St. Mark, Venice 256 Kublai Khan 260 Marco Polo 261 Early Printers 263 Departure of Columbus 273 The Cross-Staff 274 Magellan 283 Mexican Calendar Stone 286 Fair God of the Mexicans 287 Indian Pueblo 292 Spanish Mission of Santa Barbara. . . 295 Queen Elizabeth 300 London Bridge in the Days of Eliza- beth 301 Gold Coin of Elizabeth 304 Drake's Ship 306 Traveling in State in Elizabeth's Time 309 Bayard 312 French Battle in Italy 313 Scene in Holland 320 William the Silent 322 Battle between the English Fleet and the Armada 333 An Indian Warrior 340 Indian Village 342 TO THE TEACHER In presenting this text-book of history for the sixth grade, it is the hope of the authors that they have put into practical form the general plan outlined in the report by the Committee of Eight to the American Historical Association. Reasons for adopting this plan and the ends to be sought in following it are fully set forth in the report {The Study of History in the Elemen- tary Schools; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1909), and need not be repeated here.* A few suggestions, however, as to the Une of approach may be helpful. The year's work is designed to present to the child in tangible concrete form the European background of American history: to give some definite impressions of the civilizations of ancient and modern Europe, and of the events leading to the transplanting of those civil- izations to America. The introductory lessons should so utilize the child's previous experience and knowledge as to make vivid the realization that the beginnings of the world he sees about him are to be sought far in the past and in distant lands. The method of procedure outlined below can be modified indefinitely to meet the special views of the teacher or the requirements and ability of the class. It is well to develop first the thought suggested in the opening paragraph of chapter one. Ask whether any *The course of study outlined for the State of Indiana by the State Depart- ment of Public Instruction (State Manual, 1911) differs from that of the Committee of Eight in two particulars. (1) One year, instead of two, is given to the prelim- inary survey of American history, and this is placed in the fifth year. (2) The stories of Greek and Roman history are taken out of the sixth year and placed in the fourth, where they are supplemented by Bible stories. It is believed that this affords the most practicable plan for lightening the rather heavy course of the sixth year. Classes which have already had the stories of Greek and Roman history before reaching the sixth year can begin this book with Chapter xviii. THE STORY OF EUROPE ^1 -I Sir -1} Rome founded (legendary date). Greek war with Persians. Athens under Pericles. Socrates put to death. Rome burned by the Gauls. - Death of Alexabder. Roman wars with Carthage. Greece and Macedonia come- under Roman rule Julius Caesar conquers Gaul. Augustus. Emperor Persecution of Christians hy Nero. ft Constantine the Great makes the Empire Christian. - Goths sack Rome. - Angles and Saxons conquer Britain. - End of Western Empire. } Clovis king of the Franks. Mohammed founds new religion of the class were born else- where than in this country; whether any have parents, grandparents, relatives, or friends who came to America from other lands. Make a list of the lands from which they came, and locate them on a map. With most classes these questions will bring out the fact that America has been settled for the most part by people who came from Europe. To show how these people have come, ask the children to find out and tell to the class the experiences of emigrants whom they know personally, in coming to America. Show a picture of an ocean steamship (easily obtainable from transporta- tion companies) and describe its arrangements. Tell how emigrants are now admitted, for example, at Ellis Island in New York harbor; and how they reach their final destina- tions, using, if possible, illus- trations of local interest. Contrast the experiences of an emigrant today with those of the Pilgrims in the Mayflower. TO THE TEACHER xi Next try to give the pupils some idea of the extent of time which separates us from the beginnings of history. Work back from the present by generations, then by centuries. Three generations (grandfather, father, and son) practically cover a century. But the beginning of our story goes back more than thirty centuries. To illustrate this, put upon the blackboard a vertical mark to represent the time of Christ's birth. Draw to the left of this a line divided into at least twelve units, to represent time B.C.; and to the right nineteen units to represent time a.d. Each unit represents a century, and they may be numbered underneath. Make a cross in the nineteenth century for the American Civil War, another in the eighteenth century for the American Revolution, and another in the fifteenth century for the discovery of America by Columbus. Then put a mark in the twelfth century B.C. for the Greek war with Troy. Get the pupils to understand that even this is not the first beginning of history. Use a map to show that most of the peoples known in the days of ancient Greece and Rome lived about the Mediterranean Sea. Emphasize the fact that the American continents were unknown. Make clear some of the ancient notions about the shape of the earth as expressed in the terms ''Ultima Thule" and the "Anti- podes," and bring out the idea that knowledge of the earth was so limited because ancient peoples lacked the means of communication we now have. Next the teacher should, by questioning, make out a list of the most important modern inventions which have increased our facilities for communication, such as the steamship, the locomotive, the telegraph, and the telephone. Attention should then be called to some inventions made before Columbus discovered America, .xii THE STORY OF EUROPE especially the compass and printing with movable metal types. Show the effect of the compass on maritime enterprise, and the importance of the printing-press in the spread of knowledge and culture. This will lead the class back to still older inventions, like that of the alphabet. Explain simply that history began when men first made written records of their deeds. This was in Egypt probably seven thousand years ago, and the first writing was merely crude pic- tures of material objects, carved upon the stone walls of temples and monuments. (Show pictures of Egyptian hieroglyphics.) A great advance in simplicity and expressiveness was made when the later Egyptians and Babylonians made signs or symbols to represent syllables instead of objects. But it was the Phoenicians, the neighbors and kinsmen of the Hebrews in Palestine, who completed the work of the Babylonians and Egyp- tians, and made a true phonetic alphabet by inventing simple symbols or letters to represent the elementary sounds of the human voice. The Phoenicians were a commercial and maritime people, and through their trade came in contact with the Greeks, who adopted their alphabet. The English alphabet is based upon the Roman, which was developed from the Greek. A comparison of a few English, Latin, and Greek capital letters will be interesting, and will show the changes wrought by centuries of usage. Four or five days given to introductory work of this sort should be suflacient to prepare the class to take up the study of the text with interest and with some sense of historical perspective. The analyses of the contents given at the beginning of each chapter in the text have been prepared with a view to assisting the pupils to get at the points of real impor- TO THE TEACHER xiil tance. The topics indicated at the close of each chapter are designed to suggest new angles from which material given in the chapter may be viewed, and to encourage further reading. A stimulus to reading and inquiry should always be one of the aims of history teaching, even the most elementary. It is urged that the pupils be required to study the pictures as well as the text. Much additional infor- mation may thus be obtained, while at the same time the child's powers of observation are sharpened. Special attention should be given to the correct pronunciation of proper names. In the index to the book will be found all the proper names used, with the correct diacritical marks. It is urged also that constant use be made both of wall maps and of maps in the text, in order that the pupils' sense of place may be developed. It may be further suggested that the working out by the children themselves of such a time chart as is indicated above will be found eminently worth while. This may most easily be made on strips of paper six or eight inches broad, and nine feet long. Wrapping paper may be obtained from a storekeeper's roll and cut to the proper width; or sheets of letter paper maj^ be pasted together, end to end. Four inches may be allotted to a century; and by writing on both sides of the central lines space may be found for putting in most of the important events mentioned in this text. The cut on page x indicates- roughly the sort of chart contemplated. The sheet may be made manageable by rolling it, or better perhaps by folding it (alternately over and back, after the fashion of a set of panoramic views) on the lines separating the century divisions. If these various suggestions are followed, it is believed that neither pupils nor teacher will experience any xiv THE STORY OF EUROPE serious difficulty with European history in the sixth grade. And by such a study the pupils' minds will be enriched, and be better prepared to grapple understand- ingly with the American history as it is presented in the last two years of the common-school course. In concluding, a word of acknowledgement is due to Superintendent Henry Lester Smith, of the Bloomington schools, who very kindly read the book in proofsheets, and made many helpful suggestions. Bloomington, Indiana, April, 1912. THE STORY OF EUROPE GREECE AND THE GREEKS Points to be Noted Why Americans should study the history of Europe. Size and coast line of Europe; its three southern peninsulas. The location and natural beauty of Greece; character of the Greek people. What the Greeks thought about the world; their gods, and how they worshiped them. If you were to go to the harbor of New York and watch one of the great ocean steamships unload its passengers, among them you would probably see some hundreds of men, women, and little relation to Europe children who had come across the Atlantic Ocean to find new homes in the United States. Where do these people come from? You would probably find that most of them are from some part of the continent or islands of Europe; and from their language, their dress, and their manners you would at once guess that their countries must be different in many ways from America. There are several millions of people in our country today who were born in Europe and came to the United States in this way. Indeed, almost every one of us would find, if we should inquire, that either our parents or grandparents, or at least their parents or grandparents, were emigrants from the Old World to the New. If you inquired still further, you would find that most of the things which make us a civilized people — such as our religion, the subjects which we study in schools, our ways of living, and the great inventions of gunpowder, the compass, and printing — all these were 2 THE STORY OF EUROPE brought to our country by emigrants from Europe. So, if we wish to understand the history and institutions of our own country, we must first learn something of the history and institutions of the lands from which our forefathers came. You will see, by looking at the map of the world in your geography, that Europe is the smallest of the five Geography great Continents. It appears to be scarcely of Europe u^qyq than a great peninsula jutting out from Asia, and yet its people have played by far the largest part in the history of the world. The close connection with Asia enabled them to learn from the people of that continent the first steps in civilization; and the climate, situation, and geographical structure cf Europe were all favorable for developing civilization still further. You will also see from the map that the coast of Europe is very irregular in outline. Many bays and seas run far into the land, forming numerous peninsulas. This irregular outline was an important factor in developing civilization, for on these sheltered seas and bays, early men could venture forth in safety, to catch fish and to carry on trade with neighboring lands. To the south of Europe, separating it from Africa, is the largest of the inclosed seas, which we call the Medi- terranean Sea. For two thousand years before The Medi- p ^ i i i - i terranean the time of Columbus, tliis sca was the center lands of the civilized world. In the lands washed by its waters European civilization was first developed, and there alone, for many centuries, it flourished. By looking again at the map, you will see that there are three peninsulas which jut out from Europe into the Mediterranean Sea. If we were to sail directly east from New York, we should, after some time, touch the shores of the westernmost of these — Spain. Continuing GREECE AND THE GREEKS 3 our journey, we should come to. Italy. Finally, we should reach Greece — the smallest and most irregular in its outHne of the three, and the one nearest to Asia, the original home of civilization. It is with the peninsula of Greece that the story of Europe begins. That little country is beautiful in many ways. Its sky is bluer than our own; its winters are short and mild, and its summers peninsula of Greece long and pleasant. In whatever direction you look, you may see the top of some tall mountain reaching up toward the sky. Between the mountains lie beautiful deep valleys, and small sunny plains, while almost all around the land stretches a bright, blue sea. The people who live in that country are not very different now from ourselves. But in the long-ago days this was not so. There were then no news- ^, The papers, no railroads, no telegraph lines, such Greek as we are used to now. The people were obliged to live very simply, for they lacked a great many things which we think that we could not possibly do without. But although the old Greeks did not know anything of electric lights and steam engines, and ate the plainest food, and wore the simplest of woolen clothing, they were not at all a rude or a savage people. In their cities were fine buildings, and pictures, and statues so beautiful that we can never hope to make better ones. And they had lovely thoughts and fancies, too, concerning all the world about them. When they saw the sun rise, they thought that it was a god, who came up out of the sea in the east, and then journeyed across the sky toward the west. When they saw the grass and flowers springing out of the dark cold earth, they fancied that there must be another god who THE STORY OF EUROPE STATUE OF APOLLO GREECE AND THE GREEKS made them grow. They imagined that the lightning was the weapon of a mighty god who ruled the earth and sky. And so they explained everything ^j^^ ^^^ about them, by thinking that it was caused ^f^^^^^ by some being much greater than themselves. Sometimes they even imagined that they could see their gods in the clouds or in the waves of the sea, and some- times they thought that they heard them speaking in the rustling leaves of the forest. The Greeks be- lieved that the rule over the whole world was divided among three great gods, who were brothers. The first and greatest of these was Zeus (called Jupiter by the Romans), who ruled the heavens and the earth ; it was he who sent the lightning to destroy those who disobeyed him. The second god, who ruled the ocean, the rivers, and the brooks, was named Poseidon (Neptune). The third, who was called Hades, was the god of the underworld; this was the dark region BUST OF ZEUS (JUPITER) 6 STORY OF EUROPE beneath the surface of the earth where dwelt the spirits of the dead. Besides these three, there were many other gods, most of whom were their children or were related to them in some way. Apollo, who was one of the sons of Zeus, was the most beautiful of all the gods. He was the sun-god, and * „ ^ brought warmth and light to men. The Apollo, and " ... th2 oracle Greeks would never begin anything important without first seeking Apollo's advice. This they obtained from the priestess who dwelt at Delphi in his temple there. It was her duty to tell the people who came to the temple the answers which the god gave to their questions. She would place herself over a crack in the earth out of which arose a thin stream of gases. By breathing these she was made light-headed for the moment, and then she was supposed to be able to tell the answer which Apollo gave. These answers were called "oracles," and though they were often very hard to understand, the Greeks thought a great deal of them. As Apollo was the most beautiful of all the gods, so Aphrodite (or Venus) was the most lovely of the god- Greek desses. She was also the gentlest and the go ,esses kindest among them. She was called the goddess of love and beauty, and the Greeks prayed to her to cause the persons whom they cared for to love them in return. The queen of the gods was the tall and stately Hera (Juno), the wife of Zeus. But the goddess whom the Greeks loved best was Athena (called Minerva by the Romans). She was the daughter of Zeus, — indeed, they believed that she had sprung full-grown from his head. They thought of her especially as the goddess of wisdom and learning; for she watched over the work of men, and helped them to invent better ways of doing things. GREECE AND THE GREEKS and goddesses thought of as Character of the gods They STATUE OF APHRODITE (VENUS) The gods were always larger than men and more beautiful in face and figure, remained always the same, never growing older or dying, as men and women do. They were not always good, but would often quarrel among themselves and sometimes do very cruel things. Indeed, they were very much like the men and women who imag- ined them, except that they could do wonderful things which would have been impossible for the people of the earth. Besides the greater gods, the Greeks believed that less powerful spirits Lesser were all about '""'''' them. They thought that the trees had guardian spirits whe cared for them. Lovely maidens, called nymphs, were supposed to live in the springs and brooks, and even in the bright waves of the sea. There were spirits, too, who lived in the woods, and wan- dered among the trees day and night; and still others 8 THE STORY OF EUROPE who made their homes upon the mountain sides. The Greeks made up many beautiful stories about all of these gods and spirits, and were never tired of telling and retelling them. The Greeks loved their gods, but feared them a little also. They tried to gain their good-will by building How the beautiful marble temples in their honor, as we ^ods were build churches, and by offering wine and meat and precious things to them. The Greeks also held great festivals in their honor. Their greatest festi- val was the one which was held in honor of Zeus at a place called Olympia. Every four years messengers would go about from town to town to give notice of this. Then all wars would cease, and people from all over Greece would come to Olympia to worship Zeus. There the swiftest runners raced for a wreath of olive leaves as a prize; and there also chariot races and wres- tling matches and other games were held. The Greeks believed that Zeus and the other gods loved to see men using their strength and skill to do them honor at these festivals. So for months and months beforehand, men practiced for these games; and the one who gained the victory in them was looked upon ever after as the favorite of gods and men. Topics for Review and Search 1. Read the story of Cleon, the Greek boy, in Andrews's Ten Boys. 2. Find out some stories about the Greek gods named in this chapter, such as the stories of Echo, and of Arachne. 3. Read the story of Prometheus, the god who brought fire to man (Harding's Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men, p. 71). II ACHILLES AND THE WAR AGAINST TROY Points to be Noted Location of Troy; cause of the war between the Greeks and the Trojans. How the war was carried on; the part taken by the gods. How Achilles was made proof against injury; why he withdrew from the fighting; why he returned. The fate of Hector; the fate of Achilles. How the Greeks finally took Troy. The stories about their gods were not the only ones that the Greeks loved to tell. They were very proud of the brave deeds of their ancestors, so many of their stories were about the exploits of the heroes from whom they thought they were descended. One of the most famous of these stories tells of a long war of the Greeks with the Trojans. Troy was a rich and well-peopled city on the coast of Asia ^ Minor, across the Aegean Sea from Greece, the war . . began Paris, who was one of the sons of King Priam of Troy, had run away with Helen, the beautiful wife of Menelaus, a Greek king; and this misdeed of the Trojan prince naturally led to war. King Menelaus and his brother, King Agamemnon, called upon all the rulers of Greece to join them in trying to get Helen back, and in punishing the siege Trojans. After many months a great army ^^^^^^^ set sail. When they reached Troy they left their ships, and camped in the plains before the walls of the city. The Trojans closed their city gates, and came out only 10 THE STORY OF EUROPE m >^ P3 P H fe o o ^ en o o THE WAR AGAINST TROY 11 now and then to fight the Greeks. For many years the war dragged on. It seemed as if the Greeks could not take the city, and the Trojans could not drive away the Greeks. In this great war, even the gods took part. iVphrodite took the side of Troy, because she had aided Paris in carrying off Helen. Hera and Athena both ^^^^ took the side of the Greeks. Of the other taken by the gods gods, some took one side and some the other; and long after this the Greeks loved to tell how men sometimes fought even against the gods. Agamemnon was the leader of the Greeks, but their bravest man and their best fighter was Achilles. This prince was the son of a goddess of the ocean ^^.^^^^ and of a Greek king, and possessed wonderful ^^^j^jjj^^ strength and beauty. When he was a baby, his goddess mother had dipped him in the waters of a dark river in the kingdom of Hades, and he had become proof against any weapon except at one little place in the heel, where his mother's hand had prevented the water from touching him. When Agamemnon and Menelaus called upon the men of Greece to fight against Troy, Achilles gladly took his shield and spear and joined them, although it had been foretold that he should meet his death before Troy. There he fought bravely; and even Hector, the eldest son of King Priam, and the champion of the Trojans, did not dare to stay outside the walls while Achilles was in the field. In the tenth year of the war, Achilles became very angry at a wrong that had been done him by Agamem- non. After that, he refused to join in the Achuies's fighting, and sat and sulked in his tent. When ^^^^^ the Trojans saw that Achilles was no longer in the field, they took courage again. Hector and the other Trojan 12 THE STORY OF EUROPE warriors came forth and killed many Greek heroes, and soon the Greek army was in full flight. The Trojans even succeeded in burning some of the Greek ships. Then the Greeks were very much dismayed, and sent to Achilles and asked him to help them. But he was still angry, and refused. At last the dearest friend of Achilles came, and begged him to aid them once more. Still Achilles refused, and all that he would do was to let his friend take his armor and go in his place. So his friend took the armor of Achilles and went forth, think- ing that the sight of Achilles 's arms would once more set the Trojans flying. It turned out otherwise, and soon word was brought to Achilles that Hector had slain his friend, and carried off the armor. Then Achilles saw that his foolish anger had cost him the life of his friend. His grief was very great; and he Why he threw himself upon the ground and wept, [h'e"fight''* ^^^^^ messengers came to tell him that the Trojans were carrying off the body of his friend, so that the Greeks might not bury it. Achilles sprang to his feet and rushed toward the battle-field, without chariot or armor, shouting in his wrath. The goddess Athena joined her voice to his; and the sound startled the Trojans so that they turned and fled, leaving the body of Achilles's friend in the hands of the Greeks. Achilles's goddess mother obtained a new suit of armor for him from Hephaestus, who was the god of Death of metal- working; and next day Achilles rushed STchiiles** ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ to avenge his friend. All day long the battle raged about the walls of Troy, the gods fighting among men to protect and aid their favorites. At the end of the day, all the Trojans had been driven back within their walls, except Hector. After a fierce battle Achilles slew Hector, and then tied THE WAR AGAINST TROY 13 the feet of the dead hero to his chariot and dragged him through the dust to the Greek camp. Achilles himself did not live much longer. As he was fighting one day, soon after this, an arrow shot by Paris struck him in the heel, — the one spot where he could be wounded, — and he was killed. After Achilles was dead, the Greeks could not hope to take Troy by open fighting, so they tried a trick. They pretended that they were tired of the ^^^ long war, and that they were going home. JJ^J*^®" They built a wooden horse as tall as a house, and leaving that in their camp as an offering to their gods, the Greeks got on board their ships and sailed away. Then the Trojans came flocking out of their city to examine this curious thing which the Greeks had left behind. Some of the wiser heads feared the wooden horse, and wanted to burn it; but the others said that they would take it into the city, and keep it as a memorial of their victory over the Greeks. So they took the wooden horse within the city walls. That night, after the Trojans were all asleep, a door opened in its side, and a man slipped out. Destruction Then there came another, and then another, ^^'^^^^ until about fifty of the bravest Greeks had appeared. These slew the guards and opened the city gates. The Greeks who had sailed away that morning had come back as soon as night fell, and were waiting outside. They now rushed into the sleeping city, and soon there were only heaps of ruins to show where the city of Troy had once stood. In that night's fighting King Priam, his queen and all of his children, and most of his people were killed. King Menelaus found Helen, and took her back again to his own country. Paris had brought destruction on 14 THE STORY OF EUROPE his family and on the whole kingdom, and it was right that he also should lose his life in the fall of Troy. Topics for Review and Search 1. Judging from this story, what qualities did the Greeks espe- cially admire? 2. What can you learn from this story concerning Greek ways of fighting in the early days? 3. Let one pupil find out and tell some stories about Heracles (Hercules). 4. Let another do the same for Theseus. 5. Another may tell the story of Jason and the search for the Golden Fleece. 6. The wanderings of Odysseus (Ulysses) may be told by still another pupil. (These stories may all be found in Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men). Ill I SPARTA AND ATHENS Points to be Noted Difference between myths and history. Location of Sparta; her relations with her neighbors; Spartan training and its results. Location of Athens; occupations of her people; what made Athens famous. The stories of the gods, and of the warriors who fought around Troy, are what we call "myths." They tell about things which occurred so very long ago that Difference nobody can tell just when they happened, or myrhs^Snd how much of the story is true and how much ^'^^^^^y is only what people imagined about it. Now you are to read about things most of which we are quite sure did happen, and which took place very nearly at the time and place and in the way that the story says. These we call *'history," to distinguish them from myths. In historic times there were two great cities in Greece named respectively Athens and Sparta. These cities were not nearly so large as most modern cities, but the deeds of their citizens have made cities of them famous for all time. They were only one hundred and fifty miles apart, but in their institu- tions and in the character of their citizens they were much more different than are New York and San Francisco. The Spartans had built their city among a people whom they had only half conquered, and in addition they were surrounded by other peoples with whom they had many bitter wars. Because aSd'^the their subjects and neighbors were so hostile to them, the Spartans had always to be prepared against 15 16 THE STORY OF EUROPE attacks. Sparta was built in an inland valley, which was surrounded by mountains. There were no walls or fortifications to protect the city, for it was the Spar- tans' proud boast that their warlike citizens made walls for defense unnecessary. But the Spartans found that it took a long and severe training to make their boys into good soldiers, and to keep their men always in readiness for war; so Sparta became more like a military camp in its ways of living than like an ordinary town. When a Spartan boy reached the age of seven years, he was taken from his parents and placed with other Spartan boys of his age in a great public training-house, training There they lived until they became men. The boys led a very hard life. Summer and winter they had to go barefooted, with only a thin shirt or tunic for clothing. At night they slept on beds of rushes which they themselves had gathered from the banks of the river near by. They had to do all the cooking and other work for themselves; and the food which was given them was never as much as hungry, growing boys needed, so they were forced to hunt and fish to get food. They did not study books as you do ; but they were taught running, wrestling, boxing, and the use of the spear and sword. When the boys became men, they left the training- house and were formed into soldier companies. But still they had to hve together, eating at the same table and sleeping in the same building; and it was not until they had become old men, and could no longer serve in war, that they were allowed to leave their companies and have homes of their own. Thus the men of Sparta became strong in body, strict in their habits, and skillful in the use of weapons, and were able to conquer all their old enemies. Again and again they proved that they were the best soldiers in the world at that time. SPARTA AND ATHENS 17 Unlike Sparta, Athens was situated near the sea, and was built about a steep hill, called the Acropolis. This proved an excellent place for defense, and as a result ATHENS AS IT IS NOW The mountain in the background is not the Acropolis, but Mt. Lycabettus the Athenians did not need to spend as much time as did the Spartans in preparing for war. They were brave soldiers, but they were interested in many other things besides warfare. Some of and^tJfe the Athenians were farmers; others became ®^*"* manufacturers and made articles of pottery, glass, leather, and various metals. Still others became skillful and daring 18 THE STORY OF EUROPE sailors, guiding their ships to lands as far distant as the eastern shores of the Black Sea, and to the coasts of Gaul and Spain in the west. Everywhere that the Athenians went they traded with the natives, and thus their city grew rich and prosperous. It became a great center for commerce, with its harbor always full of ships, and its market-place thronged with foreign merchants. But Athens came also to be widely known for things even more important than the skill of her workmen, Athenian the daring of her sailors, and the enterprise culture ^£ j^^j. traders. Her greatest fame comes from the fact that some of the most eminent artists, poets, and thinkers that have ever lived, dwelt within her walls. Upon the Acropolis, about the market- place, and in many other parts of the city stood beautiful marble temples and other public buildings. These were adorned with statues and sculptured scenes that no artist since has ever been able to equal. In her theater, too, were acted noble plays, which men read today with delight; and the writings of her profound thinkers are still attentively studied. In everything which relates to beauty, and culture, and wisdom, the Greeks have been the teachers of the whole world; and of all the Greeks who contributed to this end the Athenians stood first. Topics for Review and Search 1. How do you account for the difference in character between the Athenians and the Spartans? 2. Why is a city on a hilltop more easily defended than one in a plain? 3. Imagine yourself a Spartan boy and tell how you spend the day. 4. Find out what you can about the life of girls in Athens and in Sparta (Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks). 5. Read an account of Solon, the Athenian lawgiver {Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men, p. 133). IV THE WAR OF THE GREEKS AND THE PERSIANS Points to be Noted I Extent of the Persian empire. ^ Why the Athenians helped the Asiatic Greeks; results of their sending aid. Size of the Persian army at Marathon; why the Greek army was not larger. Commander of the Athenians; how the victory was won. The new King of the Persians; the army which he collected; how it crossed the Hellespont. On the coasts of Asia Minor, across the Aegean Sea from Greece, were many cities which had been founded by Greek settlers. These cities had once been free, but at the time of this story, which was Persian about five hundred years before the birth of ^""^"^ Christ, they were under the rule of the Persian King, Darius. This King ruled over a vast empire, which stretched from the Aegean Sea eastward as far as India, a distance almost as great as from New York to San Francisco. After seme time these Greek cities rebelled against the rule of King Darius; and the Athenians, who thought it a shame for their kinsmen to be subjects and not free men, sent help to them. In the war rebemous ^ which followed, the Athenians burnt one of the King's cities. When Darius heard this, he asked, "Who are these Athenians?" for he had never heard of them before. Then when he was told who they were, he called for his bow, and placing an arrow on the string, he shot it high up into the air and prayed to the Persian god: 20 THE STORY OF EUROPE *' Grant me, O God, that I may revenge myself on the Athenians!" And ever after that, as long as the King lived, he had a servant stand behind him at dinner-time and say three times, — '* Master, remember the Athenians!" When the King's troops were ready, he sent them on board ships, and they sailed across the sea to destroy Athens and to conquer all Greece. There tionsfor wcrc morc than a hundred thousand men in war the army ; and when the Athenians heard that so many enemies were coming they were very much frightened, for they did not have nearly so large an army. They sent a swift runner, named Pheidippides, to Sparta, to ask the Spartans to help them. But the Spartans sent back word that they could not come until the moon had reached the full ; for their laws forbade them to send out an army until then, and they dared not break their laws. When the Athenians heard this they were very much disturbed; for the Persians had now landed on their shores, and were only a few miles from their city. Yet they sent out their army to meet them; and as they inarched, a thousand soldiers came and joined them from a little town near Athens, which the Athenians had befriended. Even then the Persians had ten times as many men as the Athenians had. Some of the Athenian generals Miitiades Wanted to go back, and some wanted to go commands f^^ward; and when they voted on it they Athenians fo^^d that the generals were just evenly divided. Then one of the generals, named Miitiades, made a speech to the others, and he spoke so well that they decided to do as he wished, and to fight; and all the other generals, when their time came to command, gave up their turn to Miitiades. THE GREEKS AND THE PERSIANS ^21 The battle took place in a narrow plain called Mara- thon, between the mountains and the sea. When Miltiades thought that the time had come to fight, he led his men out of camp, and charged Marathon upon the Persians. The latter were so crowded together that they could not use all their men. The Greeks fought, too, as they had never fought before ; for they knew that they were fighting for their homes, and for their wives and little children, who would be sold as slaves if their husbands and fathers were defeated. So it was not long before the Persians, in spite of their many men, began to give way ; then they began to break ranks, and soon they were running as fast as they could to their ships, with the Athenians following them. It was a glorious victory for the Athenians. The Persians were so discouraged that when they got on their ships again they turned about and sailed away for Asia Minor. This was the end of the first attempt of the Persians to conquer the Greeks. You can imagine how angry King Darius was when he heard that the Athenians had beaten his fine army at Marathon. But he was now busy with other xerxes matters, and he died before he could renew PerS* the war. His son, Xerxes, was not nearly so ^*"^ good a soldier as Darius had been; nevertheless, he decided to go on with the war and to lead the army him- self. Xerxes was a vain and foolish man, and wanted his army to be the largest that the world had ever seen. So men came from all parts of his empire at his command, — black men, white men, and brown led by men; some clothed in the skins of foxes, leopards, and lions, and others in flowing robes, glittering with gold and jewels; some armed with brass helmets, 22 THE STORY OF EUROPE large shields, long spears, and daggers; others with helmets of wood, small shields, and bows and arrows; and some with nothing for weapons but long sticks, with the ends sharpened and hardened in the fire. Nobody knows how many men there were in this army, but there must have been hundreds of thousands. The army was so great that Xerxes could not get enough ships to carry it to Greece; so he was obliged Crossing ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^- ^^ a placc Called the Helles- HeUespont P^^^ ^^^^ ^ uarrow strait separates Europe from Asia, and here it was that Xerxes decided to cross. Thousands of slaves were set to work building bridges made of boats fastened together. When all was ready the great army began to move; and though there were two bridges, and the crossing continued without a stop, seven days and seven nights passed before the last man was on the other side. Topics for Review and Search 1. Find out more about the story of Pheidippides. (Read Browning's poem about him.) 2. Why was it better for the Athenians to go out to meet the Persians at Marathon than to wait for them to attack the city itself? 3. Compare the empire ruled over by Darius with that later ruled by Alexander the Great (see map, p. 42). Which was the larger? THE BATTLES OF THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS Points to be Noted The pass of Thermopylae; how it was defended; heroism of Leonidas and his Spartans; how the Persians took the pass. How Themistocles explained the oracle; the burning of Athens. Why Xerxes could not reach Sparta; how Themistocles forced the Greeks to fight at Salamis. The battle of Salamis; the manner of fighting; advantages of the Greeks. Whj^ Xerxes gave up the war. When the Greeks heard that King Xerxes was march- ing against them with so large an army, they were greatly frightened. Some of them sent him xerxes earth and water, as he commanded them, Gr^ece^ showing that they gave up their land to him; '^^* ^'^'^ but the Athenians and the Spartans said that they would die before they would become the King's slaves. In the northern part of Greece there was a place, called the pass of Thermopylae, where the mountains came down almost to the sea, leaving only a narrow road between. Through this the King's army must go to reach Athens and Sparta; and since the pass was so narrow, the Greeks thought that they might stop the Persians there and so save their country. It was decided that the Athenians, who were the best sailors in Greece, should fight the King's ships on the sea, while the Spartans guarded the pass of Ther- xhe mopylae. But just at that time there was a Iher-^"^ ^* great festival among the Spartans in honor of "^^^^^^^ the god Apollo; and although King Xerxes was already 24 THE STORY OF EUROPE marching against their land, they did not wish to sHght the worship of their god. The result was that they sent to Thermopylae only three hundred Spartans, under the command of Leonidas, telling him that they would send more when the festival was over. With these three hundred men and a few hundred more that he got elsewhere, Leonidas had to face the many thousands that Xerxes led, for the other Spartans did not come until after the battle was over. When Xerxes came in sight of the pass, he found the Spartans amusing themselves with gymnastic exercises, and combing their long hair. When he sent to them, and ordered them to give up their arms, they sent back word for him to "come and take them." One of the Spartans was told that the number of the Persians was so great that when they shot their arrows into the air they hid the sun like a cloud. "So much the better," said he, "for then we shall fight in the shade." After waiting four days for the Spartans to surrender, Xerxes at last sent some of his men to make prisoners of them, and bring them to him. But this they could not do. All that day and all the next day the King's army fought against the Spartans; and though some of the Spartans and many of the Persians were killed, the Spartans would not let the King go through the pass. At the end of the second day, however, a Greek traitor told King Xerxes of a path which led over the How th mountain and around the pass. By this he pass was was able to send men to the rear of the Greeks, taken and so attack them from both sides. Leonidas now knew that the end had come. He sent away the men who were not Spartans; but he and his men fought on, for it was considered a disgrace for a Spartan to THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMTS 25 surrender. Not until the last Spartan in the pass was killed could King Xerxes lead his army through. After the war was over, the Greeks placed a marble lion, in honor of King Leonidas, on the little mound where the Spartans had made their last fight. Near by another monument was set up in honor of his followers, and on it these words were cut: — "Go, stranger, and to the Spartans tell That here, obeying their commands, we fell." From Thermopylae, King Xerxes and his army marched down into Greece, punishing the people of all the places that had refused to send him earth Athenians and water. At Athens the people were in ?he o^lc?e great fear. They knew that their turn would ^^ ^^^^^' come next, and that the King would punish them more severely than any of the other Greeks. They sent to the oracle at Delphi and asked, — "O Apollo! how may we save Athens from the wrath of Xerxes?" But the priestess only answered, — "Nothing can now save your city; yet when all is lost, a wooden wall shall shelter the Athenians." This saying puzzled the Athenians very much. It was some comfort to know that, though their city was to be destroyed, they were to be saved. But Themis- where was the "wooden wall" that Apollo Spillns said should shelter them? Some thought it ^^^^^^-^^^^ meant one thing, and some thought it meant another. At last a quick-witted Athenian, named Themistocles, said, — "The wooden wall means our ships. If we leave our city and fight the Persians on the water we shall win the battle. That is what Apollo promises us. Will you do it?" 20 THE STORY OF EUROPE Themistocles spoke so well that the people agreed to do what he advised. When Xerxes came, they went on board their ships and left the city to the Persians, who pulled down the walls, and burned the city. Then Xerxes wished to go on to Sparta and punish it also. The only way to reach that city was by marching along the narrow isthmus which joined the northern part of Greece to the southern; and this he could not do until he had driven away the Greek ships which were near it. These ships were in a narrow strait between an island, called Salamis, and the shore. The Greeks had only The one-third as many ships as the Persians had; SaTamls^" ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ the Persian ships row up to the end of the strait they were very much frightened. Only the Athenians were brave and fearless. To keep the other Greek ships from slipping away in the night, Themistocles sent a message to Xerxes, pretending to be his friend. "If you want to keep the Greeks from getting away,'* the messenger told the King, "you must send some of your ships around the island, and shut up the other end of the strait." This seemed sensible, so Xerxes did as Themistocles advised. The next morning the battle began. When The battle the trumpet sounded, the Greeks rowed for- a amis ^^^^ ^^^ ^^j^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Persian ships and sink them. As the ships came near one another, each side threw spears and shot arrows at the other side. Sometimes a ship would get alongside a ship of the enemy; then soldiers would spring upon the deck of the other boat, and they would fight with swords just as they did on land. THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 27 28 THE STORY OF EUROPE All day long the fight went on. There were two things that were in favor of the Greeks, and which helped Victory ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ victory. There were so Greeks ^^^^ Persian ships that they were all crowded together in the narrow strait, and could not get out of the way when they saw a Greek ship coming. Besides this, the Greeks were fighting for their homes, while the Persians were fighting only because their King had ordered them to; so the Greeks fought the better. At last, after a great many of the Persian ships had been sunk, the rest turned and fled. The Greeks had won the victory, and Themistocles was the one who had helped them most to gain it. During all the fight King Xerxes had sat on a golden throne on a hill near the strait. He was very angry Xerxes ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ '^^^P^ A^^' ^nd he had many of fh^wa? ^^^ captains put to death. But, as he was a coward at heart, he was a little afraid. Suppose the Greeks should send their ships up to the Hellespont, and destroy his bridges of boats, how would he and his army get back to Persia.^ Besides he had punished the Athenians by burning their city; and that, he said, was the chief thing he had come to do. So the King gave up his plan to conquer Greece, and when the next morning came he was already on his march homeward. This was not the end of the Persian wars, but it was the turning point. Twice the Persians had seemed just about to conquer Greece, and both times they had failed. The first time they had failed because Miltiades had fought so bravely against them at Marathon. The second time it was Themistocles who had prevented them by his skill in bringing about the battle at Salamis. After this the Persians were never again to have the chance to THERMOPYLAE AND SALAMIS 29 conquer Greece; and when next we shall read about them, we shall see how they themselves were conquered by the Greeks in their own land. Topics for Review and Search 1. Trace on the map the march of Xerxes from the Hellespont (see p. xvi). 2. Did the Spartans do right in remaining at Thermopylae after they could no longer keep back the Persians? Give reasons for your answer. 3. Describe a Greek warship (see picture on p. 10). 4. Why was Themistocles so anxious to fight the Persians at Salamis? 5. Does Athens or Sparta deserve the greater credit for saving Greece from the Persians? Why? VI ATHENS UNDER PERICLES Points to be Noted How the Athenians governed themselves. What made Pericles their leader; his object. Description of Athens; the temples and statues on the Acropolis. After the Persians had been driven out of the land, the Athenians rebuilt their ruined city. It soon grew to Leadership be richer and more powerful than it had ever (444!429^^ been, and became the chief city of all Greece. ^'^'^ A man named Pericles then became the head of their government. He was not a king, for the Athenians had a democratic government; that is, each citizen took part in the making of laws and in selecting the officers of the city. Pericles had the chief power in the city because he was so eloquent, so patriotic, and so wise that he was almost always able to persuade the people to vote for what he thought was best for Athens. He was a greater leader than Themistocles, because he not only knew how to govern and to make war, but also how to make his city noble and beautiful. It was to make Athens surpass all other cities in these ways, as well as in wealth and power, that he set himself especially to work. The government of Athens was closely connected with a hill called the Pnyx, which stood within the city Govern- walls. On its slopiug sides the citizens ment of assembled about four times each month to Athens listen to speeches, to vote on new laws, and to elect city officers. The citizens were paid a small sum for attending this assembly, and when they were all ATHENS UNDER PERICLES 31 32 THE STORY OF EUROPE together they numbered about thirty thousand. On the top of the hill was a small platform, on which the orators stood when they spoke to the people either for or against any measure which was proposed. More important than the Pnyx was the steep flat- topped hill of the Acropolis, for it was the center of the worship of the gods. In olden times the Acropolis had been the fort of the Athenians, but even before the Persians came, there had been a temple to the goddess Athena on it. This had been burned during the war. Now Pericles planned to build in its place not one, but many, temples; and it was on this steep hill that the beautiful buildings sprang up which have made his name famous in all times and in all countries. Imagine yourself an Athenian boy, and that your father is taking you up this hill to the great festival of the goddess Athena. Only on one side can on*the"^^ the hill be climbed, and up this the road winds Acropo s ^^^ turns till it reaches the top. There you come to a gateway or porch of the finest marble, with great tall columns supporting the roof. On the left is a building with rooms filled with pictures and other precious things. Going through the gateway you come out on the top of the hill. Beyond the city you see the blue sea gleaming in the distance. All about you, you see temples and statues. Here is a beautiful temple to the goddess of Victory. There is a row of statues in honor of heroes, or of Athenian citizens who have won the prize in the games at Olympia. Not far away is a great statue of Athena, the guardian of the city. This statue is taller than the tallest house, and is made out of the swords and shields taken from the Persians at Marathon. From far away at sea the sailors can see ATHENS UNDER PERICLES 38 the tip of her spear, and when they do they know that they are nearing home. Not far from this statue is a temple to Poseidon, the god of the sea. In it is a well of salt water, which your father tells you gushed forth when Poseidon once struck the rock with his trident. Coming out of this temple, you walk through a beautiful porch. In this the roof is held up, not by columns, but by the statues of six young maidens, clothed in long flow- ing garments (see p. 46). You hurry past these beau- tiful buildings, so that you may not miss the Temple best part of the ^^ Athena festival. You hasten over to the highest part of the hill, and there you come to the largest and most beautiful temple of all, called the Parthenon. It is the most beautiful building that the world has ever seen. It is the temple of Athena, the "maiden goddess." All around it are rows of tall marble columns. Within it is a statue of the god- dess, which reaches almost to the roof; and in her STATUE OF ATHENA IN THE • w i i • i i i i-^^i PARTHENON rigut hand is held a little 34 THE STORY OF EUROPE figure of Victory. The statue is made of ivory and pure gold, and is equaled in beauty and richness only by the great statue of Zeus at Olympia. All about the temple are the finest carvings. Here they represent the birth of Athena from the head of father Zeus. There they show the Athenians fighting with the strange creatures, half horse and half man, called centaurs. Here is a long series of carvings showing the great procession of Athenian youths, some on horseback, some on foot, com- ing to celebrate the festival of Athena. And as you gaze at them, longing for the time when you, too, may take part in the worship of the goddess, suddenly you hear your father call,— "Look, look, my son!" Then you turn about and look, and there, just coming through the gates and entering upon the top of the hill, you see the procession itself which you have climbed the hill to watch. Topics for Review and Search 1. Point out in the picture of the Acropolis on p. 31 the build- ings described in this chapter. 2. What differences do you notice between the way that Athens was governed and tlie way that an American city is governed? VII SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER Points to be Noted Athens the home of great thinkers; what a philosopher is. The reply of the oracle; what Socrates found out; how he taught. Why Socrates was hated; his trial, his life in prison, and his death. Athens in the time of Pericles was the home not only of the artists who built the temples and carved the sculptures on the Acropolis, but also of some of the greatest thinkers of the whole world, philosopher One of the most noted of these Greek thinkers, who however lived some time after the death of Pericles, was the philosopher Socrates. Have you not at times wondered what the world is, and what it is made of; what we are here for, and how we ought to spend our lives? A man who thinks a great deal about questions like these, and tries to find reason- able answers to them, we call a philosopher. Socrates is famous for the wise answers which he found to many such Cj[uestions. When Socrates was a young man lie had a friend who admired him very much, and thought that even then he was the wisest person whom he knew. So, once when this friend was at Delphi, he asked as a young the oracle if there was any one wiser than Socrates, and the oracle answered that there was not. When he came home and told Socrates what the oracle had said, Socrates was very much astonished. He was sure that there must be some mistake, for he knew 36 THE STORY OF EUROPE that he was not wise. He was quite sure that the oracle must mean something else. So Socrates set to work to show that there were other men in Athens who were wiser than he. First, he came to one of the men who were governing the city at that time, and who was looked upon as very wise. *'Ii I can only show that he is wiser than I am," said Socrates to himself, "then I can prove that the oracle means something else." Therefore Socrates asked this man a great many questions. But he found that the man was not wise at all, though he thought that he knew everything. So Socrates came away, saying, — "At any rate, I am wiser than that man. Neither of us knows anything that is great and good; but he think.^ that he does, while I Jxnow that I do not. So I am that much wiser than he is." Then Socrates went to others who were thought to be wise, and things always turned out in the same manner. He found that the men who were considered to be the wisest were often the very ones that knew the least about the things that were the most worth knowing about. But whenever he tried to make them see this, they grew angry with him. At length Socrates saw what the oracle meant by saying that there was no one wiser than he. But he His grew so interested in his search that he spent questions ^jj j^j^ ^^^^ -^^ ^Yie markct-placc, and in other spots where crowds were to be found. And whenever he met with a man who thought that he was wise, he would question him, and ask him what goodness was, and what bravery was, and why some people were good and some were bad. In this way he would try to show that no one was really wise. SOCRATES THE PHILOSOPHER 37 Now, you can readily guess that people did not like this. No one likes to have another person prove to him how little he knows. So Socrates offended Trial of many people, and made them dislike him. ^^^^^^^^ After this had gone on for some time, the enemies of Socrates determined to try to get rid of him. They brought a charge against him in the court, saying, — "Socrates offends against the laws by not paying respect to the gods that the city respects, and by bring- ing in new gods; and also by leading the young men into bad habits." Though this charge was unjust, Socrates was found guilty in spite of all that his friends could do. When the judges called upon him to say what punishment he deserved, Socrates bravely answered, — "Instead of punishment, O Athenians, I deserve a reward; and if you ask me what it is, I say that I ought to be supported by the state as long as I live, just as those who win in the Olympic games are supported; for I am more worthy of honor than they are." This saying angered his enemies still more, and they then voted that he should be put to death. But accord- ing to their laws a whole month must pass He refuses by before this could be done. During this ^^ escape time he lived in prison, where he spent his time talking to his friends, who were allowed to visit him. One day they told him that they had made arrangements for him to escape from the prison and fly to some other city, where he would be safe. But Socrates refused. The laws, he said, condemned him to death; and it was his duty, as a good citizen, to obey them even in that. At last the day came for his death, and all his friends gathered weeping about him. Socrates took the poisoned cup of hemlock which was given him, calmly and cheer- 38 THE STORY OF EUROPE fully, and drank it down as though it had been water. Then, bidding good-bye to his friends, he lay down on His death his couch, and soon he was dead. There is (399 B.C.) ^^^ saying especially of Socrates that ought always to be remembered. This is it: "Nothing evil can happen to a good man, either while he is living or after he is dead; nor are the gods unmindful of his affairs." Topics for Review and Search 1. Find out what you can of Socrates's famous pupil, Plato. 2. Was Socrates right in submitting to unjust punishment? 3. Memorize his saying, at the end of this chapter. VIII ALEXANDER THE GREAT Points to be Noted War between the Greek cities; their conquest by Philip of Macedonia; Philip's plan. Alexander's boyhood; how he managed his kingdom. His defeat of the Persians; his march to the East; his plans for his empire. Alexander's death; what became of his empire. We have seen how the Athenians and Spartans had joined together in the wars against the Persians. But when all danger from the Persians was past, The Greeks and Athens became so great and powerful, by^Phnip^of Sparta grew very jealous of her; and this ^^^^^^^^^ jealousy finally led to a great war between the two cities. Most of the other cities of Greece took part in the war, some on one side, and some on the other. When at last the war was over, Athens was no longer the rich and powerful city she had been. She had lost her fleet, most of the subject lands over which she had ruled, and many thousands of her citizens. From this time on there were many wars between the Greek cities, until at length they all became so weak and exhausted with fighting, that it was an easy matter for a King who lived to the north of Greece to come down and conquer them all. This King was named Philip, and he ruled over the country called Macedonia. When King Philip had conquered the Greeks, he treated them kindly. He told them that he was planning to go on into Asia and conquer the Persians, Phiup's and the Greeks willingly agreed to help ^^^" him. But before Philip could carry out his plans 39 40 THE STORY OF EUROPE he died, and his son Alexander became King in his place. Alexander soon showed that he was even a greater man than his father had been. While he was still a boy, STATUE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT a beautiful but wild and high-spirited horse had been brought to his father's court. None of the Alexander ^ ^ ^ tames a King's men could manage it; and Philip wild horse was about to send it away when Alexander said, — ALEXANDER THE GREAT 41 "I could manage that horse better than those men do." The King heard what his son said, and gave him per- mission to try it. Alexander ran forward, and took the horse by the bridle. He had noticed that the horse seemed to be afraid of the motion of his shadow, so he iurned him directly toward the sun. Then he stroked him gently with his hand until he became quiet. When this was accomplished Alexander gave one quick leap and was on the horse's back, and in a little while he was riding him quietly about the yard. King Philip was so pleased that he gave him the horse for his own, and in later years it carried him safely through many battles. Alexander was so fond of this horse that when it died, he built it a splendid monument. Alexander was only twenty years old when he became King, but he soon showed that he could manage his kingdom as well as he could his horses. Be- „ He subdues cause the Kmg was so young, the peoples his whom his father had conquered thought that they could now win back their freedom. But Alexander marched swiftly from one end of the kingdom to the other, and everything was soon quiet again. The young King then prepared to carry out his father's plans, and make war on the Persians. Soon he gathered an army of Macedon- ians and Greeks, and with this he crossed over into Asia. Alexander fought three great battles with the Persians; and, although the King of the Persians had twenty times as many men as Alexander had, Alexander , . Ill ^ , 1 , n^i . H*s battles won all three ol the battles. This was with the partly because the Greeks and the Mace- donians were so much better soldiers than the Persians; but also it was because the Persian King was such a poor general and such a coward. Almost before the fight had begun, the Persian King would leave his chariot. 42 THE STORY OF EUROPE ALEXANDER THE GREAT 43 mount a horse, and gallop away; and of course his soldiers would not fight after their leader had fled. After the third battle, the Persian King was killed by some of his own men, as he was trying to get farther and farther away from Alexander. Alexander Alexander's then himself became ruler of the mighty ^^^^^^^^^ empire of the Persians. Besides Persia itself, he got Palestine, where the Jews lived, and Egypt, which was older and richer than any of the other countries. After he had won these countries, Alexander marched far ALEXANDER DEFEATING THE PERSIANS (From a Greek mosaic) eastward into Asia, looking for other lands to conquer. On and on he marched, for many months, over moun- tains and burning deserts and fertile plains. He found many strange lands, and conquered many strange peoples. But still he urged his army on, until they began to fear that they would never see their homes again. At last they reached India, which you know Columbus tried to reach by sailing around the world in the other direction. Here Alexander's army refused to go farther, and he was forced, much against his will, to turn about and return to Persia. 44 THE STORY OF EUROPE But you must not think of Alexander as only a great conqueror. He was a great explorer as well, and where- ever he went he gathered specimens of strange Alexander plants and animals, and sent them back to »^ ^ *'"*«'" learned men in Greece. And since he also sent back accounts of the lands which he conquered, you will see that he added a great deal to what men then knew about the world. He was also a wise ruler, and founded many new cities in Asia and in Egypt. After he had returned from India, his mind was full of plans for making one great empire out of the many countries over which he ruled. The capital of this empire was to be in Persia; and the Greeks, the Macedonians, the Jews, the Egyp- tians, and the people of India were all to have part in it. But while he was full of these plans, he suddenly became ill of a fever, and died. He was only thirty- His death two years old ; yet he had been King for nearly "* thirteen years, and had done more wonderful things than any other King ever did either before or since. After Alexander died, there was no one to rule over his vast empire, and it soon fell to pieces. The Mace- ^ , donians continued to rule over the Greeks for Greeks Alexander ^^^^^ than a hundred years; then, when they lost their power, there was another people ready to step in, and to take their place as rulers of the Greeks. So the old Greeks never got back their freedom ; and since a people who are not free seldom have noble thoughts, or do noble deeds, the Greeks never again became as great as they had been in the glorious days of Themis tocles i nd Pericles. Topics for Review and Search 1. Trace Alexander's march on the map (p. 42). 2. What is the difference between an empire and a kingdom? 3. Why should Alexander be called "the Great"? IX THE SPREAD OF GREEK CULTURE Points to be Noted Influence of the Greeks on the world of today. How Greek culture was spread; Greek cities on the Mediter- ranean coast; founding of Greek cities in the East. Alexandria; its commerce and wealth; its schools and library. Koman conquest of Greek cities; how the Romans learned from the Greeks. Though the Greeks lost their freedom, the benefits of their achievements were not lost to the world. In almost every great school in Europe and ^^ America today, the works of poets such as Greece has '^ ^ , given us Homer, who sung about the Trojan war, are still read with delight. The teachings of Greek philos- ophers, like Socrates, still influence the thought and ac- tion of men. There is scarcely a modern city in which many of the finest buildings are not modeled, wholly or in part, after the great temples on the Acropolis. And on the walls of homes and schoolrooms all over this country are to be seen photographs and plaster casts of the masterpieces of Greek sculpture. Let us see how it was that Greek knowledge and wisdom and art were passed on to other peoples, and so handed down to us through the many centuries which lie between us and the Greeks. We have seen how skillful and daring the Athenian sailors were. Those of many other Greek cities were no less enterprising. Long before the Persian Greek wars began, therefore, thousands of Greeks ^^ **"**^ had found new homes for themselves in distant 45 46 THE STORY OF EUROPE lands, and Greek cities dotted the coasts of Asia Minor, Italy, and Sicily, and lined the shores of the Aegean and Black Seas. The Greeks showed good judgment in selecting locations for their towns, and many great seaports of the present day stand on the sites of ancient Greek colonies. Among these are Marseilles A TEMPLE ON THE ACROPOLIS (Erechtheum) in France, Naples in Italy, Syracuse in Sicily, and Con- stantinople in Turkey. The Greeks in the colonies kept the religion, language, and customs of their mother country; and the less civil- ized peoples among whom they settled learned from them their better ways of living. When Alexander con- quered the East, he too founded many cities, and the rulers who came after him followed his example. In SPREAD OF GREEK CULTURE 47 this way the Greeks became the teachers of the East as well as of the West. Alexandria, in Egypt, was the most famous of all the cities founded by Alexander the Great. It stands at the mouth of the Nile River, and was in Alexandria, ancient times, what it still is today, a great commerce"' commercial center. Ships from all over the ^"** ^^^^^^ Mediterranean came to its harbor, river boats brought to it the produce of the fertile Nile Valley, and caravans connected it with Asiatic cities, and with ports on the Red Sea from which commerce was carried on with far- off India. It became very rich as a result of this trade, and was adorned with magnificent temples and public buildings. One group of these buildings formed something like a modern college or university. The chief building was the library, in which was housed the largest collection of books in ancient times, number- and ing more than five hundred thousand. You must remember that the books in those days were very different from those of our own day. They were written by hand, usually upon parchment made from sheepskin, or upon paper made from the papyrus plant; and they were then rolled around two sticks, as you may see in the picture on page 102. Besides the library there were in Alexandria observatories for watching the stars, and botanical and zoological gardens for studying plants and animals; and there were also great halls at which scholars lived at the public expense. Learned men came to Alexandria from all over the known world to study and to write books. It was here that the Jews translated the Old Testament into Greek, because that was the language which could then be read by educated men everywhere; and it was here that the scholars lived- 48 THE STORY OF EUROPE who first studied and discussed the writings of the New Testament. Here, too, lived Ptolemy, a Greek writer on geography, who taught that the earth is a globe. His book, as we shall see, helped Columbus, long after- wards, to discover the New World. In the course of time, all the lands in which the Greeks lived were conquered by the Romans. The conquerors The carried cff to Rome many of the most precious Romans . i y-i i • • i adopt thmgs m the Greek cities, such as statuary, culture vases, and books. These helped the Romans, who were a strong and warlike but rather rude and uncultured people, to appreciate Greek art and learning. It became the custom for Roman young men who could afford to do so to go to some Greek city, such as Athens or Alexandria, to complete their education, just as many American young men and women go to Europe for the same purpose. Thus it was that the Romans learned Greek culture; and later we shall see what they added to this culture, and how they in turn passed it on to other peoples. Topics for Review and Search 1. What pictures of Greek buildings and statues have you seen? 2. Study the picture on page 46, and find buildings in your town which show similar columns, ornaments, etc. 3. Locate on a map the modern cities which were first settled by the Greeks. 4. Write a description of a Greek library. 5. The followers of Christ wrote the New Testament in Greek. Why did they do so? ! X EARLY DAYS OF ROME Points to be Noted The peninsula of Italy; its location, form, climate, surface, rivers, early towns. Eome; its location, and the story of its founding. Growth of Rome under the kings. A republic established; its government; Horatius at the bridge. The two classes in Rome; rights denied the plebeians; their struggle for full citizenship; its results. Turn again to your map of Europe, and look once more at the three peninsulas which extend from it into the Mediterranean Sea. Greece, the smallest and most eastern one, we already know as the peninsula home of the great men about whose deeds we '^ *^ ^ have just been reading. Many Greeks, you will remem- ber, sailed to the west and founded new cities on the southern coasts of Italy. It is to that peninsula that we must now turn our attention. In form, Italy is long and slender, being shaped much like a huge boot. You will see it on the map, lying in the midst of the Mediterranean, its toe to the south and its heel to the east. Its central position gave its people an advantage over others in carrying on trade, and helped them also to conquer and rule the Mediterranean world. To the north of Italy is a high chain of mountains, called the Alps, which protect its sunny plains from the cold north winds, while the sea about it its is warmed by the hot currents of air from the *="™^^« deserts of Africa. The winters in Italy are therefore milder, and the summers warmer, than with us, so that 50 THE STORY OF EUROPE the orange and olive grow there in latitudes in which our country produces only pears and apples. U E Z) J South of the Alps lies the broad plain of the River Po, the largest stream of Italy. The valley of the Po is in turn separated from the rest of Italy by tains and the loug range of the Apennine Mountains. These sweep across the peninsula from west to east, and extend southward to the toe of the boot, EARLY DAYS OF ROME 51 dividing Italy into an eastern and a western slope. The western slope is longer and more gentle than the eastern; and it is divided about midway by the Tiber, the only river, south of the valley of the Po, which is deep enough throughout the year to float boats and small ships. From early times this western slope of Italy was dotted with little towns. These were always built on a hill, or in some high situation that could . Early easily be defended against an enemy. There towns . . in Italy the settlers placed their fort, or citadel, and the rest of the town clustered about it. The people went out into the surrounding country to cultivate their farms and tend their cattle, but to this spot they always re- treated in time of danger. Every town lived more or less to itself, obeying its own King, fighting its own battles, and controlling a few miles of land about it. In very early times such a town lay on the south bank of the Tiber, about twenty miles from the sea. It was called Rome, and at first was probably not very different from many other towns in Italy. As time went on, however, it became much greater than its neighbors. It conquered first the cities that lay nearest to it, then those farther and farther away, until it had made the whole of Italy its own. After this it reached out and conquered all the countries about the Mediterranean, and, in a certain sense, became what it has often been called, "the Mistress of the World." We do not know just when, or how, or by whom the beginning of Rome was made; for there was so little writing, in those early days, that no account given at the time has come down to us. But, like the Greeks, the Romans of later days made up many stories of the early years of their city, which they accepted as true and have handed down to us. 52 THE STORY OF EUROPE According to these stories, the first settlers at Rome came from a Httle city near by, under the leadership of twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. When ATTENDANTS UPON A KING OR CONSUL The outer gown which they wear is called a toga babies, they had been set afloat in their cradle upon Romulus the Tiber River by the order of their wicked and Remus ^^^^^ rj.^^^ ^^^ drifted ashorc at a place where seven low hills rose upon the southern bank of EARLY DAYS OF ROME C3 the stream, and had been cared for by a wolf and a woodpecker until a shepherd found them. When they grew to manhood, they returned with a band of followers to found a city upon the Palatine, the hill at whose foot they had been rescued. Romulus became the first King of the city, and six kings ruled after him. Under these rulers the city grew, until all seven hills were occupied, and Growth of were surrounded by a great wall. Roman Rome under the kin^s lands outside the city were increased, bit by bit, through conquests from their neighbors; so that, in the time of the last King, Roman territory extended along the southern bank of the Tiber to the sea, and for about the same distance up the river from Rome. Just across from Rome they had fortified a hill as an outpost against their neighbors, the Etruscans. The seventh King was so cruel and proud that the people turned against him, and drove him and all his family from the city. They then set up a a republic republic, and took an oath that they would ^^^^^'^^^^^d never again allow any one to become King in Rome. They agreed that two men, called consuls, should be elected each year; and these consuls, with a Senate made up of three hundred men from the oldest and noblest families of Rome, ruled in the place of the kings. The banished King was not willing to give up his kingdom without a struggle. He called on the Etruscans for help, and their army marched on Rome , . . IP, Horatius and seized the hill on the opposite bank of the at the Tiber. The Etruscans were just about to march across the wooden bridge, leading to the city, when a young noble named Horatius, with two com- panions, volunteered to defend the narrow entrance to the bridge while the other Romans tore it down behind 54 THE STORY OF EUROPE them. Though many of the enemy tried to overcome them, their attempts were in vain. Wounded but unflinching, the three Romans fought until the bridge began to tremble, and their friends warned them to return while there was still a way. At the call, Horatius's companions darted back across the bridge; but their leader Ungered, fighting to the last. Then, just as he had turned to cross, the bridge fell with a mighty crash ; and he was left, cut off among his enemies. The [Etruscans called upon Horatius to yield; but instead he plunged, with all his armor on, into the yellow torrents of the Tiber. Many times he seemed sinking in midstream, but each time he rose again. At last, swimming manfully, he reached the other shore shore in safety. Rome was saved; and though the war continued for some time, the city was never again in such danger of falling under the rule of the wicked King. The victory over the King, however, did not bring peace to Rome; for there were troubles within the city itself, and warlike neighbors on every side between the without. Romc had uow somc thousands of men who could fight in her armies if they were needed. But the greater number of these men were not allowed to take part in the government, or to share in the public land gained through war. This was because they were new-comers to Rome, and were not descended from the old famiUes which had settled the first three hills. They were called plebeians, while the descendants of the old families were called patricians. The plebeians were not satisfied to go on fighting for Rome, and yet receive none of the benefits of their success in war. At length they left the city in a body and encamped on a hill not far away, where they threat- EARLY DAYS OF ROME 55 ened to found a new city This threat made the patricians grant them more privileges, and they returned to Rome. But the struggle went on for two ^, 111 Ml 111. Theplebe- hundred years, until at last the plebeians ians gain 1 P 11 • 1 1 ,. . . full rights gained luU rights, and no distinction was thenceforth made between them and the patricians. Topics for Review and Search 1. Find cities in the United States in the same latitude as Kome. Explain the differences in climate. 2. What were the advantages of Eome's location? 3. Compare the peninsulas of Italy and Greece. Which has more natural advantages? 4. Eead other stories of the early kings. (See Harding's Ct^y of the Seven Hills.) 5. Let some pupil recite the verses about Horatius given on pages 37-38 of The City of the Seven Hills. XI THE STORY OF CINCINNATUS Points to be Noted Eome's wars with her neighbors; her army entrapped by the Aequians. Powers of a Eoman dictator; Cincinnatus appointed to rescue the army. His orders; the march; the army rescued; how the Aequians surrendered. Cincinnatus lays down his arms; the American Society of the Cincinnati, and the city named after it. While the struggle between the patricians and the plebeians was going on, Rome was constantly troubled Rome's by attacks from her neighbors. When the wars with ^^y ^^g '^^ j,^^j danger, the patricians and neig ors plebeians would cease their quarrels for a time, and would march out together to defend their lands. It was during one of these many struggles that a Roman called Cincinnatus made his name famous, because of his ability and his virtues. It happened that a band of Aequians, a sturdy people who lived on the slopes of the mountains east of Rome, marched into the Roman lands, and began Attack ^ of the to burn and to plunder. A Roman consul Aequians . led an army against them, but the Aequians soon discovered that he did not wish to fight. They then laid siege to his camp, by throwing up earthworks around it, and so they held his army as if it were in a trap. However, some of the Romans succeeded in passing through the Unes of the enemy, and hastened to the city with the news that the army was surrounded. 56 THE STORY OF CINCINNATUS 57 When the Romans heard this, the Senate was hur- riedly called together, and decided that a dictator must be appointed. A dictator was a man elected cincin- in time of great danger to take the place of appofnted the two consuls, who so often disagreed that ^^^^^^^^ their quarrels weakened the army. He had all the powers of a King, and as long as the danger lasted, the people obeyed the dictator's commands without question. Lucius Quintius, who was called " Cincinnatus, " on ROMAN PLOW account of his crisp, curly hair, was the one whom they chose to meet their present difficulty. Although Cincinnatus was a patrician, he was a poor man and tilled his own little farm of four acres on the other side of the River Tiber. When the messengers came to announce to him that he had been appointed dictator, they found him plowing in the fields, without his "toga" or outer gown. They bade him leave his work and put on his toga, that he might listen with due respect to the commands of the Senate. This he did, wondering what could be the message. 58 THE STORY OF EUROPE Then the messengers saluted him as dictator, and bade him come to Rome and take command. Cincin- natus obeyed, and went with them into the He rescues i i i n i ^ the Roman City. He Commanded that all who were oi the age to act as soldiers should come together before sunset, each bringing twelve large wooden stakes, besides his arms, and food for five days. When the appointed time came, the men set out, with Cincinnatus marching before them and bidding them hasten. At midnight they reached the camp where the Aequians were laying siege to the Romans. Cincinnatus first went all about the place, in order to discover, as well as he could in the darkness, how it was arranged. Then he drew his men silently around the camp, directing that at a given signal they should all raise a shout, and begin digging a trench and driving their stakes before it for defense. When all was ready, the signal was given; and their mighty shout terrified the Aequians and carried joy to the hearts of the imprisoned Romans. These seized their arms and rushed upon the Aequians, just as the latter were turning to attack the soldiers of Cincinnatus. Before daylight the Romans had conquered, for the Aequians were attacked from both sides at once, and were fighting unknown numbers in the darkness of the night. A ROMAN SOLDIER THE STORY OF CINCINATUS 59 After the battle was over, the enemies of the Romans were not destroyed, for Cincinnatus said: "I want not the blood of the Aequians. Let them depart The Aequi- in peace. But, before they go, we must have under^he a confession that their nation is defeated and ^^^^ subdued. They must all pass under the yoke." He ordered two spears to be driven into the earth, and a third one fastened across their tops. Under this the Aequians were obliged to pass, without their arms, and with but one garment on their backs. This was done to show that they were now as peaceful and subdued as the patient oxen that plowed the Roman fields with the yoke upon their necks. Cincinnatus was not made vain either by his great victory or by the honor that was cincin- shown him afterwards. iLys"^down On the sixteenth day »^i« p^^^*" after he had received the com- mand, he laid down his power and returned to his little farm and his plowing. For giving up his power so easily when his work was done, he has been as much admired as for his success as a general. At the close of our Revolutionary War, General Washington and his companions did the same thing that Cincinnatus was praised for doing so many cen- turies before. They too gave up their places as generals and officers in the army, and went peacefully back to their farms and shops. They thought of Cincinnatus ROMAN STANDARD BEARER 60 THE STORY OF EUROPE at the time, and they joined together to form a society which they called "the Cincinnati," after this old Roman. This society, in its turn, gave its name to the city of Cincinnati, in the state of Ohio. From this you can see how long a man's name may last in the world, if he is strong and noble enough to do something which people will be glad to remember. Topics for Review and Search 1. Why was it necessary to have a dictator in times of danger? 2. Cincinnatus was regarded as a model Koman. What were his good qualities? Why was he admired for laying down his command? 3. A Eoman army was once obliged itself to pass under the yoke. Eead an account of its surrender, at the Caudine Forks. XII THE GAULS IN ROME Points to be Noted Where the Gauls came from; their home in Italy; their appear- ance and manner of fighting. The battle on the Allia; preparations for a siege; what persons remained in Kome. Slaughter of the old men; burning of the city; siege of the Capitol. The attempt to surprise the Capitol; why it failed; ransom paid to the Gauls. In their wars with the peoples about them the Romans were usually victorious; but the time came when they were met by an enemy more terrible than any of their neighbors, and at whose hands they suffered a severe defeat. In the valley of the Po, in the north of Italy, had settled a people whom the Romans called Gauls. They had come across the Alps into Italy from the The colder countries farther north, and they were ^^"*^ very different in appearance and manner of fighting from any people that the Romans had ever met. They were taller than the Italians, and had fair hair and skin and blue eyes, in contrast to the black hair and eyes and dark skins of the southern peoples. They rushed into battle in great masses, shouting savage cries and blowing shrilly upon war-horns. The noise and din terrified the enemy as much as the fierce blows of their heavy swords. m THE STORY OF EUROPE Battle on the AUia About sixty years after Cincinnatus's victory, the Gauls marched upon Rome. The Romans went out to meet them with a large army; and a battle took place on the banks of a little stream called the Allia, which flows into the River Tiber. The Romans drew up their men in a long Une, as they were in the habit of doing when they met their ItaUan enemies; but the Gauls came charging in a great mass, and went through the Roman line with a rush that could not be resisted. The Roman army was split into two parts; and, terrified at the savage attack and their sudden defeat, they fled blindly, as they had so often caused their own enemies to flee. The greater part of the Roman army was cut off from Rome by the force of the Gauls, and only a handful succeeded in reaching the city. While the Gauls tarried to strip the arms from the Roman dead, and Romans „ . , , prepare for to least in cclebra- ^'*^^^ tion of their victory, the people at Rome hastened to lay in provisions and prepare for a siege. There were too few soldiers left in the city to attempt to guard the wall; so the Romans determined to take their stand on the Capitol, a rocky hill upon which the citadel GALLIC SOLDIER Notice the trousers and moustache THE GAULS IN ROME^^ 6^ was built. If r sides wer#si6i^ steep, except where the road ascended, that it seemed as if no enemy could climb them. Upon it was a well, to furnish a sure supply of water; and there, too, were the temples of the gods, to protfectand encourage the citizens in the defense of their stromghold. Not all of the people, however, could find refuge there. No one was wanted on the Capitol who could not do his part in its defense. The women and children, and the people untrained to arms, would only have taken the food from the mouths of those who labored to save the most sacred part of the town. So, while the Capitol was being made ready, great numbers of the people went out of Rome, and sought refuge in the hills on the other side of the Tiber, and in neighboring cities. There were some of the Romans, however, who could not fight and yet who would not leave the city. These were the old patricians, who were too feeble to bear arms, but who could not endure the men^in the thought of wandering in exile while the city **^""* they loved was laid in ashes by the barbarous Gauls. They determined to make a sacrifice of themselves to the gods, for the good of their country. They were men who in their earlier years had been consuls, or had filled other high offices in the city. Now they put on their robes of state; and seating themselves in their ivory chairs in the Forum, where public meetings were held, they awaited calmly the coming of the enemy. When at last the Gauls entered the city, they passed wonderingly from street to street through the empty town, seeking the enemy who awaited them only in the citadel above. When they came to the Forum, they were struck with amazement at the sight of so many stately old men, sitting in dignified silence. The old 64 THE STORY OF EUROPE THE GAULS IN ROME 65 nobles neither rose at their coming, nor so much as turned their eyes toward them; but gazed upon one another quietly, and showed no sign of fear. For a time, the Gauls stood wondering at the strange sight, and did not approach or touch the Romans, for they seemed more like an assembly of gods than men. Finally a barbarian, bolder than the rest, drew near to one of the old men, and gently stroked his long, white beard. Perhaps he intended no harm; but the old Roman took it for an insult, and, raising the long staff which he carried, he struck the Gaul a heavy blow. The anger of the Gauls then flamed up, and the old men were put to death, as they had expected to be. The houses of the city were robbed of their goods and set on fire, and soon the streets and buildings were nothing but a mass of smoldering ruins. Even then, the Gauls could not take the Capitol. That great rock was steep and well defended, and they found that they could not force their way to siege of its top. They were obliged to settle down theCapitoi in the ruined city and besiege the Romans — that is, try to starve them into surrender. One night, during this siege, a messenger from the Romans outside the city managed to steal through the camp of the Gauls and scramble safely up the rocky side of the Capitol. Before morning he returned as he had come; but next day the Gauls found the marks of hands and feet where he had climbed. Then they said to one another: "Where it is easy for one man to get up, it will not be hard for many, one after another. " So, the next night, they made the attempt. Sending an unarmed man ahead to try the way, they followed in his steps, passing their weapons from one to another, and drawing each other up over the steep places. In 66 THE STORY OF EUROPE this way they reached the top unnoticed by the Romans, for the sentinels and even the dogs were fast asleep. But the sacred geese that were kept near the geese save temple of the Romau goddess Juno were more watchful. As the enemy approached their inclosure, they beat their wings, and cackled loudly. This roused an officer named Marcus Manlius, who VIEW OF THE CAPITOL (Restoration) was sleeping near by. Snatching up his arms and shouting to his comrades, he rushed to the spot where the first Gauls were climbing over the wall of the citadel. One of them he slew with his sword, and another, at the same time, he struck full in the face with his shield, hurling him headlong down the rock. Manlius's com- panions now joined him; and spears and stones fell thick and fast upon the climbing enemy, until the last of the attacking party was dashed to ruin at the foot of the rock, and the citadel was saved. THE GAULS IN ROME 67 After this, the siege continued for many months, until at last the Gauls agreed to leave Rome in return for a thousand pounds of gold. When the The Gauis gold was weighed out, the Romans com- ^^^^^ plained that the Gauls used unfair weights. Thereupon the leader of the Gauls threw his heavy sword into the scales, crying "Woe to the conquered!" The Romans were forced to add gold enough to balance even this additional weight. At this heavy price they were at last rid of their terrible enemies. When the Gauls were gone, the people who had fled returned to the ruined city, and began the work of rebuilding their homes. The sufferings ^. „ , The Roman which they had endured together seem to conquest of have made the feeling between the patricians and the plebeians less bitter. Soon all differences between them disappeared, and with union and harmony among her citizens, Rome grew rapidly in power. Within one hundred and twenty-five years from the time of the destruction of the city by the Gauls, the Romans, step by step, had conquered the entire peninsula of Italy, up to the valley of the Po River. Then, in 264 B.C., they began their first conquest of lands beyond the sea. Topics for Review and Search 1. "What is the difference between a siege and a battle? B. "Why were the Gauls unable to take the Capitol by siege? XIII ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE Points to be Noted Location of Carthage; its sea-power; its rivalry with Rome. Genius of the Barca family; Hannibal's oath; Hamilcar and Hannibal in Spain. Hannibal's plans; his march through Gaul; how he crossed the River Rhone; difficulties in crossing the Alps. Hannibal's success in Italy; battle of Cannae; the terror of the Romans; courage of the Senate; how the Roman gen- erals fought Hannibal. Cause of Hannibal's failure in Italy; his recall to Africa; defeat of Carthage at Zama; terms of peace; Hannibal's death. Revival of Carthage; its final destruction. Just across the Mediterranean Sea from Italy, on the coast of Africa, was the city of Carthage. At this Carthage time it was larger and richer than Rome, and Ca?tha^ its people ruled a great part of the coasts of gimans Africa, Spain, and Sicily. The Carthaginians were the leading traders and sailors of their day; and they regarded the sea, on which their many vessels came and went, as belonging to themselves alone. They are said to have boasted once that, without their per- mission, the Romans could not even wash their hands in its waters. Now that Rome ruled the peninsula of Italy, she was a close rival of Carthage for power in the West. It was The wars almost Certain, therefore, that sooner or **®^*" later each city would try to make herself supreme over the other. The struggle, which was the longest and hardest that Rome ever experienced, ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 69 began in Sicily in 264 b.c, and continued through three great wars. In the first war, Rome conquered the island of Sicily. In this and in the next war, the Romans were fighting not only against the might of the powerful „ .. p /-. 1 • . n Hamilcar City oi Carthage, but against the genius of a and his son 1 rr.1 1 Hannibal family of great generals. The head of this His son, Hannibal, family was named Hamilcar Barca. was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived; and the part which he played in the second war was so important that it is often called the war with Hannibal. After the loss of Sicily, Ham- ilcar set out to conquer Spain for Carthage. But before leav- ing that city he led Hannibal, who was then only a boy, before the altar of one of the Carthaginian gods, and said: '^Lay your hand upon the sacrifice, my son, and swear that you will never be friends with Rome so long as you shall live." Hannibal did as he was bidden, and went away to Spain with the thought deep in his breast that he was now the enemy of Rome forever. He grew up in his father's camp, and was his companion while he con- HANNIBAL 70 THE STORY OF EUROPE quered the rich peninsula of Spain for Carthage. Before his father died, Hannibal had learned all that Hamilcar could teach him of warfare and of government. After his father's death, Hannibal became com- mander of the Carthaginian army in his place. His Hannibal Hicn wcrc SO filled with love and admiration geneiSr for their general, that they were ready to m pain foUow him auywhcrc, and do anything that he commanded. He immediately began preparations to carry out his long-cherished plan for an attack upon Rome. He determined that this war should be fought on Roman, and not on Carthaginian, ground; in Italy, and not in Africa. He had the choice of two ways of reaching Italy from Spain. He might cross the sea in Carthaginian ships, or he might go by land, through Spain and Gaul. He decided to go by land; but we may be sure of one thing, — that he did not know quite how difficult a path it was that he had chosen. He was the greatest man of his time, but he had no way of learning the simple facts about the world he lived in, which you are taught in every day's geography lesson. It was in April that Hannibal started on his long march. Besides the many thousand men who made up his army, he took with him thirty-seven *^to Gaul elephants, to use in battle, and many horses (218 B.C.) and mules to carry the baggage. As soon as he got out of the territory that Carthage had conquered, his troubles began. He had to fight his way against unfriendly natives in northern Spain. When he came to the swiftly flowing Rhone River, the Gauls tried to prevent his crossing. However, the army safely crossed in canoes and boats, which they collected along the river; but great rafts had to be prepared to ferry the elephants over. ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 71 After crossing the Rhone, the way was ^asy until they came to the foot of the Alps. There the greatest difficulties of the march began. The way passage now lay along steep, narrow paths, up which ****^**®^*p* the horses and elephants could scarcely climb. Often a single misstep would have sent them rolling and tumbling a thousand feet down the mountainside, to be dashed to pieces on the rocks below. Then, too, the people who inhabited the mountains were unfriendly. They stationed themselves on either side of the path up which the army toiled, and hurled stones and weapons upon them from the heights above. These threw the long line of baggage animals into great disorder, and the wounded and frightened horses galloped to and fro, and either fell themselves or crowded others over the cliffs and down the mountainside. Again and again Hanni- bal was obliged to take some of his men, and clamber up the cliffs to drive off these enemies. On the ninth day after they had begun their ascent, the army reached the summit of the pass. After that, they were no longer troubled by attacks from the moun- tain tribes. Here Hannibal remained for two days, in order to rest his men and beasts. While they tarried there, many of the horses which had taken fright and run away came straggling into camp. After resting sufficiently, they began the descent into Italy. New difficulties now presented themselves. The way was downhill, to be sure, but the slope was more abrupt than on the other side of the mountains. It was late in the autumn; and, since the cold comes early in these high regions, the paths were already covered with a thin coating of new-fallen snow, which caused men and beasts to slip, making the descent more dan- gerous than the ascent had been. At one place they 72 THE STORY OF EUROPE found that a landslide had completely blocked the path, and it took four anxious days of hard labor to cut out a new road for the horses and elephants in the side of the rocky cliff. Through all their trials and dangers, Hannibal cheered and encouraged his army. When they reached a height from which the rich plain of the River Po could be seen in the distance, he cried out: "There is Italy! There are friends waiting to wel- come you and aid you against the tyrant Rome! You have now climbed not only the walls of Italy, but of Rome itself. After one, or at most two, battles, all these fertile fields will be yours. " Then the soldiers pushed on with new courage. On the fifteenth day after they had entered the Alps, they descended into Italy. But the army was greatly weakened by the hardships of the way and the fights with the natives. More than half of the men and horses, and many of the elephants, had been lost; and the soldiers who remained were so worn by their suffer- ings that they looked more like shadows than men. However, after resting a few days, all were ready once more to follow their dauntless commander wherever he chose to lead them. The Romans were surprised and dismayed when news came that the Carthaginian army was already in Italy. Hannibal They hurriedly gathered together their forces, m Italy ^^^ ^^^^ them on to meet the enemy. Any one but Hannibal they might have stopped, but him they could not check. He defeated them in battle after battle, and swept on in a torrent that could not be resisted. In one battle, at Cannae, the Romans lost nearly 70,000 men, including eighty senators; and the Carthaginians gathered from the dead on the field ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 73 enough gold rings to fill a bushel measure. After that, the name of Hannibal became a word of fear to old and young alike; and nearly two hundred years from this time the memory of that terror still lingered. A Roman poet then wrote of him, calling him ''the dread Han- nibal, " and saying that his march through Italy was like the sweep of the eastern gales that had wrecked so many Roman fleets in the waters of Sicily, or Hke the rush of flames through a blazing forest of pines. The Romans were long in learning how to defeat Hannibal. He was greater than they, and as long as he remained in Italy the city of Rome trembled. But the Senate remained strong in the midst of the public terror. Their generals, too, though they could not overcome Hannibal in battle, learned to be cautious. They would no longer lead their armies out to fight, but hung about watching his camp, in order to capture any of the Carthaginians who might become separated from the main body while gathering food for themselves or for their horses. They sought to defeat Hannibal by cutting off his supplies, and so make it necessary for him to leave Italy. In the end Rome succeeded, as she always did. "The Romans," said an old writer who described this war, "are never so dangerous as when they seem just about to be conquered. " Hannibal found that he was fighting a people who could replace a defeated army with another which was just as ready as the first to fight to the death. Most of the peoples of Italy, too, remained faithful to Rome in this time of trial; and Hannibal was disap- pointed in getting the help from them upon which he had counted. At last, he was forced to look to Africa and to Spain for new men and for supplies for his army. But when his brother came over the Alps, bringing help 74 THE STORY OF EUROPE from Spain, he was defeated and slain by the Romans before Hannibal knew that he had arrived in Italy. Besides all this, the Senate found men and ships enough to carry the war over into Spain and Africa; and, by and by, the Carthaginians were forced to order Hannibal back from Italy to defend Carthage itself against Roman attacks. After fifteen years of victories, which had brought the war no nearer to a close, Hannibal was at last obliged to leave Italy. The general in com- Hannibal i <. i t^ • a p • returns to maud of the Roman army in Airica was Scipio "Africanus, " as he came to be called from his deeds there. He was an able general, and had just brought the war in Spain to an end, where, as he reported to the Senate, he "had fought with four generals and four victorious armies, and had not left a single Carthaginian soldier in the peninsula." Now he was to do something greater still, something that no Roman had ever yet done, — that is, defeat Hannibal in open battle. This battle took place near a little town named Zama, about two hundred miles inland from Carthage. Scipio had more troops than Hannibal, but Hannibal Zama had about eighty elephants, and he hoped to win the battle with these. The Romans, however, were now used to fighting against elephants. They opened great lanes in their ranks, and let them pass harmlessly through, while the soldiers hurled spears and other weapons at them, to drive them along or turn them back. Then the Roman foot-soldiers charged the Carthaginians, shouting their war-cry and clashing their swords against their shields. After a hard fight the soldiers of Hannibal were overcome. Their general alone, with a few of his horsemen, succeeded in escaping. ROME'S WARS WITH CARTHAGE 75 The Carthaginians were now forced to make peace, by giving up all of their possessions outside of Africa. The Romans still so feared Hannibal that, Death of before many years had passed, he was com- "^""^^^ai pelled to flee from Carthage to escape being put to death by their orders. Even then, Roman messengers pursued him from kingdom to kingdom, on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, till at last he took his own life to avoid falling into the hands of these unforgiving enemies. In the years of peace which followed this war, Carthage regained something of her former prosperity. Then the jealous Romans, fearing that the Cartha- ginians might again become dangerous, began des'troyed the third war. In this they laid siege to Car- '^'^ thage itself, and in 146 b.c. utterly destroyed it. Even the ground upon which the city had stood was plowed over and sowed with salt, so that it might never more be used by men, or even covered by vegetation. So ended the wars with the Carthaginians. Rome had destroyed her greatest rival, and the way was now open for her to seize the western part of the Mediter- ranean world. Topics for Review and Search 1. What good qualities do the Romans show in the wars with Carthage? What bad ones? 2. Trace on the map Hannibal's route into Italy (see p. 92). 3. Find out how Hannibal used his elephants in battle. 4. Why had Hannibal counted on getting help against Rome from the peoples of Italy? W^hy did they remain loyal to Rome? 5. Did the Romans do right in destroying the city of Carthage? XIV ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD Points to be Noted Eoman territory in 133 B.C.; why Eoman rule had spread. Eoman aqueducts; construction of Roman roads. Wealth obtained through conquest; a triumphal procession. Effects of the conquests on the Eoman generals; on the com- mon soldiers; on the Eoman government. Spain, Africa, Sicily, and the other islands of the Mediterranean, came into the hands of Rome as a result The of the Carthaginian Wars. In the eastern ^n**becomTs Mediterranean, also, Macedonia, Greece, and Roman ^^^^^ Minor soon passed under Roman rule. This rapid spread of Roman power was partly due, of course, to the superiority of the Roman armies. It was also due, in large part, to the fact that the Romans were then the only people that knew how to rule well, to put down pirates and robbers, and to make the world safe for men to live in. The result was that, before sixty years had passed from the close of the second war with Carthage, Rome had obtained control of practically all the lands that border upon the Mediterranean Sea, in the East as well as in the West. In whatever region the Romans went, they made aqueducts, built bridges, and erected pubUc buildings, as they had long been doing in Italy itself, improve- You cau get a good idea of what the Roman '"^"^^ temples and public buildings were like from the pictures of the Forum and of the Capitol at Rome, on pages 64 and 66. The Roman aqueducts were THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 77 great stone troughs— sometimes built high in the air, on arches — in which water was brought to cities from the pure sources in the hills, many miles away. Most useful of all, perhaps, were the good roads which the Romans built to all the lands that came under their rule. The original purpose of these was to Roman enable Rome to send her armies swiftly to "''^'^^ the points where they were needed. But they also RUINS OF A ROMAN AQUEDUCT The water flowed in a trough on top of the arches served, for more than a thousand years, the purposes of peaceful trade. The roads were constructed by placing a layer of large flat stones on the ground; then a thick layer of smaller stones, cemented together with lime; then a thinner layer of still smaller stones. On top of all, blocks of very hard stone were laid, and fitted closely together, so as to make a perfectly smooth surface whether for walking or driving. Is it any wonder that roads built with such care have lasted to the present day.^ 78 THE STORY OF EUROPE Along these roads the Romans placed milestones, in order that travelers might know at any point just what their distance was from Rome. Where the towns were far apart, stations were built by the way, at which they might rest and hire fresh horses to carry them on their journey. Traveling by land now became much easier than it had ever been before, and distant countries seemed to be drawn closer together, just as they have been in our own day by the construction of railroads and telegraphs. A ROMAN ROAD ACROSS A MARSH The conquest of these many lands brought Rome great power, and also vast wealth. So much gold and silver was placed in the Roman treasury after becomes the defeat of the King of Macedonia that wealthy ^^y^j. afterward did Rome have need to raise a war tax from her own people. A description of the triumph with which the conqueror of Macedonia cele- brated his return to Rome will give us an idea of the rich spoils that Rome won in her victorious wars. The celebration of this triumph lasted three days. On the first day, two hundred and fifty chariots, filled THE MEDITERRANEAN WORLD 79 with pictures and statues taken from the Greeks, passed along the Sacred Way leading through the Forum and up to the Capitol. On the next day were shown the rich arms and armor which had phai""" been captured— helmets and shields, gleaming *'''**"'"^" swords and spears, and so forth. Behind the wagons which bore the arms marched several thousand men, each bearing a basin full of silver coin, or carrying a silver bowl, goblet, or cup captured in the war. The third day furnished the finest sight of all. First came the trumpeters, sounding warlike notes. Then came young men, leading one hundred and twenty fat oxen gaily decorated for the sacrifices to the gods. After the cattle marched seventy-seven men, each carrying a basin filled with gold coin; and with them came others who bore the golden goblets and dishes which the Mace- donian King had used at his table. The chariot of the King came next, with his armor and crown in it; and following that, the King's httle children, two boys and a girl, with their attendants and teachers. Even among those stern conquerors, many hearts were touched at the sight of these unfortunate children. At a little distance, came the King himself, clothed all in black, and walking quite alone so that all the people might have a good view of him. Then there appeared the victorious Roman general, dressed in a robe of purple and gold, and riding in a splendid chariot, with a laurel branch m his right hand. Last of all came the soldiers of his army, bearing laurel branches and singing songs of vic- tory. Every great conquest made by a Roman general was followed by a triumph similar to this. Rome could not establish her rule over all the Mediter- ranean lands without its making a great difference in the Romans themselves. Their great men were no 80 THE STORY OF EUROPE longer like Cincinnatus, who left the plow to fight for his country and returned to it when the danger was past. The Roman generals now became very rich Change in , . n , i • . • • Roman men, and spent all their tmie m war or m public business. As often happens when money comes suddenly to those who have not earned it, many of their rulers became extravagant, greedy, and cruel, and robbed the helpless people whom they governed. The common soldiers, too, had changed. Formerly each man fought in the army without pay, and in time of peace supported himself and his family by means of his little farm. Now many men made a business of fighting, and served in the army for the money and spoil that they got by it. The land, too, had gradually passed into the hands of the rich men, and a few great farms had taken the place of the many small ones. The worst of it was that these large farms were not tilled by free laborers, but by slaves, who for the most part were captives taken in war. The poor freeman not only lost his land, but he lost the chance to work for hire also. Thenceforth he must either enlist in the army and earn his living as a soldier, or remain idle at Rome in the hope that the state would provide for him. Topics for Review and Search 1. Make a map showing Eoman lands in 133 B.C. 2. Describe the buildings shown in the pictures on pages 64 and 66. 3. How do modern cities get their water supply? 4. Watch the building of a road or street and compare with Roman methods of road-building. 5. Were the conquests outside of Italy a good or a bad thing for Rome? Why? 6. How is slavery a bad thing for the masters as well as for the slaves? THE ROMANS IN THE WEST Points to be Noted Caesar's military training; his adventure with the pirates- his popularity. ' The public games; chariot races; wild l^east fights; gladiatorial combats. Caesar's election to the consulship; ho is made governor of Gaul. His conquest of Gaul; revolt of Vercingetorix; the revolt put down. Caesar and the Germans; his two invasions of Britain- later conquest of Britain. ' Roman rule and civilization introduced into the West. For about eighty years after the destruction of Carthage, the Romans remained content with the rule of the lands which bordered on the Mediter- Roman ranean Sea. Then they extended their ?hrNo"rth** power to the Enghsh Channel and the North ^^^ Sea by conquering Gaul (where France now is), and began to plan the conquest of the island of Great Britain. The man who was chiefly responsible for both of these steps was a great soldier and statesman named JuHus Caesar. Caesar received his first training in war in one of those conflicts which Rome was now constantly waging in the East. One day he showed such bravery in saving the life of a fellow soldier that the com- of Julius^ mander presented him with a crown of oak ^^^^""^ leaves, which was a mark of the highest honor. Several years later he decided that he wished to be an orator as well as a soldier, so he went to Greece, as many Romans did, to study the art of public speaking. 81 82 THE STORY OF EUROPE While on his way there, he had an adventure which shows his character. He was captured by pirates, and His kept at their island home until his servants wUhVh"''^ could return with the large sum of money pirates ^j^-^j^ ^^^ demanded as ransom. Though his captors were desperate men, Caesar showed no fear of them. He threatened that, as soon as he was free, he would punish them for their crimes. They laughed at this, for they liked his fearless spirit. But when Caesar was set free, the first thing that he did was to carry out his threat. He brought the rob- bers to justice, and even recovered his ransom money. Caesar had already determined to accom- plish some- thing great, BUST OF JULIUS CAESAR How he sought popular _ _ *^''°'" and he never lost sight of this purpose. He soon became one of the best orators of Rome. He was friendly and pleasant to everyone, and gave money freely to all who begged his help. He became very popular, and was elected to several ofiices, one after the other. THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 83 While Caesar held one of these offices, it was his duty to oversee the public games. The Romans had now become very fond of such shows, and thev The were given a number of times each year. The public games that the Romans liked best were three, ^^""^^ — the chariot races, the fights with wild beasts, and the contests of gladiators. Generally in the chariot races each chariot was drawn by four horses, and four chariots took part. The drivers of the chariots wore different colors, — white, red, blue, and green; and the people took such interest in these races, that they divided into parties over them as people now do at football games. Wild beast fights were introduced into Rome after the second war with Carthage. Then the Romans began to turn elephants, lions, leopards, and other beasts, into the "arena" of the Great Circus, and set men to hunt them for the amusement of the spectators. It is said that four hundred lions were once fought and killed at one time, to make sport for the people. But the shows which delighted the Romans most were the gladiatorial fights. Gladiators were usually captives who had been taken in war, or slaves who had been trained to fight to amuse the people. Usually they fought in pairs. Sometimes both were armed in the same way, with helmet, shield, and sword. Some- times one gladiator would be armed thus and the other would have a three-pronged spear, and a net to throw over his opponent's head and entangle him. When one of the gladiators became disabled, the fight stopped until the will of the people had been made known. If they held their thumbs up, he was spared; but if they turned them downwards, the conquered one was put to death. 84 THE STORY OF EUROPE THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 85 The government was supposed to furnish the money to provide for these shows, but it had become the custom for the overseers of the games to add to them • TT71 r^ Caesar's at their own expense. When Caesar was costly made overseer he tried to give finer spectacles than had ever been seen before, regardless of the cost. In this way he won the favor of the people; and the result was that when he became a candidate for the consulship, some time afterward, they gladly elected him. When Caesar's year as consul was up, he was made , He conquers governor Gaui oi the val- ley of the Po and of the region about the River Rhone in Gaul. This part of Gaul had been under Roman rule for some time, but the rest of that country was still under the rule of its native chiefs. Caesar resolved to bring the whole country under Roman rule ; and the lack of union among the Gallic tribes enabled him, in the nine years of his governorship, to accomplish this object. In the seventh year of his governorship, he saw a large part of his work swept away by a dangerous revolt of the Gauls. The leader of this revolt was a young and warlike chief named Ver- vercin- cingetorix, who was as skillful in organizing his people as he was bold in battle. Taking advantage of Caesar's absence in the valley of the Po, Vercingetorix GLADIATORS FIGHTING 86 THE STORY OF EUROPE sent around messengers to all the tribes of Gaul, asking them to join him in one last effort to throw off the Roman rule. Most of the Gauls joined him gladly; and under his leadership they made war upon the Roman garrisons and upon the tribes which remained faithful to Rome. As soon as he heard of this revolt, Caesar hastened back across the Alps into Gaul; and although it was then winter, and the rivers were frozen and snow lay thick upon the mountains, he at once advanced to attack the enemy. Caesar's energy and rapidity of movement defeated the first plan of Vercingetorix, so he formed a new one. This was to burn the villages and towns and lay waste to his own country, so that the Romans could not find food for themselves and their horses and would be driven to leave the country through lack of supplies. In a single day more than twenty towns were burned; and all about the Romans there was nothing to see but flames. Against his own judgment, Vercingetorix consented to spare the chief city of this region; and to this Caesar laid siege. For twenty-eight days almost constant fighting took place between the Gauls who were shut up in the town, and Caesar, who was trying to take it. Vercingetorix, with his army, had remained outside the town, and tried to drive off the Romans. At length, in a pouring rain, when the walls were ill-guarded, Caesar captured the city, and massacred all the inhabit- ants — men, women, and children. The war now shifted to another region, where again Caesar laid siege to a strongly fortified city. Again Vercingetorix tried to hinder his operations. This time the Gauls met with better success. For the first time in his history, Caesar was defeated in an open battle, and soon after was obliged to raise the siege. THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 87 This so encouraged the Gauls that all except two of the tribes which hitherto had sided with the Romans now joined in the revolt under Vercingetorix. But defeat only spurred Caesar on to greater efforts. He gathered together troops from all directions; and his soldiers were so devoted to him that they would follow him anywhere, and brave any danger to win his praise. In one battle, Caesar himself was taken captive and was being carried off when his companions rescued him. Long afterwards there was to be seen, in one of the temples of the Gauls, the sword which was taken from Caesar at this time. In the end, Vercingetorix was obliged to take refuge in the city of Alesia, which stood on a steep ridge and was well fortified. Again Caesar set to work to besiege it. It proved to be one of the oflhe^ most difficult tasks in his whole military life; "''***^ and it required all of his genius, and all the courage, discipline, and devotion of his soldiers, to bring it to a successful conclusion. While Vercingetorix tried to break through the lines of earthen fortifications which the Romans had constructed about the city, an army of more than two hundred thousand Gauls came to his aid, and attacked the Romans from the other side. Three great battles were fought, each of which was won by the Romans. Meanwhile, the Gauls within the city had run out of supplies, and starvation stared them in the face. Vercingetorix now saw that the struggle was hopeless, and he determined to sacrifice himself in order to save his followers from massacre. He rode alone surrender to the camp of Caesar, laid down his arms f,?i£.t^}^ betore his conqueror, and surrendered himself ^****'" a prisoner. He was the greatest enemy that the Romans had met since the days of Hannibal; and the French 88 THE STORY OF EUROPE people, who are descended from the Gauls, rightly regard him as a national hero. But the Romans never forgot, and never forgave, the deadly enemies of their country. Caesar took Vercingetorix to Rome to adorn his triumph there, and then the great Gallic hero was put to death in his prison. The Roman rule was now established over all Gaul. Caesar's moderation and tact soon quieted the restless natives. In time they learned the Roman customs and the Latin language, and were admitted as Roman citizens. So strong was the impression which Rome made on this land, in the four centuries that it remained under Roman rule, that a great part of the language, the law, and the customs of France still show the influ- ence of that imperial city. But Caesar had other enemies still to face before he left Gaul. When he first went to that country, he found wandering tribes of Germans there, an? the who had crosscd the River Rhine under their ermans j^'^^g Ariovistus, in ordcr to find new homes. The great size of these Germans, their fierce appearance, and their skill in the use of weapons, alarmed many of Caesar's soldiers. When it was reported that they were about to march to attack these formidable foes, many began to murmur. But Caesar knew how to deal with faint-hearted followers, as well as with his enemies. "If no others will follow me," he said, "I shall go forward with the Tenth Legion alone; for I know that the men of that company, at least, are too brave ever to desert their commander." The Tenth Legion were delighted at their general's confidence in them, and the others were shamed into obedience. Ariovistus was beaten in battle, and he and his followers were forced to return into Germany. THE ROMANS IN THE WEST 89 Later Caesar advanced to the Rhine, and in twelve days built a bridge over that broad and rapid stream, on piles driven into the river's bed. On this he crossed to the opposite shore, in order to teach the Germans to leave Gaul alone. After eighteen days of victories, he recrossed the Rhine, and broke down his bridge, in order that the Germans might not be tempted to return again into his province. Another and greater exploit was his crossing over into Britain. In order to prevent the natives there from aiding their kinsmen in Gaul, Caesar built His two ships and twice led an expedition to that Bri?|in"^ ^"^ island. On the first invasion, the Britons ^^^"^^ ^^^ met the Romans at the shore, and tried to prevent their landmg. But a standard bearer, who carried the brazen eagle, cried out: "Follow me, fellow soldiers, unless you will betray the Roman eagle into the hands of the enemy!" He leaped from the ship, and the other soldiers fol- lowed; and after a fierce conflict the Britons were driven back. This time Caesar remained only a few weeks in Britain. Next summer he came again, remained longer, and made the Britons promise to pay tribute. He did not conquer any part of Britain, and the tribute was never paid. But he showed the Britons the power of Rome, and they did not afterward interfere with his work in Gaul. When Caesar wrote a history of his wars, a few years later, he gave the Romans their first real knowledge of Britain. About a hundred years afterwards, the Romans began the conquest of the &ter'" island. Large armies were sent over, and *^**"**"^'"^** the conquest was made, little by little, from the south toward the north and west. In about forty years, all 90 THE STORY OF EUROPE that we now know as England was conquered. Then the Romans proceeded to civilize Britain also. They built great walls to protect the land on the north, and four principal roads, leading out from London to all parts of the country. Some towns, too, were built, and in them the ,,^^P ''^__. Roman language was spoken. But in the country districts, away from the roads, the Britons retained their own language and their own customs. Thus Julius Caesar spread the Roman power into Gaul, and paved the way for its extension into Britain. He Civilization was the greatest general that the Romans into the Gvcr had, and as a statesman also he showed ^* the highest ability and did many important things. But we who live in America may think of him chiefly as the man who first brought into the lands which were to become France and England, the civiliza- tion which the Romans had inherited from the Greeks, and which those lands were to hand on to a New France and a New England across the sea. PART OF THE ROMAN WALL IN BRITAIN Topics for Review and Search 1. Study the picture on page 84, and describe the Great Circus. 2. What qualities made Caesar a great general? 3. Why were the Romans able to overcome Vercingetorix? 4. Was it a good or a bad thing for the world that this revolt failed? State your reasons. XVI ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE Points to be Noted Failure of the government at Rome; the remedy Caesar becomes master of Rome; his murder ''%^^s'':f\lffrl^:^, '^ ^"^"^^^^^ ''^^^ ^--- peace"; What Rome has left us; how Pompeii was preserved. The forum and streets of Pompeii; its private dwellings. Interior arrangement of a Roman house; its furniture The shops of Pompeii; writings on the walls. Other sources of knowledge about Roman life Education of a Roman boy; Roman books; donning the manly Unity of the Roman Empire; its influence in European history. While Caesar was absent in Gaul, the misgovernment of the rich men of Rome had been steadily growing worse. As Roman governors they robbed caesar the people of the provinces, and, in their ^^^^^^^ conflicts for power at home, armed men fought ^^^^' "^^ in the streets and blood was shed at the elections The root of the trouble was that the Roman territory had become too vast to be ruled by the people of a single city. Since the Romans had no idea of our modern representative form of government, there seemed to be only one remedy. That was for some strong man to take the government out of the hands of the people, and stop the selfish wrangling of the nobles and their oppres- sion of the people. Caesar had the ability, and the army, and the wish to do this. The opportunity came when his political rivals 91 92 THE STORY OF EUROPE ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 93 caused the Senate to demand that he give up his army, and return defenseless to face his enemies at home. The southern boundary of Caesar's province in Italy was the little River Rubicon, and to cross that with his army meant disobedience to the Senate and the beginning of civil war. Caesar hesitated for some time, but at last he "crossed the Rubicon" and advanced to meet his enemies. Five years of warfare followed, at the end of which Caesar was completely successful. He had not only destroyed the armies of his enemies, but he had put down rebellions which they had stirred up in the subject lands. It was at the close of one of these rebel- lions that he sent home his famous message: "I came, I saw, I conquered." Caesar was now made dictator for life, and gathered into his hands all the power at Rome. He wanted to go further and change the form of the govern- ment from a republic to a monarchy— but a Ca^esaf **^ monarchy which rested upon the will of the ^^ ^^^ people. He wished to admit the people of the provinces to citizenship, and to bring into the Senate the chief men of the provinces along with the Roman nobles. Many of the men in Rome were not ready for such sweeping changes, so they formed a plot to murder Caesar. As he entered the Senate house, one day, the plotters closed about him. They drew swords and daggers, which they had concealed beneath their togas, and fell upon him. When Caesar saw his trusted friend Brutus striking at him among his foes, he cried out reproach- fully, "Thou, too, Brutus!" So saying he ceased his struggles, and fell, pierced with many wounds. Though the enemies of Caesar were able to put him to death, they could not bring back the republic which he had overthrown. After he was gone, the quarrels 94 THE STORY OF EUROPE and struggles which he had brought to an end began once more. Thirteen years later Caesar's grandnephew, Augustus Augustus, whom he had adopted as his son the^empire ^ud heir, became like him master of the (31 B.C.) whole Roman world. From this time on, there was no dispute as to what the form of government should be. Augustus became "Emperor" — that is, he united in his hands practically all the powers of the Roman government; and he established the rule of the Empire so firmly that it lasted for nearly five hundred years after his death. Augustus was a good ruler, and during the years that he governed the Empire the world about the Mediter- ranean was happier than it had ever been Roman before. Peace — '*the Roman peace," as it peace ^ was proudly called — was spread over the civilized world. From Spain to Greece, from Gaul to Egypt, there was no longer any war. Travelers came and went in safety on the great roads with which the Romans had covered the Empire; and farmers sowed and reaped their fields in peace, and merchants sent out their goods by land and sea, with no cause to fear that an enemy might rob them of their gains. Augustus decided that the Empire was now as large as it ought ever to become. He fixed the Rhine and j^.^. Danube rivers as the boundary, on the north, of the beyond which the Romans should not seek empire to rule; and he caused a chain of forts to be built along these rivers, to defend the Roman lands against the attacks of the Germans and other barbarian tribes who dwelt beyond. Nearly all the emperors who came after Augustus accepted these limits. Almost the only land that was added to the Empire after this time was the island of Britain, — and Julius Caesar, as ROME CAPITAL OP EMPIRE 95 we have seen, had already prepared the way for its conquest while he was overcoming Gaul. We have already learned something of the public bu. Idmgs, aqueducts, and roads which the Romans built wherever their rule was established; and we have seen something of their public games RomS^"'' and the triumphal processions with which ""^'"' they honored their victorious generals. Let us now try to learn what we can of the ordinary life of the citizens-their houses, and shops, and schools, and the training which the boys received. The roads, bridges, and walls which the Romans built can now be traced over a great part of Europe; and at Rome a few ruined structures still stand, to give us an Idea of the grandeur of the ancient city. Moreover, by a strange chance, a whole city has been preserved for us >« Italy that of Pompeii-very much as it was toward the close of the first century after Christ; and from this we can gain a very good idea of the life of the people ma Roman city eighteen hundred years ago Overlooking the bay of Naples, on the coast of Italy south of Rome, is Mount Vesuvius. Today it is one ot the most active volcanoes of the world- but until the first century after Christ, the Romans &«" "' supposed that its fires were extinguished and '"^"'""' cities were built at its very foot. In the year 79 a.d.. the fires of Vesuvius burst forth again, after their long quiet, and wrought fearful destruction. When the eruption had ceased, it was found that a thick layer of ashes and mud was spread over the surrounding country to' the' T: "^"\^^' .«*her eruptions came, and added to the thickness of this covering. Then the top layer was gradually changed to a fine loam, and vegetatfon sprang up and covered all that lay beneath 96 THE STORY OF EUROPE For sixteen hundred years the buried towns about Mount Vesuvius remained lost to sight. Then a well, Ho^ deeper than usual, happened to be dug above war^^" one of them, and ancient statues were un- uncovered earthed, and bits of sculptured marble. Scholars then remembered the story of the buried cities, and began the work of uncovering them. From that time to this, the work has gone slowly on. Several museums are now filled with the pictures, statues, and household furniture which have been taken from beneath the ashes of Vesuvius. The town which has been most thoroughly examined is Pompeii, of which over one-half has been laid bare. The removal of the earth over Pompeii has shown that the city had a forum, surrounded by temples and law courts, and other public buildings; and this, as at Rome, was the most splendid part of the city. It is not for the public buildings, however, that we care most; for ancient temples, and other pubUc buildings, as well preserved as these, may be found in other places. But the glimpse which we get here into the private houses of the town, and into the life of the people in the streets and shops, we can get nowhere else. It is this which makes our interest in Pompeii so great. The first thing that strikes the traveler is the narrow- ness of the streets. In some of the broadest of these, two chariots could scarcely have passed one of""^^'^.. another. The pavements are formed of large Pompeii ^.^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ joined together with great care; and the ruts worn by the passing wheels can still be seen in some of them. The houses along these cramped streets were built, as are the houses in many warm countries today,— about one or more inner courtyards, into which most of the ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 97 rooms opened. Often the street side was occupied by shops which were rented out by the owner, and which had no connection with the life of the house itself. Upon entering such a dwelling we are likely to find, on the floor of the entry, the Latin word for "Welcome" formed of bits of stone in mosaic work. Cross- interior ing this, we enter the large public reception "^ chouse hall. Here the master of the house received the INTERIOR OF A HOUSE AT POMPEIT (Restoration) visitors who came to see him. If they came from a distance, they might be lodged over night in the small rooms which open off from the hall on either side. The walls of the large room are decorated with paintings and drawings, and here and there are pedestals where statues once stood. The floor, all through the lower story of the house, is formed of blocks of marble or other stone, and usually these are selected of different colors, and are arranged to form a pattern of some sort. 98 THE STORY OF EUROPE In the center of the floor of the main room is a square basin, several feet deep, which caught the rain from an opening m the roof directly above. This opening in the roof also served to let out the smoke and vapors from the fires, for none of the houses had chimneys, and the fireplaces were only metal pots or pans in which charcoal might be burned. Leaving the public hall, the visitor comes through another passage to the private part of the house, where the women and children lived, and where no guest might enter without a special invitation from the master. Here is another court, with rows of slender, graceful columns about it. Opening from this are small, low bedrooms, which we should think very uncom- fortable; and here, too, is the dining room, where the master of the house entertained his friends at dinner. Above this court, also, there was an opening in the roof, with a basin below to catch the water; and about the basin and among the columns, there perhaps grew beds of blooming flowers and clumps of evergreens. Only the ground floor remains of most of the houses of Pompeii; but there must have been a second story to all of the better houses, and sometimes even a third. But the upper part of the house was for the use of the LAMP AND STAND ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 99 slaves and dependents of the family, and could not have been so well arranged, or so beautiful, as the lower floor When these houses were first uncovered, many pieces of turmture remained in them; but the Roman rooms must have been too bare for our ideas of com- r^^^^ fort. We should have found only a few ^"''■"i^t"'-^ chairs, some small tables, three couches in the dining room, some beds or couches in the bedrooms, and here and there high stands for their queer oil lamps. The lorm of these articles, however, was often most graceful- and at times they were made of rich material and with great skill of workmanship. Besides such larger pieces ot turmture, many smaller articles have /\| been found, — among L them being cooking ves- sels, vases, cups and fine glasses, combs, hairpins, polished metal mirrors, and pieces of jewelry. The shops of Pompeii are as interesting as the private houses. Most of these are only small rooms in the front of the houses, and are entirely open toward the street. Usually each sho sof shop displayed a sign; the milk store, a ^**™p^" wooden goat (for it was goat's milk that was sold), and the wine shop a large jar. A snake before another shop shows that it was a drug store, and a row of hams IS the sign of an eating house. A washing and dyeing shop has also been found, for the care of woolen garments, which were almost the only kind worn. Pictures on the walls of this shop show men standing in stone tubs and washing the garments by stamping on them with their bare feet. SPOONS AND DRINKING BOWL FROM POMPEII 100 THE STORY OF EUROPE Writings on the walls In at least one way the people of Pompeii were very much like boys of our own time. They loved to write and draw on the walls of the houses of the town. Here we find verses from the poets, and there letters of the Greek alphabet, written by boys too small to reach high up on the walls. In many places adver- tisements are scratched in the plastering, some of them announcing gladiator fights and per- formances in the theater. Occasionally we find comic pictures such as the one in which a gladi- ator is seen coming down the steps of the amphi- theater, with a palm leaf of victory in his right hand. Such drawings and inscriptions are often found on the ancient buildings of Rome also. They must have been the work of the common people and the young boys, for the writers are usually very uncer- tain in their grammar and spelling. Besides studying the ruins of Pompeii, we have another way of learning how the Romans lived. Not all of Rome's great men were generals and rulers; many were writers, and some, like Caesar, were great in both ways. Many of their books have been preserved to the present time, and are studied today in our high schools and col- DRAWING ON THE OUTER WALL OE A HOUSE IN POMPEII ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 101 leges; and from these books also we can learn much of Roman life. It is very interesting to compare the education of a Roman boy, as it is described in some of these books, with that given boys and girls in our own day. yj . .| , . Till, . . Education LJ ntil ne was six years old, the boy s trammg of a Roman was carried on at home. He was told stories of the Roman heroes, and of his own ancestors, and taught by means of these to be modest, brave, and obedient. He learned religion at the family altar, where his father sacrificed to the Roman gods. Perhaps he learned to speak Greek at home, from a Greek slave whom his father purchased for that purpose. When he began to go to school, it was necessary to be up and ready to start before daybreak. A slave accompanied him to the school, carrying a a Roman lantern to light the way and watching that no s*^**""**-****™ harm befell him. The schoolmaster sat on a raised platform at one end of the room, with the children on stools and benches in front of him. Around the walls there were lyres, or harps, to be used in the music lessons, and pictures of the gods or of scenes from the history of Rome. Above the master's bench there was a great stick, and the lazy boys had good reason to fear it when they did not know their lessons. In this lowest school, the children learned to read and to write. Instead of slates or sheets of paper, they had wooden tablets covered with wax; and on these they wrote with a sharp-pointed instru- children ment called a stylus. The other end of the stylus was blunt, so that when a pupil made a mistake in his writing, he could smooth out the soft wax with this end and try again. Here the children also learned 102 THE STORY OF EUROPE arithmetic. Perhaps the arithmetic which you have to study is diflScult for you; but think how much harder it must have been for the Roman boys. They did not have the plain and easy figures which you use, but only what we still call the "Roman numerals." If you ROMAN BOOKS AND WRITING MATERIALS In two of the pictures purses and heaps of coins are also shown want to see how much more difficult it is to use these, try to find the answer to XXIV times LXXXVII, and then see how much easier it is when it is written 24 times 87. Because their arithmetic was so hard, each pupil carried with him to school a counting-frame to help him. This was a wooden frame divided into lines and columns ; and he worked his problems with it by putting little pebbles in the different columns to represent the different denominations. ROME CAPITAL OF EMPIRE 103 After the boy had gone through this elementary school, if his parents could afford it he entered what was called a grammar school. There he studied Greek grammar, and read some of the famous books of that day, both Greek and Latin. Of course these were not printed books, as printing was not invented till fif- teen hundred years after this. These which he studied were all written with a pen, on smooth white parchment, or on paper made from the papyrus plant which grows in Egypt. Instead of being bound, as our books are, the pages of these were all pasted into one long strip, and then rolled tightly around a stick. All Roman boys of good families followed this course of training until they were about fifteen • Donning years old. Then they dis- the manly carded the "boyish toga," with its narrow purple border, and put on for the first time a toga all of white, such as the men wore. This was made a day of festival for the family. The young man went with his father and his friends into the Forum, where his name was written in the list of Roman citizens, and then to the temples on the Capitol to offer sacrifices to the gods. After this he might be called upon to TOGA— FRONT TOGA— BACK 104 THE STORY OF EUROPE serve in war, and he had the right to do everything that the grown men were allowed to do. For many years, throughout the length and breadth of the Roman Empire, life went on in the ways which ^.^ we have been describing. There were some Roman slight differences between the various pro- vinces, of course, but in the main the law, the government, the language, the manner of Hving, and the education were the same in all the lands about the Mediterranean Sea. Rome thus gave a unity to the ancient world which it had never had before, and this unity of civilization western Europe has never since lost. In this way the influence of the Roman Empire has been one of the greatest factors in the history of the world. Topics for Review and Search 1. Why was it impossible for Eome to remain a republic? 2. Why do we call Julius Caesar one of the world's greatest men"? 3. Eead the account of the murder of Caesar in Shakespeare's play entitled Julius Caesar (Act iii, Scene 7). 4. Eead the description of the eruption of Vesuvius in Bulwer Lytton's Last Days of Pompeii. 5. What studies do you have in school that Eoman boys did not have? 6. In what ways are Eoman numerals used today? 7. When is an American boy said to "come of age"? What rights does he then gain? XVII ROME AND CHRISTIANITY Pcints to te Noted Christianity arose under the Eoman rule; its spread in the Empire; attitude of the government; of the people. Persecution under the Emperor Nero; the catacombs; Christian martyrs; Polycarp; efiect of the persecutions. Organization of the Church; priests, bishops, archbishof)s, and Pope. Why men became hermits; rise of monasteries. For a century and a half after the time of Augustus the Roman Empire continued to be strong and pros- perous; then slowly its strength began to Beginnings pass from it. Meanwhile a power of a dif- chJlltian ferent sort was arising within its limits. '■®"^***" This was the power of the Christian religion, which took possession of the minds and hearts of the Romans; then of the barbarian Germans, who later conquered them; and so spread about the world and overcame it in a better way than that of Rome. Jesus was born during the reign of Augustus, when all the world was at peace under the Roman rule. When he was put to death, Judea was a Roman province; and Pontius Pilate, who sentenced him, was a Roman governor. It was the Apostle Paul chiefly who carried the teachings of Jesus, which were first addressed to the Jews, to the other nations which dwelt within the Roman Empire; and it was because Paul had been born in a town in which all men were regarded as Roman citizens, that he was enabled to appeal for a special trial at Rome when he was arrested in Judea for his teachings. 106 THE STORY OF EUROPE By this time there were little bands of Christians in many of the cities about the Mediterranean Sea, and How Rome it became an important question how the regarded t> , , the Koman government would treat the new ristians religion. Usually the Romans allowed the nations that they conquered to worship whatever gods they chose, and even to build their temples in Rome itself. But there were several reasons why the Romans would not let the Christians worship freely. The Jews made many false charges against them, for they were unwilling to see the Christians given the same toleration which they themselves enjoyed. The most serious reason, however, was that the Christians would not offer sacrifices to the Roman deities— especially to the statues of the Emperors, who were now looked upon as gods. The result was that they were charged with rebellion, and with plotting to overthrow the govern- ment; and whenever war, or famine, or disease, came upon the people, they were ready to blame it upon the Christians. "The gods are angry with us for sheltering those who deny them ! " they cried at such times. " The Christians must be put to death ! To the lions with the Christians !'* Then all persons who were suspected of holding the new faith were seized and hurried off to the judges. If The ^^^y admitted that they were Christians, they pliseclfted ^^^^ promptly sentenced to death. If they denied it, they were asked to offer sacrifice to the statue of the Emperor. In case they refused, the charge was regarded as proved, and they, too, were declared guilty. In this way the prisons were filled with Christians. It made no difference whether they were slave or free, old or young, strong men or delicate women,— their fate ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 107 was the same. When next the people were gathered to see the games in the Great Circus, the Christians were driven into the arena. Then lions and leopards were turned loose upon them, while the cruel Romans shouted and cheered from their seats above. The first persecution of the Christians at Rome took place while Nero was Emperor. A great fire had broken out, burning more than two-thirds of the city. The Romans blamed this upon their under Nero reckless Emperor; and it was reported that Nero had been seen on a tower, watching the fire and unfeelingly playing upon a harp. The Roman people were very angry, and for a time there was danger of rebellion. To quiet them, Nero had it reported that it was the Christians who had started the fire; and that while it was burning many of them had been seen going about with torches in their hands, lighting the buildings which had not yet caught. This turned the people's wrath from their Emperor to the Christians. The cry arose on every side, "To the lions with the Christians"; and hundreds of them were hurried off to prison. Nero invented many new and cruel punishments for them. Some were covered with the skins of wild beasts, and dogs were set on them. Others were wrapped in sheets of pitch, and burned at night in the Emperor's gardens. Others, more merci- fully, were put to death in their prisons ; and in later days it was said that the Apostles Peter and Paul were among those who so perished. It was not only evil Emperors, like Nero, who perse- cuted the Christians. Sometimes the worst treatment came by orders of good Emperors, who were ignorant of the real teachings of Christ and believed that the charges made against the sect were true. These troubles lasted 108 THE STORY OF EUROPE ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 109 for such a great letigth of time that for generations the Christians were forced to worship in secret, and have a refuge that should be always ready when danger threatened. One difference between the Christians and the Romans was in the way they disposed of their dead. Instead of burning the bodies, in the Roman fashion, the . . . . The cata- Christians buried them. The early Christians combs at 11-1 Rome dug out great tunnels and caves m the soft rock, and formed tombs along the sides of these. In the course of years the hills of Rome came to be mined through and through with such tunnels, called cata- combs. They make a great network of passages, miles and miles in length, which cross and recross one another, under the city, much as the Roman streets do on the surface of the ground. When a persecution began, the Christians would hide themselves underground in these streets of the dead; and there, at other times, they would often gather together in secret to hold their church services. The Christians who suffered death or grievous injury for their faith were called "martyrs." Some of the most earnest Christians eagerly sought to christian receive a martyr's death, and mourned if *"^^*^y''® they were not granted it. Even boys and girls became heroes in these persecutions, and endured death without flinching, — glad that they were suffering for Christ as Christ had suffered for them. One of the noblest martyrs of this time was a man named Polycarp, who was put to death in Asia Minor. He was then ninety years old; and all the Christians of the East looked up to him with love and admiration because he had been a disciple of the Apostle John. When the soldiers came to arrest him, their commander 110 THE STORY OF EUROPE took pity on him, and tried to persuade him to sacrifice to the Roman gods, and so save his life. The Roman governor also urged him to swear by the Emperor as by a god, and to give proof of his repentance by saying, with the people, "Away with the godless." But Polycarp looked with a firm eye at the crowd that stood by; then, pointing directly at them and with his eyes lifted to heaven, he cried : "Away with the godless!" The governor urged him further. "Curse Christ," said he, "and I will release you." "Eighty-six years have I served Him," answered Polycarp. "He has done me nothing but good, — and how could I curse Him, my Lord and Saviour.^ If you wish to know what I am, I tell you frankly that I am a Christian." When the people heard this confession they demanded that Polycarp should be burned at the stake; and they themselves gathered wood from the workshops and the baths. The Roman governor was obliged to give his consent; and Polycarp met his death with the same steadfastness and courage which he had shown at his trial. Men and women of all classes and of all ages were put to death for their faith; but the number of the Christians increased with each persecution. "Go on," said one of the Christian writers to the Roman rulers; "go on, — torture us and grind us to dust. Our numbers increase more rapidly than you mow us down. The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church." At length a time came when the persecutions ceased and the Emperors and all of their officers became Chris- tians. This happened while Constantine was on the ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 111 throne. His name is preserved for us in the name of the city of Constantinople, which he founded and made the new capital of the Empire. During the conversion early part of his reign he had to struggle for tfne '*°^'^°" power against several rivals. At one time, the *^"^ ^•^•* story goes, while he was marching rapidly from Gaul mto Italy to attack his enemies, he saw a flaming cross in the sky, in broad daylight, and on the cross were these words: "In this sign, .^^._ conquer!" In the battle which followed, Constantine did conquer, and he believed that he owed his victory to the God of the Christians. So, immediately afterwards, he issued an order to stop the persecutions and to permit the Christians to practice their religion openly and in peace. After this, Constantine be- came a Christian himself, and did all that he could to favor their cause. Temples were taken away from the priests of the old gods, and given to the Christians as churches; and only Christians were appointed to offices under the Empire. When Constantine died, his sons remained in the same faith; and the num- Itl^Z^"^ ber of the Christians grew rapidly. At last ''*^"'''"" the worship of the old gods was done away with altogether, and Christianity became the religion of the whole Empire. As the number of Christians increased, it had been A BISHOP ON HIS THRONE 112 THE STORY OF EUROPE necessary for the Church to have some form of organiza- tion. Such an organization had begun to grow long before the time of Constantine. First we tion of the find somc of the Christians set aside to act as priests, and have charge of the services in the churches. We find next, among the priests in each city, one who was styled the "overseeing priest" or bishop, whose duty it was to look after the affairs of the churches in his district. Gradually, too, the bishops in the more important cities came to have cer- tain powers over the bishops of the smaller cities about them; these were then called "arch-bishops." Finally, there was one out of the many hundred bishops of the Church who was looked up to more than any other person, and whose advice was sought in all important Church questions. This was because he had charge of the Church in Rome, the most important city of the Empire, and because he was believed to be the suc- cessor of Saint Peter, the chief of the Apostles. The name "Pope" (which means father) was given to him; and it was his duty to watch over all the affairs of the Church on earth, as a father watches over the affairs of his family. Besides these Church officers, there was another class of men who devoted their whole lives to the service of God. They were those who felt that the world was so wicked that they must flee to waste and desert places, in order to serve God acceptably and to escape the world's temptations. They were called hermits, and in course of time there A MONK Hermits and monks ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 113 came to be a considerable number of them. Then the practice arose of gathering together a group of such persons under a single head, and giving them definite rules to live by. The name monk was then given to them, and the place where they dwelt was called a monastery. In time monasteries came to be built everywhere, and the monks played a great part as missionaries among the barbarian tribes outside the Empire. In a later chapter you will read more about the life led by these monks, and of the many services which they rendered to the world. Topics for Review and Search 1. Eead the account in the New Testament of Paul's arrest impnso.ment, and appeal to Eome. (Acts, c\s xxi- 2. Tell in your own words why Eome persecuted the Christians. ^^Churciy "*^'' ^^'"^ "^ '^' "^""''y'' ^^^ the seed of the '■ '"^'^housan^^^a^rfarof"'^" "^^'^' ''''' ''' ''^'^ ^^ ^ XVIII THE ANCIENT GERMANS Points to be Noted Kelation of the ancient Germans to modern peoples; where they lived. Their personal appearance; their lack of civilization; meaning of civilization. German houses and manner of living. Battle of the Teutoberg Forest; German manner of fighting; relation of the leader to his followers. Their government; their religion; readiness to learn of other peoples. We must now turn to the story of the new race which was to accept Christianity, mingle with the peoples of the Roman Empire, and form the European cJimam nations that have founded the New Europes in America, Australia, and Africa. This new race was the race of the ancient Germans, the direct ancestors of the peoples who now speak German, English, Dutch, and Scandinavian. Sey*"^ They lived then, as part of their descendants ^'^^^ still do, in the lands extending from the North Sea and the Baltic on the north, to the Danube River on the south; and from the Rhine on the west, to the rivers Elbe and Oder on the east. This region is now one of the most flourishing countries in the world, with many great cities and millions of inhabitants. At that time it had no cities at all and but few inhabitants. The people had just begun to settle down and cultivate the soil, where before they had moved from place to place in search of fresh pasturage for their flocks and better hunting. The surface of the country was still almost THE ANCIENT GERMANS 115 as Nature had made it. Gloomy forests stretched for miles and miles where now there are sunny fields; and wide and treacherous marshes lay where the land now stands firm and solid. In this wild country, for many years, the Germans had room to live their own life. To the east were the Slavs, a people still ruder and more uncivilized than themselves. To the west and south were provinces of AN OLD GERMAN VILLAGE the Roman Empire, separated from them by the broad streams of the Rhine and the Danube. The Germans and Romans were very different in many ways. The Romans were short and dark, while the Germans were tall — very tall, they seemed to the Romans, — with fair skin, light hair, and of the 1 ii A, ,. ,.. Germans clear blue eyes. Also their ways of livmg — their clothing and houses, their occupations and mode 116 THE STORY OF EUROPE of warfare, their government and religion — all differed greatly from the Roman ways. We may sum up the difference by saying that the Romans were civilized, while the Germans were uncivil- TheGer- ^^^^' Civilization is the art of living together IJITJiviUzTd ^^ cities, and it is contrasted with the rude family and village life of the savage and barbarian peoples. Civilization means better houses, better food, and better clothing. It means the wearing of spun and woven fabrics of wool, Knen, etc., instead of skin garments. It means better roads and bridges, and sewers and other public conveniences. It also means organized governments and orderly societies, in place of savage independence and lawlessness; it means schools, museums, and libraries; more reasonable laws, and more spiritual religion. In all of these things the Romans were in advance of the Germans; but in course of time the Germans were to learn from the Romans all of the civilization that they had learned from the Greeks, or had developed for themselves. When the Germans first began to play a part in history, their clothing was made chiefly from the skins of animals. Usually it did not cover the whole body, the arms and shoulders at least being left free. When the German was in a lazy mood he would sit for days by the fire, clad only in a long cloak of skins; then, when he prepared to hunt or to fight, he would put on close-fitting garments and leave his cloak behind. The houses in which the Germans lived were mere cabins or huts. Nothing was used but wood, and that Their was not planed smooth, but was roughly hewn into boards and timbers. Sometimes a cave would be used for a dwelling, and often a house of timber would have an underground room attached to THE ANCIENT GERMANS 117 it; this was for warmth in winter, and also for protection against their enemies. Sometimes in summer the people made huts of twigs, woven together in much the same way that a basket is woven. Such houses were very flimsy, but they had the advantage of being easily moved from place to place. Often, too, the house sheltered not only the family, but the horses and cattle as well, all living under one roof. You can imagine that this was not a very healthful plan. The Germans gained their living partly from hunting and partly from tilling the soil. They also depended a great deal upon their herds and flocks for meat, as well as for milk and the foods which of living they made from milk. The care of the cattle and the tilling of the soil, as well as the housework, fell chiefly to the women; and we may here note that the position of the women was higher, and that they played a more important part, among the Germans than among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Most of the occupations of which we now see so much were not known to the Germans. There was hardly any trading either among themselves or with other nations. Each family supplied its own needs by making the things necessary to its use. The women spun and wove a little linen and other cloth, tanned leather, made soap (which perhaps was first invented by the Germans), and made a few other things. But all this was only for use in their own families. There were no trading places, and almost no commerce, except in a few things such as skins and amber. One occupation, however, was con- sidered good enough for any man to follow. This was the trade of the blacksmith. The skillful smith was highly honored, for he not only made tools to work with, but also weapons with which to hunt and to fight. 118 THE STORY OF EUROPE But usually the free man considered it beneath his dignity to work in any way. He preferred to hunt Battle of or to fight; and when not doing either, berg^ForeTt would probably be found by the fire, sleeping (9 A.D.) ^j, idling away his time in games of chance. He was a warrior more than anything else; and the Romans had reason to know that the Germans were very stubborn fighters. At one time, while Augustus was Emperor, three legions of the Roman army, under an officer named Varus, were entrapped and slain at a place in Germany called the Teutoberg forest. The shock of this defeat was felt so keenly at Rome that, long after this, the Emperor would awake at night from restless sleep, and cry out: "Varus, Varus, give me back my legions!" After this defeat the Romans learned to be more careful in fighting the Germans. The Romans had the advantage of better weapons, better knoA'vledge of how to fight, and greater wealth with which to carry on a war. So, in spite of some decided victories over the soldiers of the Empire, the Germans were obliged for many years to acknowledge Rome as the stronger; and Roman soldiers were even stationed in some parts of the German territory. Among the Germans no man dared to flee from the field of battle, for cowardice was punished with death. To leave one's shield behind was the greatest The leader „ . , , ,. i • .1 and his of crimcs, and made a man disgraced m the sight of all. Bravery was the chief of virtues, and it was this alone which could give a man the leader- ship of an army. The general was chosen for his valor, and he kept his position only so long as he continued to show himself brave. He must be an example to all his followers, and must fight in the front ranks. When a THE ANCIENT GERMANS 119 general was chosen by his fellow warriors, they raised him upon their shields as a sign of their choice. If he proved less worthy than they had thought, they could easily choose another general in his place. The leader and his men were constantly reminded that upon their strength and courage depended the safety and happiness of their wives and children; for their families often followed the army to battle, and witnessed the combats from rude carts or wagons, mingling their shrill cries with the din of battle. Times of peace among these early Germans would seem to us much like war. Every man carried his weapons about with him, and used them . freely. Human life was held cheap, and a J^^j!*^® quarrel was often settled by the sword. There was no strong government to punish wrong and protect the weak; so men had to protect and help themselves. A man was bound to take up the quarrels, or feuds, of his family, and avenge by blood a wrong done to any of his relatives. As a result, there was constant fighting. Violent deeds were frequent, and their punishment was light. If a man injured another, or even committed murder, the law might be satisfied, and the offender excused, by the payment of a fine to the injured man or to his family. Some tribes of the Germans had kings, but others had not. Even among those tribes that had kings, the power of the ruler in time of peace was not very great. The kings were not born kings, ment of the •^ ° ^ c 1 1 Germans but were chosen by the consent of the people. Some few families, because they had greater wealth or for some other reason, were looked upon with such respect that they were considered noble; and kings were chosen from among their number. Yet each man stood 120 THE STORY OF EUROPE upon his own merits, too; and neither wealth nor birth could keep a king in power, if he proved evil in rule or weak in battle. The rulers decided only the matters that were of small importance. When it came to serious matters, such as making war or changing the customs of the tribe, the "folk" assembled together and decided for itself. In their assemblies they showed disapproval by loud murmurs, while approval was shown by clashing their shields and spears together. Every free man had the right to attend the folk- meeting of his district, and also the general assembly of the whole tribe. At the period of which speaking, the Germans did not believe in as we do, but The names of their gods are preserved in the names which we have for the days of the week. From the god Tyr (Tin) comes Tuesday, from Woden comes Wednesday, and from Thor comes Thursday. Tyr was the god of courage and of w^ar. The sword was his especial emblem. He inspired men to perform heroic deeds in battle, and to endure suffering without flinching. Songs were sung in his honor, places named for him, and even human beings sacrificed to him. we are Their religion one God in many, some of WODEN THE ANCIENT GERMANS 121 Woden was the chief of the gods, and was worshiped especially as the god of the sky. Because he controlled the winds, it was natural that he should be the god to whom those people looked who depended upon the sea, so he became the protector of sailors. He was also a god of war, and the spear was his emblem. To his palace, Valhalla, the souls of dead heroes were borne to spend their days in fighting and in feasting. Next in importance to Woden was Thor, the god of thunder and lightning. His emblem was a hammer. When it thundered the people said that Thor with his hammer was fighting the ice- giants; so he was regarded as the enemy of winter, and the giver of good crops. Besides these chief gods, there were many less impor- tant ones. Among these were spirits of the forest and rivers, and the gnomes or dwarfs who dwelt in the earth, guard- ing the stores of precious metals and jewels which it contains. Long after the old religion had come to an end, the descendants of the ancient Germans remem- bered these spirits, and stories of their tricks and good deeds were handed down from father to son. In this way the Germans kept something of the old religion in the beautiful fairy tales which we still love; and in our Christmas and Easter usages we find other traces of their old beliefs and customs. 122 THE STORY OF EUROPE When missionaries went among them, however, the Germans became Christians. This shows one of the Readiness greatest quaHties which they possessed. They Germans wcrc wilUng and able to learn from other to earn peoples, and to change their customs to suit new conditions. Other races who did not learn so readily, like the American Indians, have declined and died away when they have been brought in contact with a higher civilization. But the Germans had the ability to learn from the Greeks and the Romans; so they grew from a rude half-barbarous people, into great and civilized nations. Topics for Review and Search 1. Describe the German village pictured on p. 115. 2. Make a list of the good qualities of the early Germans. 3. Do the same for their bad qualities. 4. In what ways were the Germans like the American Indians? In what ways were they different? 5. Eead stories of the German gods. (Mabie, Norse Stories; Bradish, Old Norse Stories; Guerber, Myths of Northern Lands.) 6. Eead "The Story of Wulf the Saxon Boy," in Jane Andrews' "Ten Boys." XIX THE GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE Points to be Noted The Germans as heirs to the Romans. The first invaders; Goths on the Danube; their conversion to Christianity by Ulfilas. The coming of the Huns; admission of the Goths into the Em- pire; battle of Adrianople; its results. Character of Alaric; his invasion of Italy; the sack of Rome; Alaric's death and burial; the Gothic kingdom in Spain, Why other Germans invaded the Empire; its fall. The Franks in Gaul; what Clovis did for them; conversion of the Franks; extent of Clovis's kingdom; relations of the Franks and Romans; Gaul becomes France. In the two centuries from 378 a.d. to 568, the Ger- mans overthrew the government of the Roman Empire, destroyed many of its rich cities, and in some The places swept away nearly all traces of Roman the Tleirl of civilization. On the whole, however, more ^"^^ was preserved than was destroyed, so that the German invaders became not merely the successors of Rome, but also her imitators and heirs. The people which took the lead in breaking through the boundaries of the Empire, and who did most to bring about the downfall of Roman rule in the West, ^^ ^ ^ Ihe Croths was the nation of the Goths. In the latter part on the ^ Danube of the fourth century after Christ, the Goths were dwelling along the shores of the Black Sea and just north of the lower course of the Danube River. There they had been living for more than a hundred years, and in this time they had learned from their Roman neighbors many civilized ways. 123 124 THE STORY OF EUROPE The greatest thing that they learned was Christianity. This was brought to them by one of their own men, They named Ulfilas, who spent a number of years chHsTfans ^^ Constantinople, the city which Constantine had made the capital of the Roman world. There he became a Christian priest, and when he returned to his people he began to work as a missionary among them. His chief work was to translate the Bible from the Greek language into the Gothic. This task was made all the harder by the fact that before he could begin he had to invent an alphabet in which to write down the Gothic words, for the Goths had then no written language. After his translation was made, the Goths rapidly became Christians. Their rulers were beginning to build up a great kingdom about the Danube and the Black Sea, when suddenly an event happened which was to change all their later history, and the history of the world as well. This was the coming of the Huns into Europe. The Huns were not like Europeans; indeed the Goths and the Romans thought that they were scarcely human The Huns ^^ ^^^' "^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ Asia, and were Gofhs '^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ th^ Chinese. Their strange feat- ures and customs, and their shrill voices, were entirely new to Europe. An old Gothic writer gives us a picture of them. ''Nations whom they could never have defeated in fair fight," he says, "fled in horror from those frightful faces,— if, indeed, I may call them faces, for they are nothing but shapeless black pieces of flesh, with little points instead of eyes. They have no hair on their cheeks or chins. Instead, the sides of their faces show deep furrowed scars; for hot irons are applied, with characteristic ferocity, to the face of every boy that is born among them, so that blood is drawn from his GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 125 cheeks. The men are little in size, but quick and active in their motions; and they are especially skillful in rid- ing. They are broad-shouldered, are good at the use of the bow and arrow, have strong necks and are always holding their heads high in their pride. To sum up, these beings, under the forms of men, hide the fierce natures of beasts." A HUN WARRIOR The Goths were brave, but they could not stand against such men as these. They fled in terror before the countless hordes of the new-comers; and "stretching out their hands from afar, with flee into the loud lamentations," they begged the Roman ^""^"^ oflficers to permit them to cross the Danube River and settle in the Roman lands. 126 THE STORY OF EUROPE Battle of Adrianople (378 A.D.) The Roman Emperor granted their request; and the Goths might have become his peaceful and loyal sub- jects had they not been mistreated by Roman officers. They were too high-spirited and war- like to submit to oppression, and they soon rose in rebellion. In a great battle, at Adrianople, they completely defeated the Romans and slew the Emperor. Then they wandered about at will, ravaging and plunder- ing Roman territory, until the new Emperor made peace by giving them lands on which to settle. GOTHS ON THE MARCH Some years later the Goths were under a young and ambitious ruler named Alaric, who had learned Roman ways of fighting. The Empire was now weak and badly ruled. So, as an old Gothic writer tells us, Alaric "took counsel with his people, and they determined to carve out new kingdoms for themselves, rather than, through idleness, to continue the subjects of others." Alaric set his heart upon winning Italy for his people, and hoped to capture Rome itself, with its rich treasures Alaric leads g^^^^^^^^ from the cuds of the earth. For a imo^ta?^ time he was opposed by the gigantic Stilicho, a German general in the service of Rome. But when Stilicho was put to death at the order of his GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 127 jealous master, there was no one who could resist the Goths. Alaric marched upon Rome, and three times, in three successive years, laid siege to the city. When asked what terms he would give the people of Rome, Alaric demanded as ransom all their gold, silver, and precious goods, together with their slaves who were of barbarian blood. In dismay they asked : "And what then will you leave to us?" "Your lives," he grimly replied. When Alaric advanced the third time upon Rome, its gates were opened by Roman slaves. For the first time since the burning of Rome by the Gauls, sack of eight hundred years before, the Romans now ^**"*® (**®) saw a foreign foe within their gates — slaying, destroy- ing, plundering, committing endless outrages upon the people and their property. To the Romans it seemed that the end of the world was surely at hand. At the end of the sixth day Alaric and his Goths came forth from the city, carrying their booty and their captives with them. They now marched Death into the south of Italy, destroying all who «f^*^"<^ resisted and plundering what took their fancy. But in the midst of their preparations to cross over into Sicily their leader, Alaric — "Alaric the Bold," as they loved to call him^suddenly sickened. After an illness of only a few days, he died, leaving the Goths weakened by the loss of the greatest king they were ever to know. Alaric's life had been one of the strangest in history, and his burial was equally strange. His followers wished to lay him where no enemy might His disturb his grave. To this end they com- ^""^* pelled their captives to dig a new channel for a little river near by, and turn aside its waters. Then, in the old bed of the stream, they buried their beloved leader, clad in his richest armor, and mounted upon his favorite 128 THE STORY OF EUROPE war horse. When all was finished, the stream was turned back into its old channel, and the captives were slain, in order that they might not reveal the place of the burial. And there, to this day, rest the bones of Alaric, the Gothic King. Of the Goths after the death of Alaric, we need say very little. Their new leader was a wise and moderate man. He saw that his people, though they could fight well, and overturn a state, were not yet ready to take the government of Rome for themselves. "I wish," he said, "not to destroy, but to restore and to maintain the prosperity of the Roman Empire." It was agreed that the Goths should march into Gaul and Spain, drive out the barbarians who had pushed in there, and rule the land in the name of the The Goths rrn . i settle in Empcror. This they did; and there they established a power which became strong and prosperous, and lasted until new barbarians from the north, and the Moors from Africa, pressed in upon them, and brought, at the same time, their kingdom and their history to an end. While the Goths were winning lands and booty within the Empire, the other Germans could not long remain idle. They saw that the legions had been recalled from the frontiers in order to guard Italy. They saw their own people suffering from hunger and want. Behind them, too, they felt the pressure of other nations, driv- ing them from their pastures and hunting grounds. So the news of Rome's weakness and Alaric's victories filled other peoples with eagerness to try their fortunes Other in the southern lands. Other tribes began ?nt™^"^ to stream across the borders of the Empire, the Empire g^^^^ ^^^ stream became a flood, and the flood a deluge. All Germany seemed stirred up and hurled GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 129 against the Empire. Wave after wave swept south- ward; horde after horde appeared within the limits of the Empire, seeking lands and goods. For two hundred years this went on. Armies and nations went wandering up and down, burning, robbing, slaying, and making captives. It was a time of confusion, suffering, and change; when of the the "uncouth Goth," the "horrid Hun," and ^"'''"^ wild-eyed peoples of many names, struggled for the FRANKS CROSSING THE RHINE lands of Rome. All of the Roman Empire in the West, — Gaul, Spain, Africa, Britain, and Italy — was overrun by the invaders, and the rule passed from the Roman Emperor into the hands of German chieftains. It seemed that everything was being overturned and nothing built up to take the place of what was destroyed. But this was only in seeming. Unknowingly, these nations were laying the foundations of a new civilization and a new world. For, out of this mixing of peoples and institutions, this blending of civilizations, arose the 130 THE STORY OF EUROPE nations, the states, the institutions, of the world of today. Each of the German nations helped in its own way to make the Europe of the present day, but the Franks were the only people who succeeded, on the seTtTein continent, in building a permanent kingdom ^^"^ within the boundaries of the old Empire. A hundred years before the Goths crossed the Danube, bands of Franks had been allowed to cross the Rhine, from their homes on the eastern bank of that river, and to establish themselves as the allies or subjects of Rome on the western bank. There they had dwelt, gain- ing in numbers and in power, until news came of the deeds of Alaric. Then the Franks, too, began to build up a power of their own within the Roman territory; and gradually they occupied what is now northern France, together with Belgium and Holland. The Franks were yet far ARMS OF FRANKS ^^^^ being stroug as a people. They were still heathen, and they had not yet learned, Uke the Goths, to wear armor or to fight on Their early horscback. They went to war half-naked, weakness armed only with a barbed javelin, a sword, and a short battleax. They were not united, but were divided into a large number of small tribes, each ruled GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 131 over by its own petty king. Besides all this, they had many rivals, even in Gaul itself. It was mainly due to one man that the Frankish power was not overcome, but instead was able to over- come all its enemies. This man was Clovis, whatciovis the King of one of the little bands of the them'^ Franks. Though he was ^^^^"^^^^ only sixteen years of age when he succeeded his father as King of his tribe, he soon proved himself to be one of the ablest, but alas ! one of the craftiest and crudest leaders of this crafty and cruel people. In the thirty years that he reigned, he united all the Franks under his own rule; he greatly improved the arms and organization of the army; he extended their territory to the south, east, and west; and he caused his people to be baptized as Christians. A story is told of Clovis which shows the rude, independent spirit of the Franks, and the ruth- ^ ' , Story of lessness of their king, ciovis and *^ the vase When the booty was be- ing divided by lot after a battle, Clovis wished to obtain a beautiful vase that had been taken from one of the churches, that he might return it to the priests. But one of his Franks cried out : ** Thou shalt have only what the lot gives thee ! " And saying this he broke the vase with his battleax. Clovis could do nothing then to resent this insult. But the next year he detected this soldier in a fault. A FRANKISH CHIEF 13^2 THE STORY OF EUROPE The Franks become Christians and slew him in the presence of the army, saying: "It shall be done to thee as thou didst to the vase!" When Clovis first became King, the Franks worshiped the old gods, Woden and Thor. Before he died, however, he and most of his people had been baptized and become Chris- tians. His conver- sion came about in this way. While he was fighting against some neighboring Germans, he saw his Franks one day driven from the field. He prayed to the old gods to turn the defeat into vic- tory, but still his troops gave way. Then he bethought him that his wife Clotilda had long been urging him to give up his old gods and become a Chris- tian. He determined now to try the God of his wife, so he cried out: "O Christ Jesus, I beseech Thee for aid! If Thou wilt grant me victory over these enemies, I will believe in Thee and be baptized in Thy name ! " With this he renewed the battle, and at last won a BAPTISM OF CLOVIS GERMANS INVADE THE EMPIRE 133 great victory. As a result, Clovis became a Christian, and his warriors followed his example. But Clovis's conversion was only half a conversion. He changed his beliefs, but not his conduct. When the story was told him of the way Jesus suffered death on the cross, he grasped his battleax fiercely and exclaimed: '*If I had been there with my Franks I would have revenged His wrongs!" In spite of his conversion, Clovis remained a rude warrior, a cruel and unscrupu- lous ruler. Before his death, in the year 511, Clovis had won for the Franks a kingdom which reached from the Rhine on the north and east, almost to the Pyrenees ' Mountains on the south. To all this land, becomes Fr3.tic6 which before had borne the name Gaul, the name "Francia" was gradually applied, from the race that conquered it; and under the name of France it is still one of the most powerful nations of Europe. When the Franks conquered Gaul, they did not kill or drive out the people who already lived there. They allowed the Romans to keep most of their lands, but made them pay to the Prankish Franks and kings the taxes which they had before paid to the Emperor. The old inhabitants were now highly civilized, while the Franks were just taking the first steps in civilization. As the years went by, however, the differences between the conquerors and the conquered became less. The Romans found that times were changed, and they had to adopt the habits of the Franks in some respects. The Franks had already adopted the reUgion of their subjects; they began also to adopt their language and some of their customs. In this way, the two peoples at last became as one; but it was several centuries before this end was fully reached. 134 THE STORY OF EUROPE Topics for Review and Search 1. What New England missionary did work among the Indians similar to that done by Ulfilas among the Goths? 2. Find out what you can about Attila, the King of the Huns. (Bead in Price, Wandering Heroes, pp. 134-150.) 3. Head the story of the war between the Franks and the Mohammedans. (Harding, Story of the Middle Ages, ch. xi.) 4. Read the story of Charlemagne, the greatest King of the Franks. (Harding, Story of the Middle Ages, ch. xii.) XX THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND Points to be Noted Where tlie English came from; their liking for the sea; how they first came to Britain; date. Conquest of Britain; the legends of King Arthur; what became of the Britons. The seven English kingdoms; English local government; the Witenagemot; classes of the people. Disappearance of Roman civilization and Christianity froni England; how Gregory became interested; the coming of Augustine; conversion of the English; what the monks did for England. Union of the English under the King of Wessex. Among the German tribes who invaded the Roman Empire were the ancestors of the English people of today. They were then called Angles, Saxons, ^^^ ^^^ and Jutes. For many generations they had EngUsh^m dwelt in northern Germany, by the shores of the North Sea and the Baltic. Their ways of living were like those of the other Germans of that time. They had never been governed by the Romans, so they knew nothing of Roman civilization or of the Christian reli- gion. More than any other Germans, perhaps, they loved the sea, a Uking which their situation made it easy for them to gratify. They delighted to swoop down on unsuspecting coasts, gather what booty they could, and then take to their ships again before resistance could be formed. A Roman poet sings of the Old English in these words: "Foes, are they, fierce beyond other foes, and cunning as they are fierce. The sea is their school of war, and 135 136 THE STORY OF EUROPE They come to Britain (449 A.D.) the storm is their friend. They are sea- wolves that prey on the pillage of the world!" So long as the Romans ruled Britain, the English made only pirate raids on that land. But when the Goths came into Italy, it became necessary for Rome to withdraw her legions from Britain, and to leave the Britons to defend themselves. Fierce tribes from Ire- land and Scotland then attacked them; and the Britons, owing to their long rule by Rome, were not able to beat off these enemies. Then a ruler of the Britons, about the year 449, invited a band of the Old English sea- rovers to assist his people against these enemies. He prom- ised to supply the English with provisions during the war, and to give them for their own an island near the mouth of the Thames River. The bargain was agreed to, and the English came, under the lead, it is said, of two brothers, named Hengist and Horsa. They soon defeated the enemies of the Britons, and freed them from that danger. Then they quarreled with their employers, on the ground that the provisions furnished them were not sufficient. "Unless more plentiful supplies are brought us," they said, "we will break our agreement with you, and ravage the whole country. " The English were strengthened by the arrival of many new shiploads from their home lands, and war with the Britons followed. It lasted for nearly two centuries, and OLD ENGLISH SHIPS THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 137 ended in the conquest by the new-comers of all that part of the island (England, or ** Angle-land") which we still call by their name. We know very _. , „ , . T They con- little of the details of this struggle. It was quer the Britons a long and bitter contest, with much fierce and cruel fighting. Little by little, the Britons were driven back toward the west and north. When cap- tured, they were either killed or enslaved. The Roman cities were either destroyed by fire, or were left unoccu- pied and fell into ruins. Fresh bands of the English kept coming in, bringing their families, their cattle, and their goods. In later days, the descendants of the Brit- ons loved to tell stories of a great King, named Arthur, who led his people to many vic- tories against the Eng- lish. King Arthur was pure in thought and deed, and was with- old English warriors out fear. It was said (From an old manuscript) that he was mysteriously cast up by the sea, a new-born babe, to be heir to the kingdom. When he became King he gathered warriors like himself in council, , ^ , ^ Legend of about the famous Round Table, and led them King . Arthur to war. He bore an enchanted sword of vic- tory, and protected his people from their enemies for many years. At last he was miraculously carried away to a happy island, there to live until he should come again to rule Britain once more. So many stories gathered about the name of Arthur that the tales of the Knights of the Round Table are almost as numerous 138 THE STORY OF EUROPE MAP OF SAXON KINGDOMS THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 139 and famous as the thousand and one tales of the Arabian Nights. In spite of King Arthur — if there really was such a person — the Britons were pushed back into the moun- tains of the west. There, under the name of ^. „ .^ The Britons the Welsh, they remain to this day. All of ^^^^^ ^^^ the eastern, central, and southeastern parts of the island, however, passed into the hands of the English, who set up seven separate kingdoms. The Jutes settled in the southeastern district, which formed the kingdom of Kent. The southern coast was occupied by the Saxons. Those nearest the rpj^^^g^gj^ Jutes formed the kingdom of the South Saxons |?Jf ^j^^^J^^ or "Sussex." Farther west were the West Saxons, with their kingdom of "Wessex." Just north of the Jutes were the East Saxons, in what is called "Essex." The greater part of the eastern coast, as well as the interior of the country, was in the hands of the Angles, who formed the kingdoms of "East Angha, " "Mercia, " and "Northumberland" (the land north of the Humber River). The names Kent, Sussex, and Essex are still used as the names of English counties; and a number of places in the United States also bear these names, which were given them by settlers who came from those parts of England to the New World. The local governments which the Old English set up are important, because they grew into forms of govern- ment which the first English settlers estab- ^^^^^^_ lished in Virginia and Massachusetts. They J[^|**^^2/jgij lived in small villages of rude and comfortless huts, and each village and its lands formed a " township. " The townships, in turn, were grouped into districts called "hundreds." Each hundred had its own public meeting, called the "moot," which decided the affairs 140 THE STORY OF EUROPE of the hundred. The warriors from all the hundreds of each kingdom met in a "folk-moot," or meeting of all the people. When the small kingdoms were com- bined, in later days, into larger kingdoms, these folk- moots became '* shire-moots, " or county courts, and the original kingdoms became "shires," or counties of the larger kingdom. For the whole kingdom there was then a meeting of the wise men called the "Witan, " or the " Witenagemot. " At the head of each kingdom was a king. Below the king there were two classes of freemen — the nobles, who soon came to be called "thegns, " and the common people. Below the freemen were the "slaves," who could be bought and sold like cattle, and had no rights at all. Then there was a class of "unfree" people, who could not be bought and sold, yet in some ways had not the rights of freemen, and could not go and come as they pleased. The life of these Old English was very rude and simple. They had no great cities, and almost the only roads „. and bridges were the ones which the Romans Disappear- ° Christfanit ^^^ built. At first the English had no statues, no paintings, no books. When they drove out the Britons, they drove out with them all the Roman culture. The Enghsh were still heathen, worshiping the Teutonic gods, Woden and Thor. Christianity disappeared in those parts of the island which passed into their hands. The priests were slain or driven out, and the churches were destroyed or fell into ruins. The Britons continued to be Christians, but for some time they refused to send missionaries among their enemies. So it happened that the chief missionary to the English came, not from among the Britons, but from far-off Rome. THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 141 There, one day, a monk named Gregory saw some boys offered for sale as slaves. Their bodies were fair, their faces beautiful, and their hair soft and Gregory and fine. Gregory asked whence they came, slaves "From Britain," was the answer. "There the people, are all fair, like these boys." Then he asked whether they were Christians, and was told that they were still heathen. "Alas," said he, "what a pity that lads of such fair faces should lack inward grace." He wished next to know the name of their nation. "They are called Angles," was the reply. "They should be called angels, not Angles,'"' said Gregory; "for they have angelic faces. What is the name of their king?" "Aella, " was the answer. "Alleluia," said Gregory, making another pun, "the praise of God the Creator must be sung in those parts. " Gregory was so deeply impressed by the sight of these boys that he wished to go himself as a missionary to the English; but this he could not do. A few Gregory years later he became Pope. He was very If^nariTs'^to learned and pious, and did so much to benefit ^"^*^"^ the Church that he is called Gregory the Great. He still remembered the English, and soon sent Augustine, a pious monk of Rome, to preach the Gospel to that people. Augustine, with forty companions, landed in the English kingdom of Kent, in the year 597. The King of Kent had married a Christian princess of Gaul, and was disposed to deal kindly with lands in Augustine. But he received him in the open air, for fear some magic might be used if the meeting were held under a roof. The monks came up in pro- cession, singing, and carrying a silver cross and a picture 142 THE STORY OF EUROPE of Christ. After listening to the preaching of Augustine, the King said: "Your words and promises are fair, but they are new to us. I cannot approve of them so far as to forsake the religion which I have so long followed, with the whole English nation. But we will give you food and housing, and we do not forbid you to preach and to gain as many as you can to your religion. " The King gave Augustine and his companions a place to live in, in his capital, Canterbury. He also per- _, ^^, mitted The King of Kent them to converted repair an old Christian church there, and to build a monas- tery. Soon the earnest preaching and holy living of the monks im- pressed the King and his people, and they became Christians. Thus Canterbury became the oldest of the English churches. When the Church was organized a little later for all England, the Archbishop of Canterbury was made its head, under the Pope. Other missionaries worked in different parts of Eng- land, but it was nearly a hundred years before all England accepted Christianity. Sometimes, when a kingdom seemed completely converted, a new King would come to the throne who would drive out the Christian priests, destroy the churches, and restore the heathen worship. But the missionaries persevered, and in the end the Christian faith conquered. AN EARLY ENGLISH CHURCH THE FOUNDING OF ENGLAND 143 At one time the King of Northumberland called his leading men together to discuss the question of accepting Christianity. One of the , ... Northum- tnegns gave nis opmion m these words: beriand " The life of man in this world, O King, may be likened to what happens when you are sitting at supper with your thegns, in winter time. A fire is blazing on the hearth, and the hall is warm; but outside the rain and the snow are falling, and the wind is howling. A sparrow comes and flies through the hall; it enters by one door, and goes out by another. While it is within the hall, it feels not the howling blast; but when the short space of rest is over, it flies out into the storm again, and passes away from our sight. Even so it is with the brief life of man. It appears for a little while; but what precedes it, or what comes after it, we know not at all. Where- fore, if this new teaching can tell us anything of this, let us harken and follow it." Then the missionary who had come to them, one of Augustine's followers, was allowed to speak. When he was through, the high priest of the pagan religion led the way in destroying the old temples and idols, saying: *' The more diligently I sought after truth in that worship, the less I found it." Most of these early missionaries, like Augustine and his companions, were monks. They not only taught the people the truths of the Christian religion, but they taught them higher standards of of the living. Their monasteries became models of agriculture for all the country. They established schools in the monasteries, and some of the English learned to read and write. All their books were in Latin, for that was the language used by the Church in its services. The result was that few persons could read 144 THE STORY OF EUROPE them. It was a great thing, nevertheless, that there should be at least some men in every village who knew the language and something of the literature of ancient Rome. It meant that the English as a people had ceased to be barbarians, and had begun to be civilized, like the Romans who preceded them. At first the seven kingdoms of the English were often at war with one another. Then gradually the stronger kingdoms began to gain power over the England weaker ones. Finally, at the beginning "nderone of the ninth century, the King of Wessex was *"^ able to bring all the other kingdoms under his rule, and establish a single kingdom for all England. But perhaps this union would not have proved permanent, had it not been for the fact that the English were soon exposed to the dangers of invasion from enemies as rude and as warlike as they themselves had been when they first came to the island, nearly four hundred years before. Topics for Review and Search 1. Read an account of the early Britons, and their conquest by the Romans. (Harding, Story of England, chs. ii, ill.) 2. How did the English conquest of Britain differ from the Roman? 3. Read some stories of King Arthur and his Round Table. (Maitland, Heroes of Chivalry.) 4. Read the story of Beowulf. (Child, Beowulf.) 5. Find out what you can about the English monk, Bede. (Harding, Story of England, p. 37.) XXI KING ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN Points to be Noted Where the Northmen (or Danes) came from; founding of Nor- mandy; their voyages to the West; discovery of Vinland; what Leif Ericsson had really discovered. Danish attacks upon England; date; by whom their conquests were stopped. Youth of Alfred; dates of his reign; his victory over the Danes; the treaty of peace; results. What Alfred did for England. The new-comers who invaded England were the Northmen, — or the "Danes" as the English called them. They were inhabitants of the northern lands ^ ^ •^ . Deeds which now form the kingdoms of Denmark, of the ^ Danes Norway, and Sweden. They were Low- Germans, like the English; and like the ancestors of the English they were great pirates and sea-rovers. In the eighth and ninth centuries they began to swarm forth from their northern homes and overrun all western Europe. In France, after repeated attacks throughout the ninth century, they at last settled down in a large district about the mouth of the River Seine, which was given them by the French King. There they became known as the "Normans," and the name Normandy is still given to that district. Nor did they stop with Europe. For us, what they did outside of Europe is much more important. If you will look on a globe, you will see that the _. " ... -r Discoveries great island of Iceland, which lies in the North m the Atlantic Ocean, is only about seven hundred miles west of Norway, and that Greenland lies only 146 THE STORY OF EUROPE about three hundred miles beyond that. Both of these lands were discovered by the Northmen "vikings," or sea-rovers; and in both they made settlements. Then came what for us is the most interesting discovery of all. In the year 1000, one of these Greenland settlers, named Leif Ericsson, was returning from a visit to Leif Norway. The viking ships were really only discovers large boats, and this one was so tossed about (1000 A.D.) by storms that it was driven some hundreds of miles west and south of Greenland. There Leif REMAINS OF A VIKING SHIP FOUND IN SWEDEN found a new land, to which he gave the name Vinland, because of the wild grapes or berries which he found in it. The report which he brought to Greenland of this new land seemed so favorable that some of the Northmen went there and formed a settlement. But fierce battles occurred with the natives, and soon the settlers returned to Greenland; and after a while, except for the accounts preserved in the "sagas," or stories ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 147 of the time, all knowledge of Vinland was lost. There can be no doubt, however, that what Leif Ericsson had discovered was some part of the continent of North America, and that these viking Northmen were really the first discoverers and settlers of the New World. In the story which you are now reading, however, we are most concerned with what the Northmen, or "Danes," did in England. They first began ^, _ ' & J & The Danes to plunder the coasts of that land nearly a attack hundred years before they discovered Iceland, and more than two hundred years before they found Vinland. In the beginning their attacks on England were like those which the English themselves had made when they first began to come to that land. Then, like the English again, they began to come in armies, in order to make conquests and set up kingdoms of their own. The Danes were still heathen, as the English had been when they first came; so they destroyed and plundered the monasteries and churches, and slew or drove out the priests and monks. In this way, little by little, the Danes overran the greater part of England, until all had been taken except Wessex itself. Here they were met by the young King, Alfred — "the wisest, best, and greatest King that ever reigned in England," — and their advance was checked Youth of and their conquests stopped. When he was ^^^^^ very young, Alfred had accompanied his father to Rome, and spent a year or two there. At home, his mother trained her children carefully, and encouraged them to study. One day she said to them: "Do you see this little book, with its clear black writing, and the beautiful letter at the beginning, painted in red, blue, and gold.^ It shall belong to the one who first learns its songs." 148 THE STORY OF EUROPE ''Mother, " said Alfred, "will you really give that beautiful book to me if I learn it first? " "Yes," was the reply, "I really will/' x\lfred took the book to his teacher, and soon learned to repeat the verses; and thus he earned the coveted prize. This story shows us his quickness of mind, and his interest in learning, which made him noted in after years. When Alfred grew to manhood, he found stern work to do, for the Danes were advancing into Wessex. His older brother Ethelred was King of Wessex, and Alfred worked loyally to help him. A historian of that time writes of a certain year that "nine general battles were fought this year south of the River Thames; besides which Alfred, the King's brother, and single rulers of shires and king's thegns, oftentimes made attacks on the Danes which are not counted." In one of these battles, Ethelred was wounded so badly that he died, and Alfred became King in his , ^, place. Alfred ruled for thirty years, from Alfred be- comes King 871 to 901. At first his attention was given chiefly to the Danes. Again and again they made peace, and soon broke it. The Danish army spent the winter in fortified camps in the land; but the English, when the summer's fighting was done, scattered to their homes, to care for their families and prepare their crops. During one such winter, Alfred sought refuge in a small fortified island called Athelney, amid the swamps „ , .. of Wessex. Afterwards the people told stories He hides . . . from the of how, while Wandering alone in these regions, Danes . ^ , i he was sheltered in a herdsman's hut, and was scolded by the herdsman's wife for allowing some coarse cakes to burn, which she had told him to watch. ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 149 An old song represents the woman as saying to the King, whom she did not know: "Can't you mind the cakes man ? And don't you see them burn ? I'm bound you'll eat them fast enough. As soon as 'tis the turn." Another story tells how he went into the Danish camp, in disguise as a minstrel or wandering singer, in order to get news of their plans; and how the Danes were so pleased with his singing that he had difficulty in getting away again. When the hardships of that winter were over, Alfred gathered his army together and attacked the Danes. He defeated them badly, and drove them into ^^.^ their fortified camp. There he besieged J*^^**J7g^^y them for fourteen days; and as they were now separated from their ships, and could get no sup- plies, they agreed to make peace. By a revision of this treaty, a few years later, the Danes were to have all the country of England north and west of the Thames River and the old Roman road, called Watling Street, which ran from London to Chester. Only the country south of that line, including London, remained to the English under Alfred's rule. The country which the Danes ruled was known as the "Danelaw." There they settled down and became tillers of the soil, just as the English had done The "Dane- four centuries earlier. Before many genera- to^he^^^^" tions had passed, they all became Christians and blended with their English neighbors. But to this day northern England shows some features which re- mind us that once it was ruled by these rude, freedom- loving Danes. For example, we find there several 150 THE STORY OF EUROPE hundred villages and towns with names which end in the syllable "-by," (as in "Derby"). This was the Danish word for "town," and corresponds to the old English "-ton" or "-ham," which we find so frequently on the map of southern England. AN ENGLISH KING Tenth century WOMAN'S COSTUME Tenth century After the treaty with the Danes, Wessex for some time enjoyed peace, and Alfred had opportunity to repair Alfred ^^^ damages done by war. Among other rebuilds things, he fortified and partly rebuilt the city of London. For some time it had been in the hands of the Danes, but it was now restored to the English. London was located at the lowest point on the Thames at which a bridge could be built, or at which merchants could find solid ground for landing goods from their ships. It was already an important place in Roman days, and it now became the chief city ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 151 of England. Long afterward, when ocean commerce developed, its splendid harbor helped to make it the greatest city in the world. But for several centuries after Alfred, its citizens were as much interested in agriculture as in carrying on their small trades, and commerce on a large scale was unknown. Alfred saw that, if the English were to resist invaders successfully, they must put their trust in the sea. Accordingly, he had a large number of ships built, after his own pattern, making them twice as large as those of the Danes. These proved very useful when the Danes renewed their attacks. He also improved the army. Front vie\ Side view GOLD JEWEL OF ALFRED Found at Athelney and made some changes in the gov- ernment. To make it easier to find out what the law was, he collected and revised the old laws of England. But he did this work modestly, and without reckless change. "I, Alfred," he wrote, ''gathered these laws together, and commanded many of them to be written which our forefathers His held, those which seemed to me good. And ^^^"^^^^^^ many of those which seemed to me not good, I rejected, and in other wise commanded them to be held. For I durst not venture to set down in writing much of my own, for it was unknown to me what of it would please those who should come after us. " 152 THE STORY OF EUROPE Alfred also encouraged workmen of all sorts. He brought many skilled men to England from foreign T, .^ . countries; and he himself could show his gold He aids in- ^ " ^ dustryand workcrs, and other artisans, how to do their learning work. He invented a method of counting the hours, by means of candles which were made so that six of them would burn just twenty-four hours. He also invented a lantern, with transparent sides made of horn (for glass was scarce), to keep drafts away from the candle and make it burn better. His mind was constantly at work, seeking to better the condition of his country. But Alfred thought none of these things could help his people much unless they improved in mind and spirit. He lamented their growing ignorance, through the destruction of the monasteries, with their schools and libraries. "Formerly," said he, "foreigners came to this land in search horn lantern of wisdom and instruction; but we should now have to get teachers from abroad, if we would have them." Accordingly he invited many learned men to come to his kingdom to help instruct his people. Alfred thought that the greatest need of all was books which his people could read — books in English, and not Latin. "I wondered extremely," he said, "that the good and wise men who were formerly all over England, and had perfectly learned all the books, did not wish to translate them into their own tongue. " He set himself to put into English some of the best books. First came a history of the world, and to this he ALFRED AND THE NORTHMEN 153 added his own account of two voyages into the northern seas, made by Danes whom he had invited to England. Then came a history of England by a famous monk, named Bede; a book of instruction by Pope Gregory the Great; finally a book on philosophy, in which Alfred gave many his own most serious thoughts. All these works are still preserved; but our language has changed so much He trans- religious lates books * into English of HOUSE OF AN ENGLISH NOBLE (Eleventh Century) From an old manuscript. The lord and his lady are giving alms to the poor since Alfred's day that they are now like books in a foreign tongue. Since Alfred's death, all English speaking people have cherished his memory, and we now call him "Alfred the Great." He was a brave warrior, a wise lawmaker, a patient tea^cher, and a watchful guardian of his people. Above all, he was a true and pure man, loving his family and training his children with great care. The secret of his success is told in his own words: 154 THE STORY OF EUROPE "To sum up all," he said, "it has ever been my desire to live worthily while I was alive, and after my death to leave to those that should come after me my memory in good works. " Alfred's work was indeed good, for he saved England from being completely conquered by the Danes. Be- what he cause he kept his courage at the trying time, EJfg/and ^^^ ^^^ kingdom was preserved, and the Danes were settled beyond the Thames, there to gradually become Enghshmen. Because he was wise and patient, he made his kingdom strong, so that his descendants were able, httle by little, to regain all that the Danes had taken, and to become again, in later years, kings of all England. Topics for Review and Search 1. Describe the life of the "vikings," and tell the great things which they did. 2. Bead "The Saga of the Land of Grapes" (Price, Wandering Heroes, p. 151). 3. AVhy did the discovery of iVmerica by the Northmen have no important results? 4. Tell some of the stories about Alfred. 5. Find out what you can about the early history of London. 6. Write a brief account, in your own words, of Alfred's life and character. 7. Make a list of the things that Alfred did for England. 8. Was his treaty with the Danes a wise one? Give reasons. XXII THE NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND Points to be Noted New troubles from the Danes; rule of Canute; Edward the Confessor. Character of the Normans; Duke William's claim to the English throne; his invasion of England; battle of Hastings; date; importance of the Norman Conquest, The feudal sj^stem established in England; meaning of fief, vassal, villain, homage, fealty; what the lord owed to the vassal; what the vassal owed to the lord. How William prevented his lords from becoming too powerful; how the Norman Conouest benefited England. Alfred's descendants soon succeeded in reconquering the Danelaw, but this was far from being the end of England's troubles with the Northmen. „, , ^ Weakness About eighty years after the death of Alfred, of while a weak King was on the throne, new swarms of Danes began to come into England; and after a number of years of struggling, the Danish King Canute added England to his kingdoms of Denmark and Nor- way. He was a just and Christian king, and ruled England as though he had been an Englishman himself. Soon after his death, the old English line of kings was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. Un- fortunately, he was a weak ruler while he lived, and he died without a son to succeed him. In these circum- stances, the ruler of those Northmen who had settled across the Channel in France, more than a hundred years before, prepared in his turn to seize the English throne. 156 THE STORY OF EUROPE These Northmen who were settled in France we call "Normans," to distinguish them from those who Strength Came direct from the Scandinavian lands. NoJmans ^incc Settling in France they had progressed very rapidly. They had laid aside their old heathen religion and become Christians; and they had also laid aside their old speech and native customs. In less than a hundred years they had become as good Frenchmen, in speech and everything else, as could be found in that kingdom. About the only thing which distinguished the Normans from the other French was their greater energy, their skill in building and in government, and their fondness for the sea and for adventure. Their ruler, or duke, when King Edward The died, was invade named Will- WILLIAM I., THE CONQUEROR England • i lam, and because of the great deeds which he performed we call him William the Conqueror. From an early age he had shown remarkable warlike power and ability to rule. He claimed the English throne chiefly on the ground that King Edward had promised it to him ; and, in spite of the fact that the English had now set up an English nobleman named Harold in place of Edward, Duke William gathered together his forces, and in the year 1066 invaded England. On leaping from his ship, William stumbled and fell NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 157 flat upon his face. His followers cried out at this as a bad omen, but William's presence of mind prevented any injurious effect. "By the splendor of God," he cried, grasping a handful of earth, "I hold England in my hands!" WILLIAM OF NORMANDY LANDING IN ENGLAND Harold meanwhile had gathered his forces and marched to meet William, whom he found near the town of Hast- ings. There the decisive battle took place. „ , , ^ ^ . ^ . Battle of Harold's men were on foot, and carried light fastings javelins for hurling, and swords or battleaxes for striking. They were drawn up so that their shields overlapped one another, making a solid wall of defense. William had two kinds of warriors — crossbowmen on foot, who were placed at the front; and, behind these, the knights on horseback, wearing iron caps and rude coats of mail, and carrying swords and strong lances. One of the Norman knights asked that he might strike the first blow. When this was granted, he rode forward, tossing his sword in the air and catching it. 158 THE STORY OF EUROPE and singing gaily an old song about the deeds of a great warrior named Roland. Two Englishmen fell by his hand before he himself was slain. Then the battle began in earnest, and raged all day. In spite of their heavy horsemen, the Normans were unable to break the English line. Three horses were killed under William, but he received no injury. Once the cry went forth, "The Duke is down!" and the Normans began to give way. But William tore off his D>R-aMNTERF6C TVS-.EST DEATH OF HAROLD Harold is the second figure from the left. The inscription fin Latin) reads: "Har- old the King is slain." To his right is the banner of Wessex. Note that the armor consisted of discs of metal fastened to leather cloth. This picture is taken from a great piece of tapestry embroidered by William's Queen to illustrate the Conquest of England. helmet, that they might better see his face, and cried: "I live, and by God's help shall have the victory!" At length, a portion of the Norman troops turned to flee, and some of the English, disobeying Harold's orders, left their line to go in pursuit. These English were then easily cut off and destroyed. William took a hint from this, and ordered a pretended flight of all the Normans. Large numbers of the English followed, and the Normans turned and cut them down. NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 159 But Harold and his two brothers, together with the best troops, still stood firm, and swung their battleaxes beneath the Golden Dragon banner of Wessex. Death of At last an arrow, shot into the air by William's "^^«*** order, struck Harold in the eye, and he fell. The Eng- lish then fled — all except a few, who fought on until they were destroyed. Thus William and his Normans conquered England. No further resistance was possible. Marching slowly toward London, he was there acknowledged T^- 1 r^^ ' Tx 1 William Jling; and, on Christmas Day, he put on becomes the English crown. The victory of the Normans was a turning point in EngHsh history. Britons, Romans, English, Danes, and Normans, — all made their conquests and left their mark on the life of the island. This, however, is the last of the armed invasions. Never afterward does a foreign foe take possession of the soil of England. William set up a system of landholding in England which, in the period following the invasions of the Ger- mans, had gradually grown up everywhere on the Continent. This was called the feudal feudal system. Under it, all the land belonged in theory to the King; but most of it was occupied by great lords, who held it on condition that they assist the King in war. Each lord was bound to furnish a certain number of armed and mounted warriors, in proportion to the size of his estate. To get men with whom to fulfill this obligation, these "tenants-in-chief," as they were called, granted portions of their lands to "sub-tenants," on similar conditions. These in turn sublet to others; and so it went on, down to the simple peasants (called "villains") who actually tilled the soil. The name given to an estate which was held on condition 160 THE STORY OF EUROPE of military service was "benefice" or "fief." The fief holder became the "vassal" or personal d'ependent of his lord. When he was put in possession of his land, the "vassal" knelt unarmed before his lord, placed both hands in his, and swore to be "his man" {homo, in A NORMAN CASTLE IN ENGLAND Latin), and to serve him as a vassal ought to serve his lord. This was called "doing homage." Then the vassal arose, and the lord gave him the kiss of peace, and the vassal swore "fealty," — that is, fidelity, — to him. Fiefs were generally hereditary, the son of a deceased vassal being permitted to succeed to his father's NORMANS CONQUER ENGLAND 161 estates, on condition that he paid a sum of money, did homage, and swore fealty to the lord of the fief. The lords owed their vassals protection, while the vassals owed service to their lords. This service was partly military service, as mounted knights, for forty days each year. The lord could also call upon his vassals to come to his castle, at certain times, and assist him with their counsel and advice. In addition, he might call upon them to serve him on certain occasions by giving him money — which they in turn collected from their villains. These payments were called "aids," and could be collected on three occasions, — when the lord's eldest son was made a knight, when his eldest daughter was married, and to ransom the lord himself, if he should be taken captive. On the Continent, the feudal system weakened the power of the King, because it created a tie between the lords and their tenants which was stronger 1 1 • 1 • 1 1 11 IT. William's than the tie which bound them to the King, checks on Thus, if a great lord in France rebelled, his tenants supported him rather than the King, and the whole land was filled with confusion. In England, William took pains to prevent his lords from becoming too powerful. The estates of the great landholders were scattered in different parts of the country, so that no man might be able to collect a great army in one place. He also kept up the old hundred and shire courts, and refused to allow the lords as much independence as they enjoyed on the Continent. Above all, he required every landholder to take an oath of allegiance to sup- port the King, before and above his immediate lord. With these changes, William made the feudal system a means by which he could control not only the conquered English, but his Norman barons as well. 162 THE STORY OF EUROPE In the course of several centuries the Normans lost their French speech and ways, and became swallowed What the up in the mass of the English people. The dkTTo"^ vigor of the Normans, together with their skill Eng an -^^ ^^^ ^^^ -^ government, were added to the good qualities of the English race. The Old English had known how to build up communities in which the people governed themselves through their township, hundred, and shire meetings. They had active local self-government; but they had not known how to build up a strong central government, which could keep the whole country united, put down lawlessness and dis- order, and keep out foreign invaders. It was the work of the Norman kings to do this. iVnd whenever we think of the great things which England has done in the world — of the colonies which it founded and still rules, and of the lessons which it has given the world in combining strong governments with freedom and per- sonal liberty, — we must remember that this is based in part upon the work of William the Conqueror. Topics for Review and Search 1. Imagine .yourself one of Harold's soldiers, and describe tlie Norman Conquest, 2. Which had the better claim to the English throne, William or Harold? Why? 3. Eead the account of the battle of Hastings in Lord Lytton's novel, Harold, the Last of the Saxon Kings (Book xii, chs. vii and viii). 4. Find out what other great things the Normans accomplished. 5. Study the picture at the front of this book, and describe the ceremony of homage and fealty. XXIII KING JOHN AND THE GREAT CHARTER Points to be Noted John's character and its results; how Normandy was lost. Cause of John's quarrel with the Pope; the interdict; how John made peace with the Pope. Complaints of the barons; advice of Stephen Langton; what the barons demanded; when and where the Great Charter was granted; how John felt about it. The renewal of the quarrel; John's death. What the Charter secures for the people; why it is so highly prized. King John was the sixth King of England who fol- lowed William the Conqueror. He proved to be one of the worst rulers that England ever had, — ^, ^ Character cruel, faithless, lazy, and reckless of every- ?/ thing save his own pleasure. Yet his very wickedness and tyranny, by spurring all classes to resistance, helped much to bring about political liberty and to make such tyranny impossible for the future. The Norman kings of England continued to be dukes of Normandy also, and since the days of the Conqueror they had gained much additional territory in , , . •^ . , . . John loses France. John s misgovernment got him into his French a quarrel with the King of France over this territory; and in the course of the struggle which fol- lowed, John's nephew Arthur, who had sided with the French King, was captured and imprisoned by John. Soon Arthur disappeared, and there can be no doubt that John had him secretly put to death. After this, John steadily lost ground, so that within a few months 163 164 THE STORY OF EUROPE ill I Normandy and a great part of his other French possessions had fallen into the hands of the French King. Then followed a quarrel with the Pope over the election of a new archbishop of Canterbury. John His uarrei ^^^^^^ed to rcccive Stephen Langton, whom j:»ththe the Pope appointed to that office, and seized the lands and revenues of the archbishopric. To punish the King, the Pope placed an "interdict" upon the whole kingdom, — that is, he forbade all church services except the baptism of infants and the "last unction" or anointing of the dying. The church doors remained closed; the bells were silent; even the dead were buried without ceremony, in unhallowed ground. After this had lasted for several years, John was forced to make peace with the Pope. Stephen Langton was permitted to take up his duties as archbishop, and John promised to restore the lands which he had taken from the Church. In addition, he surrendered his kingdom to the Pope and received it again as a fief, agreeing to pay a yearly tribute. Thus, this struggle ended by the King of England becoming the Pope's vassal, and this relationship lasted for more than a hundred years. At the time when John settled his quarrel with the Pope, he was in the midst of a third great struggle, — this time with his own barons, who wished a remedy for the evils of his rule. King John was constantly making new demands upon both the nobles and the people. He had called upon He quarrels ^^^^ ^^^' scrviccs which they did not think with his they ought to render, and he had levied taxes Uarons , unknown in earlier times. Tn some cases he cast men into prison without law, and in others he unjustly seized their lands and goods. The result was that, at length, all classes were ready to rebel. THE GREAT CHARTER 165 The barons found a shrewd adviser in Stephen Lang- ton, the new archbishop. He reminded them of the charter of an earlier king, who had promised reforms of government to the nation, and told the barons to demand a similar charter from King John. JOHN GRANTING THE CHARTER While John was waging war on the Continent, seeking vainly to recover his lost territories, the leading barons secretly met together, under pretext of a T^i^gg^^^^g pilgrimage, and swore to compel the King to ^^^^^^ restore the liberties of the realm, and to con- firm them by a charter. Their demands were presented 166 THE STORY OF EUROPE to John upon his return. But the King cried out in wrath: "Why do they not ask for my kingdom? I will never grant such liberties as will make me a slave." In various ways, John sought to break up the forces that confronted him; but all in vain. "The army of God and of Holy Church," as the rebels called them- selves, marched upon London, and the citizens joyously opened the city gates to them. Uj^u^l PORTION OF THE GREAT CHARTER Written in Latin, with abbreviations. The first line, if written out, would be: Johannes, Dei Gratia Rex Angliae, Dominus Hyberniae," etc.; which, translated, is: "John, by the grace of God King of England, Lord of Ireland," etc. On June 15, in the year 1215, John met the represen- tatives of the barons "in the meadow which is called The Great Ruunymedc, between Windsor and Staines," granted ou the Rivcr Thames. Here he was forced to ^^^^^^ give his consent to the Great Charter,— called Magna Carta in Latin, the language in which it was written. It is said that when King John granted the Charter he wore a smiling countenance, and spoke pleasantly to the lords about him; but that when he reached his own chamber he threw himself down in a mad rage upon the ground, gnashing his teeth and biting the rushes with which it was strewn. THE GREAT CHARTER 167 John had no intention of keeping his promises, and war soon began again. The King had the support of hired troops, chiefly from France; and the Pope, who was now his overlord, gave him renews the such help as he could. The barons, for their part, called the son of the King of France to their aid, and offered him the English crown. For a time it seemed as if John might overcome his enemies and again set up his will as law. But, in cross- ing an arm of the sea, his army was surprised by the tide, and his baggage, with the royal treasure, was washed away. A fever then seized John, and he died in a few days. Men said that his illness was caused by eating heartily of unripe peaches. With John dead, the barons withdrew their support from the French prince, and he soon returned to France. The barons had fought only against the tyranny of John, and they would not support a foreign prince against John's young son. Since John's day the Great Charter has repeatedly been confirmed, and now stands as part of the English Constitution. Its principles are part of the law of every English-speaking nation, and hence the Great Charter has almost as much interest for us as for the people of England itself. Among many important provisions, we find the following: "No free man shall be taken, or imprisoned, or dis- possessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him, nor will 1 1 ' 1 1 T « 1 . 1 Provisions we send upon him, except by the lawful ludg- of the Great . PI- ,,11 <. 1 1 1 ,, Charter ment ot his peers, and by the law of the land. In this passage the King admitted that he had no right to imprison or punish any man, except according to law. In another famous passage John promised that he 168 THE STORY OF EUROPE would collect no money as King unless it was granted to him by the consent of his barons in a Great Council assembled for that purpose. In this passage was laid the foundation of the principle that a government ought not to tax its subjects without their consent, and that "taxation without consent is tyranny." It is because of such provisions as these that the Great Charter is so highly prized by all English-speaking peoples. The principles which it lays down importance havc not always been observed, and often the people have been obliged to force reluctant kings to observe them. But ever since John granted the Charter it has been a rallying point in the struggle for liberty, and it has rightly been regarded as a great defense of the rights of the people against the tyranny of their rulers. Topics for Review and Search 1. In their quarrel, which was in the right, John or the Pope? 2. Why did the interdict force John to make peace with the Pope? 3. What is a charter? 4. Explain what is meant by "the lawful judgment of his peers." 5. When did the English colonists in America make use of the principle that "taxation without consent is tyranny"? XXIV THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT Points to be Noted The name of the central Assembly in Anglo-Saxon days; under the Normans; how these Assemblies differed from Parliament. When and in what part of the government representatives first arose; how the Normans increased their nse; why they were added to the Great Council. The two sorts of representatives in Parliament; when each was first introduced; the Model Parliament. Separation of Parliament into two Houses; of what each was composed; the Commons given equal powers in lawmaking with the Lords; powers of Parliament not so great as they later became. Perhaps the greatest thing which England has given to the world is the system of Parliaments, or legislative assemblies (including our Congress and State legisla- tures), by which the greater part of the world is now governed. There never has been a period, since England has been united into a single kingdom, when some sort of council or assembly was not called, from time to time, The to aid the King in governing. In the days fn aIIio^ of the Angles and Saxons, this body was ^axon times called the Witenagemot, or assembly of the wise men, and it was made up of the bishops, abbots, king's thegns, and chief officers of the kingdom. It was this body which aided Alfred in making his laws, and which elected Harold — and after him William — to be King of England. After the Norman Conquest, the kings from time to time called about them, to aid them with counsel and advice, all the lords who held land directly of them by 170 THE STORY OF EUROPE feudal tenure. Except for the fact that the feudal lords were at first mainly Normans, this body did not differ very much from the one which preceded it; man Great for the great officers of the land were the Council . ^ ^ King's vassals, and the bishops and abbots also held their lands by feudal tenure from the King. It was this Great Council of the barons which settled who should have the crown when there was a dispute; it was also this body which helped the kings carry on the work of government. But the Great Council only aided and advised the King; it did not control him. What is it that makes the difference between these earlier assemblies and the later one which we call Par- liament.^ First, Parliament is a "representative" body — that is, it is composed in part of persons who do not sit in right How these of their offices or lands, but who are elected from^ to represent the people. Second, it is divided Parliament j^^^^ ^^^ "houscs"— a Housc of Lords, and a House of Commons. And third, it has more power than the older assemblies had. The addition of representatives, along with the great churchmen and barons, was the first step in trans- Represen- forming the old Great Council into the Parlia- Sed in local mcut. The practice of having representatives to act in the name of the community, was first used in local government. In the Anglo-Saxon time, each township sent four representatives to take part in the "hundred" and "shire" meetings. When the Normans came, they began the practice of using com- mittees of representatives, in the different districts of the country, for many purposes. Sometimes they ordered such committees to declare what the old English law was, in order to guide their judges in deciding cases. THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 171 Sometimes such committees were used to make a list of all the property in their districts, with the value of it and the names of the owners. By and by committees of sworn representatives were used to find out the facts in a given case at law, and declare their decision or verdict. Such a committee was called a *'jury, " and the introduction of jury trial marked a great step in advance over the older forms of trial. But the impor- tant thing to note here is that the decision which each jury gave was regarded as the decision of the community. In other words, the jury *' represented" the community for that purpose, and its voice was taken as the voice of the community as a whole. Thus, in many ways, the people became used to the idea of having representatives chosen to help carry on the local governments, in the name of the people of the community. Why, we may now ask, were representatives added to the Great Council.^ The reason is that a time came when the kings needed more money to carry on the work of government; and that this additional money must come, not why they only from the nobles, who already had seats ^^thecieat in the Great Council, but also from the ^**"***^** wealthy townsmen and country gentlemen. It seemed best, therefore to ask the towns and the counties to send representatives to meet with the Great Council, and there give the consent of their communities to the new taxes. This would make it easier to collect the money, for then there would be less grumbling about it; it would also be more in keeping with that passage of the Great Charter in which the King promised not to collect money from his subjects without their consent. Of course it would have been possible for the King's officers to go 172 THE STORY OF EUROPE about the country asking the consent of each com- munity in turn to the grant; and indeed this was done at times. But on the whole it was felt that it would be much quicker and more satisfactory to bring together at one place the representatives of all the communities, and there secure their consent. The representatives who were thus called together were of two sorts — first, the "knights of the shire," who represented the lesser nobles and country gentlemen; and, second, the "borough representatives," who came from the cities and towns (boroughs) and repre- sented the trading classes. The knights of the shire were the first to be added ft^ V ..X,. to the assem- (1) Knights ^f/jhe shire bly. In 1213, for the first time, the King called them to meet with the Great Council, "to speak with us concerning the business of our kingdom." From time to time after that, "knights of the shire" were summoned to the assemblies, until the practice became permanent. They were elected by the landholders, in the county assem- blies, and every county sent two, no matter what its size. The addition of the town, or borough, representatives came first in 1265, when the barons in England, under their leader, Simon of Montfort, were again in rebeUion against the misgovernment of the representl- King. After the rebellion was put down, the ^'"^^^ ^^^*^^ King continued the practice of asking representatives SEAL OF EDWARD THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 173 « o S5 174 THE STORY OF EUROPE of the boroughs, from time to time, to come to the central assembly. Finally, in 1295, King Edward I. called a meeting which established it as a rule that, in a Parlia- ment, there ought to be representatives both of the counties and of the towns. This was called the "Model Parliament, " because it became a model for succeeding ones. Each town which sent representatives at all, in those days, elected two. At first, the representatives of the counties and of the boroughs sat in the same body with the barons and great Separation churchmeu. By the year 1340, however, the^House Parliament had separated into two "houses." of Lords rpi^^ upper house was the House of Lords, and included the great barons (who bore the titles of duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron), and also the arch- bishops and bishops, and the abbots or heads of monas- teries. The lower house was the House of Commons. In course of time it became the more important part of ^ ^^^ , Parliament. This was because it especially and (2) the i- J House of was called upon to vote the taxes which the Commons King needed for carrying on the government. For a time the towns and counties looked upon repre- sentation in Parliament as a burden; but gradually their representatives began to hold back the voting of taxes until the King and his ministers promised to correct any grievances of which they complained. Then it was seen that the right of voting taxes was a great and valuable power, and the people no longer complained of the burden of being represented in Parliament. At first, it was not certain whether the House of Com- mons would be admitted to a share in the lawmaking power, or whether it would be allowed only to vote taxes. In his summons to the Model Parliament, THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 175 176 THE STORY OF EUROPE however, Edward I. laid down the principle that "what concerns all should be approved by all." Twenty-seven The years later, the rule was definitely stated that gi^^"^quai all matters which concerned the kingdom and P*^^^'^ the people "shall be estabhshed in Parlia- ment, by the King, and by the consent of the Lords and the Commons of the realm." This rule gave the House of Commons an equal right with the House of Lords in all law-making. From this time on the powers of the Commons grew, until they are now much greater than those of the House of Lords. But we must not think of these early Parliaments as having the great powers which Parliaments have today. „ ,. The King was still much more powerful than Parliament . . ^ not yet the Parliament, though since the s^ranting of supreme ^ ^ ^ ^ ® the Great Charter it was recognized that the King was below the law, and not above it. In making new laws, and in laying new taxes, he needed the consent of Parliament ; but in carrying on the general business of the government — in making war, and in concluding peace — he could act without Parliament. Often he consulted Parliament about such matters, but he could act as he pleased. The ministers who carried on the government were still the King's ministers, and respon- sible to him only. It was to be several centuries yet — and a great civil war was to be fought, and one King beheaded and another deposed — before Parliament was recognized as the chief power in the government. Nevertheless, before the Middle Ages had come to an end, the framework of the legislative assembly, in the form in which it was to be carried into all the great English colonies, and in which it was later to be taken up in all self-governing countries, was practically com- plete. THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT 177 Topics for Review and Search 1. Rule three columns on the blackboard, head one Witenage- mot, the next Great Council, and the third Parliament, and write down the chief facts concerning each body. 2. Show how the representative principle enables free govern- ments in modern times to rule much greater territories than was possible for the little republics of Greece, when the representative principle was not yet developed. 3. Find out how a jury trial is conducted today. 4. Show how the representative principle enabled the people to use the rights of self-government which they forced the kings to grant. 5. Find out what you can about the Parliament called by Simon de Montfort in 1265. 6. Do the same for the Model Parliament of 1295. XXV LIFE IN THE CASTLES Points to be Noted Place of the castle in the life of the Middle Ages. Plan of a Norman castle in the eleventh century; entrance to it; the outer court; the inner court; the keep of the castle; attacks on castles. The castle in time of peace; the great hall; dwellers in the castle; training for knighthood; the page; life of the squire; amusements of the castle folk; falconry; hunting with hounds. The conferring of knighthood; feats and feasting. We must now try to picture to ourselves the life of Europe in the days which preceded the discovery of ,., , the New World. We will read first about Life of the Middle Hfe in the castles, where lordly knights and gentle ladies dwelt. Then we will see what was the manner of life of the peasants who dwelt in the villages, and of the merchants and craftsmen who dwelt in the cities and towns. Finally, we will visit the mon- asteries, and see what was the life of the monks and nuns, who gave their lives to the service and praise of God. If you visit France, Germany, and other European countries today, you will find on every hand the ruins of great stone castles, rearing their tall towers on the hilltops, and commanding the passage of roads and rivers. At the present time these are mostly tumbled down and overgrown with moss and ivy, and nobody cares to live within their dark walls. In the Middle Ages it was not so. Then the castles were the safest places in which to live; so, in spite of 178 LIFE IN THE CASTLES 179 A CASTLE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 180 THE STORY OF EUROPE their cold and gloom, they became the centers of the life of the time. It was from the castles that the feudal Its barons ruled their lands. It was there that cast es ^YiQ peasants found refuge from the attacks of Northmen and other enemies. In them chivalry was born and flourished; at their gates tournaments, jousts, and other knightly festivals took place; and in their halls the wandering singers, who were building up a new literature, found the readiest welcome and the most eager and appreciative listeners. Let us fancy ourselves back in the eleventh or twelfth century, and examine a castle. We shall find the country very different, we may be sure, from what it is today. Great forests stand where now there are flourishing towns; and everything has a wilder, more unsettled look, Here is a castle in France that will suit our purpose, It was built by one of the vassals of William the Con- queror,' and has been the scene of many sieges Norman and battles. See how everything is arranged so as to make easy its defense. It is built on the top of a steep hill, and around its walls is dug a deep ditch or moat. At the outer edge of the moat we see a strong palisade of heavy stakes set in the ground. Just inside this is a path, along which sentries march in time of war. The gate, too, is doubly and triply guarded. In front of it is a drawbridge across the moat — indeed, there are two; and the space between is guarded by a protecting wall. In later days these drawbridges were made stronger and more complicated, and heavy towers, with walls of masonry, were built, the better to protect the entrance. When we have passed these outer works, we come to a heavy wooden door between two tall towers which mark the entrance to the walls. We pass through this. LIFE IN THE CASTLES 181 and find ourselves within the gateway. But we are still far from being in the castle. In the narrow vaulted passageway before us, we see suspended a Entrance heavy iron grating, called the portcullis, which may come rattling down at any moment to bar our passage. And beyond this is another door; and beyond this another portcullis. The entrance to the castle is indeed well guarded; and the porter who keeps watch at the gate, and has to open and shut all these barriers, is at times a busy man. At last we are past the gateway and find ourselves in an open courtyard. The thick walls of the. castle surround us on all sides, and at their top we ^^^ see the battlements and loopholes through ou^ej which arrows may be shot at the enemy. Here and there the wall is protected by stone towers, in which are stairways leading to the battlements above. In the first courtyard we find the stables, where the lord of the castle keeps his horses. Here, too, is space for the shelter of the villagers in time of war; and here, perhaps, is the great brick oven in which bread is baked to feed the lord and all his followers. Going on we come to a wall or palisade, which sep- arates the courtyard we are in from one lying beyond it. In later times this wall, too, was made much ^^^ stronger than we find it here. Passing through J^ner a gateway, we come into the second court- yard. Here again we find a number of buildings, used for different purposes. In one are the storerooms and cellars, where provisions are kept to enable the dwellers in the castle to stand a siege. Next to this is a building shaped like a great jug, with a large chimney at the top, and smaller ones in a circle round about. This is the kitchen, in which the food is cooked for the lord of the 182 THE STORY OF EUROPE castle and his household. The cooking, we may be sure, is usually simple, — most of the meats being roasted on spits over open fires, and elaborate dishes, with sauces and spices, being yet uncommon. Most castles have, in addition, a small church or chapel in this courtyard, in which the inhabitants may worship. The most important building of all is still to be described. There at the end of the courtyard we see The keep ^^^ ^^^^ " ^^^P " ^^ ^^^ castlc, which the French JasSi called '* donjon, " and in whose basement there are '* dungeons" indeed, for traitors -and cap- tured enemies. This is the true stronghold of the baron, and it is a secure retreat. Think of all the hard fighting there must be before the enemy can even reach it. The drawbridges must be crossed, the gates must be battered down, and the portcullises pried up; the first courtyard must be cleared; the dividing wall must be carried; the second courtyard also must be cleared of its defenders. And when the enemy, bruised and worn, at last arrive at the keep, their work is just begun. There the lord and his followers will make their last stand, and the fight- ing will be fiercer than ever. The walls of the keep are of stone, eight to ten feet thick; and from the loopholes in its frowning sides peer Attacks skilled archers and crossbowmen, ready to let Si^stie^ fly their bolts and arrows at all in sight. A long, long siege will be necessary, to starve out its defenders. If this is not done, movable towers must be erected, battering rams placed, stone-hurling machines brought up, blazing arrrows shot at the roof and windows, and tunnels dug to undermine the walls. In this way the castle may be burned, or an entrance at last be gained. But even then there will be fierce fighting in the narrow passageways, in the dimly- LIFE IN THE CASTLES 183 THE "SAUCY CASTLE" OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 184 THE STORY OF EUROPE lighted halls, and on the winding stairways which lead from story to story. It will be long, indeed, before our lord's banner is torn from the summit of the tower, and his enemy's is placed in its stead! And even when all is lost, there still remain hidden stairways in the castle walls, underground passages opening into the moat, and the gate in the rear, through which the lord and his garrison may yet escape to the woods and open fields; and so continue the battle another day. In later times, stronger and more complicated castles were erected, especially after Western lords had begun to go on the Crusades, and had seen the great fortresses of the Eastern Empire. The picture on the preceding page shows such a castle, erected in Normandy by Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, and called by him the "Saucy Castle" because of its defiance of the French King. The picture also shows hurling engines set for attack, and a movable tower being brought to scale its walls. But let us inquire, now, concerning the life of the castle in time of peace. Where and how did the lord ^^ and his household live.^ How were his Ine , castle in children educated .^^ And with what did peace they amuse themselves in the long days when there was no enemy to attack their walls, and no distant expedition in which to engage .^^ Sometimes the lord and his family lived in the upper stories of the huge donjon, where arms and supplies The great wcrc always stored. But this was so gloomy, with its thick walls and narrow windows, that many lords built more comfortable "halls" in their courtyards, and preferred to live in these. Let us look in upon such a hall, whether it is in the donjon, or in a separate building. The picture at the front of this book LIFE IN THE CASTLES 185 gives us a good idea of what it was like. It was a great wide room, large enough to hold all the inhabitants of the castle. This was the real center of the life of the castle. Here the lord ate and slept; here the great banquets were held; here he received his vassals to do homage; here he played chess and backgammon with his companions; and here in the evening the inmates gathered, perchance to listen to the songs and tales of wandering minstrels. Within the castle are many people, occupying them- selves in many ways. In the courtyards are servants and dependents, caring for the horses, cooking j^^^j^^^^ in the kitchen, and busily engaged in other in^the occupations. Elsewhere are those whose duty it is to guard the castle — the porter at the gate, the watchman on the tower, and the men-at-arms to defend the walls in case of attack. Besides these we see many boys and young men, who are evidently of too noble birth to be servants and yet are too young to be warriors. Who can they be.^ These are the sons of the lord of the castle, and of other lords, who are learning to be knights. Their training is long and careful. Until he is seven ^^^.^.^^ years old, the little noble is left to the care of ^^Jfigi^^hood his mother and the women of the castle. At the age of seven his knightly education begins. Usually the boy is sent away from home to the castle of his father's lord, or of some famous knight, there to be brought up and trained for knighthood. From the age of seven till he reaches the age of four- teen, the boy is called a ''page" or "varlet," which means little vassal. There he waits upon the lord ^^^ ^^^^ and lady of the castle. He serves them at the table, and he attends them when they ride forth to Life of the squire 186 THE STORY OF EUROPE the chase. From them he learns lessons of honor and bravery, of love and chivalry. Above all, he learns how to ride and handle a horse. When the young noble has become a well-grown lad of fourteen or fifteen, he is made a '^squire." Now it is his duty to look after his lord's horses and arms. The horses must be carefully groomed every morning, and the squire must see that their shoes are all right. He must also see that his lord's arms and armor are kept bright and free from rust. When the lord goes forth to war, his squire accompanies him, riding on a big strong horse, and carrying his lord's shield and lance. When the lord goes into battle, his squire must stay near, leading a spare steed and ready to hand his master fresh weapons at any moment. After several years of this service, the squire may himself be allowed to use weapons and fight at his lord's side; and sometimes he may even be allowed to ride forth alone in search of adventures. In this manner the squire learns the business of a knight, which is fighting. But he also learns his amuse- ments and accomplishments. Let us approach a group of squires in the castle hall, when their work is done and they are tired of chess and mTntTof backgammon. They are disputing, perhaps, the castle as to which is the more interesting, hunting or falconry; and we may hear a delicate featured squire hold forth in this way: "What can be prettier than a bright-eyed, well- trained falcon hawk.? And what can be pleasanter than Falconry *^^ ^P^^^ ^^ %ing it at the birds.? Take some fine September morning, when the sky is blue and the air is fresh, and our lord and lady ride forth with their attendants. Each carries his falcon on his LIFE IN THE CASTLES 187 gloved hand, and we hurry forward in pursuit of cranes, herons, ducks, and other birds. When one is sighted, a falcon is unhooded, and let fly at it. The falcon's bells tinkle merrily as he rises. Soon he is in the air above the game, and swift as an arrow he darts upon the prey, plunging his talons into it, and crouching over it until the hunter gallops up to recover both falcon and prey. This is the finest hunting. And what skill FALCONRY is necessary, too, in rearing and training the birds! Ah, falconry is the sport for me!" But this does not seem to be the opinion of others of the group. Their views are expressed by a tall, strongly- built squire, who says : "Falconry is all right for women and boys, but it is not the sport for men. What are your falcons to my hounds and harriers ? The education of one good boar- 188 THE STORY OF EUROPE hound, I can tell you, requires as much care as all your falcons; and when you are done the dog loves you, and Hunting that is more than you can say for your hawks. And the chase itself is far more exciting. The hounds are uncoupled, and set yelping upon the scent, and away we dash after them, plunging through the woods, leaping glades and streams in our haste. At last we reach the spot where the game has turned at bay, and find an enormous boar, defending himself stoutly and fiercely against the hounds. Right and left he rolls the dogs. With his back bristling with rage, he charges straight for the huntsmen. Look out, now; for his sharp tusks cut like a knife ! But the huntsmen are skilled, and the dogs play well their part. Before the beast can reach man or horse, he is pierced by a dozen spears, and is nailed to the ground, dead! Isn't this a nobler sport than hawking.^ " So, we may be sure, most of the knights and squires will agree. But the ladies, and many of the squires and knights, will still love best the sport of falconry. In this way the squire spends his days until he reaches the age of twenty or twenty-one. He has now proved both his courage and his skill, and at last his lord says that he has "earned his spurs." So the squire is to be made a knight; and this is the occasion for great festivities. In company with other The confer- ^^^^^^^ ^ho are Candidates for knighthood, he k^lhthood ^^^^ ^^ through a careful preparation. First comes the bath, which is the mark of purifi- cation. Then he puts on garments of red, white, and black. The red means the blood he is willing to shed in defense of the Church and of the oppressed; the white means that his mind is pure and clean; and the black is to remind him of death, which comes to all. LIFE IN THE CASTLES 189 Next comes the "watching of the arms." All night the squires keep watch, fasting and praying, before the altar in the church on which their arms have been placed ; and though they may stand or kneel, they must on no account sit or lie down. At the break of day the priest comes. After they have each confessed their sins to him, they hear mass and take the holy sacrament. Perhaps, too, the priest preaches a sermon on the proud ARMING THE KNIGHT duties of the knights, and the obligations which they owe to God and the Church. At last the squires assemble in the courtyard of the castle, or in some open place outside the walls. There they find great numbers of knights and ladies who have come to grace the occasion of their knighting. Each squire in turn now takes his place on a carpet which is spread on the ground, and his friends and relatives assist 190 THE STORY OF EUROPE in girding on his armor and his sword. Then comes the most important moment of all. His father or his lord advances and gives him what is called the "accolade." At first this was a heavy blow with the fist, given upon the squire's neck; but later it was with the flat of a sword upon his shoulder. At the same time the person who gives the accolade cries out: A GREAT FEAST IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY The birds flying about have been "baked in a pie," as in the old song, and falcons are now loosed at them "In the name of God, and Saint Michael, and Saint George, I dub thee knight! Be brave and loyal! " The squire is now a knight, but the festival is not yet over. The new-made knights must first give an p^^^^ exhibition of their skill in riding and handling fJastinfi their horses, and in striking with their lances marks which are set up for them to ride at. Then comes fencing with their swords on horseback. LIFE IN THE CASTLES 191 The day is wound up with a great feast, and music and the distribution of presents. Then, at last, the guests depart; and the new-made knights go off to bed, to dream of Saracens to be fought in the Holy Land, and dragons to be slain, and wicked knights to be encountered, — and, above all, of beautiful maidens to be rescued and served with loyalty and with love. So they dream the dreams of Chivalry. And, when they awaken, the better ones among them — but not all, alas! — will seek to put their dreams into action. Topics for Review and Search 1. Imagine yourself a page, and write a letter home telling of your life. 2. Imagine yourself a squire, and write an account of the siege of a castle. 3. Let the girls find out what they can of the life of the ladies of the castle, and make a story out of that. 4. Describe the knighting of an imaginary squire. 5. Read "The Story of Gilbert the Page" (Jane Andrews, Ten Boys). XXVI LIFE IN THE VILLAGES Points to be Noted How the knights were supported; the three classes of society in the Middle Ages. Position of the peasants; the lord's domain and the common lands; the three fields; the peasant's scattered strips. The peasants' payments to their lord; the services which they owed him. The peasants lived in villages; their houses; their furniture; peasant food and clothing; contempt of the nohles for them; possibility of leaving their lord's estate. One important thing about the Hfe of the knights and squires has not yet been explained; that is, how How the they were supported. They neither culti- wei-l*^^^ vated the fields, nor manufactured articles supported £^j. ^^^e, nor engaged in commerce. How, then, were they fed and clothed, and furnished with their expensive armor and horses? How, in short, was all this life of the castle kept up, — with its great buildings, its constant wars, its costly festivals, and its idleness? We may find the explanation of this in the saying of a bishop who lived in the early part of the Middle Ages. "God," said he, ''divided the human race from the beginning into three classes. These were, the priests, whose duty it was to pray and to serve God; the knights, whose duty it was to defend society; and the peasants, whose duty it was to till the soil and to support, by their labor, the other classes." This, indeed, was the arrangement as it existed during the whole of the Middle Ages. The peasants who tilled the soil, together with the merchants and LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 193 craftsmen of the towns, bore all the burden of supporting the more picturesque cliasses above them. PLAN OF VILLAGE The strips belonging to the lord's "domain" were usually scattered amid those held by his tenants, but for greater clearness they are here shown as if gathered into one piece The peasants were called "serfs" and "villains," and their position was very curious. For several miles about the castle, all the land belonged to ^ Position its lord, and was called, in England, his of tiie peasants "manor." He did not own the land out- right, — for, as you know, he did homage and fealty for it to his lord or "suzerain," and the latter in turn owed homage and fealty to his "suzerain," and so on up to 194 THE STORY OF EUROPE the king. Neither did the lord of the castle keep all of the manor lands in his own hands. He did not wish to till the land himself, so most of it was divided up and tilled by peasants, who kept their shares as long as they lived, and passed them on to their children after them. As long as the peasants performed the services and made the payments which they owed to the lord, the latter could not rightfully turn them out of their land. The part of the manor which the lord kept in his own hands was called his "domain," and we shall see The domain P^^^^^^ly how^ this was uscd. In addition and com- there were certain parts which were used mon lands '■ by the peasants as common pastures for their cattle and sheep; that is, they all had joint rights in this. Then there was the woodland, to which the peasants might each send a certain number of pigs to feed upon the beech nuts and acorns. Finally, there was the part of the manor which was given over to the peasants to till. This was usually divided into three great fields, without any fences, walls, or hedges about them. In The three One of these wc should find wheat growing, or some other grain that is sown in the fall; in another we should find a crop of some grain, such as oats, which requires to be sown in the spring; while in the third we should find no crop at all. The next year the arrangement would be changed, and again the next year. In this way, each field bore winter grain one year, spring grain the next, and the third year it was plowed several times and allowed to rest to recover its fertility. While resting it was said to "lie fallow." Then the round was repeated. This whole arrangement was due to the fact that people in those days did not know as much about " fertilizers " and " rotation of crops" as we do now. LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 195 The most curious arrangement of all was the way the cultivated land was divided up. Each peasant had from ten to thirty acres of land which he cul- The tivated; and part of this lay in each of the scatfered three fields. But instead of lying all together, ®^"*** it was scattered about in long narrow strips, each con- taining about an acre, with strips of unplowed sod sep- PEASANTS PLOWING PEASANTS BREAKING CLODS WITH MALLETS arating the plowed strips from one another. This was a very unsatisfactory arrangement, because each peasant had to waste so much time in going from one strip to another; and nobody has ever been able to explain quite clearly how it ever came about. But this is the arrange- ment which prevailed in almost all civilized countries throughout the whole of the Middle Ages, and indeed; in some places for long afterward. 196 THE STORY OF EUROPE In return for the land which the peasant held from his lord, he owed the latter many payments and many services. He paid fixed sums of money at different times during the year; and if his lord or his lord's suzerain knighted his eldest son, or married off his eldest daughter, or went on a crusade, or was taken captive and had to be ransomed, — then The peasant's payments HARROWING The boj' with a sling is driving away the birds from the grain MEN AND WOMEN REAPING the peasant must pay an additional sum. At Easter and at other fixed times the peasant brought a gift of eggs or chickens to his lord; and he also gave the lord one or more of his lambs and pigs each year for the use of the pasture. At harvest time the lord received a portion of the grain raised on the peasant's land. In addition the peasant must grind his grain at his lord's mill, and pay the charge for this; he must also bake his LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 197 bread in the great oven which belonged to the lord, and use his lord's presses in making his cider and wine, pay- ing for each. These payments were sometimes burdensome enough, but they were not nearly so burdensome as the services which the peasants owed their lord. All Their the labor of cultivating the lord's domain land was performed by them. They plowed it with their great clumsy plows and ox teams; they harrowed it, THRESHING and sowed it, and weeded it, and reaped it; and finally they carted the sheaves to the lord's barns, and threshed them by beating with great jointed clubs or "flails." And when the work was done, the grain belonged entirely to the lord. About two days a week were spent this way in working on the lord's domam, and the peasants could only work on their own lands between times. In addition, if the lord decided to build new towers, or a new gate, or to erect new buildings m 198 THE STORY OF EUROPE the castle, the peasants had to carry stone and mortar for the building, and help the paid masons in every way possible. And, when the demands of their lord were satisfied, there were still other demands made upon them; for every tenth sheaf of grain, and every tenth egg, chicken, lamb, pig, and calf, had to be given to the Church as "tithes." The peasants did not live scattered about the coun- try as our farmers do, but dwelt all together in an open village. If we should take our stand there live in on a day in spring, we should see much to interest us. On the hilltop above is the lord's castle; and near by is the parish church with the priest's house. In the distance are the green fields, cut into long narrow strips; and in them we see men plowing and harrowing with teams of slow-moving oxen, while women are busy with hooks and tongs weeding the growing grain. Close at hand in the village we hear the clang of the blacksmith's anvil, and the miller's song as he carries the sacks of grain and flour to and from the mill. Dogs are barking, donkeys are braying, cattle are lowing ; and through it all we hear the sound of little children at play or women singing at their work. The houses themselves were often little better than wooden huts thatched with straw or rushes, though Their somctimcs they were of stone. Even at the best they were dark, dingy, and unhealth- ful. Chimneys were just beginning to be used in the Middle Ages for the castles of the great lords; but in the peasants' houses the smoke was usually allowed to escape through the doorway. The door was often made so that the upper half could be left open for this pur- pose while the lower half was closed. The cattle were LIFE IN THE VILLAGES 199 usually housed under the same roof with the peasant's family. Within the houses we should not find very much furniture. Here is a list of the things which one well- to-do family owned in the year 1345 : 2 feather beds, 15 linen sheets, and 4 striped yellow counterpanes. 1 hand-mill for grinding meal, a pestle and mortar for pounding grain, 2 grain chests, a kneading trough, and 2 ovens over which coals could be heaped for baking. 2 iron tripods on which to hang kettles over the fire; 2 metal pots and 1 large kettle. 1 metal bowl, 2 brass water jugs, 4 bottles, a copper box, a tin washtub, a metal warming-pan, 2 large chests, a box, a cup- board, 4 tables on trestles, a large table, and a bench. 2 axes, 4 lances, a crossbow, a scythe, and some other tools. The food and clothing of the peasant were coarse and simple, but were usually sufficient for his needs. At times, however, war or a succession of p^^^^^^ bad seasons would bring famine upon a dis- [^^f^^^^^ trict. Then the suffering would be terrible; for there were no provisions saved up, and the roads were so bad and communication so difficult that it was hard to bring suppUes from other regions where there was plenty. At such times, the peasants suffered most. They were forced to eat roots, herbs, and the bark of trees; and often they died by hundreds for want of even such food. Thus you will see that the lot of the peasant was a hard one; and it was often made still harder by the cruel contempt which the nobles felt for those Contempt whom they looked upon as "base-born." f^J^^^J^^^^^^ The name "villains" was given the peasants because they lived in villages; but the nobles have handed down the name as a term of reproach. In a poem, which was written to please the nobles no doubt. 200 THE STORY OF EUROPE the writer scolds at the villain because he was too well fed, and, as he says, " made faces " at the clergy. " Ought he to eat fish?" the poet asks. "Let him eat thistles, briars, thorns, and straw, on Sunday, for fodder; and pea- husks during the week ! Let him keep watch all his days, and have trouble. Thus ought villains to live. Ought he to eat meats .^ He ought to go naked on all fours, and crop herbs with the horned cattle in the fields!" Of course there were many lords who did not feel this way toward their peasants. Ordinarily the peasant Possibility was not nearly so badly off as the slave in the ^hlTrd^f Greek and Roman days; and often, perhaps, estate j^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^jj ^g ^^ many of the peasants of Europe today. But there was this difference between his position and that of the peasant now. Many of them could not leave their lord's manors, and move elsewhere, without their lord's permission. If they did so, their lord could pursue them, and bring them back. If, however, they succeeded in getting to a free town, and dwelt there for a year and a day without being recap- tured, then they became freed from their lord, and might dwell where they chose. Topics for Review and Search 1. Make a list of the ways in which the farming of the Middle Ages differed from that of the United States today. 2. How do you suppose the cattle, sheep, pigs, and geese were prevented from straying into the cultivated fields, in the absence of fences and hedges? 3. Why did the peasants live in villages, instead of in scat- tered farmhouses? 4. What can you learn concerning the cooking arrangements of the Middle Ages, from the list of household posses- sions on p. 199, and from the fact that all the bread for the village was baked in one great oven? 5. Would you be likely to find any stores in a village of the Middle Ages? Give reasons for your answer. XXVII LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL TOWNS Points to be Noted Decay of towns after the coming of the Germans; gradual growth of better conditions. Kevival of towns in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth cen- turies; the towns in Italy, in Germany, and in France; what the towns did for the world. Privileges of the towns; their rights of self-government; struggles within the towns; their independence finally lost. Life in the towns; the walls, streets, and houses; shops and workmen; the apprentices; the guilds; the cathedral; the bell tower. The great fairs of the Middle Ages; a busy street scene. The Germans had never lived in cities in their old homes; so, when they came into the Roman Empire, they preferred the free life of the country to Decay of settling within town walls. The old Roman under Ger- cities, which had sprung up all over the ^^"^"® Empire, had already lost much of their importance, and under these country-loving conquerors they soon lost what was left. In many places the inhabitants entirely disappeared; other places decreased in size; and all lost what rights they had had of governing themselves. The inhabitants of the towns became no better off than the peasants who lived in the little villages. In both the people lived by tilling the soil. In both the lord of the district made laws, appointed officers, and settled disputes in his own court. There was little difference, indeed, between the villages and towns, except a difference in size. This was the condition of affairs during the early part of the Middle Ages, while feudalism was slowly 201 202 THE STORY OF EUROPE arising, and the nobles were beating back the attacks of the Northmen and other invaders. At length, in the tenth and eleventh centuries danger from invaders ceased. Then men might travel from place to place, without such constant danger Growth of ^ . ^ . ^ better con- of being robbcd or slain. Commerce and ditions manufactures began slowly to revive, espec- ially in the towns. With commerce and manufactures, too, came riches. This was especially true in Italy and Southern France, where the townsmen were able, by A GERMAN TOWN their geographical position, to take part in the trade with Constantinople and Egypt, and also to gain money by carrying pilgrims in their ships to the Holy Land. With riches, also, came power; and with power came the desire to free themselves from the rule of their lord. So, all over civilized Europe, during the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, we find new towns arising and old ones getting the right to govern themselves. In Italy the towns gained power first; then in Southern France; then in Revival of towns LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 203 Northern France; and then along the valley of the River Rhine, and the coasts of the Baltic Sea. Some- times the towns bought their freedom from their lords; sometimes they won it after long struggles and much fighting. Sometimes the nobles and the clergy were wise enough to join with the townsmen, and share in the benefits which the town brought; sometimes they fought them foolishly and bitterly. In Germany and in Italy, the power of the kings was not great enough to make much difference one way or the other. In France, the kings favored the towns against their lords, and used them to break down the power of the feudal nobles. Then, when the kings' power had become so strong that they no longer feared the nobles, they checked the power of the towns, lest they in turn might become powerful and independent. Thus, in different ways and at different times, there grew up the cities of medieval Europe. In Italy, there sprang up the free cities of Venice, Florence, Pisa, Genoa, and others, where scholars and artists were to arise and bring a new birth to ^^^^ ^^^ learning and art; where, also, daring seamen did for the were to be trained, like Columbus, Cabot, and Vespucius, to discover in later times the New World. In France, the citizens showed their skill by building those beautiful Gothic cathedrals, which are still so much admired. In the towns of Germany and Holland, clever workmen invented and developed the art of printing, and so made possible the learning and education of today. The civilization of modern times, indeed, owes a great debt to these old towns, and to their sturdy inhabitants. Let us see now what those privileges were which the 204 THE STORY OF EUROPE townsmen got, and which enabled them to help on Privileges of the world's progress so much. To us these the towns privileges would not seem so very great. In hundreds of towns in France the lords granted only such rights as the following: 1. The townsmen shall pay only small fixed sums for the rent of their lands, and as a tax when they sell goods, etc. 2. They shall not be obliged to go to war for their lord, unless they can return the same day, if they choose. 3. When they have lawsuits, the townsmen shall not be obliged to go outside the town to have them tried. 4. No charge shall be made for the use of the town oven; and the townsmen may gather the dead wood in the lord's forest for fuel. 5. The townsmen shall be allowed to sell their property when they wish, and leave town without hindrance from the lord. 6. Any peasant who remains a year and a day in the town, with- out being claimed by his lord, shall be free. In other places the townsmen got, in addition, the right to elect their own judges; and, in still others, they got the right to elect all their officers. Towns of this latter class were sometimes called '* communes." Over them the lord had very Httle right, except to receive such sums of money of self- as it was agreed should be paid to him. In government . • x. i j.i some places, as m Italy, these communes became practically independent, and had as much power as the lords themselves. They made laws, and coined money, and had their vassals, and waged war just as the lords did. But there was this important difference: In the communes the rights belonged to the citizens as a whoky and not to one person. This made all the citizens feel an interest in the town affairs, and produced an enterprising, determined spirit in them. At the same time, the citizens were trained in the art of self- government, in using these rights. In this way, the LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 205 ATTACK UPON A CITY IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES 206 THE STORY OF EUROPE world was being prepared for a time when governments like ours — "of the people, for the people, and by the people," — should be possible. But this was to come only after many, many years. The townsmen often used their power selfishly, and in the interest of their own families and their Struggles within the own class. At times the rich and powerful towns ^ townsmen were as cruel and harsh toward the poorer and weaker classes as the feudal lords themselves. Fierce and bitter struggles then broke out between the citizens who had power and those who had none. Often, too, there were great family quarrels, continued from generation to generation, like the one which is told of in Shakespeare's play, Romeo and Juliet. It will not surprise you to learn that the communes everywhere, at last, lost their independence. Either . they came under the rule of the King, as in indepen- France, or else, as happened in Italy, they fell dence lost . ^^ j ' .7 into the power of some "tyrant" or local lord. But let us think of the earnest, busy life of these old townsmen, and their quaint surroundings, rather than of their weaknesses and mistakes. Imagine yourself a peasant lad, fleeing from your lord, or coming for the first time to the market in the city. As we approach the city gates, we see that the walls are strong, and are crowned with turrets. The gate is defended with drawbridge and portcullis, streets and like the entrance to a castle. Within are houses • T • 1 narrow, winding streets, with rows of tall- roofed houses, each with its garden attached. The houses themselves are more like our houses today, than like the Greek and Roman ones; for they have no courtyard in the interior and are several stories high. The roadways are often unpaved, and full of mud; and LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 207 there are no sewers. If you walk the streets after night- fall, you must carry a torch to light your footsteps, for there are no street-lamps. There are no policemen; but if you are out after dark, you must beware of the "city watch," who take turns in guarding the city, for they will make you give a strict account of yourself. Now, however, it is day, and we need have no fear. Pres- and workmen ently we come into the business parts of the city, and there we find the different trades grouped together in different streets. Here are the gold- smiths, and there are the tanners; here the cloth merchants, and there the butchers ; here the armor- smiths, and there the money-changers. The shops are all small and on the ground floor, with their wares exposed for sale in the open windows. Let us look in at one of the goldsmiths' shops. The shopkeeper and his wife are busily engaged, waiting on customers and inviting passers-by to stop and examine their goods. Within we see several men and boys at work, making the goods which their master A MEDIEVAL SHOP 208 THE STORY OF EUROPE sells. There the gold is melted and refined; the right amount of alloy is mixed with it; then it is cast, beaten, and filed into the proper shape. Then, perhaps, the article is enameled, and jewels are set in it. All of these things are done in this one little shop; and so it is with each trade. The workmen must all begin at the beginning, and start with the rough material; and the '* apprentices, " as the boys are called, must learn each of the processes by which the raw material is turned into the finished article. Thus a long term of apprenticeship is necessary for each trade, lasting sometimes for ten years. During The this time, the boys are fed, clothed, and lodged apprentices ^-^j^ their master's family, above the shop, and receive no pay. If they misbehave, the master has the right to punish them; and if they run away, he can pursue them and bring them back. Their life, however, is not so hard as that of the peasant boys, for they are better fed and housed, and have more to look forward to. When their apprenticeship is finished, they will become full members of the "guild" of their trade, and may work for whomever they please. For a while they may wander from city to city, working now for this master and now for that. In each city they will find the workers of their trade united into a guild, with a charter from the king, or other lord, which permits them to make rules for the carrying on of that business, and to shut out from it all persons who have not served a regular apprenticeship. So, in each impor- tant town, there are "craft guilds" of stonecutters, plasterers, carpenters, blacksmiths, weavers, and the like, as well as a "merchant guild," composed of those who trade with other places. LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 209 The more ambitious boys will not be content with a mere workman's life. They will look forward to a time when they shall have saved up money enough to start in business for themselves. Then they, too, will become masters, with workmen and apprentices under them; and perhaps, in course of time, if they grow in wealth and wisdom, they may be elected rulers over the city. i CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL (England) Let us leave the shops of the workers and pass on. As we wander about we find many churches and chapels; and perhaps we come, after a while, to a great "cathedral" or bishop's church, rearing cathedral its lofty roof to the sky. No pains have been spared to make this as grand and imposing as possible; 210 THE STORY OF EUROPE and we gaze upon its great height with awe, and wonder at the marvelously quaint and clever patterns in which the stone is carved. We leave this, also, after a time; and then we come to the "belfry" or town-hall. This is the real center of the life of the city. Here is the strong The . belfry or squarc towcr, like the "donjon" of a castle, where the townsmen may make their last stand, in case an enemy succeeds in entering their walls, and they cannot beat him back in their narrow streets. On top of the tower is the bell, with watchmen always on the lookout to give the signal, in case of fire or other danger. The bell is also used for more peaceful purposes. It summons the citizens, from time to time, to public meetings. Also, at eight or nine o'clock in the evening, it sounds the "curfew" (French couvre feu, "cover fire") as a signal to cover the fire with ashes, and cease from the day's labors. Within the tower are dungeons for prisoners and meeting rooms for the rulers of the city. There, also, are strong rooms, where the city money is kept, together with the great seal of the city. Lastly, there too is the charter which gives the city its liberties — the most precious of all the city's possessions. Even in ordinary times the city presents a bustling, busy appearance. If it is a town which holds a fair, The great oucc or twicc a year, what shall we say of ^^"^ it then? For several weeks, at such times, the city is one vast bazaar. Strange merchants come from all parts of the land to set up their booths and stalls along the streets, and the city shops are crowded with goods. From miles about the people throng in to buy the things they need. LIFE IN MEDIEVAL TOWNS 211 Below is a picture of the streets of a city during fair- time, in the thirteenth century. In the middle of the picture, we see a townsman and his wife . ^ . . . A busy returning home after making their purchases, street Behind them are a knight and his attendant, on horseback, picking their way through the crowd. On the right-hand side of the street is the shop of a cloth merchant, and we see the merchant and his wife show- A FAIR IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY ing goods to customers, while workmen are unpacking a box in the street. Next door is a tavern, with its sign hung out; and near this we see a cross, which some pious person has erected at the street corner. On the left-hand side of the street we see a cripple begging for alms. Back of him is another cloth-merchant's shop; and next to this is a money-changer's table, where a group of people are having money weighed, to see that 212 THE STORY OF EUROPE there is no cheating in the payment. Beyond this is an elevated stage, on which a company of tumblers and jugglers are performing, with a crowd of people about them. In the background we see some tall-roofed houses, topped with turrets; and beyond these we can just make out the spire of a church rising to the sky. This is, indeed, a busy scene, and it is a picture with which we may fittingly close our account. It well shows the energy and the activity which, during the later Middle Ages, made the towns the starting-place for so many important movements. Topics for Review and Search 1. Make a list of the things which caused the decline of the towns at the beginning of the Middle Ages. 2. Make another list of the things which helped their growth in numbers, wealth, and powers of self-government. 3. Imagine yourself an apprentice lad, and write an account of your life. 4. Study .the picture on p. 211, and write a letter describing an imaginary visit to a fair in the Middle Ages. XXVIII THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES Points to be Noted Power of the Church in the Middle Ages; its organization; Pope, archbishops and bishops, priests; their duties. Why men became monks; the rule of St. Benedict; dress of the monks; friars and nuns. The monastery buildings and lands; plan of a monastery. Hours for worship; labors and humility of the monks; they cop3^ books; their services to education; histories written by the monks. The three vows taken by a monk; enforcement of the rules; how one became a monk; a letter from a novice. In an earlier chapter you have seen that, even before the Germans overthrew the Roman Empire, the Chris- tian Church had become a great and powerful organization. In the troubled centuries which jl*^^®. followed that overthrow, the Church grew ever stronger. While all else made for lawlessness and disorder, it alone preached order, union, and justice. When it converted the barbarians, it presented to cruel warriors like Clovis an ideal of meekness and self-sacri- fice. In time the Church was granted many rights and privileges. Its priests were sacred, and whoever touched them or seized its property was declared ac- cursed. The interdict (see page 164) was only one out of many weapons which it possessed. A large part of the government was in its hands. It humbled the proudest kings and emperors, and at times its head forced them to become his vassals. All through the Middle Ages the Church exercised a power much greater than it does today. 213 214 THE STORY OF EUROPE CATHEDRAL OF COLOGNE (Germany) THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 215 Much of the strength and order which had marked the government of the Roman Empire passed into the organizatic^gl^f the Christian Church. At us organ- its head stood the Pope. He was bishop of Rome, and as such was successor to Saint Peter, to whom it was believed that Christ had given power over his Church on earth. Below the Pope were the archbishops and bishops, each of whom ruled over an important district in the church. The church building in which a bishop or archbishop held his services was called a cathedral; in the preceding chapter we have read of the grandeur and beauty of many of these. Below the bishops and archbishops were the parish priests, of whom there were one or more in every con- siderable village. Pope, bishops, and priests were all part of the "clergy," and were all alike concerned in teaching the truths of the Christian religion to the people. They held services in the churches, solemnized marriages, baptized children, buried the dead, consoled the living. They were the ones of the clergy who especially brought the Christian religion into the lives of the people. But there was another branch also of the clergy, as we have seen, who withdrew from the world and led their lives and served God apart. These were the monks. In the Middle Ages men thought that storms HEAD OF A BISHOP'S STAFF 216 THE STORY OF EUROPE and lightning, famine and sickness, were signs of the wrath of God, or were the work of evil spirits. The Monk- world was a terrible place to them; and they monasterie ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ pleased when they renounced it, and voluntarily led lives of hardship and self-denial. The result was that great numbers became monks, and the monasteries became a most important part of the medieval Church. In Western Europe most of the monasteries were governed by a set of rules which had been drawn up in Italy (in 529 a.d.), by a monk named Benedict, and which was called the Benedictine Rule. The rule prescribed that the dress of the monks should be of coarse woolen cloth, with a cowl or hood which Dress could be pulled up to protect the head; and of the about the waist a cord was to be worn for a monks girdle. The gown of the Benedictines was usually black, so they were called "black monks." As the centuries went by, new orders of monks were founded, with new rules. In this way arose ''white monks," and monks of other names. In addition, orders of "friars" were founded, espe- cially by Saint Francis and by Saint Dominic. These Orders of Were like the monks in many ways, but lived friars and morc iu the world, preaching, teaching, and caring for the sick. The friars also were called "black friars," "gray friars," or " white friars, " according to the color of their dress. Besides the orders for men, there were also orders of "nuns" for women. Saint Scholastica, the friend of Saint Benedict, and Saint Clara, the friend of Saint Francis, were the founders of two important orders of nuns. In some places in the Middle Ages nunneries became almost as common as monasteries. THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 217 Let us try, now, to see what a Benedictine monastery was like. One of Benedict's rules provided that every monastery should be so arranged that every- ^^^ thing the monks needed would be in the ™^5ff^|7 monastery itself, and there would be no need for the monks to go outside; "for this," said Benedict, *'is not at all good for their souls." Each monastery, therefore, became a settlement complete in itself. It not only had its halls, where the monks ate and slept, and its own church; it had also its own mill, its own bake-oven, and its own workshops, where the monks made the things which they needed. The better to shut out the world, and to protect the monastery against robbers, the buildings were sur- rounded by a strong wall. Outside of this The mon- lay the fields of the monastery, where the ^^*®'"^ monks themselves raised the grain they needed, or which were tilled for them by peasants, in the same way that the lands of the lords were tilled. Finally, there was the woodland where the swine were herded, and the pasture lands where the cattle and sheep were sent to graze. The amount of land belonging to a monastery was often quite large. Nobles and kings frequently gave gifts of land, and the monks in return prayed for their souls. Often, when the land came into the possession of the monks, it was covered with swamps or forests. By unwearying labor the swamps were drained and the forests felled, and soon smiling fields appeared where before there was only a wilderness. On the next page is a picture of a German monastery, at the close of the Middle Ages. There we ^^^J^\^^ see the wall, surrounded by a ditch, which monastery inclosed the buildings and protected the monastery 218 THE STORY OF EUROPE from attack. To enter the inclosure, we must cross the bridge and present ourselves at the gate. When we have passed this, we see to the left stables for cattle and horses, while to the right are gardens of herbs for the cure of the sick. Near by is the monks' graveyard, with the graves marked by little crosses. In the center of the inclosure are workshops, where the monks work at different trades. The tall building. A GERMAN MONASTERY with the spires crowned with the figures of saints, is the church, where the monks hold services at regular inter- vals, throughout the day and night. Adjoining this, in the form of a square, are the build- ings in which the monks sleep and eat. This is the "cloister," and it is the principal part of the monastery. In southern lands, this inner square or cloister was usually surrounded on all sides by a porch or piazza, the roof of which was supported on long rows of pillars: THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 219 and here the monks might pace to and fro, in quiet talk, when the duties of worship and labor did not occupy their time. In addition to these buildings, there are many others which we cannot stop to describe. Some are used to carry on the work of the monastery: some are for the use of the abbot, who is the ruler of the monks; some are hospitals for the sick; and some are guest chambers, where travelers are lodged over night. In the guest cham- bers, the travelers may sleep undisturbed all the night through. It is not so with the monks. They must begin their worship long before the sun is up. Soon after mid- night the bell of the monastery rings, the monks arise from their hard beds, and gather in the church, to recite prayers, read portions of the Bible, and sing psalms. Not less than twelve of the Hours for psalms of the Old Testament must be read ^""^^ '^ each night, at this service. At daybreak the bell rings again, and once more the monks gather in the church. This is the first of the seven services which are held during the day. The others come at seven o'clock in the morning, nine o'clock, at noon, at three in the afternoon, at six o'clock, and at bedtime. At each of these there are prayers, reading from the scriptures, and chanting of psalms. Latin is the only language used in the church ser- vices of the West in the Middle Ages; so the Bible is read, the psalms sung, and the prayers recited in this tongue. A FRENCH CLOISTER 220 THE STORY OF EUROPE The services are so arranged that in the course of every week the entire Psalter, or psalm book, is gone through; then, at the Sunday night service, they begin again. Besides attending these services, there were many other things which the monks must do. " Idleness, " wrote Labors and ^^^^^ Benedict, "is the enemy of the soul;'* Jjj»™i"ty of so he arranged that, at fixed hours during the day, the monks should labor with their hands. Some plowed the fields, harrowed them, and planted and harvested the grain. Others worked at various trades in the workshops of the monasteries. If any brother showed too much pride in his work, and put himself above the others because of his skill, he was made to work at something else. The monks must be humble at all times. "A monk," said Benedict, "must always show humility, — not only in his heart, but with his body also. This is so whether he is at work or at prayer; whether he is in the monastery, in the garden, in the road, or in the fields. Everywhere — sitting, walking, or stand- ing — let him always be with head bowed, his looks fixed upon the ground; and let him remember every hour that he is guilty of his sins. " One of the most useful labors which the monks per- formed was the copying and writing of books. At certain hours of the day, especially on Sundays, the brothers were required by Benedict's rule to read and to study. In the Middle Ages, of course. The monks .-t •,• 11111 copybooks there were no prmtmg presses, and all books were "manuscript" — that is, they were copied, a letter at a time, by hand. So, in each well-regulated monastery, there was a writing room or "scriptorium,'* where some of the monks worked at copying manuscripts. The writing was usually done on skins of parchment. THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 221 These the monks cut to the size of the page, rubbing the surface smooth with pumice stone. Then the margins were marked, and the lines ruled, with sharp awls. The writing was done with pens made of quills or of reeds, and with ink made of soot mixed with gum and acid. The greatest care was used in forming each letter, and at the beginning of the chapters a large initial was made. Sometimes these initials were really pictures, beautifully "illuminated" in blue, gold, and crimson. All this required skill and great pains. "He who does not know how to write," wrote a monk at the end of one manu- script, "imagines that it is no labor; but, though only three fingers hold the pen, the whole body grows weary. " And another one wrote: "I pray you, good readers who may use this book, do not forget him who copied it. It was a poor brother named Louis, who while he copied the volume (which was brought from a foreign country) endured the cold, and was obliged to finish in the night what he could not write by day. " The monks by copying books did a great service to the world, for it was in this way that many valuable works were preserved during the dark ages of the bar- barian invasions, when violence and ignorance spread, and the love of learning had almost died out. MONK IN SCRIPTORIUM 222 . THE STORY OF EUROPE In other ways, also, the monks helped the cause of learning. At a time when no one else took the trouble, . or knew how, to write a history of the things services to that Were going on, the monks in most of education ^ ^ the great monasteries wrote "annals" or ''chronicles" in which events were each year set down. And at a time when there were no schools except those provided by the Church, the monks taught boys to read and to write, so that there might always be learned men to carry on the work of religion. The educa- tion which they gave, and the books which they wrote, were of course in Latin, like the services of the Church; for this was the only language of educated men. The histories which the monks wrote were, no doubt, very poor ones, and the schools were not very good; but they were ever so much better than none Histories '^ written by at all. Here is what a monk wrote in the monks ,, . "annals" of his monastery, as the history of the year 807; it will show us something about both the histories and the schools: "807. Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, died; and there was great sickness in the monastery of Saint ]?oniface, so that many of the younger brothers died. The boys of the monastery school beat their teacher, and ran away." That is all we are told. Were the boys just unruly and restless? Did they rebel at the tasks at school, at a time when their King was waging mighty wars; and did they long to become knights and warriors, instead of priests and monks? Or was it on account of the sickness that they ran away? We cannot tell. That is the way it is with many things in the Middle Ages. Most of what we know about the history of that time THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 223 and we learn from the "chronicles" kept by the monks, these do not tell us nearly all that we should like to know. The three most important things which were required of the monks were that they should have no property of their own, that Three vows they should not marry, and that ^^'^^^'^^ they should obey those who were placed over them. "A monk," said Benedict, ''should have absolutely nothing, neither a book, nor a tablet, nor a pen." Even the clothes which they wore were the property of the monastery. If any gifts were sent them by their friends or relatives, they must turn them over to the abbot, for the use of the monastery as a whole. The rule of obedience required that a monk, when ordered to do a thing, should do it with- out delay; and if impossible things were com- manded, he must at least make the attempt. The rule about marrying was equally strict; and in some monasteries it was counted a sin even to look upon a woman. Other rules forbade the monks to talk at certain times of the day and in their sleeping halls. For fear lest they might forget themselves at the table. Saint ILLUMINATED INITIAL The picture shows several younj men receiving the "tonsure" — that is, having the hair clipped from the top of their heads as a sign that they are to become priests 224 THE STORY OF EUROPE Benedict ordered that one of the brethren should always read aloud at meals, from some holy book. All were required to Hve on the simplest and plainest food. The rules, indeed, were so strict that it was often difficult to enforce them, especially after the monasteries became rich and powerful. Then, although men[oTthe the mouks might not have any property of '"*^' their own, they enjoyed vast riches belonging to the monastery as a whole, and often lived in luxury and idleness. When this happened, there was usually a reaction, and a new order of monks arose with stricter rules. So, we have times of zeal and strict enforcement of the rules, followed by periods of decay; and these, in turn, followed by new periods of strictness. This went on to the close of the Middle Ages, when many of the monasteries were done away with. When a person wished to become a monk, he had first to go through a trial. He must become a ''novice" and live in a monastery, under its rules, for Kme\ a year; then, if he was still of the same mind, ™'**'^ he took the vows of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience. "From that day forth," says the rule of Saint Benedict, "he shall not be allowed to depart from the monastery, nor to shake from his neck the yoke of the rule; for, after so long delay, he was at liberty either to receive it or to refuse it." When the monasteries had become corrupt, some naen no doubt became monks in order that they might live in idleness and luxury. But let us think rather of the many men who became monks because they believed that this was the best way to serve God. Let us think in closing of one of the best of the monas- teries of the Middle Ages, and let us look at its life through the eyes of a noble young novice. The monas- THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 225 tery was in France, and its abbot, Saint Bernard, was famous throughout the Christian world for his piety and zeal. Of this monastery the novice writes: "I watch the monks at their daily services, and at their nightly vigils from midnight to the dawn; and as I hear them singing so holily and unweary- ingly, they seem to me more Hke angels than of a^' men. Some of them have been bishops or rulers, or else have been famous for their rank and knowledge; now all are equal, and no one is higher or lower than any other. I see them in the gardens with the hoe, in the meadows with fork and rake, in the forests with the ax. When I remember what they have been, and consider their present condition and work, their poor and ill-made clothes, my heart tells me that they are not the dull and speechless beings they seem, but that their life is hid with Christ in the heavens. "Farewell! God willing, on the next Sunday after Ascension Day, I, too, shall put on the armor of my pro- fession as a monk." Topics for Review and Search 1. Make a list of the ways in which the monks helped the world. 2. Why do not so many persons become monks and nuns now as in the Middle Ages? XXIX PILGRIMAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES Points to be Noted Places to which pilgrimages were made; why men went on pilgrimages. Dress of the pilgrims; what they carried; how they traveled; where they were entertained. Pilgrimages over sea; difficulties and dangers; preparations. Completion of a pilgrimage; medals and palm branches; offer- ings; number of pilgrims; influence. Rise and spread of Mohammedanism; date; coming of the Turks; date; difference which this made. Eequest of the Eastern Emperor for aid; what a Crusade was; why men went on Crusades. Almost the only traveling to and fro in the Middle Ages — especially before the revival of commerce which we have mentioned in describing the life in ^^|rims ^^^ towns — was that of the pilgrims and crusaders. The pilgrims were men, and sometimes women, who traveled long distances in order to visit spots made holy by their connection with the Christian religion. Some of these places were in Europe, such as the tomb of Saint Thomas Becket, at Canterbury, in England, or that of Saint James of Com- postella,in Spain; or those of the Apostles Peter and Paul, in Rome. More important than these, however, were the holy places of Palestine, which were connected with the life and death of our Lord Jesus Christ. At a very early time men began to visit such holy spots. These visits made more real to the pilgrims the lives and teachings of Christ and the saints, pilgrimages Men also bclieved that their prayers would more certainly be heard when they were uttered from a place made sacred by the life of some 236 PILGRIMAGES IN THE MIDDLE AGES 227 holy man, and that their bodies would thus be healed from disease and their souls cleansed from sin. Love of adventure, a restless spirit, and a desire to see new lands, also impelled men to make pilgrimages. Con- sequently, just as soon as it became safe to travel at all, we find men going in constantly increasing numbers to such pilgrim shrines. The pilgrims were under the protection of the Church, and wore a special dress. Usually this consisted of a gray woolen robe, with a hood which could be of the pulled over the head. The pilgrim wore a broad-brimmed hat, and carried a staff, a sack, and a gourd cup to drink out of. At first the pilgrims lodged in the monasteries; but as their numbers increased separate houses were established for their entertainment, especially on the great Alpine passes, in the chief cities in Italy, and in Jerusalem. By land the pilgrims usually traveled on foot; though nobles often went on horseback, with a considerable com- pany of followers, and in Palestine donkeys were frequently used. In England there was a road which, from the number of pilgrims who traveled over it, was called "the palmer's way." (Pilgrims returning from the Holy Land usually carried palm-branches and hence were called "palmers.") On some much traveled roads there were regular stations where horses could be hired, which Traveling on land A PILGRIM 228 THE STORY OF EUROPE were then given up at the next station. The road which led to Canterbury was the great highroad to the Conti- nent, and along it were many inns at which travelers could refresh themselves, and chapels at which they could stop to say prayers and perform their devotions. Persons of all ranks, both men and women, met together in these inns; and the long evenings were given up to stories of adventures by the way, and to strange tales heard from others. The English poet Chaucer, in his poem The Canterbury Tales, pictures for us such a com- pany gathered together on the pilgrimage to the tomb CANTERBURY PILCIRIMS of Saint Thomas of Canterbury, and gives us the stories which each of the travelers is supposed to have told. On more distant pilgrimages the difficulties and dan- gers, and also the attractions, were much greater. The roads were bad and unsafe, rivers were often ovefseT^^*^ difficult to cross, the mountain passes fatiguing and dangerous. Worst of all were the sea voyages, which at times could not be avoided. The vessels were small, and the pilgrims closely crowded together; the food was bad and the smells intolerable; most of the pilgrims were unaccustomed to the sea, and became dreadfully seasick. Books were written as guides to the pilgrims, telling them how much they PILGRIMAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 229 should pay for their sea-passage from Venice to the Holy Land, and the preparations they should make for the voyage. They must take with them a feather bed, with pillows, sheets, and blankets; they should take some provisions for their private use, together with necessary medicines; and they should beware alike of foreign fruits and robbers when they landed. A list of phrases in foreign tongues was usually given, so that the pilgrim in a strange land might ask his way, and purchase necessary things. When one had completed his pilgrimage, he usually bought at the shrine of the saint a pewter medal, some- times shaped like a cockleshell, on which . Completion was stamped the name oi the saint together of a • 1 rr«i • pilgrimage With some pious words. This was sewn on the hat or worn on the breast, as a sign that one had com- pleted his pilgrimage. Often one met with men who wore many such medals, from many different shrines. On leaving a shrine, you made an offering of money to the saint; and many shrines became very rich from the silver, gold, and precious objects offered by worshipers who visited them. For a long time the stories which the pilgrims told of their travels gave the people of Western Europe almost their only knowledge of distant lands and nations. As time went on, the number of persons who went on pilgrimages became larger and larger. The greatest single company which went to the Holy Land, before the Crusades, set out from Germany in the year 1064, and numbered 7000 persons. The danger which attended such expeditions is seen from the fact that out of this number only 2000 ever returned to their homes. The others perished on the way — from sickness, hard- ship, accident, and conflicts with hostile peoples. 230 THE STORY OF EUROPE The Crusades differed from these peaceful pilgrimages in that they were armed attempts to restore Jerusalem and the Holy Land to the rule of the Christians. In the days of Christ and the Apostles, Palestine was a part of the Roman Empire; but in the seventh century Rise and after Christ it passed under the rule of the Mohani^* Arabs, who had recently established a new medanism ^.^n^i^^ ^his religion wc Call Mohammed- anism, from its founder, Mohammed. He had rescued the Arabs from idolatry, and had taught them that there was but one God (Allah), of whom he (Mohammed) was the Prophet. Within less than a hundred years from Mohammed's death, in 632, his followers had conquered a vast empire, which included most of Western x\sia, all of North Africa, and the peninsula of Spain in Western Europe. But in Eastern Europe what was left of the old Roman Empire proved too strong for them. There the strongly fortified city of Constantinople held them in check; and although the Eastern Emperors were not able to save Palestine, they did save Eastern Europe for several centuries from Mohammedan conquest. For a time the Christians did not trouble themselves very much over the fact that the religion of Mohammed was established in Palestine side by side with that of Christ. They were too busy at home, fighting Northmen and working out the institutions under which they were to live, to give much attention to things so far away. The Arabs, moreover, respected the holy places of the Christians, and allowed pilgrims to Jerusalem to come and to go without much harm or hindrance. In the eleventh century, however, this was all changed. A new race, called Turks, then appeared from the wilds of central Asia, became converted to Mohammedanism, and took the government of those lands into their own PILGRIMAGES OF THE MIDDLE AGES 231 hands. They were a rude, fierce people, very unhke the cultured Arabs. They showed the greatest contempt for the Christians and their religion. Pilgrims ^^^ ^^^^^ who returned from Jerusalem told of many ^^^^ outrages which the Turks were committing on the Christians and on their holy places. The result was a great outburst of indignation in Western Europe. The Turks also were a more warlike people than the Arabs of that day, and within a short time they had won lands from the Eastern Empire which the Arabs had never been able to conquer. The safety of Con- stantinople itself was threatened. "From Jerusalem to the Aegean Sea," wrote the Eastern Emperor, "the Turkish hordes have mastered all. Their galleys sweep the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and threaten the imperial city itself. " To meet this danger, the Emperor wrote to the Pope asking for aid against the Turks. Quieter times had now come in the West, and rulers and peoples The were in a mood to grant this request. Reli- Emperor gious zeal, love of adventure, and the hope of winning rich lands and booty alike urged them to this step. The result was that great movement, productive of many unforeseen results, which we call the Crusades. Topics for Review and Search 1. In what ways are the visits which Americans now make to foreign lands like medieval pilgrimages? In what ways are they unlike? 2. Find out what you can about Saint Thomas of Canterbury and the pilgrimages to his tomb. 3. Imagine yourself a pilgrim going to the Holy Land, and describe your adventures. 4. Eead an account of Mohammed and the religion which he founded. 5. In what countries is Mohammedanism today the chief religion ? XXX THE FIRST CRUSADE Points to be Noted Pope Urban 11. calls the First Crusade; date; preparations for it. Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless set out; their fol- lowers destroyed. The princes make ready; their march to Constantinople; their wonder at its riches; they cross into Asia Minor. Letter from a Crusader; he tells of his gains; the siege of Antioch; sufferings of the Crusaders; their victories over the Turks. Finding of the Holy Lance; the Crusaders arrive before Jeru- salem; they capture the city; date; treatment of its defenders; the Crusaders' vows fulfilled. Pope Urban II. called a council of clergy and nobles to meet at Clermont, in France, in 1095; and to them he presented the request of the Eastern Emperor for aid. Most of those present were French, so Urban, who was himself a Frenchman, spoke to them in their own tongue. . He told them of the danger to Constantinople Clermont and of the sad state of Jerusalem, while the western peoples were quarreling and fighting among themselves. In all that region, he said. Chris- tians had been led off into slavery, their homes laid waste, and their churches overthrown. Then he appealed to the pride of his hearers, and urged them to rescue the Holy Sepulchre of Christ from the hands of the Mohammedans. "Christ himself," he cried, "will be your leader when you fight for Jerusalem! Let your quarrels cease, and turn your arms against the accursed Turks. In this 232 THE FIRST CRUSADE 233 way you will return home victorious, and laden with the wealth of your foes; or, if you fall in battle, you will receive an everlasting reward!" To this p^^p^ urban appeal the Council, with one accord, made ^jJJ|^^g answer: "It is the will of God! It is the will of God!" From all sides they hastened to give in their names for the holy war. Each person who promised to go was given a cross of red cloth, which he was to wear upon his breast going to the Holy Land, and on his back V returning. To those who " took ^^ the cross," the name "Cru- ATvk saders" was given, from the ^^m \ Latin word which means cross. (^/ j^m The winter following the /W |^| Council was spent in getting i^MJ-/ ^^M^ (V^ ready for the Crusade. All //f fif ^^^^^^f classes showed the greatest / £ ^^^^^K zeal. Preachers went about /^ ^^^ErAifflto^ among the people calling upon "H^^^^^^ rich and poor, noble and peas- l^H^^^^ ant alike, to help free the Holy ^L^^^^^wt^ Land. Whole villages, towns, ii^^^^^^^m>>\ and cities were emptied of their "'^^^^^^^^^^ inhabitants to join the Crusade. ^ crusader Many sold all they had to get the means to go; and thieves, robbers, and other wicked men promised to leave their wickedness and aid in rescuing the tomb of Christ Jesus from the infidels. The time set for the starting of the Crusade was the early summer of the year 1096. But the common people could not wait so long. Under a monk named crusade of Peter the Hermit, and a poor knight called **»^p^**p*^ Walter the Penniless, great companies from Germany 234 THE STORY OF EUROPE and France set out before that time. They had almost no money, they were unorganized, and there was no discipline or obedience in the multitude. The route which they took was down the River Danube, through the kingdoms of the Hungarians and Bulgarians, and so to Constantinople. Few of the people or their leaders had any idea of the distance, and as each new cit}^ came in sight many cried out: "Is this Constantinople? " In Hungary and Bulgaria they were attacked because they plundered the country as they passed through. Its and many were slain. When they reached failure Constantinople, some cf the unruly company set fire to buildings near the city, while others stripped off sheets of lead from the roofs of churches to sell to Greek merchants. The Emperor hastened to get rid of his unwelcome guests by sending them across into Asia Minor. There within a few months Walter and most of his followers were slain by the Turks, and the expedition came to a sorrowful end. Meanwhile the princes from France, Germany, and Italy were making ready their expeditions. While some Norman lords of Southern Italy were engaged princes in one of their many wars, a messenger came make ready , • , i , i to them with the news that countless warriors of France had started on the way to Jerusalem, and invited them to join the expedition. "What are their weapons, what their badge, what their war-cry?" asked one of the Normans. "Our weapons," replied the messenger, "are those best suited to war; our badge, the cross of Christ; our war-cry, 'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!' When he heard these words, the Norman tore from his shoulders his costly cloak, and wiLh his own hands he made crosses from it for all who would follow him THE FIRST CRUSADE 235 to the Holy Land. There he became one of the most famous and renowned of the Crusaders; and his followers showed that they could be as brave, as enterprising, and as skillful in fighting for the Holy Land as they had been before in fighting for lands and goods in France, in Eng- land, and in Italy. CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH The Crusaders set out in five different companies. The first started in August, 1096; the last did not join the others, near Constantinople, until the They march rTM • J to Constan- next summer. Ihe companies were made up tinopie of trained and armed knights, with chosen leaders, and they had made careful preparations for the expedition. They did not suffer so severely, there- fore, as did the poor ignorant people led by Walter the Penniless. It was only after many hardships, however, that the Crusaders finally arrived at Constantinople. In the lands north of the Alps, there were at that time none of the vast and richly ornamented churches and other buildings which later arose; all were poor, and THE STORY OF EUROPE lacking in stateliness and beauty. Constantinople, however, was the most beautiful city of the world; so ^ . , the siffht of it filled the Crusaders with awe splendor • • a r\ . . . ,, of Con- and admiration. " Oh, how great a city it is ! stantinople pi- i > a • i before thosc whom they saw had water. Again the Jerusalem . . . . i • i priests saw visions, and it was proclaimed that if the army marched barefoot around the city for nine days, the city would fall. So a procession was formed, and the Crusaders marched around the city, with priests and bishops at their head, chanting hymns and prayers as they went. The Mo- hammedans mocked at them from the walls, and some beat a cross, crying out : '* Look, Franks! It is the holy cross on which your Christ was slain!" After this the chiefs a machine for hurling stones ordered an attack on the city from two sides. The Mohammedans thfcuy^** were beaten back from the walls by the ^^^''' showers of stones from the hurling machines, and blazing arrows carried fire to the roofs of the build- ings. Battering rams broke openings in the solid walls, and by means of scaUng ladders the Christians swarmed upon the ramparts. At last the city fell. Jerusalem— the holy city, which held the tomb of Christ— was once more in the hands of the Christians. But what a terrible day was that! How little of the meek and just spirit of Christ did his followers show! *'When our men had taken the city, with its walls and towers," writes one of the Crusaders, '* there were THE FIRST CRUSADE 241 things wondrous to be seen. For some of the enemy (and this is a small matter) were deprived of their heads; others, riddled through with arrows, were forced to leap down from the towers; of the inhabitants and others, alter long torture, were burned in the flames. In all the streets and squares there w^ere to be seen piles of heads and hands and feet; and along the public ways foot and horse alike made passage over the bodies of the slain." Thus the Crusaders fulfilled their vow to "wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the infidel." But at what a cost of lives, both Christian and Mohammedan; • «. 1 1 1 rv ' 1 TheCrusa- oi agonies oi battle, and sufiermgs on the ders'vow way; of women made widows and children left fatherless! "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy," said Christ. This teaching, alas! the Crusaders seemed not to know. Topics for Review and Search 1. Imagine yourself a boy or girl at the Council of Clermont, and write an account of the calling of the Crusade. 2. Did men like Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless do more good than harm to the Crusade? Why? 3. What other motives besides zeal for religion influenced men to go on the Crusade? (Read Count Stephen's letter again.) 4. Study the picture on page 240, and find out how a hurling machine worked. 5. Make a list of the things for which we should praise the Crusaders, and then make a list of their defects. XXXI THE CRUSADE OF RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED Points to be Noted How the Crusaders organized their conquests; how Palestine was protected against the Mohammedans. Failure of the Second Crusade. Character of Saladin; his capture of Jerusalem; date; how he treated the Christians. Preparations for the Third Crusade; the three great rulers who took part; death of Frederick Barbarossa; failure of the German expedition. Character of Kichard the Lion-Hearted; route taken by Eichard and Philip; how Acre was taken; why the Crusade failed; Eichard's captivity, ransom, and death. Object of the Fourth Crusade; date; its results; why the Cru- sading movement came to an end. The Crusaders organized their conquests in the Holy Land by forming them into a feudal kingdom, called The king- the kingdom of Jerusalem. Most of the jer'lJsa/em Crusadcrs then prepared to return to their founded homes. Only those who had secured feudal lordships in Palestine remained behind. If the Mo- hammedans had been united at that time, they might easily have driven the Christians into the sea. But the Mohammedans were quarreling among themselves, and besides they had learned to fear the mail-clad "Franks." The Christians were thus given time to prepare their defenses. Huge castles were everywhere built to pro- its defenses tcct their lauds. New companies of Crusad- prepared ^^^^ ^jg^^ began to arrive, to take the place of those who had returned home; and soon merchants from the Italian cities settled there for the purpose of trade. 242 RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 243 Three special "military orders" were formed to pro- tect the Holy Land, These were called the Knights Hospitallers, the Knights Templars, and the ^j^^ ^j^^^^ Teutonic Knights. The members of these ^^^^^^^^ orders were both monks and knights. They were bound, like the monks, by vows of poverty, chas- tity, and obedience; but they were also knights, engaged in a perpetual crusade against the infidel. The Hos- pitallers wore a white cross on a black mantle; the Templars a red cross on a white mantle; and the Teutonic Knights a black cross on a white mantle. These military orders became very powerful and wealthy, and helped a great deal to keep the Holy Land in the hands of the Chris- tians. About forty years after the First Crusade, occurred a Second Cru- sade (1147-1149), which was caused by the news that the Turks had conquered part of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Two kings — Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France — took part in this Crusade, but they accomplished very little. After another forty years, rumors began to reach Europe of a great Mohammedan leader who had arisen in Egypt, and was threatening Palestine with Rise of new danger. He was called Saladin, and was one of the greatest rulers the Mohammedans ever had. He was foremost in battle, and was wise KNIGHT TEMPLAR 244 THE STORY OF EUROPE and far-sighted in council. When he was victorious he dealt generously with his enemies, and when he was defeated he was never cast down. He was simple in his habits, just and upright in his dealings, and true to his promises. He was, in short, as chivalrous a warrior, and as sincere a believer in his faith, as any of the Christian knights against whom he fought; and his power was soon grown so great that he could attack them from all sides. "So great is the multitude of the Saracens and Turks," wrote one of the Christians, "that from the city of Tyre, which they are besieging, they cover the face of the earth as far as Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of ants. " When at last the Christians marched out to battle, they were overthrown with terrible slaughter. The King of Jerusalem and the Grand Master of He captures , ™, , ^ i* . i Jerusalem the Tcmplars were among the captives taken. Three months later, Saladin laid siege to Jerusalem itself. For two weeks the city held out, but at the end of that time it was forced to surrender. The mercy which Saladin now showed to the con- quered Christians was in strange contrast to the cruelty which the Crusaders had displayed. There was no slaughter now such as had occurred ninety years before. The greater number of the defeated party were allowed to go free, on paying a ransom. The churches, however, were all changed into Mohammedan mosques. When news of these events reached Europe, it caused great excitement. The King of England, who was called Richard the Lion-Hearted, took the cross The Third , , Crusade and prepared to go on a new crusade. King Philip Augustus of France promised to join him; and the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 245 so called on account of his red beard, also took the vow to go. These were the three most powerful rulers of Europe, and the movement which they set on foot prom- ised to be one of the greatest that the world had ever seen. The Emperor Frederick, in spite of his ^ ^^ , Death of SeventV Frederick Barbarossa years, was the first to start. He led his army by the Danube route, and except for one battle which he had to fight with the Eastern Emperor, all went well until the army reached Asia Minor. There, alas! the old Emperor was drowned, while swimming a river one hot day, to refresh himself and shorten his way. After that the German army went to pieces, most of its members losing their lives in the mountains and deserts of Asia Minor, or being cut down by Turkish soldiers. Richard the Lion-Hearted is one of the most interest- RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED From the figure on his tomb 246 THE STORY OF EUROPE Character of Richard the Lion- Hearted ing, and also one of the most typical, of the Crusaders. The Crusade appealed alike to his love of adventure and to his devotion to religion. A chron- icler tells us that he was "tall, well built, and with hair midway between red and yellow." He loved to hunt, to sing, to make verses, and to con- quer other knights in "tournaments" or in real battles. His strength and military skill were famed throughout Western Europe. But he was a warrior and a knight, rather than a wise king. He neglected and misgoverned his kingdom of England ; and even as a warrior, it must be con- fessed, he was guilty of some acts of cruelty which were not in keeping with the highest ideals of knighthood. Philip and Richard profited by the experience of those who Departure of Richard had ffOUC On and Philip ^ the Crusades before them, and when they were ready to start they did not attempt to go by the long land route down the Danube valley. Instead they resolved to go by water, and took ship from Marseilles, in Southern France. From the beginning, however, things went wrong. Richard and Philip were very jealous of each other, and could not get along together. Philip was only half-hearted in the Cru- sade, and longed to be back in France; and Richard allowed himself to be turned aside for a time to other things. SHIELD OF RICHARD During the Crusades knights began the practice of painting emblems on their shields, banners, etc., to distinguish one from another. The "lions" which Rich- ard used became the "arms" of England RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 247 When they reached the Holy Land, they found the Christians laying siege to Acre, one of the seaports near Jerusalem. The siege had already lasted ^.^^^ more than a year, and for several months J«djaiiof longer it dragged on. It was a dreary time for the Christians. "The Lord is not in the camp," wrote one of their number; "there is none that doeth good. The leaders strive with one another, while the lesser folk starve, and have none to help. The Turks are persistent in attack, while our knights skulk within their tents. The strength of Saladin increases daily, but daily does our army wither away." The fame of Richard as a warrior soon put new spirit into the besiegers. Almost daily he rode around the walls of Acre, defying the Mohammed- ans and directing the work of the siege. He ordered stone-hurling machines to be put in operation, and showed the besiegers where to place battering-rams, movable towers, and other "engines" to batter down the walls and secure an entrance into the city. In the end these measures were successful and Acre fell— chiefly owing to the skill and daring of King Richard. Soon after the fall of Acre, King Philip returned to MOVABLE TOWER 248 THE STORY OF EUROPE France, leaving Richard to carry on the war without his aid. But quarrels among the leaders continued, Failure of and they could not agree on anything. It the Crusade j^ ^^-^ ^j^^^ Richard ouc day rode up a hill within sight of Jerusalem, but held his shield before his face that he might not look upon the sacred city which he could not rescue. The army was obliged to retreat, and the Holy City was left in the hands of the "infidels." Richard was now obliged to return to England; so he made a truce with Saladin for three years, during which time Christians might freely visit Jerusalem. When he departed from Syria, he left behind him a great reputa- tion for his bravery. It is said that the fear which he aroused among the Mohammedans was so great that when their children wept they would say to them: "Be quiet, the King of England is coming." To avoid enemies on his way home, Richard attempted to pass secretly through Germany, almost alone. But Richard's he was recognized by a lord whose enmity ransom^' ^c had gained while on the Crusade, and was and death ^akcu prisoner. For a time the place of his confinement was not known to his own people. In after years, men told a story of how his favorite "minstrel," Blondel, wandered through Germany, singing beneath the walls of every castle a song known only to the King and to Blondel himself. At last he was rewarded by hearing the answering verse in Richard's clear voice, and he knew that he had found his master's prison. Richard's enemies drove a hard bargain with him. It was only after fourteen months of captivity, and on the payment of an enormous ransom, that he was released. He was never able to return to the Holy Land to renew the Crusade, as he had intended. He RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED 249 was detained at home by troubles in his own lands, and by war with King Philip. He died at last, in 1199, of an arrow wound which he received while fighting in France. "What have I done to you, that you should slay me?" asked the dying King when the man who had shot the bolt was led captive before him. "You have slain my father and two of my brothers," was the reply. "Torture me as you will, I shall die gladly since I have slain you." On hearing this answer, Richard pardoned the man and ordered that he be set free. This was characteristic of his chivalry and knightly generosity. The Crusades continued for about a hundred years after the death of Richard the ^he Fourth Lion-Hearted. The crus^de Fourth Crusade, which took place between the years 1202 and 1204, was the most important of these later expeditions. The citizens of Venice were the leaders in this, and to further their trading interests, it was directed against the Christian city of Constantinople, and not against the Turks. As a result of it the Eastern Empire passed for fifty years into the hands of Latin Christians, and the Venetians secured many islands in the eastern Mediterranean Sea ARMOR OF THE TIME OF KING RICHARD Made of scales of iron over- lapping one another 250 THE STORY OF EUROPE and important trading privileges. Largely as a result of these gains, Venice became the chief center of the trade which now began to bring into Europe the spices and other products of far-distant Asia. There were several later Crusades, but these accom- plished very little. Gradually the Crusading movement died out, though pilgrims long continued to crusading go peacefully to the Holy Land. Freer access movement ^^^ nii iiii i was now allowed them to the holy places, and it no longer seemed so important that the Sepulchre of Christ should be rescued from the hands of the infidel. Perhaps men came to see, also, that it does not make so much difference who rules the land where Christ lived and died, but that the great question is whether Christ lives and rules in the hearts of those who profess to follow him. Topics for Review and Search 1. Why was the feudal plan of government a good one for the lands won by the Crusaders in Palestine? 2. In what ways were the "military orders" better defenders of Palestine than ordinary Crusaders? 3. Eead Sir Walter Scott's account of an imaginary interview between King Richard and Saladin {The Talisman, ch. xxvii). 4. Was the Fourth Crusade a true Crusade? Give reasons for your answer. 5. Why do men not go on Crusades nowadays? XXXII RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES Points to be Noted Introduction of new products, manufactures, and inventions from the East; love of travel and effects of travel on the minds of men; increase in trade; growth of cities. Location of Venice; how the city grew rich; Venetian terri- tories; trade routes to the East. Description of a Venetian ship; its cargo; homeward voyage; the beautv of Venice; church of Saint Mark; trade routes to the north and west. Eivalry of Venice and Genoa; victory of Venice; growth of Atlantic seaports later. Although the Crusades failed to drive the Moham- medans out of the Holy Land— where, indeed, they remain to this day — they nevertheless had some very important results. During this period a Products great number of new natural products and from the manufactures were introduced into Europe from Mohammedan lands. These included sugar and sugar-cane; buckwheat, rice, garlic, and hemp; the orange, watermelon, lemon, and apricot; muslins, damask, satin, and velvet; and dye-stuffs of various sorts. From the East came the use of Arabic numerals, in place of the old clumsy Roman numerals which had so long been employed. The windmills, which are now so common in certain parts of Europe and America, were first introduced from Mohammedan countries. Beautiful decorations for houses, including the handsome rugs and carpets which are still so much sought after, also came to us as a result of intercourse with the Arabian and Persian East. Finally, it was from the East that 251 252 THE STORY OF EUROPE medieval Europe got its fondness for the use of spices in its food and drink, which after many years led Colum- bus to set out on his search for an easier way to the East Indies by sailing westward across the Atlantic Ocean. Two results of the Crusades should here be separately mentioned. The first of these was the increase in travel- Travel ing which they produced, and which was broadens especially important in broadening the minds "'*°'*^ of the men of Western Europe. Before the Crusades, each district lived to itself, and its inhabi- tants rarely heard what was going on in the rest of the world. During the Crusades this isolation was broken down. For nearly two hundred years men went and came on these great expeditions, seeing strange coun- tries and strange peoples, and learning new customs. After the Crusades had come to an end, men still con- tinued to travel more freely than they had done in the earlier period. In this way they came to arouses learn much more of the world than had been known of it for some centuries, and their curiosity for yet further knowledge was aroused. More immediately important than this love of travel was the second result spoken of above — namely, the Increase in great increase in trade which the Crusades trade produced. It was the Crusades chiefly which caused the revival of commerce which we have discussed in the chapter on Life in the Medieval Towns, and which we saw was so important in building up rich and powerful cities, and enabling them to gain their rights of self-government. The cities which profited most in this way were naturally those in Italy; and of these Italian cities it was Venice and Genoa which made the greatest gain. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 253 Venice is sometimes called the Queen of the Adriatic. It is located on a number of small islands in the Adriatic Sea, near the mouth of the River Po. It first Growth of became a town in the troublous days of the German invasions, when people fled to the shelter of its shores to escape the dangers which threatened them on the mainland. At first its inhabitants were fishermen and makers of salt; then gradually a little trade sprang up. Venetian vessels began to carry pilgrims to the Holy Land, and along with returning pilgrims they brought back some of the manufactures and products of the East. When the Crusades came, the Venetians made a great profit in carrying these armed pilgrims to and from Palestine. In some of the towns which were captured by the Crusaders, the differ- ent Italian cities were given certain sections in which their merchants could establish themselves and carry on their trade under the rule of men from their own city. One whole section of Constantinople was thus given to the Venetians, when that city was taken by the Cru- saders; and in addition they were given Crete, and Rhodes, and many other islands in the Eastern Med- iterranean. Thus Venice came to have an extensive colonial empire, and a rich trade with Eastern lands. The goods which the Venetians sought came chiefly from the Far East — that is, from India and China. The spices, silks, and other goods of those . countries either came by native caravans of routes to •^ the Far East camels and horses across the vast deserts and plains of Central Asia; or else they were brought in small Mohammedan vessels through the Indian Ocean, and up the Persian Gulf or the Red Sea. In either event, the goods would probably be a year or two on the way, before they reached the shores of the Mediterranean. 254 THE STORY OF EUROPE Let us picture to ourselves a Venetian vessel waiting for its cargo of Eastern goods. It has brought woolen goods and grain from Europe to sell in the East, and is lying in the harbor of some seaport in Palestine, now under Mohammedan rule once more. The vessel is small, and but partly decked over; perhaps it is propelled by oars as well as by sails. It is likely that we may see in the bows and A Venetian vessel VENETIAN MERCHANT SHIP From an old engraving amidships a few small cannon, which began to be used in Europe with the introduction of gunpowder in the fourteenth century. These are puny weapons compared with the giant guns of later days, for they can send their stone balls not much farther than a good bowman can shoot. Nevertheless their noise and smoke make them formidable, and we shall be glad of their presence in case we meet a pirate vessel. Here, at last, come the goods for our cargo — great RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES ^55 bales and bundles of them. A spicy and sweet-scented odor is over everything; for the bales contain sugar, cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs, ginger, pepper, ^^^ ^^^^^ and the like.* Some smaller parcels are espe- cially fragrant, for they contain musk and other per- fumes. Here are parcels containing camphor, and there are caskets full of jewels and precious stones. Yonder bales contain carpets, rugs, and rich silks. THE GRAND CANAL OF VENICE Altogether it is a goodly cargo, and we may be sure its owners will reap a great profit when once its precious wares are safely brought to market. When our cargo is all embarked, the passengers, who are mostly returning pilgrims, go on board, and with oars and sails the vessel begins its homeward Homeward journey. It does not go alone, but in com- """^^^ ^ pany with a number of others, for the sake of better *Tea, coffee, and chocolate were not introduced into Europe until two centuries after the time of Columbus. ^56 THE STORY OF EUROPE PLAZA OF SAINT :MARK, VENICE protection against the Mohammedan pirates. From Palestine to Venice is more than 1,500 miles, or about half the distance from America to Europe. With the slow vessels of that time we may be sure that the voyage will take us from three weeks to a month of wearisome traveling. At last, however, the voyage is ended, and we dis- embark on the shores of the Grand Canal, shaped like , a letter "S, " which divides the islands of Beauty and . . wealth of Venice into two groups. What a marvelous Venice ... x t i m c City it is! It lies about three miles from the Italian shore, and the low-lying isles on which it RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 257 rests are almost solidly covered with buildings. Far more numerous than its streets are the narrow winding canals which separate its islands one from another. Here ply the long narrow boats, called gondolas, which in Venice are still the principal means of getting about. Everywhere we see evidences of the wealth and power of the city, due to its secure position and its rich com- merce. Already those churches and palaces, which are today the delight of the traveler, have begun to appear. The chief of these is the great church of Saint Mark. Its domes and pinnacles, as well as the gold and rich colors of its mosaic pictures, made out of bits ^ , Church of glass and marble, show the influence of ofSaint • p /^ . Mark artists from Constantinople . The four statues of horses made of gilded bronze, which stand over the principal entrance to the building, were brought from Constantinople at the time of the Fourth Crusade. As we gaze in wonder and awe upon this vast building, and as we look about over this rich and populous city, we can understand something of the admiration which the Crusaders felt when they first beheld Constantinople. For now it is Venice, and not Constantinople, which enjoys the distinction of being the greatest and most beautiful city in the world; and it was the Crusades, and the commerce which they brought with them, which have produced the change. But we are forgetting our vessel's cargo. What becomes of those precious goods which have come with us from Palestine.^ Some of them, doubtless. Trade will remain in Italy; but most will be sent on the North horse and mule back over the passes of the ^^^ ^^^^ Alps, to find a market at good prices in the cities of France and Germany. Some part, also, will be reshipped into other Venetian vessels, and make the long and dan- 258 THE STORY OF EUROPE gerous voyage, through the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean, to Belgium, England, and other countries of the West. When such great profits were to be made in this trade, we may be sure that Venice was not free from the Rivair of rivalry of other cities. Her chief competitor Genoa ^^^ ^^^ Gcuoa, f amous to us as the birthplace of Christopher Columbus. Although this city lay far around on the other side of Italy — indeed, almost directly across from Venice — it was long able to dispute Avith Venice for the chief place in this trade with the East. For a time Genoa was able even to dispossess Venice of its trading privileges in Constantinople, and itself secure the chief part of the trade in the Black Sea and with the East. Long and disastrous wars followed, in which victory rested now with the Venetians, and now with the Genoese. Finally, about one hundred years before Columbus discovered America, the Venetians won a great victory over the Genoese fleet; and thence- forth their city controlled without question the Mediter- ranean Sea and the trade with the East. It was only later, after the ocean route to India had been discovered by the Portuguese, that this trading , , monopoly of the Venetians was disturbed, Growth of 1 , ports on the and ucwcr and yet greater centers of commerce Atlantic *^ ° sprang up on the shores of the Atlantic — at x\ntwerp in Belgium, at Amsterdam in Holland, and above all in the great English capital of London. Topics for Review and Search 1. What articles of food that we use daily were unknown to the people of Europe in the Middle Ages? 2. In what other ways besides traveling can people of the l^resent time learn about the world? 3. Compare a Venetian vessel with a modern steamship. 4. Trace on the map Venice's trade routes on land and sea. XXXIII THE BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY Points to be Noted How the geography of Asia came to be better known; travels of the Polo brothers; their reception at the court of Kublai Khan; the Khan's request to the Pope. The second visit to China; Marco Polo's life in the Khan's service; why the Polos were allowed to depart; their home- ward journey; the effect of Marco Polo's book of travels. Why the Norse discovery of America had no results. AVhy Europe was more interested in explorations in the fifteenth century; Gutenberg's invention of printing and its results. Portugal's part in the work of discovery; what Prince Henry the Navigator was seeking; the two theories of the world; progress of Portuguese explorations; work of Diaz; how Vasco de Gama reached India; date; the importance of bis discovery. One important result of the trade of Venice in the products of the Far East was that it led to a better knowledge of the geography of Asia. In part j^^^^^^^j this came through the reports given of the ^nowiedge different Asiatic countries by the caravan leaders who brought these goods to the shores of the Mediterranean. Still more did it come from the travels into the Far East of members of a noble Venetian, family named Polo. About seventy years after the Crusade of Richard the Lion-Hearted, two brothers of this family were established at Constantinople, carrying on ^j^^p^,^ trade. In the pursuit of their business they ^^^^^^^'"^ ^'^ traveled up into the Black Sea. Thence, led on partly by curiosity and partly by hope of gain, they traveled on and on, until at last they had crossed the 260 THE STORY OF EUROPE whole of Central Asia, and arrived at the court of the Chinese Emperor, or Khan. The ruler of China at this time was an open-minded prince called Kublai Khan, and he made the brothers welcome in his land. It was the first time that he had ever seen Europeans, and he was delighted with the intelligence and politeness of his visitors. He listened eagerly to all that they had to tell of their part of the world; and at last he sent them back with a mes- sage to the Pope asking that one hundred mission- ary teachers be sent to instruct his people in Chris- tianity and the arts of Europe. It was nine years from the time that the Polo brothers left Europe to the time when they returned to Venice. They found that there was at that time trouble in the Church, so only two missionaries Their return wcrc appointed to accompany them back to the Khan's court. Even these two were so filled with dread that at the last moment they refused to go. The brothers Polo, however, resolved to return and explain the situation to the Khan; and with them one brother took his seventeen-year-old son, Marco Polo. It was in the year 1271 that the little party set out on KUBLAI KHAN From a Chinese engraving BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 261 the second trip to China. Almost four years passed before they were again safely at the court of Kublai Khan. There they were kindly received, ^^^^^ and Marco was taken into the employment f^^^^^jj^^*^ of the Khan. He soon learned to speak and to read several of the Asiatic languages, and was sent by the Khan on missions all over China, and even to Tibet and Burma. Wherever he went he took pains to observe the country and the ways of the people. His father and uncle, meanwhile, were busily engaged in gaining wealth in various ways. For many years the three Vene- tians remained thus employed in China. Often they wished to return to their own country, but Kublai Khan was so fond of them that he would not consent to their departure. At last a time came when it was necessary to send a princess of the Chinese court to be married to one of the Turkish rulers of Western Asia. The land journey was so long and dangerous that the Khan wished her to make the journey by sea; and, because of the knowledge which these Venetians had of seafaring, he reluctantly appointed them to accompany the princess on her voyage to her chosen husband. The party set sail from the coasts of China in the year 1292. After long delays on account of storms they arrived at their destination in the Persian Gulf in 1294. This was the first voyage ever undertaken by Europeans in what we now call the Pacific Ocean. MARCO POLO From an old engraving THE STORY OF EUROPE The Venetian travelers arrived at their home after an absence of more than twenty years. They had Marc p 1 difficulty in getting their friends and relatives describes to rccognizc them, for they had long before their travels . ' ^ o been given up as lost. They brought back with them a rich store of diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and pearls, which they had sewn in the seams of their old shabby coats; and these excited almost as much wonder as the story of their adventures. Three years later Marco Polo was taken captive in a battle with the Genoese, and while he was held in prison he wrote out the story of their travels. His book for the first time told Europe of the vastness and wealth of China, of the richness of Java, Sumatra, and the Spice Islands, and of the great island kingdom of Japan. It was the first great advance in the knowledge of geography since the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans. We have already seen how, nearly three hundred years before this, the Northmen had discovered the Norse coast of North America in their adventurous orAmlrTca voyagcs iuto the Atlantic Ocean. Nothing orgotten permanent, however, had come from that dis- covery. Firearms and gunpowder were not then in use, and the Norsemen had great difficulty in beating off the hostile Indians. The compass and other aids to navigation were as yet unknown, so voyages into the open sea were much more difficult and dangerous than they later became. Besides all this, Europe was then too much disturbed and too much occupied at home to care for these distant enterprises of the barbarian Northmen. No permanent settlements were made by the Northmen in America, and it was only occasionally that a vessel would go thither from Greenland for a cargo of timber. After several hundred years, the settlements BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 263 in Greenland itself declined; and then, for a long period, all knowledge apparently of the Northmen's discovery of America was lost. In the fifteenth century the situation was changed. Gunpowder, together with the compass and other aids to navigation, had now been introduced into changes Europe from China and India, where they were fifteenth first discovered. There was more travel, also, ^®"*^"'"^ and more curiosity about foreign lands. There was a widespread demand for the spices and other goods of the East, and one city — Venice — had almost a monopoly of that profitable trade. Moreover, all the lands about the Eastern Mediterran- ean were now in the hands of a race of Turks (the Ottomans) who were even ruder and fiercer than those in the days of the Crusades ; and they began to interfere seriously with the caravan trade. What wonder, then, that some persons should begin to dream of reaching the rich lands of the Far East by new and untried routes? New ideas of all sorts, moreover, were now more easily spread about as a result of the invention of print- ing. Ever since men began to write, books i^^e^^i^^ had been made by the slow process of forming J^j^^j^g each letter separately with the pen. At length men discovered that letters and other characters could be cut upon a block of wood, and then many copies could be printed from this one block. In this way EARLY PRINTERS 264 THE STORY OF EUROPE *' block books," as they were called, began to be made early in the fifteentli century. The trouble with these was that every page had to be engraved separately, and this proved such a task that only books of a very few pages were made in this way. Then it occurred to John Gutenberg, of Strasburg, Germany, that if he made separate types for the letters, he could use the same ones over and over again to form new pages; and if, instead of cutting the letters them- selves, he made moulds to produce them, he could cast his type in metal (which would be better than wood anyway), and from the one mould he could make as many of each letter as was necessary. In this way, printing from movable metal types was invented by Gutenberg, about the year 1450. It seems like a very small thing, when we tell about it, but it was one of the most important inventions that the world has ever seen. Soon, presses and printing offices were estab- lished all over Western Europe, printing Bibles and other books, and selling them so cheaply that almost every one could afford to buy. By this means knowledge of new ideas about geography, and of travels such as those of Marco Polo, were spread among all educated men; and this greatly helped to further the work of discovery. The little kingdom of Portugal took the lead in the search for a new route to India. This was largely due Work of to the efforts of a wise and capable prince H"nry the wliom wc Call " PHncc Hcury the Navigator." avigator jj^ ^^^ ^^^ himself a sailor, but his whole life was spent in sending out expeditions which gradually explored the western coast of Africa. He sought gold- dust and ivory from the barren coast of the Sahara desert; and he started, alas! the trade in African slaves captured on those shores. He also sought to BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 265 spread the gospel of Christianity among the heathen, and perhaps he came at last to dream of the possibility of reaching India by sailing around the southern point of Africa. There were two theories of the world in those days. One held that the lands were great islands in a world of water; the other held that the oceans were ^ . . Two ffreat lakes in a world of land. If this last theories of " _ the world view was correct, of course there could be no sailing around Africa and so reaching the Indian Ocean. But there were some vague stories of men in the days of ancient Egypt who had sailed around Africa; so the other, and true, view had its followers. Gradually the Portuguese explorers crept down the western coast of Africa. Only after three attempts was Cape Bojador passed. When Prince Discoveries Henry died, thirty years later, the explorations por^^guese had nearly reached the point where the coast ^^^ ^^^^^ turns sharply to the eastward. Much disappointment was felt when, after tracing this coast for 1500 miles eastward, it was discovered that it again turned to the south. Now the work of exploration went on vigorously. In 1484 the mouth of the Congo River was passed. Two years later the Portuguese King sent out Diaz rounds Bartholomew Diaz with three small vessels, cood^ope under orders to follow the continent to its ^^*^^^ southern end. After passing the farthest known point, about 20 degrees south of the equator, Diaz was driven southward by heavy winds for thirteen days, without seeing land. When the storm ceased and he sought once more the coast, he found that his mission was accomplished. He had passed the southernmost point of Africa and could prove that from there on the coast 266 THE STORY OF EUROPE turned northward. He had discovered 1200 miles of unknown coast. To the southernmost point of the conti- nent he gave the name of "Cape of Storms"; but upon his return the wise King said: "Nay, let it rather be called the Cape of Good Hope, for there is much reason to believe that we have now found the ocean route to the Indies." So it proved; for, twelve years later, a Portuguese captain, by sailing around this cape, at last succeeded vascoda in reaching the long sought shores of India. reacJfes This Captain was Vasco da Gama, whom the India (1498) j^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ -^^g^^ ^j^j^ ^^^^ VCSSels tO complete the remaining stages of the discovery. His voyage to India was a great feat of seamanship. The distance which he traveled was three or four times that to America, and the winds and currents were more baffling than those with which Columbus had to contend. After reaching Cape Verde, on the western shore of Africa, Da Gama struck boldly out for the Cape of Good Hope, and for nearly three months he was out of sight of land. On the east coast of Africa he found traders from India, who furnished him with a pilot across the Indian Ocean. He reached the great trading port of Calicut, on the western coast of India, just ten months and twelve days after he had left Lisbon. So, at last, the Portuguese arrived at the goal of their efforts, after sixty years of striving. From this time on, the trade of Venice declined, while Results , ^ ^ of his Portugal speedily grew rich from its control of the new route to India. It was a great event in the history of the world. Up to this time Europe had stood with its back to the Atlantic, looking toward the East. The Mediterranean Sea hitherto had been the center of the commerce and of the culture BEGINNINGS OF DISCOVERY 267 of the world. Now Europe began to face westward, and the nations which bordered on the Atlantic Ocean began to play the chief part both in commerce and in culture. The glory of Vasco da Gama's achievement, however, was somewhat dimmed by the fact that Christopher Columbus, six years before, had performed an even greater feat. While seeking to reach India by sailing westward, he had discovered the New World, which we call America. Topics for Review and Search 1. Trace on the map (p. 268) the return voyage of the Polo family. How long would such a voyage take at the present time? 2. Locate Tibet, Burma, Java, Sumatra, Spice Islands, Japan. 3. Find out more about John Gutenberg. 4. Trace on the map the explorations of the Portuguese sailors. 5. Why was an ocean route to India better than a land route? 6. Make a list of the things which led to explorations and dis- coveries in the fifteenth century. 268 THE STORY OF EUROPE XXXIV THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS Points to be Noted Time and place of Columbus's birth; his education. How he came to think of sailing westward; his life in Lisbon; ancient Greek ideas about the earth; the letter and chart from Toscanelli; for what Columbus deserves fame. Columbus's mistaken ideas; his efforts to get aid; why he had so much difficulty; how Queen Isabella became interested; the agreement with Columbus. Equipment of Columbus; inventions he used; his course to the West; fears and plots of his sailors. Signs of land; landing of Columbus; what he had discovered; how he was received in Sixain. Lands discovered on his last three voyages; what he believed about his discoveries; his death; what he had accomplished. Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America, was born in or near the Italian city of Genoa, about the year 1440. His father was a weaver of woolen ^^^^ ^^^ cloth. The boy Christopher learned Latin, g^^j^^^j^^^ mathematics, and astronomy, and became a skilled maker of maps and charts such as were used by sailors. In one of the brief accounts which he wrote of his life, he tells us that he became a sailor at an early age, and that he followed the sea for forty years. Much as we should like to know more, this is about all that we can find out concerning the early life and boyhood of this great man. When Columbus was an experienced sailor he went to live at Lisbon, the capital of Portugal. Because of the explorations which the Portuguese were mak- coiumbus ing, this was then the chief center of geo- »^P»^t"^»i graphical knowledge. It was probably while he was 269 270 THE STORY OF EUROPE living there that Columbus first began to think of the possibility of reaching the coasts of Asia by sailing westward across the Atlantic. Ever since the days of the ancient Greeks, learned men had believed that the earth was a globe. The Greek writer Ptolemy had taught this in a book Greek ideas , . , , , i • i i i about which he wrote about geography; mdeed, long before that, the philosopher Aristotle, who was the teacher of Alexander the Great, had written: "It does not seem absurd to me to think that the regions about the Pillars of Hercules (that is, the Strait of Gib- raltar) are connected by the sea with India." In Columbus's own day a learned Italian named Toscanelli had sent to the King of Portugal a chart Toscaneiii's which he had made of the Atlantic Ocean. chart Q^ ^j^jg YiQ showed Europc at the eastern margin of that ocean, and China and Japan at its western edge. In a letter which he later sent to Columbus himself, along with a similar chart, he WTote: "Do not wonder that I call west the lands where the spices are; for if a person should sail continually west- ward, he would come to those parts of the earth where those lands lie." Also, in the very year that Columbus made his great voyage, a learned German constructed a globe which is still preserved showing the same ideas of geography. Here again we see Europe lying on one side of the Atlantic Ocean, and Asia on the other. Columbus's idea, therefore, that the earth was round, and that India could be reached by sailing westward. Credit due was not original with him, nor was it a new Columbus jjg^ ^^^y learned men had believed this, but no one had yet had the courage and the perseverance to put the idea to the test. Columbus's greatness lies in VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 271 the fact that he first resolved to put this idea to the test ; and that, in spite of discouragement and obstacles, he persevered until he had proved that land could be reached by sailing boldly across the seas to the west. If Columbus had known that, instead of being only three thousand miles away, Asia was more than twelve thousand miles distant, and that the great a ~K-r 1 ,o ^ k ' ^ t Mistaken continents of JNorth and South America barred ideas about . the earth's the direct route to it, he might never have size attempted his westward voyage. But men in that day thought that the earth was considerably smaller than we now know it to be; and they also thought that Asia extended much farther to the eastward than it does. So Columbus thought that the westward route would be much shorter and easier than the one around the southern point of Africa, which the Portuguese were attempting; and he spent many weary years in trying to interest some government in his plan, so that he might get the ships and the money which he needed to put it into execution. First, Columbus tried to get aid for his voyage from the King of Portugal. But Portugal was then too much interested in the rapid progress which , . 1 • • if 1 . Columbus's was being made in its own plan lor reaching failure in . . Portugal India. The advisers of the Portuguese King reported that Columbus's plan was "visionary," espe- cially as Columbus's demands for reward in case he should succeed were very high. Nevertheless, the King was enough impressed with the plan to take the dishonorable step of secretly sending out some of his own captains to see whether anything could be accomplished by sailing directly to the westward. These captains, however, had no faith in the enterprise, and after sailing a little way they returned and reported that it could not be 272 THE STORY OF EUROPE done. After that the Portuguese King refused to have anything further to do with the matter. Then Columbus turned to the court of Spain. Some of the Spanish councillors were favorable to his plan, but most were opposed to it. They quoted ki^s'p'^ki"^ texts of Scripture which, in their opinion, proved that one could not sail around the earth. Another reason for refusing aid, they urged was that Spain was very busy then in driving out the Moham- medan Moors, who for more than seven hundred years had held the southern part of that peninsula. After four years of waiting, Columbus sent his brother to England, to see whether the English King would not give him aid. Here also he was disappointed. He seeks aid ^ • i <. i i i in England Then, after another period ol delay, he pre- and France i<. • i i • c m • pared to go himself, with his family, into France, and lay his plan before the King of that country. Columbus was now an old and wearied man, and we can imagine the discouragement with which he set out on foot to cross the mountains into France. He Columbus at the had not gone tar when he stopped at a monas- monastery i « tery to ask for some bread and a cup oi water for his little boy Diego, whom he was taking with him. The head of the monastery became interested in him and in his project. After some talk, Columbus agreed to remain there for a few days, while the good monk wrote to the Queen urging her not to let slip this favorable oppor- tunity of beating the Portuguese in the race to the Indies. The Spanish King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, were now in the midst of their last campaign to drive Agreement the Moors out of Granada and out of their between . Columbus kingdom. The Queen especially was ready to and Queen '^ i p r-t i Isabella listen to Columbus's plans, and after Granada had fallen an agreement was made. Columbus was VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 273 appointed hereditary Admiral of all the lands which he might discover in the Atlantic Ocean, and he was to have one-tenth of all the gold, precious stones, spices, and other merchandise which might be obtained there. The Queen bore seven-eights of the cost of the expedi- tion, and Columbus was to find the money for the other eighth. DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS From an old engraving On August 3, 1492, Columbus set sail, with three small ships called "caravels." The largest of these was but ninety feet long, or only about one-eighth coiumbus the length of the great ocean steamers which Augusts, now cross the Atlantic. The crews of the ^"^'^ three vessels numbered less than one hundred persons in all. 274 THE STORY OF EUROPE Ocean navigation, however, was not so uncertain as it had been in the days of the Northmen. Sailors by Improve- this time had the compass, which enabled them ™??f^'" to steer steadily in whatever direction they navigation ^.jghed, cvcn whcn the sun and stars were not visible. But it was still difficult to determine the place of a vessel at sea. There was a rude instrument called the cross-staff, which was used to measure the distance of some heavenly body (such as the north star) above the horizon, and so find the latitude. But for the longitude sail- ors had still to trust to ^ guess-work, for the ^^•... watches and chrono- meters with which ship captains now measure longitude were not yet invented. Columbus directed his course first to the Voyage to Canary the west Islands, where he spent almost ^1 n,.- 1 • THE CROSS-STAFF a month rehttmg his vessels. When those shores were left behind them, and they were at last embarked on the unknown waters of the *'Sea of Darkness," the sailors began to lose courage. They encountered no storms, but the gentle trade winds blew ever toward the west, and the men feared lest they might never be able to return home. One day, when the wind shifted so as to be favorable for the return voyage, they almost broke out into mutiny. "Let us return to our country," cried they. "We have fought enough with the sea. The winds are good; let us return at once." VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 275 Columbus succeeded in calming them, for a time, and the westward voyage was continued. Flights of strange birds and other signs of land kept raising j^^^.^^ hopes which remained unfulfilled. The mur- ^^,^;j| ^^^ murings then began anew, and soon some bold spirits began to add threats to murmurs. If the Admiral would not return, while it was still possible to do so, said they, some dark night a stealthy push might hurl him over the rail ; and who would be able to say that this was not an accident? Fortunately new and surer signs of land began to appear. The birds came flying about the ships in ever increasing numbers, and among them were ^ some which were known never to go far from of land appear shore. At last, on October 11, pieces of wood, which had evidently been cut or carved by the hand of man, were observed floating on the waves. Bits of cane, a green rush or two, and a branch of thorn with berries attached came floating by. There could now be no doubt that land was close at hand. At evening prayers that day, Columbus said to the men : "Let us thank God that we have been preserved during so long and perilous a voyage. During the night let each one watch vigilantly, for at the break of day we shall sight land. To the one who first perceives it I will give a silken jacket, together with a sum of money." Soon after nightfall Columbus thought that he saw in the distance a little light which moved about like a torch carried upon shore. At two o'clock Land is in the morning came the boom of a cannon October 12, from one of the vessels, announcing that land ^ was seen. It was now Friday, the 12th of October. We can imagine the impatience with which all awaited the dawning day. 276 THE STORY OF EUROPE Then at last land lay before them — a low-lying island, surrounded by reefs, and studded with green trees. T ^- ^ With a crimson robe over his armor, and the Landing cSumb royal standard of Spain in his hand, Colum- bus landed and fell upon his knees, returning thanks to God. Men and women, with olive colored skins and mild manners, gathered about the little com- pany, and gazed upon these strange beings so unlike themselves, who with their ships seemed to have dropped from the skies. Columbus named the island San Sal- vador, in honor of the Holy Saviour by whose favor his enterprise had been crowned with success. The land which Columbus had discovered was one of the Bahama Islands, but he believed that it was one of the islands which lie off the coast of Asia. His return After discovering the islands of Cuba and voyage , . ^ Hayti (which he thought must be Japan) he set out on the voyage home, where he arrived on the 15th of March, 1493. Thus was completed the most memorable voyage that man has ever dared to attempt. The joy with which Columbus was greeted on his return was wonderful to behold. All the bells rang, and the rulers of the city came to greet him triumphal at the water's edge. His journey to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella was a continual triumph. The people came from all directions to see the man who had found new lands to the west. When he entered Barcelona, where the King and Queen were, he caused six Indians, whom he had brought, to go before him bearing baskets and open basins filled with gold and jewels and other precious things. Ferdinand and Isabella would not permit him to kneel to present his offerings, but caused him to be seated in their presence. This was the greatest honor which they could pay him. VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 277 Columbus made three other voyages to the New World. On the first of these, in 1493, he discovered some other islands of the West Indies, and made some ^^^^^ settlements there. On the second, in 1498, he ^«y^^f,^^ discovered the island of Trinidad and the coast of South i\merica, and was astonished to find the vast fresh water river of the Orinoco. From this expedition he was brought back home in disgrace and in chains, on charges of cruelty and misgovernment. His heart was broken at such ingratitude; but in 1502 he made another voyage, which proved to be his last. This time he coasted along the shores of Honduras, in Central America. Columbus could not rid himself of the idea that he had reached Asia, and everywhere he looked for the rich kingdoms described by Marco Polo, and for ^.^ ^j^^p. the spice islands from which the Portuguese l^^^^J^^^ were now drawing such great wealth. His last days were clouded with disappointment. He died in Spain in the year 1506. Thirty-six years later his bones were carried to one of the islands which he had dis- covered, and buried in the cathedral of San Domingo. He had failed to find the ocean route to India, but he had accomplished something very much greater. He had discovered a New World, in which men ^j^^^^e were to find refuge from the misgovernment ^^^^^^ and persecutions of the Old World, and where all that was best of European civilization was to be transplanted and grow to heights which as yet were undreamed of. Topics for Review and Search 1 . Locate the places discovered by Columbus. 2. What were Queen Isabella's reasons for helping Columbus? 3. Why was Columbus disappointed with his discoveries? 4. Eead Columbus's own letter describing his first voyage to the West, (Hart, Source Readers in American History, 1, p. 2.) XXXV THE SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS Points to be Noted Meaning of the story about the egg; why men continued to sail westward. How John Cabot discovered North America; why there was so little interest in his discoveries; their importance. Increased knowledge of the New World; how America was named. Balboa's discovery of the Pacific Ocean; what men searched for after that. Magellan's voyage; date; where he found a passage to the Pacific; xlifliculties encountered; his death; how his fol- lowers returned to Europe; what they had accomplished. There is a story that, at one time, some jealous persons were trying to belittle Columbus's achievements Coiumb ^^ saying that anyone could have sailed and the across the Atlantic and discovered the New egg World. By way of answer, Columbus picked up an egg and asked whether any of them could make it stand on end. All tried, one after another, and all failed. Then Columbus struck the egg lightly against the top of the table, crushing the shell slightly; and behold! it stood firmly on its end. He meant to show by this that it was easy enough for others to go to the New World, after he had once shown them how. The motive which sent men over the western seas was still the desire to reach the East Indies. In 1497 John Cabot there was an Italian seaman, named John ng an Cabot, living in the city of Bristol, England. He was a native of Columbus's own city of Genoa, but for a number of years he was a citizen of 278 SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 279 Venice. There he had learned a great deal about the spice trade, and perhaps even then he thought of the possibility of reaching India by sailing westward. At all events, the news of the discoveries which Colum- bus was making in the West led him to ask the English King to send him on a voyage of discovery His discov- in those regions. The King did so, and in America ^**^ May, 1497, Cabot set sail, with one small ^^"^'^^ ship and only eighteen men. In order not to trespass on the regions claimed by Portugal and Spain, he turned his vessel toward the northwest. i\fter a short voyage he discovered land, which he explored for a distance of about nine hundred miles, and then returned to Bristol. His whole voyage had lasted only about three months. There is no doubt that he discovered the coast of North America, and that he was the first Euro- pean to look upon the shores of our continent since the days of the old Northmen. Probably the land which he first discovered was Cape Breton Island, and that neighboring island which we still mark on our maps as "New-found-land." Next year Cabot was again sent out, this time with five vessels. On this voyage he seems to have fol- lowed the coast down to the latitude of South Lack of Carolina, if not somewhat farther. What Ss^'^*^ became of him after this we do not know. He left no written account of his voyages, and the English do not seem to have been very much interested in them at the time. If he had actually succeeded in reaching Asia, of course it would have been different. But there was little to draw men at that time to the cold and savage coasts which Cabot first discovered, and farther south there was danger of conflict with the great power of Spain. 280 THE STORY OF EUROPE Cabot's discoveries became later the ground on which England claimed possession of the coast of what is now the United States. Nothing, however, was Ineir _ ^ "nfiiand**^ donc at this time to follow up his discoveries. The only immediate result was that they opened up a new fishing ground for Europe, to which French and English fishing vessels soon began to go every year in considerable numbers. In the next few years a number of captains — com- manding Spanish, Portuguese, and French expeditions — explored the coasts of the New World. More expiora- than three thousand miles of the coast of tions South America was traced, in addition to the explorations along the coast of North and Central America. Gradually the extent and outlines of the new lands began to take shape before the eyes of Europe ; and, before the time of Columbus's death, men began to question whether, after all, these vast lands could be — as was at first thought — a part of the continent of Asia. Did you ever stop to wonder why the New World was named "America," instead of being called "Colum- bia," after its real discoverer? You must now learn how this came about. Americus Vespucius was an Italian seaman and chart- Namin^ maker who accompanied several of the Span- of . ish and Portuguese expeditions to Central America ^ ^ ^ and South America. After his return he published some letters, in Latin, describing the lands which he had visited; and, as he was rather vain and wanted the credit for himself, he did not give the names of the commanders under whom he had sailed. His letters were printed over and over again, and were read all over Europe before the first account in Latin of Columbus's voyages appeared. The result was that SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 281 many people, outside of Spain and Portugal, got the impression that Vespucius was the real discoverer of the lands which he described. One of these letters fell into the hands of a German professor of geography, who published it as a part of a work on geography which he had written. In this he said: ''Europe, Asia, and Africa have now been more widely explored, and another fourth part of the globe has been discovered by Americus Vespucius; so I do not see why anyone should rightly object to calling it * America' after its discoverer Americus." This name was adopted by the map makers, and before the truth of the matter was known it was so firmly fixed in use that it was impossible to change it. Another injustice was thus added to the many which Columbus suffered. Up to this time no one had discovered the great ocean which washes the western shores of the continents of America. This next important step in ad- Balboa dis- vancing our knowledge of the New World was Pacific taken by a Spaniard named Balboa. He was ^^^^ ^ a man of great courage and resourcefulness, who had gone as a planter to Hayti. There he got so deeply in debt that he resolved to go on an expedition which was being fitted out for the mainland; but, to escape his creditors, he was obliged to have himself nailed up in a barrel, and put on board with the provisions. Under his direction a settlement was made on the eastern shore of the isthmus of Panama. He made friends with the Indians, and from them learned that there was another great sea lying just across the mountains. He determined to see this, and in 1513 he set out with a picked body of Spaniards and some Indian guides. The way through the tropical forests and tangled swamps was incredibly hard. At last the little 282 THE STORY OF EUROPE party reached the crest of the mountains, from which the Pacific Ocean could be seen glimmering in the dis- tance. Four days later they reached the coast. There, when the tide came in over the sands, Balboa advanced into the water, and with drawn sword took possession of the "South Sea" for his master, the King of Spain. A new impulse was now given to the movement to reach the Indies by sailing to the west. The way was Search for much longer than Columbus had supposed, th^^sou^h'^** but if a passage through the barrier of America could be found, the project was not impossible. For years men searched carefully to find some hidden strait or river-passage which might lead them through to this newly discovered "South Sea." At one time the English thought that Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac River might offer such a passage; at another the French hoped to find it in the St. Lawrence River; at another the Dutch had similar hopes of the Hudson. But all these hopes were vain; for, as we now know, there is no such passage — although the United States has now dug one in the Panama Canal. Other hopes centered on finding a way around the barrier of America; and this was the reason for the long explorations in the Arctic regions, to find a "Northwest Passage" through the lands of ice and snow, to the region of spices beyond. Long before these hopes were finally given up, the Spaniards had found a way around the southern extrem- Voyageof ^^^ ^^ South America. A Portuguese captain ^sftt^^" named Magellan was its discoverer. Setting out from Spain, in 1519, with five small vessels, he sailed down the coast of South America until the storms and cold of the southern hemisphere drove him into winter quarters. A mutiny headed by three of his SUCCESSORS TO COLUMBUS 283 captains was put down by force. When spring came he continued his voyage, and at last discovered the strait which ever since has borne his name. But Magellan's difficulties were far from being over. For thirty-eight days he battled with the dangers of this giant strait. One of his vessels had ^^ ^^^^^es already been wrecked, and during this time Jhe Pacific another stole away and returned to Spain. At last the passage through the strait was completed, and they entered the South Sea, to which Magellan gave the name of the "Peace- ful" or "Pacific" Ocean. Magellan could not know that this sea was twice as wide as the Atlan- His death tic or the Indian Philippine Ocean. For weeks and weeks they sailed on and on. Their provisions began to give out, and the drinking water turned thick and yel- low^ Ninety-three days passed before they found a group of inhabited islands, Ladrones. Here the ships and again set sail. MAGELLAN which they named the took on food and fresh water, One week later Magellan discovered the Philippine Islands, which thenceforth (until taken by the United States in 1898) belonged to Spain. Here he himself was slain, in battle with the natives. The survivors, after burning one of their three vessels, continued the voyage. At last, after many dangers, they reached the coveted Spice Islands, and took on a heavy cargo of cloves. But again one of their vessels 284 THE STORY OF EUROPE became leaky, and had to be left behind. With the one vessel that was left, they dauntlessly continued the com"ilte journey, returning to Europe by the path of around^th^e ^^^^ Portugucsc arouud the Cape of Good world Hope. Contrary winds, heavy seas, sickness, and starvation beset them on the way. But in spite of all, the survivors of the expedition at last arrived safely back in Spain. They had been gone three years, and only a handful of those who had set out came back home. They had the satisfaction of knowing, however, that they were the first of mankind who had ever sailed completely around the world, and that they had proved beyond question not only that the earth is round, but that it is possible to reach the East by sailing west. An American historian says: "The voyage thus ended was doubtless the greatest feat of navigation that has ever been per- formed, and nothing can be imagined that would surpass it except a journey to some other planet."* Topics for Review and Search 1. Why was John Cabot's first voyage shorter than the first voyage of Columbus? 2. What canal has shortened the eastern water route to India? 3. What great geographical discoveries have been made in recent years? 4. Eule a sheet of paper into three columns. Head these respectively — Explorers, Discoveries, Dates. Fill in the table, using this and the two preceding chapters for material. *Fiske, Discovery of America, II., p. 210. XXXVI SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA Points to be Noted When and why Cortes went to Mexico; circumstances in his favor; what the natives thought of him; how he overcame opposition. Appearance of the City of Mexico; Aztec resistance; conquest of the city; results of the conquest of Mexico. Spanish conquests in South America: how Pizarro conquered Peru. Attempts within the territory of the United States; Ponce de Leon's discovery of Florida; why Coronado led an expedi- tion northward; what he discovered; De Soto's wanderings; his discovery of the Mississippi River. What the Spaniards were seeking; character of the Spaniards in America; how slavery was introduced; work of Las Casas; the religious motive of the Spaniards; what the monks did for the Indians; results of Spanish conquests. In the same year that Magellan sailed from Spain on his great voyage, a Spanish expedition left Cuba that was to prove as remarkable in the history of p^^^^^es^^ conquests as Magellan's is in the history of ^1%^^^}^^ sea-voyaging. This was the expedition which (i5i9) Hernando Cortes led, in 1519, for the conquest of Mexico. Twenty-five years had gone by since Columbus had first discovered the New World. In all that time no trace had been found of the rich civilized ^^^j^j^ countries which Marco Polo had described, ^of^^.^^ and for which men were looking. Then, in 1517, Yucatan was discovered, and in 1518 Mexico. Here for the first time the explorers found towns with paved streets, temples with rich carvings and sculp- tured idols, and peoples with gayly colored garments and some knowledge of the arts of civilization. Gold and silver were plentiful, too, to a degree hitherto un- 286 THE STORY OF EUROPE known in the New World. The governor of Cuba resolved, therefore, to follow up these discoveries at once; and the result was the preparation of an expedition of eleven ships, 600 men, and a dozen horses, with Cortes at its head. MEXICAN CALENDAR STONE Showing old Mexican sculpture Cortes landed in Mexico in March, 1519. He was an extraordinary man, as courageous, persevering, and Circum- rcsourccful as Magellan himself. In order favoring that he might use his whole force, and also that Cortes YiQ might prevent any possibility of drawing back, he sunk all his ships, so that his men must press forward to victory or perish. Three circumstances especially favored his expedition. At the very start he SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 287 had the good fortune to rescue a Spaniard who had been wrecked on those shores several years before, and who had gained a knowledge of some of the Mexican lan- guages. In the second place, Cortes won the love of a beautiful Mexican princess, who was given him by one of the chief- tains as a slave. She quickly learned Span- ish, and her devotion to him, her knowledge of the native lan- guages, and of the country, then proved of the greatest service to the success of the expedition. A third stroke of fortune was that Mex- ican tradition told of a fair-skinned god who had once ruled over that land, and then had been driven out over the seas to the eastward by a cruel bloody-minded deity who demanded hu- man sacrifices. For many generations the Mexicans had believed that in due time this Fair God would FAIR GOD OF THE MEXICANS From an old Mexican sculpture 288 THE STORY OF EUROPE return, with white-faced companions Kke himself, and that then human sacrifices would cease and a wise and mild rule would be restored. When, therefore, it was reported that white-faced strangers with heavy beards had come "in towers which moved hither and thither upon the sea," and tionbythe that somc of thcsc straugcrs rode frightful beasts (horses) such as had never been seen before, and that they employed weapons (guns) which shot forth fire and made a loud noise, it was supposed that it was the Fair God himself who had returned. The natives were glad to be released from the yoke of the cruel rulers who dwelt in the city of Mexico, and who levied upon them heavy tribute of money and human victims. They scarcely dared, and at first did not wish, to oppose the march of the invading Spaniards. After laying the foundations of Vera Criiz, Cortes started inland. It was a wonderful march which now began! The idols in the temples were over- His victory , , . . , i i i i» over hostile throwu, the victims who were neld tor sacri- fice were set free, and the hostile chiefs were made prisoners. Not until the Spaniards had marched two-thirds of the distance to the capital was there any serious fighting. Then a fierce people, who were enemies of the rulers of Mexico, resolved to attack the new-comers and test whether they were really gods. The army which they drew up numbered 50,000 men. They were armed with bows and stone-pointed arrows, copper- headed lances, and heavy wooden swords which were edged with bits of glass-like stone; they wore tunics of quilted cotton and leather helmets, and carried leather shields. There were scarcely 500 of the Span- iards, but their superior weapons and armor, and above all their horses, gave them an easy victory. Many SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 289 hundreds of the natives were slain, while the Spaniards succeeded in concealing the few losses which they suffered. These natives then became the firm allies of the Spaniards, and joined them in their march upon the Aztec tribes who ruled Mexico. About „ . Resistance seventy miles from the capital, the Aztecs of the prepared to resist, and planned a treacherous attack. Cortes, however, was warned in time by the Mexican princess who accompanied him. He seized the leaders of the enemy, while his cannon plowed great lanes through the hostile forces and his horsemen charged the flying crowds. Terrible punishment was inflicted on the treacherous chiefs, and Cortes then continued his march. Soon the great city of Mexico itself came into view. This was strongly situated on an island in a little lake, like another Venice, and was connected with ^^ Ine the neighboring shores by three great cause- ?ity of ^ '^ . Mexico ways of masonry. The Spaniards were amazed at its temples and towers, its white-plastered houses, and floating gardens. "When we "beheld," wrote one of their number, "so many cities and towns rising up from the water, and other populous places situated on the neighboring shores, and that causeway straight as an arrow which led into the capital, we remained astonished, and said to one another that it appeared like the enchanted castles which they tell of in the books of chivalry." Montezuma, the priest-king of the Aztecs, attempted no resistance, and the Spaniards entered his city in November, 1519. To guard against attack, cortes Cortes promptly seized the King, and kept w^in^er ^ him as his prisoner and guest during the winter which followed. When a great expedition of 290 THE STORY OF EUROPE eighteen ships and 1*200 men was sent by the governor of Cuba to recall Cortes, on the ground of disobedience, he skillfully persuaded the new-comers to join his com- mand. It was well that Cortes had these reinforcements, for in the next summer the long delayed resistance began, s aniards Moutczuma was deposed and a new ruler was ^jy^^n^*"®*" set up in his place. From the temples, the pyramids of sacrifice, and the housetops the Spaniards were fiercely attacked, and were soon obliged to withdraw from the city. In a terrible night retreat across the causeway, they lost more than two-thirds of their number, and next day they beheld with horror their captured companions offered in sacrifice to the Aztec war god. Not once, however, did Cortes waver. His native allies were kept loyal by a great victory gained over Corte some who deserted him. Then began the slow J^captures work of reconquering the hostile capital. Boats were built, and in April, 1521, siege was laid to the island city. The Aztecs fought desperately, but in vain. In August their city fell, after a great part of it had been laid in ruins and its canals and foot- ways heaped with corpses. Next came the work of rebuilding the city, securing the submission of the whole country, and establishing s ain ^ government over it under the name of " New MeJico^ Spain." The conquest was slowly pushed westward, and the peninsula of Lower Cali- fornia was discovered. The old idol-worship, with its cruel human sacrifices, was abolished, and patient and devoted monks began to convert the Indians to Chris- tianity. In this way was established the first great colony of Spain on the continent of America; and the SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 291 vast quantities of Mexican gold and silver which poured into the coffers of the King soon spurred Spain on to other attempts at conquest. We cannot go at length into the story of the conquest of Peru, in South America. A people with a civilization similar to that of the Aztecs dwelt there, with stocks of gold and silver which were even of Peru (1531) greater. In 1531 a Spaniard named Pizarro led a force of 200 men and fifty horses from Panama into Peru. The conquest was made easy by a civil war which was going on between two rival claimants for the throne. Again the Spaniards were taken for gods. Both claimants to the throne perished, and the Spaniards succeeded in seizing the country. Civil war broke out between different leaders of the Spaniards, and for a long time there were petty conflicts with the natives. In the end Peru became the second great colony of Spain on the American continents ; and new streams of gold and silver began to flow into the treasury of the powerful Spanish King. This was followed by the Spanish con- quest of almost all of South i^merica except Brazil, which was taken by the Portuguese. The attempts of the Spaniards to make conquests north of the Gulf of Mexico did not result so favorably. Florida, which was at first supposed to be an Expiora- • 1 1 T 1 1 T» IT • tions within island, was discovered by Ponce de Leon in territory of United 1513; and on a second voyage there, eight states years later, he received a wound from the Indians which put an end to his life. Seven years later another attempt was made at exploration, but the party could not find their ships again, and all perished except four. After eight years of wandering and many adventures these four (one of whom was a negro), managed to reach the Spanish settlements founded by Cortes on the Gulf of THE STORY OF EUROPE California. They told wonderful stories of vast herds of "hump-backed cattle" (buffaloes) which they had seen, and gave glowing reports of rich cities which they had visited. These, however, were probably nothing more than the Indian pueblos, or villages of sun-baked brick, which are still to be found in Arizona and New Mexico. An explorer named Coronado attempted to find these wonderful cities. He led an expedition from Mexico Coronado's uortliward, until he arrived in the very heart expe ition ^£ what is uow the state of Kansas. No- where could he find any cities except the Indian pueblos; INDIAN PUEBLO but he did discover the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River, and the vast grass-covered plains which lie west of the Mississippi River. Meanwhile one of Pizarro's companions, named De Soto, had set out from Spain with an expedition to explore the lands west of Florida. Somewhere in that region, it was reported, was "the richest country in the world"; and this De Soto was resolved to find and to conquer. He landed (1539) in what is now Tampa Bay, in Florida, with 600 De Soto discovers Mississippi River SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 293 men and over 200 horses. The Indians proved very hostile, and since no gold or rich cities were there to be found, De Soto turned elsewhere. At one place they met with a white man — a Spaniard — who had been taken captive by the Indians and had lived so long among them as a slave that he had almost forgotten his native tongue; he proved valuable to De Soto as an interpreter. During three years De Soto and his men wandered through what are now the states of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Captured Indians were bound with collars and chains of iron, and forced to do all the heavy labor; and those who refused to work or tried to escape were cruelly shot. In April, 1541, De Soto made his greatest discovery, when he reached the wide muddy stream of the Missis- sippi River. He crossed to the western bank of the river, and marched into Arkansas; but, go where he would, nowhere could he find the gold and silver which he • sought. Worn out with fever and hard traveling, De Soto died in 1542. To prevent the Indians from finding his body, it was sunk in the great river which he had discovered. After some further explorations, the survivors of the expedition built boats and floated down the Mississippi, and then coasted westward until they reached Spanish settlements. Cruel and merciless though these men were, they showed courage and perse- verance, and their expedition helped to make known the land which is now the southern part of the United States. The stories of Cortes, Pizarro, and De Soto help us to understand what it was that the Spaniards sought in the New World. Generally they did not ^^^^ ^^^ wish to establish colonies as we understand fP^^^^*"**^ the term, — that is, they did not come to America to clear the wilderness and build up homes for 294 THE STORY OF EUROPE themselves and their families by their own hard labor. Instead, they sought treasures of gold and silver, which they might take back with them to Spain. They would endure untold hardships and face incredible dangers to secure these; but they thought it beneath their dignity to work with their hands. Of course those who came to America were mostly the greedy lawless adventurers who always flock to mining They towns and other frontier places. But even s?ave^y"''^ the better class, who established plantations in the islands of the West Indies, and who opened up mines there and elsewhere, did not them- selves do the work. They introduced the cruel practice of enslaving the Indians, and making them work for them. And when the Indians proved unsuited to this, and sickened and died under the unaccustomed labor and the cruel treatment of their masters, they brought to America black people from Africa to take their places. In this way that curse of negro slavery was fastened upon the land, which lasted until the slaves were set free by our Civil War. But the introduction of slavery did not take place without some protest. The government at home again _ .. and again declared that the Indians were free Opposition " sfaver men. Some of the priests, too, were very active in fighting these cruel evils. One who particularly opposed slavery was a great and good monk named Las Casas. He spent a long life in combatting this evil, preaching in season and out of season that men endangered their own souls by holding other men in slavery. His efforts did much to end the enslavement of the Indians, and to keep down the numbers of African slaves and to improve their condition. But he could not end slavery itself, for the self-interest of the planters, was against him. SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA i295 We must not get the impression, however, that the Spaniards were only treasure-seekers and slave-masters. No people of that time were more devoutly Religious religious, and one of the great objects of their of Xe*^ ^^ explorations and settlements was undoubtedly ^p^"*^*"^^ to convert the heathen. This was one of the motives of Columbus, and also of Magellan. Wherever the Span- iards formed settlements, therefore, one of their first cares was to teach the Christian religion to the natives. SPANISH MISSION OF SANTA BARBARA (California) The Franciscan and Dominican friars, who were a special kind of monks, took the lead in this work; and after the middle of the sixteenth century the Spanish Jesuits took up the task. The means used ™*^^*^"^ was chiefly the founding of "mission" villages. Two or more friars would settle among the Indians, build a church and a school, and begin to teach the natives the simple truths of the Christian religion as it was practiced in the Catholic Church. They also taught the more promising of their pupils to read and write, and trained THE STORY OF EUROPE them to habits of peaceful industry and moral living. In some places industrial schools were established, where the Indians were taught to be tailors, carpenters, black- smiths, and shoemakers. Soon each mission village came to be a community of simple farmers and workmen. From Peru to California this work went on, and the solid masonry remains of these mission buildings may still be found even in our own land. A hundred years before Harvard College was founded by the Puritans in Massachusetts, colleges and universities were estab- lished by the Spaniards in Mexico and in Peru; and there also the first printing presses in America were set up. This work of educating and making Christians of the natives was of course much easier in Mexico and Peru, because there the people were more civilized than the Indians were who dwelt farther north. It was also helped by the fact that many of the Spaniards married Indian wives. The result was that the Indians were not driven out as they were in the regions settled by the English, but dwelt alongside of the white race. Today all through Spanish America the common people gener- ally are of mixed Spanish and Indian descent. If the Spanish conquest brought much suffering and hardship to the natives, let us not forget that it brought also some of the blessings of civilization, and that, on the whole, the good which it wrought was probably greater than the evil. Topics for Review and Search 1. Pind out more about the Aztecs in Mexico. 2. Where did the natives of Mexico and Peru get their vast store of gold and silver? 3. Why were the Spaniards less successful in the North than in the South? 4. In what countries of North and South America is the Spanish language still spoken? XXXVII ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH Points to be Noted What prevented Spain from gaining all America. Growth of England since the Crusades; her two great wars. The Eeformation in religion; Martin Luther; Calvin; positions taken by Spain and England. Early years of Elizabeth; dangers after she became Queen; her rival; by whom supported; how Elizabeth was freed from this danger. Loyalty of the English to Elizabeth; Sir Walter Raleigh. Signs of improvement in England; agriculture; manufactures; commerce. English sailors attack Spain in the New World; Sir Francis Drake; effects of his voyage around the world. English houses; growth in comfort; changes in dress; masques and pageants; William Shakespeare. If we look at the situation in America as it was in 1550— that is, about sixty years after Columbus dis- covered the New World— we see that Spain why^^n had seemingly outdistanced all her rivals. dM-t By an agreement arranged by the Pope, For- Spanish tugal undertook to confine its efforts to those parts of the world which lay to the east of a north and south line drawn through the middle of Brazil; and in return Spain agreed not to trespass in the region of the Portuguese discoveries in the East Indies. The only rivalry which it seemed necessary to fear was thus disposed of. Spain might well look forward to the completion of what she had already carried so far— namely, the peaceful occu- pation by her subjects of practically the whole of North and South America. What was it that prevented the accomplishment ot this, and gave to other nations, especially France and 398 THE STORY OF EUROPE England, the best parts of North America? The answer is to be found chiefly in two facts, — first, the gradual awakening of the other nations to a consciousness of the opportunities which they were letting, slip in America; and second, the rise in Europe of political and religious quarrels which tied the hands of Spain, so that she was unable to prevent the settlement of other nations in lands which she claimed. England was the land which accomplished most in this way, so we may begin our account by considering her position at this time. In the period since the close of the Crusades the growth of England had been hampered by two great England wars. The first of these wars was with c"u?ad^l France. Even after the loss of Normandy by King John (seep. 163), the English kings con- tinued to possess some lands in the French kingdom. In addition to the troubles caused by this fact, there came a time when the English king claimed to be the rightful King of France on the ground that he was the nearest heir to the French king who had just died. When the French nobles rejected this claim, a war followed between the two countries which lasted so long that it is called the Hundred Years' War. The English kings did not secure the French crown; instead, they lost the lands which they long had had in France. Then, when this war was over, there began a civil war in England over the right to the English crown. This is called the War of the Roses, because one party took the white rose as its badge, and the other the red rose. But in spite of these two wars, England had grown greatly in wealth and in population since the days of King John; and now, under a strong and united government, with an able line of rulers, she was be- ginning to make her influence felt in the afi^airs of Europe. THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 299 But before England had really awakened to the opportunity which she was letting slip in America, there came a great religious change in Europe, ^ ^^j.^.^^^ which we call the Reformation. This began l^^^^^^'^"" in Germany and in Switzerland, but soon spread to many other countries. The chief leader in the movement was a German monk named Martin Luther. He threw off the Pope's authority, and wished to abolish the monasteries, put the church services into the language of the people, and make a number of changes in the doctrine or teachings of the Church. The Pope and other rulers in the Church, however, refused to accept these changes. The result was that the people of Europe were divided into two parties, — the Catholics, who held fast to the old Church, and the Protestants, who accepted the changes which Luther and other reformers proposed. In Switzerland the chief leader of the reformers was John Calvin. In some ways he went further in making changes than Luther did, and he is especially to be remembered as the founder of the Presbyterian Church. Calvin's teaching spread into Holland, into Scotland, and among many of the people of France. It had a great influence also in England, and among the English people who settled in America. At the time when Luther was preaching his changes, the King of Spain happened to be Emperor (Charles Spain heads V.) in Germany also. He was not able to S^thoiic put down the Protestants there, but he was P^*"'^ successful in keeping their teachings out of Spain. The people in Spain remained firmly Catholic; and when his son, Philip II., became King, Spain began to take the chief part in opposing the Protestants everywhere. 300 THE STORY OF EUROPE In England, on the other hand, King Henry VHI, separated from the Catholic Church because the Pope ^ , ^ would not grant him a divorce from his Queen. England . ^ ^ heads the When his daughter Mary came to the throne Protestants ^ -^ she restored the Catholic Church in England ; and she and her husband, Philip 11. of Spain, followed the evil practice of that time in burning at the stake a great m any persons who refused to accept the Cath- olic faith. When she died without children, her half-sister Eliza- beth became Queen; and in Elizabeth's reign (1558 to 1603), not only was Protestant- ism restored, but England became the chief champ- ion of that cause in Europe. In this way Spain and England came to be the rival heads of opposing religious parties. Elizabeth had seen much trouble and passed through many dangers while she was still a girl. Her mother, whom Henry VIII. married after he had divorced his first wife, had later been put to death by that cruel tyrant. Elizabeth was early surrounded by Protestant QUEEN ELIZABETH Note the elaborate costume and many jewels THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 301 influences; and was now in favor with her father, and now out of favor, according to his reUgious pohcy of the moment. Her half-sister Mary disUked her because of the trouble between their mothers, and at one time Mary's Spanish advisers strongly urged that Elizabeth should be put to death, Queen Elizabeth (1558-1603) LONDON BRIDGE IN THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH Notice the houses built on the bridge, also the heads over the bridge gate Even after she had become Queen her position was not at first secure. A great number of Englishmen still clung to the Catholic religion, and there were many plots to dethrone her, and even to kill her, in order that that 302 THE STORY OF EUROPE religion might be restored. Also all through the early part of her reign there was the danger that Spain might aid these plots by leading an army to invade England, and set a Catholic ruler in her place. Catholics said that Henry VIII. 's marriage to Eliza- beth's mother was not a real marriage, because Henry's Claims of divorce from his first wife was not lawful. Jf^scot?"^^** If they were right, Elizabeth had no claim to the crown, and it ought to go to the next heir. This was Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland ; and since she was a good Catholic, most of the plots were for the pur- pose of seating her on the throne of England. So long as the Queen of Scots lived, therefore, Eliza- beth's throne, and possibly her life, were in danger. Fortunately for Elizabeth, at the end of ten years a rebellion broke out against Mary in Scotland, and she was obliged to flee into England. There Elizabeth kept her in captivity for eighteen years; but still the plotting continued. At one time Mary sent this message to the Spanish ambassador in England: "Tell your master that if he will help me, I shall be Queen of England in three months, and the Catholic religion shall be restored throughout the land." For many years Parliament had been urging Elizabeth to have Mary put to death. At last, when a new plot was discovered, Elizabeth yielded, and the Queen of the Scots was brought to trial. She was condemned to death, and after some hesitation Elizabeth signed the death warrant. The Scottish Queen went to her execution with the courage of a martyr. "Cease to lament," said she to one of her attendants, " "for you shall now see a final end to Mary Stuart's troubles. I pray you take this message when you go — that I die true to my religion and to Scotland." THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 303 The death of the Queen of the Scots freed Elizabeth from the danger of plots at home, although (as we shall see in a later chapter) she had still to face a ^j.^^^^^^^ formidable attempt by Spain to conquer J^^^//***" England. Henceforth her subjects supported her loyally, for however much they differed about relig- ious questions none of them wished to see the country ruled by foreigners. They saw in their Queen, too, the representative of the rising greatness and prosperity of England. The fact that she was a woman, and un- married, also caused many of the younger nobles and gentlemen to attach themselves to her cause with chiv- alrous devotion. Sir Walter Raleigh, who was to play an important part in the founding of the first English colonies in America, was one of the young men who ^.^ attached themselves to Elizabeth's court. ^aUer^ He was born near the sea, in the western part of England, and as a boy was fond of the company of sailors, and of reading all the books of voyages on which he could lay his hands. When he became a man he entered the Queen's service as a soldier. There is a story told of the way in which he first attracted the notice and won the favor of Elizabeth. She was walking with her ladies one day when they came to a muddy place in the road. The Queen hesitated to go on, as she disliked to soil her shoes. Raleigh, who happened to be there, instantly took off his new plush cloak and spread it over the muddy place for the Queen to walk on. Elizabeth was pleased with his politeness and readiness of wit, as well as with his handsome appearance; and she rewarded him with several appointments about her court. From being a poor gentleman, he soon became a knight and one of the most wealthy of the courtiers. 304 THE STORY OF EUROPE But though it was his pleasant manners which first won him the Queen's favor, it was only the stout heart and sound head which he showed in her service that enabled him to keep it. By Elizabeth's time the Middle Ages were past, and life and thought were everyway more free. England was like a young man just coming into the strong and fullucss of his vigor and strength. Every- prosperous , . . where there was energy and activity such as had never been seen before. The result was that Eng- land increased greatly in population, prosperity, and GOLD COIN OF ELIZABETH Shows head of the Queen on one side,, and on the other the arms of England (three lions) "quartered" with the lilies (fleur-de-lis) of France wealth. Agriculture was so much improved that it was said that one acre would produce as much under the new methods of farming as two had under the old. Manufactures grew rapidly, especially the spinning of yarn, and the weaving and dyeing of woolen cloth; but the work was still done by hand, in the cottages of the people, and not (as is now the case) in great factories with steam-driven machinery. The increase in shipping and commerce was equally great. English fishing vessels had for some time made distant voyages, even to the cod-fishing "banks" THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 305 of Newfoundland; but now English merchant ships began to take a large part in the carrying of goods of all sorts between different parts of the world. Just at this time the great trading city of Antwerp, in Belgium, was almost destroyed in a war with the Spaniards; and it is said that a third of the merchants and manufac- turers of the ruined city found new homes on the banks of the Thames, in England. London now became, in its turn, the greatest trading city in the world. The spices, cotton, and silks of India, the gold and sugar of the New World, the timber and fish from the Baltic Sea, were there exchanged for the woolen cloths and other manufactures of England. English merchants became the most energetic and enterprising, and English sailors and sea-captains the most daring and skillful, in all the world. It was not to be expected that merchants and sailors as enterprising as these would long permit Spain to enjoy the sole right of settling and trading in Amer- English ica. They soon began to cross the Atlantic, Ittack and to trade wherever they liked. When the ^^*" Spaniards opposed them, the English fought with them, and sometimes even captured the ships in which Spain was bringing home the treasures of gold and silver from the mines of Mexico and Peru. Many of these bold English sea-captains, it must be confessed, were little better than pirates. In addition to fighting the Spaniards, they did not hesitate to kidnap slaves on the African coast, and to sell them to the colonists of Spain in the New World. Sir Francis Drake was a captain of a different sort. He had early suffered injuries from the Spaniards, and he devoted his life to securing revenge. On a sir Francis voyage which he made to Panama, he climbed a tree on a mountain ridge, from which he could 306 THE STORY OF EUROPE see the South Sea which Balboa had discovered and Magellan had sailed upon; and he made a vow that he too would "sail once in an English ship in that sea." With this object, Drake set out in 1577 with five small vessels. Two of his ships had to be abandoned as unsea- worthy off the coast of Brazil. A third was wrecked in a furious storm which struck them after passing through the Strait of Magellan; and a fourth was separated from DRAKE'S SHIP It was in this ship that he voyaged around the world Drake's vessel by the same cause, and returned without him. With the single ship which was left, Drake sailed up the western coast of South America, plundering Spanish towns, capturing treasure vessels, and gaining an enormous amount of booty. At one place where they landed for water, they "lighted on a Spaniard who lay asleep, and had lying by him thirteen bars of silver.'* "We took the silver," says this account, "and left the man." THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 307 After Drake was "sufficiently satisfied and revenged," he prepared to return home. To sail back by the way he had come would be dangerous, both because ^^.^ ^^^^^^ of the storms on that route and because the ?^«"g»;^be Spaniards would be looking for him there. So Drake turned northward, and searched for some such passage through North America to the Atlantic as men then expected to find. He did not find this, but he did discover the coast of California. In the end he resolved to return by Magellan's route across the Pacific and around the Cape of Good Hope. In the Spice Islands they took on as much cloves and pepper as their ship could carry. Nearly three years after he had set out, Drake landed in England, bringing with him rich stores of gold, silver, silk, pearls, precious stones, and spices. He was the first Englishman to sail around the globe. The Spaniards were furious at such attacks, but English- men gloried in what Drake had done, and Elizabeth showed him as much favor as she could without pro- voking Spain to open warfare. The wealth which EngHsh adventurers and traders were gaining helped to produce a great change in EngUsh ways of living. Rude farmhouses began to improve- give place to fine dwellings of brick and stone. Eifgiilh" Chimneys, which were unknown in the early Middle Ages, were introduced, and the smoke from fires no longer blackened the ceiUngs and blinded the inmates while seeking an outlet through door or window. The windows, too, were now filled with sashes of glass, instead of being merely closed in cold weather with heavy wooden shutters, or covered over with semi-transparent sheets of oiled paper. DweUings thus became lighter and warmer in the dark days of winter. In earlier times the floors were covered with layers of rushes gathered by 308 THE STORY OF EUROPE the river side, and these became filthy and foul smelling before the winter was done, from the bones and other refuse dropped among them. Now floors began to be covered with rugs and carpets, and the result was much more healthful living. Dishes of pewter, and among the nobles even of silver and gold, began to take the place of the earlier wooden and horn utensils; and meat was eaten more, and salt-fish a great deal less, than had hitherto been the case. In the Middle Ages, it was often considered enough if one merely succeeded in living, but now people began to demand comfort as well. The life of the nobles also was greatly changed. The War of the Roses had weakened their political power, „, , . ^ and now thev gave up their feudal manners Wealth and . . . b i- display of of Hviug. The great households, in which the nobles ^ . f . . the lords dined with their dependents in the great halls, were broken up. Thenceforth the lord and his family spent their time indoors in what was called the *'withdrawing-room," whence comes our "drawing- room" — that is the sitting-room or parlor. The gloomy castles, with their drawbridges, keeps, and battlemented walls, were abandoned for airier, lighter, more comfort- able buildings. The new wealth led also to more lavish display in dress ; and a love of display and of color which today is unknown was shown even in the dress of the men. Slashed velvets, ruffs, and silken hose, with a profusion of jewels and laces, were the ordinary wear of the Queen's courtiers. Elizabeth herself was especially vain and extrav- agant in dress, and it is said that she had 3000 gowns of strange fashion, and eighty wigs of different colored hair. Masques and pageants, which helped to develop modern stage-plays, were a prominent feature of the court life. An account of the reception which the Earl of Leicester gave the Queen when she visited him at his THE DAYS OF ELIZABETH 309 castle of Kenilworth will help us to understand what these were. As she approached the castle, with her train of ladies and more than four hundred attend- ^^^^^^^ ants and servants, in the twilight of a J^^^^^^^ summer evening, she was greeted with fire- works, the discharge of cannon, and loud outbursts of music. The porter, a huge man with a great club, at first pretended to forbid their entrance; but, upon seeing the Queen, he dropped his club, humbly presented her with his keys, and bade her welcome. As she crossed the bridge over a little lake, a raft approached which was made up to represent a floating island; this was sur- rounded by sea-horses on which were mounted persons TRAVELING IN STATE IN ELIZABETH'S TIME who represented mythical water-deities. A beautiful woman, dressed like a queen, stepped forth and repre- sented herself to be the famous Lady of the Lake, renowned in the stories of King Arthur. She greeted the Queen, and surrendered the castle and all its pos- sessions to her. Elizabeth remained at Kenilworth for seventeen days; and every morning to feed the great company ten oxen were slaughtered, and to give her people drink sixteen hogsheads of wine were opened, and forty hogsheads of beer. William Shakespeare, the great English play-writer, lived not far from Kenilworth; and perhaps he was among the crowds who came from miles around to see the spectacles, and there gained 310 THE STORY OF EUROPE some of the ideas which he later employed in the scenes represented in his plays. This wealth and splendor all testifies to the energy and activity of the English people of that time. They had long been great travelers, having engaged much in pilgrimages and foreign wars. Now their energies were to be centered on commerce and maritime adven- tures, and these were to lead them to the founding of colonies as rivals to Spain in the New World. Points to be Noted 1. Make a list of the things which prepared the English to compete with Spain in the New World. 2. Find out more about Martin Luther and the Eeformation in religion. 3. Did Elizabeth do right in putting Mary Stuart to death! Give your reasons. 4. Read Sir Walter Scott's account of Raleigh's first interview with Elizabeth. (Kenilworth,ch- xv.) 5. Locate on the map the places visited by Sir Francis Drake in his voyage around the world. 6. Read Scott's account of Elizabeth's visit to Kenilworth. {Kenilworth, ch. xxx.) 7. Find out more about William Shakespeare and his works. XXXVIII FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN Points to be Noted Scene of French and Spanish rivalry in Europe; its outcome; extent of the possessions of Charles V.; effect on Spanish colonization. Character of the French King; the great hero of the war; Bayard's training; his deeds; his death. Why King Francis turned to America; Verrazano's voyage; date; Cartier's four expeditions; dates; what he discovered; what he sought. Why Admiral Coligny sent out colonists; where they settled; date; fate of this colony. Where the French then turned their efforts; result. France also now entered into rivalry with Spain, both in the Old World and in the New. The quarrel began over power in Italy, which since the downfall of the Roman rule had been divided rivalry with Spain into a number of warring states. It was largely, indeed, because Charles V. was so much occupied with his wars there that he was not able to put down the religious Reformation in Germany. The outcome of these wars was that Spain secured the island of Sicily, the kingdom of Naples, which occupied all the southern half of the peninsula, and the duchy of Milan, which took in a great part of the valley of the River Po. These territories, added to the kingdom of Spain, the Nether- lands, Germany, and the Spanish possessions in the New World, made Charles V. one of the greatest monarch's that the world had ever seen. But, instead of strengthening Spain in its work of colonizing, these great possessions in Europe weakened her; for the jealousy of all the nations of Europe was now aroused toward her, and she was 311 312 THE STORY OF EUROPE obliged to waste the treasures of Mexico and Peru in ceaseless warfare at home. Francis I., the French King, was the chief contestant with Charles V. for the possession of Italy. He was an Bayard the able King, and fond of literature and art; wars ^n*^**^ but, as a wisc Frenchman said, he '*did every- Europe thing by fits and starts." The great hero of the war on the French side, therefore, was not the King himself, but a French nobleman named Bayard. BAYARD From an old engraving Although feudalism and knighthood were now dis- appearing with the increased use of gunpowder. Bayard is renowned as the ideal knight, "without fear and with- out reproach." For nearly two hundred years past, each successive head of his family had died fighting in battle. Bayard had been trained for knighthood in the way described in chapter xxv. While he was a page he attracted the attention of the French King by his FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN 313 graceful bearing and good manners, and was taken by him to the French court. There he became skilled in tournaments, and in all that pertained to knighthood. When the wars over Italy broke out he captured a banner in battle, and was rewarded by being made a knight. Shortly afterward, in a battle near Milan, he pursued the enemy so hotly that he followed them into the city, and was taken prisoner; but the Duke of Milan was so pleased with his bravery that he set him free without a ransom. At another time, when thirteen Germans challenged thirteen French to meet them in FRENCH BATTLE IN ITALY From a sculpture of that time; notice the cannon in the background battle, Bayard was one of the French champions, and his heroism won the victory for his side. At still another time, he held a bridge single-handed against two hundred Spaniards. Bayard served all through these Italian wars, and was several times wounded. When Francis I. became King, and won a great battle near Milan, he too wished to be made a knight, and said: "Bayard, my friend, I wish to receive knighthood from your hands, for you are rightfully held to be the greatest knight Hving." 314 THE STORY OF EUROPE But Bayard was not merely a brave warrior; he was an able and painstaking general as well. When fortune turned against Francis I., and France was threatened with invasion, Bayard with only 1000 men held a poorly fortified town on the French border against the attacks of 35,000 soldiers of Charles V. All France rang with praise of this deed, and the French government publicly thanked Bayard, calling him " the saviour of his country." He lived only three years after this, dying as the result of a wound received from a musket ball, in 15 '24. Shortly before Bayard died, the French King began to turn his thoughts to the New World, where Spain King was winning unhampered such vast territories, tumrtothe For twenty-five years the hardy Norman fishermen had been sending their fishing smacks to the "banks" of Newfoundland, but up to this time the French had taken no part in voyages of explo- ration and discovery. Now an Italian sea-captain named Verrazano brought to King Francis rich treasures which he had taken out of some captured Spanish ships from America. On seeing these the French King ex- claimed, in amazement: "The Emperor can carry on war against me by means of the riches which he draws from the West Indies alone!" He resolved to seek a share in the land from which these riches came. When told of the agreement, approved by the Pope, by which Spain and Portugal had divided the unknown world between them, he said : "By what right do they monopolize the earth? Did our first father Adam make them his sole heirs.'' If so, I should like to see a copy of that will; and until I do, I shall feel at liberty to seize all the land in the New World that I can get." He appointed Verrazano to command an expedition FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN 315 to that region. Verrazano set sail with one ship and fifty men, in 1524, and explored the American verrazano's coast from North Carolina to Maine. His ?ffns was the first ship, apparently, ever to enter ^^^^^■ the great harbor of New York, where today so many thousand vessels come and go every year. But Francis I. was too busy with his wars in Italy to follow up this voyage just then; and when he resumed his American plans, ten years later, it was to Cajder^ the region about the cod-fisheries of New- J^^^^^'^^^ foundland that his sailors turned their atten- (1534-43) tion. Jacques Cartier, one of the hardy Norman sailors, was the captain who now led the French expedi- tions. He made four voyages to America, and his ex- plorations gave the French their title to Canada. On his first voyage he entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and explored the coasts of Newfoundland and New Brunswick. On his second voyage he discovered the St. Lawrence River, and ascended it in rowboats as far as where Montreal now stands. He built a fort on the site of Quebec, and spent the winter there, losing twenty- five of his men from sickness and the severity of the weather. It was not, however, until seventy-two years later (1608) that a permanent settlement was made there, by a Frenchman named Champlain. What Cartier sought in his voyages to the St. Lawrence was what many others were seeking in different parts of America at this time — namely, a strait or search for water passage through the unknown continent to the to the ocean which was now known to wash its western shores. When he found that his way beyond Montreal was barred by rapids in the St. Lawrence River, he named these "the China Rapids," for he hoped that when they were once passed a way to China might 316 THE STORY OF EUROPE there be found. Rumors of great bodies of water lying not far to the west encouraged the French to persevere in this quest; but when these were reached (by Cham- plain, in 1615) they proved to be the Great Lakes. By this time the French had found out that, even if Canada did not afford a passage through to the Pacific Ocean, it was at least a land well worth having because of the rich fur-trade which could be carried on with the natives ; so from that time their work of colonization went steadily forward. Canada was so far removed from the Spanish terri- tories in America that the French there were left undis- turbed. This was not the case when they tried to make settlements farther south. About thirty years after Cartier made his first voyage, some French explorers landed on the eastern shore of Proteitants ^^^rida, and brought back reports that it was Florida" "^^^^ fairest, fruitfulest, and pleasantest land (1564) of all the world." At this time a series of dreadful civil wars had just broken out in France between the Catholics and Protestants, and the leader of the French Protestants, Admiral Coligny, thought that it would be a good thing to found a colony in America as a refuge for Frenchmen of his religion. He secured three ships from the French government, and sent out an expedition in 1564 which founded a colony in Florida at the mouth of the St. Johns River. They called their settlement Fort Carolina, in honor of the French King, Charles (Latin Cardus), who was then on the throne. The settlers, however, were mostly adventurers and soldiers, and instead of setting to work to till the soil and build up new homes, they wasted their time in ex- ploring for treasure and in attacking the Spaniards. When news came to King Philip of Spain that these FRENCH RIVALRY WITH SPAIN 317 French Protestants had settled in lands which he claimed, and that they were capturing his ships, he was fPf^jf/^^ very angry. He sent out an expedition to ^^^r^^^^^ punish these "heretics" (as Catholics called (i565) the Protestants); and in command he placed an able but cruel Spaniard named Menendez. First, Menendez built a Spanish fort at St. Augustine, about fifty miles from Fort Carolina, which today is famed as the oldest existing settlement in the United States. Then, gather- ing together all his men, he forced his way through thick forests, and swamps, until he came to the French settlement. The French had allowed their fort to fall into decay, and their watch was ill-kept. The surprise by the Spaniards was complete. Almost without a blow the French fort fell into their hands. Those who declared that they were Roman Catholics were spared, as were also about fifty women and children. The rest of the French were put to death. When a message reached King Philip telling what Menendez had done, he wrote in the margin of the letter these words : "Say to him that as to those he has killed he has done well; and as to those he has spared, they shall be set to hard labor in the galleys." From this time on the French made no further at- tempts to found colonies in Florida. Thenceforth they confined their efforts to Canada, where in course of time they built up a great colonial empire, to which was given the name of New France. 318 THE STORY OF EUROPE Topics for Review and Search 1. Locate on a map all the countries ruled over by Charles V. 2. Eead stories of King Francis I. and of Bayard. (See Pitman, Stories of Old France, pages 105-133.) 3. Why were the fishermen among the first to profit by the dis- covery of America? (Remember the use of fish as food in Catholic countries.) 4. What mistaken idea of the size of North America must Cartier have had? Can you think of anything which helped cause this? (Balboa's exploit.) 5. What motives did Philip II. have for destroying the French settlement in Florida? 6. What were galleys? What labor did men perform in them? Who were the men usually who did this work? XXXIX THE DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN Points to be Noted Location of the Netherlands; nature of the land; dikes and windmills; differences between the northern and southern provinces; their prosperity. Harsh rule of Philip II.; the Duke of Alva and the Council of Blood; a heavy tax imposed. William of Orange; why called "the Silent"; he heads the resistance; "The Beggars"; seizure of a seaport; revolt of the North; Spanish soldiers sack Antwerp; the Catholic provinces join the revolt. The union broken; northern provinces form the Union of Utrecht; declaration of independence. Siege of Leyden; murder of William of Orange; date; continu- ance of the war; a truce practically ends the struggle; date. Importance of the revolt of the Dutch for Americans. Another serious hindrance to Spain's colonizing plans was the revolt of its Dutch subjects. Among the many lands over which Charles V. had ruled rheNether- was the district called the Netherlands. This lay on both sides of the mouth of the River Rhine; and it was called the Netherlands, or "Low Countries, " because the land was so low and flat. Much of it, indeed, lay below the level of the sea. Strong embankments, called dikes, stretched for miles along sea and river side, ever thrusting back the hungry waves; and giant windmills, with slow-moving arms, ceaselessly pumped out the waters which seeped through these earthen walls. Patient toil had reclaimed these lands from the sea, and unremitting vigilance was neces- sary to keep what had been gained. The southern half of the Netherlands now makes up the little kingdom of Belgium. Here were located many 319 320 THE STORY OF EUROPE flourishing towns, which w^ere famous for their commerce, and for their cloth and other manufactures. The people of these districts were related to the French in their speech and in their history; while in the north the language (Dutch) was related to the German. The northern half of the Netherlands today makes up the kingdom of Holland. SCENE IN HOLLAND From a painting by the Dutch artist Van Ruysdael (died 1682) Here fishing, agriculture, and dairying were the chief industries, though their commerce also was important. When Philip II. became ruler over the Netherlands, he found these lands thickly populated, and very rich Their and prosperous. Their fleets traded on every prosperity ^^^ rj.^^ hundred and fifty vessels often lay at one time in the harbor of Antwerp, their chief city; DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 321 and merchants from all countries thronged its banking houses. An old writer says of these sturdy mariners and merchants: "Like bees they gathered honey from all the world. Norway was their forest; the banks of the Rhine and southern France their vineyards; Germany, Spain, and Ireland their sheep pastures; Prussia and Poland their grain fields; India and Arabia their spice gardens." They drew more profit than Spain and Portugal themselves from the discovery of the New World and of the ocean route to India; for their commerce brought to them alike the gold and silver of Mexico and Peru, and the precious wares of the distant East. The Netherlands did not make up a single state; instead the land was divided into a number of different provinces, which were only loosely united. ^^J^Jf/g" When the Reformation in religion came, the |J^\^^^^^' northern provinces became Protestant, while CathoUc the southern ones remained Catholic. Charles V. had himself been born in the Netherlands, and although he tried to put down the Protestants there, he governed the provinces kindly, and the people remained loyal to him. His son Philip, however, was a man of very different sort. He was cold, cruel, and obstinate, and he made it his life work to stamp out the Protestant „ . , ^ Harsh rule religion wherever he could. Moreover, he ?f ?^.»"S <=' Philip set Spaniards and other corrupt and oppres- sive foreigners to rule over the Netherlands; and he supported their rule with Spanish soldiers, who often plundered and mistreated the people. Both Catholics and Protestants cried out loudly at these violations of their privileges, but in vain. Instead of reforming the abuses complained of, Philip punished THE STORY OF EUROPE the men who complained. Then riots broke out, and some reckless Protestants seized this opportunity to break into Catholic churches and destroy the crucifixes and images which they found there. Philip replied by appointing as governor of the Netherlands one of the sternest, crudest, most bigoted of Spaniards — the Duke of Alva. The Duke of Alva came with an army of 10,000 men, and proceeded to restore order. A court, which was ^ , popularly called the " Council of Blood, " was Tyranny of ^ ^ *^ . the Duke of set up especially to hunt down those who had the recent riots, or were sus- Two Catholic noblemen who taken part in pected of being heretics, had taken a leading part in protesting against the misgovernment were seized and put to death. Many thousand lesser per- sons were burned, hanged, or beheaded. The trials were most unfair. One of the members of this wicked court usually slept during its proceedings ; but when aroused from his naps, without inquiring who was on trial or for what, he would cry out, "To the gallows, to the gallows with him!" To get money to pay his troops and to carry on this cruel work, Alva made a law that whenever any goods of any sort were sold in the shops or markets one-tenth of the price must be paid to his officers. The result was that shops were shut and trade came to a standstill. The Netherlands were on the brink of ruin. WILLIAM THE SILENT DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 323 That they were not ruined, but that instead the Dutch Netherlands succeeded in throwing off the tyranny of Spain, and estabUshing a government of their wiiuamof own, was owing to the great abiUties and heads the patriotic efforts of Prince William of Orange. He is called William "the Silent," from the good sense with which he held his tongue when, at one time, the King of France incautiously spoke to him of an agree- ment which France had made with Spain for rooting out heresy in the Netherlands. "From that hour," wrote William twenty years later, "I resolved with my whole soul to do my best to drive this Spanish vermin out of the land." William now put himself at the head of the resistance to the Duke of Alva's tyranny. The rebels took the name "The Beggars," from a contemp- tuous remark which one of the Spanish ministers made about them. Many of them took to the sea and attacked the Spanish merchant vessels; and in 1572 a band of these "Sea Beggars" succeeded in seizing and fortifying one of the seaports. This was the signal for revolt throughout the northern provinces. When the Spanish soldiers, with bloody fury, seized and almost destroyed Antwerp, even the Catholic provinces cast in their lot with their Protestant brothers. This union, however, did not last long. The Catholic provinces returned to their obedience when a wiser and milder ruler was appointed to take Alva's place; but the Protestant provinces kept up the revolt. The seven northern provinces now joined in a union called the "Union of Utrecht" (1579); and then, two years later, they issued a declaration of independence. This was almost two centuries before the English colonies in America issued their famous Declaration. The Spaniards, after long sieges, were able to take 324 THE STORY OF EUROPE several important towns, which were treated with great cruelty. But they could not capture the city of Leyden. ^^ . This was situated on low ground, about six The siege -i *> fo ' of Leyden milcs from the sea, and was well defended with walls. Under the lead of their heroic burgomaster, or mayor, the citizens held out for four months. For seven weeks there was no bread within the city, and the people died by hundreds. But still the city would not surrender. At last William ordered that the dikes should be cut. The sea, aided by a high tide and strong wind, swept over the land, drowning about 1,000 of the besiegers; and Dutch barges, loaded with men and supplies, relieved the town. For this heroic defense, the town was given a university, which became very famous, and where many Englishmen studied who later took part in colonizing America. The war dragged on for a long time. King Philip had taken the cowardly step of offering a great reward to Murder of auyouc who would murdcr William of Orange ; Orange* ° and at last, after several attempts, that great (1584) man was treacherously shot and mortally wounded (1584). He was a great statesman, and played the same part in securing the independence of the Dutch Netherlands that George Washington did for the American colonists; but, unlike Washington, he did not live to enjoy the victory. In spite of the death of their heroic leader, the Dutch continued their struggle. But now there was less states- manship in their counsels. The different provinces were jealous of one another, opposing parties arose among the people, and the leaders engaged in desperate quarrels. One party wished to offer the crown of the Dutch Nether- lands to France, and the other to England. Both countries were jealous of the overgrown power of Spain DUTCH REVOLT AGAINST SPAIN 325 and sent aid to the Dutch; but neither country dared accept the perilous offer of the crown. At last, in 1609, after King Philip's death, when Spam was worn out with the long struggle and was distracted by the many difficulties which surrounded The^Dutch her, a truce was made between Spain and her independ- revolted provinces. The final recognition of their independence was witheld for many years, but this truce practically ended the struggle. At the commence- ment of the revolt, the southern provinces had been the richest and most prosperous part of the Netherlands. At the close of the struggle these provinces were almost a desert, and wolves, we are told, roamed over the untilled fields. Trade had shifted from the districts which remained under Spanish rule to those which had estab- lished their independence; and Amsterdam, the chief city of the Dutch provinces, took the place of Antwerp, the ruined and almost deserted city of the south. In many ways this successful revolt of the Dutch subjects of Spain is of importance to us Americans. It was one of the chief factors in preventing importance Spain from going ahead and establishing its struggle to rule throughout the whole of America. Not '"^"*'^ only that, but the Dutch themselves, after the successful outcome of their struggle, took up the work of coloni- zation, and explored the Hudson River and made perma- nent settlements in what is now the state of New York. In this way they had an important part in the making of one of the original thirteen colonies. The example of the Dutch revolt from Spain, also, encouraged the American colonists when it came their turn to revolt against the misgovernment of England in America. The experience of the Dutch taught us the wisdom of granting freedom of worship to persons of different 326 THE STORY OF EUROPE religious beliefs. Finally, the lessons learned by them in their efforts to unite their seven provinces into a single republican government proved of the greatest value to our forefathers when, after our War of the Revolution, they sought to unite the thirteen states into a federal government. We learned directly from the Dutch many things which were of value; but, no less, we learned from their mistakes and misfortunes many things which we should avoid. Topics for Review and Search 1. Find out what you can about life in Holland today. 2. Read the letter of Philip II. to his little daughters (see Robinson, Readings in European History, II, pages 170- 171). What good side of his character does this show? 3. Find out more about the life and character of William of Orange. XL ENGLAND DEFEATS THE SPANISH ARMADA Points to be Noted Why Englishmen aided the Dutch; attitude of Queen Elizabeth. Character of Sir Philip Sidney; why England mourned his loss. Grounds of King Philip's quarrel with Elizabeth; his prepara- tions to invade England. How Drake ''singed the Spanish King's beard"; results; why the exploit was not repeated. Coming of the Armada; strength of the Spanish and English fleets; the English commanders; course which they adopted; why the Armada stopped at Calais; how the Spanish plan was foiled; fate of the Armada. Causes of the English success. Decline of Spain's power; effect on England; interference with English colonies prevented. It was natural that Englishmen should wish to aid the Dutch in their revolt against King Philip. They sympathized with the Dutch because they England were Protestants; and they hated Spain, both jj^s^oie because English sailors were put to death as heretics when they fell into Spanish hands, and because they were barred from trade and settlement in the New World. Queen Elizabeth was ready to do all that she could against Spain, except to go to war with Philip. "I think it is good," she wrote, "that the King of Spain should be hindered both in Portugal, and in his Islands, and also in the Low Countries; and I am ready to give such indirect assistance as will not at once be a cause of war." So Elizabeth rewarded the sea-captains, like Drake, who attacked the Spaniards in the New World; and she 327 328 THE STORY OF EUROPE secretly sent aid to the Dutch. After the murder of WilKam of Orange, she went further, and openly sent an army to the Netherlands, under the command of an English nobleman. The hero of the English war in the Netherlands, how- ever, was riot the commander of the army, but an English Sir Philip gentleman named Sir Philip Sidney. He was Sidney ^^^ ^^ great a warrior as the French hero Bayard had been, but he became quite as famous; for, in addition to being a good soldier, he was also a wise statesman, a poet, and a learned and lovable man. When he was only eleven years old, he wrote letters to his father both in Latin and in French. "If he goes on in the course he has begun, " wrote a great nobleman of Elizabeth's court, "he will be as famous and worthy a gentleman as ever England bred." When he grew to be a man he abundantly fulfilled this prophecy. He became an officer of Elizabeth's court, and urged her to make war upon Spain. When the war began, he was appointed to govern one of the towns in the Netherlands which was put in England's hands. But he was not content to remain out of danger while others were fight- ing; so he took part in the war as a volunteer — that is, without having a definite appointment from the Queen. In a cavalry charge against a Spanish force, many times as large as the English, he showed great bravery and daring. When his horse was shot from under him, he mounted another and fought his way through the enemy's ranks. He received a serious wound in the leg, and could scarcely manage to make his way back to the English camp. He arrived there faint from the loss of blood and parched with thirst. But when he was about to drink from a bottle of water which was brought to him, he noticed that the eyes of a dying THE SPANISH ARMADA 329 soldier were fixed greedily upon the flask. Sidney at once handed him the water, saying: "Your need is even greater than mine." In those days doctors did not know as much about medicine as they do now; and in spite of all that they could do, Sidney died of his wound. It was partly such kindness as that which he showed to the dying soldier, as well as his great abiUties, which made the whole English nation mourn his loss. King Philip was naturally made very angry by the aid which the EngUsh gave the Dutch, and by the many attacks on his subjects in the New World. Kuig^PWiip In addition, he had another ground of quarrel to^nvad\ with Elizabeth. Through one of his ances- tors he was descended from the royal family of England; and already, during his marriage with Elizabeth's half- sister Mary, he had borne the title. King of England. Moreover, when Mary Queen of Scots was put to death, in the year after Sidney's death, she made King Philip the heir to her claim on the English throne. Both because of his quarrel with EKzabeth, and because of his claims to the throne of that country, Philip now resolved to make war upon England; and the war was to be not only an attempt to conquer the country, but also a crusade to restore the Catholic religion. Accordingly, he began to prepare in the harbors of Spain a great fleet, called in Spanish an "armada. Queen Elizabeth hesitated, and tried nego- g.^ Francis tiating with King Philip. But the hardy g-^e at Encrlish sea-captains did not propose to sit still and wait to be attacked. Sir Francis Drake had been appointed to command an EngUsh fleet, with instructions to prevent the gathering together of the Armada. Rightly fearing that the Queen might change her mind, he slipped off to sea before new instructions 330 THE STORY OF EUROPE could reach him. He sailed boldly into the Spanish harbor of Cadiz, where he burned thirty-three of Philip's ships, captured four others, and destroyed immense quantities of food and other supplies which had been collected for the Spanish fleet. Drake called this "singeing the Spanish King's beard." Before he returned home he also captured a vessel which was bringing to Portugal (then under Spanish rule) great treasures from the East Indies. He thus paid all the expenses of his expedition, and also opened the eyes of English merchants to the enormous value of the trade with the East. The damage which Drake had done to King Philip's fleet made it necessary to postpone the sailing of the The Great Armada for a whole year. Drake and other se™sau sea-captains urged the Queen to let them ' again attack the Spaniards in their own har- bors, as the best way of saving England from the danger of the Armada; but Elizabeth would not give them permission. As a result, King Philip was able to com- plete his preparations; and at last, after many diffi- culties, the Great Armada set sail for the shores of Eng- land. When the Spanish fleet appeared in the EngHsh Channel, the news was flashed by bonfires, from hilltop to hilltop, all along the coast. The Armada consisted of 132 vessels, many of them great high-decked ships, crowded with soldiers. Some were galleys rowed by oars, such as had been used in the Mediterranean Sea since the days of ancient Greece and Rome. The commander was a Spanish nobleman who knew nothing about the sea and had never even commanded an army before. He was appointed, in spite of his own protests, on account of his noble rank. The English fleet was THE SPANISH ARMADA 331 THE ARMADA 1588 ^___ Armada English 332 THE STORY OF EUROPE made up of 197 vessels, most of them smaller than those in the Armada, but swifter and more easily managed. They were also commanded and manned by the best seamen and gunners in the world. Because Drake was not a nobleman, he was given the second place in com- mand instead of the first; but Lord Howard, who was made commander in chief, w^as himself a bold and skillful sailor, and was guided largely by Drake's advice. An old story says that when news of the coming of the Spanish fleet was first received. Lord Howard, with Drake and other captains, was ashore at the harbor of Plymouth, in the southwest of England. They were in the midst of a game called "bowls," in which wooden balls are rolled upon the grass. Lord Howard wished to put to sea at once, but Drake prevented him, saying: "There's plenty of time to win this game, and to thrash the Spaniards too." The English ships allowed the Spanish fleet to pass by Plymouth, and then followed it up the Channel. For a The English wholc wcck, from Plymouth to the French seaport of Calais, the English hung upon the rear of the Spaniards, — now advancing, now nimbly retiring, but always fighting, and "plucking the feathers" (as they called it) of the Armada one by one. Philip had ordered the Spanish commander in the Netherlands to have an army ready when the Armada arrived, to cross over to England under its protection. It was to get news of this army that the Spanish fleet anchored at Calais. But the English captains found means to pre- vent the union of the Spanish fleet with the Spanish army. Under cover of the night, they sent into the harbor a number of ships loaded with tar and other quick-burning, substances, and set fire to them. When the Spaniards saw these fire-ships drifting down upon THE SPANISH ARMADA 333 ?^V:i'. . 334 THE STORY OF EUROPE them, they cut their anchor cables in panic, and sailed out to sea again. After another all-day fight, the Spaniards turned northward, sailing before a southerly breeze. They failed to take on the army to invade Eng- land, and already the expedition was a failure. Worse, however, was to follow. The Spaniards tried to return to Spain by sailing around the northern coasts storms ^^ Scotland and Ireland. The English vessels Sittruction ^^^^ ^^^ «"t «f powder and provisions, and so gave up the chase. The summer proved to be one of the stormiest ever known, and scores of the clumsy Spanish vessels were dashed to pieces on the Scottish and Irish shores. The shipwrecked Spaniards were either drowned or were put to death when they reached the shore. An English ofiicer wrote that at one place in Ireland he counted more than a thousand Spanish corpses in a five miles' walk along the coast. Of all that great fleet, less than half returned to Spain. King Philip did not blame his admiral for this disaster. "I sent you to fight against men," he said, "and not Why ^^*^ ^^^^ winds." But it was not the winds rhe^Engiish alouc which had givcu the English their great victory. It was the superiority of the English vessels over the slower Spanish ones; it was the greater daring and seamanship of the English sea-captains; it was the intrepid courage and skillful marksmanship of the English sailors. Man for man, and vessel for vessel, the English were better than the Spaniards. This was largely so because the English were free men, fighting for their faith and for their homes; while the Spaniards were subjects of a despotic government, under a King who had no great ability. After the defeat of the Armada, the power of Spain THE SPANISH ARMADA 335 rapidly declined. England was thenceforth freed from the fear of Spanish conquests. The Dutch soon won such successes that they were sure of keeping ^^^^^.^^ the liberty which they had gained. Even «*^spf°'« France might have won from Spain the con- trol in Italy which that kingdom had secured, if it had not been for the terrible religious wars which were wasting France, and which not long afterwards broke out in Germany also. Gradually it was seen that Spain could not even hold her place as the first power in Europe, to say nothing of keeping other nations out of the New World. Upon the English, the effect of the victory over Spain was to spur them on to new and greater enterprises. The whole nation now shared England the spirit of men like Drake, and the close cofoniza- of Elizabeth's reign saw a burst of energy in all lines of activity. Before this time the English had been held back from founding colonies in the New World by their troubles at home, by their poverty, by their lack of interest, and above all by the fear of Spain. Now all this was past. They could go ahead and make settlements in those vast regions whose coasts John Cabot had explored, without fear that their colonies would be destroyed by Spanish soldiers, as the one made by the French Admiral Coligny had been by Menendez. Zeal for the Protestant religion, hope of gain, and that love of adventure which had sent forth the roving sea-captains to prey on Spanish com- merce, were now turned in the direction of colonizing the New World. The result was that the foundations were soon laid of the trade, colonial empire, and maritime power which make England today "the mistress of the seas." 336 THE STORY OF EUROPE Topics for Review and Search 1. Find out more about Sir Philip Sidney. 2. Read the account of the fight with the Armada in Charles Kingsley's Westward Ho!, ch. xxxi. 3. Was the defeat of the Armada due more to the policy of Queen Elizabeth, or to that of her ministers and cap- tains? Give reasons for your answer. 4. Read letters written by Elizabeth's captains during the fight with the Armada. (See Kendall, Source Book of English History, pp. 178-184; or Cheyney, Readings in English His- tory, ]>p. 404-408.) 5. Of what lack do the captains complain in these letters? 6. Read Tennyson's poem, "The Revenge: A Ballad of the Fleet" (a sea-fight with the Spaniards in 1591). XLI ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN Points to be Noted Why Englishmen wished to found colonies. Attempt of Sir Humphrey Gilbert; fate of his first voyage; his second attempt; location; why given up; his death; date. Sir Walter Ealeigh takes up the work; why he did not go in person; date of the first expedition; where it went; descrip- tion of the land and people; why named Virginia; Indian corn, potatoes, and tobacco found there. Ealeigh's first colony; date; where planted; governor; relations with the Indians; why and how the colonists returned. Arrival of ships with supplies; men left to hold the country; their fate. Ealeigh's second colony; date; why the governor returned to England; number of colonists left behind; Virginia Dare; cause of delay in sending supplies; what the governor found on his return; probable fate of this Lost Colony; end of Ealeigh's attempts at colonizing. New interest in colonizing under James I.; beginning of perma- nent English colonies. Men like Sir Francis Drake thought of the New World only as a field for trading and plundering expeditions which would enrich themselves and satisfy ^^^^^^^ their hatred of Spain. There were other «^,^^f^^«** Englishmen, however, who looked further ahead, and saw in it an opportunity to extend England's power by founding homes for Englishmen across the seas. No doubt the example of Coligny, who tried to find homes in America for persecuted French Protestants, helped to suggest the idea. But the first Enghsh colonies were not founded as refuges for those who suffered for their religion at home. That was to come later, when the Pilgrims and Puritans settled in Massachusetts, the Catholics in Maryland, and the Quakers in Pennsyl- vania. The purpose of the first attempts to found 337 338 THE STORY OF EUROPE English colonies in America was largely to find homes for the numbers of poor and needy persons who, as one writer said, "now trouble the commonwealth, and through want here at home are forced to commit many crimes." The man who wrote these words was Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and it was he who made the first attempt to gj^ found an English colony in America. He Humphrey was an older half-brother to Sir Walter Oilbert Raleigh; and like him, in their home by the sea in southwestern England, he had early Hstened to the tales of sailors and travelers, and been filled with a long- ing for a seafaring life. When he went to college he studied navigation and the art of war. He then served Queen Ehzabeth in Ireland, and also took part in the English expeditions to aid the Dutch in their war for freedom. It was twelve years before the defeat of the Armada that he wrote the words about colonizing America which are given above. As a result of his eagerness for this work, the Queen, two years later, granted him a charter to discover "heathen and barbarous lands," and to make settlements there of such English subjects "as shall willingly accompany him." With the aid of his half-brother, Raleigh, Sir Humphrey Gilbert fitted out eleven ships, in 1578, for a voyage His two westward; but the expedition was turned voyages against the Spaniards in Europe, and did not reach America. This unfortunate attempt cost Sir Humphrey almost his whole fortune; but five years later he succeeded in fitting out a second expedition. This time he reached Newfoundland, with four vessels. He found there thirty-six vessels, of different nations, engaged in fishing, which shows how important the Newfoundland fisheries already were. Gilbert took possession of the island in the name of Queen Elizabeth, ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 389 and tried to found a colony there. But his settlers had largely been taken from English prisons, and proved idle and lawless. After a few weeks the attempt to found a colony was given up. One of the ships was sent back home, laden with the sick; and another vessel was soon lost, with all on board, by striking on a sandbank while exploring the coast to the southward. Gilbert then resolved to return homeward with the two vessels which remained to him. One of these, called the Squirrel^ was very small, being only Death of sir one-fourth the size of the smallest vessel with cSbeJt ^^^ which Columbus had made his first voyage. ^^^^^^ Because of the stormy weather, the other officers urged Gil- bert to come on board the larger vessel; but he replied: "I will not forsake my little company going homeward, with whom I have passed so many storms and perils." When half way back across the Atlantic, it was seen that the Squirrel was having a hard time of it in the stormy seas. But, as often as his vessel came near to the larger one, Gilbert was heard to shout bravely: **We are as near to Heaven by sea as by land!" These were the last words that he was known to speak. At midnight of that day the watch on board the larger vessel saw the lights on board the Squirrel suddenly disappear; and he cried out: "The general is cast away!" This proved only too true; for when morning dawned the little vessel was nowhere to be seen, nor was any trace ever found of its brave commander or his crew. Undiscouraged by the sad fate of his half-brother. Sir Walter Raleigh now took up the work of founding an English colony. The Queen granted him a l^^i^^j^'®*" charter like the one she had granted to Gilbert, |^nd^s ojjt_ but with this difference, — he was expressly tion forbidden to disturb the fishing vessels which were in the 340 THE STORY OF EUROPE habit of going to Newfoundland. For this reason, the attempt to found a colony on Newfound- land was given up, and Raleigh turned his attention to lands farther south. He did not go him- self with his expedition, because Queen Elizabeth thought so highly of him that she did not want him to risk his life in such distant ventures. Instead, he appointed two captains, named Amadas and Barlow, to com- mand the two ships which he sent out. They left Eng- land in the spring of 1584. After sighting the West India islands, they sailed up the coast of Florida and the Carolinas until they came to Roanoke Island, lying between Pamlico Sound and Albe- marle Sound. Here the first attempt was to be made to found an English col- ony in what is now the territory of the United States. AN INDIAN WARRIOR From a drawing by Governor White. the way the body was painted with different colors Noli ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 341 In the account of their voyage which the two captains gave to Raleigh, they said that the soil was "the most plentiful, sweet, fruitful, and wholesome of all The new the world." There was timber of large size caBed'^^ and many kinds, and many sweet-smelling ^'^^**^*^ trees and shrubs, including sassafras, which was then used in Europe as a medicine. There was plenty of fine fish and game; and melons, walnuts, cucumbers, gourds, peas, and beans, and different kinds of roots. The wild grapes were so plentiful that "in all the world the like abundance is not to be found." The natives, too, were "most gentle, loving, and faithful." When they were received by one of the chiefs, "he made all signs of joy and welcome, striking on his head and his breast, and afterward on ours, to show that we were all one, smiling and making signs the best he could of love and familiar- ity." The Indians loaded the voyagers with many gifts, and two of the tribe offered to go with them to England. When this favorable report was brought back, there was great enthusiasm in England. Elizabeth was called the Virgin Queen, because she never married; and she herself gave the name "Virginia," in her own honor, to the new land. Later reports showed that three important new plants were to be found in that country. The most important of these was maize, or Indian corn. "The Indian corn, grain of this," wrote one explorer, "is about aSd^tobacco the bigness of our ordinary English peas, and not much different in form and shape, but of different colors, — some white, some red, some yellow, and some blue." The height of the stalks, some growing ten feet tall, and the great yield of 500 to 700 grains to the ear, surprised the Europeans. "Of these grains," added this writer, "besides bread, the inhabitants make food either 342 THE STORY OF EUROPE INDIAN VILLAGE From a drawing by Governor White ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 343 by parching them, or stewing them whole until they are broken, or boiling the meal with water into a mush." This new grain was to prove a great addition to the food supply of the whole world. The potato, which was also found in Virginia, was to prove of even greater value. It was described as "a kind of root of round form, some of the bigness of a wal- nut, some far greater, which grow many together as though they were fastened with a string." "Being boiled or stewed," the writer added, "they are very good food." The introduction of the potato did more than anything else, perhaps, to end the almost constant famines which in the Middle Ages distressed the different regions of Europe. The third new plant was tobacco. It was described as an herb "the leaves of which, when dried and made into powder, they smoke through pipes of clay." It was wrongly believed that its use was healthful, and that because of it the Indians were preserved from "many grievous diseases with which we in England are often times afflicted." Sir Walter Raleigh made the smoking of tobacco popular in England, and its use spread rapidly throughout the Old World. Upon the cultivation and export of this plant the success of the English colony in Virginia was finally to be based. As a result of the favorable reports of the new land, there was no difficulty in fitting out seven ships, in 1585, with many settlers, to found a colony there, j^^j^j j^.g There was some talk of having Sir Philip ^^^^^^'''^y Sidney command the expedition, but Queen EHzabeth was as unwilling to have him go as she was to have Raleigh make such a venture. Instead, a rash, fiery man named Grenville was chosen to command the expedition. This was very unfortunate, as we shall soon see. 344 THE STORY OF EUROPE The settlers were landed on Roanoke Island, in July, 1585. Through the Indians who had been taken to Harsh England the year before, and who had treatment learned English, they were now able to talk with the natives. But trouble soon broke out as a result of the harsh temper of the commander, Grenville. While exploring the shores of the mainland near Roanoke, a silver cup was stolen by the natives from the white men. Grenville returned to demand it, and when it was not given to him, he burned the Indian village and destroyed the corn in their fields. The re- sult was that the English lost the good will of the Indians, which on the former voyage had been shown them in such a marked manner. After spending about two months in the country, Grenville set sail for England. He left behind him a colony of about a hundred men, under the command of a gentleman named Lane. The settlers, instead of planting fields and clearing the wilderness, spent their time in hunting for a gold mine and a pearl fishery which they understood the Indians to say were in that part of the country. They found nothing of value, and their relations with the Indians became worse and worse. They depended upon the Indians for food; but next Return spring they found that the natives were to E^iland P^^nning to " ruu away " and leave their corn- (1586) fields on Roanoke Island unplanted, in order to starve out the colonists. Fear of the white men's terrible guns, and the advice of a friendly chief, led the Indians to abandon this plan. Soon after this the friendly chief died. Then the Indians formed a plan to surprise and kill the white men. Governor Lane learned of this plan from a captive Indian, and struck first. Taking a number of his best soldiers, he went to ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 345 the chiefs, as though he wanted to talk to them; then suddenly he gave a signal, and nine of them were slain. Fortunately for the settlers, a fleet of English ships under Sir Francis Drake appeared off the coast a few days later, and he agreed to take the colonists back to England. A writer of that time says that "they left all things con- fusedly, as if they had been chased from thence by a mighty army." He adds: "And no doubt so they were, for the hand of God came upon them for the cruelty and outrages committed by some of them against the native inhabitants of that country." About two weeks after Governor Lane and his colo- nists had departed. Captain Grenville returned to Virginia with three ships, bringing supplies. He could learn nothing of what had become of the former colony. To keep possession of the country, he landed fifteen men on Roanoke Island, with plenty of provisions; and then he returned to England. Next year Sir Walter Raleigh sent out a second colony. It went in three vessels, and was under John White as governor, a gentleman who had been in the Raleigh's first colony under Governor Lane. For the colony first time women and children were included in the company. This was done because it was rightly thought that the men would be more likely to remain as settlers, and found homes in the New World, if their families went with them. When they reached Roanoke Island, the fifteen men who had been left there the year before had disappeared. A few human bones were found lying near the deserted houses. From some friendly Indians on the mainland it was learned that the settlers had been attacked by hostile natives, and had perished. Governor White wished to go to Chesapeake Bay, 346 THE STORY OF EUROPE and found the new colony on its shores. But the cap- tain of the ships was in a hurry to attack the Spaniards Return of in the Wcst Indies, so he landed the colonists wwteTo on the ill-fated Roanoke Island. In those days ships were usually so small that it was impossible to carry a large number of colonists, and at the same time bring supplies enough to feed the colony for a long period. It was arranged, therefore, that Governor White should go back to England with the ships, in order to hasten on the sending of provisions and other needful things. He left behind him ninety men, seventeen women, and eleven children. One of these children was his own little granddaughter, who had been born since the party landed. Because she was the first English child born in America, she was named "Virginia" Dare. No one can tell what became of these colonists.' When Governor White reached England, he found the whole The colony nation busied with preparations for resisting desS-ted the Great Armada. One expedition which he *^'^^ led to the relief of his colony was turned back by the Spaniards. Three years passed before he actually succeeded in reaching Roanoke Island again. We can imagine the anxiety with which he must have searched for traces of his daughter and little granddaughter, and all the other colonists. But they were never found. The houses on the island had been pulled down, per- haps to help make the strong wooden stockade which now surrounded the spot where they had stood. Some chests which the settlers had evidently buried had been dug up by the Indians and robbed of their contents. On one of the trees was carved the word Croatoan, which was the name of an island about fifty miles down the coast, where the natives had been very friendly to ENGLISH COLONIZATION BEGUN 347 the white men. It was supposed that the colonists had removed to that place, to escape the hostility of the Indians near Roanoke Island. Storms, however, and the loss of some of the ship's anchors, made the captains afraid to stay any longer on that dangerous coast. They returned to England, without searching farther, and it was some years before another expedition visited that region. Nothing was ever learned of the fate of this "Lost Colony." Most of its members must soon have perished, either from hunger or from the attacks of The Lost hostile Indians. Perhaps the children and Seve?^ women, and some of the men, were spared, ^^^^ ** and kept as captives. If so, they must gradually have lost their English ways and speech, as time went on, and become like the Indians among whom they lived. The attempt to found an English colony in Virginia had led to the death or disappearance of fully one hundred and fifty persons. Sir Walter Raleigh had spent so much money in these expeditions that he was practically ruined, and was obliged to give up all thought of further attempts. But this was not to be the end of English colonization in America. With every expedition English knowledge of America was increased, and English interest Beginning quickened. The conditions at home which permanent 1 P 1 1 . -11 Englisli made men want to lound colonies still con- colonies tinned. King James L, who succeeded Elizabeth in 1603, made peace with Spain; and the restless spirits, who had been gaining booty by plundering Spanish ships and colonies, then turned to the more useful work of building English settlements on the North Atlantic coast of America. Nineteen years after the disappear- ance of the Lost Colony of Roanoke, there were formed 348 THE STORY OF EUROPE two rich and powerful companies in England, called the London Company and the Plymouth Company, to trade and settle in America. Under these companies there were then founded, first the Jamestown colony in Vir- ginia in 1607, and then the Plymouth colony in Massa- chusetts, in 1620. This was the beginning of the per- manent English colonies in America, from which grew, in course of time, our own United States. Topics for Review and Search 1. In what ways did the Indians of Virginia differ from the natives of Mexico? 2. Eead Longfellow's poem entitled "Sir Humphrey Gilbert". 3. Were the white men or the Indians mos-t to blame for the hostilities between them? Give your reasons. 4. Compare the treatment of the Indians by Raleigh's settlers with their treatment by De Soto and the Spaniards. 5. Which profited Europe most — the corn and potatoes of Vir- ginia, or the gold and silver of Mexico and Peru? Give your reasons. 6. Find out what you can about Raleigh's subsequent imprison- ment, voyage to South America, and death. 7. Find on maps in your geography Newfoundland, Albemarle Sound, Roanoke Island. XLII SUMMARY: THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION Points to be Noted The savage and barbarian stages of man's history; importance of the invention of writing. The Greeks receive civilization from Asia; what they added to it. What the Eomans added; rise of Christianity within the Eoman Empire. The Germans the heirs of the Romans; what the Middle Ages added; importance for us of English history. The Age of Discovery and the Reformation; dawn of the Mod- ern Age; the struggle for America; the United States inherits civilization from past ages. We end our story at the time when the permanent English colonies, from which grew the United States, were about to be established. In your later studies you will learn when, by whom, and how, each of these was founded; how the settlers had to struggle against the wilderness and against hostile Indians; how their numbers grew and their settlements flourished; how they helped England to conquer the French settlements in Canada; and how quarrels then arose between the colonists and the mother country which led to the War of the Revolution and the Declaration of Independence. All of this, and more, too, you will learn in your study of United States history. It only remains for us here to sum up the things which the colonists had inherited from preceding ages, and so show that our American civilization is really a continuation of that of Europe. 349 350 THE STORY OF EUROPE In the dim ages before history begins, men had learned to use fire, had invented the bow and arrow, and had savafieand ^^^"^ ^^ make pottery vessels of baked clay, barbarian in which to cook and to storc their food. With these inventions they passed from the condi- tion of savages to that of barbarians. Then had come the taming of the dog, horse, ox, sheep, and other domestic animals, to aid men in their labors and to supply them with more certain sources of food. This step was followed by the discovery of means of extracting iron from its ore, so making possible better weapons for fighting and better tools for working. In different lands, all over the globe, men made some or all of these discoveries. It was only in Asia and in Egypt, however, that the step was taken which first led men from barbarism to civilization. If you ask what this step was, the answer is that it was the invention of writing. With this invention it became possible for men to hand on more certainly to those who came after them a knowledge of their deeds, of their thoughts, and of their discoveries. Civilization, therefore, as opposed to savagery and barbarism, begins with the invention of writing. The Greeks were the first of European peoples to receive this invention from Asia; so it was with the Greeks that European civilization began. In the course of these stories you have learned some- thing of what constitutes civilization. It means not merely improvements in food, clothing, and civil- housiug, and the like. It means also the ization '^ development of better government, and more reasonable law, so that men may live and work in peace and safety. But even more it means the cultivation and ennobling of their minds and spirits, through science, THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION 351 art, poetry, and religion. In all of these ways the Greeks made great advances; so if they owed much to Asia, from which they learned the first steps in civilization, after ages owe very much more to the ancient' Greeks, for what they themselves added. In the stories con- tained in this book we have tried to show some of the ways in which this is true. After the Greeks, the Romans took up the work of increasing and spreading civiHzation. They improved agriculture, organized a stronger government. Work of the how to construct roads, acqueducts, sewers, **'"^"® made a better system of law, and showed men of The and great public buildings. Above all, they conquered and organized as one world all the lands about the Mediterranean Sea, and in Western Europe as far as the borders of Scotland and the German forests. Christianity arose in this Roman Empire, and the fact that all its lands were under one rule made it easy for the Christian Church to spread abroad its message of a more spiritual religion and of nobler and holier ways of living. The Romans not only received what the Greeks had learned of civilization, and added to it their own improvements, but they carried these gifts to those countries of Western Europe from which were to come the principal discoverers and colonizers of America. The Germans became the heirs of the Romans. It is true that, when they overran the Roman Empire, they did not preserve all of Greek and Roman civilization; but they preserved much of it. Middle In the course of the Middle Ages, these frag- ^^^^ ments of civilization were combined, under the influence of the Christian Church, with the many good customs of the Germans, to produce the ideas and institutions of medieval Europe. The holy lives of many saints 352 THE STORY OF EUROPE kept before men high ideals of purity and righteousness; and the institution of feudalism bound them together with ties of loyalty and protection. The great move- ment of the Crusades called forth qualities of heroism and self-sacrifice. Chivalry arose, and a new and ten- derer respect was born for women, little children, and the sick and helpless. Ancient Greece and Rome cared little and did little for the poor, the lowly, and the helpless. It was in the Middle Ages that the Christian idea was first spread about of the duty of helping the weak and unfortunate. So, civiHzation owes much, on the side of tenderness and humanity, as well as on the side of romance, to "the rough impetuous Middle Ages." In the Middle Ages, also, was formed that kingdom of England from which especially came our forefathers and our American civilization. Its conquest by the Germans, its slow growth into a single kingdom, its strengthening by the Norman Conquest, the winning of the Great Charter from the tyranny of King John, and the development of the institutions of Parliament and constitutional government, are all of interest and of importance for us. But if the Middle Ages were a time when civilization was being transformed into something richer and better, they were also a time when there was much of the ignorance, superstition, and intellectual dark- ness. Slowly this darkness began to lift. Pilgrimages and commerce gradually brought on the Period of Discovery. The invention of the compass, gun- powder, and printing changed men's ways of living and of thinking. The Reformation in religion made their spirits more free; and, at the same time, there was revealed to Europe a vast New World in the West. THE GROWTH OF CIVILIZATION 353 The Modern Age thus dawned upon Europe; and one of its chief tasks has been the founding in America of a new Europe, peopled by settlers from the Old World, and enlightened by all the civilization which bygone centuries have developed. Spain, as we have seen, was the first country to seize upon America. But political and religious rivalries in Europe so weakened her power that she was not able to keep other European nations from settling in that land. First England and France, then the Dutch, then Sweden, were to found settlements on the Atlantic coast of North America. And out of these settlements there was to grow, in course of time, our own free United States of America, — the heir of all the civilization of the past, to which it -has made many new and noble contributions of its own. Topics for Review and Search 1. Name some peoples who today are still in the savage or bar- barian stages of culture. 2. Show how the discovery of fire, and the invention of the bow and arrow, and of pottery, were great steps in advance. 3. Which was more important, the invention of writing, or the invention of printing? Why? 4. State briefly what the Greeks, the Eomans, and the Ger- mans each contributed to civilization. 5. How did Christianity advance civilization? 6. What did the English contribute to civilization? CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE Names and events inserted for the sake of completeness, but not mentioned in the text, are printed in italic type. B.C 1 GREECE B.C ROME 753. Rome founded (legendary date). 509. The kings driven out and a republic set up. 509-345. Frequent wars with neighboring peoples. 494. Secession of the plebeians. Beginning of the struggle between classes in Rome. 390. Battle by the brook Allia; Rome captured by the Gauls. 367. Plebeians admitted to the consulship. Thereafter all dis- tinctions between patricians and plebeians gradually wiped out. 343-266. Wars for the conquest of Italy. Italy conquered up to the valley of the River Po. 93-1184. Trojan War (legen- dary dates). 500-479. Greek Wars with Per- sia. Battle of Marathon (490) ; battles of Thermopylae and Salamis (480). 444-429. Pericles rules Athens. 431-404. Peloponnesian War be- tween Athens and Sparta. 399. Socrates put to death. 338. Greece conquered by Philip of Macedonia. 336-323. Reign of Alexander the Great. Expedition against Per- sia (334); battle of Granicus (334); battle of Issus (333); founding of Alexandria (333); battle of Arbela (331); expedi- tion to India (327); death of Alexander (323) 264-241. First war between Rome and Carthage. Rome gains Sicily and (later) Sardinia. 218-201. Second war with Carthage. Hannibal marches from Spain into Italy (218); he defeats the Romans in the battles of the Ticinus and of the Trebia (218), and at Lake Trasimene (217). Terror at Rome. Fabius Maximus wisely avoids a battle {''Fabian tactics^'); his successor rashly attacks the Carthaginians and is terribly defeated at Cannae (216); Hannibal's brother defeated and slain (207); Scipio expels the Carthaginians from Spain (206); Scipio carries the war into Africa (204); Hannibal recalled to Carthage (203); Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama (202); end of the war (201). Carthage surrenders Spain to Rome, agrees to pay tribute, and to destroy all of its warships except ten. 183. Death of Hannibal. 149-146. Third War with Carthage. Carthage captured and destroyed. 146. Macedonia (with Greece) becomes a Roman province. 354 CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 355 133. Asia Minor becomes a Roman province. 133-121. Attempts of the Gracchi brothers to improve the lot of the poor freemen of Rome; Tiberius Gracchus killed by the richer citizens (133); Cains Gracchus slain (121). 88-82. Civil war between Marius, supported by the poorer citizens, and Sulla, supported by the richer citizens. Triumph of the richer citizens. 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar; victory over Vercin- getorix (52). 55-54. Caesar's invasions of Britain. 49-45. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey, and their supporters. Caesar makes himself sole ruler of Rome. 44. Caesar murdered by Brutus and other conspirators. 31 B.C.-14 A.D. Roman Empire established. Rule of Augustus as Emperor. A.D. 64. Fire at Rome; persecution of the Christians by the Emperor Nero. 79. Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. 312 The Emperor Constantine becomes the protector of the Christians. 323-337. Constantine sole ruler. The Empire becomes Christian. Constantinople founded as the capital of the Empire (330). 375. The Goths cross the Danube and enter the Empire; battle of Adrianople (378). 395. Death of the Emperor Theodosius; separation of the Empire into an Eastern half and a Western half. 410. Sack of Rome by the Goths under Alaric; death of Alaric: his followers settle in Spain. 449. Coming of the English to Britain. 476. End of the Roman Empire in the West. 481-511. Clovis founds the Prankish kingdom in Gaul. 597. Augustine goes to Britain to convert the EngUsh; the King of Kent converted; gradual conversion of the rest of England. 622. Mohammed's flight from Mecca {the " Hegira'); founding of the Mohammedan religion; death of Mohammed (632). 711. The Goths in Spain conquered by Mohammedans from Africa. 732. The Mohammedans defeated by the Franks at Tours, in southern France. 800. Charlemagne, King of the Franks, crowned Emperor by the Pope at Rome. 828. England united under a single King (Egbert of Wessex). 871-901. Reign of King Alfred in England; his treaty with the Danes. 356 THE STORY OF EUROPE 911. The King of France grants the duchy of Normandy to Rolf the Northman. 1000. Discovery of North America by the Northman, Lief the Lucky. 1016-1035. Rule of the Danish King Canute in England. 1042-1066. Edward the Confessor, King of England. 1066. Norman Conquest of England. William, Duke of Normandy, overthrows Harold, the English King, in the battle of Hastings. 1095. Council of Clermont. Pope Urban H. calls the First Crusade. 1096-1099. First Crusade. Capture of Jerusalem and founding of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. 1147-1149. Second Crusade. 1187. Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, the Mohammedan ruler. 1189-1192. Third Crusade. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa drowned (1190). Richard the Lion-Hearted takes Acre (1191). 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade, directed by the Venetians against Constantinople. A Latin Empire established in the East {over- thrown by the Greeks in 1261). 1199-1214. Reign of King John of England. Loss of Normandy (1204); he becomes the vassal of the Pope (1213); he is forced to grant the Great Charter (1215). 1213. Knights of the shire added to the Great Council in England; beginning of Parliament. 1265. Simon of Montfort adds borough representatives to Par- liament. 1295. Model Parliament of King Edward L 1299. Marco Polo describes his travels. 1337-1453. Hundred Years' War between England and France. England loses all her possessions in France except Calais. 1380. Victory of Venice over Genoa at Chioggia; Venice becomes the leading commercial city. 1450. Invention of printing by John Gutenberg. 1453. Capture of Constantinople by the Turks. End of the Eastern Roman Empire. 1455-1485. Wars of the Roses in England. EXPLORATIONS AND EVENTS IN EUROPE SETTLEMENTS 1486. Diaz rounds the Cape of Good Hope. 1492, Oct 12. Columbus dis- 1494. France attempts to conquer covers America. /^^/^ Beginning of the wars 1497. John Cabot discovers New- between France and Spain over foundland, etc. Italy. CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE 357 EXPLORATIONS AND SETTLEMENTS 1498. Vasco da Gama reaches India. 1513. Balboa discovers the Pa- cific Ocean. 1513. Ponce de Leon discovers Florida. 1519-1521. Voyage of Magellan. 1519-1521. Cortez conquers Mexico. 1524. Explorations of Verra- zano. 1531-1532. Pizarro conquers Peru. 1534-1543. Car tier's explora- tions. 1540-1542. Explorations of Cor- onado in the Southwest. 1542. De Soto discovers the Mississippi River. 1564. Destruction of the French colony at Ft. Caroline by Spaniards. 1577-1580. Voyage of Sir Fran- cis Drake around the world. 1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert attempts to colonize New- foundland. 1584. Voyage of Amadas and Barlow to "Virginia." 1585. Raleigh's first colony on Roanoke Island. 1587. Raleigh's second colony on Roanoke Island (the "Lost Colony"). 1607. Founding of the James- town colony in Virginia. 1620. Founding of the Plymouth colony in Massachusetts. EVENTS IN EUROPE 1515-1547. Reign of Francis L, King of France. 1517. Reformation begun in Germany (Martin Luther). 1519-1556. Emperor Charles V. rules Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, parts of Italy and of America. 1534. Henry VIII. separates England from the Catholic Church. 1558-1603. Reign of Queen Elizabeth of England. 1562-1598. Religious Wars in France. 1568-1648. Revolt of the Nether- lands against Spain. Capture of Brille by the "Sea Beggars" (1572); siege of Leyden (1574); sack of Antwerp by Spanish troops (1576) ; Union of Utrecht formed by the seven northern (Dutch) provinces (1579); the seven provinces issue a declaration of independence (1581); murder of William of Orange (1584); truce made between the Dutch Nether- lands and Spain (1609); Spain recognizes the independence of the Dutch Netherlands (1648). 1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 1588. Destruction of the Spanish Armada by England. 1603-1625. James I. (son of Mary, Queen of Scots) King of England and Scotland. 1618-1648. Great Religious War in Germany {"Thirty Years' War"). INDEX Diacritical Marks: a as in late; a as in fat; a as in far; a as in care; e as in me; g as in 7net; e as in there; g as in gem; i as in ice; i as in tin; 6 as in note; 6 as in not; 6 as in for. Italic letters are silent. Achilles (a-WI'les) , 11-13. Ac'co-lade, 190. Acre (a'ker), siege of, 247. Ac-rop'o-lls, of Athens, 17, 31-34, 181. Ad-ri-a-no'ple, battle of, 126. Ae-ge'an Sea, 19. /4e-qui'ans, 56, 58-59. Africa, coast explored, 264-266. Ag-a-mem'non, King, 9, 11. Agriculture, medieval, 194-195. Al'ar-ic, 126-128. A-le'si-a (-shT-a), 87. Al-ex-an'der the Great, 40-44, 46. Al-ex-an'dri-a, 47, 48. Al'fred, King, 147-154. Al'U-a, battle, 62. Al'va, Duke of, 322, 323. Am'a-das, Captain, 340. America, discovered by Northmen, 146; by Columbus, 275, 276; naming of, 280. Am'ster-dam, rise of, 325. Angles, 135, 139. An'ti-oeh, 237-240. Ant'werp, 305, 320, 323. Aph-ro-di'te (Venus), 6, 11. A-p61'l6 , 6, 23. Aqueducts, Roman, 76, 77. Arabic numerals, 251. Ar'ab, conquests of, 230. A-ri-6-vTs'tus, 88. Ar'ls-tot-le, 270. Ar-ma'da, the great, 329-334. Ar'thiir, King, 137-139, 309. Arthur, nephew of King John, 163. Ath'gl-ne^/, 148. A-the'na (Miner'va), 6, 11, 32, 33, 34. Ath'ens, 15, 17, 18; in Persian wars, 19-21, 23, 25-28; under Pericles, 30-34; puts Socrates to death , 37 ; war with Sparta, 39 . Au'gus-tine, missionary, 141, 142. Au-gus'tus, Emperor, 94, 105, 118. Az'tecs, 289-291. Bal-bo'a,281,282. Bar'low, Captain, 340. Bayard (bl'ard), 312-314. Bgck'et, Saint Thomas, 226, 228. Bede, 153. "Beggars, The," 323. Ben'e-dict, Saint, 216, 220, 223. Ber'nard, Saint, 224. Blon-del', 248. Boj-a-dor', Cape, 265. Books, Roman, 103; medieval, 220, 221; printed, 264. Bra-zir, 297. Brl'tam, Caesar's invasions of, 89; Roman conquest, 89, 90, 94; English conquest, 136-139. See England. Bru'tus, 93. Cab'ot, John, 278, 279. Cae'sar, JuHus, 81-93. Cal'i-ciit, 266. California, discovered, 307; Spanish missions in, 296. Cal'vln, John, 299. Can'a-da,315,316,317. Can'nae, battle of, 72. Cannon, introduction of, 254. Can't^r-bur-y, archbishopric, 142; pil- grimages to, 226, 227. Can-uttf', King, 155. Cap'r-tol, Roman, 62-67, 79. Car'thage, 68; wars with Rome, 69-75; destroyed, 75. Car-6-li'na, Fort, 316. 317. Cartier (car-tya'), Jacques, 315, 316. Castles, 178-184; life in, 184-191; in Palestine, 242; abandoned, 308. Catacombs, Roman, 109. Cathedrals, Gothic, 203, 208, 209, 215. Central America, discovered, 277, 280. Champlain (sham-plan'). 315, 316. Chariot races, 83. 360 THE STORY OF EUROPE Charles V., Emperor, 299, 311, 314, 319, 321. Charter, the Great, 164-168, 176. Chau'cer, 228. Chimneys, 198, 307. China, 260, 261, 315. Chiv'al-ry. See Knighthood. Christianity, in Roman Empire, 105-113; accepted by Goths, 124; by Pranks, 132; by English, 141, 142; by Danes in England, 149; conversion of Indians to, 290, 295, 296. Church, organization of,. 112, 113; use of Latin language, 143; in the Middle Ages, 213-225; divided by the Reform- ation, 299. Cin-cm-nat'us, 56-60. Civilization, nature of, 116, 350; derived from Asia and Egypt, xii, 350; Greek, 3-8, 35, 45-48; Roman, 48, 76-80, 83, 94-104; spread into Gaul, 88; into Britain, 90; ancient German, 114-122; medieval, 159-161, 178-229; native Mexican, 285, 289; spread of European to America, ix, xii, 277, 295, 296; summary of growth, 349-353. Clara, Saint, 216. Cler'mont, Council, 232. Cloister (cloy'ster), 218, 219. Clo-til'da, Queen, 132. Clo'vis, King, 131-133, 213. Colonization, Greek, 45. 46; beginning of English, 337-348. Coligny (co-lenye'), 316, 335, 337. Columbus, Christopher, youth of, 269; plans westward voyage, 270; his great- ness, 270, 271, 278; mistaken idea of the globe, 271; Queen Isabella aids, 272, 273; first voyage, 273-276; reception on return, 276, 277; later voyages, 277; death, 277; religious motive of, 295. Comfort, increase of, 308. Com-po-stel'la, pilgrimages to, 226. Commerce, Athenian, 18; of Alexandria. 47; of Carthage, 68; medieval, 202; increased by Crusades, 252; Venetian, 254-258, 266; Portuguese, 266, 267; English, 305: Dutch, 320, 321. Commons, House of, 170, 174. Communes. See Towns, medieval. Compass, 263, 274. Conrad III., of Germany, 243. Con'stan-tlne, Emperor, 110. C6n-stan-ti-n6'ple, 111, 124, 230, 231; Crusaders at, 234, 235, 236; taken by Fourth Crusade, 249; Venetians in, 253. Corn, Indian, 341-343. Cor-6-na'do, 292. Cor'tes, Her-nan'do. 285-290. Council of Blood, 322. Cross-staff, 274. Crusades, definition, 230, 233; origin, 232, 233; First, 233-241; Second, 243; Third,' 244-248; Fourth, 249, 250; l^ter Cru- sades, 250; end of, 250; results of, 251-258. Cuba, discovery of, 276. Curfew, 210. Da Ga'ma. See Gama. Danelaw, 149, 155. Danes, in England, 147-150, 151, 155. Dare, Virginia, 346. Da-rl'us King, 19, 20, 21. Del'phi, 6, 25, 35. De So'to, 292, 293. Diaz (de'as), Bartholomew, 265, 266. Dom'in-ic, Saint, 216. Donjon (diin'jun), of castle, 182. Drake, Sir Francis, 305-307, 329, 330, 330-332, 345. Dress, Elizabethan display in, 308. Dutch, revolt of, 319-326; settlements in America, 325; what we learned from them, 325, 326. East An'gli-a, 139. Education, Roman, 101-103; medieval, 222. Edward I., King, 174. Edward the Confessor, 155, 156. Egypt, ix, 43, 47, 243, 350. E-liz'a-beth, Queen, 300, 303, 309,310; aids the Dutch, 327-329; war with Philip II., 329-334; aids American colonization, 338, 339; Virginia named for, 341. Empire, Eastern, 230, 231, 234, 249. Empire, Western, 122-133. England, founding of, 135-138; seven kingdoms, 139; government, 139, 140; conversion, 141, 142; becomes single kingdom, 143, 144; Danes in, 147, 148- 151, 154, 155; under Edward the Con- INDEX 361 fessor, 155, 156; Harold King of, 156, 157; Norman Conquest, 154-16'2; under King John, 163-168; a papal fief, 164; Great Charter granted, 166; rise of Pailiament, 169-176; Richard the Lion- Heart ed, 244-249; Hundred Years' War, 298; War of the Roses, 298; Reformation in, 300; under Elizabeth, 297-310; aids Netherlands, 824, 327-329; defeats Armada, 327-335; begins to colonize America, 335, 337-348. Er'ics-son, Leif, 146, 147. Es'sex, 139. Eth'el-red, King, 148. E-trus'ctins, 53, 54. Europe, geography of, 2, 3; receives civil- ization from Asia, 350; American civilization comes from, 1, 2, 352, 353. Fairs, medieval, 210, 211. Falconry, 186-188. Famines, medieval, 199, 343. Far East, routes to, 253; travels of Polo family, 259-262; Portuguese attempts to reach, 264-266; Vasco da Gama's voyage, 266; Columbus attempts to reach, 270, 271. Feudalism, 159-161; in Palestine, 242. Fisheries, American, 280, 314, 315, 338. Flor'ence, 203. Flor'i-da,discovery,291; French in, 316,317. For'iim, Roman, 63, 79. France, origin of name, 133; under Clovis, 131-133; Northmen settle Normandy, 145; Normandy recovered, 164; medie- val towns in, 203; wars with England, 298; with Spain, 311-317; religious wars in, 316; explores and settles Amer- ica, 314-317; aids Netherlands, 324. Fran'cis, Saint, 216. Francis I., King of France, 312-314, 315. Franks, settle in Gaul, 130-133. "Franks," name given Crusaders, 237, 242. Fred'er-ick Bar-ba-ros'sa, 244, 245. Fri'ars, 216, 295, 296. Furniture, medieval peasant, 199; in Elizabethan England, 308. Galleys, 10, 317, 330. Ga'ma, Vas'co da, 266. Games, Olympic, 8, 37; Roman, 83. Gaul, conquered by Rome, 81, 85-88; Goths in, 128; Franks settle in, 130; becomes France, 133. Gauls, in Northern Italy, 61, 85, 93; capture Rome, 62-67. Geese, Rome saved by, 66. Gen'o-a, 203, 252; rivalry with Venice, 258. Germans, ancient, Caesar's conflict with,88- 89; location, 114-115; appearance, 115; life of, 114-122; invade Roman Em- pire, 128-133; heirs to the Romans, 351. Germany, under Charles V., 311; Reform- ation in, 299. Gll'bert, Sir Humphrey, 338, 339. Glad'1-fi-tors, 83, 100. Globe, the earth a, 48, 265, 270, 271; cir- cumnavigations of, 282-284, 306, 307. Good Hope, Cape of, 265, 266, 284, 307. Goths, 22; converted, 124; enter Roman Empire, 125-126; battle of Adrianople, 126; sack Rome, 127; settle in Gaul and Spain, 128; overthrown by Moors, 128. Gra-na'da, 272. Great Council, 168, 170; becomes Parlia- ment, 170-176. Great Lakes, 316. Greece, geography of, 3; religion, 3-8; war with Troy, 9-14; wars with Persia, 19-29; wars between cities of, 39; conquered by Macedonia, 39; aids Alexander against Persia, 41; culture of, 18, 45-48, 350; colonies of, 19, 45, 46; conquered by Romans, 44. Greenland, 145, 146, 262,263. Gregory the Great, Pope, 141, 153. Gren-ville, Captain, 344, 345. Guilds, medieval, 208. Gunpowder, 254, 263. Gu'ten-berg, John, 264. Hall, feudal, 184, 185, 308. Ha'des (Pluto), 5. Ha-mil'car Bar'ca, 69, 70. Han'm-bal. 69-75. Hai'old, King, 156-159. Hast'ings, battle of, 157-159. Hayti (ha'tee), 276. Hec'tor, 11-13. Hel'en, 9, 14. Hel'les-pont, 22, 28. Hen'gist, 136. 362 THE STORY OF EUROPE Henry, the Navigator, 264, 265. Henry VIII., King, 300, 302. He'ra (Juno), 6, 11. Hol'land, 320. Holy Land. See Palestine. Ho'mer, 45. Ho-ra'tius (-shus), 53, 54. Hor'sa, 136. Horses, in conquest of Mexico, 286, 288. Hos'pi-tal-Iers, Knights, 243. Houses, Roman, 97, 98; ancient German, 116, 117; in Elizabethan England, 307, 308. How'ard, Lord, 332. Hundred Years' War, 298. Hurling machines, 240. Huns. 124, 125. Iceland, 145. Independence, Dutch declaration of, 323. India, 265, 266, 270, 271, 277. Indians, American, 276, 281, 288-296, 341, 344-347. In'ter-dict, 164, 213. Is'a-bel-la, Queen, 272, 273. I'ta-ly, Greek colonies in, 46, 49; geog- raphy of, 49-51; conquered by Rome, 67; Gauls in, 61-67; Goths in, 126-128; medieval cities of, 202, 203; wars over, 311,313. James I., King, 347. Jamestown, 348. Je-rQ'sa-lem, 230, 231, 240, 241, 242 244, 248. Jes'u-its, 295. John, King, 163-167, 298, Ju'pl-ter. See Zeus. Jury trial, 171. Jutes, 135, 139. Keep, of castle, 182. Kenll-worth, 309. Kent, 139, 141, 142. Knighthood, training for, 185-188; con- ferring of, 188-191; decline of, 312. Kublai Khan (koo'bla kan), 260, 261. La-drones', islands, 283. Lance, the Holy, 239. Lane, Governor, 344, 345. Lang'tSn, Stephen, 164, 165. Las Ca'sas, 294. Latitude, determination of, 274. Leicester (les'ter), Earl of, 309. Le-6n'i-das, King, 24, 25. Leyden (li'den), siege of, 324. Leif, the Lucky. See Ericsson, Leif . London, under the Romans, 90; under Alfred, 150; causes of greatness, 150, 151; growth of, 305. Longitude, determination of, 274. Lords, House of, 170, 174. Louis VII., of France, 243. Lost Colony, the, 346, 347. Low Countries. See Netherlands. Lu'ther, Martin, 299. Ma-ce-don'K-a, conquers Greece, 39; con- quers Persia, 41-44; conquered by Romans, 76, 78. Ma-gel'lan, 282-284, 295. Mag'na Car'ta. See Charter, the Great. Man'lr-us, Mar'cus, 66, 67. Mar'a-thon, battle of, 21, 28, 32. Miir'co Po'lo, 277. Martyrs (mar'ters). Christian, 109-111. Mary, Queen of England, 300, 301. Mary, Queen of Scotland, 302, 303, 329. Masques (mSsks), 309. Men-g-la'us, King, 9, 11, 14. Me-nen'dez (-deth), 317, 335. Mercia (mer'shl-a), 139. Mex'r-c6, discovered, 285; conquered by Cortes, 285-290; Spanish rulein, 295, 296. Mll'an, duchy of, 311. Military Orders, 243. Mll-tl'a-des, 20, 21, 28. Ml-ner'va. See Athena. Missions, Spanish, 295, 296. Mls-sls-sTp'pI River, discovered, 293. Model ParHament, 174. Mo-ham'med, 230. Monks, 113, 143, 216-225. M6n-te-zu'ma, 289, 290. Mont'fort, Simon of, 172, Mon-tre-al', 315. Moors, 272. Myths, nature of, 15. Na'ples, kingdom of, 311. Navigation, aids to, 274. Ne'ro, Emperor, 107, 108. INDEX 363 Neth'er-lands, 319-321; under Philip II., 321, 322; revolt of, 323-325; gain inde- pendence, 325; importance of, for Amer- ica, 325, 326. New'foiind-land, 279, 280, 305, 314, 338, 339. New Spain, 290. New World, discovery of, 146, 275-277. Nl-ce'a, 237, 238. Nor'man-dy, 145, 164. Normans, 145, 156-159, 162, 234, 235. North America, 279, 280, 282. Northmen, raids of, 145, 147-150, 151, 155; discover Iceland and Greenland, 145, 146; discover America, 146, 147, 262. See also Danes. Nor-thum'ber-land, 139, 143. Nuns, 216. 0-lym'pi-a, 8, 34, 37. O-rt-no'co River, 277. Ot'to-man Turks, 263. Pacific Ocean, 261, 282-284, 306, 307. Pag'eants, Elizabethan, 309. Pal'a-tme, hill, 53. Pal'es-tine, 43, 226-231. Pa/m'ers, 229. Pa'pa-cy, 215. Pan-a-ma', 281, 291, 306. Par'is, son of Priam, 9, 13, 14. Parliament (par'le-ment), 169-176. Par'the-non, 33. Pa-tri'cians (-shuns), 54-56, 67. Paul, the Apostle. 105, 107. Peace, the Roman, 94. Peasants, medieval, 192-200. Per'i-cles, 30-34. Persecutions of Christians, 107-111. Persia (per'shi-a), 19, 21, 29; Alexander conquers, 41-44. Pe-ru', conquest of, 291. Peter, the Apostle, 107, 112. Peter, the Hermit, 233, 234. Phei-dip'pi-des, 20. Phil'ip Augiis'tus, 244-249. Philip, of Macedonia, 39-41. Philip II., of Spain, 300, 316, 317, 320- 322,324,325,330,334. Phil'ip-pine (-peen)Islands, 283. Philosopher, meaning of, 35. Pi'late, P6n'tT-us, 105. Pilgrimages, medieval, 226-229, 250. Pisa (pe'za), 203. Pl-zar'ro, 291. Ple-be'ians, 45-56, 67. Ply'mouth Colony, 348. Pnyx, at Athens, 30. Po'lo family, travels of, 259-262. Pol'y-carp, 109-111. Pompeii (pom-pa'ye), destruction of, 95; excavation of, 96; remains of, 96-100. Pope,the, 112, 215,297, 299. Port-cul'lis (of castle), 181. Por'tu-gal, 264-267, 271,272,297,327,330. Po-sei'don (Neptune), 5, 33. Potato, 343. Presbyterian Church, 299. Pri'am, King, 9, 14. Printing, 263, 264, 296. Prot'es-tants, 299. Ptol'e-my, 48, 270. Pu-eb'loes, Indian, 292. Que-bec', 315. Raleigh (ra'le). Sir Walter, 303, 304, 338-347. Reformation, the, 299, 300, 311, 321. Re'mus, 52. Representative government, lack of under Romans, 91; rise in England, 170, 171. Richard the Lion-Hearted, 184, 244-249. Roads, Roman, 77, 78, 90. Ro-a-noke' Island, 340, 341, 343-347. Roman Empire, 91-94, 122-133, 351. Roman numerals, 251. Rome, early days of, 51-53; republic estabUshed, 53; wars with neighbors, 53-54, 56-59; struggles between classes, 54-56, 67; Gauls in, 63-67; conquers Italy, 67; wars with Carthage, 68-75; rules Mediterranean lands, 76; adopts Greek culture, 48, 351; conquers Gaul, 85-88; conquers Britain, 89, 90; cor- ruption in, 78, 80; becomes an empire, 91-94; becomes Christian, 105-111; burned under Ntro, 107; sacked by Goths, 126. Rom'u-liis, 52, 53. Rub'i-con River, 93. St. Au'giis-tlne, Florida, 317. 364 THE STORY OF EUROPE St. Augustine, missionary, 141, 142. St. Ben'e-dict, 216, 220, 223. St. Ber'nard, 224. St. Clara, 216. St. Dom'if-nic, 216. St. Lawrence River, 315. St. Sc/jo-las'ti-cii, 216. Sal'a-dm, 243, 244, 247. Sal'a-mis, battle of, 26-28. San Sai'va-dor, 276. Saucy Castle, 183, 184. Saxons, 135, 139. Sci'pi-o Af-ri-ca'nus, 74. ScrTp-tor'i-iim, 220. "Sea Beggars," 323. Sea of Darkness, 274. Sbakp'spearp, William, 310. Ships, Greek, 10; Venetian, 254; of Armada, 330. Shops, PompeiaTi, 99; medieval, 207, 208. Si'ci-Iy, 46, 68, 69, 311. Sid'ney, Sir Philip, 328, 329, 343. Slavery, 200, 294, 305. Soc'ra-tes, 35-38, 45. South America, 277, 280, 291. South Sea. See Pacific Ocean. Spain, Carthaginians in, 69, 70; conquered by Rome, 74; Goths settle in, 128; Moors in, 128, 272; aids Columbus^ 272, 273; conquests in America, 276, 277, 281, 282, 285-297; in Philippine' Islands, 283; European wars of, 298. 299, 311; attacked by English sailors,' 305-307; Dutch revolt against, 319- 325; Great Armada of, 327-335; decline of, 335. Spar'ta, 15, 16; in Persian -? ars, 20, 23-28; j war with Athens, 39. Spices, use of, 252; Venetian trade in, 255. Stephen, Count (of Blois), 237-239. StiVi-cho, 126. Sus'sex, 139. Switzerland, Reformation in, 299. Temp'lars, Knights, 243, 244. Tt'Q'to-berg Forest, 118. Teutonic Knights, 243. The-mis'to-cles, 25-28. Th^r-mo'py-lae, 23-25. Thor, 120, 132, 140. Tobacco, 343. To'ga (Roman garment), 57, 103. Tos-ca-nel'll, 270. Towns, medieval, 201-212. Triumph, Roman, 78, 79. Trin'i-dad, 277. Troy, 9-14. Turks (Seljukian), 230, 231, 234, 238-241 243, 244; Ottoman, 263. T.vr (German God), 120. Tyre, 244. Ul'fil-as, 124. Ur'ban II., Pope, 232, 233. V'trecht, Union of, 323. Val-hal'la, 120. Va'rus, 118. Ven'icf, 203, 228, 249, 250, 252, 258, 263 266. Ve'nus. Sfp Aphrodite. Ver'a Cruz, 288. Ver-cin-get'6-rTx, 85-88. Ver-ra-zan'o, 314, 315. Ves-pu'cius (-shi-us), Amer'i-cus, 280, 281 . Ve-su'vi-us, 95. Victory, goddess of, 32, 34. Vik'ings. See Northmen. Villages, medieval, 192-200. Vil'lams, medieval, 159, 192-200. Vin'land, 146. Virginia, 341-343. Virginia Dare, 346. Vows, monastic, 223, 224. Walter the Penniless, 233-235 War of the Roses, 298, 308. Wat'ling Street, 149. Welsh, 139. Wes'sex, 139, 144, 147, 148, 150. White, Governor John, 345-347. William of Orange, 323, 324. William the Conqueror, 156-162. Windows, 307, 308. Wit'en-a-ge-mot, 140, 169. Wo'den, 120, 132, 140. Women, among ancient Germans, 117. Xerxes (zerx'ez). King, 21-28. Yoke, passing under the, 59. Yu-ca-tan', 285. Za'ma. battle of, 74, 75. Zeus (Jupiter), 5, 8, 34. m 3 1912