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]\^RS. GEORGIE D. RUNYAN, 
 
AOO YBA.HS 
 
 OF 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 MBFi 
 
 Discovery, History, Achievements 
 and Politics. 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 ^flf 
 
 hoX ' 
 
 By GEORGIE D. RUN TAN. 
 
 1SQ2. 
 
 TTcie New Era Compeiny^ 
 
 SiDrinQ^fiela, O. 
 
 i 
 
Copyright 1892 bv The New Era CoMPA^fY. 
 
 
Four Hundred Years of America. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. 
 
 THOUGH there are many legends to the effect, 
 there is really no evidence of the discovery of 
 the Western Continent except by the Norsemen. 
 A. D. 966 Herjulfson, a navigator sailing from Iceland 
 to Greenland, was caught in a storm and driven west- 
 ward to Newfoundland or Labrador. He did not 
 land, but described the coast as low and thickly 
 wooded, which was so different from the cliffs of 
 Greenland that there was no doubt of its being a new 
 country. 
 
 Fourteen years later Leif Erickson, an adventurous 
 Icelandic captain, determined to know for himself 
 whether the story of Herjulfson was true or false, 
 sailed westward and in the spring of the year looi 
 landed in Labrador, and made explorations for a con- 
 siderable distance along the coast. The country was 
 milder and more beautiful than his own and it pleased 
 him to remain a while, so he journeyed southward to 
 Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and some believe 
 they have evidence that he visited the harbor of New 
 York. He remained a year in North America and on 
 his return the spirit of adventure seized upon his 
 
A FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 brother Thorvald, who made a voyage to Maine and 
 Massachusetts, when he died at what is now the city 
 of Fall River in ioo3. In 1005 Thorstein, a still 
 younger brother, brought a band of followers and in 
 1007 Thorfinn Karlsefni, the most noted mariner of the 
 day, came with 150 followers, and made exploration 
 alone the coast of Massachusetts and Rhode Island 
 and probably went as far south as the capes of 
 Virginia. 
 
 Other companies of Icelanders and Norwegians 
 were content to remain further north, and so colonies 
 were planted in Newfoundland and in Nova Scotia. 
 It is believed by historians that these people supposed 
 themselves still on Greenland, which, bending around 
 an arm of the ocean, had reappeared in the west. The 
 settlement did not prosper. There was nothing to 
 sell and nobody to buy, and so the spirit of adventure 
 died within their bosoms and they returned to their 
 own country and the world profited nothing by the 
 discovery of Vinland, as the Norsemen called it. They 
 were a lawless race of men, pirates who acknowledged 
 no law save their own will. They were stalwart men 
 who wore robes made from the skin of Polar bears. 
 They wore on their heads a sort of hood decorated 
 with eagle's wings and the tusks of walruses. Mailed 
 armor protected them from foes, for they were of ex- 
 ceedingly ferocious disposition. In a few years even 
 the Icelanders themselves had forgotten Leif Erick- 
 son's discovery, and Europe had not heard of it at all. 
 Some of the old legends about a great country to the 
 westward were charming and some were sad ; no 
 doubt most of them were the result of optical illusions^ 
 
PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. 5 
 
 for we have accounts of attempted voyages to the beauti- 
 ful country which at times seemed very near to the 
 Canary Isles, but w^hich vanished when approached. 
 An Arabian writer of great note, Xerif al Edrisi, who 
 was surnamed the Nubian, thus wrote : "The ocean en- 
 circles the inhabited earth and all beyond it is un- 
 known. No one has been able to verify anything 
 concerning it, on account of its difficult and perilous 
 navigation, its great obscurity, its profound depth and 
 frequent tempests ; through fear of its mighty fishes and 
 haughty winds ; yet there are many islands in it, some 
 peopled, others uninhabited. There is no mariner 
 who dares to enter into its deep waters ; or if any 
 have done so they have merely kept along its coasts, 
 fearful of departing from them. The waves of the 
 ocean, though they roll as high as mountains, yet main- 
 tain themselves without breaking ; for if they broke, 
 it would be impossible for a ship to plough them.'* 
 That there was a man brave enough to dare the waves 
 as high as mountains and who loved science more 
 than he feared dangers the succeeding chapters will 
 bear evidence. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 
 
 HIS birthplace was Genoa and his parents were 
 wool combers. He was born somewhere be- 
 tween 1435 and 1436, though some biographers 
 have placed the date at 1446. He was fair of face, 
 with blue eyes and auburn hair, and had a pleasant 
 countenance, and when older a commanding mein. 
 When he had attained fame several noble families of 
 the same name claimed kinship with him. And it is 
 not improbable that he had been of noble lineage. 
 Feuds were so common among the Genoese families 
 that while some branches of the family dwelt in lordly 
 castles others were among the humblest of laborers- 
 His father's name was Dominico Columbus (or Colom- 
 bo, as it was written in Latin) and his mother's maiden 
 name was Susannah Fontanarossa. There were three 
 children younger than Christopher — Bartholomew and 
 Giacomo (or James in Spanish). "Diego," his only 
 sister's name, is not found in history, but she married 
 a man in very poor circumstances whose name was 
 Giacomo Bavarello. 
 
 From earliest youth Columbus loved the sea. The 
 story of Plato's fabulous island Atalantis was a favor- 
 ite one to him, and the people of the Canaries fre- 
 quently saw, or thought they saw, this great island to 
 the westward. Probably they saw a mirage. But 
 
COLUMBUS *AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 7 
 
 these things, coupled with the fact that one or two 
 pieces of carved wood that had no marks of iron im- 
 plements used in the work had been picked up by 
 mariners, made him quite sure that the Indies, as Asia 
 was called, lay not far to the west. _ 
 
 The parents of Columbus gave him the best educa- 
 tion possible to them. Besides the ordinary studies, 
 reading, writing, grammar and arithmetic, he received 
 instruction in Latin and was quite proficient in draw- 
 ing and design, and for a short time became a student 
 at the University of Pavia, where he studied geome- 
 try, geography, astronomy and navigation. Accord- 
 ing to some historians, after this he assisted his father 
 in wool combing. This is vigorously denied by his 
 son Fernando, and it seems with reason, for at four- 
 teen years of age Columbus entered upon a nautical 
 life. The love of marine life is common to boys of 
 enterprising spirit living in sea ports. The city of 
 Genoa offered little of interest to boys of spirit. It 
 was walled in and behind it rose rough mountains, be- 
 low spread the beautiful Mediterranean, the blue waters 
 always alive with boats, whose crews not only brought 
 beautiful goods for sale or barter, but marvelous tales 
 of the lands which they had visited. The love of 
 geography had become a passion with Columbus, and, 
 indeed, it was incident to the fifteenth century. For a 
 long time previous monkish bigotry and false learning 
 had held such sway in Europe that geography and 
 many other sciences had been lost to them. But in 
 Africa the Arabian sages, gathered at Senaar, were 
 taking the measurement of a degree of latitude and 
 calculating the circumference of the earth "on the vast 
 
8 ^ FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 plains of Mesopotamia." "The revival of science," 
 says Washington Irving, "accompanied the revival of 
 letters. Among the various authors which the awaken- 
 ing zeal for ancient literature had once more broiight 
 into knowledge were Pliny, Pomponius Mela and 
 Strabo. From these were regained a fund of geograph- 
 ical knowledge which had long faded from the public 
 mind. Curiosity was aroused to pursue this forgotten 
 path, thus suddenly reopened." A translation of the 
 work of Ptolemy had been made into Latin at the 
 commencement of the century by Emanuel Chrysoler- 
 as, a noble and learned Greek, and so it became famil- 
 iar to Italian students. Another translation had fol- 
 lowed by James Angel de Scarpiaria, and this became 
 common in the Italian libraries. It was a very beauti- 
 ful book. Other writings began to be sought after, 
 and Averroes, Alfraganus, and other Arabian sages, 
 who had kept on with their scientific studies while 
 Europe had remained in darkness, were now eagerly 
 sought for. To be sure, the knowledge w^as imperfect 
 and exceedingly limited, but it was like the dawn of 
 day. At once the darkness seemed to give way and 
 interest grew fast when discoveries began to be made 
 along the Atlantic coast of Africa. Is it a wonder 
 that the bright boy grew enthusiastic in his desire for 
 more learning? The short time he had been in the 
 University of Pavia had barely enabled him to acquire 
 the rudiments of the necessary sciences, and so he 
 taught himself from the books he could procure that 
 which became ot inestimable value to him in after 
 years. Difficulties never vanquished him. The greater 
 the obstacles, the more determined he became to over- 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 9 
 
 come them. His facilities for study -were of the poor- 
 est, but how grand were his achievements. 
 
 His first voyage began when he was but fourteen 
 years ot age. He was under the command of a dis- 
 tant relative named Colombo, who was, according to 
 some historians of that date, admiral of the Genoese 
 squadron, though others credit him with a fleet of 
 galleys of his own. He was possessed of a strong and 
 adventurous spirit and seems to have always been 
 ready and anxious to fight whenever a legal opportun- 
 ity offered. 
 
 In those days every ship of commerce was fitted out 
 like a man of war. Merchants not infrequently had 
 to fight for their possessions. Piracy, though not 
 legalized, was of common occurrence. There were 
 frequent feuds among the Italian states. The armadas 
 fitted out by private noblemen, who exercised a sort of 
 sovereignty in their own domains, the cruisings of the 
 Catalonians and the wars waged against the Ma- 
 homedan powers, together with the private adven- 
 turers who hesitated not to seize on any available 
 booty, m-ade life on the high seas anything but a 
 sinecure. 
 
 Of his early voyages we have no history. The first 
 account of his voyages given is in 1459, when in 
 a naval expedition fitted out in Genoa by John of 
 Anjou, Duke of Calabria, to make a descent upon 
 Naples in hopes of recovering the kingdom for King 
 Rene, or Reinier, or Renato, as it is variously written. 
 At all events he was Count of Provence, and the re- 
 public of Genoa aided him with money and ships. 
 
 The enterprise seemed brilliant and daring, and men 
 
lO FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 of many fortunes hastened to enlist under the banner 
 of Anjou. Among them was Colombo, already known 
 as a man of intrepid daring, and who commanded 
 either the whole squadron or a fleet of galleys all his 
 own. 
 
 When on this ill-fated enterprise our Christopher 
 Columbus was detailed on a dangerous errand to cut 
 out a galley from the harbor of Tunis. The adven- 
 ture is described by him in a letter written years after- 
 ward. He says : "It happened to me that King 
 Reinier (whom God hath taken to himself) sent me 
 to Tunis to capture the galley Fernandina, and when 
 I arrived off the Island of St. Pedro, in Sardinia, I 
 was informed that there were two ships and a carrack 
 with the galley ; by which intelligence my crew were 
 so troubled that they determined to proceed no further, 
 but to return to Marseilles for another vessel and more 
 people. As I could not by any means compel them, I 
 assented apparently to their wishes, altering the point 
 of the compass and spreading all sail. It was then 
 evening and next morning we were within the cape 
 of Carthagena, while all were firmly of the opinion 
 that they were sailing towards Marseilles." This 
 extract gives us an idea of the fearless character of the 
 man, whose resolute perseverance brought him success 
 in his important undertakings. For several years we 
 have only occasional glimpses of Columbus. He is 
 supposed to be engaged in commercial voyages on the 
 Mediterranean and up the Levant, and again in war, 
 like contests between the Italian states, and sometimes 
 in pious and predatory warfare on the infidels. 
 
 In one instance related by his son Fernando, 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. II 
 
 Columbus commanded a ship in the squadron under 
 Colombo, the son of the man with whom Columbus 
 first undertook maritime life. He (Colombo) had 
 heard that four Venetian galleys richly laden were on 
 their return voyage from Flanders, and lay in wait for 
 them on the Portuguese coast between Lisbon and Cape 
 St. Vincent.' A desperate engagement took place. 
 The vessels grappled each other, and the crews fought 
 hand to hand, and from ship to ship. The battle last- 
 ed from morning until evening, with great carnage on 
 both sides. The vessel commanded by Columbus was 
 engaged with a large Venetian galley. They threw 
 hand grenades and other fiery missiles, and the galley 
 was wrapped in flames. The vessels were fastened 
 together by chains and grappling irons, and could not 
 be separated ; both were involved in one vast confla- 
 gration and soon became a mere blazing mass. The 
 crews threw themselves into the sea. Columbus seized 
 a floating oar, and being an expert swimmer attained 
 the shore, though two leagues (six geographical miles) 
 from shore. 
 
 After recovering from his exhaustion Columbus re- 
 paired to Lisbon, where he found many Genoese 
 countrymen, and took up his residence. While in Lis- 
 bon Columbus was a regular attendant on divine 
 services. At the chapel of the Convent of All Saints 
 were many ladies of rank, either as boarders or in 
 some religious capacity. . In one of these ladies Colum- 
 bus became deeply interested. The name ot the young 
 woman was Dona Felipa, the daughter of the late 
 Bartolemeo Monis de Perestrello, who had been one of 
 the most distinguished navigators under Prince Henry. 
 
12 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 He had colonized and governed the island of Porto 
 Santo, but he left his daughter no wealth, so we have 
 every reason to believe that this marriage was one of 
 affection only. After his marriage Columbus resided 
 with his mother-in-law, who, seeing the interest mani- 
 fested by him in matters pertaining to the sea, related 
 to him all that she knew of the voyages and expedi- 
 tions of her late husband, and brought to him also all 
 his papers, charts, journals and memorandums. In 
 this manner he became acquainted with the plans, 
 conceptions and routes of the Portuguese, and having 
 by his marriage and residence become naturalized in 
 Portugal he occasionally sailed in expeditions to the 
 coast of Guinea. He w^as very poor, supporting his 
 family by making maps and charts and sending part 
 of his earnings to his aged father for his support and 
 the education of his younger brothers. The construc- 
 tion of a correct map or chart in those days was 
 properly appreciated and the maker was honored as a 
 man of science. Columbus was in correspondence 
 with the most learned men of the day — among them 
 Paulo Toscanelli of Florence. After his mother-in- 
 law's death Columbus went to live on the island of 
 Porto Santo, his wife having come into the inheritance 
 of some property there. This residence was of great 
 advantage to him. His wife's sister was married to 
 Pedro Correo, a navigator of note, who had at one 
 time been governor of the island. Then, too, he was 
 frequently visited by navigators to and from Guinea. 
 The subject of unknown lands was a fruitful one and 
 Columbus began to form a theory. India, as he called 
 Asia, was very much wider than it had been laid down 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. I3 
 
 on the maps, by cosmographers, and the ocean was not 
 so wide. There were found many things to corrobo- 
 rate this theory and many tales from worthy navigators, 
 so that at last the theory was formulated that there was 
 a large body of undiscovered land in the western part 
 of the ocean, that it was attainable and fertile and in- 
 habited. But in those days everything moved slowly. 
 In 14S1 John II ascended the throne of Portugal. He 
 felt the value of discoveries, and becoming impatient 
 with the slow way his fleets crept along the sea coast 
 because they did not venture into the pathless ocean, 
 having nothing to guide them, he called in his two 
 physicians, Roderigo and Joseph (the latter a Jew), 
 the most able astronomers and cosjnographers of his 
 kingdom., together with Martin Behem. They held a 
 learned consultation and the result was the application 
 of the astrolobe to navigation. It enabled seamen to 
 ascertain the distance from the equator by the altitude 
 of the sun. Immediately the effect on navigation be- 
 gan to be felt. No longer seamen crept around the 
 shores, but boldly sailed into the trackless depths. 
 
 The court of Portugal had shown great liberality 
 in rewarding nautical discoverers. Most of these dis- 
 coverers had been rewarded by being created 
 governors of the countries or islands so discovered. 
 Columbus was encouraged by this liberality to 
 seek an audience of King John II and ask for 
 royal patronage in his efforts to undertake a 
 shorter and more direct route to India. Two accounts 
 descriptive of this audience are given us, one by Joam 
 de Barros, the Portuguese historiographer, the other by 
 Fernando, the son of Columbus. There is a great dis- 
 
14 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 crepancy between these versions of the audience. 
 Fernando describes the king as listening with great 
 interest to his father, who consented to the terms 
 asked by Columbus. Barros attributed the seeming 
 acquiescence of the king to the importunities of 
 Columbus, whom he considered a vainglorious man, 
 given to fancies and fond of displaying his abilities. But 
 there are reasons to believe that Barros was wrong. 
 Envy w^as at work in the court, and the bishop of 
 Ceuta suggested to the king that all the advantages 
 to be gained by the enterprise might be attained with- 
 out the recompense due to Columbus. So in an evil 
 hour the king dispatched a caravel, ostensibly to 
 carry provisions to the C^pe de Verde Islands, but 
 with sealed instructions to follow the route proposed 
 by Columbus. Nothing came of this, however, for 
 the ships met with stormy weather and put back to 
 port. This dishonorable action aroused the indigna- 
 tion of Columbus and he refused to renew the negotia- 
 tions, which now King John would have gladly done. 
 Columbus sent his brother Bartholoinew to England 
 to make proposals. Nothing came of this, for Eng- 
 land was not at that time noted for nautical enter- 
 prise. Towards the end of 1484 Columbus left Lisbon, 
 taking his son Diego with him. For a long time he 
 was the guest of Alonzo de Quintanilla in Cordova. 
 He felt that it was not the time to lay his projects be- 
 fore the throne, for in the early spring the king had 
 marched away to the Moorish city of Loxa to lay 
 siege to it, and the queen remained to take charge of 
 Cordova and send supplies and troops to her husband. 
 But on the 12th of June she joined her husband, 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. I5 
 
 besieging Moclin, where both of them remained 
 prosecuting the war with unceasing energy. They 
 returned to Cordova to celebrate their victories only 
 to be called back to the seat of war, this time at 
 Gallicia to suppress a rebellion of the Count of Lemos. 
 Columbus, through his visit at the house of Alonzo de 
 Quintanilla, became acquainted with the Pope's nuncio 
 (or especial messenger), Antonio Geraldini, and his 
 brother Alexander Geraldini, who was preceptor to 
 the younger children of Ferdinand and Isabella. Both 
 of these men proved influential friends, and whenever 
 he had opportunity to speak before an audience about 
 his proposed discoveries he was listened to with courte- 
 ous attention. The wife of Columbus, Dona Felipa, 
 died while he remained in Lisbon. Little is known of 
 the circumstances attending her death. While in 
 Cordova Columbus met and became attached to a 
 beautiful woman of the nobility, Beatrix Euriquez, 
 who, however, had unfortunately lost her fortune. 
 This marriage with her was never made public, though 
 his son by her, Fernando, was treated with perfect 
 equality with Diego. Historians of later days believe 
 that he was married to the Spanish lady. Certain it 
 is that in his last days he grieved much for the un- 
 kindness he had shown her. 
 
 It was in the winter of 1487 that Columbus gained 
 an audience of King Ferdinand, who called a council 
 at Salamanca. It was held in the Dominican convent 
 of St. Stephen, where he was treated as a distinguished 
 guest during the examination. King Ferdinand was 
 pleased with Columbus, but would not trust his own 
 judgment, so he called together the most learned men 
 
l6 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 in his kingdom to listen to Columbus. Most of the 
 wise men of the time were in the church. Indeed, 
 these religious men were often at the head of armies. 
 Among the men who came to confer with Columbus 
 were professors in mathematics, in astronomy, geog- 
 raphy and other sciences. 
 
 Before this erudite council Columbus made but a 
 poor showing. Almost all of them came there pre- 
 disposed against him. Some of them considered him 
 an adventurer, others only a visionary. He was a 
 poor man and belonged to no sect or society. At first, 
 when he told of the grounds upon which he based his 
 belief, it was only the friars of St. Stephen who 
 would listen to him. We are told that instead of 
 geographical objections these wise monks hurled at 
 him citations from the Bible, the book of Genesis, the 
 Psalms of David, the Epistles, the Gospels, and to 
 these were added expositions of a long line of saints. 
 Doctrinal points were mixed with philosopical dis- 
 cussions. Indeed, though Columbus was a devoutly 
 religious man, he was in danger of being convicted 
 not merely of error, but of heterodoxy. Yet Colum- 
 bus had great confidence in himself — more in his God. 
 He spoke "as one having authority." His manner 
 was commanding, his demeanor elevated, and he 
 poured forth those magnificent texts of scripture and 
 predictions of prophets which in sublime moments he 
 felt to be descriptions of his own discoveries. He 
 won the most learned prior, Diego de Deza, to his 
 reasoning. This was the same Deza who afterwards 
 became archbishop of Seville. He took a generous 
 interest in Columbus and to his efforts were due the 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. I7 
 
 winning over of many scholastic men. But there 
 were many long and disappointing delays. Indeed, 
 so disheartened was he that he commenced negotations 
 with King John II to return to Portugal. He was re- 
 warded by an invitation to come to court and assured 
 he would be protected from all suits of a civil or 
 criminal nature. He also received a letter from 
 Henry VII of England, inviting him to the country 
 and holding out promises of encouragement. 
 
 We find, too, that the Spanish crown was also 
 offering him allurements, for he received a large sum 
 of gold w^ith summons to attend the Castilian court, 
 and the date of this memorandum is immediately after 
 the reception of the letter from England. 
 
 In the spring of 1489 he was summoned to attend a 
 conference of learned men in Seville. But again there 
 was a long delay and Columbus took up arms in the 
 interest of Spain. His career was honorable and the 
 campaign the most glorious of" the war of Grenada. 
 Then followed the preparations, and at length the 
 marriage of the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella 
 to Don Alonzo, heir apparent to the throne of Portu- 
 gal. So through the whole winter and spring the 
 court was in a tumult of parade and pleasure. Noth- 
 ing was to be seen at Seville but feasts and tourna- 
 ments, torchlight processions and general gaiety. 
 Poor Columbus ! Surely he was a man of disappoint- 
 ments. He still, in a great measure, supported himself 
 by making maps and charts. At length he determined 
 to leave Spain. His way lay past the convent of 
 Santa Maria de Rabida. With him was bis son Diego. 
 The child was thirsty and hungry, too', so Columbus 
 
l8 FOUR hundred' years of AMERICA. 
 
 asked for a mouthful of bread and a little water for 
 the child, and while he was refreshing himself the 
 prior of the convent, Juan Perez de Marchena, hap- 
 pening to pass by, was interested at once in the ap- 
 pearance of the stranger, and observing from his air 
 and accent that he was a foreigner, commenced con- 
 versing with him and soon knew the particulars of his 
 life and his long-defeated hopes. The prior was a 
 man of extensive information. He was greatly inter- 
 ested in the conversation of Columbus and admired 
 the grandeur of his views. It was a remarkable oc- 
 currence in the monotonous life of the cloister to have 
 a man of such singular merit asking for bread and 
 water at the convent gate, and when he found that 
 Columbus was about to visit France and ask the pat- 
 ronage of that court he detained Columbus, and, afraid 
 to rely on his own judgment, he sent for a scientific 
 friend, who conversed with Columbus at length. This 
 friend was a physician, Garcia Fernandez, whose resi- 
 dence was in Palos. Fernandez was as well pleased 
 with Columbus as had been the prior. They held 
 many conferences, to which many celebrated mariners 
 were invited, among them Martin Alonzo Pinzon, \vho 
 was the head of a wealthy and influential family all 
 devoted to navigation and celebrated for their adven- 
 turous expeditions. 
 
 Some of these navigators related facts which were 
 quite in accord w^ith the reasonings of Columbus, and 
 his project was treated with a deference among these 
 sea-faring men of Palos and cloistered monks quite un- 
 met with among the scientific men of the courts. 
 
 Martin Alorizo Pinzon was so convinced of the 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. I9 
 
 feasibility of his plans that he offered to engage in it 
 with purse and person, and to bear the expense of 
 Columbus in a further application to court. 
 
 Friar Juan Perez was confirmed in his faith by the 
 concurrence of these learned and practical counsellors. 
 He had once been confessor to the queen and knew 
 that she was always accessible to persons of his sacred 
 calling. He proposed to write to her immediately on 
 the subject, and entreated Columbus to delay his 
 journey until an answer could be received. Columbus 
 was easily persuaded, for he felt that in leaving Spain 
 he was again leaving home. By this time, too, he felt 
 reluctant about presenting his case to a new court after 
 the vexatious experience in Spain and Portugal. 
 
 The little council at the convent of La Rabida 
 looked about for an embassador to carry the message 
 to the king and queen and chose Sebastian Rodriguez, 
 a pilot of Lepe. He was considered one of the inost 
 shrewd and important personages in this maritime 
 neighborhood. The queen was at Santa Fe, the 
 military city built in the Vega before Grenada after 
 the burning of the royal camp, " Sebastian Rodriguez 
 acquitted himself faithfully, expeditiously and success- 
 fully in his embassy. " So wrote Washington Irving. 
 He readily found access to the queen and delivered to 
 her the friar's letter. The noble Isabella had always 
 been favorably disposed towards Columbus. She replied 
 in a letter to Juan Perez, thanking him for his timely 
 services, and requesting him to repair immediately to 
 the court, assuring Christopher Columbus of her con- 
 fidence in his plans. This royal letter was brought 
 to Juan by Sebastian in fourteen days and brought 
 
20 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 delight to the little company assembled, eagerly await- 
 ing a message from the queen. Immediately after re- 
 ceiving it the kind-hearted Juan saddled his mule and 
 departed for the court. He journeyed through the 
 conquered country of the Moors and rode into the 
 new city of Santa Fe, where the sovereigns were 
 superintending the investment of the capital of 
 Grenada. 
 
 The sacred office of Juan Perez gained him enter- 
 tainment in a court distinguished for religious zeal, 
 and once admitted to the presence of the queen his 
 former relation as father confessor gave him great 
 freedom of council. With great enthusiasm he plead 
 for Columbus. He was able to speak of his honorable 
 motive from actual knowledge and his experience and 
 capacity to fulfill the undertaking, as well as the 
 riches and glory it would shed upon the Spanish 
 crown. The queen was a woman open to warm 
 and generous impulses, and when father Juan Perez 
 was warmly seconded by the Marchioness of Moya, 
 to whom her majesty was deeply attached, she asked 
 that Columbus be immediately sent to her, and be- 
 thinking herself of his poverty ordered that twenty 
 thousand maravedies in florins should be sent to 
 him that he might come before the court in fitting 
 state. This sum was equal to $216 of United States 
 money. Speedily Columbus arrayed himself in be- 
 fitting garb and purchased a mule for his journey. 
 
 " Nil desperandum " seems to have been his motto, 
 for after all these eighteen years of continued disap- 
 pointments he was full of joy and hope. We are told 
 that he arrived in time to witness the surrender of 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 21 
 
 Grenada ; that he saw^ Boabdil, the last of the Moorish 
 kings, come from the magnificent Alhambra and give 
 up the keys to Spain. Many of us are accustomed to 
 imagine Isabella and Ferdinand as dark or swarthy 
 people. In reality they were fair people with blue eyes 
 and light hair. From history and from portraits we 
 learn that Ferdinand w^as of the middle stature, well 
 proportioned, hardy and active from athletic exercise. 
 He had a clear, serene forehead, which appeared more 
 lofty from being partly bald. His eye-brow^s were 
 heavy, thought they did not meet. Like his hair, they 
 were of bright chestnut color. His teeth were white, 
 though small and irregular. His eyes were clear and 
 animated, his speech fluent and quick. His genius 
 w^as clear and comprehensive. His temper was equable, 
 and his countenance very pleasant. Isabella possessed 
 one of the purest characters described in history. She 
 was well formed, of middle size, very graceful, yet 
 withal dignified, as became a sovereign. She was 
 very fair with clear blue eyes and auburn hair, golden 
 in certain light. She exceeded her husband in per- 
 sonal dignity, in acuteness of genius and in grandeur 
 of soul. In her were combined the active and resolute 
 qualities of man with the softer charities of woman. 
 She took part in the warlike councils of her husband ; 
 engaged personally in his enterprizes, in some in- 
 stances surpassing him in firmness and in the intre- 
 pidity of her measures. In the civil history of their 
 reign the character of Isabella shines most illustriously^ 
 She loved her people and she diligently sought their 
 good, striving to mitigate the harsher measures of her 
 husband without apparently conflicting with his ar- 
 
32 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 rangements. She was almost bigoted in her piety, and 
 yet she was hostile to every measure used to further 
 Christianity at the expense of humanity. To her 
 honor, be it said, she strenuously opposed the ex- 
 pulsion of the Jews and the establishment of the in- 
 quisition. She was always an advocate of clemency 
 to the Moors, although she was the soul of ^var against 
 Grenada. She considered that war Avas essential to pro- 
 tect her subjects from fierce and formidable enemies 
 and to protect her Christian faith. We are told that while 
 her public life and acts Avere princely and august,, in pri- 
 vate life her habits were simple, frugal and unostenta- 
 tious. She was a promoter of letters and arts, and 
 through her efforts Salainanca rose to that height 
 which it assumed among the learned institutions of the 
 age. She promoted the distribution of honors and re- 
 wards for the promulgation of kno^vledge and fostered 
 and encouraged the art of printing (lately invented), 
 encouraging the establishment of presses in every 
 part of her kingdom. Books were imported free of 
 duty, and more, we are told, were printed in Spain 
 at that early period of art than in the present literary 
 age. 
 
 Columbus on his arrival at Cordova was at once 
 given into the charge of his friend Alonzo de 
 Qiiintanilla, comptroller of the treasury of Castile. 
 Again patience was needed. After nearly eight 
 hundred years of painful struggle the crescent came 
 down and the cross was elevated: The rejoicing was 
 great; the whole court and army held a jubilee, for 
 this was not merely a triumph of arms, but of religion, 
 and was the most brilliant triumph in all Spanish 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 23 
 
 history. A Spanish writer of this time gives a de- 
 scription of Columbus : "A man obscure and but little 
 known followed at this time the court — confounded 
 in the crowd of importunate applicants, feeding his 
 imagination in the corners of the ante-chambers with 
 the pompous project of discovering a world, melan- 
 choly and dejected in the midst of general rejoicing. 
 He beheld with indifference and almost contempt the 
 conclusion of a conquest which swelled all bosoms with 
 jubilee and seemed to have reached the utmost bounds 
 of desire. That man was Christopher Columbus." 
 
 The monarchs who had long ago pledged themselves 
 to assist Columbus v^hen the long struggle was over 
 appointed persons of confidence to meet with him and 
 make negotiations, among whom was Fernando de 
 Talavera, now risen to be archbishop of Grenada. 
 But at the very commencement of negotiations unex- 
 pected difficulties arose, for Columbus, believing in 
 the grandeur of his discoveries, would listen to nothing 
 less than princely conditions. " His principal condition 
 was that he should be invested with the title and 
 privilege of admiral and viceroy over the countries he 
 should discover. The courtiers who treated with him 
 were indignant at such a demand. Their pride was 
 shocked to see one whom they had considered a needy 
 adventurer aspiring to ranks and dignities superior to 
 their own. One observed with a sneer that it was a 
 shrewd arrangement he proposed, whereby he was se- 
 cure, at all events, of a command, and had nothing to 
 lose in case of failure." 
 
 To this Columbus promptly replied by offering to 
 furnish one-eighth of the cost, on condition of en- 
 
24 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 joying one-eighth of the profits. To do this he no 
 doubt calculated on the assistance of Martin Alonzo 
 Pinzon, the wealthy navigator of PfUos. 
 
 His terms, however, were pronounced inadmissible. 
 Fernando de Talavera had always considered Colum- 
 bus a dreaming speculator, or a needy applicant for 
 bread ; but to see this man, who for years had been an 
 indigent and threadbare solicitor in his ante-chamber, 
 assuming so lofty a tone, and claiming an office that 
 approached to the awful dignity of the throne, excited 
 the astonishment as well as the indignation of the pre- 
 late. He represented to Isabella that it would be de- 
 grading to the dignity of so illustrious a crown to lav- 
 ish such distinguished honor upon a nameless stranger. 
 Such terms, he observed, in case of success, would be 
 exorbitant ; but in case of failure would be cited with 
 ridicule as evidence of the gross credulity of the 
 Spanish monarchs. 
 
 Isabella was always attentive to her spiritual ad- 
 visers, and the archbishop, being her confessor, had 
 peculiar influence. His suggestions seemed to her 
 wise, and she thought possibly she might be paying 
 too great a price for the proposed advantages. New 
 conditions were offered to Columbus, but he would 
 not cede one point of his demands, and so the 
 negotiations came to naught. And sadly taking leave 
 of his friends he mounted his mule and sallied forth 
 from Sante Fe in the early part of February, 1492, on 
 his way to Cordova, and thence to France, where he 
 intended laying his case before the court of that coun- 
 try. The few friends who had clung to him through 
 all these disappointing years were filled with deep dis- 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 2^ 
 
 tress. Among the number was Luis de St. Angel, re- 
 ceiver of the ecclesiastical revenues in Arragon. He 
 immediately repaired to Santa Fe and obtained an 
 immediate audience of the queen, accompanied by 
 Alonzo de Q^uintanilla. The exigencies of the mo- 
 ment gave him courage and eloquence. He did not 
 confine himself to entreaties, but almost mingled re- 
 proaches, expressing astonishment that a queen who 
 had evinced the spirit to undertake so many perilous 
 enterprises should hesitate at one \vhere the loss could 
 be so trifling and the gain might be incalculable. 
 He reininded her how much might be done for the 
 glory of God, the exaltation of the church, and the 
 extension of her own power and dominion ; what 
 cause of regret to herself, of triumph to her enemies, 
 of sorrow to her friends, if this enterprise, rejected by 
 her, be accomplished by some other power. He re- 
 minded her what fame and dominion other princes 
 had gained by their discoveries ; hers was the oppor- 
 tunity to surpass them all. He vindicated the judg- 
 ment of Columbus and the soundness and practica- 
 bility of his plans. Neither would even his failure 
 reflect discredit to the crown. It was worth the 
 trouble and expense to clear up even a doubt upon a 
 subject of so much importance. Many arguments he 
 used with her, and the Marchioness of Moya, who 
 was present, also exerted her powers of eloquence. 
 
 The generous spirit of Isiibella was awakened and 
 she seemed for the first time to comprehend the 
 grandeur of the enterprise, and when he had fully 
 explained to her the liberal off^er of Columbus to bear 
 one-eighth the expense and the requisites would be only 
 
26 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 two vessels and some three thousand crowns, again 
 the queen hesitated. The long war had drained the 
 treasury, but the hesitation was only momentary. She 
 declared she would undertake the enterprise for her 
 ow^n crown of Castile, and would pledge her jewels 
 for funds. This act forever stamped Isabella's renown 
 as the patroness of the discoverer ot the new world. 
 There was no need of pledging her jewels, for the 
 money was given from the treasury of King Ferdinand 
 and was paid back. Part of the first gold brought by 
 Columxbus from the new world was used in gilding 
 the ceilings of the royal salon in the grand palace of 
 Saragoza in Arragon, anciently the Aljaferia or abode 
 of Moorish Kings. 
 
 The articles of agreement drawn up between the 
 Spanish sovereigns and Columbus were as follows : 
 
 1. That Columbus should have, for himself during 
 his life, and his heirs and successors forever, the office 
 of admiral in all the lands and continents which he 
 might discover or acquire in the ocean, with similar 
 honors and prerogatives to those enjoyed by the high 
 admiral of Castile in his district. 
 
 2. That he should be viceroy and governor general 
 over all the said islands and continents, with the priv- 
 ilege of nominating three candidates for the govern- 
 ment of each island or province, one of whom should 
 be selected by the sovereigns. 
 
 3. That he should be^entitled to reserve for him- 
 self one-tenth of all pearls, precious stones, gold, 
 silver, spices and all other articles and merchandises 
 in whatever manner found, bought, bartered or gained 
 within his admiralty, the costs being first deducted. 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 2^ 
 
 4. That he, or his lieutenant, should be the sole 
 judge in all causes and disputes arising out of traf- 
 fic between those countries and Spain, provided the 
 high admiral of Castile had similar jurisdiction in his 
 district. 
 
 5. That he might then and at all after times con- 
 tribute an eighth part of the expense in fitting out 
 vessels to sail on this enterprise, and receive an eighth 
 part of the profits. 
 
 The capitulations were dra^vn up by the royal sec- 
 retary, Juan de Coloma. They were signed on the 17th 
 of April, 1492. A letter of privilege or commission 
 to Columbus of similar purport was drawn out in 
 form and issued in the city of Grenada by the sovereigns 
 on the 13th of the same month. In this the dig- 
 nities and prerogatives of viceroy and governor were 
 made hereditary in the family and he and his heirs 
 were authorized to prefix the title of Don to their 
 names ; a distinction accorded in those days only to 
 persons of rank and estate, though it has since lost all 
 value from being universally used in Spain. All the 
 royal documents were signed by both Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, but her separate crown of Castile defrayed 
 all expenses and during her life few persons except 
 Castilians were allowed to establish themselves in the 
 new territories. 
 
 Perhaps it tnay be well here to state that stories of 
 the Grand Khan, who ^vas supposed to govern Asia, 
 and whose wealth and grandeur exceeded even the 
 most stibtile flight of fancy, had reached the ears of 
 the sovereigns of Spain and Castile, and that in the 
 well laid plans of Columbus he calculated to sail di- 
 
28 F^OUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 rectly to the south of Asia and at once open commu- 
 nications with the great magnate of the country. That 
 he expected to do great missionary work in converting 
 that vast heathen country to a beUef in the true God 
 and the holy CathoHc church, there is not the sHghtest 
 doubt. There are those who believe that King Ferdi- 
 nand was more than kindly disposed to the Grand 
 Khan. Certain it is that letters were dispatched from 
 the king to the mighty potentate by Columbus. Isa- 
 bella's motives seem, like those of Columbus, to have 
 been to do a mighty missionary work. Columbus, how- 
 ever, went still further. He anticipated acquiring 
 boundless wealth, and with it to rescue the holy sepul- 
 chres of the Jews from the infidels who possessed 
 them. And through all the vicissitudes of life this 
 one hope remained steadfast in his breast. 
 
 A mark of home favor was shown to Columbus by 
 an albala or letter patent issued on the 8th of May ap- 
 pointing his son Diego page to Prince Juan (the heir 
 apparent), ^vith an allowance for his support ; an honor 
 granted only to the sons of persons of distinguished 
 rank. 
 
 Even now when the king and queen had shoNvn 
 Columbus marked favors and caused a royal com- 
 mand to be issued ordering t\vo caravels — as the small 
 light boats \Vere called — which were built high fore 
 and aft and without a deck in the middle, with fore- 
 castles and cabins for the accommodation of the seamen, 
 there were still delays. The smallness of the boats 
 was considered by Columbus as very favorable for his 
 explorations, allowing him to examine rivers and 
 also to keep close to the shore. It was a long 
 
COI.UMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 29 
 
 time before such boats could be found, and then 
 they were pressed into the service, though good 
 prices were paid in advance and large rewards 
 offered if successful. The vessel destined for Colum- 
 bus was furnished by his friends the Pinzons ; it was 
 much larger than the others and was called the Santa 
 Maria. The second was named the Pinta and was 
 commanded by Martin Alonzo Pinzon, accompanied 
 by his brother, Francisco Martin, as pilot. The third 
 was called the Nina and had latine sails and was com- 
 manded by the third brother, Vicente Yanez Pin- 
 zon. There were three other pilots, Sancho Ruiz, 
 Pedro Alonzo Nina and Bartolomeo Roldan. Roderigo 
 Diego de Arana, a native of Cordova, was chief algua- 
 zil. Roderigo de Escobar went as a royal notary (an 
 officer always sent in the armaments of the crown, to 
 take official notes of all transactions). There was 
 also a physician and a surgeon, together with various 
 private adventurers, several servants and ninety 
 mariners, making in all one hundred and twenty 
 persons. » 
 
 The little fleet being quite ready for the long 
 voyage, Columbus made confession of sins before his 
 dear friend Friar Juan Perez and partook of the 
 sacrament of the communion. His example was 
 followed by both officers and crew, and we are told 
 *'they entered upon the enterprise with awe and with 
 the most devout and affecting ceremonials." 
 
 It is quite true the seamen went with downcast 
 hearts. They never more expected to see the glory of 
 Spain. The wide waters were to them appalling and 
 many strange tales of the fearful monsters of the deep 
 
30 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 were rehearsed for the thousandth time. It was the 
 3rd of August, 1493, and Friday, when the fleet put out 
 to sea from the port of Palos. Let the superstitious 
 people who are afraid to commence any work on 
 Friday take heart by this. Never was voyage more 
 blessed by pleasant \veather ; never was so great a 
 gift of earthly things. When Columbus sailed he 
 commenced a journey intended for the inspection of 
 the Spanish sovereigns. It shows how grand and 
 solemn he felt to be the enterprise. He begins it 
 thus : "In nomine D. N. Jesu Christi. Whereas, most 
 Christian, most high, most excellent, and most power- 
 ful princess, king and queen of the Spains, and 
 of the islands of the sea, our sovereigns, in the 
 present year of 1492, after your highnesses had put 
 an end to the war with the Moors who ruled in 
 Europe, and had concluded that warfare in the great 
 city of Grenada where, on the second of January, of 
 this present year, I saw the royal banners of your high- 
 nesses placed by force of arms on the towers ot the 
 Alhambra, which is the fortress of that city, and 
 beheld the Moorish king of that city sally forth from 
 the gates and kiss the royal hand of your highnesses 
 and of my lord the prince ; and immediately in that 
 same month in consequence of the information which 
 I had given to your highnesses of the lands of India, 
 and of a prince who is called the Grand Khan, which 
 is to say in our language king of kings, how that many 
 times he and his predecessors had sent to Rome to 
 entreat for doctors of our holy faith, to instruct him in 
 the same ; and that the holy father had never provided 
 him with them, and thus so many people were lost. 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 3I 
 
 believing in idolatries, and imbibing doctrines of perdi- 
 tion ; therefore your highnesses, as Catholic Christians 
 and princes, lovers and promoters of the holy Chris- 
 tian faith, and enemies of the sect of Mahomet, and of 
 all idolatries and heresies, determined to send me, 
 Christopher Columbus, to the said parts of India, to 
 see the said prince, and the people and lands, and 
 discover the nature and disposition of them all, and 
 the means to be taken for the conversion of them to 
 our holy faith ; and ordered that I should not go by 
 land to the east, by which it is the custom to go, but 
 by a voyage to the west, by which course unto the 
 present time we do not know for certain that any one 
 has passed. Your highnesses, therefore, after having 
 expelled all the Jews from your kingdoms and terri- 
 tories, commanded me in the same month of Jan- 
 uary to proceed with sufficient armament to the 
 said parts of India ; and for this purpose bestowed 
 great favors upon me, ennobling me, that thencefor- 
 ward I might style myself Don, appointing me high 
 admiral of the ocean sea, and perpetual viceroy and 
 governor of all the islands and continents I should 
 discover and gain, and which henceforward may be 
 discovered and gained in the ocean sea ; and that 
 my eldest son should succeed me, and so on from 
 generation to generation forever. I departed, there- 
 fore, from the city of Grenada, on Saturday, the 12th of 
 May of the same year 1493, to Palo^, a seaport, where I 
 armed three ships, well calculated for much service, 
 and sailed from that port well furnished with pro- 
 visions and many seamen on Friday, the third of 
 August of the same year, half an hour before sunrise. 
 
32 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 and took the route for the Canary Islands of your 
 highnesses, to steer my course thence, and navigate 
 until I should arrive at the Indies, and deliver the em- 
 bassy of your highnesses to those princes and ac- 
 complish that w^hich you had commanded. For this 
 purpose I intend to write during this voyage, very 
 punctually from day to day, all that I may do, and see, 
 and experience, as will hereafter be seen. Also my 
 sovereign princes, besides describing each night all 
 that has occurred in the day, and in the day the 
 navigation of the night, I propose to make a chart in 
 which I will set down the waters and lands of the 
 ocean sea in their proper situations under their bear- 
 ings ; and further, to compose a book, and illustrate 
 the whole in picture by latitude from the equinoctial, 
 and longitude from the west ; and upon the whole it 
 will be essential that I should forget sleep and attend 
 closely to the navigation to accomplish these things, 
 which will be a great labor." 
 
 As a guide by which to sail Columbus had prepared 
 a chart, improved upon that which had been sent him 
 by Paulo Toscanelli. Neither of them novv^ exist, 
 but the globe or planisphere furnished by Martin 
 Behem in this year of the admiral's first voyage is still 
 extant and furnishes an idea of what the chart of Co- 
 lumbus must have been. It exhibits the coast of 
 Europe and Africa from the south of Ireland to the 
 end of Guinea, and opposite to them, on the other side 
 of the Atlantic, the extremity of Asia, or, as it was 
 termed, India. Between them is placed the island of 
 Cipango or Japan, v>'hich, according to Marco Polo, lay 
 fifteen hundred miles distant from the Asiatic coast. In 
 
■H^^; 
 
 SS 
 
 ■-^ 
 
 B^-T^^L-*--, ■ 
 
 
 Bb-^^k^ 
 
 ^' * 
 
 ML' 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 
 ^*Tt» 
 
 "■-_ > 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 33 
 
 his computation Columbus advanced this island about 
 a thousand leagues too much to the east, supposing it 
 to be in about the situation of Florida, and at this isl- 
 and he hoped to arrive first. Columbus from the first 
 had felt a lack of confidence in his crew. They had 
 been pressed into the service against their wills. On 
 the third day out the Pinta made signals of distress ; 
 her rudder was discovered to be broken and unhung* 
 Columbus could not go to the rescue with his boat* 
 There was a stiff breeze and his boat was much larger 
 than the others, but fortunately Martin Alonzo Pinzon 
 commanded the Pinta, and being a man of resources as 
 well as an adroit seaman succeeded in securing the 
 rudder with cords so as to manage the vessel for that 
 day. The next the cord slipped and the other ships 
 were obliged to shorten sail until the rudder could be 
 repaired. The damaged state of the Pinta (she was 
 leaking as well) determined the admiral to stop at the 
 Canary Isles and seek a vessel to replace her. 
 
 They came in sight of the islands on the 9th, much 
 to the surprise of the other navigators, who had reck- 
 oned on a longer time. There was no vessel to replace 
 the Pinta and they were delayed three weeks in putting 
 her in sailing order. The latine sails of the Nina 
 were also altered into square sails, that she might work 
 more steadily and securely, and be able to keep com- 
 pany with the other vessels. While sailing among 
 these islands they beheld for the first time the peak of 
 Teneriffe belching forth flame and smoke, which well 
 nigh terrified the sailors, who were ready to fancy 
 there was danger in everything. Columbus was 
 fortunate in making them understand that it was 
 
34 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 the same sort of eruption as Mt. Etna and Vesuvius. 
 
 While taking in wood and water and provisions in 
 the island of Gomera a vessel arrived from Ferro -which 
 reported that three Portuguese caravels had been seen 
 hovering off the island with the supposed intention of 
 capturing Columbus in revenge for his having em- 
 barked under the arms of Spain. He therefore quickly 
 put to sea. ^ This ^vas early in the morning of the 6th 
 of September ; on the 9th, at daybreak, they beheld 
 Ferro, the last of the Canary islands, and about which 
 the Portuguese caravels had been seen. A stiff breeze 
 sprung up, their sails once more filled and they were 
 soon away, so that by nightfall they could see not 
 even the heights of Ferro. With wise discernment 
 Columbus felt that his crews might become early de- 
 spondent at the length of the voyage, so h% kept two 
 reckonings, one the true one for himself and science 
 and one from which he subtracted many leagues 
 daily. On the nth of September, w^hen about one 
 hundred and fifty leagues v^est of Ferro, they fell in 
 with a part of a mast, ^vhich from its size appeared to 
 have belonged to a vessel of about a liundred and 
 twenty tons burthen and which had been a long time 
 in the water. This was looked upon by the cre^v as a 
 bad omen, and it required the abundant patience of 
 which Columbus had shown himself possessed to keep 
 the crew in good hopes. On the 13th of September 
 in the evening, being about two hundred leagues from 
 the island of Ferro, Columbus for the first time noticed 
 the variation of the needle, a phenomenon with which 
 he was entirely unacquainted. 
 
 He saw about dusk that the needle, which had al- 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 35 
 
 ways before pointed to the north star, varied about 
 half a point or between five and six degrees to the 
 north-west. It seemed to him as if indeed they were 
 entering another world subject to other laws. He at 
 first made no mention of this, but soon the pilots dis- 
 covered it for themselves. Columbus was a wise man 
 and presently he spoke of the probability of the north 
 star m.oving like other heavenly bodies. His renown 
 as an astronomer w^as so great that it quieted the fears 
 of the pilots. Still the same phenomenon is observed 
 and the reason for it is unknown. 
 
 The Pinta with Martin Alonzo Pinzon usually kept 
 the lead. She was a fast sailer. There was a cloudiness 
 to the north that betokened land, there were flights of 
 birds and the air was mild and pleasant. Many of 
 the men became despondent only to shout with joy at 
 the sight of clouds which so simulated islands that 
 they were often deceived. The next day the sea was 
 quite covered with floating plants, a phenomenon often 
 observed in this part of the ocean. It is believed to 
 be aquatic plants which grow in • the bottom of the 
 ocean until the seeds ripen and then the whole plant 
 floats. These floating fields of weeds in some places 
 made sailing difficult, and again the hearts of the 
 mariners sank. On the 25th of September the wind 
 again became favorable and they were able to resurhe 
 their course directly to tt^e west. The air was light 
 and the sea calm. The vessels sailed near to each 
 other and Columbus had opportunity to converse with 
 his tried and true friend Martin Alonzo Pinzon, on 
 the subject of a chart which Columbus had sent on 
 board the Pinta three days previously. Pinzon 
 
36 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 thought that according to the map they should be in 
 the neighborhood of Cipango. Columbus desired 
 the map returned and Pinzon, tying it to the end of 
 a cord, flung it to him. Columbus and several of his 
 navigators crowded around the map trying to make 
 out their whereabouts, when thev heard a shout from the 
 Pinta where Martin Alonzo Pinzon was crying, "Land, 
 land, I claim my reward." Upon this Columbus threw 
 himself face downward upon the deck and returned 
 thanks to God, while Martin Alonzo Pinzon recited 
 the "Gloria in Excelsis," in which his own crew and 
 that of the admiral joined. The seamen climbed to 
 the rigging, the rejoicing was very great and yet it 
 was only to be followed by a disappointment, for in 
 the morning there was no sign of land. With dejected 
 hearts they went about their duties. Columbus, how- 
 ever, wore a serene and calm face. He spoke sooth- 
 ingly and gently to the men. There were many fishes 
 and strange birds about them, and the men began to 
 fear that they had passed between islands. According 
 to the reckoning which Columbus showed them, they 
 had come five hundred and twenty leagues since leav- 
 ing the Canary Isles ; according to his private reckon- 
 ing it had been seven hundred and twenty leagues. 
 On the 2d of October evidences of land were so 
 plentiful and the weather so beautiful that the men 
 grew more hopeful ; each was anxious to receive the 
 pension promised to the one who saw land first, and 
 so continually was the cry of land, land, that Colum- 
 bus declared that the man who cried land, if none was 
 discovered in three days afterward, should forever 
 forfeit all claim to that pension. 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 37 
 
 On the evening of the 6th of October Martin 
 Alonzo Pinzon began to lose faith in their course and 
 suggested that they should stand more to the south- 
 ward. Columbus still persisted in going directly west, 
 which, had he continued, would have landed him in 
 Florida. There were many reasons to veer to the 
 south-west, which he did, and immediately signs of 
 land abounded. Branches of trees floated by them, 
 flights of small birds of various colors, such as sing in 
 the fields, were seen, tunny fish played about the smooth 
 sea. A heron, 9, pelican and a duck were seen, all bound 
 in the same direction. The herbage v^hich floated by 
 was fresh and green and the air w^as sweet and 
 fragrant, like April winds in Seville. All these were 
 believed by the disheartened crews to be so many 
 delusions, to draw them to destruction. They gathered 
 together and became turbulently clamorous. They 
 wanted to return home. Columbus attempted to 
 pacify them with gentle assurancies, but without avail. 
 He then spoke to them decidedly. He told them it 
 was useless to murmur. The expedition had been 
 sent out by the soverigns to seek the Indies, and 
 happen what might he was determined to persevere 
 until by the blessing of God he should accomplish the 
 enterprise. He was now at open defiance with his 
 crew. The situation became desperate. 
 
 The next day, fortunately, the manifestations of 
 land were so great that all doubts were dispelled. 
 They saw a green fish which they knew always kept 
 about rocks. A branch of thorn with berries on it 
 and a board floated by, then a reed and a carved staff. 
 Gloom and mutiny vanished, sanguine expectation 
 
38 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 kept every man at his post, hoping to be the first to 
 discover the new land. In the evening, ^vhen the 
 invariable custom on board the admiral's ship of sing- 
 ing "Salve Regina" was concluded, Columbus made 
 an impressive address to the crew. He pointed to the 
 goodness of God in conducting them across the peril- 
 ous ocean sea by gentle breezes. There had been only 
 tranquil waters before them. Never had the waves 
 been mountain high. The . air about them was sw^eet 
 and fragrant, as if laden from orange groves. Surely 
 they had been guided and led by the hand of Omnipo- 
 tence. He thought a vigilant outlook should be kept 
 that night, and promised a velvet doublet to the first 
 to discover the land in addition to the pension offered 
 by his sovereigns. In an instant every man became 
 animated and no one slept that night. As the dark- 
 ness came on Columbus took up his station on the top 
 of the castle or cabin on the high poop of his vessel, 
 maintaining an unremitting watch. About ten 
 o'clock he thought he distinguished a light at a great 
 distance. Fearing his eyes might deceive him, he 
 called Pedro Gutierrez, gentleman of the bed-chamber 
 of the king, and inquired if he saw such a light. He 
 did. Still Columbus thought it might be a delusion, 
 so he called Rodrigo Sanchez of Segora, but by the 
 time he had ascended the round house the light had 
 disappeared. Afterward they saw it again in sudden 
 glances as though it was a torch being carried about. So 
 transient and uncertain were these gleams that only 
 Columbus attached importance to them. 
 
 Again it was Friday morning, October 12th, before 
 him who had watched unceasingly the whole night. 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 39 
 
 The dawn revealed not a vanishing cloud, but a level 
 island, many leagues in extent and like an orchard 
 covered with trees. There were no signs of gardens or 
 cultivated fields, but there were many inhabitants who 
 seemed to be gazing with astonishment at the strange 
 apparitions. These people were perfectly naked, and 
 painted with a variety of colors. Some were painted 
 about one eye only, some had the noses colored, and 
 some seemed clothed in paint. They were well formed, 
 of a coppery color, with black hair, straight, not curly. 
 With most of them it was 'cut short behind the ears, 
 but with a long lock floating down the back. Their 
 faces were beardless. Their faces were undoubtedly 
 handsome if not hidden by paint, and their eyes of 
 great beauty. All possessed fine foreheads. These peo- 
 ple seemed young, not more than thirty years of age. 
 There was but one woman with them. She was 
 young and of exceeding graceful form, but, like her 
 companions, quite naked. Columbus attired himself 
 in his scarlet court dress. His companions, Martin 
 Alonzo Pinzon and Vincent Janez, his brother, put off 
 in company in their boats, each carrying a banner em- 
 blazoned with a green cross, having on either side the 
 letters F. and Y. (Ferdinand and Ysabella), surrounded 
 by crowns. These banners were made especially for 
 the enterprise. 
 
 The beauty of the island, the transparency of the sea 
 (for the bottom could be plainly seen), the exquisite 
 clearness of the air and its odorous sweetness, the beauty 
 of vegetation, all filled the heart of Columbus with 
 boundless joy. Reverently he bent his knees and kissed 
 the earth, returning thanks to God with tears of joy. 
 
40 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 His example was followed by the rest. Then Colum- 
 bus arose, and displaying the royal standard he as- 
 sembled around him the two captains with Rodrigo 
 de Escobedo, notary of the armament, Rodrigo 
 Sanchez and the others who had landed. He took 
 solemn possession in the name of the Castilian 
 sovereigns, giving the island the name of San Salvador. 
 Having complied w4th the requisite forms and 
 ceremonies, he called upon all present to take the oath 
 of allegiance to him as admiral and viceroy, represent- 
 ing the persons of the sovereigns. 
 
 And now the tide of feeling changed. The men 
 who were almost ripe for mutiny became the most 
 devoted bf followers. They crowded around the 
 admiral ; some begged forgiveness, some besought 
 favors. They embraced, they kissed him. Some fell 
 a^ his feet. The natives from a little distance watched 
 all this. When the morning broke and they beheld 
 the ships in their harbor they thought them monsters 
 of the ^vater. The sails they took for \vings. But 
 they soon perceived that creatures like themselves, 
 only w^ith white faces and hands and richly clothed, 
 were upon them. They perceived with what dif- 
 ference Columbus was treated, and they felt kindly 
 draw^n to him themselves. His height, his grace, his 
 pleasant countenance and his dignity, together with 
 his scarlet costume, all made a great impression upon 
 them. 
 
 When the Spaniards first came upon the island with 
 gorgeous colors and glittering steel the natives fled 
 from them, but finding themselves unpursued they 
 regained confidence and slow^ly returned and gathered 
 
* 
 
 COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 4I 
 
 about the strangers while they took formal possession 
 of the island. After this they came timidly and 
 touched the Spaniards— their white faces and hands, 
 their clothing. Columbus was pleased with their 
 gentleness and he bore their scrutiny with perfect 
 acquiescence and won them by his benignity. As he 
 supposed he was on an island adjacent to India, he 
 called the people Indians— a name which has since 
 been applied to all aboriginals in the new world. The 
 arms of the islanders were lances with ends hardened 
 by fire or pointed with flint or the teeth or bone of a 
 fish. There was no iron to be seen, and it was evident 
 they knew nothing of it, for when a drawn sword was 
 pfesented they seized the sharp edge. Columbus gave 
 them presents of colored caps, glass beads, hawks' 
 bells and other trifles, such as the Portuguese were ac- 
 customed to trade with among the nations of the gold 
 coast of Africa. The presents were eagerly received. 
 They hung the beads about their necks and were 
 delighted with the tinkling of the hawks' bells. All 
 day the Spaniards remained on shore, refreshing them- 
 selves in the beautiful groves, and returning to the 
 ships late in the evening delighted with what they had 
 seen. The next morning, when day broke, the shore 
 was alive with natives, who immediately got into 
 boats called canoes, made from the body of a tree 
 hollowed out till it would hold fifty men. These 
 canoes were propelled by paddles, and they were very 
 dexterous in their use. If a boat capsized they swam 
 as if water was their native element, and uprighting 
 the boat baled it out with calabashes. These were 
 the product of great trees like elms. 
 
A3 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 The Indians were eager to procure more toys and 
 brought objects to barter for them, domesticated 
 parrots, cotton yarn in great balls weighing twenty- 
 five pounds, to be exchanged for the merest trifle. 
 They brought also cakes of a bread they called 
 cassava. It was made from the root of the yucca, 
 grated or scraped and strained in a press, making a 
 broad, thin cake which was dried hard so it would 
 keep for a long time, and which they steeped in water 
 before eating. It was tasteless, but nourishing ; but 
 if the w^ater strained from it was drank it was death. 
 
 The discoverers ^vere excited to avarice at the sight 
 of the small gold ornaments worn by some of the 
 Indians in their noses. They were asked where it 
 was found, and the reply pointed to the south. But 
 as gold was an object of royal monopoly in all enter- 
 prizes of discovery Columbus forbade any traffic in it 
 without his express sanction, reserving all trade in 
 both gold and cotton to the crown wherever it should 
 be found in any quantity. He understood from the 
 natives that in the south gold was so plentiful as to 
 be made into plates on w4iich the king's food was 
 served. They showed him scars, marks of wounds in 
 encounters with these people, whose countries they 
 invaded for gold and precious stones. 
 
 It is not improbable that much of this intelligence 
 was the result of Columbus' fancy. His imagination 
 was very active and now all things to him were rose 
 colored.- He persuaded himself that he was among 
 the islands spoken of by Marco Polo as lying opposite 
 Cathay, in the Chinese sea, and he construed every- 
 thing to accord with these wealthy regions. The 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 43 
 
 enemies the natives spoke of coming from the north- 
 west he thought must be the people of the continent 
 of Asia, subjects of the Grand Khan of Tartary. He 
 had been misled in this by the Venetian traveller who 
 represented the Grand Kahn as accustomed to make 
 war on surrounding islands, carrying off their riches 
 and enslaving* their inhabitants. The country to the 
 south abounding in gold could be only the famous 
 Cipango, and the king whom they described as eating 
 from golden dishes must be he whom Marco Polo de- 
 scribed, even the roof of whose habitation was of plates 
 of gold. 
 
 The natives called this island upon which Colum- 
 bus first set foot "Guanahani." It is still called San 
 Salvador on the maps, though English seamen call it 
 Cat Island. San Salvador is one of the great cluster 
 of Bahama or Lucayos Islands which stretch from the 
 coast of Florida to Hispaniola, covering the northern 
 coast of Cuba. 
 
 On the morning of the 14th the admiral set off at 
 daybreak with the ship's boats to reconnoitre the 
 island, directing his course north-east. The coast was 
 surrounded by a reef of rocks, but within these was a 
 harbor of sufficient depth and size to hold all the ships 
 of the known world. The entrance was narrow and 
 there were several sand banks, but the water was still 
 as a pool. The island was well wooded. It con- 
 tained a large lake in the center and streams of sweet 
 water. They passed a few villages, the inhabitants of 
 which ran out and prostrated themselves either in 
 giving thanks' to heaven or in worship of these white 
 men; who appeared to them supernatural creatures. 
 
44 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 They ran along the shore offering to the boatmen vari- 
 ous fruits and vessels of water. When the vessels 
 still continued on their course many threw themselves 
 into the sea and followed them, others came in canoes. 
 The admiral received them kindly, giving them pres- 
 ents of beads and other trifles, which they received 
 with great delight, for they thought their visitors 
 were from heaven. At length they came to a place 
 .that nature seemed to have made for a fortress. On 
 it were six Indian cabins surrounded by gardens and 
 groves as beautiful as those of Castile. The sailors 
 being wearied by long rowing and the island not 
 seeming to the admiral worthy of colonization, he 
 returned to the ship, taking seven natives with him 
 that they might acquire the Spanish language and 
 serve as interpreters. Having supplied the boats with 
 wood and water, they sailed from the island of San 
 Salvador, hoping soon to reach the famous Cipango. 
 He had no doubt but that he was among the islands 
 studding the sea of China. According to Marco Polo 
 these were seven or eight thousand in number and they 
 abounded with all manner of precious stones, gold, sil- 
 ver and spices. He selected the largest island in sight 
 and he believed the natives told him that the people 
 of the island wore necklets and bracelets of gold, and 
 other ornaments of the precious metal. But again he 
 was doomed to disappointment. The trees and shrubs 
 were the most beautiful he had ever seen and the 
 odor from abundant flowers so sweet the air was like 
 a taste of heaven. They went on shore and took for- 
 mal possession, naming the island Santa Maria de la 
 Conception. The Indians w^ere simple-minded like 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 45 
 
 those Ihey had already met and took them for heavenly 
 visitantfi. Columbus with his gentle courtesy im- 
 pressed them favorably and he gave to them the trifles 
 which they received with delight. In returning to 
 the boats they came across a solitary canoe man. He 
 was evidently going to notify adjoining islanders of 
 the approach of the ships, so Columbus took him on 
 board and treated him with the utmost kindness. The 
 sea about these islands was so clear that, looking down, 
 all manner of beautiful things were to be seen — shells 
 of exquisite shape, fish of colors to rival humming birds, 
 and seaweeds of gorgeous colors — but so deep that at 
 the distance of two gun shot there was no anchorage. 
 The next morning the canoe of the Indian was hoisted 
 overboard, his effects were given to him again and he 
 went his way rejoicing. Many little kindnesses were 
 thus shown the islanders by Columbus. All who 
 came on board were given bread and honey or sugar 
 to eat. To this island he gave the name of Fernan- 
 dina. Now it is known as Exuma. The habitations 
 w^ere constructed like a conical tent. They were 
 made of branches of trees, of reeds and of palm leaves. 
 They were uniformly clean and neat. The beds were of 
 cotton and hung from side to side and were called 
 "hamacs." The people seemed more intelligent and 
 ingenious than their neighbors, and the women had 
 aprons and mantlets of cotton, but these were not 
 universal, and for the most part they were unclothed. 
 In an attempt to circumnavigate the island Columbus 
 found within two leagues of the north-west cape a 
 noble harbor, sufficient to hold a hundred ships and 
 supplied with two entrances formed by an island 
 
46 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 lying in the mouth of the harbor. There, while the 
 men landed in search of water, he sat down in a grove 
 to meditate on the ^vonders and the beauties of God's 
 handiwork. The natives kindly assisted his men to 
 the sweetest waters. They filled their casks and 
 assisted in rolling them to the coast, but Columbus 
 saw nothing of the mighty king or evidences of the 
 expected gold mine, so they again spread sails, leaving 
 Fernandina on the 19th of October. They steered to 
 the south-west in quest of an island called Saometo. 
 Again they were doomed to disappointment. The 
 climate was exquisite, the scenery sublime, the natives 
 kind and gentle, but there wa^ 7io gold. To this 
 beautiful island he gave the name of Isabella. Of it 
 he writes : "As I arrived at this cape there came a 
 fragrance so good and soft of the flo^vers and trees of 
 the land, that it was the sweetest thing in the world.- 
 I believe there are here many herbs and trees which 
 would be of great price in Spain for tinctures, medi- 
 cines and spices, but I know nothing of them, which 
 gives me great concern." 
 
 There were no animals in these islands save a kind 
 of dumb dog (at least he never barked), and a rabbit, 
 lizards and guanas, or igunas, as they are now called. 
 To the seamen they were dreadful monsters, but the 
 natives found them harmless and good for food. For 
 several days Columbus hovered about this island, 
 hoping to see the monarch. At length he was con- 
 vinced that he had been misinformed or had misunder- 
 stood the natives. 
 
 Now he began to hear of an island called Cuba. 
 From the natives he understood it to be of great 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 47 
 
 extent, abounding in gold and pearls and precious 
 stones and spices, and that great ships carried on a 
 trade with it. He accordingly laid his plans to visit 
 Cuba and Bohio. His sojourn would depend upon 
 the quantities of gold and other precious articles he 
 should find there. He was quite sure that it would 
 take only about ten days' sailing to reach the main 
 land of India, where he would at once seek the great 
 city of Quinsai and deliver in person the letters from 
 his sovereign to the Grand Khan. 
 
 But contrary winds and calms and heavy showers 
 (for it was now the rainy season) delayed his de- 
 parture several days. At midnight on October 34th 
 he set sail, but was becalmed until midday, when a 
 gentle breeze sprang up and, to quote his own words, 
 "began to blow most amorously." All sails were 
 spread and after three days, touching in his course a 
 group of islands which he called "Islas de Arena," he 
 came in sight of Cuba on the 28th of October. 
 
 It is believed that the part which he first discovered 
 is the coast to the west of Neuvitas del Principo. As 
 'he neared the island he was overcome with its mag- 
 nitude, its grandeur, its lofty mountains, sweeping 
 plains, noble rivers, promontories and stretching head- 
 lands. Over all was the beautifully clear and fragrant 
 atmosphere, and he anchored in a broad river whose 
 deep bottom could plainly be seen. He took posses- 
 sion of the island, calling it Juana, and named the 
 liver San Salvador. Two boats manned by natives 
 started out to meet him, but were frightened back 
 when they observed them sounding the river for 
 anchorage, and reaching the shore fled into tne in- 
 
48 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 terior. Columbus and some followers examined their 
 cabins, but disturbing nothing again went to the river 
 and sailed up. The views were most beautiful, and 
 Columbus, who highly appreciated the beauties of 
 nature, was delighted beyond measure at the enchant- 
 ing prospect. Probably nowhere in the world is more 
 beautiful and greater diversity of scenery. The splen- 
 dor of colors, of flowers, birds, butterflies, fish and 
 shells are unequalled ; even the insects are of such 
 beauty that many a West Indian belle wears one or 
 more of them in her dusky hair, because they are more 
 beautiful than gems. The forests abound with gor- 
 geously plumed birds ; flocks of parrots (or parroquets) 
 obscured the sun, and these, unlike their gray cousins 
 of Africa, wore many brilliant hues. Green, yellow, 
 blue and scarlet were often on the same bird, while 
 butterflies and humming birds were clothed in raiment 
 like unto nothing but precious stones of the greatest 
 brilliancy. He thought he had conclusive proof that 
 Cuba contained gold mines, spice groves, and that its 
 shores abounded with pearls, as he found the shells of 
 oyster-bearing pearls along the shores. In some 
 places the grass grew quite down to the water's edge 
 without the intervening strip of sand. It is a singular 
 fact that the hurricanes so common as to -work great 
 devastation on the Bahamas seldom visit Cuba, and 
 to Columbus it seemed that the very elements were 
 charmed into gentleness as they approached this beau- 
 tiful spot. After sailing to the north-west for some 
 distance, they came in sight of a great headland, to 
 which he gave the name of Cape of Palms from the 
 trees which covered it. It is now known as the 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 
 
 49 
 
 entrance to Lagiina de Moron. There three of the 
 natives of Guanahani, who were on board the Pinta, 
 informed the commander, Martin Alonzo Pinzon, that 
 behind the Cape of Pahns there was a river, and four 
 days' journey up the river would bring them to 
 Cubanacan, where there was much gold. By this they 
 designated a place in the center of the island, nacan 
 in their dialect signifying center. Pinzon had care- 
 fully studied the map of Toscanelli and he fully be- 
 lieved in Columbus' views that this was near — nay 
 really — terra firma ; that the city of which the 
 Indians spoke was that of the residence of Cubal 
 Khan. He immediately sought and communicated his 
 ideas to Columbus. This at once put an end to the delu- 
 sions under which the admiral had kept himself, but he 
 substituted another. He conceded that he had been 
 mistaken in thinking the island was Ci.pango and was 
 now of the opinion that he was in Asia. He resolved 
 at once to seek the river and send forward a messenger 
 bearing a present to the potentate of the country, 
 which probably bore allegiance to the Grand Khan, 
 and after visiting his dominions he would set out for 
 the capital of Cathay, where the Grand Khan resided. 
 But he could not reach the river. Cape stretched 
 beyond cape ; there was no anchorage, and the wind 
 became contrary. The heavens threatened storms, 
 and so they put back to the Rio de los Mares. 
 
 On the ist of November he sent boats ashore, 
 but the inhabitants fleeing before his men, he supposed 
 they mistook his little fleet for one of the scouring ex- 
 peditions sent out by the Grand Kahn to make 
 prisoners and slaves. He sent a boat on shore again, 
 
50 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 carrying an Indian interpeter who was instructed to 
 assure the people of the peaceable and beneficent in- 
 tentions of the -Spaniards, and that they had no con- 
 nection with the Grand Kahn. After the Indian had 
 proclaimed this from the boat he sprang into the 
 water and swam to the shore. He was well received 
 and so successful in calming their fears that before 
 eventide there were more than sixteen canoes about 
 the ships offering cotton yarn and other simple wares 
 in traffic. Columbus forbade all traffic except for 
 gold, that the natives might be tempted to produce 
 the real riches of the country. They had none to 
 offer ; but one man. wore a metal ornament and his was 
 a silver nose ring. Columbus understood this man to 
 say that the king lived four days' journey in the 
 interior and that messengers had been already dis- 
 patched to him bearing news of the visitors, and that 
 in three days' time messengers would arrive from the 
 king, as well as merchants from the interior to trade 
 with the ships. Very anxious poor Columbus was by 
 this time, so he dispatched two Spaniards, Rodrigo de 
 Jerez and Luis de Torres, the latter a converted Jew, 
 who spoke both Hebrew and Chaldaic and a little 
 Arabic. One or the other of these languages Colum- 
 bus supposed would be understood by the prince. 
 
 But we have no space to tell more of the illusions 
 of this extraordinary man. Suffice it to say that some 
 time between the 6th and 12th Hispaniola w^as dis- 
 covered. A cross was erected with due solemnities. 
 Here he again heard of a wonderful city with much 
 gold. The city was found to consist of a thousand 
 houses, but there was little gold. A cross was erected 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 5 1 
 
 in the middle of the city, the natives assisting in the 
 erection. Tlien he took sail again for the illusive 
 kingdom. He visited many islands, always treating 
 the natives with kindness. He experienced only 
 kindness in return. 
 
 On Christmas eve, by the carelessness of the helms- 
 man (a mere boy, in direct opposition to the admiral's 
 orders that the bo^ns should on no account have charge 
 of the ship), the boat was driven on a reef and finally 
 lost. The crew was saved and, thanks to the com- 
 mander, or cacique, as he was called by the Indians, 
 all the cargo was unloaded and safely put upon the 
 shore and carefully guarded by forces under command 
 of the ^cacique, until houses could be built in which 
 they might be deposited. Never were shipv/recked 
 people treated with greater kindness. On the 36th of 
 December Guacanagari came on board the caravel 
 Nina to visit the admiral, and finding him despondent 
 was himself moved to tears. He entreated him not 
 to be cast down and offered him anything and every- 
 thing in his possessions that might be of use to him* 
 The sailors who came from the shore brouorht tales of 
 great lumps of gold offered for barter at almost no 
 price. There was said to be a mountain only a little 
 distance away where the gold was dug without 
 trouble. The place was really a mountainous one, 
 and years afterwards yielded rich mines. It was called 
 Cibao, and Columbus confounded it with Cipango, 
 The greatest of kindness and many valuable presents 
 were given by this noble Indian to Columbus and his 
 followers. They were entertained on shore and every- 
 thing that could add to their happiness was done. 
 
52 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Columbus distributed toys and gewgaws, which 
 pleased the simple-minded natives beyond measure. 
 One brought a handful of gold dust which he offered 
 for a hawk's bell, and when he had received it fled 
 away to the woods, often looking back as if he feared 
 the Spaniards would repent and take it from him. 
 The kindness of the natives, the beauty of the country, 
 the absence of toil was looked upon so favorably by 
 many seamen that they spoke to Columbus of remain- 
 ing, as the caravels would be so crowded on the re- 
 turn voyage. So Columbus concluded to settle a 
 colony. The fortress could be constructed from the 
 dismantled ship. The colonists could explore the 
 country, could learn where the mines were situated, 
 and could barter for gold. They could become 
 familiar with the manners and usages of the islanders, 
 which would be of great value later. Guacanagari 
 was delighted that part of the men would remain, for 
 they had promised to assist them in defense from their 
 enemies, the Caribs. While the fortress was in point 
 of construction Columbus had word of a large vessel 
 seen at the eastern end of the harbor. He thought at 
 once it must be the Pinta, which had now been miss- 
 ing for some time, but messengers dispatched in search 
 of it could not find it. For a time despondency seized 
 him, for the peril of the return was very great with 
 only the crazy old vessel between him and destruction ; 
 and asrain he was elated with the discoveries that each 
 day brought forth. It took ten days to construct the 
 fortress. The guns were mounted and ammunition 
 stored safely. Thirty-nine men were selected to re- 
 main, among them men of all trades. The command 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 53 
 
 was given to Diego de Arana, a native of Cordova 
 and notary and alguazil to the armament. In case of 
 his death Pedro Gutierrez, and in case of his also 
 Rodrigo de Escobedo were to rule. 
 
 Columbus assembled the colony and earnestly ad- 
 dressed them, giving them wise counsels. He had a 
 volley fired from the guns, to show the inhabitants 
 what a defense they would prove against the Caribs. 
 A sad parting took place between the Spaniards who 
 were to remain, and probably an equally sad one 
 among the Indians who were to leave their country 
 for a sojourn in Spain. 
 
 It was on the 4th of January, 1493, that Columbus 
 sailed from La Navidad on his return. They had 
 weathered the cape only about ten leagues when the 
 lost Pinta appeared sailing directly towards them. 
 Every heart was overjoyed. When the winds al- 
 lowed them to meet, Pinzon excused his desertion by 
 stress of weather. Columbus listened passively, but 
 dubiously. He had been told that Pinzon's cupidity 
 had been excited by stories of a land to the eastward 
 filled with gold. His vessel was by far the fastest 
 sailer and he had sought the golden region. Together 
 they returned to Spain, stopping for wood and water 
 at a river where gold could be seen in the sand. 
 Columbus named it Rio del Oro,. now known as 
 Santiago. 
 
 After many vicissitudes Columbus reached Palos. 
 His triumphant return was a great event. The bells 
 were rung, business was stopped and tumultuous joy 
 reigned, and when he landed a procession wfts formed 
 to the largest church, there to return thanks to God. 
 
54 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Nearly every sailor on board these ships had relatives 
 and personal friends in the city. Columbus dis- 
 patched a letter to the sovereigns and soon afterwards 
 went to Seville to await their orders, taking with him 
 six of the aborigines (three were sick at Palos and 
 one had died at sea). 
 
 It is quite true that on the very evening the grand 
 reception to Columbus was being held in Palos the 
 Pinta entered the river. Pinzon's ship had been so 
 driven about that he supposed the wretched Nina 
 was lost, and he had written to the sovereigns giving 
 information of the discovery he had made, and asking 
 permission to come before the court and communicate 
 the particulars. But his heart died within him when 
 he heard the peals of thanksgiving. He feared to 
 meet Columbus lest he have him arrested for desertion. 
 He landed from a small boat, and kept out of sight, 
 until Columbus was on his way to Seville. He re- 
 ceived a reply from his sovereigns reproaching him 
 for misconduct, and forbidding his appearance at court. 
 He suffered deeply from chagrin and soon died. He 
 was a brave man and possessed many virtues. Let 
 us forget his errors. Columbus was royally welcomed 
 at Barcelona, receiving the highest attention, and 
 yet no one fully understood the value of his achieve- 
 ment. With regard to the papal bull of partition and 
 the diplomatic negotiations between Spain and 
 Portugal, we have no space here to mention them. 
 
 Columbus returned to the New World about the 
 3rd or 4th of September. They landed at the island 
 of Gaudaloupe. After many adventures among these 
 islands, Columbus sailed to Navidad on the 27th. 
 
COLUMBUS AND HIS DISCOVERIES. 55 
 
 Very bad news he received. Some of the Spaniards 
 were dead, some had taken Indian wives and were 
 living in a distant part of the island. There had been 
 a great battle, in which many lives had been destroyed 
 and the good Giiacanagari had been badly wounded. 
 Afterwards Columbus had reason to think that the 
 good Guacanagari was "no better than he ought to be." 
 The first Christian city of the New World was named 
 Isabella. The harbor was about ten leagues east of 
 Monte Christo. A malaria prevailed in the new city, 
 and the admiral was not exempt from the illness. 
 Then there was much discontent. The ships set sail 
 for Spain about the middle of February. There was 
 much trouble among the settlers, and poor Columbus 
 must have had good reason to know that a " ruler's 
 life is not exempt from trials and hardships." He 
 traveled into the interior and was well pleased with 
 his expedition. He afterwards went by water and 
 discovered the island of Jamaica. He managed the 
 affairs entrusted to him wisely and well. But as there 
 are ever persons who look malignantly on those of 
 superior attainments, Columbus was a bright and 
 shining light for arrows of envy. Vexations and 
 .trouble were all around him. Once he was sent from 
 the New World to Spain in irons ; he was at once 
 released, however, for there was not a shadow of evi- 
 dence against him. But his admiralty was never 
 restored to him. 
 
 Broken by age and infirmities, and worn out with 
 contentions and hardships, Columbus looked forward 
 to Seville as a haven of rest. Ever since he had been 
 sent home in chains he had not received his revenues. 
 
56 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 He required a large income to meet his expenditures, 
 and very great amounts were due him, so that in very- 
 shame he wrote to his son complaining of his pecuni- 
 ary troubles. He said, "I live by borrowing." It 
 was not for himself he complained, but for his seamen, 
 who had not been paid for three years. 
 
 The death of Qiieen Isabella was a severe blow to 
 him, and the subsequent treatment of his appeals for 
 justice by King Ferdinand no doubt hastened his 
 death. Broken in spirit and suffering violently in 
 body, he was always patient and thoughtful for all, 
 even remembering in his will some things so small 
 that it is evident he was careful to be more than 
 iionest in the smallest particulars. In his discoveries 
 he looked not so much for wealth for himself as a 
 good situation for colonists. He examined the rivers 
 and the productiveness of the earth. That he pos- 
 sessed the soul of a poet and artist none who read his 
 descriptions can doubt. He died May 20th, 1506. It 
 was Ascension Day, and his last words were: "In 
 inanus tuas, Domine, commendo spiritum meum" 
 (Into thy hands, oh. Lord, I commend my spirit). 
 His body was interred in the convent of St. Francisco, 
 but in the year 1536 the bodies of Columbus and his 
 son Diego were removed to Hispaniola and interred 
 in the principal chapel of the cathedral in the city ot 
 San Domingo. Later they were disinterred and lie 
 now in Havana, Cuba. In searching the histories of 
 earth's noblemen it will be difficult to find a more 
 lovely character than that of Columbus, and it is a fit- 
 ting tribute at this late day that his name is familiar to 
 every American, old and young. 
 
COLUMBUS. 
 
 Behind him lay the gray Azores, 
 
 Behind the gates of Hercules ; 
 Before him not the ghost of shores, 
 
 Before him only shoreless seas. 
 The good mate said : " Now we must pray. 
 
 For lo ! the very stars are gone, 
 Brave Adm'rl, speak ; what shall I say ? " 
 
 " Why, say, ' Sail on ! sail on ! and on ! *" 
 
 " My men grow mutinous day by day ; 
 
 My men grow ghastly, wan and weak," 
 The stout mate thought of home ; a spray 
 
 Of salt wave washed his swarthy cheek. 
 " What shall I say, brave Adm'rl, say. 
 
 If we sight naught but seas at dawn? " 
 " Why, you shall say at break of day, 
 
 ' Sail on ! sail on ! sail on ! and on ! ' " 
 
 They sailed and sailed as winds might blow. 
 
 Until at last the blanched mate said : 
 " Why, now not even God would know 
 
 Should I and all my men fall dead. 
 These very winds forget their way, 
 
 For God from these dread seas is gone. 
 Now speak, brave Adm'rl, speak and say." 
 
 He said : " Sail on ! sail on ! and on ! " 
 
 They sailed. They sailed. Then spoke the mate; 
 
 " This mad sea shows its teeth to-night. 
 He curls his lip, he hes in wait. 
 
 With hfted teeth, as if to bite ! 
 Brave Adm'rl, say but one good word. 
 
 What shall we do when hope is gone? " 
 The words leapt as a leaping sword ; ^^ 
 
 " Sail on ! sail on ! sail on ! and on ! " 
 
 Then pale and worn, he kept his deck, 
 
 And peered through darkness. Ah, that night- 
 Of all dark nights ! And then a speck— 
 
 A light ! A light ! A light ! A light ! 
 It grew, a star-lit flag unfurled ! 
 
 It grew, to be time's burst of dawn. 
 He gained a world ; he gave that world^ 
 
 Its grandest lesson : "On! and on ! " 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 AMERIGO VESPUCCI. 
 
 IN the year 1499, seven years after the discovery of 
 America by Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, a 
 Florentine navigator, sailed to the eastern coast of 
 South America. That his explorations there were of 
 any moment history does not state. Vespucci knew 
 that it w^as a new worlds and not a part of Asia, as 
 Columbus thought, and so the name of the world was 
 called America. But, after all, the honor is an empty 
 one, for in all these years the story has been handed 
 down from generation to generation that Christopher* 
 Columbus was the rightful discoverer, and while in 
 this year of A. D. 1892 all school children are taught 
 the life and discoveries of Columbus, and in almost 
 every church in the land Columbian services in honor 
 of this long dead hero are held, no reference is made 
 to the man w^ho usurped the title of discoverer. 
 Amerigo Vespucci was born in Florence, A. D. 145 1. 
 He received a liberal education, and was sent by his 
 father to Spain on mercantile business. He was at 
 Seville when Columbus was making preparations for 
 his fourth voyage, and he sailed under Alonzo de 
 ^ Ojeda. After Vespucci returned to Portugal he pub- 
 lished a book pretending that he had visited America 
 previous to Columbus, but he offered no proofs to 
 substantiate his word. Moreover diligent inquiry 
 failed to find any corroborating evidence, and he lost 
 the respect of the populace. He died at Seville 
 February 23d, 15 12. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 THAT the aborigines were descendants of the 
 inhabitants of the eastern world has been a 
 favorite theory with many thinking men of all 
 periods in the past four hundred years. There have 
 books and papers published by the hundred to prove 
 that the red men were the ten lost tribes of Israel, 
 that they were the descendants of Kamtchatkans, and 
 very many other theories. In the ruins of ancient 
 Peru there is a marked resemblance in sculpture to 
 that of Egypt. There are traditions among many of 
 the tribes that apparently support the theory of the 
 lost Israelites. But there are no facts to substantiate 
 any such theory. In Central America and Peru 
 civilization had reached a high degree, but the glories 
 had waned before the advent of the white man. That 
 in the Mississippi valley there had existed a race of 
 people now known as the mound builders, v^ho were 
 far abov^e the red men of the fourteenth century, there 
 is abundant evidence. Fort Ancient in southern Ohio, 
 some forty miles south-east of Cincinnati, encloses one 
 hundred and forty acres and .would be almost im- 
 pregnable from any side. It was well supplied with 
 never-failing springs of water, and crops sufficient to 
 maintain the fortress in time of siege could be grown 
 inside its defenses. There are many other forts in 
 Ohio now to be seen, and the mounds are so arranged 
 that, through the southern part of the State at least, 
 
6o FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 signal fires could be lit upon them and news could be 
 communicated in a very short space of time over a 
 great area of country. These mounds are constructed 
 in regular order, and at about the same distance (two 
 miles apart). The contents of the mounds show 
 skeletons of remarkable size, fragments of pottery, 
 large stone celts, spear heads of yellow flint and ashes. 
 
 The Serpent Mound in Adams county, Ohio, 
 represents a serpent one thousand feet long in the act 
 of swallowing an egg one hundred and sixty-five feet 
 long. Some great mounds were the bases of watch 
 towers or signal stations. 
 
 The red Indians belong to the Ganowarian or bow 
 and arrow family of men. Above the sixth parallel 
 of latitude the entire continent from Labrador to 
 Alaska was inhabited by the Esquimaux. 
 
 The name signifies ^/le eaters of raw meat. They 
 live in hovels, partly underground, roofed with ice 
 and snow. Occasionally they have huts constructed 
 out of the bones of whales and walruses. In winter 
 they are clad with the skins of seals, in summer with 
 those of the reindeer. Their food is principally whale 
 blubber and the meat of bears. They have dogs 
 trained to draw sledges, which, aside from canoes 
 only used in their short summer, is their only means 
 of transportation. In the center of the ice hut a little 
 fire of whale blubber is kept alive. There is no 
 chimney, so the hut and its inhabitants are well 
 smoked. A suit of clothes is w^orn (without change 
 or process of cleaning) until worn out. While few 
 in numbers, they are the most widely spread nation 
 on the earth, according to Mr. Gallatin occupying not 
 
THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES. 
 
 6l 
 
 less than 5,400 miles of coast. The Moravian Mission 
 in Greenland has succeeded in converting many of 
 them to Christianity, and they are represented by the 
 missionaries to be a wild and teachable people, easily 
 led by kindness to distinguish between right and 
 wrong, but incorrigibly dishonest and prone to lying 
 with strangers. 
 
 Lying north of the Esquimaux, embracing the 
 greater part of Canada and nearly all the portion or 
 the United States east of Mississippi, and north of the 
 thirty-seventh parallel of latitude, lived the great fam- 
 ily of the Algonquins. The tribes of this family were 
 nomadic, roaming from hunting ground to hunting 
 ground and river to river, for they lived by hunting 
 and fishing. Agriculture, though not unknown, was 
 not esteemed by them. There were many tribes of this 
 family subservient to a great chief. These people were 
 already in a decline. When discovered by Europeans 
 'whole tribes were destroyed by w^asting diseases. 
 
 The powerful Huron Iroquois were a part of the 
 Algonquin tribe. Their domain was from the Geor- 
 gian Bay and Lake Huron to Lakes Erie and Ontario, 
 south of these lakes to the upper Ohio and west to the 
 river Sorrel. There was a confederacy of tribes in 
 this large district. Generally, though not always, they 
 acted in unison in times of war. At the time of their 
 greatest power there were nine allied nations — the 
 Hurons, living north of Lake Erie ; the Erics and 
 Andaster, south of the lake ; the Tuscorias of Caro- 
 lina, who afterwards joined their kinsmen in the 
 north ; the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas 
 and Mohawks, constituting the famous five nations 
 
63 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 of New York. The warriors of these nations were 
 the most noble of the great red men. They were 
 brave, patriotic, and eloquent ; they lived in respect- 
 able villages and tilled the soil with considerable suc- 
 cess. As friends thev were faithful, as enemies fearful. 
 
 The Cherokees occupied Tennessee. For a primi- 
 tive nation they were highly civilized and unlike 
 many other tribes. Contact with the whites seemed to 
 improve rather than to degrade them. 
 
 The Mobilians occupied the country between the 
 lower Mississippi and the Atlantic. The principal 
 tribes of the Mobilians were the Yamassees and Creeks 
 .of Georgia, the Seminoles of Florida, and the Choc- 
 taws and Chickasaws of Mississippi. West of the 
 mighty Mississippi was the great race of the Dakotas, 
 whose territory extended from the Arkansas river to the 
 land of the Esquimaux and westward to the Rocky 
 Mountains. The languages and institutions of this 
 people, differing much among the various tribas, are 
 not so well understood as those of some other nations. 
 
 South of the land of the Dakotas in a district nearly 
 corresponding with Texas dwelt the wild Comanches> 
 fierce and warlike. 
 
 On the western side of the Rocky Mountains was 
 the great family of the Shoshones, the Selish, the 
 Klamaths and the California 
 
 On the Pacific slope further southward had dwelt 
 the Aztecs and Toltecs. These were the most highly 
 civilized of the primitive nations, but also the most 
 feeble. Their constructions of wood and stone were 
 in advance of any other tribes, but they were a peace- 
 ful people, little used to the strategies of war. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 WITH the exception of the Esquimaux, all In- 
 dians have the same physical characteristics : 
 a squa're head, low broad forehead, full face » 
 and powerful jaws, prominent cheek bones, full lips, 
 dark and deeply-set eyes, hair long and wavy ; little 
 or no beard, or where it does appear carefully pulled 
 out with the tweezers ; color of the skin varying from 
 almost white through yellow and copper color to 
 brown and nearly black ; height of the men about 
 the aveiage, figures erect and slender ; hands and feet 
 of both sexes are small and shapely. The women are 
 comparatively short, and as age approaches inclined 
 to obesity. 
 
 The flat-headed Selish Indians inhabited the region 
 between latitude forty-eight and fifty degrees north 
 and longitude one hundred and seventeen and one 
 hundred and twenty-one degrees west. The peculiar 
 shape of their heads was due to a practice in infancy 
 ot fastening a great weight upon the forehead. This 
 does not appear to diminish the cranial capacity of the 
 volume of the brain. This tribe was inferior in 
 appearance to the ordinary Indians. They were short 
 of stature and ill-formed. The practice of flattening 
 the head has fallen into disuse. 
 
 The Indians were a race of stoics, like the Spartans. 
 The children were taught to give no sign of pain, 
 suffering or hunger. Many of them possessed great 
 
64 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 oratorical powers. Specimens of oratory are given 
 by Abbott in his interesting history o^ Ohio. Law- 
 augqua, Pontiac, Logan, Corn Planter, Tecumseh, 
 Buckonghelas, White Eyes, Chieftain Pipe, and the 
 speeches of many other chieftains are reported. In 
 spite of the modern saying that "the only good 
 Indian is the dead Indian," no one who carefully 
 studies the early history of this continent can fail 
 to do honor to the noble red man. The faculties of 
 sight and hearing, of swdft and silent movement, of 
 long endurance are developed in the North Ameri- 
 can Indians in a remarkable degree. 
 
 For several years past there have been many articles 
 published in different magazines and journals in favor 
 of a common kitchen for a great number of families. 
 Among the Iroquois there were many " long houses 
 where twenty families were fed from the same kettle 
 of corn and beans." 
 
 The agricultural implements of the Indians were 
 awkward in the extreme. When the forest was so 
 dense that the sun could not reach the earth, they 
 bruised the bark of the trees near the ground and then 
 exposing the roots by means of rude plows, made 
 sometimes from the shoulder blade of the moose, they 
 made fires so as to scorch the roots. This caused the 
 death of the lower and smaller limbs, letting the sun- 
 light reach the earth. Then they gathered all the 
 dead wood and burned it till the ashes were from six 
 inches to a foot deep. Then ashes and soil were 
 mixed as intimately as they could be with the rough 
 hoes, and the corn planted in hills. Some authorities 
 assert that many tribes planted corn (several grains) 
 
.,U, S^i^^ ^'^ 
 
 AD/»\INISTRATION Bt'lLDING. 
 
 COLU/'ABIAN EXPOSITION, CHICAGO, 1893. 
 
INDIAN CHARACTERISTICS. 65 
 
 in an alewife or a horse shoe crab, and that in the hill, 
 drawing the earth up around the corn as it grew till 
 the hills were as much as two feet in height. As the 
 corn grew peas or beans were planted and the vines 
 twined around the stalks ; later, pumpkins and an 
 inferior sort of melon called macocks. Sun flowers 
 were cultivated and made into a sort of bread. Just 
 before the corn was ripe the ears were pulled, the seed 
 corn was selected from the largest and best ears, and 
 hung up to dry in the wigwams. The rest was dried 
 in the husk or over smouldering fires, after which it 
 was husked by the young men and inaidens, and there 
 were as many kisses over red ears as there have been 
 since in New England husking bees. When the corn 
 was nicely dried it was put in birch bark boxes and 
 hidden by the women in places dug in the ground, 
 lined with birch bark to keep out the moisture. Many 
 Indian warriors were lazy in winter time and if they 
 could find nothing to eat they were compelled to hunt 
 deer, iTioose of elk. So the squaws grew adept in their 
 concealment of the winter granaries. But the hogs 
 of the white men were wiser in the hunt for hidden 
 grains, and it is said that the uprooting of one of these 
 barns near Truro saved the pilgrims from starvation, 
 as their store was reduced to a few kernels of corn for 
 each individual. Corn well dried and cracked in a 
 mortar and long boiled was called o-mo-nee ; when 
 it was pounded into a coarse meal by the squawks, and 
 sifted through a basket for ash cakes, sup-pawn. Ash 
 cakes were of sup-paw^n, salted and stirred up with 
 water, and spread upon smooth flat stones, or thin 
 slabs of wood and set before the blazing fire to bake. 
 
66 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 When the Indians could not procure salt from licks or 
 the sea they burned the bones of birds, which made a 
 tolerable substitute. The aborigines also made a dish 
 called mu-si-quatash. It was composed of corn and 
 beans, fish and game. In summer the corn and beans 
 and perhaps the meat or fish would be fresh. In 
 winter it would be dried. Sometimes acorns, artichokes, 
 ground nuts, pumpkins and squashes would be cooked 
 together. At all events this simple cookery is far 
 above that of the Kighis, who boil lambs or goats and 
 serve them without disemboweling them. 
 
 Humboldt mentions that potatoes were common 
 from Chili to New Grenada. That they were grown 
 in Virginia, as was the tobacco plant, we know be- 
 cause plants were sent to Ireland by a colony of Sii 
 Walter Raleigh's, but both of these plants had been 
 imported long before from South America to Spain. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 LATER DISCOVERERS OF AMERICA. 
 
 THE following is a condensation of the most im- 
 portant discoveries, by whom they were made 
 and the time of their discovery. 
 
 1497 — ^June 24th, Newfoundland was discovered by 
 John Cabot, who coasted along the shores to Florida. 
 
 1498 — May 30th, Columbus discovered the main 
 land. Hitherto he had discovered and taken pos- 
 session of islands only. 
 
 1500 — Cabral, a Portuguese, visited the coast of 
 Brazil and discovered the mouth of the Amazon. It 
 was colonized before 15 15 in all probability. In 1500 
 Cortereal touched at Labrador. 
 
 1508 — Vincent Pinzon entered the Rio de la Plata. 
 It was in this same year that the Spaniards, finding 
 the Indians not strong enough for the labor of mining, 
 imported slaves from Guinea, and laid the foundation 
 for a traffic that disgraced the civilization of Europe 
 for three centuries. 
 
 15 II — Diego Columbus, son of the admiral, Chris- 
 topher Columbus, conquered the island of Cuba with 
 three hundred soldiers and lost not a man. 
 
 15 13 — Balboa crossed the isthmus of Darien with 
 290 men and discovered the South Sea. 
 
 15 19— Hernando Cortez sailed from Cuba with 
 eleven ships and 550 men. He landed on the coast of 
 Mexico, which had been discovered the previous year. 
 
68 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 The conquest of Mexico was concluded in 152 1 bj 
 950 Spaniards assisted by an army of Indians from 
 Tlascala. 
 
 1 53 1 — Peru was invaded by Pizarro and conquered 
 in less than a year with a force of 1,000 men. 
 
 ^535 — Mendoza, a Spaniard with 2,000 followers, 
 invaded Buenos Ayres and conquered the country as 
 far as Potosi, where the silver mines were discovered 
 nine years later. 
 
 1537 — Cortez discovers Calif6rnia. 
 
 1 541 — Chili conquered, Santiago founded. Orel- 
 lana sails from the sources of the Rio Napo down the 
 Amazon to the Atlantic. 
 
 1578 — New Albion, on the north-west coast of 
 America, discovered by Sir Francis Drake. 
 
 1586 — The Spaniards founded St. Thomas island in 
 Guiana. 
 
 1^87 — ^Davis Strait and Cumberland Islands dis- 
 covered by John Davis. 
 
 1604 — ^^ Monts, a Frenchman, founded the settle- 
 ment known as Acadia — afterwards Nova Scotia. 
 
 1607 — The first permament English settlement on 
 the James River in Virginia. 
 
 1608 — Qiiebec founded by the French, who had a 
 small neglected colony in Canada from 1542. 
 
 161 1 — Newfoudland colonized by the English; a 
 Dutch colony established at Hudson's River. 
 
 1 6 14 — New York founded. 
 
 1618 — Baffin penetrates to the seventy-eighth de- 
 gree of latitude in the bay which bears his name. 
 
 1620 — The first English colony established at Ply- 
 mouth. In this year the first negroes were imported 
 
LATER DISCOVERIES OF AMERICA, 69 
 
 into Virginia. They were brought by a Dutch vessel. 
 
 1635 — A French colony established in Guiana. 
 
 1655 — -Jamaica conquered by the English. 
 
 1664 — The Dutch colonies on Hudson River capitu- 
 late to the English. 
 
 1666 — The buccaneers begin their depredations on 
 Spanish colonies. 
 
 1682 — William Penn established a colony in Penn- 
 sylvania. La Salle takes possession of Louisiana in 
 the name of the king of France. 
 
 1698 — A colony of 1,200 Scots planted at Darien. 
 The next year it ^vas attacked by Spaniards and 
 abandoned. 
 
 1733 — Georgia colonized by the English. 
 
 1760 — Canada and the other French settlements 
 conquered by the English. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 
 
 IN less than ten years after the death of Columbus 
 all the principal West India islands were explored 
 and colonized. In 15 lo the Spaniards colonized 
 the Isthmus of Darien and three years later the gov- 
 ernor, Vasco Nanez de Balboa, hearing from the 
 natives that another ocean w^as on the v^^estern side, 
 crossed the Isthmus and from an eminence looked 
 down upon the Pacific. Not content with gazing, 
 however, he got down to the water's edge and wading 
 out as deep as he dared go he took formal possession 
 of the ocean in the name of the king of Spain. 
 
 Ponce de Leon, who had been a companion of 
 Columbus in his second voyage, was now growing old. 
 He was rich and he wanted to live. The Indians told 
 of a fountain in the Bahamas w^herein those who 
 bathed renewed their youth. And so the aged cava- 
 lier, w^rinkled and yellow, started on the long and 
 never-ending search, but the fountain of perpetual 
 youth was as illusive to him as had been the kingdom 
 of the Grand Khan to Admiral Columbus. It was the 
 year 15 12 when Ponce de Leon started in search of 
 the fountain. He set sail from Porto Rico, and, stop- 
 ping first at San Salvador and the neighboring islands, 
 he came on Easter Sunday, which fell that year on 
 the 27th of March; in sight of an unknown shore. He 
 supposed it, of course, to be an island, though it was 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 7 1 
 
 the most beautiful he had seen. The skies were of 
 the bluest, the water the clearest, there w^as great 
 variety in the vegetation, the trees were lofty and 
 magnificent, the earth was covered with gorgeous blos- 
 soms, and the balmy air was fragrant with odorous jessa- 
 mine. Birds of splendid plumage equalled only by 
 the blossoms in brilliancy of coloring were everywhere, 
 while the song birds of quieter hues filled the air with 
 sweet music. He called the island, as he supposed, 
 Florida, partly for the beautiful flowers and partly in 
 honor of the day. A few days later a landing was 
 made near the present site of St. Augustine. The 
 country was taken possession of in the name of the 
 the king of Spain. Still in search of the fountain, the 
 knight went south. Carefully he explored the coast 
 for many leagues. He discovered and named the 
 Tortugas, doubled Cape Florida and then sailed back 
 to Porto Rico, not any handsomer and somewhat 
 older than he went away. The king of Spain re- 
 warded him by creating him governor of the beautiful 
 land, and sent him to establish a colony. He did not 
 reach the shore again until 152 1, when he found the 
 Indians in warlike attitude. They met the intruders 
 with bo^vs and arrows, and poor Ponce de Leon was 
 badly wounded and carried back to Cuba, to leave the 
 wrinkled, worn-out body that no earthly fountain 
 could restore. 
 
 Fernandez.de Cordova discovered Yucatan and the 
 bay of Campeachy, but in a battle with the natives he 
 was mortally wounded and many of his men killed. 
 
 Grijalva explored the coast of Mexico the next year, 
 assisted by Cordova's pilot. 
 
73 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Fernando Cortez brought his fleet to Tabasco and 
 began the conquest of Mexico. An army of warriors 
 gathered to prevent the invasion, but he svs^ept them 
 away and started to confer with Montezuma. The 
 embassadors of that monarch, knowing too well his 
 weakness, tried to keep Cortez at a distance. They 
 made him costly" presents and endeavored in every 
 way to dissuade him. Then they hurried back to 
 Montezuma, who sent them again to Cortez with more 
 valuable presents and earnestly begged him to come 
 no nearer. But burning their ships behind them they 
 took up their march to the capital. The nations who 
 had been tributary to Montezuma now threw ofp his 
 yoke and joined Cortez. Poor Montezuma ! He was 
 of a weak and vacillating disposition. He was 
 frightened till he knew not what to do, and when they 
 proudly marched into his capital he came to meet 
 them and they camped in the grand central square 
 near the temple of the Aztec god of war. 
 
 For a month Cortez rested. It was winter, and he 
 and his officers examined everything of note in the 
 city. They were allowed to go about freely and even 
 examine the altars and thrones, that every day re- 
 ceived a human sacrifice. On every side there were 
 inexhaustible stores of provisions. There were vast 
 treasures of gold and silver, and vast arsenals filled 
 with bows and javelins. But Cortez was becoming 
 uneasy. The natives were now so accustomed to the 
 white men that they no longer took them for emis- 
 saries of God. There was danger in the millions of 
 natives that sw^armed about his little army. In this 
 emergency the dauntless Cortez boldly seized the 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. Jr^ 
 
 monarch and held him as a hostage. As a pretext for 
 this outrage he said it was a retort on the Mexican 
 governor of an adjacent province, who had attacked 
 the Spanish garrison there, and that Montezuma him- 
 self had acted with hostility and treachery to the 
 Spaniards while on the march to the capital, and when 
 once the emperor was in his power he compelled 
 Montezuma to acknowledge himself a vassal of Spain, 
 and to agree to an annual tribute, and at once the 
 payment of a sum of money equal to six million three 
 hundred thousand dollars. But the governor of Cuba 
 was jealous of the fame of Cortez, and he dispatched 
 a force to Mexico to arrest his progress and to 
 supersede him in command. The man who was to 
 supersede Cortez was Pamphilo de Narvaez. His 
 command amounted to more than tw^elve hundred 
 w^el 1 armed and strictly disciplined soldiers. Cortez 
 was vigilant and had received information from Vera 
 Cruz of the intended invasion. He was desperate, 
 and determined to hold his own or perish, so he 
 divided his little command. Leaving half of them 
 in the city, he quietly and swiftly withdrew ; and by 
 a forced march to the sea coast he proposed to en- 
 counter De Narvaez. He was successful, for while 
 De Narvaez and his men were asleep in their camp on 
 the night of May 26th, 1520, he burst upon them with 
 the fury of a cyclone, and before they kne^v what they 
 were about he compelled a surrender and induced the 
 conquered army to march under his standard to the 
 capital. Already the city was in a tumult and 
 Alvarado, whom Cortez had left in charge, was 
 besieged. Cortez marched to their assistance and at- 
 
74 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 tempted by diplomacy to settle affairs, ■ "but all too 
 late, the war was on," blood flowed in the streets. 
 Cortez, without shame, took poor broken-hearted 
 Montezuma to the top of the palace and made him 
 counsel the besiegers for peace ^vith the Spaniards. 
 But the wretched king received a volley of javelins from 
 his ow^n desperate subjects. 
 
 A few days later he died of his injuries, and his 
 warriors in sorrow and remorse desisted for 
 a time. But Cortez felt that his safety lay 
 in vacating the city. At length a great battle 
 terminated in the capture by the Spaniards of the 
 banner of Mexico. This disheartened the Mexicans 
 and they ignominiously fled. 
 
 Again in 1520 Cortez led his army to the capital 
 and besieged it until August, when the city raised the 
 siege and Mexico became a Spanish province. Among 
 the illustrious Spaniards are the names of Ferdinand 
 Magellan, a Portuguese by birth, but sailing under 
 command of the king of Spain ; De Ayllon, Ferdinand 
 de Soto. Pedro Melendez, an exceedingly blood- 
 thirsty man, destroyed the colony of French 
 Huguenots near the mouth of the St. Johns river. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 EARY COLONIES AMONG THE FRENCH. 
 
 IN the year of 1506 a map of the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence was made by a Frenchman whose name 
 is not given. Two years previouslyta band of 
 fishermen from Brittany and Normandy were located 
 there, and in 1508 some Indians were taken to 
 France. In 15 18 Francis I began to take an 
 interest in the new world. Five years later 
 a voyage of discovery was planned. John Verrazzani 
 of Florence was commissioned to conduct the expedi- 
 tion, the object being to discover a north-west passage 
 to the East Indies. The ship was named the Dolphin. 
 When out fifty days she neared the main land not far 
 from Wilmington. The Indians were kind^ and 
 friendly Then they coasted up New Jersey and 
 entered the harbor of New York. At Newport they 
 anchored and bartered with the natives. Here they 
 kidnapped a child and attempted to steal a girl. 
 From Newport the Dolphin sailed northward, explor- 
 ing the coast as far as Newfoundland. The name of 
 New France was given to the country. 
 
 Later came to America James Cartier, who named 
 a town situated at the foot of a high hill on an island 
 Mont-Real. Francis La Roque came next. In May, 
 1 541, Cartier again returned to this country with five 
 ships. John Ribault of Dieppe came with a band of 
 Huguenots, who were destroyed by the wicked 
 
76 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Spaniard Melendez. Two years later another colony 
 commanded by Laudorniere came, but they were bad 
 people and practiced piracy. Then the story of the 
 cruel murder§ of the Huguenots by Melendez reached 
 the mother land, and Dominic de Gourges of Gascony 
 came upon the Spaniards with righteous fury. He 
 destroyed the three Spanish forts on St. Johns and 
 imprisoned the inmates. Unable to hold his position, 
 he hung the leaders and above them he put this legend, 
 '"'•Not Spaniards^ hut Murderers^'' 
 
 In 1598 Marquis of La Roche was commissioned to 
 form a colony, and again the prisons of France were 
 opened to send to the beautiful ne\v world the refuse 
 of the old — even as at this date, when dangerous 
 criminals have their passages paid, when poor-houses 
 and asylums of the old world fill the steerage with 
 the poor wretches to whorn they begrudge the means 
 of life, so they send the children of misery to this 
 blessed home of the free. 
 
 In 1603 De.Monts was granted the sovereignty of 
 the country from the latitude of Philadelphia to one 
 degree north of Montreal. The settlement was finally 
 made at Port Royal. The fort was constructed and 
 the country was called Acadia and Longfellow's ex- 
 quisite poem of "Evangeline" fully describes the piti- 
 ful driving from their homes of these settlers. 
 
 In 1603 Samuel Champlain established a trading 
 post on the St. Lawrence at the present site of Qiiebec. 
 Twice did Champlain bring additions to this colonv. 
 He became governor of New France. To him more 
 than any other man the success of the French colonies 
 was due. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 EARLY ENGLISH COLONIES. 
 
 MARCH 5th, 1496, Henry Vn of England granted 
 a patent to "John Cabote, citizen of Venice ; 
 to Lewes, Sebastian, and Santinus, sonnes of 
 the said John." It empowered them to seek out, subdue 
 and occupy, at their own charges, any regions which be- 
 fore had "been unknown to all Christians." They were 
 authorized to "set up the royal banner, and possess the 
 territories discovered by them as the king's vassals." 
 Bristol was the only port to which they were per- 
 mitted to return, and a fifth part of the gains of the 
 voyage was reserved for the crown. The discoverers 
 were vested with "exclusive privileges of resort and 
 traffic. History speaks no more of the "sonnes" 
 Lewes and Santinus, but John and Sebastian sailed 
 from Bristol in the Mathew. The most precise ac- 
 count of the discovery is from a map drawn by 
 Sebastian Cabot and engraved in 1=549 ^Y Clement 
 Adams, which is known to have been hung in Qiieen 
 Elizabeth's gallery at Whitehall. The notice runs in 
 this way: "In the year of our Lord 1497 John Cabot, 
 a Venetian, and his son Sebastian, discovered that 
 country which no one before this time had ventured to 
 approach, on the 24th of June, about five o'clock in 
 the morning. He called the land terra primum visa, 
 because, as I conjecture, this was the place that first 
 met his eye in looking from the sea. On the contrary, the 
 
^8 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 island which lies opposite the land he called the island 
 of St. John, as I suppose because it was discovered on 
 the festival of St. John the Baptist." 
 
 In Sebastian Cabot's map of 1544, the original of 
 which is in the geographical cabinet, the island of St. 
 John corresponds with that of Prince Edward. The 
 authenticity of the map being accepted, the "first land 
 seen" must have been Nova Scotia or the island of 
 Cape Breton. 
 
 A second patent was issued to John Cabot Febru- 
 ary 3d, 1498, which authorized him to "take six ships 
 (of not more than two hundred tons burthen) and 
 therein convey and lede to the lande and isles found 
 by the said John in oure name and by oure command- 
 ment." 
 
 But John Cabot had departed this life before the 
 expedition was ready to sail, and so Sebastian sailed 
 from Bristol in May with five vessels. He was de- 
 termined this time to find a passage to India. Like 
 Columbus, he thought the new world a part of the 
 Grand Khan's dominions, but though it was July when 
 they reached the most northerly limit they could, the 
 suflferings from cold were so severe that most of the 
 three hundred colonists died from exposure. We 
 hear no more from Cabot until we find him in Spain 
 in 15 18, when he was appointed by that government 
 "pilot major." He made many voyages and finally 
 died in London in 1557. He was not far from eighty 
 years of age. His character is highly extolled by 
 contemporaries, and was distinguished by lofty cour- 
 age and great perserverance. Few lives exhibit such 
 incessant activity. 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMOIMG THE SPANISH. 79 
 
 The career of English discovery was checked dur- 
 ing the greater part of the sixteenth century, but with 
 the accession of Queen Elizabeth a new impulse was 
 given to voyage and adventure. Martin Frobisher, 
 aided by the Earl of Warwick, had three small vessels 
 fitted out to search for the north-west passage to Asia. 
 One was lost on the voyage, another returned to Eng- 
 land, and the third sailed to a higher latitude than 
 ever before attained. The group of islands in the 
 mouth of Hudson's strait was discovered. The larger 
 island lying northward was discovered and a stone 
 said to contain gold was found. This he took with 
 him, as well as an Esquimau. After this two fleets 
 came to the country in search of the precious metal. 
 They are said to have carried away whole tons of dirt^ 
 probably mica. 
 
 Among other English navigators were Sir Francis 
 Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Philip Amidas and 
 Arthur Barlow. The two latter, each in command of a 
 ship, reached Carolina in July, 1584. The shores of 
 Albermarle and Pamlico sound were explored, and they 
 landed on Roanoke island, where the English were 
 kindly entertained by the Indian queen. The navigat- 
 ors were charmed with the beauty of the land. The 
 waters of the sea were clear and glossy, the forests 
 abounded in flowers, yet neither of the commanders 
 had the courage to found a colony, and after two 
 months they returned to England, and the que.en, 
 Elizabeth, called her new country Virginia. 
 
 In December, 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh's patent 
 was confirmed by parliament (in the spring of 1584 a 
 patent had been granted him as liberal as that of Sir 
 
80 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Humphrey Gilbert). A great deal of zeal was now 
 manifested. Sir Richard Grenville commanded the 
 fleet, and a company composed in part of young nobles 
 made up the crew. The seven vessels composing the 
 fleet reached America on the 20th of June. They 
 were in great danger of being wrecked at Cape Fear. 
 Six days later they reached Roanoke in safety. 
 
 Ralph Lane was made governor of the colony of a 
 hundred and ten, and Grenville returned to England, 
 taking with him a Spanish treasure ship which he had 
 capiured. , But peace came not to the colonists. Win- 
 gina, the Indian king, and several of his chiefs were 
 allured into the English settlement and killed. There 
 was danger for the colonists everywhere thereafter, 
 and so when Sir Francis came in sight with a fleet the 
 colonists begged him to take them back to England. A 
 few days later a ship load of provisions arrived from 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, but finding no trace of the colon- 
 ists returned to England. A little later came Sir 
 Richard Grenville to Roanoke. He had three well- 
 laden ships with him. He searched thoroughly for 
 the colonists, who had been so eager to depart that 
 they had taken no pains to leave on a blazed tree in 
 the deserted settlement words written in charcoal, 
 which would have at once removed all uneasiness from 
 the minds of those who came after them. To keep 
 possession of the country, fifteen of Sir Richard Gren- 
 ville's men remained. The fleet returned to England 
 and another colony was quickly made up. It was 
 decided to call the new settlement " City of Raleigh." 
 
 The colonists arrived in Carolina the following 
 Tuly. But the fifteen men left at Roanoke island had 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 8l 
 
 been murdered by the Indians. Not daunted by this, 
 the northern extremity of the island was again chosen 
 for the site of the city, and the foundations laid. But 
 the Indians remembered the treachery of the whites 
 despite the honor Sir Walter conferred on the chief 
 Manteo, creating him "lord of Roanoke." 
 
 John White was governor of this colony. But as 
 the settlers did not sow there was nothing for them 
 to reap. Starvation was before them. The "lord of 
 Roanoke" still hunted and fished and gave no heed to 
 the "citizens of Raleigh," and as the winter was 
 approaching, and they had neglected to build houses, 
 as well as to plant corn, Governor White was com- 
 pelled to return to England for supplies. 
 
 This year, 1585, Virginia Dare was born, the first 
 white child of English parentage. White left one 
 hundred and eight citizens in Raleigh, but what be- 
 came of them no man knows. The ships he sent to 
 them loaded with provisions went cruising after a 
 Spanish merchantman and were captured themselves 
 by a man of war. Five years later Governor White 
 returned to the city of Raleigh. The island had be- 
 come a desert. There was nothing left to tell the 
 story. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh had now spent about two hundred 
 thousand dollars in attempting to found a colony. He 
 assigned his rights to an association of London mer- 
 chants. After this very little in the way of English 
 discoveries took place until 1602, when Bartholomew 
 Gosnold reached the coast of Maine. He was seven 
 weeks making the journey. His vessel, but a small 
 one, was named the Concord. He explored the coast 
 
82 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 from Cape Elizabeth to Cape cod. He went ashore 
 and took four men with him. This was the first land- 
 ing of Englishmen in New England. On the most 
 westerly of the Elizabeth islands, the first New Eng- 
 land settlement was made. But after a traffic with 
 the Indians, resulting in the ship being laden with 
 sassafras root, the settlers begged to be allowed to 
 return in the ship. Gosnold did not refuse them, and 
 five weeks later the Concord was again anchored in 
 the Thames. 
 
 Gosnold was delighted with the country, and April, 
 1603, two vessels sailed for America. They came 
 safely to Penobscot bay, and also explored other har- 
 bors in Maine. They were named the Speedwell and 
 the Discoverer. Martin Pring was commander. 
 After his explorations he returned to the sassafras 
 regions and loaded his vessels at Martha's Vineyard 
 and returned to Bristol, having been away six months. 
 
 In 1605 George Weymouth commanded an expedi- 
 tion to America. He came to the coast of Maine, 
 anchoring among the islands of St. George. He ex- 
 plored the harbor and opened a trade with the Indians, 
 some of them returning to England with him. He 
 left England in April and returned in June. 
 
 On the loth of April, 1606, King James I of Eng- 
 land issued two patents to men of his kingdom, 
 authorizing them to colonize all that portion of North 
 America lying between the thirty-fourth and forty- 
 fifth parallels of latitude. This immense tract ex- 
 tended from the mouth of Cape Fear river to Passa- 
 maquoddy bay and westward to the Pacific Ocean. 
 The first of these patents was granted to an associa- 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 83 
 
 tion of nobles, gentlemen and merchants, called the 
 London Company, while the second was issued to a 
 similar body organized at Plymouth, and bearing the 
 name of the Plymouth Company. To the London 
 ' Company was given the region between the thirty- 
 fourth and thirty-eighth degrees of latitude and to the 
 Plymouth the tract between the thirty-eighth and 
 forty-first parallels. The belt of three degrees between 
 the thirty-eighth and forty-first parallel was to be 
 open to colonies of either company, but no settlement 
 of one party was to be made within less than a hun- 
 dred miles of the nearest settlement of the other. 
 The Plymouth Company was not successful. 
 
 Bartholomew Gosnold, of whom we have read, was 
 the leading man in the London Company. His 
 associates were Richard Hunt, a clergyman ; Edward 
 Wingfield, a rich merchant ; John Smith, an adven- 
 turer ; Sir John Popham, chief justice of England ; 
 Richard Hakluyt, a historian, and Sir Ferdinand 
 Gorges, a nobleman. The affairs of the company 
 were to be administered by a superior council resid- 
 ing in England, and an inferior council living in the 
 colony. No principles of self-government were 
 allowed. A provision in the patent required the 
 colony to hold all property in common for five years. 
 The charter also allow^ed the emigrants to retain in 
 the new world all the rights of Englishmen. 
 
 The first ship of the Plymouth Company sailed in 
 early August, 1606. Later another ship was sent 
 out, which remained until spring. The reports 
 brought back by this ship were so encouraging that 
 in the summer following (1607) the company cent 
 
84 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 out a colony of another hundred persons. The mouth 
 of the river Kennebec, in Maine, was selected for the 
 settlement. A block house was constructed and 
 several cabins built. The ships then returned to 
 England, leaving a colony of forty-five persons. The 
 winter of 1607-S was very severe. Some of the poor 
 people were frozen, and some starved (the store house 
 and its contents had been destroyed by fire). When 
 the ships came again in the summer the remnant of 
 the colony returned to England. 
 
 The London Company had better fortune. Three 
 vessels were fitted out and Christopher Newport w^as 
 placed in command. They sailed on the 9th of 
 December, 1606, with one hundred and five colonists 
 on board. Wingfield and Smith, who had been with 
 the Plymouth Company, were among the party, 
 Newport took the old route by way of the Canary- 
 Isles and did not touch the new world until April. 
 He had intended landing on the disastrous Roanoke 
 island, but fortunately a storm carried the ship north- 
 ward into the Chesapeake. Entering the bay, the 
 vessels came to the mouth of a beautilul river, which 
 they named in honor of King James. They proceeded 
 up the river some fifty miles, when the company 
 landed on a peninsula of surpassing beauty. And here 
 on the 13th of May (old style), 1607, were laid the 
 foundations of Jamestown, the oldest English settle- 
 fnent in Avierica. 
 
 In the meantime John Smith was not eating the 
 bread of idleness. He was an active man, taking a 
 great interest in the Virginian settlement. ]\Iaine was 
 too cold, but the climate of Virginia w^as mild, and 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 85 
 
 yet not warm enough to be enervating. Smith had 
 excellent business qualifications, and he had observed, 
 that terrible vs^inter in ^Maine, that the vv^ild creatures 
 wore beautiful coats of fur, since nature clothes her 
 creatures according to their needs. So in 1609 Smith 
 returned to England, where he formed a partnership 
 with four wealthy merchants of London to trade in 
 furs and establish a colony within the limits of the 
 Plymouth grant. Two ships were freighted with 
 goods and put under Smith's command. These goods 
 were selected to please the Indians, who were in- 
 ordinately fond of "gewgaws." Beads, ear-rings, 
 bracelets, breast-pins of most glittering brass and set 
 with bits of colored glass, were greatly admired by 
 warriors as well as squaws. So too were the gaily 
 printed chintzes or copper plates, something not very 
 different from modern cottons. The ships sailed to 
 the Maine coast, where an exceedingly profitable 
 traffic was carried on with the Indians, bartering for 
 furs the goods with which the ships were laden. In 
 November, when the cold was beginning to be felt, 
 they sailed back to England. Smith came again to 
 America in i6i<,. He brought with him sixteen 
 colonists. They encountered a severe storm when nearly 
 at their destination and were compelled to put back 
 to England. But not yet discouraged. Smith raised 
 another company, this time not so judiciously chosen. 
 Part of his crew became mutinous and left him in 
 mid-ocean. His ship was captured by French pirates, 
 and himself imprisoned in the harbor of Rochelle. 
 Smith escaped in an open boat and made his way to 
 London. He immediately set about publishing a de- 
 
86 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 scription of the New England and was more energetic 
 than ever in inciting the Plymouth Company to 
 renewed exertions. The London Company were very 
 jealous of the Plymouth and put all the obstacles 
 possible in the way. Two years, 1617 and 1618, were 
 spent in making plans for a new colonization. 
 Finally, on the petition of some of its own leading 
 members, the Plymouth Company was superseded by 
 a new corporation known as the Council of Plymouth. 
 This council was formed of forty of the most wealthy 
 and influential men of the kingdom. By the new 
 charter almost unlimited power and privileges were 
 conferred on the new company. All that part of 
 America lying between the fortieth and forty-fifth 
 parallels of north latitude and reaching from the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific w^as given in fee simple to the 
 forty men who composed the council. More than a 
 million of square miles were embraced in the grant, 
 and absolute jurisdiction over all this tract of country 
 was committed to forty men. 
 
 How King James came to sign such a charter has 
 always remained a mystery. The plan of colonization 
 was on a large scale. John Smith was made Admiral 
 of New England for life. The king, in opposition to 
 the House of Commons, issued a proclamation enforc- 
 ing the provisions of the charter. And there were 
 promises of an early settlement in America. "But 
 man proposes, God disposes." 
 
 New England was to be the refuge of a people 
 desiring to worship Him without pomp or pageantry. 
 Politically the Puritans were patriotic to the king of 
 their country. Religiously they rebelled against the 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 87 
 
 authority of the English church. Queen Elizabeth 
 was more bitter against these people than King James. 
 She declared such teaching to be subversive of the 
 very principles on which her kingdom was founded. 
 The Puritans were persecuted frequently. They were 
 few and scattered through the north of England, 
 principally in Nottingham, Lincoln and York counties. 
 Though they were called rebels, their rebellion ex- 
 tended only to the declaration "that every man has a 
 right to discover and apply the truth as revealed in 
 the scriptures ^vithout the interpositson of any power 
 other than his own reason and conscience." The 
 little band resolved to leave England and they started 
 for Holland, only to be brought back again and thrown 
 into prison for a time. When liberated they gathered 
 together on a bleak heath in Lincolnshire, and in 
 1608 embarked from the mouth of theHumber. They 
 landed at Amsterdam, after one year going to Leyden, 
 where they remained ten 3^ears. But they were ever 
 homesick. The love of their country increased with 
 their absence from it. The did not takePkindly to Dutch 
 manners or ways. And in the year of 1617 they be- 
 gan to think and talk of emigrating to the wilds of 
 the New World, where they would be allowed the 
 freedom of religious worship and yet could be loyal 
 subjects of King James. So they sent John Carver 
 and Robert Cushman to England to ask permission 
 for the church of Leyden to settle in America. The 
 agents of the London Company and also the Council 
 of Plymouth gave some encouragement to their re- 
 quest, but the king and his ministers, especially Lord 
 Bacon, were bitterly opposed to anv project that would 
 
88 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 appear* to favor these heretics, as they were denom- 
 inated. 
 
 The Puritans were strong of heart nevertheless and 
 were not to be discouraged. They were determined 
 to go to the New World. If they could not get a 
 charter they would go without one, and since permis- 
 sion had not been granted to them they would go 
 without it. They had some resources of their own, 
 and a few faithful friends. They bought the Speed- 
 well, a little vessel of sixty tons, at Amsterdam, and 
 the Mayflower, much larger and more substantial, was 
 hired for the voyage. The Speedwell was to carry 
 the emigrants from Leyden to Southampton and they 
 were to join the Mayflower filled with a company from 
 London. John Robinson, the heroic pastor, went with 
 the Pilgrims, journeyed with his congregation from Ley- 
 den to the harbor of Delft, a distance of fifteen miles, 
 to see the embarkation of their brethren. As many as 
 could be accommodated went on board the Speedwell. 
 
 The pastor made a touching farewell address, and 
 the blessings anld prayers of those on shore followed 
 the vessel until it was out of sight. 
 
 Both ships came safely to Southampton. They left 
 the harbor on the 5th of August, 1620, but the Speed- 
 well was soon found to be unseaworthy. It was old 
 and leaky. So both ships came to anchor in Dart- 
 mouth, and it required eight days of work before it 
 was safe to sail again. Scarcely had they started 
 again when the captain of the Speedwell declared his 
 vessel unfit to breast the ocean, and then to the sorrow 
 and consternation of the passengers put back to Ply- 
 mouth. The leaky ship was abandoned. The citizens 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 89 
 
 feasted the poor Pilgrims and as many as could went 
 on board the Mayflower, anxious to reach a free land. 
 So it was the 6th of September before the shores of 
 England faded from their sight. 
 
 The voyage was dreadful. For sixty-three days 
 they were beaten and driven. At length the shores 
 of Cape Cod came in sight. At this time of year it 
 was bleak and desolate, but still it was land. The 
 Pilgrims had intended going up the Hudson, for they 
 had heard marvelous tales of the beauty of the coun- 
 try. On the 9th of November the vessel anchored in 
 the bay, and a meeting was held on board and the 
 colony organized under a solemn compact. They 
 made a charter for themselves and declared their 
 loyalty to the English crown, and covenanted together 
 to live in peace and harmony, ivith equal rights to all, 
 obedient to just laws made for the common good. Is 
 it not a sublime constitution, and with all its simplic- 
 ity does it not embody everything necessary "? Is it 
 not like that simplest of creeds, " Love the Lord thy 
 God with all thy heart, and thy neighbor as thyself .f' " 
 All the heads of families signed this charter. They 
 numbered forty-one. Then an election took place, 
 and John Carver was elected governor by a unani- 
 mous vote. They began to get themselves in readi- 
 ness to go on shore, and two days later the boat was 
 lowered, but was so rotten as to be useless. More 
 than two weeks, of such precious time (as only those 
 who know what New England weather is in Novem- 
 ber without shelter can tell) was taken up in repair- 
 ing the boat. Some way Standish Bradford and a few 
 other hardy men got to the shore. They found a heap 
 
90 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 of Indian corn buried under the snow. The 6th of 
 December the boat was thought seaworthy and the 
 governor and fifteen others went on shore. It was 
 sleeting and bitterly cold, so that their clothing was 
 soon like coats of mail. They wandered about all 
 day and then returned to the shore, where they en- 
 camped. But the Indians attacked them next morn- 
 ing, so they fled to the ship unhurt, deeply thankful. 
 
 The vessel was steered to the west and south-west 
 for some forty-five miles, around the coast of what is 
 now Barnstable county. On Saturday night an ugly 
 storm came on. The rudder was torn away and the 
 ship driven by the wind and guided by the pilot into 
 a safe haven on the west side of the bay. On the 
 next day (Sunday) religious services were held, and 
 on Monday, the nth of December (old style), the 
 Pilgrim Fathers landed on Plymouth Rock. 
 
 It was now mid-winter and the storms of snow and 
 sleet were unremitting. Many of the Pilgrims became 
 so enfeebled by their long journey and the penetrating 
 cold that they perished, but the sturdy ones kept on 
 exploring and finally concluded to select a site near 
 the first landing. The snow was clearisd away, sorrie 
 trees felled, and on the 9th of January these heroic 
 people began to build New Plymouth. Every man 
 set to vs^ork to build and fashion his own house. But 
 illness came upon them. In almost every family there 
 were cases of consumption or lung fever. At one 
 time there were only seven men able to work on the 
 sheds which they w^ere building to protect the work- 
 men from the storm w^hile getting the wood in shape 
 for building the houses. When the days were clear 
 
EARLY COLONIES AMONG THE SPANISH. 9I 
 
 the cold was so intense that fingers, ears and even 
 noses were frozen before their owners were aware of 
 it ; and woe to the unlucky creature who put his hand 
 upon his axe or augur or saw. Had it not been for 
 the early spring which brought relief from many ills, 
 the colony must have perished. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. 
 
 WE have already read of Sir Henry Hudson's 
 voyages. The Dutch colonies resulted from 
 this illustrious man. In 1607 he had been 
 employed by a company of London merchants to sail 
 into the North Atlantic and discover a route eastward 
 or westward to the East Indies. He had but one ship. 
 With it he passed up the eastern coast ot Greenland to a 
 higher point of latitude than had been attained pre- 
 viously ; he turned eastward to Spitzbergen, circum- 
 navigated the island, and met so many icebergs that 
 he was forced to return to England. The next year 
 he again ventured, hoping this time to find a way 
 between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla to the east, 
 so as to shorten the route to China by about eight 
 thousand miles. Alas, how many souls have suffered 
 and perished in the same attempt. 
 
 With the failure of this voyage Sir Henry Hudson 
 grew more determined than ever ; but his employers 
 were plunged in despair. They were cautious people 
 and did not like to take risks even when there was so 
 much to gain. So he went over to Amsterdam. At 
 this time Holland was the foremost of maritime 
 nations, and so eminent a man did not have to beg for 
 patronage in the busy marts of that country. 
 
 The Dutch East India Company gave him a yacht 
 called the Half-Moon. It was about the middle of 
 
VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. 93 
 
 April, 1609, when he set out for his third voyage to 
 the East Indies. Near the seventy-seventh parallel of 
 latitude, above the capes of Norway, he turned east- 
 ward between Lapland and Nova Zembla. The 
 ocean was filled with icebergs, so he could sail no 
 further. He turned his face towards the shores of 
 America ; he thought that surely between the Chesa- 
 peake and the North Pole there must be a passage to 
 the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 In July they reached Newfoundland, and then sail- 
 ing down to the coast of Maine they stopped to do some 
 needed repairing to the ship, which had been battered 
 in a storm till it was no longer seaworthy. When the re- 
 pairs were made he sailed southward, touching at Cape 
 Cod. About the middle of August he reached the Chesa- 
 peake. Some way he inust have missed the passage, 
 he thought, so again he turned the prow to the north 
 and carefully explored the coast. He anchored in Dela- 
 ware bay on the 28th of August. For a single day he 
 explored and then he sailed on, and on September 3d 
 came to anchor in the bay of Sandy Hook. Two days 
 later he landed and the Indians came to welcome him, 
 bringing fruits and corn and oysters. Until the 9th 
 he explored the great harbor. The loth he sailed 
 through the narrows and up the beautiful river which 
 bears his name. The forests on either side were 
 magnificent. The pallisades were like nothing in the 
 old world. The grand mountains and the hills and 
 valleys were planted here and there with corn, now 
 ripening. It was like an exquisite dream. The skies 
 were of the most tender blue, the voices of songsters 
 filled the air. It w^as indeed a new world to the 
 
94 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Netherlanders. September 19th the vessel was moored 
 at the place now known to us as Kinderhook ; but an 
 exploring party quickly set out in small boats and 
 rowed up to the site of the present city of Albany. 
 They remained at Kinderhook several days and then, 
 loosing the moorings, floated down the stream, and on 
 the 4th of October sailed for Holland. 
 
 Hudson on the homeward voyage put into the har- 
 bor of Dartmouth. Thereupon the noble King James 
 with his characteristic selfishness detained the vessel 
 and claimed the crew for Englishmen. Hudson for- 
 warded to his employers of the East India Company 
 an account of his successful voyage, which had been 
 made under the flag of Holland. 
 
 But now the English merchants w^ere quite ready to 
 spend more money on the north-west passage. So in 
 the summer following (1610) a ship called the Dis- 
 covery was put under Hudson's control, and he sailed 
 away never to return. He was quite satisfied by this 
 time that there was no passage between Florida and 
 Maine to the East Indies, so he turned his face north- 
 ward again and looked for a passage between the 
 gulf of St. Lawrence and the northern part of Green- 
 land. He took the same track that Frobisher had, 
 steering between capes Farewell and Labrador, and 
 on the 3d of August the vessel came to the strait 
 which bears his name. No ship had ever entered 
 these waters unless some Norse sea kings had traveled 
 that way. Westward a group of islands opposed 
 their way ; but passing them the bay opened, the 
 ocean w^as before them, and they thought the road to 
 Cathay was at last found. But sailing to the west- 
 
VOYAGES AND SETTLEMENTS OF THE DUTCH. 95 
 
 Avard the shores narrowed and they faced a sea of ice. 
 They were forced to remain, and when their stores 
 were nearly exhausted the w^ay opened for their re- 
 treat. But mutiny was among the crew. Only seven 
 remained true to the commander. These seven, with 
 Sir Henry Hudson and his son, were thrown over- 
 board into an open shallop, and no man knows what 
 became of them. 
 
 In the summer of 1610 the Half -Moon was liberated 
 at Dartmouth and returned to Amsterdam. The same 
 year several ships were fitted out by Dutch merchants 
 and, sailing up the Hudson river, they traded with the 
 natives for furs. The traffic was exceedingly profit- 
 able and they made many voyages. In the year 16 14, 
 about the second month, an act was passed by the 
 States General of Holland giving to certain merchants 
 of Amsterdam the exclusive right to trade and estab- 
 lish settlements within the limits of the country ex- 
 plored by Hudson. Five small vessels under this 
 commission were fitted out and arrived at Manhattan 
 island (now the City of New York) in the summer. 
 Former traders had left some rude huts, but a fort 
 w^as needed and immediately erected and called New 
 Amsterdam. Adrian Block, who commanded one of 
 the ships, sailed through East river into Long Island 
 sound and made explorations along the coast as far as 
 the mouth of the Connecticut, then to Narraganset 
 bay and Cape Cod. About the same time Christian- 
 son, another Dutch commander, sailed up the river 
 nearly to the site of Albany and erected a block house 
 w^hich he named Fort Nassau. This was for a long time 
 the most northerly outpost of the Hudson river settlers. 
 
96 FOmi HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 In the meantime Cornelius May, who commanded a 
 little ship named the Fortune, left New Amsterdam 
 and explored the Jersey coast to the bay of Delaware. 
 And now Holland set up a claim to all the country 
 so explored and called the country the New Nether- 
 lands, which extended from Cape Henlopen to Cape 
 Cod. France and England treated this claim with 
 contempt. 
 
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CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. 
 
 THE failure of the first colonies was the over- 
 powering numbers of ge7itlemen. Hewers of 
 wood and stone, tillers of the soil and artisans 
 generally were too plebeian folk to associate with the 
 gentry, as they would have to in the small vessels. 
 Of all who came to Virginia in 1607 there were but 
 twelve laborers — four carpenters and eight black- 
 smiths and masons. King James had been wary and 
 sent out sealed instructions, so that the names of the 
 governor and council were unknown during the 
 voyage. 
 
 There were some who suspected the able captain, 
 John Smith, whose honor was impeachable, of a plot 
 to murder the council and create himself king of 
 Virginia. So these wise heads arrested the noble 
 man and kept him confined during the voyage. When 
 the colonists reached the land and the instructions 
 were opened the sealed 'papers gave the names of the 
 inferior council only, so they had a meeting and the 
 choice of governor fell upon Edward Wingfield. And 
 now that theVe was no proof of anything wrong or 
 underhand the wise people let Captain Smith go 
 aboard once more a free man. The settlement was 
 well under way when Smith and Newport, with 
 twenty others, explored the James river for some forty- 
 five miles. They found the capital of the Indian king 
 
98 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Powhatan near the site of the present city of Rich- 
 mond. The capital was an unpretentious one — a 
 village of twelve wigwams. The king received his 
 visitors with courtesy and seemed not at all to feel 
 their coming and intrusion. The company now re- 
 turned to Jamestown and on the 15th of June New- 
 port sailed for England. 
 
 Now the colonists began to realize their lonely con- 
 dition. It is true the land was beautiful and the air 
 still pleasant, but colder days were coming, and then 
 illness came upon so many of them that once but five 
 men were able to go on duty as sentinels. Gosnold 
 died, and before severe frosts came half of the colonists 
 had passed beyond earthly suffering. But the frost 
 checked the disease. But as "evils come not singly" 
 civil dissension was added to their other ills. Em- 
 bezzling then, as now, was occasionally indulged in 
 by men in high places, and President Wingfield and 
 George Kendall were actually detected in embezzling 
 the stores of the colonists and were removed from 
 office. Ratcliffe was chosen to fill the governor's 
 chair, but was incompetent. The council had now 
 dwindled down to Martin and Smith. By common 
 consent Smith was elected governor of this handful 
 of colonists. He was by birth an Englishman. He 
 had been a great traveler. He was an exceedingly 
 well-informed man and one of undaunted courage. 
 Doubtless, had he been elected governor at first, the 
 fate of many colonists would have been changed. He 
 had scarcely assumed the reins of government till the 
 settlement began to improve. He first improved the 
 habitations on the plantation, then he took measures 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. 99 
 
 to secure a supply of food, for the winter was almost 
 upon them. The Indians had been very successful 
 with their harvest, but they did not care to dispose of 
 their corn to these invaders, so Governor Smith with 
 five companions took a boat and, sailing down the 
 James river to Hampton Roads, they landed and 
 offered the natives hatchets and copper coins in ex- 
 change for corn. The Indians laughed them to scorn 
 and in return offered a bit of bread for Smith's sword 
 and musket. The English then charged on their 
 wigwams and found abundance of corn. A parley 
 followed, and the Indians purchased peace by loading 
 the English boats with corn, which was then rowed 
 up the river to Jamestown. 
 
 It was not long until the Indians began to come to 
 the fort with voluntary contributions and the colonists 
 no longer feared famine. The woods were filled wnth 
 wild turkeys, and such good discipline was maintained 
 in the colony that very friendly relations were estab- 
 lished with the Indians. So the colonists from the 
 gloom of despair grew cheerful and contented. 
 
 When the people were in this comfortable state and 
 the winter had set in Governor Smith and six Eng- 
 lishmen, with tv/o Indian guides, commenced explor- 
 ing the country on the Chickahom'iny. The people 
 of Jamestown had conceived the idea that by follow^ 
 ing up this river they could reach the Pacific Ocean. 
 Smith humored them (knowing better himself), but it 
 gave him the opportunity of exploring the territory. 
 Those of the colonists who desired to search for gold 
 or for the Pacific were welcome. For his part he 
 would see the country and make maps. Smith and 
 
lOO FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 his companions ascended the river until it became a 
 mere creek, crooked as the roots of sassafras and wind- 
 ing about the meadow and through the woods. The 
 party was attacked by Indians, and some of the Eng- 
 lish killed. Three escaped to the boat, but George 
 Cassen was taken prisoner. Smith was safely hidden, 
 but the savages tortured the wretched Cassen till be 
 revealed his hiding-place. Smith was discovered, 
 wounded with an arrow and chased through the thick 
 forest. The arrows fell around him like hail. With 
 him were the two Indian guides. He compelled them 
 to stand between him and the pursuers and every time 
 he fired his musket he brought down a man. He 
 fought like a lion at bay, tied one of the guides to his 
 left arm for a buckler and ran and fired by turns. At 
 length he stumbled into a morass. Unable to extricate 
 himself, he laid down his musket and made signs of 
 surrender. Still the Indians were wary of him, but 
 they finally came to his assistance and pulled him out 
 of the mire. Smith demanded to be taken to the chief, 
 and on being brought before him he exhibited no fear 
 whatever, but showed the chief two great curiosities, 
 a watch and a pocket compass. These mysterious 
 instruments awed the savages, and Smith took imme- 
 diate advantage of the fact and commenced to draw 
 figures on the ground, and give his captors some easy 
 lessons in geography and astronomy. At first the 
 savages were astonished, but they became tired, and 
 binding their captive to a tree prepared to shoot him. 
 But again he took his compass, and flourishing it in the 
 air (as though performing a ceremony) the Indians 
 were afraid to shoot. His wisdom and courage 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. lOI 
 
 gained reprieve, but before him was the more to be 
 dreaded torture. The superstition of the savages was 
 now thoroughly aroused, and they feared to deal with 
 him except in the most formal manner. They were 
 afraid to touch him lest they touch a deity. They 
 took him first to the town of Orapax, a few miles 
 north-east trom what is now Richmond. He was 
 invited to join them and become their leader, but he 
 refused, and then terrified them by describing the 
 cannon and other weapons of destruction possessed by 
 his countrymen. He managed to write a letter to his 
 friends at the settlement, telling them of his position 
 and warning them of their danger, asking for needed 
 articles, and bidding his friends thoroughly frighten 
 the messengers before their return. This letter 
 seemed to impress the Indians with more awe than 
 anything they had yet seen, for they could not under- 
 stand how a few marks could convey meaning. And 
 when the messengers arrived at Jamestown and found 
 everything as he had described it to them their terror 
 and amazement knew no bounds, and as soon as they 
 returned to Orapax all thought of attacking the settle- 
 ment was abandoned. The Indians now marched 
 from one town to another with Captain Smith, ex- 
 hibiting him (which gave him an exalted idea of the 
 country and the number of Indians). At length they 
 came to Pamunkey, the capital of Opechancanough. 
 Here they gave Smith into the charge of the piiests, 
 who w^ere assembled in the Judgment Hall or Long 
 House. For three days they danced around him, sing- 
 ing and yelling like demons. The object was to de- 
 termine his fate, the decree that he should die. 
 
I03 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Now, the priests did not possess the entire power. 
 The emperor must sanction their decree before it 
 could be carried out. Powhatan lived some twenty- 
 five miles further down the river in winter, and to 
 him they now^ brought Smith. Powhatan was now 
 sixty years of age, of commanding aspect and nobility 
 of mien. He received the prisoner with great dignity. 
 "Going to the Long House clad in a robe of raccoon 
 skins, he took his seat on a sort of rude throne pre- 
 pared for the occasion." His two daughters were on 
 either hand and warriors and women of rank even 
 filed about the hall. The king reviewed the case and 
 coincided with the decision of the priests. Then by a 
 sign two great stones were brought into the hall, and 
 Smith, bound and helpless, was carried and laid so 
 that his head rested in position on one while a strong 
 warrior with his war club stood ready to dispatch him. 
 The signal had been given, the war club was raised 
 high. Matoaka, the king's eldest daughter, sprang 
 forward and stood over the victim, then stooping 
 clasped his head in her arms. Eagerly and with great 
 emotion she besought her father for the captive's life. 
 Powhatan listened and could not say her nay. He 
 ordered Smith to be unbound and lifted up. And 
 since he had spared his captive's life he received him 
 into favor. At first he was required to make hatchets 
 for the warriors and trifles for the king's daughters. 
 As they found him trustworthy they gave him greater 
 freedom, and at length agreed to send him to his peo- 
 ple at Jamestown ; but he must furnish two cannons 
 and a grindstone to Orapax. Warriors were to be 
 sent with Smith to bring back the articles. Then 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. IO3 
 
 would there be peace between the English and the 
 red men. So they set out — twelve warriors and one 
 white man. The company camped out over night in 
 the woods. Smith had little confidence in the integ- 
 rity of his companions, but they came in safety to the 
 colony and met with a kindly reception. During 
 Smith's confinement among the Indians he made him- 
 self familiar with their peculiarities and superstitious 
 weaknesses, as well as their language. He under 
 pretext of showing the warriors how to use the 
 cannon ordered them well charged with powder and 
 filled with stones and had them directed high against 
 the trees that were covered with long icicles. The 
 crash was deafening and well nigh frightened the 
 savages to death. They could not be induced to so 
 much as touch one of the cannons, or even the grind- 
 stone, and they returned to their monarch bearing 
 tales only. 
 
 There were but thirty-eight settlers alive at this 
 time and these were half-starved and suffering 
 from frost bites and chill-blains. For seven weeks the 
 only competent man among them had been absent — 
 seven weeks in mid-winter, and at that one of the most 
 severe cold known in modern times. Again they 
 were discontented, and when Smith returned they 
 were making ready to embark on the pinnace as soon 
 as the ice should break in the river. 
 
 But Providence had not forgotten them. Captain 
 Newport arrived from England. He brought quanti- 
 ties of needful supplies and one hundred and twenty 
 emigrants. There was joy and thanksgiving. But 
 the governor, well skilled in reading human nature, 
 
I04 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 knew that the coming of these people would-be of no 
 benefit to the colony. Their occupations were as 
 follows : thirty-four gentlemejz, some gold hunters, 
 jewelers, engravers, adventurers, strollers and vaga- 
 bonds. 
 
 Before Newport left, Smith had advised and 
 counseled him to bring but few people, and those in- 
 dustrious mechanics and laborers ; but the London 
 Company were avaricious, and the prospect of an im- 
 mediate golden harvest prompted them to bring those 
 who desired to come. 
 
 The wise counsels of Smith, to plant grain and 
 vegetables and prepare houses that would protect 
 them from the rigors of another winter, were jeered at, 
 and few of the old settlers had received instructions 
 by experience, severe though it had been. As soon as 
 the weather would permit they commenced strolling 
 about hunting for gold. At the mouth of a small 
 river tributary to the James some shining particles 
 were found in a sand bank, and as there were no 
 assayers in the colony a gold mine was supposed to 
 have been discovered and the colony was literally 
 crazed with joy. ^ Martin and Newport, both members 
 of the council, shared the common belief. Martin 
 built castles in the air to such an extent that he 
 fancied himself laden with riches and honored with a 
 peerage, while Newport, having filled one his of vessels 
 with the supposed gold dust, sent it to England and 
 himself sailed up the James river expecting to arrive 
 speedily at the Pacific Ocean. There was no plough- 
 ing or sowing, and fourteen weeks of glorious spring 
 weather passed. The Indians even were laughing at 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. IO5 
 
 the folly of the white men loading the vessel with 
 fool's gold. 
 
 In the pursuit of gold Sinith was forgotten. Very 
 quietly he organized an exploring party and set out. 
 Dr. Russell and thirteen others accompanied him. On 
 the 2d of June the little band set sail. The vessel 
 was an open barge of three tons burthen, but in this he 
 steered out by the way of Hampton Roads and Cape 
 Henry as far as Smith's island, returning around the 
 peninsula which ends in Cape Charles. They began 
 the survey of the eastern shore of the beautiful bay 
 and continued northward as far as the river Wicomico 
 in Maryland. They now crosed the river to the mouth 
 of the Patuxent, and from there coasted northward 
 along the western side to the Patapsco. Some of the 
 members of the party became dissatisfied and desired 
 to return to Jamestown. Smith gave a reluctant con- 
 sent, but soon the beauties of the Potomac opened be- 
 fore them and they were very willing to go on. They 
 went up as far as the falls above Georgetown, and 
 then dropped down the river to the bay, and turning 
 south landed at Jamestown the 3ist of July. After a 
 rest of three days a second voyage was begun. This 
 time he went to the head of the bay and sailed up the 
 picturesque Susquehanna. He found the Indians of 
 this region to be of gigantic stature and fierce and 
 warlike in disposition. On the return voyage Smith 
 explored every sound and inlet vvorthy of note as far 
 as the Rappahannoc. This stream he ascended to the 
 head of navigation, and then returned to Jamestown. 
 He had been away a little more than three months, 
 and had explored the coast of the great bay fully 
 
I06 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 three thousand miles. He had been driven about by 
 storms, wrecked, stung by a poisonous fish and come 
 so near to death that his grave had been prepared 
 and now he brought to Jamestown a map of the 
 Chesapeake bay, which he sent to England by New- 
 port and which is still preserved. Again Smith was 
 elected to govern the colony and as before there came 
 a marked improvement with his administration. 
 There was an end of gold hunting and the later 
 months of the year v^ere full of prosperity. In the 
 fall Newport arrived bringing seventy new emi- 
 grants. The general health ^vas now excellent, only 
 seven deaths occurring between September and May. 
 Every man was obliged to work six hours per day. 
 New houses were built, new fields fenced in. All 
 winter long the cheerful ring of hammer and axe were 
 heard. 
 
 The 23rd of May, 1609, was an occasion on which 
 King James granted a new charter to the London 
 Company, by which the government was completely 
 changed. 
 
 The territory was again extended, this time from 
 Cape Fear to Sandy Hook and west to the Pacific 
 Ocean. The members of the Superior Council were 
 now to be chosen by the stockholders of the company, 
 vacancies were to be filled by the councilors, who 
 were also empowered to efect a governor. 
 
 The new council immediately organized. Lord 
 Delaware was elected governor for life. In authority 
 with him were joined Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George 
 Somers, Christopher Newport, Sir Thomas Dale and 
 Sir Ferdinand Wainman. Five hundred emigrants 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. IO7 
 
 were very soon ready and in June a fleet of nine ves- 
 sels spread sails for America. Lord Delaware did 
 not accompany the expedition, but delegated his 
 authority to Somers, Gates and Newport. In July, 
 Avhen the vessels were passing the West Indies, there 
 Was a storm such as are common in that region. The 
 fleet was scattered ; one vessel wrecked and the one 
 having on board the commisioners of Lord Delaware 
 was driven ashore on one of the Bermudas ; the re- 
 maining seven came safely to Jamestown. 
 
 Under the old constitution Captain Smith still con- 
 tinued in authority. But there was great strife in the 
 colony. The governor was daily in danger of his life. 
 Some of the most noisy and rebellious subjects he put 
 in prison, and then tried to distract the attention of 
 others by planning two new settlements, one of a 
 hundred and twenty men at Nansemond, the other of 
 a hundred and twenty men at the falls of the James. 
 But both companies behaved badly and soon there 
 ^vas trouble with the Indians. While attempting to 
 restore peace, Smith was wounded by the explosion 
 of a bag of gunpowder, and as there were no surgeons 
 in the colony he was forced to return to England for 
 surgical treatment. He delegated his authority to Sir 
 George Percy and sailed for England September i6th, 
 1609, nevermore to be identified with Jamestown, 
 Virginia. Very soon after Smith's departure the 
 colony was again brought face to face with starvation. 
 The Indians were hostile, murdering stragglers with- 
 out the camp. Houses were set on fire ; disease came 
 upon them with the fury which swept them away the 
 winter previously. This year was long known as the 
 
Io8 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 starving time. By the last of March only sixty of the 
 four hundred and ninety colonists who were alive, 
 well and in comfort when Smith left them, remained. 
 
 Sir Thomas Gates and his companions who had 
 been shipwrecked in the Bermudas built two small 
 vessels and set sail for Virginia. They looked for- 
 ward to a grand welcome from the five hundred 
 colonists. But instead of firings of cannon and shouts 
 of joy, some poor half -starved wretches crawled out 
 of their houses, begging for bread. All the stores the 
 commissioners had brought with them were quickly 
 distributed among the settlers and Gates assumed 
 control of the government. 
 
 But the people refused to remain longer. The com- 
 missioners reasoned with them, but all in vain. It 
 was with difficulty they were prevented from burning 
 their houses. They entered the four boats and floated 
 down the river ; but Lord Delaware's ships came in 
 sight before the colonists had reached the sea. He 
 brought with him stores and emigrants and before 
 nightfall the fires were again rekindled in the deserted 
 city of Jamestown. 
 
 The next day the commission of Lord Delaware 
 was read, but on account of ill health this authority 
 was delegated to Percy, who had been the deputy of 
 Captain Smith. The Superior Council had already 
 sent a load of stores, and Sir Thomas Dale was bring- 
 ing another company of emigrants. 
 
 When the vessels arrived at Jamestown Percy was 
 superseded as governor by Dale, who adopted a sys- 
 tem of martial law as the basis of his administration. 
 Sir Thomas Gates arrived the latter part of August 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. IO9 
 
 with six ships. On board were three hundred emi- 
 grants and a large quantity of stores. 
 
 Heretofore the settlement had been communistic ; 
 now the right of holding private property was recog- 
 nized. The lands were divided, giving three acres to 
 each settler. Heretofore all the fruits, vegetables, 
 etc., were gathered in a common barn ; no\v the prod- 
 uct belonged only to the man who tilled the ground^ 
 At once the colonists became more industrious and 
 cheerfulness drove despair away. 
 
 Again in 1612 a third patent was granted the Lon- 
 don Company from the king, by which the character 
 of the goverment was again changed. The Superior 
 Council was abolished and the stockholders were 
 authorized to elect their own officers and to govern 
 the colony on their own responsibility. This change 
 was because of the unprofitableness of the colony in 
 the past and the great expense attending, as well as 
 the dissatisfaction of the company with the manage- 
 ment of the council. 
 
 In the year 16 13 Captain Samuel Argall was on an 
 expedition up the Potomac, and hearing that Poca- 
 hontas, the daughter of King Powhatan, was in the 
 neighborhood enticed the girl on board his vessel and 
 held her captive. He demanded a large ransom for 
 her liberation, but the king refused to pay any and 
 ordered his tribes to prepare for war ; but while still 
 a prisoner she was converted to the Christian faith and 
 became a worthy member of the Episcopal church. 
 John Rolfe was a young Englishman of good birth. 
 He became attached to the Indian maiden and asked 
 her hand in marriage. The king and his chiefs con- 
 
no FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 sented, and in the spring time, when all things were 
 most beautiful, the marriage ^vas celebrated and a bond 
 of union between the white men and the red men was 
 formed. 
 
 Two years later Rolfe took his wife to England. 
 Captain Smith introduced them to Queen Anne and 
 iTQUch attention was shown the dusky princess, who, if 
 traditions are to be believed, was really a beautiful 
 woman. The next year she sickened and died, leaving 
 a son, who came to Jamestown and became a man of 
 importance in the colony. Several Virginia families 
 trace their relationship to this man. John Randolph 
 of Roanoke was a descendant of Pocahontas. 
 
 Again Captain Argall commanded an expedition to 
 the coast of Maine. The object was to protect Eng- 
 lish fishermen and to destroy any French colonies that 
 might be found on that part of the earth that England 
 claimed. The French authorities of Acadia were 
 building a village near the mouth of the Penobscot. 
 The malicious Argall pillaged the settlement and then 
 burned it. Part of the inhabitants were sent to France 
 and part to the Chesapeake. Then they attacked the 
 French settlement at St. Croix. The fort was can- 
 nonaded and destroyed. At Port Royal Argall burned 
 the hamlet built by Poutrincourt eight years before. 
 On his way back to Virginia he fell upon the Dutch 
 at Manhattan island, destroyed their huts, and com- 
 pelled the settlers to acknowledge the king of Eng- 
 land. So the French were compelled to confine them- 
 selves to the banks of the St. Lawrence river. 
 
 Sir Thomas Gates returned to England early in 
 1614. He left the management of affairs to Dale. 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. Ill 
 
 The laws of the colony had been much improved, 
 and the colonial industries beg'an to make a showing. 
 Formerly the colonists had manufactured soap, glass 
 and tar ; now these things could be bought more 
 cheaply in England, so it was not worth while to 
 export them. They discovered that there were prod' 
 ucts in the new world that could easily be raised and 
 be exported with profit. Tobacco, which had now be- 
 come very fashionable in Spain, England and France, 
 was very easily cultivated, and the streets of James- 
 town were planted with the weed. 
 
 In the year 1617 Captain Argall, about whom his- 
 tory does not mention a single kind thing, was elected 
 governor. As might be expected, his administration 
 was marked by fraud and violence. When the news 
 of his management reached England emigration was 
 stopped, and Lord Delaware immediately started for 
 America in the hope of restoring order, but he died 
 on the voyage. 
 
 In 1619 Argall was displaced, leaving a shameful 
 record. George Yeardley was his successor. Under 
 his management many burdens were removed from the 
 people, taxes were repealed and martial law abolished. 
 The plantation was divided into eleven districts called 
 boroughs. The citizens of each borough were entitled 
 to elect two of their number to take part in the gov- 
 ernment. The elections took place for the first time 
 July 30th, 16 19. The Virginia house of burgesses 
 was organized. This was the first popular assembly 
 in the new world. Though freedom of debate was 
 allowed, there was very little political power allowed 
 the house of burgesses. In the same year slavery was 
 
112 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 introduced. Heretofore the servants at Jamestown 
 had been English or German. The term of service 
 varied from months to years. In August a Dutch 
 man of war sailed up the river to the plantations and 
 offered at auction twenty Africans, who were bought 
 by the wealthy residents and were slaves for life. 
 
 The Virginian society was neither refined (I was 
 about to say respectable) nor elegant. There were, it 
 is true, six hundred men in the colony, but few of 
 them came there with the expectation of making a 
 permanent home. Very few families had emigrated. 
 
 Sir Thomas Smith was now president of the London 
 Corpipany, and Sir Edwin Sandys succeeded Smith. 
 The latter was a man of prudence and integrity. A 
 reformation of abuses was at once begun and carried 
 out. 
 
 During the summer of 1620 the new treasurer of 
 the company sent out twelve hundred and sixty-one 
 persons. Among the number were ninety well bred 
 young women, and in the foUovs^ing spring sixty more 
 modest young women came over and secured a vs^el- 
 come. The passages of these young women were 
 paid by the citizens of Jamestown, since the treasury 
 of the London Company was empty, An assessment 
 of one hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco was 
 levied for each young woman, and cheerfully paid. 
 The second ship load cost one hundred and fifty 
 pounds. This was paid without complaint. Many 
 marriages resulted and the state of society gre^v better. 
 
 In July of 162 1 the London Company gave to 
 Virginia a code of .written laws framed according to 
 the constitution of England, which again changed 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. II3 
 
 the government. Sir Francis Wyatt, who was now 
 commissioned governor, brought the new constitution 
 to Virginia in October, 163 1. The colony was now 
 in a very flourishing condition. The settlement ex- 
 tended for a hundred and forty miles along the James 
 river banks and far into the interior. But the Indians 
 had grown jealous of the growing colony and deter- 
 mined to destroy them before they should be too 
 many. Pocahontas and her noble father Powhatan, 
 also Opechancanough, the present king, had long 
 plotted the destruction of the intruders and the time 
 had come for the massacre. Up to the very day in 
 which it was to take place the Indians appeared to be 
 on the best of terms with the colonists. They came 
 to the settlement, borrowed boats and guns and gave 
 no token of enmity. On the 22d of March, at noon, 
 the savages all in unison fell on every hamlet, every 
 family. Men, women and children were destroyed 
 indiscriminately, until the victims numbered three 
 hundred and forty-seven. A more terrible carnage 
 Avas avoided by a faithful Indian who had been con- 
 verted. He had a friend among the white men whom 
 he desired to save, and he went to him the night be- 
 fore the massacre and warned him. The alarm was 
 quickly spread among the settlements, and so the 
 larger number of colonists were prepared, but those 
 w^ho were destroyed lived so far out that messengers 
 could not reach them. 
 
 The people felt the need of being close together 
 and so gathered about Jamestown. Before the 
 massacre there had been eighty plantations ; after that 
 there were but eight. Still there were sixteen hun- 
 
114 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 dred men in the colony, and vengeance burned in 
 every breast. They formed themselves into companies, 
 and scouring the country they burned villages, killing 
 all Indians they came across, until the living fled to 
 the wilderness. The colonists returned to their farms, 
 and the next year the population increased to 3,500. 
 But now King James began to think the constitution 
 far too liberal, and he determined, if he could not 
 entirely control the London Company, he would 
 entirely suppress it. A committee was appointed to 
 look into the affairs of the company and they reported 
 unsound principles, bankrupt treasury and bad 
 government in Virginia. Legal proceedings were 
 now instituted against the company and the judges 
 decided the patent null and void. The charter of the 
 corporation was accordingly cancelled by the king in 
 June, 1624. The London Company no longer existed. 
 But the seed, after so many discouraging trials, had 
 taken root and grew~ and flourished. That there was 
 not the highest attainable education among the people 
 we gather from the answer of Sir William Berkeley to 
 one of the interrogatories put to him by the British 
 lords-commissioner of foreign affairs. The question 
 asked v^as, "What number of English, Scotch and 
 Irish have for these seven years come to yearly plant 
 and inhabit with your government,'"' And also, 
 "What blacks or slaves have been brought within the 
 same?" Berkeley replied, "Yearly they come in of 
 servants about fifteen hundred. Most are English, 
 few Scotch and still fewer Irish, and not above two 
 or three ship loads of negroj^s in seven years." Nothing 
 is said of the free emigrants, though included in the 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. II 5 
 
 interrogatory. Probably the number was so incon- 
 siderable as not to deserve mention. 
 
 Sir William further says, "But I thank God there 
 are no free schools or printing ; for learning has 
 brought disobedience and heresy and sects into the 
 world, and printing has divulged them and libels 
 against the best government. God keep us from 
 both !" The farms in Maryland and Virginia fronting 
 on the Chesapeake were extensive, the scenery un- 
 surpassed. The magnificent sheet of water spread be- 
 fore them ; on either hand luxuriant forests giving 
 way before civilization ; mountains and hills in the 
 distanC'^, and fertile meadows that generously re- 
 sponded to the planter's toil. The planter's inansion 
 was usually built not far from the shore, with large 
 rooms and many windows of tiny panes set in lead. 
 There were roomy porches and large gardens, in the 
 prim English fashion, with walks bordered by box ; 
 sometimes there was a maze constructed of trees of 
 the same size planted closely together, to form a 
 labyrinth of winding paths, ending in an exquisite bed 
 of choice flowers. Seats were disposed in this laby- 
 rinth, which was a favorite resort of the gentlewomen. 
 The houses were of English brick. Indeed, every- 
 thing used in construction and ornamentation came 
 from the mother country. We can do no better here 
 than to quote from an English visitor whose letter to 
 a friend in England contains a description of the 
 houses (some of them standing at this time, '92): 
 "On entering the hall the walls were seen covered 
 with deer antlers, fishing rods and guns ; portraits of 
 cavileezs and dames and children ; even carefully 
 
Il6 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 painted pictures of horses, on whose speed and bottom 
 many thousand pounds had been staked and lost, and 
 won, in their day and. generation. On one side of the 
 hall a broad staircase with oaken balustrade led to the 
 numerous apartments above, and on the opposite 
 side a door gave entrance into the great dining hall. 
 The dining room was decorated with great elegance, 
 the carved oaken wainscot extending above the mantel 
 piece in an unbroken expanse of fruits and flowers, 
 hideous laughing faces, and armorial devices to the 
 cornice. The furniture was in the Louis Quatorze 
 style, with carved backs to the low-seated chairs. 
 There were Chelsea figures and a side board full of 
 plate, and a Japan cabinet, and a Kidderminster 
 carpet ; while in the great fire place a few twigs 
 crackled on large and highly polished brass andirons. 
 On the walls hung pictures of gay gallants, brave 
 warriors, and fair dames, whose eyes outshone their 
 diamonds ; and more than one ancestor looked grimly 
 down clad in cuirass and [armlets, and holding in his 
 mailed hand the sword which had done bloody service 
 in its time. The lady portraits, as an invariable rule, 
 were decorated with sunset clouds of yellow lace ; 
 the bright locks were powdered, and many little black 
 patches set off' the dazzling fairness of their rounded 
 chin." 
 
 The tenements were for the use of the manager and 
 overseers, and the slaves had cabins. 
 
 Colonel John Taylor, distinguished in the seven- 
 teenth century ,as a statesman, author, farmer and 
 philanthropist, Avas the first man who attempted to 
 improve the condition of the slaves. "He built com- 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. II7 
 
 modious brick dwellings for them, and accustomed 
 them to plank floors, glass windows and decent, 
 civilized habits of living. He, besides, furnished them 
 more regularly and abundantly with food and clothing 
 than was usual. His negroes multiplied rapidly, 
 became more honest and industrious and his crops in- 
 creased." 
 
 Between the pioneers and the planters there was a 
 wide difference. The pioneers had been turbulent 
 spirits, gamesters, disbanded soldiers, or rejected lovers. 
 The planters were of the nobles, refined and educated. 
 
 The staple product of the country was tobacco. 
 The laws against its cultivation were evaded, though 
 it was very exhausting to the soil. 
 
 Cotton was raised at an early date, but not in^ 
 sufficient quantities for export. In 1694 a vessel from 
 Madagascar in distress put into Charlestown. The 
 vessel was loaded with rice, and the captain in return 
 for the kindness he had received gave the governor a 
 bag of rice. Now the governor had seen the rice 
 growing in the hot swamps of Madagascar, so had it 
 sown in the swamps of Carolina. The enterprise was 
 successful, and soon rice was growing in both Caro- 
 lina and Georgia. 
 
 King James died in 1635. His son Charles I suc- 
 ceeded him. This young man was inexperienced and 
 stubborn. He took little heed of his western domin- 
 ions until he observed the tobacco import. Then he 
 would have a monopoly of it if he could, but the colo- 
 nial authorities outwitted him, and to his honor be it 
 said he recognized them as "a rightfully constituted 
 power. 
 
Il8 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 In 1626 Governor Wyatt retired from ofRce, and 
 Yeardley, the kind friend of the colonists, again became 
 governor. Under his administration the state im- 
 proved rapidly and things w^ere in a most flourishing 
 condition ; but he died November," 1637. During the 
 summer preceding his death a thousand new^ emigrants 
 arrived. The council had the right in an emergency 
 like the death of the governor to elect one to fill the 
 vacancy, and Francis* West was chosen. But no 
 sooner had the death of Yeardley been reported in 
 England than King Charles commissioned John Har- 
 vey to assume the government. He arrived in the fall 
 of 1629, and from this time till 1635 ^^^ colony v^as 
 ruled by a most unpopular magistrate. He was dis- 
 liked on general principles, as well as because of 
 'favoritism. There were many old land grants now 
 used by poor persons, who had improved the land in 
 a high degree. The governor took sides with the 
 speculators against the people, and the outraged assem- 
 bly of 1635 passed a resolution that Sir John Harvey 
 be thrust out of place, and Captain West be appointed 
 in his place " until the king's pleasure be known in 
 the matter." A majority of councillors sided with 
 the burgesses, and Harvey was obliged to go to Eng- 
 land for trial. But the king treated the whole matter 
 with contempt and refused a hearing and restored 
 John Harvey at once to his place as governor of his 
 most unwilling subjects, and he continued in power 
 until the year 1639, when he was superseded by 
 Wyatt, who held the position until 1643, when came 
 the English Revolution. The exaction and tyranny 
 of Charles drove his people into open rebellion. In 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. II9 
 
 January, 1643, the king with his friends repaired to 
 Nottingham and collected an army of Royalists. The 
 capital and southern part of the country remained 
 with parliament. The High Church party took sides 
 with the king. The republicans and dissenters made 
 up the opposing forces and the country was plunged 
 into the horrors of a civil war. It was more than two 
 years before the royal army was routed. The king 
 escaped to Scotland, and his friends fled to other lands. 
 
 But on demand of parliament King Charles was 
 brought back, tried and beheaded January 30, 1649. 
 Monarchy was abolished. Oliver Cromwell, general 
 of the parliamentary army, was made Lord Protector 
 of the Commonwealth of England. He retained this 
 office until his death in 1658. His son Richard suc- 
 ceeded him, but the son lacked his father's abilities 
 and courage. Becoming alarmed at the dangers that 
 gathered around him, he resigned. For a little time the 
 country was in anarchy. Then General Monk, who 
 commanded the English army of the north, came down 
 from Scotland and declared a restoration of the mon- 
 archy. The exiled son of King Charles was called 
 home and proclaimed king. Parliament sanctioned 
 the measure and on May 18, 1660, Charles H ascended 
 the throne of England. 
 
 These were troublous times. Virginia shared in 
 some degree the troubles of the mother land, yet the 
 evil done to the new state might have been more dis- 
 astrous than it was. In the first year of the civil war 
 Sir William Berkeley became governor of the colony 
 and remained in charge ten years. There was pros- 
 perity and rapid development in the growth of the 
 
I20 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 colony under his wise management. The controver- 
 sies about the lands were satisfactorily adjusted, cruel 
 punishments abolished and taxes equalized. The 
 general assembly was regularly convened to bear its 
 part in the government, and Virginia was in essential 
 particulars a free as well as a prosperous state. So 
 rapid did the population increase that in 1646 there 
 were twenty thousand people in the colony. 
 
 But as there is nothing absolutely perfect in this 
 w^orld, religious dissensions began to occur in Vir- 
 ginia. The Episcopal church was established by law 
 and dissenting was a crime. The Puritans were de- 
 spised. They were charged with being destroyers of 
 peace in England, and in March, 1643, a statute was 
 enacted by the assembly declaring that no person who 
 disbelieved the doctrines of the English church 
 should be allo\ved to teach publicly or privately, or to 
 preach the gospel within the limit of the state of Vir- 
 ginia. There were few Puritans in the colony, and 
 they were excluded from places of trust, and some were 
 driven from their homes. Thus all friendly relations 
 with 'New England were broken off for years. 
 
 But to return to the government. As soon as it 
 was known that Charles II was on the throne, Gov- 
 ernor Berkeley issued writs in the name of the king for 
 the election of a new assembly. The adherents of the 
 commonwealth were quickly put out of office and 
 replaced by the favorites of royalty. It was not long 
 before the Virginians found that they had exchanged 
 a republican tyrant of good principles for a monarch- 
 ial tyrant with bad ones. The former commercial 
 system was re-enacted in a worse form than before. 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. 121 
 
 The new law required that all commercial transactions 
 should be with English ships, and that tobacco, the 
 staple of Virginia, could be sold in England only. 
 King Charles II considered the British empire per- 
 sonal property and began to reward the profligates 
 who surrounded him with grants of Virginia land. It 
 was nothing unusual for an American farmer to find 
 his farm given away to some courtier of the king. 
 Great distress was occasioned by these unjust grants, 
 and finally the king crowned his folly by giving away 
 the whole state to his friends, Lold Culpepper and the 
 Earl of Arlington, for thirty-one years. 
 
 The aristocratic party in the colony had obtained 
 control of the house of burgesses and the new laws 
 were as bad as those of England. A statute was 
 passed against the Baptists, and the quiet and peace- 
 ful Qiiakers were fined and persecuted. Personal 
 property was very heavily taxed, while the large 
 estates were exempt. The salaries of the officers 
 were secured by a tax on tobacco and the biennial 
 election of burgesses was abolished. The people 
 began to look about for a pretext to throw off the 
 intolerable burden. *' The Susquehanna Indians fur- 
 nished occasion for an insurrection. The tribes about 
 the Chesapeake bay had been attacked by the Senecas 
 and driven from their homes." The Susquehannas 
 now fell upon the whites in Maryland, and the Poto- 
 mac became the scene of a border war. Maryland 
 and Virginia stood by each other. John Washington, 
 the grandfather of George Washington, took com- 
 mand of a company of militia against the Indians and 
 compelled them to cry for peace. Six chieftains went 
 
122 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 to Virginia as embassadors and were murdered. The 
 savages were maddened by this atrocity, and a terrible 
 warfare raged the whole length of the frontier. 
 Governor Berkeley sided with the Indians, but the 
 colonists forgot all that the Indians had shown them 
 in the past and, thirsting for revenge, remembered 
 only the treachery of the Indians, and not that the 
 whites had many time* set the red men the example. 
 There wa6 a division in the people. The aristocrats 
 sided with the governor and cried peace; while the 
 popular party, led by young Nathaniel Bacon, were 
 clamoring for war. Five hundred men were quickly 
 mustered, and the march into the enemy's country 
 began. Berkeley and his following w^ere fiercely 
 angry and proclaimed Bacon a traitor. Troops were 
 levied to disperse the militia. But scarcely, were 
 Berkeley and his forces out of town till a popular 
 uprising took place there, and he was compelled to 
 return. Bacon came home victorious, the assembly 
 was broken up and a new one elected on the basis 
 of U7iiversal suffrage. Bacon was chosen a member 
 and made commander-in-chief of the Virginian 
 army. The governor refused to sign his commis- 
 sion, but Bacon appealed to the people, and the 
 governor was compelled to yield, and also to sign a 
 paper commending Bacon's loyalty, zeal and patriot- 
 ism. On the frontier a military force was stationed 
 and again peace reigned. 
 
 But Lord Berkeley was proud and full of revenge, 
 anxiously watching for an opportunity to begin the 
 struggle anew. So he went to Gloucester, where he 
 summoned a convention of loyalists to meet him, and 
 
THE ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN VIRGINIA. I23 
 
 they pronounced Bacon a traitor. On the eastern 
 shore of the Chesapeake the governor's forces were 
 collected. There were some English vessels in the 
 harbor and their crews were joined to his command, 
 and the fleet sailed to Jamestown. There was not 
 much resistance ; but when Bacon appeared, lo, the 
 loyal forces joined his standard and Berkeley w^as 
 obliged to flee for his life. The capital was held by 
 the people's party. Soon the rumor got abroad that 
 an English fleet was approaching to subjugate the 
 colonies. It was decided among the leaders of the 
 people's party to burn the city and have an end of the 
 troubles originating there. So at eventide a torch 
 was applied and the city reduced to ashes. 
 
 But Bacon fell sick and died. There was now no 
 leader for the people's party. The royalists found a 
 leader in Robert Beverly, the authority of the gover- 
 nor w^as restored, and the cause of the people died 
 with Bacon. Berkeley seized twenty-two of the lead- 
 ing patriots and hanged them, scarcely allowing them 
 time for prayers or farewells. Thomas Hansford was 
 the first American who gave his life for freedom. 
 History mentions the names of William Drummond, 
 Edmund Cheesman and Thomas Wilfred as among 
 the noble patriots who fell victims to the vengeful 
 spirit of the tyrant Berkeley. 
 
 The assembly, horrified at this bloodshed, met and 
 passed an act "that no more blood should be spilled." 
 It is related of Charles II that when he heard of 
 Berkeley's ferocity he exclaimed, "The old fool has 
 taken away more lives in that poor country than I 
 for the murder of my father." 
 
124 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 The consequences of this rebellion were far-reach- 
 ing. Berkeley and his minions found good excuse for 
 suppressing all liberal principles. Education was for- 
 bidden. To speak or to write anything either in favor 
 of the insurrection or against the administration was 
 a crime punished by fine or -whipping, and if the 
 offense was three times repeated it was declared to be 
 treasonable and might be punished with death. The 
 scheme of taxation was again revived, and the people 
 groaned under the arbitrary management. 
 
 In the year 1675 Lord Culpepper, to whom, with 
 Arlington, Virginia had been given for thirty-one 
 years, received the appointment of governor of Vir- 
 ginia for life. So the right of the king was relin- 
 quished and the state was now a proprietary govern- 
 ment. In 16S0 Culpepper took the magistrate's chair. 
 His administration was characterized by avarice and 
 dishonesty. Virginia being his personal property, 
 he considered the inhabitants tenants and slaves. 
 Arlington ceded his claim to Culpepper in 1683, so he 
 was sole proprietor and governor. But Charles, now 
 alarmed at the mischief he had done, revoked his 
 patent, having sufficient excuses in his abominable 
 frauds and vices ; and again poor Virginia, who had 
 been treated to as many varieties of government as 
 the middle states are now to varieties of weather and 
 temperature in a winter's day, was again a royal prov- 
 ince and governed by Lord Howard of Effingham. 
 After this affairs moved so quietly along that nothing 
 worthy of mention took place. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE PILGRIM SETTLERS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 IN the spring (1621) the people grew hopeful. The 
 sufferings of the past winter had been dreadful. In 
 almost every home there had been one or more deaths 
 Those who survived had been half starved and frozen. 
 Still they had something to be thankful for ; they had 
 worshipped God in their own way, and as the w^eather 
 grew mild the general health of the colony improved. 
 In February Miles Standish and his army (composed 
 of six men) went on an exploring expedition. They 
 were anxious to find how many Indians there were 
 about them. They found none. There were, it is true, 
 a few deserted wig^vams, and there was smoke of camp 
 fires in the distance, and savages were occasionally seen 
 in the woods, but none near enough to speak to, and 
 they fled at the sight of the white men. 
 
 It was only a month later when Samoset, a Wam- 
 panoag Indian, came running into the village bidding 
 the habitants kindly welcome. He told them of the 
 neighboring tribes and of the dreadful disease that 
 came upon them, a slow wasting away until death took 
 them to the land beyond the stars. Then another 
 Indian named Squanto, who had been taken to Eng- 
 land in 16 14, came in, and as he spoke English he was 
 very welcome and he too told them the same, that 
 Samoset had. These two friendly Indians had influ- 
 ence, so that friendly relations were established with 
 
126 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 the 'Wainpanoags. Massasoit was the sachem of the 
 nation and he accepted an invitation to visit the 
 Pilgrims at Plymouth. They received him with all 
 the ceremony possible. The army (of six) was 
 ordered out, General Miles Standish commanding. A 
 treaty was made, Squanto acting as interpreter. The 
 terms were few and simple. " There should be peace 
 between the white and the red men. No injury should 
 be done by either party to the other. All offenders 
 should be given up to be punished. If the English 
 engaged in war Massasoit would help them ; and if 
 the Wampanoags were unjustly attacked the English 
 would give them assistance." This treaty was kept 
 inviolate for fifty years. Other chiefs followed the 
 example of Massasoit. Nine of these New England 
 tribes acknowledged the English king. One chief 
 did threaten war, but Standish and his army compelled 
 him to be peaceable. Canonicus, who was the chief 
 of the Narragansetts, sent to William Bradford, who 
 became governor at the death of Carver, a bundle of 
 arrows wrapped in a rattlesnake skin ; but the gover- 
 nor, not at all dismayed, filled the skin with powder 
 and bullets and sent it back to him. The chieftain 
 feared to accept the challenge and it was passed from 
 tribe to tribe, finally being returned to Plymouth. 
 This was an unseasonable year and the poor people 
 were at starvation's door, and new emigrants without 
 provisions or stores came and the colonists divided 
 their houses with them, as well as their food, all the 
 long dreary winter. Once there were only a few 
 grains of corn to be given to each individual, when 
 some hogs belonging to the settlement rooted around 
 
THE PILGRIMS IN MASSACHUSETTS. . I27 
 
 a hidden granary, probably belonging to some of the 
 dead Indian fainilies, and so saved them from starva- 
 tion. Some English fishing vessels came to Plymouth, 
 and seeing the sorry plight of the settlers offered their 
 provisions at double price, which the starving colon- 
 ists had to pay. In the summer of 1^33 the late 
 arrivals moved over to the south side of Boston harbor 
 and founded Weymouth. These were an idle folk 
 and they wasted the summer and fall in idleness. 
 They attempted to appropriate the corn of the Indians, 
 who were provoked to destroy the whole colony, 
 Massasoit came to Standish and told him of the dan- 
 ger. The mighty general marched with his army 
 upon the Indians and struck terror to their souls by 
 killing several noted warriors and marching home, 
 carrying the chief's head on a pole. This put an end 
 to trouble from that source. The next year the har- 
 vest was a good one, so that the Pilgrims no longer 
 feared starvation. The Indians did not like cultivat- 
 ing the soil ; they preferred the chase, so there was an 
 amicable interchange of fresh meat and fish for corn 
 and vegetables. 
 
 In four years from the arrival of the Pilgrims there 
 was a settlement of one hundred and eighty persons 
 in New England. The company who had furnished 
 the money for the Puritans' enterprise had expected 
 to receive a good revenue, but nothing could be sent 
 them, for the settlers were only removed froin starva- 
 tion by the merest thread. The London Company 
 had expended $3,400 in establishing this settlement. 
 It was a very bad investment, and they proposed to sell 
 out their claims to the colonists, who finally pur- 
 
128 .FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 chased them for $9,000. And then the manager re- 
 fused to have more to do with them, charging them 
 three prices for the provisions they brought, w^hich 
 compelled the colonists to borrow money, on which 
 they paid sixty per cent interest. 
 
 John White, of Dorchester, England, brought out 
 some emigrants and made a settlement at Cape Ann 
 in 1624. Two years later the cape was abandoned 
 and the company moved to Salem. John Endicott 
 brought another company in 1628, he having been 
 chosen governor. Charles II now issued a charter by 
 which the colonists were incorporated under the title 
 of the governor and cojtipany of Massachusetts bay in 
 New Eizgland. The following July two hundred 
 emigrants arrived, half of whom settled at Plymouth 
 while the other half founded Charlestown, on the 
 north side of the harbor. After this it was decreed 
 that the government should be transferred from Eng- 
 land to America, and the charter given in charge of 
 the colonists themselves. When this became generally 
 known emigration rapidly increased, and in 1630 
 nearly three hundred of the best Puritan families 
 came to New England. These were highly educated" 
 virtuous and courageous men and women, who had 
 left comfortable homes w^ithout the expectation of re- 
 turning. They chose a grand leader in John Win- 
 throp, governor of Massachusetts. He was a man of 
 wealth, of intelligence, and refinement ; yet he left all 
 to share with the Puritans, their hardships and their 
 worship. The new emigrants settled in various tov^ns 
 — some at Salem, some at Cambridge, some at Water- 
 town (on Charles river), others at Roxbury and 
 
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THE PILGRIMS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 1 29^ 
 
 Dorchester. The governor resided at Charlesto^vn 
 for a while, but afterward crossed the peninsula to 
 Shawmut and founded the city of Boston, which be- 
 came the capital ofthe colony. Sickness and distress 
 came to the poor people again as winter approached. 
 Delicately nurtured men and women could ill bear the 
 biting winds. Lung troubles and consumption, to- 
 ofether with the coarse and insufhcient fare, carried off 
 so many that before the year was gone fully two hun- 
 dred Puritans had "entered into eternal rest." Onl}^ 
 those people who have passed a winter in the frontier 
 districts of bleak New England can comprehend fully 
 the terrors of the time w^hen it is nothing unusual for 
 the thermometer to drop thirty-six degrees below zero,, 
 and- the icy wind finds its way through every crevice,, 
 so that the heart from the fire seems to blow away. 
 Corn as a regular diet is of such a heating nature that 
 delicate stomachs are soon disarranged, and while 
 venison and fo^vl and fish are delicious occasionally 
 they soon pall upon the appetite when used as a steady 
 diet. Yet there was no dissatisfaction expressed.. 
 They were GocTs children. He had sent sent them, 
 here and patiently would they wait his call. 
 
 But, strange to say, these people who braved death 
 for freedom of reli2:ious belief were so narrow-minded 
 that they persecuted those who believed other than 
 thcinsclves with severity. A lav/ was passed that 
 none but church members should be allowed to vote,. 
 and this excluded three-fourths of the citizens. Taxes 
 were levied for the support of the gospel, and attend- 
 ance on public worship enforced by law. Members of 
 the church alone were eligible for office. 
 
130 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 There was one man in the colony who lifted up his 
 voice against the proscriptive law — Roger Williams 
 a young man preaching the gospel at Salem. He 
 declared that the conscience of man is not bound by 
 the authority of the magistrate ; that the civil govern- 
 ment had only to do with civil matters ; and for this 
 he was compelled to step down from his pulpit. But 
 he was not to be silenced, and in 1634 ^^ wrote a 
 paper in which he declared that grants of land, 
 though given by the king of England, were invalid 
 until the natives had been justly paid. When he was 
 arraigned for teaching this abominable doctrine, he 
 went still further, and told the court that a test of 
 church membership for a voter was as ridiculous as the 
 selection ot a doctor of physic or a pilot of a ship on 
 account of his skill in theology. These assertions 
 raised such a furore in court that Williams was con- 
 demned for heresy and banished from the colony. In 
 the mid-winter he left home and became an exile in 
 the inhospitable forest. For fourteen weeks he 
 wandered on through snow and sleet. At night he 
 crawled into a hollow tree, or if there was not one to 
 be had he made him a bed on the ground. His food 
 was parched corn, acorns and roots, and in all his 
 weary wanderings he carried as his precious treasure 
 a letter from Governor Winthrop — a letter of cheer 
 and encouragement. The Indians remembered him for 
 defending their rights, and in the country of the Wam- 
 panoags he was kindly entertained. Massasoit invited 
 him to his cabin at Pokanoket and the king of the 
 Narragansetts, Canonicus, received him as a friend 
 and brother. 
 
THE PILGRIMS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 13! 
 
 A resting place was found on the left bank of 
 Blackstone river, near the head of Narragansett bay. 
 Here he pitched 'his tent, and in the spring planted a 
 field and built himself a house, the first in the village 
 of Seekonk. But he v^as soon notified that he w^as 
 still within Plymouth territory. By this time he had five 
 followers, who had joined him in banishment. He 
 sailed down the river in a canoe and crossed to the 
 west side of the ba}^ He was now outside the jurisdic- 
 tion of Plymouth. He bought a piece of land from 
 Canonicus and in June, 1636, he laid out the city of 
 Providence. But, though banished, his teachings had 
 not been lost. In 1634 a representative form of 
 government was established against the opposition of 
 the clergy. On election day the voters, now between 
 three and four hundred, were called together and the 
 learned Cotton discoursed long and powerfully against 
 the proposed change. He was listened to apparently 
 with deep interest, and the election went on — a ballot 
 box being substituted for the old method of public 
 voting. Three thousand emigrants arrived. The 
 newcomers were under the leadership of Hugh Peters 
 and Sir Henry Vane. The first named had been a 
 Puritan pastor of English exiles at Rotterdam in 
 Plolland, and the latter a young nobleman of whom 
 we read in English history. The settlements were 
 growing thick around Massachusetts bay. There was 
 really no house room for the emigrants constantl}^ com- 
 ing in. A company of twelve families with Simon 
 Willardand Peter Bulkely at the head marched through 
 the woods spme sixteen miles till they came to some 
 open meadows, which was to be the town of Concord. 
 
132 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Soon atter this another colony of sixty persons marched 
 to the west until they reached the Connecticut river. 
 The march was a hard one. They were ill-provided 
 for the rigors of the winter. Some of them died and 
 some, quite disheartened, waded through the deep 
 snows, half starved and frozen, to Plymouth and 
 Boston. But with the spring those who survived 
 Avere back and to their efforts is Massachusetts blessed 
 with the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethers» 
 field, the first towns in the Connecticut valley. But 
 religious war was on in Massachusetts. Tlie banish- 
 ment of Roger Williams, instead of quieting affairs, 
 only stirred them up. The ministers were exceeding- 
 ly exacting. Every shade of popular belief was 
 scrutinized. . Many were accused of heresy, and 
 among them was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a brilliant 
 woman. She desired to speak at the weekly debates 
 and was refused. She was indignant and became the 
 champion of her sex, declaring that the ministers were 
 no better than Pharisees. She invited her friends to 
 meet, and she plead with fervor for the freedom of 
 conscience. The doctrines of Roger Williams were 
 reaffirmed now with greater force than ever ; indeed^ 
 many of the magistrates favored these heretical be- 
 liefs, and the governor espoused Mrs. Plutchinson's 
 cause. 
 
 A^ synod of New England was called when Sir 
 Henry's term of office expired. The synod convened 
 in August, 1637, and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, the first 
 woman in America who claimed equal rights for her 
 sex, was banished, as were her friends, m^yiy of whom 
 went to Roger Williams. Miantonomah, a Narragan- 
 
THE PILGRIMS IN MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 33 
 
 sett chief, gave them Rhode Island. So in 1641 there 
 was a little republic where opinions were safe from 
 persecution. 
 
 The general court of the colony in the year 1636 
 had passed an act appropriating between one and two 
 thousand dollars to found a college. This act was 
 commended by the people, for the Puritans were 
 quick to appreciate the advantages of learning. New- 
 tovv-n was thought to be the best site. Plymouth and 
 Salem gave money to help the enterprise. The vil- 
 lages in the Connecticut valley sent contributions of 
 corn and wampum, and in 1638 John Harvard, of 
 Charlestown, a minister, bequeathed his library and 
 nearly $5,000 to the school. To perpetuate his mem- 
 ory the institution was named Harvard College, and 
 Newtown was changed to Cambridge. Surely a bet- 
 ter selection for a school could never have been made. 
 The original building and part of the brick wall 
 around the grounds are in good preservation. Verv 
 many trees that shaded the grounds in the days of 
 John Harvard are in good preservation yet, for insects 
 or worms are not allowed to destroy the pride of 'Cam- 
 bridge. Quiet reigns in Cambridge as it does on a 
 Sabbath afternoon in the fields. 
 
 Stephen Daye, a printer, came from England to 
 Boston and the next year set up a printing press in 
 Cambridge. An almanac was the first American pub- 
 lication, bearing date of 1639. Thomas Welde and 
 John Eliot, two ministers of Roxbury, and Richard 
 Mather, of Dorchester, translated the-Hebrev/ psalms 
 into English verse. This was the first book printed 
 in America. 
 
134 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 And about this time the growth of the Puritan colo- 
 nies struck Charles I and his ministers as something 
 that ought to be checked, so they attempted to stop 
 emigration. Eight vessels that were ready to sail 
 from London were detained by royal authority. It is 
 said that Oliver Cromwell and John Hampden were 
 among those detained and that this act hastened the 
 revolution which cost the monarch his life. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE FEDERATION. 
 
 • 
 
 IN 1643 a plan of union was adopted by which Mas- 
 sachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven 
 were joined in a confederacy called "The United 
 Colonies of New England. The chief authority was 
 conferred upon an assembly composed of two repre- 
 sentatives from each colony." All freemen voted by 
 ballot and the delegates were elected annually. There 
 was no president other than the speaker of the assem- 
 bly. Provision was made for the admission of other 
 colonies into the union, but none were ever admitted. 
 The "Body of Liberties" was the name of a statute 
 prepared by Nathaniel Ward in 1641. This has been 
 since considered the great charter of colonial freedom. 
 To make the legislators independent and of equal 
 authority, it was decreed " that the councilors and the 
 representatives should sit apart, each with their own 
 officers and under their own management." Between 
 1644 and 1653 there were many worries to the inhabit- 
 ants, both from enemies in England and enemies in 
 the new country, quarreling about land grants. The 
 Protector was the friend of the American colonies and 
 Sir Henry Vane deeply interested himself with their 
 fate and used his influence in their favor. The villages 
 of Maine were about to become the property of a man 
 named Rigby,to whom the council of Plymouth had sold 
 sixteen hundred acres about Casco, and England had 
 
136 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 granted a charter to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, whose grant 
 was still larger. In sore straits the settlers of Maine 
 appealed to the court at Boston to settle the difficulty, 
 and the province %vas annexed to Massachusetts. 
 
 In 1656 (the month was July) some Qiiakers, who 
 were greatly deserving to live in a land where every 
 man was entitled to his ow^n opinions, began to arrive 
 at Boston. The first two to arrive were Ann Austin 
 and Mary Fisher. They were caught and carefully 
 searched for witchcraft and, finding nothing specially 
 wrong with them, they were carefully put in prison 
 so as to be safe. But after several weeks of prison 
 hardships they were brought out and ordered to leave 
 the country, and before the year was out eight others 
 were caught and sent straightw^ay back whence they 
 came. Then they made a law (these people who for 
 their faith had suffered all sorts of persecutions) that 
 Qiiakers who persisted in coming to Massachusetts 
 shottld have their ears ctit off and their tongues bored 
 throuo'h with a red hot iron. 
 
 "Ann Burden, who came from London in 1657 to 
 preach against persecution, was seized and beaten.' 
 Many were publicly beaten and then exiled or given 
 the choice of being hanged. " Mary Dyar and Nicho- 
 las Davis chose banishment; but Marmaduke Stephen- 
 son and William Robinson stood firmly by their faith 
 and were sentenced to Jdc hanged." Mary Dyar 
 who returned after being twice banished, was 
 also hanged. Another Qiiaker, William Leddra, was 
 also tried, condemned and hanged. While the trial of 
 Leddra was going on Wenlock Christison rushed into 
 the court room and reasoned with the judge about this 
 
THE FEDERATION. I37' 
 
 shedding of innocent blood. He too w^as condemned. 
 Others who were anxious for martyrdom were thrown 
 into the prisons till there was no room for criminals. 
 At length th^ public conscience was aroused and the 
 law was amended so that Christison and twenty-seven 
 others were liberated. 
 
 The English Revolution was now ended. Charles 
 II had. ascended the throne. The news reached 
 Boston on July 27, 1660 ; on board the ship were 
 William Goffe and Edward Whalley, two of the 
 judges who had passed sentence on Charles I. Gov- 
 ernor Endicott received them with due courtesy. But 
 soon another ship arrived bringing officers to arrest 
 and carry thein back to England. These men were 
 fortunate enough to keep in hiding for a time and 
 finally escaped to the village of Hadley, where they 
 remained always. 
 
 When the | restoration M^as complete Charles II 
 passed a law forbidding New England colonists to 
 trade w^ith any but English ships. ^'Articles pro- 
 duced in the colonies and demanded in England 
 should be shipped to England only ; other articles 
 might be disposed of in European ports, 7 he prod- 
 ucts of England shoidd ' not be tnanufacturcd in 
 Ame7'ica^ but should be bought from England only ; 
 antl a duty of Jive pcjice was put upon imports and 
 expforts.'''' It was this duty that produced the Ameri- 
 can Fvcvolution. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. * 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SITUATION, 1660. 
 
 AT this tiirfe wheat was the staple crop, but foui 
 years of successive growth caused it to become so 
 damaged by blight and mildew that in 1662 the 
 growth was abandoned. Corn was easily grown and 
 so were potatoes and pumpkins, and good crops of 
 barley were raised in Massachusetts in 1603. Rye 
 was also grown as early as 1630. Peas and beans 
 were also cultivated, as well as pumpkins. Flax was 
 grown in the Dutch settlements of New Netherlands 
 as early as 1626, and in Massachusetts in 1629, and in 
 Virginia in 1647. Hemp was grown in New England 
 in 1629. Rice was grown by Sir William Berkeley 
 in Virginia in 1647, and in Carolina in 1694. 
 
 The first cattle brought to Massachusetts were by 
 Governor Edward Winslow, in 1624, several heifers 
 and a bull. Twelve cows were brought to Cape Ann 
 in 1626, thirty more in 1629, and a hundred in 1630. 
 These last were kept at Salem " for the governor and 
 company of Massachusetts bay." The stock bred 
 from the first importation was divided among the 
 colonists three years later. The breed has not been 
 given, but we are told they were black, white, and 
 brindle. 
 
 John Mason imported several Danish cattle into 
 New Hampshire in 1631-33. They were large and 
 well adapted to bear the yoke and were of a uniform 
 
INDUSTRIAL. SITUATION, 1660. 1 39 
 
 yellow color, which hue ^vas retained for a long time 
 even though crossed with English breeds. In 1625 
 Pieter d^versten Hulst, in the interest of the Dutch 
 West India Company, brought black and white cattle 
 from the island of Troyet, off Holland. The Dutch in 
 New Jersey got their cattle from New York. Vir- 
 ginia had cattle brought from the West Indies in 1610. 
 Their killing wjis prohibited by Sir Ralph Lane. The 
 next year a hundred head were sent from England and 
 in 1620 the number of meat cattle in Virginia was 
 about five hundred. They were larger, too, than the 
 parent stock. Columbus brought the first cattle to 
 the West Indies in 1493. They were of Spanish 
 breed. Many were taken to Mexico and from them 
 came our Texan stock. The French brought Norman 
 cattle into Acadia in 1604 and into Canada in 1608. 
 The Portuguese brought cattle to Newfoundland in 
 1553, but there are no signs of them now^. Sheep 
 were brought into Jamestown, Va.,. in i6o'9. They 
 were imported into Massachusetts in 1633, and to pro- 
 tect them from wolves they were placed on the island 
 in Massachusetts bay. De Soto brought swine from 
 the West Indies to Florida in 1538. The Portuguese 
 put swine on shore in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland 
 in 1553. They were in Jamestown, Va., in 1609 and 
 multiplied so rapidly that pallisades had to be built to 
 keep them out of the town. 
 
 Apple trees could not well be brought from Eng- 
 land, but seeds were, and it is said that in the autumn 
 of 1639 ^^^ ^^^^ pippins were brought into Boston 
 from trees growing on Governor's island in the har- 
 bor. Pear& came nearly a century later, as did 
 
140 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 peaches and plums and various other kinds of fruit. 
 
 Iron ore was found by Raleigh in Carolina, but it 
 took the colonists a long time to find out that it was 
 worth mining. Tobacco was so profitable that it was 
 the only thing exported for nearly fifteen years. The 
 first iron made in this country was from the bottom of 
 peat bogs and ponds near the coast. 
 
 There were no facilities for spinning and weaving 
 cloth in America for a long time. The settlers bought 
 cloth from Dutch ships until the law forbidding buy- 
 ing anything froin other than English ships ; then the 
 colonists grew poorer and poorer, for in 1760 they 
 bought English goods to the amount of .£2,500,000 
 and sold to England goods to the amount of £475,000. 
 Then they took to wearing what had not been for- 
 bidden, leather. The women learned to weave and 
 spin and made both woolen and linen clothing. There 
 was no law to prevent these private enterprises, and 
 knowing it, they worked so skilfully that besides 
 supplying their own families they many times had 
 pieces of linen or woolen to trade to the merchants. 
 Women and children braided and sewed rye straw 
 into hats and bonnets, but these were of no service in 
 winter. So the governor of Virginia ofTered (in 1663) 
 a premium of ten pounds of tobacco For every good 
 wool hat or fur one made in his province. His hats 
 at first were made with high crowns and very broad 
 brims ; then the crowns came dow^n almost on a level 
 with the brim. The original process of making felt 
 and fur hats is worth copying: "In hat making, the 
 fur of raccoons, beavers and rabbits is often mixed 
 with the wool in small proportions. The right mix- 
 
INDUSTRIAL SITUATION, 1660/ 141 
 
 ture being obtained, it was first felted by a process 
 called 'bowing.' The bunch of fleece was gathered in 
 front of the, operator and then violently agitated and 
 then tossed into the air, by twanging the string of a 
 stifF bow, and applying the string to the wool. The 
 flying fibres would fall upon the table in a thin even 
 web. This was pressed under a cloth and another 
 layer put on until the fabric was thick enough to use. 
 It w^as then put between two cloths and immersed in 
 hot water, then pressed into a cone which was shaped 
 upon a hat block, and allowed to dry in proper form, 
 when it was napped and finished for the store." One 
 man could make from four to six hat bodies in a day. 
 The beaver hats of the day were made of beaver fur* 
 
 Silk worms and mulberry trees were brought to 
 Virginia in 1608, and so anxious was the government 
 that the cultivation should prove successful that a fine of 
 a hundred pounds of tobacco was assessed against any 
 planter w^ho did not cultivate iat least ten mulberry 
 trees to every hundred acres of his estate. But it was 
 not profitable business. In Georgia the industry suc- 
 ceeded better. In South Carolina, while the yield 
 was small, it wa s equal in quality to the best India 
 silk. Silk worms were introduced into the northern 
 States, but were not profitable. 
 
 A paper mill was started in the little village of 
 Roxborough, near Philadelphia, in the year 1693. 
 Writing, printing, and wrapping papers were made. 
 Phosphorus was discovered in 1677, but it was a hun- 
 dred years before it was utilized .in making matches. 
 So precious was fire that in all well regulated families 
 it was never allowed to go out, and in the early days 
 
142 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA, 
 
 of New England a minister's wife was greatly 
 tormented by a shiftless neighbor, who sent continual- 
 ly to borrow a shovelful of coals. Now the energetic 
 housewife, who spun, wove, dyed her husband's and 
 childrens' clothing, and cut and made them as well, 
 whose kitchen rafters were decorated with rows of 
 dried pumpkins and bags of dried blueberries and 
 raspberries, seed corn, peppers, etc., hated idleness as 
 she did sin. She tried to impress the "slack" neighbor 
 with the holiness as well as happiness of work, but in 
 vain ; and when the tall, loose-jointed youth appeared 
 at her door for the twentieth time, "Marm wants to 
 borry a few coals," a bright little towhead who had 
 heard his mother express her opinion of the family 
 replied, before his mother could reach the door, 
 "Hadn't you better bring back the ones you have 
 borrowed all summer?" and quietly closed the door. 
 This put an end to .that nuisance. 
 
 The first glass was made in Virginia very iW3on after 
 the settlement. History says very little about it, 
 however, but it appears that there was a factory about 
 Jamestown and that they made glass beads for the 
 Indian trade. This was in 1633, but as Jamestown 
 was destroyed shortly after this, we do not hear 
 again of such manufactures for a hundred and fifty 
 years. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE WAR WITH PHILIP. 
 
 IN 1664 there was war between England and 
 Holland. The English wanted the whole country 
 and the little Dutch settlement on the Hudson 
 was a provocation to them. To be sure, the land of 
 America seemed unlimited, but all the same they 
 wanted that particular portion that the Dutch had 
 settled on. So they sent over four commissioners to 
 America to settle colonial disputes, and to exercise 
 authority in the name of King Charles II. (The real 
 object was to obtain possession of the charter of 
 Massachusetts.) In July, 1664, the royal judges 
 arrived at Boston. They were not wanted. The people 
 of Massachusetts knew that this supreme judgeship 
 was dangerous to the rights of self-government. It 
 was July, 1664, when these royal judges arrived in 
 Boston. The colonial charter, however, was in safe 
 keeping, in the hands of a committee. The general 
 court forbade the citizens answering to any summons 
 issued by the royal judges. A letter full of manly 
 protests was sent to the king. The commissioners 
 were rejected in all the colonies except Rhode Island. 
 Seeing that they could not fulfill the object he ap- 
 pointed them for, the English king recalled them, and 
 for ten years the country had marked prosperity. The 
 Indian king Massasoit died in 1663, and his son 
 Alexander succeeded hiin, but died in a year, and the 
 
144 FOUR PIUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 chieftainship descended to the younger brother, 
 Philip of INIount Hope. He was a brave man and his 
 people had not been well treated by the whites and 
 he felt that the time had come for a final struggle. 
 The natives of New England had sold their lands ; 
 the whites had purchased them ; the money had been 
 paid and the deeds made out. The old man was dead, 
 and the young men sighed for the hunting grounds. 
 There were in the country east of the Hudson some 
 twenty-five thousand Indians and twice as many 
 wdiites. The young warriors could not understand 
 the validity of titles to land. The sound of English 
 axes had frightened the game away, and English nets 
 has stolen the fish from their rivers. The Wam- 
 panoags now owned only the two peninsulas, Tiverton 
 and Bristol. 
 
 There were personal grievances, too, for King 
 Alexander's death was no d©ubt caused by the English- 
 He had been arrested, tried by an English jury and 
 thrown into jail, and caught the prison fever and 
 died. It is believed by many that King Philip, if 
 left to himself, would have still sought peace. He 
 was a wise man, and being far from rich he clearly 
 foresaw what the result of a war with the whites would 
 be. But the young warriors lacked his wisdom. 
 They 'thirsted for revenge and he could not restrain 
 them. 
 
 The women and children were put in the care of 
 Canonchet, king of the Narragansetts, and the war 
 began at Swanzey (Mass.) June 24th, 1675. Eight 
 Englishmen were killed. This aroused the populace 
 and within a \veek the militia of Plymouth, joined by 
 
THE WAR WITH PHILIP. 
 
 H5 
 
 volunteers from Boston, entered the enemy's country. 
 A few Indians were overtaken and killed, the troops 
 marched to the peninsula of Bristol and compelled 
 Philip to fly. He escaped to Tiverton with five or six 
 hundred fugitives and hid in a swamp. They beat 
 back the English with considerable loss. The Engflish 
 surrounded the place, but the Indians escaped in the 
 night and fled to the country of the Nipmucks in 
 central Massachusetts. A general Indian war broke 
 out and for a whole year the frontier was in constant 
 danger of burning and massacre. 
 
 After the English had driven Philip away, they 
 marched to the Narragansetts, where the v/omen and 
 children of the Wam.panoags Vi^ere sheltered. King 
 Canonchet was given his choice, peace or war. Afraid 
 of the English raiiskets, he signed a treaty agreeing to 
 give' up all fugitives from the hostile tribe. Still the 
 Indians expected that Canonchet would break his 
 word and join Philip. The latter persuaded the 
 Nipmucks to take up arms, and as usual they com- 
 menced hostilities with treachery. Captains Wheeler 
 and Hutchinson were sent with twenty men to hold 
 a conference with the NipmucI: chief. The Indians 
 lay in ambush near the village and murdered nearly 
 the whole company. The survivors fled to the settle- 
 ment, gave the alarm, and the people escaped to the 
 Block House for safety. After a siege of two days- 
 the Indians succeeded in firing the house with burning 
 arrows and death seemed certain to the inmates. 
 Providentially there came up a shower and the fire 
 was extinguished. Reinforcements came from 
 
 Springfield and the Indians fled. The people of 
 
146 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Brookfield were in danger and sought refuge in the 
 towns along the river. A battle was fought at 
 Deerfield on the 26th of August and the Indians were 
 driven away, but a few days later returned and set fire 
 to the village and part of it was consumed. A store 
 house containing the harvest was saved, however, and 
 Colonel Lathrop with eighty men commenced the 
 task of removinor the stores to Hadlev. A train of 
 wasfons sfuarded bv soldiers left Deertield on the iSth 
 of September and had scarcely proceeded live miles 
 when thev were attacked bv some eight hundred 
 Indians lyingjin ambush. Nearly ever}- white man was 
 killed. Captain Mosely arrived while the fight was 
 going on with seventy more men. The battle kept on, 
 the English retreating in the direction of Hadley, 
 when thev were reinforced bv a hundred and sixtv 
 English and Mohicans, who put the savages to rout 
 with heavy loss. On the same day as the burning of 
 Deerfield, Hadlev was attacked while the people were 
 at church. Frightened beyond measure, the people 
 knew not what to do until the venerable General 
 Goffe came from his place of concealment, rallied the 
 forces around him, drove the Indians away and then 
 fled to his place of concealment and was nevermore 
 seen again. Through the fall there was fighting at 
 Springfield, Hadley and Hatfield. The Indians were 
 repulsed from the latter place w'th hea%y losses. It 
 was no longer safe to live on the farms, and so they 
 were abandoned and the people came to the larger 
 cities near the river. 
 
 Philip gathered his warriors and repaired to the 
 Narrasransetts. Bv receivinsr them Canonchet vio- 
 
THE WAR WITH PHILIP. 
 
 H7 
 
 lated his treaty with the EngHsh, but he chose to 
 share his fate with Philip and Massachusetts at once 
 declared war against the Narragansetts and Rhode 
 Island ^vas invaded by the colonist army of a thou- 
 sand men led by Colonel Winslow. The Indians en- 
 camped on an elevation in the middle of a cedar 
 swamp. There were three thousand of them. Into 
 this place was gathered all the wealth of the two 
 nations. The wigwams extended over several acres 
 of solid land in the middle of the swamp. A fort was 
 built on the island and the breastworks were of felled 
 trees. The savages thought themselves secure from 
 invasion. 
 
 It ^vas the 19th of December before the English 
 forces reached the fort. The only entrance to the fort 
 was over a fallen tree. A few b:ave men sprang for- 
 ward only to be swept down by the Indians' muskets. 
 Another company crept around the defences, and 
 finding a point unguarded charged into the inclosure. 
 The fight had now begun in earnest. The wigwams 
 wei*e set on fire and the flames swept around the vil- 
 lage. The Indians, attempting to escape from the 
 burning fort, were met by the English with loaded 
 muskets. More than a thousand warriors were killed 
 or captured. The wounded, the old men, the women 
 and children of the nation were burned to death. The 
 loss to the English was eighty soldiers killed pnd a 
 hundred and fifty wounded. Philip and a handful 
 of his warriors escaped to the Nip mucks. 
 
 The next spring brought a renewal of the war again. 
 Around three hundred miles of frontier, from Maine 
 to the mouth of the Connecticut, there were massacres 
 
148 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 and devastations. Lancaster, Medfield, Groton and 
 Marlborough were laid in ashes. Weymouth, "joithin 
 twenty miles of Boston, was destroyed. Traces of fire 
 and murder were everywhere. But the resources o 
 the savages were soon exhausted, and their numbers 
 rapidly grew less. In April Canonchet was cap- 
 tured on the banljs of the Blackstone and put to 
 death. His wife and son were made prisoners. The 
 son was sold as a slave and died in the Bermudas, 
 whither he had been taken. Philip's command 
 was nearly all gone. A company of soldiers sur- 
 rounded him in his home near Mount Hope. Since 
 his wife and son had been taken prisoners, he cared 
 nothing, for life. A treacherous Indian shqt him 
 through the breast. The king was dead. The 
 enemies were no ipore and New England was now at 
 peace. She had suffered terribly in this war. The 
 losses amounted to some five hundred thousand dol- 
 lars. Thirteen towns and six hundred dwellings had 
 been consumed. Six hundred men had died upon 
 battle fields. 
 
 But now the Indians beyond the Connecticut came 
 and pleaded for their lives. The colonists returned to 
 their farms and villages. Many hoped that the 
 English government would assist in repairing the 
 damages, but instead came Edward Randolph, with 
 authority to collect duties in New England. Governor 
 Leverett received the embassador with chilling dignity. 
 He told him that the people had fi.nished the Indian 
 war without expense to the English treasury, and that 
 they were now entitled to the enjoyment of theif 
 rights, and Randolph returned to England. 
 
(JIIAPTER XVI. 
 
 WAR AND PERSECUTION. 
 
 ABOUT this time (1665) there was trouble about 
 the province of Maine. Ferdinand Gorges, 
 the old proprietor, was dead ; but his heirs still 
 claimed the territory. Long before this the inhabit- 
 ants of Maine had placed themselves under authority 
 of Massachusetts, but the heirs of Gorges put the 
 matter before the English council, and in 1677 a de- 
 cision was given in their favor. The Boston govern- 
 ment had offered to purchase the claims of the Gorges 
 heirs. The proposition was accepted, and for the sum 
 of twelve hundred and fifty pounds the province was 
 transferred to Massachusetts. 
 
 There was. similar trouble with New Hampshire. 
 In 1663 the Plymouth council had granted New 
 Hampshire to Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason. 
 Seven years later Gorges surrendered his claim to 
 Mason, w^ho was now sole proprietor. But this 
 territory was still governed by Massachusetts. Mason 
 died, and in 1679 his son Robert came forward and 
 claimed the province. This cause was also taken be- 
 fore the n:iinisters, who decided that the title of Mason 
 was valid. 
 
 This was a very great disappointment to the people 
 of both provinces. The two governments were 
 separated. A royal government was established and 
 Edward Cranfield became governor. The people, how- 
 
150 FOUR PIUNDRED YEARS OP^ AMERICA. 
 
 ever, refused to recognize Cranfield's authority. Tlie 
 king thought the people were influenced by Massachu- 
 setts, and directed liis judges to inquire whether 
 the charter of Massachusetts might not be re\«oked. 
 In 16S4 the royal judges decided in his majesty's 
 favor. The patent was forfeited and "the king might 
 assume control of the colony," said the judges ; but 
 the king died before the charter could be revoked. 
 
 James II, younger brother of Charles, now became 
 monarch, and in 1686 the scheme was carried out. 
 The charter of Massachusetts w^as formally revoked. 
 All the colonies between Nova Scotia and Narragan- 
 sett bay vv^ere consolidated and Sir Edmund Andros 
 appointed royal governor of New England. It was 
 said of Andros that King James could hardly have 
 found a better tool in his province. It was enacted 
 that nothing could be printed in Massachusetts with- 
 out the governor's sanction. Popular representation 
 was abolished, voting by ballot done away with, 
 town meetings prohibited, and the public schools 
 allowed to go to ruin. 
 
 The despotism of Andros was quickly extended 
 from Cape Cod bay to the Piscataqua. The civil 
 rights of New Hampshire were quite overthrown. In 
 May of 1686 the charter of Rhode Island was taken 
 away and her constitution subverted. The seal w^as 
 broken and a royal council appointed to conduct the 
 government. Andros next proceeded to Connecticut. 
 He arrived in Hartford in 1687. The month was 
 October. The assembly was in session. He demanded 
 the surrender of the charter. The instrument was 
 brought in and laid upon the table. A debate ensued 
 
WAR AND PERSECUTION. 
 
 151 
 
 and continued until evening. ^ When it was about to 
 be decided that the charter should be given up every 
 candle was suddenly extinguished, and before other 
 lights could be brought in the charter had disappeared. 
 Joseph Wadsworth, snatching up the parchment, 
 carried it swiftly away through the darkness and con- 
 cealed it in a hollow tree, which for nearly two 
 centuries afterward was known as the Charter Oak. 
 The assembly, however, was overawed, and the 
 authority of Andros established throughout the 
 country. But his dominion ended speedily. The 
 English revolution was about at hand. James II was 
 driven from his throne, and the system of arbitrary 
 rule which he had established fell with it. The news 
 of the ascension of William and Mary was received in 
 Boston on the 4th of April, 1689, and on the i8th the 
 citizens of Boston rose in open rebellion. Andros was 
 arrested and marched to prison. The insurrection 
 spread like sunshine and before the loth of May New 
 England had regained her liberties. 
 
 The war between France and England was declared 
 in 1689. This is known in history as King William'' s 
 war. When James II fled from his kingdom he took 
 refuge at the court of Louis XIV of France. The two 
 kings were both Roman Catholics, and on this account 
 an alliance was made between them. Louis agreed to 
 help James II in his efforts to recover the English crown. 
 Parliament in the meantime had conferred the crown 
 on King William. So the new sovereign was in con- 
 flict with two monarchs. The war, originating in 
 Europe, soon extended to the French and English 
 colonies in America. 
 
IC2 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 f 
 
 The frontier of New Hampshire was the first scene 
 of the struggle. The 27th of June, 16S9, a party of 
 Indians in alhance with the French made a descent 
 upon Dover. Richard Waldron, the magistrate of the 
 town, now over eighty years of age, w^as murdered, 
 twenty-three others ^vere killed, and twenty-nine made 
 captives and dragged away through the wilderness. 
 A hundred Abenakis came down the Penobscot in 
 August and attacked the village of Pemaquid — now 
 Bremen. A company of farmers were surrounded in 
 the harvest field and murdered. The fort was 
 besieged and compelled to surrender. A few of the 
 people escaped into the woods ; the rest were killed 
 or made captives. 
 
 The Eng:lish and Mohawks entered into an alliance, 
 but the latter refused to make war upon their country- 
 men of Maine. The Dutch settlements of the New 
 Netherlands, however, made common cause with the 
 English settlers against the French. 
 
 A regiment of French and Indians left Montreal in 
 January, 1690, crossed the Mohawk, and reached the 
 village of Schenectady. They crept through the 
 gates at midnight, startled the sleepers with the war 
 whoop, and murdered right an(;i left. The dead were 
 scalped. Those who escaped were but half clad and 
 they ran through the darkness and snow sixteen miles 
 to Albany. Salmon Falls, a settlement on the Pisca- 
 taqua, was next attacked and destroyed. The fort at 
 Casco bay was taken and all the settlement broken up. 
 
 New England became aroused. In order to provide 
 the means of war, a congress ^vas convened at New 
 York, and at this congress it was resolved to attempt 
 
WAR AND PERSECUTION. 1 53 
 
 to conquer Canada. At the same time Massachusetts 
 was to co-operate by sending a fleet up the St. Law- 
 rence against Qiiebec. The fleet was composed of 
 thirty-four vessels carrying two thousand soldiers. 
 The command was given to Sir William Phipps. He 
 compelled a surrender at Port^Royal and the whole of 
 Nova Scotia submitted without a struggle. The ex- 
 pedition to Canada was foolishlv delaved until Octo- 
 ber and an Indian carried the news to the governor of 
 Canada and he was so well prepared in his castle as 
 to bid defiance to the English. The only thing for 
 Commander Phipps to do was to sail back to Boston. 
 Money was necessary to meet the expenses, so Massa- 
 chusetts issued bills of credit which were made legal 
 tender, and this was the origin of paper money in 
 America. During this time the land forces had pro- 
 ceeded from Albany to Lake Champlain. There dis- 
 sensions arose among the commanders and the expedi- 
 tion had to be abandoned. 
 
 Sir William Phipps was ordered to England^ to 
 procure aid from the government and to secure a re- 
 issue of the old colonial charter. But the English 
 ministers replied that the English armies could not be 
 spared, and that the old patent w^ould not be released. 
 Sir William returned .to Boston in the spring of 1693 
 commissioned as royal governor of Massachusetts, 
 Plymouth, Maine and Nova Scotia. 
 
 But still the war went on. The village of Oyster 
 River was destroyed by the savages in 1694, and the 
 inhabitants either killed or taken into captivity. Some 
 two years later the village of Pemaquid was a second 
 time surrendered to the French and Indians. The 
 
154 
 
 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 captives were sent to Boston and exchanged for pris- 
 oners held by the English. In the following March 
 Haverhill was captured under atrocious circumstances. 
 Nearly forty persons were butchered in cold blood. 
 A few were spared to captivity. Among them was 
 Mrs. Hannah Dusten. Her week-old babe was dashed 
 against a tree. The heart-broken mother and her 
 nurse and a lad named Leonardson were taken by the 
 savages to an island in the Merrimac, and here, while 
 their twelve captors were asleep, the three prisoners 
 arose and with hatchets struck ten of them crushing 
 blows on the temples so that they lay still forever. 
 Then embarking in a canoe they dropped down the 
 river and reached the English settlement in safety. 
 
 The war was already at an end. Commissioners 
 assembled at the town of Ryswick in Holland early 
 in 1697, and a treaty was concluded on the loth of 
 the following September. King William was ac- 
 knowledged the rightful king of England and the 
 colonial boundary lines of the two nations in America 
 were established as before. 
 
 In February of 1692, in the part of Salem called 
 Danvers, a daughter and a niece of the minister, 
 Samuel Parris, were attacked with a nervous disorder 
 which rendered them partially, insane. Parris pre- 
 tended to believe that they were bewitched, and that 
 that an Indian maid servant was the cause of the afflic- 
 tion. He had seen her at some of her religious cere- 
 monies and that gave color to his suspicions. So to 
 rid her of the devil of which he was sure she was pos- 
 sessed he firmly tied the ignorant creature and whipped 
 her till she was glad to confess herself a witch, 
 
WAR AND PERSECUTION. 
 
 155 
 
 though she had no idea what that meant. Now Parris 
 was not exactly in harmony with his church. Part of 
 the congregation, led by George Burroughs, a former 
 minister of the church, disbelieved in witchcraft, 
 while Parris and the rest thought such disbelief the 
 height of wickedness. The celebrated Cotton Mather, 
 minister of Boston, had preached much on the subject 
 of witchcraft. He thought that witchcraft should be 
 stopped and witches put to death. Sir William 
 Phipps was a member of Cotton Mather's church, and 
 it is said these two men are to I lame for the cruel 
 murders' that followed. Stoughton, the deputy-gov- 
 ernor, was the tool of Parris and Mather. The laws of 
 England and of Massachusetts made witchcraft pun- 
 ishable with death. Early in the colonial settlement 
 one person charged with being a wizard had been 
 arrested at Charlestown, tried and executed. But 
 many people had by this time grown bold enough to 
 denounce the superstition, and something had to be 
 done, so reasoned the wise governor and learned min- 
 ister, to save witchcraft from the contempt it was 
 likely to fall into. A special court was appointed by 
 Phipps to go to Salem and judge those persons accused 
 by Parris. Stoughton was to be the presiding officer, 
 Parris the prosecutor, and Mather the bishop to decide 
 when the testimony was sufficient to condemn. 
 
 The proceedings began on the sistof March. Mary 
 Cory was arrested, brought before the court, charged, 
 convicted, and hurried away to prison. Sarah Cloyce 
 and Rebecca Nurse, two innocent sisters, were next 
 apprehended, tlie only evidence against them being 
 a half-witted Indian woman and the niece of Parris. 
 
156 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 These women went to prison protesting their inno- 
 cence. Giles Cory was eighty years of age, but his 
 life-long benevolence and snowy hair did not save 
 him. Edward Bishop, a farmer, and his wife were 
 next arrested, tried and condemned. George Bur- 
 roughs was accused and arresred and imprisoned. 
 Every one who had a spite against another declared 
 him or herself to be bewitched by the ofiPending party. 
 In the hopes of saving their lives many confessed to 
 beings witches. It was soon found that those who 
 denied the reality of vjitchcraft were to be fut to death 
 Five women were hanged in one day. Between June 
 and September twenty victims died on the altar of 
 superstition, and fifty-five were toi'tured to make false 
 confessions. A hundred and fifty lay in prison await- 
 ing their doom. Two hundred were accused or sus- 
 pected, and ruin seemed to Tiang over New England. 
 But the reaction came. The court which Phipps had 
 appointed to sit in Salem was dismissed. The prisons 
 were opened, the poor victims of superstition went 
 out of their dark abodes free. The next year a few 
 persons were arrested andv.tried,but no more lives were 
 sacrificed. Many of the participants in these dreadful 
 scenes repented them of the wrong they had done, but 
 repentance could not bring the dead to life again. 
 Mather attempted to justify himself by writing a book 
 in which he expressed his '■'■ thankfulness that so 7nany 
 witches had met their Just doofn^ And the -president 
 of Harvard College approved the JRev. Cotton 
 Mather'' s book. 
 
 It was only four years after the treaty between 
 France and England at Rvswick till they were again 
 
WAR AND PERSECUTION. 
 
 157 
 
 involved in war which extended to the colonies. King 
 Charles II of Spain died in 1700, after naming Philip 
 ofy Anjou his successor (a grandson of Louis XIV). 
 This measure looked like a union of France and Spain 
 and at once aroused the jealousy of Holland, Austria 
 and England. The Archduke Charles of Austria was 
 put forward as a candidate for the Spanish throne and 
 war Vv^as declared against Louis XIV for supporting 
 Philip. 
 
 James, England's exiled king, died in 1701 at the 
 court of Louis, who recognized James as the rightful 
 sovereign of England. The English court felt this to 
 be an insult to England's nationality. King William 
 made preparations for war, but died before he was 
 enabled to carry out his plans, William died in May, 
 1702, and his sister-in-law Anne, daughter of James II, 
 became queen of England. Her conflict with France 
 is known as Q^ueen Anne's war, Ridpath suggests 
 that "a better name would be the war of the Spanish 
 
 succession." 
 
 But to return to America. The powerful five 
 nations south of Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence 
 made a treaty of neutrality wnth both the French and 
 English in 1701. The Abenakis of Maine did the 
 same, but the French prevailed on them to break their 
 treaty, and the first notice of their treachery was, as 
 usual, a massacre, - In a single day the whole country 
 between the town of Wells and Casco was a scene .of 
 butchery and burning. The town of Deerfield was 
 destroyed in the middle of the winter of 1703-4 by 
 three hundred French and Indians. Forty-seven in- 
 habitants were tomahawked and a hundred and 
 
ICS FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 twelve were taken in captivity, Mady of the prisoners 
 were women and children. They were forced to 
 march to Canada. The weather was severe, th.eir 
 suffering?- intense. Sweet Eunice Williams, the 
 minister's wife, fainted by the way. A savage dashed 
 out her brains with his hatchet. Those who survived 
 this dreadful march were afterwards ransomed, and 
 returned to their home, A daughter of Mr. Williams 
 remained among the Mohawks, married a chieftain 
 and in after years returned to Deerfield in her Indian 
 garb. But she loved her brown husband and the sigh- 
 ing trees and murmuring waters, songs of birds and all 
 manner of wild things. So she left the haunts of 
 civilization never to return. 
 
 For a long time a border war existed in Maine and 
 New Hampshire. A fleet bearing a thousand soldiers 
 was made ready at Boston and sent against Port Royal. 
 But again the English had to come back ; the fort was 
 so well protected that it was useless to attempt its 
 destruction. But in 17 lo a fleet of English and 
 American vessels numbering thirty-six, with four 
 thousand troops aboard, sailed against Port Royal. 
 This time the garrison was weak. Famine came, and 
 after a weak defence the place surrendered, and now 
 all Nova Scotia became subject to the queen and Port 
 Royal was named Annapolis in her honor. 
 
 Since they had been so successful with Nova Scotia 
 they made preparations to invade Canada. There 
 were to be simultaneous attacks. A land force was 
 to march against Montreal commanded by General 
 Nicholson. Fifteen men of war and forty transports 
 were placed under command of Sir Hovenden Walker 
 
WAR AND PERSECUTION. I5Q 
 
 for the destruction of Quebec, and seven regiments of 
 veterans from European armies were added to the 
 colonial forces and sent out with them on this ex- 
 pedition. But learning nothing by past procrastina- 
 tion, they delayed six weeks in Boston and on July 
 30th they set sail for the St. Lawrence. They pro- 
 ceeded up the river, but on the 23d of August they 
 were enveloped in a mighty fog, a great gale came up 
 and eight of the best vessels were dashed against the 
 rocks and eight hundred and eighty-four men went 
 down to their death. The remaining ships sailed back 
 to England and the troops returned to Boston and 
 were disbanded. In the meantime the troops com- 
 manded by General Nicholson had marched against 
 Montreal, but in the news of the failure of the fleet 
 the land expedition was abandoned. The folly of 
 Walker had brought the campaign to a shameful 
 end. France had already made overtures for peace ; a 
 treaty was concluded at Utrecht, a town of Holland, 
 and by the terms of settlement England obtained con- 
 trol of the fisheries of New Foundland, Labrador, the 
 Bay of Hudson, and Nova Scotia was deeded to Great 
 Britain. This was in 17 13, and the treaty was signed 
 April nth. On the 13th of July following a second 
 treaty with the Indians was secured throughout the 
 American colonies. 
 
 After the times known as Queen Anne's wa^ the 
 people were much dissatisfied with the royal govern- 
 ors, and there arose a controversy about the salaries 
 of these men. The assembly insisted that these peo- 
 ple should be paid in proportion to the importance of 
 ofiice and the amount of work performed. But the 
 
l6o FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 royal commissions gave to each officer a fixed salary, 
 which was in many instances out of proportion to the 
 work required. The difficulty was finally compro- 
 mised in which the advantage was on the side of the 
 people. It was agreed that the salaries of the royal 
 officers should be annually allowed and the amount 
 fixed by vote of the assembly. 
 
 In 1740 Charles VI of Austria breathed for the last 
 time and there were two claimants for his throne, 
 Maria Theresa, his daughter, and Charles Albert of 
 Bavaria, and in the conflict which followed nearly all 
 the nations of Europe participated. England and 
 France were again arrayed against each other. This 
 war is known to Americans as King George's war, for 
 George II was now king of England. The only event 
 of moment to America was the capture of Cape 
 Breton. It stands in the mouth of the St. Lawrence 
 and was considered the kev to Canada. All the 
 northern colonies joined forces and Commodore 
 Warren, commanding the English fleet in the West 
 Indies, joined the expedition. The siege lasted from 
 the 23rd of April until the iSth of June. By the 
 terms of surrender Louisberg and Cape Breton were 
 given up to England. There was great rejoicing 
 among the English colonies and proportionate indigna- 
 tion among the French. Louisberg must be taken at all 
 hazards, cried the French. The next year a powerful 
 fleet left France, but before it reached American shores 
 the commander died. Storm and disaster drove the 
 fleet to ruin and when another expedition was sent 
 out in 1747 it too met with many misfortunes. A 
 treaty of peace was finally concluded. 
 
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CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 I"^OR ten years after the first settling of New 
 ^ Amsterdam the Dutch East India Company's 
 director governed the colony. In 1621 the 
 Dutch West India Company was organized, and Man- 
 hattan island passed at once under control of the new 
 organization. There were only a few huts on the 
 island, but in April, 1633, the ship New Netherland, 
 with thirty families on board, arrived at New Amster- 
 dam, The colonists, called Walloons, were Dutch 
 Protestant refugees from Flanders. The leader was 
 Cornelius May. Most of the emigrants settled with 
 their friends on Manhattan, but a party of fifty, with 
 the captain, explored the coast of New Jersey and the 
 bay of Delaware. A site was selected a few miles 
 below Camden and a block house built called Fort 
 Nassau. A little later in the same year the Dutch 
 Captain Joris ascended the Hudson to Castle island, 
 where Christiaason had built the older Fort Nassau. 
 A great flood in the river had swept away all traces 
 of the fort. So he sailed a little farther up and re- 
 built the fortress on the present site of Albany. The 
 name of this northern outpost was changed to Fort 
 Orange. Eighteen families were settled here per- 
 manently. Cornelius May the leader of the colonists 
 who arrived m 1633, was made governor of the colony 
 of Manhattan. His duties were such as belong to a 
 
l62 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. ' 
 
 trading-post only. In 1625 William Verhulst became 
 director of the settlement and in January of ,the next 
 year Peter Minuit was appointed by the Dutch West 
 India Company governo/ of New Netherlands, in 
 May the island, containing more than twenty-iive 
 thousand acres, was purchased by the Dutch from the 
 natives for twenty-four dollars. A block house wa . 
 erected on the northern point of land and surrounded 
 with pallisades. New Amsterdam by this time had 
 thirty houses. From the first the Dutch of New 
 Amsterdam and the Pilgrims of Plymouth were warm 
 friends. An embassy was sent in 1627 by Minuit to 
 Plymouth with expressions ot courtesy and good will. 
 The Puritans were invited to remove to the valley ot 
 the Connecticut. Governor Bradford replied with 
 words of sympathy. The Dutch were advised of the 
 claims of England to the country of the Hudson and 
 the inhabitants of New Netherlands were cautioned 
 to obtain new land titles from the council of Ply- 
 mouth. 
 
 The colony of Manhattan grew fast. In 1628 it 
 numbered two hundred and seventy. All energies 
 were devoted to the fur trade, and the prospects of 
 the colony were very promising. The West India 
 Company framed a charter of privileges in 1629. 
 Under this a class of proprietors called fatroons were 
 authorized to colonize the country. The conditions 
 were that the estates should be held as dependencies 
 of Holland that each patroon should purchase his 
 estate of the Indians^ and that he should establish a 
 colon}^ of not less than fifty persons. 
 
 Five estates we^e immediately laid out — three in 
 
NEW YORK. 163 
 
 the valley of the Hudson, the fourth on Staten Island, 
 and the fifth in the southern half of Delaware. Samuel 
 Godyn was the patroon of this estate, but the manager 
 wa>^ David de Vries. He brought thirty emigrants 
 to Delaware bay. In the spring of 163 1, the com- 
 pany selected as a site for their new home territory 
 close to the mouth of Louis creek. The place was 
 called Lewistown and is the oldest settlement in 
 Delaware. 
 
 De Vries returned to Holland, leaving Hosset in 
 charge, but under his management the colony was 
 soon ruined. Hosset treated the natives unjustly. 
 They became incensed and fell upon the colony, de- 
 stroying it utterly. Nothing remained of it but ashes. 
 Minuit was superseded by Wouter van Twiller in 
 April of 1633. The Dutch had erected a block house 
 at Hartford some three months previously, and in 
 October of the same year an armed vessel from Ply- 
 mouth had sailed up the river and defied the Dutch 
 commander. The English sailed up the stream to the 
 mouth of the Farmington, where they built Fort 
 Windsor. Tw^o years later, by building a fort at Say- 
 brook at the mouth of the Connecticut, they had entire 
 control of the river both above and below the Dutch 
 fort. 
 
 But about this time the king of Sweden thought he 
 would like to have colonies in the beautiful land of 
 freedom. Gustavus Adolphus, who was a Protestant, 
 became involved in a war and was killed in battle 
 before he could carry out his plans. But the Swedish 
 minister took up the work as his king had planned. 
 The charter of tlie company was renewed, and after 
 
164 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 four years the enterprise succeeded. It was late in 
 the year 1637 when a company of Swedes and Finns 
 left the harbor of Stockholm and in February arrived 
 in Delaware bay. The country from Cape Henlopen 
 to Trenton Falls was purchased honorably of the 
 Indians, and the territory was called New Sweden. 
 The spot chosen for the settlement was on the left 
 bank of a tributary to the Brandywine, a river noted 
 for beautiful scenery. The emigrants were industrious 
 and soon were provided with comfortable homes. 
 The creek and the fort were both named after the 
 gentle maiden queen Christina. In a short time other 
 emigrants arrived and soon the banks of the river and 
 bay were dotted with thrifty hamlets. But the 
 authorities of New Amsterdam were jealous of their 
 new neighbors and warned them of their intrusion into 
 the Dutch valley. Still the Swedes went on enlarging 
 their borders. Kieft, who had succeeded Governor 
 Van Twiller, grew very indignant at their aggressions, 
 and sent a party to rebuild Fort Nassau, on the old 
 site below Camden. The Swedes adopted measures for 
 defence. They ascended the river to within six miles 
 of the mouth of the Schuylkill, where they landed ; 
 and on the island called Tinicum, a short distance 
 below Philadelphia, they landed and immediately con- 
 structed a stout fort of hemlock logs and at this fort 
 in 1643 Governor Printz established his residence. 
 
 New Netherland berame involved in a war with 
 the Indians in 1640. Dishonest traders had made the 
 Indians drunk and then defrauded them. So the 
 savages of Jersey shore determined to destroy the 
 whites, and crossed over to Staten Island, burning 
 
NEW YORK. 165 
 
 houses and killing men, women and children. New 
 Amsterdam was quickly put into state of defence 
 against the savages. The war degenerated on both 
 sides into treachery and murder. The kindly and 
 honest Roger Williams tried to make peace. A truce 
 was obtained, but immediately broken. A chieftain's 
 son, who had been robbed, went to the nearest settle- 
 ment and killed the first Hollander he met. Governor 
 Kieft demanded the criminal. The chiefs refused to 
 give him up. About this time a party of Mohawks 
 came down the river and appealed to the governor of 
 New Netherland for assistance in driving away the 
 Algonquins, who were settled near New Amsterdam. 
 Kieft saw an opportunity of wholsale destruction. A 
 company of soldiers set out for Manhattan and dis- 
 covered the Algonquin camp. The place was sur- 
 rounded in the darkness of night, and the first the 
 Algonquins knew of danger was the crash of mus- 
 ketry. Nearly a hundred of them were killed by 
 those to whom they had come for aid. 
 
 Now when it was known that the Dutch, and not 
 the Mohawks, had committed this outrage, the war 
 was renewed with fury. The Indians divided them- 
 selves into small parties and hid themselves in the 
 woods. Then they surrounded farm houses, killing 
 the inmates and burning the houses. Mrs. Anne 
 Hutchinson was living with her son-in-law in the 
 valley of the Housatonic. Her house was surrounded 
 and every member of the family killed except one 
 child, and Mrs. Hutchinson was burned alive. Thus 
 did the Indians repay the Dutch for their treachery. 
 
 Captain John Underbill was appointed commander 
 
l66 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 4 
 
 of the Dutch forces. He commenced by invading 
 New Jersey and conquering the Delawares. A sharp 
 and decisive battle was fought on Long Island and 
 another at Greenwich in western Connecticut. The 
 power of the Indians was finally broken, and the 
 Iroquois came forward with proposals of peace. Both 
 parties were weary of the long war. It had brought 
 ruin to both. On the 30th of August, 1645, a treaty 
 was concluded at Fort Amsterdam. 
 
 It is stated on good authority that all the conse- 
 quences of innocent blood shedding may be tracea to 
 Governor Kieft. Many times had his people desired 
 to make peace with the Indians, but the project had 
 always been defeated by the governor, and as soon as 
 the war was ended petitions for his removal were cir- 
 culated and signed by the people. The West India 
 Company revoked his commission and appointed 
 Peter Stuyvesant to succeed him in 1647. Kieft 
 sailed for Europe, but his ship was wrecked off the 
 coast of Wales and he found a watery grave. 
 
 it was the nth of May, 1647, when Peter Stuyves- 
 ant entered upon his duties. He continued in office 
 continuously seventeen years. His policy was to 
 conciliate the Indians. So cordial and even intimate 
 w^ere their relations that they were suspected of mak- 
 ing common cause against the English. Massachu- 
 setts became alarmed. Such an alliance might mean 
 the direst of mischief to her. But her alarm was need- 
 less, Stuyvesant's policy was on noble principles. 
 
 The West India Company had since the settlement 
 of the New Netherlands exclusive monopoly of the 
 commerce of that settlement. In 1648 this monopK)iy 
 
NEW YORK. 167 
 
 was abolished, and regular export duties were sub- 
 stituted. That the change was beneficial was soon 
 apparent in the improvements of the Dutch colony. 
 
 Stuyvesant predicted (in a letter to the secretary of 
 the West India Company) that "the commerce of New 
 Amsterdam should cover every ocean, and the ships 
 of all nations crowd into her harbor," but this did not 
 come to pass for many years. The upper part of the 
 island was still divided among the farmers and Central 
 Park was a forest of oaks and chestnuts. The 
 boundary was fixed between New England and New 
 Netherland in 1650. The line extended across Long 
 Island north and south, passing through Oyster Bay, 
 and thence to Greenwich on the other side of the 
 sound. Frqm this line north the boundary line was 
 nearly identical with the present state line of Con- 
 necticut on the west. This treaty was ratified by the 
 colonies, by the West India Company, by the states- 
 general of Holland, but England treated the matter 
 with perfect indifference. 
 
 Stuyvesant was disposed to, subdue the colony of 
 New Sweden, so in 165 1 an armament left New 
 Amsterdam for the Delaware, Fort Casimir was built 
 on the present site of New \Castle, and was garrisoned 
 with Dutch soldiers. This fort was almost in sight of 
 the little city of Christiana. It was evident that the 
 Dutch meant war, so Rising, the governor of the 
 Swedes, waited patiently until the fort was completed, 
 then captured the place by stratagem and put the 
 flag of Sweden over it. But the triumph was very 
 short, for the West India Company immediately 
 ordered Stuyvesant to compel the surrender of the 
 
l68 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Swedes. So in the month of September, 1655, the kind- 
 hearted, but firm Stuyvesant, at the head of six hundred 
 troops, sailed against New Sweden. And before the 
 25th of the month every fort belonging to the Swedes 
 had surrendered. Honorable terms were granted to 
 all and in a few days the authority of the New 
 Netherlands was established and New Sweden waS 
 known no more. 
 
 While Stuyvesant was bringing the Swedes to 
 terms the Algonquins rose in rebellion. They sud- 
 denly appeared before New Amsterdam in a fleet of 
 sixty-four canoes, whoopmg and yelling and discharg- 
 ing arrows. They paddled about for a time and then 
 went on shore and began to burn and murder. Very 
 soon tlie Dutch armament returned, and then the 
 Indians began to sue for peace, which Stuyvesant 
 granted on better terms than they deserved ; for in 
 1663 the town of Kingston was attacked and destroyed 
 by Indiana. Sixty-five of the inhabitants were toma- 
 hawked or carried into captivity. This outrage was 
 punished immediately. A strong force was sent from 
 New Amsterdam. The Indians fled to the woods, 
 closely pursued by the Dutch, who burned their 
 wigwams and killed every warrior who could be over- 
 takerv A treaty of peace was signed in May of 
 1664 
 
 Poor Governor Stuyvesant was kept very busy in 
 defending his country from other nations who seemed 
 bound to trespass upon it, and worst of all there was 
 discord among his own people. For several years the 
 Dutch had watched the growth and apparent prosperity 
 of New England. There were excellent schools in 
 
NEW YORK. l6o 
 
 Massachusetts and in Connecticut. But the academy 
 of Manhattan after a career of t^vo years was aban- 
 doned. In New Netherland heavy taxes were levied 
 for the support of the poor. New England had no 
 poor. The Dutch were jealous of their neighbors and 
 attributed their lack of success to the West India 
 Company. But worse things were to come. March 
 i2th, 1664, the duke of York received a patent from 
 Charles II granting him the whole country between 
 the Connecticut and the Delaware, regardless of the 
 rights of the West India Company or of Holland. It 
 was through the West India Company's exertions that 
 the Hudson valley had been settled. Holland had 
 well earned her province. But the duke of York, 
 believing that might makes right, at once set 
 about claiming his gift. Richard commanded an 
 English squadron which put off at once for America. 
 The fleet anchored before New Amsterdam on the 
 28th of August. The Dutch council was immediately 
 convened by Governor Stuyvesant, who exhorted them 
 to rouse to action and jight. Some one replied that 
 '•Hhe West India Company was not worth fighting 
 forT Stuyvesant was indignant beyond words* 
 Snatching Nicolls' proposal, he tore it in fragments. 
 But all his efforts were in vain. He was forced to 
 sign the capitulation and on the 8th of September, 
 1664, New Netherland was an empty name. The 
 English flag was hoisted over the fort and town, and 
 New York was substituted for New Amsterdam. 
 The surrender of Fort Orange followed on the 24th 
 and the name was changed to Albany, and on October 
 1st the Swedish and Dutch settlements along the 
 
IJO FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Delaware capitulated. The conquest was complete. 
 From Maine to Georgia floated the English flag. 
 
 Richard Nicolls was appointed the first governor of 
 New York. He at once began his duties by settling 
 boundaries. In 1633 Lord Stirling had received a 
 patent for Long Island. Connecticut claimed that 
 part of the island now the county of Suffolk. The 
 governor bought Sterling's claims, but refused to 
 recognize Connecticut's, and simply set them aside. 
 This made a great deal of unpleasant feeling until the 
 duke of York made compensation by a favorable 
 change in her south-west boundary. 
 
 The territory between the Hudson and the Dela- 
 ware was granted to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
 Carteret in 1664. This district was almost the same 
 as New Jersey and was taken from New York and a 
 separate government established by the proprietors. 
 The territories, as the country below the Delaware 
 was called, consolidated with New York, and at 
 length the title of New York belonged to all that had 
 once been New Netherland. 
 
 It was the hope and belief that civil liberty would 
 be theirs that had caused the Dutch to surrender to 
 the English government, but little liberty could be 
 expected from Charles II. He promised, but did not 
 fulfill. The old titles by which the Dutch held their 
 farms he annulled. He compelled the people to accept 
 new deeds from the government of England and to 
 pay large prices for them. Lord Lovelace, much 
 more tyrannical than Nicolls, succeeded him as 
 governor in 1667. Gloom and almost despair settled 
 upon the people. Several towns resisted the tax 
 
NEW YORK. 171 
 
 gatherers and resolutions were passed denouncing the 
 STovernment. Lord Lovelace caused these resolutions 
 to be burned before the town house of New York. 
 The Swedes were a patient, long-suffering people, and 
 they wrote him a little letter of entreaty. The noble 
 lord ordered his deputy thus : "If there is any more 
 murmuring among this people against the taxes, make 
 them so heavy that they can think of nothing but how 
 to pay them." 
 
 The king of France persuaded the reckless Charles 
 II to begin a war with Holland. The struggle ex- 
 tended to the colonies, and New York was revolution* 
 ized for a short time. Manning was then the govern- 
 or of New York, and awoke one morning to find the 
 harbor in possession of a Dutch fleet. He was 
 frisrhtened and made no defense. The fort was sur- 
 rendered, the city capitulated, the whole province 
 yielded without a struggle. New Jersey and Delaware 
 submitted. The name of New Netherland was re- 
 vived, and the authority of the land was restored 
 from Connecticut to Maryland. The conquest after 
 all was only a brief military occupation of the coun- 
 try. The civil authority of the Dutch was never re- 
 established. Charles II, however, was obliged to con- 
 clude a treaty of peace in 1674. All conquests made 
 through the war were restored. New York reverted 
 to the English government and the rights of the duke 
 were again recognized. Sir Edmund Andros was 
 appointed governor. All the abuses which Lovelace 
 had been hated for were revived. Taxes were levied 
 without the slightest regard to law, and the protests 
 of the people were laughed to scorn. The people 
 
172 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 demanded a popular legislative assembly and Andres 
 was advised by York that "popular assemblies were 
 dangerous to the government and he did not see any 
 use for them.''^ Andros was anxious to extend his 
 realm, and in July of 1675 he attempted to take 
 Connecticut under his charge. The people heard of 
 his coming and word was sent to Captain Bull, of 
 Saybrook, to resist his coming in the name of the 
 king ; so when Andros came in sight bearing the 
 English colors he saw them floating over the fort. 
 The governor was allowed to land, but when he began 
 to read his commission he was ordered in the king's 
 name to desist. The militia of Saybrook was out and 
 the governor thought it wisdom to withdraw to his 
 boats and set sail for Long Island. He next attempted 
 jurisdiction over New Jersey. He issued a decree 
 that ships trading with that province should pay duty 
 to the custom house in New York. This action was 
 promptly resisted. Andros attempted to frighten 
 the assembly of New Jersey into submission, and he 
 arrested Peter Carteret, the deputy governor. The 
 representatives of the people declared themselves 
 "under the protection of the great charter, which not 
 even the duke of York could alter or annul." 
 
 William Penn was granted the territories beyond 
 the Delaware in 1682 by the duke of York. This 
 small district — first settled by the Swedes, then con- 
 quered by the Dutch, again transferred to England — 
 was now finally separated from New York and joined 
 to the new province of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Thomas Dongan, a Roman Catholic, became 
 governor of New York in 1683. For thirty years the 
 
NEW YORK. 
 
 173 
 
 people had been demanding a general assembly. At 
 last the duke of York yielded to the demand. The 
 new governor came with instructions to call an assem- 
 bly of the free holders of New York, by whom certain 
 persons should be elected to take part in the govern- 
 ment. For the first time the people of the province 
 were permitted to choose their rulers and to frame 
 their own laws. 
 
 The new assembly declared the people to be fart of 
 the government. All freeholders were granted the 
 right of suffrage ; trial by jury was established ; taxes 
 could be levied by the general assembly ; soldiers 
 should not be quartered on the people ; martial law 
 should not exist ; no person should be persecuted on 
 account of his religion. 
 
 The chiefs of the Iroquois met the governors of New 
 York and Virginia at Albany in July of 1684. The 
 terms of a lasting peace were settled. But there en- 
 sued a long war between the mighty five nations and 
 the French. It is said that certain people used every 
 artifice to break the treaty with the English without 
 avail. In 1684 and in 1687 the French invaded the 
 Indian territories, but the warlike Mohawks and 
 Oneidas drove them back with great loss. 
 
 The duke of York became king of England in 1685. 
 He was known as King James, and one of his first 
 acts was to dismiss the assembly at New York, an 
 abominable tax was levied, printing presses were for- 
 bidden, and all the old abuses revived. Edmund 
 Andros was made governor of New England, and he 
 planned to get control of New York and New Jersey 
 again To New York he sent Francis Nicholson as 
 
174 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 his deputy, and until the English revolution in 1688 
 New York was ruled as a province of New England. 
 
 There was heartfelt rejoicing among the citizens of 
 New York when the news of the accession of William 
 of Orange to the throne was known, and the people 
 rose in rebellion against Nicholson, who was glad to 
 flee to England. The leader of the insurrection was 
 Captain Jacob Leisler. A committee of ten took 
 upon themselves the task of governing. Leisler was 
 appointed commander of New York and afterwards 
 provisional governor. The councilors who had been 
 friends of Nicholson left New York and went up to 
 Albany. There the party opposed to Leisler organ- 
 ized a second provisional government. Both factions 
 began to rule in the name of William and Mary. 
 Milborne, who was a son-in-law of Leisler, went to 
 Albany to demand the surrender of the town, but the' 
 leaders of the other faction opposed the demand and 
 Milborne went back to New York. This was the 
 condition of affairs at the commencement of King 
 William's war. Early in the spring of 1690 the 
 authority of Leisler as governor of New York was 
 recognized throughout the provinces. 
 
 All the summer was spent in preparing to conquer 
 Canada. The general assembly was convened at the 
 capital. But little, however, was accomplished ex- 
 cept the recognition of Leisler as governor. 
 
 Captain Richard Ingoldsby arrived from England 
 in January of 1691, bringing the news that Colonel 
 Sloughter had been appointed governor of the prov- 
 ince. Leisler courteously received Ingoldsby, but 
 Captain Richard haughtily demanded of him. the 
 
NEW YORK. 
 
 175 
 
 surrender of his majesty's fort. Leisler acknowledged 
 allegiance to King Willian and Colonel Sloughter, 
 but refused to surrender the fort. In March the new 
 governor arrived, and Leisler on the same day ten- 
 dered his submission. He wrote a letter to Slousrhter 
 expressing his desire to surrender the fort to the gov- 
 ernor. The letter was not answered, and Ingoldsby 
 was sent with verbal orders to receive the fort. Leisler 
 capitulated and he and Milborne were seized and sent 
 to prison. When the government was organized the 
 prisoners were brought to trial. Sloughter hesitated 
 to condemn them to death, but he was invited to a 
 banquet and when so filled with wine that he only 
 partially understood what he was doing he signed his 
 name to the death warrants of these brave men, and 
 before he could undo the mischief they. had already 
 been hanged. 
 
 The treaty with the five nations was renewed the 
 same summer by Governor Sloughter. 
 
 Major Schyuler, at the head of the New York militia 
 in 1692, made a successful expedition against the 
 French beyond lake Champlain. 
 
 The assembly had met meantime and passed an act 
 forbidding arbitrary taxation, and another which de- 
 clared the people to be a part of the government. 
 
 Benjamin Fletcher succeeded Sloughter in 1692. 
 He was a thoroughly bad man, but one of almost no 
 ability. The purpose of the English king was to 
 place all the territory between Connecticut and the 
 Delaw^are under a common government. So Fletcher 
 was commissioned as governor and commander-in- 
 chief of New York, and also of the militia of Con, 
 
1^6 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 necticiit and New Jersey. He met with very little 
 opposition in New Jersey, but the Puritans of Hart- 
 ford treated his pretensions with scorn. He at- 
 tempted to establish the English church in New York, 
 but was resisted and defeated. 
 
 In 1696 the French invaded New York, but were 
 soon driven back by the English and Iroquois, and 
 before a second invasion could be attempted Kino- 
 William's war was ended, and in 1697 Bellomont, er* 
 Irish earl, was made governor. His administrati'^n 
 is said to be the happiest in the history of the colon ''^ 
 His authority, like that of some of his predecessor?, 
 extended over a part of New England. Massachi^- 
 setts and New Hampshire were under his jurisdiction, 
 but Connecticut and Rhode Island remained inde- 
 pendent. It was during Bellomont's administration 
 that the famous Captain Kidd, the most dangerous 
 of pirates, held sway. A vessel was fitted out by a 
 company of w^ealthy, as well as distinguished. Eng- 
 lishmen to protect the commerce of Great Britain and 
 to punish piracy. Governor Bellomont was one of 
 these proprietors and he commissioned William Kidd 
 as captain. No sooner was Kidd at sea than he 
 turned pirate himself and became for two years the 
 terror of the high seas. His booty has been supposed 
 to be buried in many places, and if the people who 
 have wasted time and labor in digging for the treas- 
 ures of Captain Kidd had employed themselves in 
 honest labor doubtless most of them would have been 
 saved the disgrace which comes to the people who 
 think the world owes them a living, no matter who 
 earns it. Captain Kidd was caught on the streets of 
 
NEW YORK. 1^7 
 
 Boston. He was seized, sent' to England, tried, con- 
 victed and hanged. 
 
 Lord Cornbury succeed Lord Bellomont in 1702, 
 just a month after the proprietors of New Jersey had 
 surrendered their province to the English crown. The 
 two colonies were formally united in one government 
 under Cornbury and for thirty-six years the two 
 provinces continued under the jurisdiction of a single 
 governor. Cornbury was cordially hated. He at- 
 tempted to established the English church, used the 
 public money for his personal benefit, and persecuted 
 those w^ho had taken part in the so-called Leisler 
 insurrection. The civil dissensions reached a climax 
 in 1708. The people petitioned for the governor's 
 removal. The councilors selected their own treasurer 
 and refused to vote appropriations. Then Queen 
 Anne sent Lord Lovelace, and the miserable Cornbury 
 vs^as arrested for debts and thrown into prison. 
 
 To conquer Canada was still uppermost in the 
 minds of many strong men, and in the winter of 1709—10 
 eighteen hundred volunteers from Delaware and 
 the Hudson made an unsuccessful expedition against 
 Montreal. The troops marched north as far as Lake 
 George. There they received information that the 
 English fleet which was to co-operate at Quebec had 
 been sent to Portugal. The troops of New England 
 were not sufficient to attempt the conquest and the 
 troops of New York were obliged to retreat. In 171 1 
 the army which was to invade Canada by land was 
 furnished by New York. A second time they reached 
 Lake George, but the news of the destruction of 
 Walker's fleet was so discouraging (for without a fleet 
 
lyS FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 they could accomplish nothing) that they returned to 
 their homes. The result of these campaigns were 
 heavy debts and in many cases ill health. 
 
 The Tuscaroras of Carolina had been defeated and 
 driven from their homes by the southern colonists. In 
 17 13 they inarched northward and joined their kins- 
 men on the St. Lawrence, making the sixth nation 
 in the Iroquois confederacy. Some nine years later the 
 governors of New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia 
 made a commercial treaty with the six nations by 
 which the fur trade of the Indians was secured to the 
 English, and in order to secure the full benefit 
 Governor Burnett of New York established a trading 
 post at Oswego on Lake Ontario and another at Crown 
 Point on the western shore of Lake Champlain. 
 
 Governor Cosby succeeded Burnett in 1733 and was 
 much troubled w^ith a dispute about the freedom of news- 
 papers. The liberal party thought that a public journal 
 might criticise the administration. The aristocratic 
 party were of course bitterly opposed to freedom of 
 thought or speech. An editor named Zenger had 
 published criticisms on the governor, was arrested and 
 placed in prison. . The excitement was great. The 
 populace were for their champion. There was a 
 lawyer by the name of Andrew Hamilton living in 
 Philadelphia who went to New York to defend Zenger. 
 The trial came on in July, 1735. The case was heard, 
 the jury brought in a verdict of acquittal. The 
 aldermen of New York presented Hamilton with an 
 elegant gold box, and the people were wild with 
 enthusiasm over this victory of the freedom of the 
 press. 
 
NEW YORK. 179 
 
 The negro plot occurred in 1741. There were very 
 many negroes in the community. There had been 
 numerous fires and the negroes were suspected, and 
 they became accordingly feared and hated. A 
 wretched white woman started a report that the 
 negroes had made a plot to burn the city and set up a 
 governor of their own color. The frightened populace 
 were read}' to believe anything. The reward of free- 
 dom was offered to any slave who would reveal 
 the plot. Many witnesses rushed forward and the 
 jails were filled with the accused, and more than 
 thirty, with scarcely the form of trial, were convicted 
 and hanged or burned to death. Others were trans- 
 ported and sold as slaves in foreign lands. When the 
 excitement had died away it became only too apparent 
 that there had been no plot at all. 
 
 New York had been several times invaded by the 
 French and Indians during King George's war, but 
 these invasions had been easily repelled. A few vil- 
 lages in the north part of the state had been destroyed, 
 but the province had not suffered much. The alliance 
 of the Mohawks with the English had made these 
 more hazardous than profitable. The treaty of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, concluded in 174S, brought peace and good 
 will to the people of New York. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 INDUSTRIES. 
 
 THE people of Manhattan dealt largely in furs and 
 there were many merchants among them. In 
 New England the tillers of the soil were not 
 skilled agriculturists. They had few and clumsy imple- 
 ments. The work of clearing the ground of trees, 
 stumps, roots and stones was very hard. Perhaps no one 
 in this age can realize what a terrific task it is to work 
 without tools. The trees must be felled, cleared of 
 the larger limbs, rolled together and burned, and 
 while burning (a period of weeks sometimes) the 
 half-burned logs must be kept together, so that all 
 would be consumed. The tree felling occured in the 
 winter ; the burning in the spring ; and before August 
 there would be a thick growth of raspberry bushes 
 (red raspberries of finest flavor). The second year 
 these canes would be six to seven feet in height and 
 quite impassable, except in the paths kept down by 
 cattle, sheep or wild creatures. Then sometimes the 
 first, sometimes the second year, these bushes would 
 be burned down and the big stumps dug out or else 
 corn, potatoes and squashes would be planted in the 
 now rich earth. It might be years before the stumps 
 and roots and stones were out of the way so that the 
 land could be cultivated. Stumps and stones were 
 hauled by oxen mostly to the boundary of the field, 
 where they were arranged in a fashion more pictur- 
 
INDUSTRIES. l8l 
 
 esque than beautiful. The stump is turned on the 
 side so that as large an area of roots as possible front 
 the highway ; interstices are filled in with stones and 
 roots. Every cleared acre of ground represented so 
 much of a ma7i's life. The roads were mere trails 
 known by blazed trees. The houses were of logs 
 invariably built over a deep cellar. There was a large 
 chimney usually built of stones (laid in clay) at one 
 end of the house. The back and sides and hearth of 
 the huge fireplace were of flat stones. The windows 
 were small and covered with oiled paper, and then 
 thick shutters bolted carefully at night, as was the 
 great door. The furniture v^as simple except such as 
 was brought from England — two to three strong, 
 high and very straight-backed chairs, a massive table, 
 a large chest with carved front. The trusty match- 
 lock, sword, or other implements of defence were on 
 brackets of exceedingly simple structure. The mantel 
 shelf was always high ; so were the shelves and pegs 
 on which clothes w^ere hung. These good people 
 seemed to consider that the more they denied them- 
 selves personal comfort and pleasure, and even love, 
 the greater would be the crown. Many a mother 
 dared not kiss and fondle her babes as her heart longed 
 to do, lest she should be commiting a sin against God. 
 An instance of this sort of superstition is related in 
 the poem of Miles Standish by Longfellow. It is at 
 the time when John Alden, bidden by his commander 
 Miles Standish to go to the lovely Priscillaand present 
 a proposition of marriage to her from Miles Standish. 
 John Alden had crossed the ocean for Priscilla and he 
 loved her with a devotion seldom seen. On his way 
 
iSz FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 to her habitation he communed with himself thus : 
 
 ''Must I relinquish it all?" he cried with a wild lamentation, — 
 
 "Must I rellinquish it all, the joy, the hope, the illusion? 
 
 Was it for this I have loved, and waited and worshipped in silence? 
 
 Was it for this I have followed the flying feet and the shadow 
 
 Over the wintry sea, to the desolate shores of New England? 
 
 Truly the heart is deceitful, and out of its depths of corruption 
 
 Rise, like an exhalation, the misty phantoms of passion; 
 
 Angels of light they seem, but are only delusions of Satan. 
 
 All is clear to me now ; I feel it, I see it distinctly ! 
 
 This is the hand of the Lord ; it is laid upon me in anger, 
 
 For I have followed too much the heart's desires and devices. 
 
 Worshipping Astaroth blindly, and impious idols of Baal. 
 
 This is the cross I must bear ; the sin and the swift retribution." 
 
 Longfellow also gives an exquisite picture of the 
 work common among the maidens of the day, which I 
 can do no better than to copy. 
 
 So through the Plymouth woods John Alden went on his errand : 
 Came to an open space, and saw the disk of the ocean, 
 Sailless, sombre and cold with the comfortless breath of the east-wind ; 
 Saw the new-built house, and people at work in a meadow ; 
 Heard, as he drew near the door, the musical voice of Priscilla 
 Singing the hundredth Psalm, the grand old Puritan anthem, 
 Music that Luther sang to the sacred words of the Psalmist, 
 Full of the breath of the Lord, consoling and comforting many. 
 Then, as he opened the door, he beheld the form of the maiden 
 Seated beside her wheel, and the carded wool like a snow-drift 
 Piled at her knee, her white hands feeding the ravenous spindle, 
 While with her foot on the treadle she guided the wheel in its motion. 
 Open wide on her lap lay the well-worn psalm-book of Ainsworth, 
 Printed in Amsterdam, the words and the music together. 
 Rough-hewn, angular notes, like stones in the wall of a churchyard, 
 Darkened and overhung by the running vine of the verses. 
 
 And for the rest of this exquisite love story read 
 the entire poem. No American library is complete 
 without Longfellow, Lowell and Whittier. 
 
" INDUSTRIES. 183 
 
 On the high mantel piece was always a stoutly- 
 bound Bible, and not infrequently a very large and 
 cumbersome pair of spectacles with frames of brass or 
 silver or horn was laid on or beside the sacred book. 
 Indeed, one of the company's instructions was as 
 follows : "Our especial desire is that you take 
 especial care in settling these families ; that the chief 
 in the family be well grounded in religion, whereby 
 morning and evening duties may be duly performed, 
 and a watchful eye held over all in each family ap- 
 pointed thereto, so that disorders may be prevented, 
 and ill weeds nipt before they take too great a head." 
 An hour glass always stood on the shelf by the Bible, 
 and frequently there were quite a number of good 
 books, as well as the polished brass candle sticks and 
 snuffers. This was of course in the best room. The 
 kitchen rafters were adorned with various things from 
 dried pumpkins to sage. Sanded floors w^ere quite 
 the fashion, at least in the front room. The snowy 
 sand was brought from the beach and sprinkled even- 
 ly over the floor. Then the good housewife with a 
 stick or twig 'drew patterns in it. The wealthier 
 class brought their china and glassware with them^ 
 and they were then, as they are just now, put in 
 corner cupboards with glass doors. Sometimes there 
 werq "dressoirs" which contained "wooden bowls and 
 trenchers, earthen platters, horn drinking cups and a 
 pewter tankard." There were baskets of birch bark 
 embroidered by the Indians that hung about the walls 
 and at regular intervals heavy serge curtains drawn 
 back. A pile of block beds (filled with wool or 
 finely cut woolen cloth) were covered with comforts, 
 
184 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 woolen blankets and rugs. At night these were 
 drawn out and placed between the serge curtains. 
 Around every house there was a pallisade enclosing a 
 garden and a spring of water. 
 
 While the Puritans knew nothing of the science of 
 farming, not even the rotation of crops or of fertiliza- 
 tion, they made so many experiments with plants and 
 roots and seeds that the only thing grown successfully 
 in this country now that was unknown to them is 
 sorg^hum. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 THE COLONY OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 THE first grant of the territory known as Con- 
 necticut was made by the council of Plymouth 
 to the earl of Warwick in 1630, but in 1631 
 (March) the claim was transferred by him to Lord 
 Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and John Hampden. Be- 
 fore the colony could be planted, however, the Dutch 
 had built their fort at Hartford. The Puntans imme- 
 diately sent out a force to compel them to desist, for 
 their charter not only gave them Connecticut, but also 
 the Dutch settlement of New Netherlands. So the 
 English squadron sailed up the beautiful Connecticut 
 until opposite the fort. The commander of the Dutch 
 garrison ordered Captain Holmes to strike his colors, 
 and threatened to fire on the fleet should he attempt 
 to pass on ; but Captain Holmes defiantly hoisted his 
 sails and calmly proceeded on his way with the flag of 
 England floating. At the mouth of the Farmington 
 they landed and. built the block house of Windsor. 
 
 Hatfield, Windsor and Wethersfield were settled in 
 October, 1635, ^7 Bostonians. But before these 
 settlements and in the same year young Winthrop, 
 son of the governor, arrived in New England. Under 
 his direction a fort was constructed at the mouth of 
 the Connecticut. The fort was completed just in time 
 to prevent the entrance of a Dutch trading vessel 
 which appeared at the mouth of the river, and the 
 
l86 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 place was named Saybrook, in honor of Lord Say- 
 and Seal and Lord Brooke. 
 
 Early in the settlement of Connecticut belongs the 
 pitiful story of the Pequod war. They were a fierce 
 tribe numbering seven hundred men. The entire 
 English force did not amount to two hundred men. 
 The superior courage and weapons of the English 
 more than balanced the superior numbers of the 
 savages. 
 
 The crew of a trading vessel were murdered on the 
 banks of the Connecticut in 1633. An Indian embassy 
 went to Boston to apologize. A treaty was made and 
 the Pequods acknowledged the king of England. The 
 Narragansetts, who were bitter enemies of the Pe- 
 quods, had already made peace with Massachusetts. 
 A reconciliation was affected between the tribes, but 
 as soon as the Pequods were freed from their fear of 
 the Narragansetts they began to violate their treaty 
 with the English. Outrages were committed and 
 soon the war was on in earnest. 
 
 Now the Pequods attempted to induce both the 
 Narragansetts and Mohegans to join them in destroy- 
 ing the English. Roger Williams of Rhode Island 
 wrote a letter to Sir Henry Vane, then governor of 
 Massachusetts, warning him of his danger, and volun- 
 teering to oppose the conspiracy. The governor 
 replied urging Williams to use his endeavors to thwart 
 the alliance. So the noble Roger Williams got into 
 his canoe and crossed the bay to the house of Canoni- 
 cus, chief of the Narragansetts, and he found there the 
 emissaries of the Pequods. For three days and nights 
 the man who had been exiled plead with Canonicus 
 
THE COLOJS'Y OF CONNECTICUT. 187 
 
 for those who had driven him from home in the cold 
 and cheerless mid-winter. His efforts for peace were 
 successful, and the Narragansetts voted to remain at 
 peace. The Mohegaii^ also refused to accept the pro- 
 posed alliance. But the Pequods repeatedly attacked 
 those on the outskirts. There were many deeds of 
 violence and many murders. At Wethersfield there 
 was a massacre in which nine persons were killed. 
 This was in April, 1637. 
 
 On the ist of May the towns of Connecticut de- 
 clared war. Captain John Mason, of Hartford, en- 
 listed sixty volunteers. Seventy Mohegans joined the 
 expedition, and Sir Henry Vane sent Captain Under- 
 hill with twenty soldiers from Boston. The voyage 
 from Hartford to Saybrook occupied one day. The 
 expedition passed the mouth of the Thames on the 
 2oth. Here was the principal seat of the Pequod 
 nation. The savages watched the squadron sail by 
 and set up shouts of elation. They were quite satis- 
 fied that the English dared not attack them. The 
 fleet sailed up to Narragansetf bay, disembarked and 
 at once took up the march to the country of the Pe- 
 quods. Mason called at the cabin of Canonicus and 
 tried to persuade the Narragansetts to join them, but 
 they were afraid the whites might be defeated and 
 dared not bring the wrath of the Pequods upon them, 
 so they remained neutral. It was the 25th of May 
 when the invading army reached the Pequod fort. 
 The warriors spent the night in uproar and jubilee. 
 At two o'clock (a. m.) the English marched upon 
 then. A dog ran howling and barking among the 
 wigwams, and the warriors rushed to their feet. The 
 
l88 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 English jumped over the weak pallisades and began 
 to shoot them. " Burn them," cried Mason, as he 
 caught a flaming mat, and ran through the wigwams, 
 which in a moment were a sheet of flame. The 
 frightened savages ran round and round like beasts in 
 a burning circus ; and if one of them burst through 
 the flames he met his death. The destruction was 
 complete. Only seven warriors escaped, and seven 
 were made prisoners. Six hundred men, women and 
 children perished, nearly all of them burned to death 
 in a heap. Sassacus, the chief of the tribe, escaped to 
 the Mohawks and was murdered. Two English were 
 killed and twenty wounded in the engagement. The 
 Pequods had a second fort and the next morning after 
 the battle three hundred came over to talk about the 
 destruction of the English. When they saw the ashes, 
 all that remained of the pride of the Pequods, their 
 rage knew no bounds. They stamped the ground, 
 they ran around, they howled. In the meantime 
 Mason's men had withdrawn to Saybrook and thence 
 to Hartford. The reftinant of the Pequods were pur- 
 sued into the swamps. Every w^igwam was burned 
 and every field laid waste. Two hundred fugitives 
 were killed or taken in captivity. The prisoners were 
 distributed as servants among the Narragansetts or 
 sold into captivity. 
 
 While pursuing the Pequods the English became 
 familiar with the coast west of the mouth of the 
 Connecticut. Some men from Boston remained all 
 winter, built them cabins and founded New Haven, 
 and in April a Puritan colony from England, led by 
 Theophilus Eaton and John Davenport, came to make 
 
THE COLONY OF CONNECTICUT. 189 
 
 their home there. On the first Sabbath after their arrival 
 they assembled under a mighty oak and Davenport 
 preached a touching sermon on the temptation in the 
 wildei'ness. These people purchased land of the 
 Indians, and for the first year they covenanted to. 
 gether to obey the scriptures and had no other govern- 
 ment. 
 
 In June of 1639 the men of the colony met in a barn 
 and adopted the Bible for a constitution. The govern- 
 ment was called the House of Wisdom, of vs^hich 
 Eaton, Davenport, and five others were the seven 
 pillars. Only church members were admitted to 
 citizenship. All officers were to be chosen at the 
 annual election. Some other settlers came and villages 
 were on both shores ot the beautiful sound. 
 
 The western colonies were subject to Massachusetts 
 until 1639. At this time the people began to consider 
 a separate commonwealth. Delegates from three 
 towns met at Hartford, and on January 14th, 1640, 
 the new constitution was framed. This instrument 
 was the most simple as well as liberal of any ever 
 adopted. But Saybrook and New Haven could not 
 accept the frame of government by which the other 
 colonies in the Connecticut valley were united. 
 
 In the year 1643 Connecticut became a member of 
 the union of New England. New Haven was ad- 
 mitted, and the next year Saybrook knocked at its 
 doors and asked for admission. Governor Stuvesant 
 met the commissioners at Hartford in 1650 and estab- 
 lished the western boundary of the province. It was 
 thought that this measure would promote peace, but 
 in \6^i Stuvesant was suspected of inciting the 
 
190 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Indians against the English, so that Connecticut and 
 New Haven sought aid from the mother land — and 
 not in vain, for Cromwell sent out a fleet to assist 
 them in subjugating New Netherland. 
 
 But the news of peace came and war was averted. 
 On the restoration of monarchy in England, Connec- 
 ticut immediately recognized King Charges as rightful 
 sovereign. Young Winthrop was sent as embassador 
 to London to procure a royal patent for the colony 
 He carried a charter which had been prepared by the 
 authorities of Hartford. Lord Say-and-Seal and the 
 earl of Manchester used their influence to induce the 
 king to sign it, and young Winthrop showed the king 
 a ring which Charles I had given to Winthrop's 
 grandfather. The token so moved the monarch's feel- 
 ings that be signed the colonial charter. It w^as the 
 most liberal and ample ever granted by an English 
 king, and it has been more than intimated that he was 
 in a careless mood when he signed it. Winthrop re- 
 turned to Connecticut and w^as immediately chosen 
 governor of the colony and continued in office fourteen 
 years. 
 
 Peace reigned and the civil institutions were the 
 best in all New England. Connecticut was saved 
 from invasion during King Philips's war. Not a life 
 was lost within her borders, and there was no destruc- 
 tion of property within her limits. Sir Edmund 
 Andros, governor of New York, felt called upon to 
 come to Saybrook and read his commission to the peo- 
 ple as governor of Connecticut. Captain Bull, who 
 commanded the fort, ordered hini to stop. Andros 
 insisted that his dominions extended from the Connec- 
 
'THE COLONY OF CONNECTICUT. I9I 
 
 ticut to the Delaware. Captain Bull lost his patience 
 and replied with scant courtesy, "Connecticut has 
 her own charter signed by Charles II. Now leave ofF 
 your reading or take the consequence." The governor 
 was beside himself with rage, but he was sent to his 
 boat by the Saybrook militia. Andros was appointed 
 governor of all New England in October of 16S7, and 
 made shortly afterwards a trip to Hartford. He found 
 the assembly in session, invaded the meeting, seized 
 the book of minutes and wrote ''''Finis''* at the bottom 
 of the page, and demanded the surrender of the charter. 
 How the lights were extinguished and the charter' 
 hidden by Joseph Wadsworth has been related in the 
 history of Massachusetts. 
 
 Governor Fletcher of New York went to Hartford 
 to take command of the militia in 1693. He carried 
 a commission from King William ; but by the terms 
 of the charter the right of commanding the troops 
 was vested in the colony. Fletcher cared nothing at 
 all for the colonial charter. He had been furnished 
 with a commission and the commission he purposed 
 to read, whether anybody desired to hear or not. 
 Fletcher ordered out the militia under arms and com- 
 menced reading. "Beat the drums," shouted Captain 
 Wadsworth, at the head of the company. "Silence," 
 cried Fletcher. "Drum, drum," commanded Wads- 
 worth. " Silence," roared Fletcher. Wadsworth 
 stepped before the ranks and said, in a most deter- 
 mined, though dignified manner, "If I am again in- 
 terrupted I will let the sunshine through your body." 
 The controversy was ended. Fletcher thought it was 
 better to be a "living governor" than a "dead 
 
192 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 colonel," and he returned to his governorship and 
 troubled Conecticut no more. 
 
 In the year 1700 some men, having the good of the 
 colony deeply at heart, met at Branford, a town near 
 New Haven. Each one of the ten brought with him 
 some choice books. "I give these books for the 
 founding of a college," said each one as he deposited 
 his books ; and this was the founding of famous Tale 
 College. The school was opened at Saybrook in 1703 
 and continued for fifteen years. Common schools 
 were in almost every village in Connecticut. Elihu 
 Valejvyas a generous patron, and it was thought wise 
 to remove the college to a larger town, and as Elihu 
 Yale had been the most generous patron the institu- 
 tion was named for him — just as the one at Cambridge 
 was for John Harvard. 
 
 Now for fifty years reigned peace and prosperity. 
 Poverty and pauperism were alike unknown. And as 
 those long deprived of the comforts of life enjoy them 
 doubly when restored to them again, so the people 
 who had known what starvation and frost-bites and 
 Indian wars meant were doubly contented and thank- 
 ful. 
 
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CHAPTER XX. 
 
 THE BLUE LA.WS OF CONNECTICUT. 
 
 THERE has been a great deal said about the 
 Connecticut Blue Laws. History says nothing 
 about them, and the fact is' if these so-called 
 Blue Laws were in existence to-day, penitentiaries 
 would not be needed. There were no laws forbidding 
 husbands to kiss their wives or mothers to kiss their 
 babes. It is true they were a- lustere people, but at 
 that time they were no more austere than the good 
 people of England. The Rev. Samuel P.eters (though 
 how he came to style himself "Rev." is as mysterious 
 as his way of calling himself "Doctor," since neither 
 title belonged to him) was in need of money. Now 
 In this day and generation it is a well known fact that 
 the book that is most sharply criticised, and especially 
 if it is forbidden to go through the mails, is the book 
 that has the greatest sale ; for since the days of Adam 
 forbidden fruit is ever the sweetest to certain classes 
 of people, and Samuel Peters was a man who could 
 talk fluently, but the people who knew him best paid 
 no heed to his words. He possessed also the pen of a 
 ready writer and, as I have before intimated, he was a 
 good judge of humaii nature. So he set himself to 
 work to write up the so-called Blue Laws of Connec- 
 ticut. He must have been possessed of strong im- 
 agination, and as he went along he mixed a -very little 
 truth with a great deal of fiction. 
 
194 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Trumbull, the historian of New 
 Haven, who had grown up with Peters, thus mildly 
 speaks of him : "Of all men with whom I have ever 
 been acquainted. Dr. Peters, I think, can be least de- 
 pended upon as to any matter of fact ; especially in 
 story telling." Said a man thoroughly acquainted 
 wnth Peters' antecedents : "His own life even begins 
 with a fable." He wrote an autobiography of him- 
 self. In it he mentions as near relations of his wife 
 and himself wealthy and learned people of the 
 same name, but who were not any relation to 
 either of them whatever, a-nd in many instances 
 not even acquainted. The Rev. Dr. Bearrdsley 
 thus characterized the book: "Extravagant and in- 
 credible, ludicrous and apocryphal." The book was 
 first piJblished in 1781. The next year it received a 
 new title page w^hich described it as a second edition. 
 " Whether this was done to stimulate the sale, or 
 merely to improve a blank space in the title by the 
 insertion of one more falsehood, is not clear." " Its 
 narrations," says Duykinck, " are independent of time, 
 place and probability." A sober critic would go mad 
 over an attempt to correct its mistakes and misstate- 
 ments. What could sober criticism do, for instance, 
 in the account of Bellows falls, ^'■zvhere the water 
 is consolidated, by pressure, by swiftness, between the 
 pinching, sturdy rocks, to such a degree of i^idtiration 
 that no iron crowbar can be forced into it^'' or \\'ith 
 the bridge over the Qiiinebury at Norwich under 
 which ships pass with all their sails standing ; or with 
 the infamous villainy of Sir Thomas Hooker, who 
 spread death on the leaves of his Bible and struck 
 
THE BLUE LAWS OF COXXECTICUT. I95 
 
 Conecticote, a great sachem, mad Avith disease ; or 
 with the assertion that Yale college " was originally a 
 school established by the Rev. Thomas Peters at Say- 
 brook ;" or with the story of the alarming incursions 
 of the Windham frogs, or the description of the re- 
 markable quadrupeds, the whappernocker and the 
 cuba ; or with the conviction and punishment of the 
 Episcopal clergyman in 1750 " for breaking the Sab- 
 bath day by walking too fast from church, and comb- 
 ing a lock of his wig on Sunday." 
 
 Now among the worst results of what a Scotchman 
 would call wceked lees^ in 1867 Mr. M. McN. Walsh, 
 A. Ivx,, L.L. B., of the New York bar, published a 
 handy book entitled " The Lawyer in the School 
 Room," in which Peters' whole code is given as real 
 laws of the New Haven colony. And even worse, 
 Prof. Scheie De Vere, of the University of Vir- 
 ginia, in his volume of "Americanisms" (published 
 in New York in 1872, p. 273) endorses the story of 
 the Blue Laws according to Peters as "confirmed vvith- 
 out a doubt," yet he doesn't say what they were con- 
 firmed by ; probably, however, by the reprint of the 
 " Abstract of Laws of New England" (which were 
 proposed for Massachusetts, but were never in force 
 in that or any other colony). Another man who was 
 deeply interested in politics in 18 17, named Jonathan 
 M. Scott, wrote a poem entitled " Blue Lights, or the 
 Convention." It was in four cantos and was inspired 
 by a desire to taunt the federalists. Aside from his 
 poem, he quoted some of the Blue Laws, though he 
 makes no pretence of being a historian. The first is : 
 
 "I. Whoever kisseth his wife on the vSabbath day 
 
196 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 shall be fined in the sum of three shillings and four 
 pence, or in default thereof shall receive at the post 
 forty stripes save one." 
 
 "4. Whosoever shall be convicted of profane 
 swearing shall have the oath of which he ^vas con- 
 victed written on his hat with chalk for the space of 
 one week ; and for the second offence shall stand with 
 his tongue in a split stick until the going down of the 
 sun." 
 
 "5. All cracking of nuts, eating of apples, and 
 such like unbecoming amusements during divine 
 service are strictly forbidden, as being highly repug- 
 nant to ecclesiastical dicipline." 
 
 The true law against profane szvcarifio- is this 
 copied from the first code of Connecticut. 
 
 "It is ordered and by this court decreed that if any 
 person within this jurisdiction shall swear rashly and 
 vainly, either by the holy name of God or any other 
 oath ; [<?/-] shall sinfully and wickedly curse any ; he 
 shall forfeit to the common treasure, for every such 
 several offense, ten shillings : and it shall be in the 
 power of any magistrate, by w^arrant to the constable, 
 to call such persons before him, and upon just proofs 
 to pass a sentence, and levy the said penalty accord- 
 ing to the usual order of justice : and if such person be 
 not able, or shall utterly refuse to pay the aforesaid 
 fine, he shall be committed to the stocks, there to con- 
 tinue not exceeding three hours and not less than one 
 hour." 
 
 This is copied from the Massachusetts law of No- 
 vember, 1646, Rec. ii, 1 78. 
 
 From "Some Orders of Massachusetts of the General 
 
THE BLUE LAWS OF' CONNECTICUT. 
 
 97 
 
 Court and Court of Magistrates 1636-1665" (first 
 volume colony records) we copy some of the orders : 
 
 "It is ordered that noe yonge man that is neither 
 married nor hath any servaunte be noe pubUcke officer, 
 shall keepe house by himself, without consent of the 
 towne where he Hues first had, vnder paine 
 of 20s. per weeke. 
 
 "It is ordered that nOe master of a family shall giue 
 habitacon or intcrteinment to any yonge man to 
 soiourne in his family, but by the allowance of the 
 inhabitants of the saide towne where he d\vells 
 under the like penalty of 205. per weeke. These 2 last 
 ordets to take effect the first of Aprill next, (pp 7, 8.) 
 
 And here are a few of the court records : 
 
 "1638 Mar. 9 ° die. — It is ordered that whosoever 
 doth disorderly speak privately during the sitting of 
 court, with his neighbor, or two or three together, 
 shall presently pay one shilling, if the court so think 
 
 meet." 
 
 In order that the offences may be easily read the 
 spelling, except that of proper names, will be modern- 
 ized. 
 
 "1639. — Jno. E , A. S , and Jno W were 
 
 centured for unclean practices as follows : Jno E 
 
 to be whipped at the cart's tail upon a lecture day at 
 
 Hartford (equal to a circus day now). John W 
 
 to stand upon the pillory from the ringing of the first 
 bell to the end ot the lecture, then to be whipped 
 at the cart's tail, and to be w^hipped in like manner at 
 
 Windsore within eight days following. A. S to 
 
 stand upon the pillory and be whipped as W and 
 
 to have the letter R burnt upon his cheek, and in 
 
198 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 regard of the wrong done Mary H to pay her 
 
 parents ten pounds, and in defect of such to the 
 commonwealth, and when both are in fit condition to 
 marry her. 
 
 "It is in the mind of the court that Mr. Ludlow and 
 Mr. Phelps see some public punishment inflicted upon 
 the girl for concealing it so long." 
 
 "1639. — Jno B and Mary H were both 
 
 censured to be whipped for unclean practices, and the 
 girl's master is enjoined to send her out of this jurisdic- 
 tion before the last of the next month." 
 
 "1639-40. — Wm, C -, servant to Jno. Crow, was 
 
 fined forty shillings for misdemeaanor in drinking, 
 and corporal punishment was remitted upon his 
 promise of his care for the future to avoid such oc- 
 casions." 
 
 "1640. — Ed Veare of Wethersfyeld is fined ten 
 shillings for cursing and swearing, and also he is to 
 sit in the stocks at Wethersfyeld two hours the next 
 training dayP 
 
 "1641. — For the preventing and avoiding that foul 
 and gross sin of lying, it is ordered, that when any 
 person or persons shall be accused and proven guilty 
 of that vice, it shall be lawful for that particular 
 court to adjudge and censure any such party, either by 
 fine or bodily connection according as they shall judge 
 the nature of the fault to require ; this to hold to the 
 next court." 
 
 1643. — Whereas the prosperity and well being of 
 common weals doth much depend upon the well 
 government and ordering of particular families, which 
 in an ordinary way cannot be expected where the 
 
THE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. I99 
 
 rules of God are neglected In laying the foundations 
 of a family state ; for the prevention therefore of such 
 evils and inconveniences, v^hich by experience are 
 found not only to be creeping in, but practiced by 
 some in that kind. It is ordered that no person vs^hat- 
 soever, male or female, not being at his or her own dis- 
 pose or that remaineth under the government of par- 
 ents, masters or guardians or such like, shall either make 
 or give entertainment to any motion or suit in way of 
 marriage, without the knowledge and consent of those 
 they stand in such relation to, under the severe 
 censure of the court, in case of delinquency not at- 
 tending to this order ; nor shall any third person or 
 persons intermeddle in making any motion to any such 
 without the knowledge and consent of those under 
 whose government they are under the same penalty." 
 
 "1645. — Susan C , for her rebellious carriage to- 
 ward her mistress, is to be sent to the house of correc- 
 tion and to be kept to hard labor and coarse diet, to be 
 brought forth the next lecture day to be publicly 
 corrected, and so to be corrected weekly, until order 
 be given to the contrary." 
 
 "Walter G- ^ for his misdemeanor in laboring to 
 
 inveigle the affections of Mr. Hooker's maid, is to be 
 publicly corrected the next lecture day." 
 
 "1646. — Robert B , for his gross misdemeanor in 
 
 slandering Miss Mary Fenwicke, is to stand on the 
 pillory, Wednesday, during the lecture, then to be 
 whipped, and fined five pounds, and half year's im- 
 prisonment." 
 
 To be sure these are copied from the laws of Mas 
 sachusetts, but they vary nothing of import from those 
 
200 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 I 
 
 of Connecticut. For information on this subject im- 
 portant to all good citizens consult "Blue Laws, True 
 and False," edited by J. Hammond Trumbull, Hart- 
 ford, 1S76, published by American Publishing Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Perhaps a description of a meeting house in early 
 New England may interest my readers. The seats 
 were of long planks wnth round legs inserted like 
 those of milking stools. There were no backs and no 
 means of heating the churches, so all those who could 
 took foot stoves to church. I have seen several. They 
 were a foot long and eight inches wide. The frame 
 was of wood, though they were lined, and the sides 
 and top were of tin With holes and slits to allow the 
 heat to escape. A shovel full of hard wood coals 
 lasted through the long meeting time and -iiterally 
 k^pt the people from freezing. Later, when w^ealthy 
 people came to join them, the meeting houses grew 
 more like English churches. The pews were sort of 
 box stalls, the seats could be pushed up and fastened 
 and there were closed doors, so nobody need know 
 who was in the next pew to him. It is related 
 that a little girl, on being taken to meeting for the 
 first time, said : " What, must I be shut up in a closet 
 and sit on a shelf?" At length the fashion of build- 
 ing high pews becam.e a nuisance. Permission to 
 build pews had always to be obtained. Doors opened 
 often from each pew into the churchyard. It is re- 
 corded of the Haverhill church that restrictions were 
 put upon those w'ho to glorify themselves w^ould have 
 builded towering pews as follows : " Provided they 
 would not build so high as to damnify and hinder the 
 
THE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. 20I 
 
 light of them windows." Ther^ were also peculiar 
 rules about the Waterbury " pues." In the style of 
 building, where every pewholder was entirely inde- 
 pendent of his neighbor, the floors were in some pews 
 six inches higher than others. This was an unpleas- 
 antness carefully guarded against in the building of 
 the Waterbury church, allowing pewholders perfect 
 freedom in building so they did not "progodish the 
 hous." These pews were seated sometimes on three 
 sides, so it was not all of the occupants who could see 
 the minister and not all w^hom he could see. So the 
 services of a tithing man carrying a long switch was 
 of real use, as reading from these laws we find human 
 nature was about the same then as it is now^ or of King 
 David's time. These pew seats in some churches were 
 fastened up against the wall when not in use ; and the 
 poor "boyes," who had sat still for fear of the tithing 
 man (w'ho seemed to have eyes in the back of his 
 head), let out a little of their impatience in banging 
 up the seats. It has been said that the noise could be 
 distinguished half a mile away, so there was a "notis" 
 posted in Haverhill church. "The people are to let 
 their seats down without such nois." "The boyes are 
 not to wickedly noise down the seats." In some of 
 the aristocratic churches there were little balustrades 
 of turned wood stround the high pews and gallery 
 railings and many w^ere the sinful peeps taken by the 
 childish sinners at^the occupants of the next pew, and 
 as paper wads were in fashion then, as now, many a 
 child has been exceedingly angered by some one de- 
 lighting to tease, and many a billet doux has been 
 passed through the same balustrades when the parents 
 
202 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 were silently nodding. It was the custom among 
 these people to take with them to church, not 
 saucy, gorgeous flowers, but a little fennel or 
 dill or southern wood, and many times the good 
 woman slipped a few peppermints or caraway or 
 coriander seeds in the small bead-embroidered bag 
 which was always carried on her arm. Sometimes 
 the restless little creatures would keep quiet by giving 
 them an occasional "goody." 
 
 These pews for many years \vere uncushioned ex- 
 cept when a very aged or feeble person brought a 
 cushion along:. It is said that Colonel Greenleaf 
 caused a dreadful talk in Newbury town at the be- 
 ginning of the eighteenth century when he cushioned 
 his pew, and the widow of Sir William Pepperel, who 
 was a grand-dame, had her pew not only cushioned, 
 but curtained with worsted stuff and carpeted with 
 bear skin. This pew remained with the same draper- 
 ies and rug, though long grown dingy and moth-eaten, 
 until 1840. This was in the Kittery church. 
 
 With all their democracy the Puritans had wonder- 
 ful respect of rank ^vhen it was accompanied by god- 
 liness, and in seating of the congregation the best seats 
 were filled by the aristocracy. The pCAv on one side 
 of the church was occupied by the minister's family. 
 Large families vv^ere the rule th*en — fourteen being 
 considered "inedium." One minister is said to have had 
 twenty-one living children. The Seats in the gallery 
 and the foreseat and pews were considered by far the 
 best and there was doubtless much heart-burning and 
 anger among those who were forced to take back 
 seats, and took them silently, but wnth a "I am as good 
 
THE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. 203 
 
 as you be" air. Those who had seats assigned 
 them often walked to others and occupied them. It is a 
 matter of history that one woman, whose name we 
 will withhold, treated Captain Osgood very roughly 
 because he gave her the second seat back of the fore- 
 seat, when she felt that her position demanded the 
 first seat next the foreseat. This seating business 
 threatened disaster tq the churches, so in some votes 
 were yearly cast for the persons who should occupy 
 the best seats. la other churches those who gave 
 and the amounts given determined their seats ; in 
 others, seats were sold at regular vandoo. Young 
 men and women sat on opposite sides of the church, 
 though married people often sat together. The 
 Puritan boys were looked upon with suspicious eyes, 
 and they sat on pulpit and gallery stairs and were 
 spoken of by the good elders (who had forgotten that 
 they were ever young) as "ye wretched boyes on ye 
 Lords day," and in the town of Salem in 1676 it 
 was ordered that "all ye boyes of ye towne are and 
 shall be appointed to sitt upon ye three pair of stairs 
 in ye meeting-house on ye Lords day ; and William 
 Lord is appointed to look after ye boyes yt sitte upon 
 ye pulpit stairs. Reuben Guppy is to look and order soe 
 many of ye boyes as may be convenient, and if any are 
 unruly, to present their names, as the law directs." The 
 Puritan fathers seemed never to think that "herding" 
 the boys together was positively the very way to 
 provoke mischief. It is related of one of these boys 
 caught in the very act that he was brought before the 
 magistrate with this accusation that he had "sported 
 and played and by indecent gestures and wry faces 
 
204 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA, 
 
 caused laughter and misbehavior in the beholders." 
 And of the girls little better can be said. "Of one 
 younge woman, Tabatha Morgus by name, S. Norich 
 by residence, did on the 24th of February (it being 
 Lord's day) profane ye Lorde's day in ye meeting 
 house of ye West Society in ye time of ye fore- 
 noone service of s'd day by her rude and in- 
 decent behavior in laughing and playing in ye 
 time of s'd day services, w^hich doing is of ye s'd 
 Tabatha is against ye peace of our sovereign Lord, ye 
 king, his crown, and dignity," and the said Tabatha was 
 fined and compelled to pay three shillings and sixpence 
 for her awful wickedness. Likewise Deborah Bangs, a 
 yonge girl, for larfing in the Wareham meeting house 
 in time of worship, paid five shillings, and a boy who 
 laughed also paid a fine of ten shillings. Probably he 
 made more noise than she did. It was wicked to 
 smile in ye meeting house, for his majestie's tithing 
 man entered complaint against Jona and Susan Smith 
 "that on the Lord's day during divine service they 
 did smile," and each one was fined five shillings and 
 cost, which, as shillings were harder to get than five 
 dollar gold pieces now, probably enabled them to at- 
 tend church with [becoming solemnity for some time 
 after. 
 
 One tithing man being found insufficient to keep 
 the Puritan boys from "everlasting whittling" (a habit 
 ^vhich clings to Yankees, as the thin skin to an egg 
 shell), it was decreed, in one church, at least, that 
 long sticks be put in convenient places ; so that per- 
 sons seeing boys whittling the seats or behaving them- 
 selves unseemly might bring them to a proper under- 
 
THE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. 20^ 
 
 standing of the holiness of the house they were in, by 
 rapping them smartly about the head. The tithing 
 man had full control of the boys at midday, and let it 
 be said of him he honestly earned his wages. 
 
 By and by it began to be genteel to sit down stairs, 
 and also the middle seats, which had been considered 
 the poorest, were now looked upon with favor. Then 
 the boys, always looked upon with disfavor and given 
 the worst seats, were sent into the "gailary," but not 
 alone, for a tithing man sat there also. These pews 
 were, in the words of the celebrated Dr. Porter, " the 
 devil's playhouses." The wee boyes sat down stairs, 
 as no boye under ten was allowed in the gailary. In 
 Plainfield, Connecticut, the "pestigious boys" invented 
 a new annoyance. They " damni^ed the glass," and 
 a church ordinance had to be passed to try to prevent 
 them from "opening the w^indows or otherwise damag- 
 ing the glass." Do you wonder that the boys, full of 
 life, opened the windows, which let a little fresh air 
 in upon them in the hot high pews, close to the roof 
 of the house.'* Do you wonder if they now and then 
 nudged each other as the odor of clover and wild flowers 
 came up to them through the windows, through which, 
 opened only a tiny bit, they caught a glimpse of the blue 
 sky and the blue water ? They heard the sweet voices of 
 robins and blue birds and the hum of the bees, who 
 alone were not censured for working on the holy day. 
 The constables were notified to "take hede that 
 no one opened the windows in the tyme of public 
 worship." Even the sweet fresh breezes were for- 
 bidden. What a world of pleasure these poor peo- 
 ple lost in serving God after their own hearts. 
 
2o6 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 In Westfield, Mass., the boys became so wicked 
 that the church officers decided that " if there is not a 
 reformation respecting the disorders in the pews built 
 on the great beame in the time of publick worship 
 the comite can pull it down." 
 
 A little later, as there were always more or less old 
 and deaf people, the front pew was called the deaf 
 pew. There was a custom of seating colored 
 people in seats marked. B. W. was for black women 
 and B. M. was for black men. Some very deaf 
 persons sat on the pulpit stairs and some in the very 
 pulpit. Tin trumpets were used to aid the defective 
 hearing and many mirth-provoking sights were wit- 
 nessed. The choir or singing seat was in the gallery ; 
 sometimes again tllfey sat in the two seats directly in 
 front of the pulpit, and when in this portion on rising 
 to sing the men faced the audience, the women mod- 
 estly the pulpit. Sometimes they stood in a high 
 square pew, with a table in the center to lay the 
 psalm books on when at rest. There was a pew called 
 " The Swallow's Nest" or "the roof pew." It was 
 reached by a short flight ot steps from the gallery. 
 This was not infrequently occupied by Indians or 
 negroes. The most dreadful seat was the one known 
 as the stool of repentance. By the statutes of the 
 new colony barbarous and cruel punishments were 
 forbidden ; but here forever humiliated must the one 
 who had perhaps sinned, like Hester Prynne, sit with 
 the red brand forever on her forehead ; never forgetting, 
 till a merciful God relieved her from her sad and weary 
 and lone pilgrimage, the sin that caused her to be 
 shunned. Remember, all persons in the commonwealfJi 
 
THE BLUE LAWS OF CONNECTICUT. 20^ 
 
 must attend chtwch. It is a matter of history that once, 
 two wretched women, not branded, but bearing around 
 their heads the name of the sin each had committed, 
 were compelled to sit on the same stool, and a woman 
 living in Agamenticus at the same time was ordered 
 to stand in a white sheet publicly with the name of 
 her offence on her head. This was in 1681, and very 
 soon the system was abolished. 
 
 Many ludicrous scenes occurred after high pews 
 became common and more comfortable. The people, 
 many of them at least, worked very hard during the 
 week, and as the air was at least a week old in the 
 church it conduced to sleepiness. So it became the 
 duty of the tithing man to wake the nappers. The 
 following is from the journal of Obadiah Turner ot 
 Lynn : 
 
 "June 3, 1646. — Allan Bridges hath bin chosen 
 to wake ye sleepers in meeting. And being much 
 proude of his place, must needs have a fox taile fixed 
 to ye ende of a long staff wherewith he may brush ye 
 faces of them yt will have napps in time of discourse, 
 likewise a sharpe thorne whereby he. may pricke those 
 such as be most sound. On ye last Lord his day, as 
 hee strutted about ye ineeting-house, he did spy Mr. 
 Tomlins sleeping with much comfort, hys head kept 
 steadie by being in ye corner, and his hand grasping 
 ye rail. And soe spying, Allen did quickly thrust 
 his staff behind Dame Ballard, and give him a griev- 
 ous prick upon ye hand. Whereupon Mr. Tomlins did 
 spring vpp mch above ye floore, and with terrible 
 force strike hys hand against ye wall ; and also, to ye 
 great wonder of all, prophanlie exclaim, in a loud 
 
3oS FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 voice, curse ye woodchuck, he dreaming so it seemed 
 yt a woodchuck had seized and bit his hand. But on 
 coming to know where he was, and ye greate scandall 
 he had committed, he seemed much abashed, but did 
 not speak. And I think he will not soon again goe 
 to sleepe'in meeting." 
 
 Another story is related of a farmer who had been 
 washing sheep the day before, and being quite worn 
 out had succumbed to the drov^sy god ; when the 
 officious tithing man observed him and roughly striking 
 him partially awakened him. In his dream he 
 thought he had been kicked by an unruly sheep, and 
 catching his inoffensive wife by the shoulders he shook 
 her soundly, calling loudly, " Haw back ! haw back ! 
 Stand still, will ye?" It is said that the disgrace 
 lasted nearly their whole lives. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 ROGER WILLIAMS, the founder of Providence, 
 was driven an exile from JMassachusetts because 
 he preached that the Indians owned the land 
 and should receive recompense for it from the colonists. 
 It was in 1636. He was driven out in mid-winter. 
 He was joined by five companions. Farms were laid 
 out the next spring and houses built. He called the 
 place Providence Plantation because it ^vas a refuge 
 for all the persecuted. Roger Williams was a native 
 of Wales, born in 1606, educated at Cambridge, 
 England. He had been a friend of Milton, and was a 
 great hater of ceremonies. He believed in religious 
 liberty and the equal rights of all men. Williams was 
 the natural ruler of the little province, but he had not 
 been here long until he felt the need of a second 
 baptism. His friend Ezekiel Holliman, a layman, per- 
 formed the ceremonv for him, and then Williams in 
 turn baptized him and ten others. This was the or- 
 ganization of the first Baptist church in America. 
 The lands Roger Williams had bought from Canonicus 
 he freely distributed among his friends, reserving only 
 two small fields for himself. All the powers of the 
 government were entrusted to himself. A simple 
 agreement had been made by the settlers, "That in 
 matters not affecting the conscience they would yield 
 obedience to such rules as the majority might make 
 
2IO FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 fof the public good. In questions of religion the 
 conscience should be to every man q guide." The 
 new government brought peace and harmony ; all 
 sects were welcomed. Miantonomah loved Williams 
 with a deep afiection. It was thtougfi his affection that 
 the colonists were warned of the intended massacre. 
 For this deed of generous kindness the people of 
 Salem would have liked him to come back to them, 
 but his enemies prevented his return. Many settlers 
 came into the free state and in March, 1641, a public 
 meeting was convened, the citizens came together on 
 terms of equality and the government was declared to 
 be a democracy. The vote of the majority should 
 always rule. The little republic was called the Plan- 
 tation of Rhode Island. In 1643, Providence and Rhode 
 Island were refused admission into the union of New 
 England, so Roger Williams went to London to 
 procure a charter for these two colonies. On the 14th 
 9f March (the following year) the patent was granted 
 and Rhode Island became an independent common- 
 wealth. The new government was organized at 
 Portsmouth in 1647. A code of laws was framed and a 
 president and subordinate officers chosen. But some 
 four years later again the government was changed, 
 William Coddington having obtained from the 
 English council a decree by which Rhode Island was 
 separated from the common government. John Clarke 
 and Roger Williams went immediately to London to 
 prevent the disunion. Williams was offered the ' 
 governorship, but he refused the commission ; Clarke 
 remained m England to watch the interests of the 
 colony. Charles II came home from his long exile in 
 
RHODE ISLAND. 211 
 
 1660 Rhode Island had accepted a charter from the 
 long parliament, butit was doubtful if the king would 
 renew it. The people hoped and prayed for it, but 
 dreaded to ask the king this favor ; however, he and 
 his ministers listened to the petition and the charter 
 was reissued. All the provisions of the old charter 
 were renewed. On the 24th of Nbvember the new 
 charter was read before the asse^mbled populace of 
 Rhode Island. For about twenty years Rhode Island 
 prospered, and the distresses which the people passed 
 through faded away until they were forgotten. 
 
 Roger Williams, now grown to be an old man, died 
 and Sir Edmund Andros^ of whom we have heard 
 several times, came and demanded the charter of 
 Rhode Island. The demand was evaded by the 
 governor and general assembly, but Andros went 
 straight to Newport, dissolved the government and 
 broke the seal of the colony. He appointed five 
 councilors to direct the affairs of the colony, and the 
 commonwealth seemed ruined. But the shameful 
 usurpation was short-lived. In the spring of 1689 
 Rhode Island received news that Andros and his 
 officers were prisoners at Boston. On the first of May 
 the people of Rhode Island gathered at Newport and 
 made a proclamation of their gratitude for the deliver- 
 ance, and a Quaker named Henry Bull, more than 
 eighty years of age, was chosen governor. The noble 
 veteran accepted the trust and spent his last days in 
 restoring the liberties of Rhode Island. 
 
 And again prosperity smiled on the little State. The 
 principles of Roger Williams became the principles 
 of the commonwealth. 
 
CHAPTER XXIL 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 THE territory lying between the Kennebec and 
 the Merrimac was granted by Plymouth council 
 to Sir Ferdinand Goro^es and John Mason in 
 1622. Early the next spring, 1633, two small com- 
 panies of colonists were sent by Mason and Gorges to 
 people their province. Part of them landed at Little 
 Harbor, near Portsmouth, and commenced to build a 
 village. The other company proceeded up river and 
 laid the foundations of Dover. Plymouth, Weymouth, 
 Portsmouth and Dover is the order in which these 
 cities were settled. Their growth was very slow. 
 For some time they were only fishing stations. 
 
 Gorges and Mason divided the district and Gorges 
 took the part north of the Piscataqua, and Mason 
 the part between the Piscataqua and Merrimac, and 
 in May the Rev. John Wheelwright visited the 
 Abenaki chieftains and bought their claim to the 
 district, conveyed by patent to Mason. Mason's title 
 was confirmed by a second patent, and the province 
 was thereafter known as New Hampshire. But 
 Massachusetts now began to urge her claims to the 
 district north of the Merrimac. 
 
 Mason died in 1635 ^^^ ^^^ widow undertook the 
 government of the province. But she delegated 
 authority to the servants and dependents of the late 
 proprietor, and the condition of affairs became such 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE. 213 
 
 that John Wheelright and a small pirty of friends re- 
 paired to Exeter and founded a village on the banks 
 of the Piscataqua. The small colony was declared a 
 republic, established on the principle of equal rights. 
 New Hampshire became united with Massachusetts in 
 April, 1642, but the law restricting the rights of 
 citizenship to members of the church was not extended 
 over the new province, for the people of Ports- 
 mouth and Dover belonged to the church of England. 
 New Hampshire was the only colony east of Hudson 
 river not settled by the Puritans. 
 
 In 1679 the union of Massachusetts and New 
 Hampshire was sundered in this way. The heirs of 
 Mason revived their old claim of proprietorship in 
 1677, and the courts of England rendered a decision 
 that the Masonian claims were invalid as to the civil 
 jurisdiction of New Hampshire, but valid as to the 
 soil, and on the 24th of July New Hampshire was 
 separated from the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and 
 organized as a distinct royal province. Edward Cran- 
 field was chosen governor. But before his arrival the 
 sawyers and lumbermen of the Piscataqua convened 
 a general assembly at Portsmouth. A resolution was 
 passed that no act, law or ordinance should be valid 
 unless made by the assembly and approved by the 
 people. When the king heard of this resolution he 
 declared it to be both absurd and wicked. In Novem- 
 ber, 1682, Cranfield dismissed the general assembly. 
 There was great excitement. At Exeter the sheriff 
 was actually clubbed, and the tax-gatherer received 
 an uncomfortably warm reception from the farmers* 
 wives, who gave the men not a cup of cold water, but 
 
2 14 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 pails full of boiling hot. Hampton villagers led 
 Cranfield's deputy out of town with a rope round his 
 neck. Cranfield, unable to collect his rents and vexed 
 to death besides, wrote to England begging to be 
 allowed to come home. 
 
 Now an effort was set on foot to restore New 
 Hampshire to Massachusetts ; but before this could be 
 done Edmund Andros had stepped in and taken away 
 the charter of Massachusetts and made himself, or was 
 made, the governor. The colonies north of the Merri- 
 mac yielded to his authority, but the moment they 
 knew of his imprisonment they also rose in rebellion. 
 New Hampshire became again annexed to Massachu- 
 setts, but not until it had been joined to the govern- 
 ment of the earl of Bellomont. After this the union 
 with Massachusetts lasted forty-two years. 
 
 But during this period the heirs of Mason had sold 
 their claims to New Hampshire. Samuel Allen 
 bought the estate and his son-in-law, whose surname 
 was Usher, was appointed governor. Then there were 
 lawsuits and strifes without number. Finally the 
 heirs of Allen abandoned their claim in despair. Then 
 it was discovered that the instrument conveying the 
 deed from Mason to Allen was defective and the 
 original Masonian patent was revived. In the final 
 adjustment the colonial authorities allowed the valid- 
 ity of the old patent as to the unoccupied portions of 
 the territory, and the Masons surrendered their claim 
 to the rest. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 ELIZABETHTOWN was founded in 1664. 
 There had, however, been a trading post at 
 Bergen since 1618, but there were no perma- 
 nent dwelling houses until forty years later. Fort 
 Nassau was erected in 1633 on the Delaware, but after 
 a few months May and his companions came back to 
 New Amsterdam. The territory of New Jersey was 
 included in the grant made to the duke of York, but 
 in 1644 that part of the province lying between the 
 Hudson and Delaware (extending as far north as 
 forty-one degrees and forty minutes) was assigned to 
 Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. These 
 noblemen adhered to the king's cause during the civil 
 war in England and were thus rewarded. 
 
 Shortly after the conquest a company of Puritans 
 made application to Governor Nicolls and received a 
 grant of land on Newark bay. The Indian titles were 
 bought and the following October a village was com- 
 menced named Elizabethtown. Philip Carteret began 
 his duties as governor in August of 1665. There was 
 no friendship between Nicolls and Carteret. Eliza- 
 bethtown was made the capital. Newark was 
 founded, and flourishing little villages appeared on 
 the shores of the bay as far north as Sandy Hook. 
 Sir George Carteret had been governor of the isle of 
 Jersey and in compliment to him the American do 
 
3 lb FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 main was called New Jersey. A most excellent con- 
 stitution was provided for the new state. The gov- 
 ernment was made to consist of a governor, a council 
 and a popular legislative assembly. There should be 
 no taxation unless levied by the representatives of the 
 people. Difference of opinion should be respected, 
 and freedom of conscience guaranteed to every citizen. 
 The lands of the provinces were distributed to the 
 settlers at a quit-rent of half a penny an acre, not to 
 be paid imtil 1670. 
 
 In 1668 the first assembly convened at Elizabeth- 
 town. The representatives were Puritans, and the 
 laws of New England were the laws of the colony. 
 
 All went well until the rents were due (1670). In 
 the meantime the colonists had purchased the land 
 from the Indians, and the collection of rents was re- 
 sisted. Then the colony became indeed anything but a 
 happy one, and in May of 1673 the colonial assembly 
 deposed Governor Nicolls and elected James Carteret 
 to fill his place. After the trouble between England 
 and the Dutch in the New Netherlands and the restora- 
 tion of that province to England, the duke of York 
 received a second patent for the country between the 
 Connecticut and Delaware, and at the same time he 
 confirmed the patent formerly granted to Berkeley and 
 Carteret of New Jersey. But very shortly afterward 
 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed royal governor. 
 Carteret defended his claim against Andros ; but Ber- 
 keley sold his interest in New Jersey to John Fen- 
 wick to be held in trust for Edward Byllinge. Philip 
 Carteret resumed the government in 1675, while 
 Andros opposed him in every act, and the colony was 
 
NEW JERSEY. 217 
 
 in a state of unrest all the time. Finally Carteret was 
 arrested by Andros and brought to New York for 
 trial. Byllinge made an assignment of his property 
 to Gawen Laurie, Nicholas Lucas and William Penn. 
 These people were Quakers and they, like the Puritans, 
 longed for a land where they could live at peace. 
 Penn and his friends applied to Sir George Carteret 
 for a division of the province, and it was agreed to 
 divide New^ Jersey so that Carteret's district should be 
 separated from that of the Friends. The line of divi- 
 sion was drawn from the southern point of land on the 
 east side of Little Egg harbor to a point on the Dela- 
 ware in the latitude of forty-one degrees and forty min- 
 utes. The territory lying east of the line remained to 
 Sir George as sole proprietor and was named East 
 Jersey, while the other part w^as called West Jersey 
 and was under control of Penn. 
 
 The Quaker proprietors published a code of laws 
 called the "Concessions" in March of 1676. Every- 
 thing was conceded to the people. The constitution 
 '■ivaled the charter of Connecticut in liberality. The 
 authors of this instrument wrote to the Qiiakers in- 
 viting them to this haven. The invitation was accepted 
 and before twelve months had passed a colony of more 
 than four hundred Friends had found homes in 
 West Jersey. The agent of Andros at New Castle 
 obliged the emigrants to pay duties before proceeding, 
 but Sir William Jones decided that the duke of York 
 had no right to collect taxes in Delaware. All claim- 
 to West Jersey were then withdrawn, and the Quak 
 ers w^ere left to the enjoyment of peace. The pro- 
 prietors of East Jersey now made an effort to secure 
 
2l8 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 a deed of release from the duke of York. The peti- 
 tion was granted, and the whole territory was freed 
 from foreign authority. Jennings, the deputy -governor 
 of West Jersey, convened the first general assembly in 
 November, 1681, The Quakers met together to make 
 their own laws. The *' Co^icessions''' were reaffirmed. 
 Men of all races and religions were declared equal. 
 The sale of ardent spirits to the red men was pro- 
 hibited. Taxes should be voted by the representatives 
 of the people. The lands should be acquired by 
 purchase from the Indians. Imprisonment for debt 
 was forbidden, and a criminal might be pardoned by 
 the person against whom the offence was committed. 
 William Penn and eleven other Friends purchased the 
 province of East Jersey in 1682. Robert Barclay, of 
 Scotland, author of the book called "Barclay's 
 Apology," was appointed governor for life, and then 
 came immediately a large emigration from Scotland 
 of Quakers. 
 
 In 1^85 Edmund Andros was appointed royal 
 governor of the colonies from Maine to Delaware. In 
 1688 the Jerseys were brought under his jurisdiction. 
 When the news reached the colonies of his majesty's 
 abdication, Andros was compelled to surrender, and 
 his imprisonment in Boston has been already given. 
 Still the condition of aflfairs in New Jersey was far 
 from comfortable. There was no telling who the 
 property did belong to, and from 1689 to 1692 there 
 was really no settled government. Finally in April 
 1702, the territory between the Hudson and Delaware 
 became a royal province and New Jersey was attached 
 to the government of Lord Cornbury of New York- 
 
NEW JERSEY. 219 
 
 This government continued for thirty-six years and 
 was then ended by the people. The representatives 
 of New Jersey sent a petition in 1728 to George II 
 praying for a separation of the two colonies. Ten 
 years elapsed, and then the effort being renewed it 
 was successful. The people of New Jersey suffered 
 comparatively little from the Indians. Along the 
 coast they were weak and timid, and perhaps the fact 
 that they were more kindly treated than by other 
 colonists had something to do with the peace. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 FOR more than a quarter of a century the Quakers 
 had (previous to their arrival on American 
 shores) been cruelly persecuted. In June of 
 i6So the good William Penn appealed to King 
 Charles for the privilege of founding a Qtiaker com- 
 monv^^ealth in America, and on March 5th, 1681, a 
 charter w^as granted by Charles II and William Penn 
 became the proprietor of Pennsylvania. This large 
 domain was bounded on the east by Delaware, ex- 
 tending north and south over three degrees of latitude^ 
 and westward over five degrees of longitude. The 
 three counties of Delaware were reserved for the duke 
 of York. In consideration of this grant Penn relin- 
 quished a claim of sixteen thousand pounds against 
 the English government. He declared his object to 
 found a free commonwealth without respect to color, 
 race or religion of the inhabitants. Among the first 
 acts was to write to the Swedes in his province, in- 
 viting them to keep their homes without fear of op- 
 pression. Within four weeks Penn published an 
 interesting account of his new country, promising 
 freedom of conscience and inviting emigration. Dur- 
 ing the summer three ship loads of Quakers left Eng- 
 land for Pennsylvania. William Markham, the 
 deputy-governor of the province, was instructed by 
 Penn to deal justly with all men, and to make friends 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 22 1 
 
 of the Indians. In October Penn sent a letter to the 
 natives assuring them of his brotherly affection. The 
 constitution for the people was drawn up by Penn in 
 the winter of 1681-82. The remarkable treaty made 
 between Penn and the Indians, and which was never 
 violated, was this. There was a great conference of 
 tribes on the banks of the Delaware who met by in- 
 vitation. Penn appeared in his simple Quaker garb. 
 He said : "My friends, we have met on the broad < 
 pathway of good faith. We are all one flesh and 
 blood. Being brethren, no advantage shall be taken 
 on either side. When disputes arise, we will settle 
 them in council. Between us there shall be nothingf 
 but openness and love." The chiefs replied : "While 
 the rivers run and the sun shines we will live in peace 
 with the children of William Penn." In December, 
 1682, a general convention was held, the object being 
 to complete the territorial legislation. After *this 
 Penn visited Lord Baltimore to. confer about the 
 boundaries of their provinces. He returned in a 
 month to Chester and drew a map of his proposed 
 capital. He purchased the neck of land between the 
 Sckuylkill and the Delaware. In February, 1683, the 
 trees were blazed that were in time to form the streets 
 of Philadelphia, and the city was founded. Within a 
 month a general assembly was in session in the new 
 capital. A democratic form of government was 
 adopted. The officers were the governor and a 
 council consisting of members chosen for three years, 
 and a popular assembly to be elected annually. The 
 right to veto objectionable acts lay with Penn. 
 
 The city of Philadelphia grew like a cinnamon vine. 
 
332 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 In 1683 there were only three or four houses. The 
 ground squirrels were not at all frightened by the 
 inhabitants and wild deer traversed the streets. Two 
 years later there were six hundred houses. The 
 school master had coine, and that greatest school mas- 
 ter, the printing press. A year later and Philadelphia 
 had outgrown New York.* In August of 1684 Penn 
 took leave of his colony and sailed for England. All 
 • was peace in the colony until the secession of Dela- 
 ware in 1691, The three lower counties, which had 
 been on terms of equality with the six counties of 
 Pennsylvania, became dissatisfied with some acts of 
 the assembly and insisted on a separation. The pro- 
 prietor gave consento Delaware withdrew from the 
 union and received a separate deputy-governor. 
 
 Penn was several times imprisoned because he ad- 
 hered to King James II. In 1693 his proprietary rights 
 wefe taken from him and the government of Penn- 
 sylvania taken from him and transferred to Governor 
 Fletcher of New York. The next year the state of 
 Delaware was also governed by Fletcher, and finally 
 all the provinces between Connecticut and Maryland 
 came undor his control. But Penn was found guilt- 
 less of disloyalty and was restored to his rights. In 
 December, 1699, P^^^^ came to visit his commonwealth^ 
 " He found the iQwer counties in a state of hostility to 
 the assembly," and attempted to make peace by draw- 
 ing up a constitution still more liberal than the first ; 
 but Lord Delaware would not accept the new consti- 
 tution and the two provinces were set apart in 1703. 
 But the following year they were reunited. 
 
 Penn returned to England in the winter of 1701 in 
 
PENNSYLVANIA. 223 
 
 order to prevent the establishing of royal government 
 in all the colonies, as there was a scheme being pre- 
 pared for such work. After a tiresome controversy his 
 rights were restored to him, and in 1718 the good man 
 went to his reward. His estates were large and valu- 
 able and he bequeathed them to his three sons, John, 
 Thomas and Richard ; and either by them or their 
 deputies Pennsylvania was governed until the Ameri- 
 can revolution. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 WE have already learned of Captain John 
 Smith's explorations of the Chesapeake, and 
 of William Clayborne, an English surveyor, 
 being sent out by the London Company to explore the 
 country around the bay, and that by the second char- 
 ter of Virginia that province included all Maryland. 
 A trading post was established at Kent island some 
 time in the year 1631 and a second near Havre de 
 Grace. The Chesapeake was explored and a trade 
 opened with the natives. The limits of Virginia was 
 about to be extended to the borders of the New 
 Netherland. Sir George Calvert, better known as 
 Lord Baltimore, preparjed^ the way for Roman Catho- 
 lics in the w^ilderness. King James granted to Lord 
 Baltimore a patent for the southern part of Newfound- 
 land and a colony was brought there in 1623 ; but it 
 was soon evident that it could not flourish in so cold 
 a climate, and so Lord Baltimore turned his eyes to 
 the Chesapeake, lovely as the "vale of Cashmere." In 
 1629 he went to Virginia. The general assembly 
 offered him citizenship, but required an oath of alle- 
 giance such as no honest Catholic could take. Lord 
 Baltimore left the assembly and went directly to Lon- 
 don, where he drew up a charter for a new state on 
 the Chesapeake and induced King Charles to sign it. 
 The provisions of the charter ^vere generous, no 
 
m 
 
 ^m."^,?. 
 
 ^- 
 
 
 ^ f ^'Jft^ 
 
 ^. 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
MARYLAND. 225 
 
 preference being given to any particular sect of relig- 
 ion. The lives and property of the colonists w^ere 
 well guarded. Arbitrary taxation w^as forbidden. 
 The power of making the laws lay with the people. 
 But before the patent received the signature of the 
 king Lord Baltimore, always a good man, was "be- 
 yond the sleeping and the waking." His son Cecil 
 received his title and to him the charter was issued on 
 the 20th of June, 1632, and in honor of the wife of 
 Charles I, Queen Henrietta Maria, the province was 
 named Maryland. 
 
 A colony of two hundred persons accompanied by- 
 Leonard Calvert, brother of Lord Cecil, arrived in 
 March, 1634, ^^ ^^^ Point Comfort. They ascended 
 the Potomac to the mouth of Piscataway creek. They 
 held a conference with the chiefs of the Indian villages 
 there. The chieftain, who aCted as spokesman, told 
 Calvert that his colony '-'■might stay 07' go just as they 
 -pleased'^ And they concluded it was best to "stay 
 not on the order of their going, but go at once.'^ 
 Finding a half-deserted village, the English bought 
 the town and moved into the vacant huts and called 
 the place St. Mary's. 
 
 The Indians were kindly and soon the squaws, 
 taught the English women how to make corn bread, 
 and the warriors taught the mysteries of hunting to 
 the colonists, and for a long time there were neither 
 worries nor want in the colony, and within six months; 
 it was larger than Jamestown had grown in six 
 years. 
 
 February, 1633', the general assembly convened, and 
 trouble began, for Clayborne on Kent island and hi& 
 
226 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA, 
 
 colonists resisted Lord Baltimore's authority, and in 
 1637 there was a bloody skirmish on the eastern shore 
 of the bay. Some lives were lost, but Clayborne lost 
 his cause, and one or two of the rebels were hung" 
 Clayborne himself escaped into Virginia and was 
 sent to England for trial. He appealed to the king. 
 The cause was heard by parliament and they decided 
 his commission to be null and void. 
 
 In 1639 Maryland became subject to a representa- 
 tive government. Before this a democracy had i'pre- 
 vailed. Each freeman had been allowed his vote in 
 making the laws. When the new delegates came to- 
 gether a declaration of rights were adopted. All the 
 liberal principles of the first patent wxre reaffirmed 
 and the rights of citizenship were the same as those in 
 England. 
 
 Indian hostilities began along the Potomac in 1642, 
 but as the settlement of Maryland was compact they 
 did not suffer from depredations as more sparsely 
 settled countries did. Clayborne after awhile came 
 back and soon had everybody at war, so that Governor 
 Calvert himself had to flee to Virginia. But after a 
 year of lawlessness Calvert collected troops, defeated 
 the rebels, and his authority was restored in 1646. 
 But the mischief of Clayborne was not yet ended. In 
 165 1 parliamentary commissioners caine to America 
 to assume control of Maryland. Stone, the deputy of 
 Baltimore, was deposed, but in a few days reinstated. 
 In April of 1653 he published a proclamation declar- 
 ing the interference a rebellion. Clayborne collected 
 a force in Virginia, drove Stone out of office and 
 directed the o^overnment himself. A Protestant 
 
MARYLAND. 
 
 227 
 
 assembly was convened at Patuxent in 1654. The 
 supremacy of Cromwell was acknowledged, and the 
 Catholics were deprived of the protection of the laws, 
 and as a natwral consequence civil war ensued. 
 Governor Stone armed the militia and took posession 
 of the records of the co"'ony. Near Annapolis the battle 
 was fought, and the Catholics defeated with a loss of 
 fifty men. Stone was taken prisoner, but was saved 
 from death by the friendship of some of the insurgents. 
 Three of the Catholics were tried and executed. 
 Jonas Fendall was sent out as governor of the province 
 in 1656. For two years the government was divided, 
 the Catholics exercising authority atSt. Marjc, . :d 
 the Protestants at Leonardstown. In 1658 a compro- 
 mise was effected. Fendall was acknowledged as 
 governor, and then of course the acts of the Protestant 
 assembly were recognized as valid. 
 
 When Cromwell was dead Maryland was declared 
 independent. The rights of Lord Baltimore were set 
 aside on the 12th of March, 1660, and the whole 
 power of government assumed by the house of 
 burgesses. When Charles II came back to his king- 
 dom Lord Baltimore was recognized, and Philip Cal- 
 vert was sent out as governor. Fendall had resigned arjd 
 been elected again by the people, but he was now con- 
 demned for treason, but pardoned by Lord Baltimore. 
 
 Charles Calvert was governor of Maryland from 
 1675 to 1691 and the happiness of the colony was 
 disturbed but once during that time. Trouble arose 
 between the Catholics and Protestants, but it was 
 finally settled and Lord Calvert was governor at the 
 time of the revolution. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 SIR WALTER RALEIGH was the first to at- 
 tempt the colonization of North Carolina. The 
 country was granted to Sir Walter Heath in 
 1630, but after thirty-three years it was revoked by 
 the English king. The name of Carolina had been 
 given to the country by John Ribault in 156^. 
 
 Pory made explorations in 1633 and some twenty 
 years later a company of Roanoke Virginians estab- 
 lished a trade with the natives. But the first settlement 
 w^as not]made until 165 1 on the Chowan. Lord Claren- 
 tden received a grant of the land with seven other noble- 
 anen — all of the country between the thirty-sixth par- 
 allel and St. Johns river. William Drummond was 
 chosen governor the same year arid the name given to 
 the colony was Albermarle county. 
 
 In 1665 the Indians destroyed the Puritan colony 
 on Cape Fear river. Soon afterwards, however, the 
 territory was bought by a company of planters from 
 Barbadoes. The county of Clarendon was the title of 
 this province and Sir John Yeamans its first governor. 
 To Sir Ashley Cooper the work of framing the con- 
 stitution was entrusted. The philosopher John Locke 
 was employed by him and his associates to prepare 
 the constitution. From March until July Sir John 
 Locke worked steadily at his plan, which he called 
 The Grand Model. It consisted of a hundred and 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 229 
 
 twenty articles, and this was only the beginning. 
 The empire of Carolina was divided into districts, 
 four hundred and eighty thousand acres in a district. 
 The offices were divided between two grand orders of 
 nobility. Though Sir John Locke was a profound 
 philosopher, had he lived in these degenerate days he 
 would have been known as a crank. Of course all 
 attempt at establishing a new government on this 
 basis failed ; but the settlers of Albermarle and 
 Clarendon managed to govern themselves, and more, 
 they grew prosperous by trading in staves and furs, 
 and when this traffic was exhausted they moved to 
 other quarters. Governor Yeamans in 167 1 was 
 transferred to the new colony on Ashley river and the 
 entire county of Clarendon again given up to the 
 savages. Taxes were oppressive. The trade with 
 New England alone cost them twelve thousand dollars 
 annually. The people did not feel at all kindly to the 
 government, and when in 1676 refugees from Virginia 
 arrived in Carolina in great numbers the Carolinians 
 felt that *' patience had ceased to be a virtue," and the 
 people seized Governor Miller and his council and put 
 them safely away, and had a government of their own 
 with John Culpepper as governor. Three years later 
 Miller and his council escaped from confinement and 
 went to London. Governor Culpepper went also to 
 defend himself. However, he was seized and tried 
 for treason and found not guilty. 
 
 The proprietor sent out a new governor in 1680, 
 Seth Sothel, but he had the misfortune to be captured 
 by pirates and it was three years before he saw the 
 territory over which he was to reign. Thereafter a 
 
230 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 great many people would have been glad if the pirates 
 had never released hijn, for he was in every way a bad 
 man ; and when he grew unbearable the people 
 arrested him. He begged to be tried by an assembly 
 of the people and so got off with much less punish- 
 ment than he deserved. Ludwell was the next gov- 
 ernor and he arrived in 1689. His administration was 
 one of peace. He was succeeded in 1695 by Sir John 
 Archdale. Then followed the administration of Gov- 
 ernor Walker, and in 1704 the attempt of Robert 
 Daniel to establish the church of England. There had 
 come into the new state people from Virginia and 
 Maryland, Quakers from New England, Huguenots 
 from France and peasants from Switzerland. JNIean- 
 time the Indians were gradually wasting away. Al- 
 ready some nations were extinct. Their lands were 
 held by white men, sometimes honestly bought, some- 
 times procured by trickery. There were remaining 
 but two formidable tribes, the Corees and Tuscaroras, 
 who finally became so jealous of the whites that war 
 came of it. It was near midnight of the 23d of Sep- 
 tember, 17 1 1. The air was balmy as summer time 
 in the northern states. The settlers had no warning. 
 The Indians fell upon the sleeping people in the scat- 
 tered settlements and murdered a hundred and thirty 
 persons. There were grave dissensions among the 
 authorities, which prevented making active efforts to 
 give the people protection. Kind-hearted Colonel 
 Barnwell came from South Carolina with a company 
 of militia and a band of friendly Indians and drove 
 the savages into their fort, and a treaty of peace was 
 made. But, alas, Barnwell's men passed through an 
 
NORTH CAROLINA. 23I 
 
 Indian village and sacked it, and again the war was 
 on. 
 
 Colonel Moore came the next year from South 
 Carolina with a regiment of white men and Indians, 
 and the Tuscaroras were pursued to their fort on 
 Cotentnea creek. The place was assaulted and eight 
 hundred taken prisoners. The Tuscaroras abandoned 
 their hunting grounds, marched across the country 
 and joined their kinsmen, becoming the sixth nation 
 of the Iroquois. In 1729 the Carolinas were sepa- 
 rated, each receiving a royal governor. The people 
 had no public institutions of learning, neither was 
 there much attention to religion. There was no min- 
 ister until 1703 in the whole province, and the first 
 church was built in 1705. In the same year came the 
 printing press. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 THE proprietors of South Carolina sent a colony 
 to America in 1670 under command of Joseph 
 West and William Sayle. They reached the 
 main land in the country of the Savannah, but the 
 emigrants did not like the appearance of the land and 
 sailed up the coast as far as the mouth of Ashley 
 river and entered and located the town on the first 
 high land upon the southern bank and named the 
 place Charleston for Charles 11. The colony was to 
 be governed by Sayle, who brought his commission 
 with him. Five councilors were elected by the peo- 
 ple and five were appointed by the proprietors. 
 Twenty delegates composing a house of representa- 
 tives were chosen by the colonists and in less than 
 two years the government was thoroughly established. 
 But Governor Sayle died in 1671 and West took his 
 place, until Sir John Yeamens, who had been governor 
 of the northern province, was commissioned as chief 
 magistrate of the southern colony. 
 
 But with him came a slave ship filled with frightened 
 and suffering negroes ; stolen from home and friends ; 
 unused to work ; for in their land so bountiful was 
 nature that there was no necessity. Here, far from 
 home and friends, they were compelled to work that 
 the whites might live at ease. It was only two years 
 from the arrival of the first cargo till slavery was 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 233 
 
 firmly established, and so large had been the importa- 
 tions that there were two negroes for every white 
 person. It was now 167 1. The land was being 
 rapidly filled with settlers. Fertile lands were 
 abundant. The Indians were nearly extinct. The 
 proprietors, knowing of the great discontent about 
 New Netherland, sent several ships to bring the peo- 
 ple to the beautiful "summer land" and Charles II 
 collected a company of Protestant refugees in Europe 
 and sent them to Carolina to introduce the silk worm 
 and cultivate the grape. 
 
 In 1680 thirty buildings were erected in Charles- 
 ton, and at once the village became the capital of 
 the colony. The climate was bad and retarded the 
 progress of the to\vn, but the people were energetic. 
 There came at length trouble with the Nestoes 
 Indians, who lived near Charleston. Violence was 
 used on the border and a bounty was offered for every 
 captured Indian, and when taken they were sold as 
 slaves to the West Indies. For a whole year this 
 strife was continued and then concluded with a treaty 
 of peace. 
 
 Scotland, Ireland, England and France now com- 
 menced sending colonies to South Carolina. The 
 French Huguenots were persecuted in their own 
 country and came in great numbers w^here they hoped 
 to obtain freedom. They were promised citizenship, 
 but it was not until 1697 that all discriminations were 
 removed against them. 
 
 James Colleton became governor in 1686. He at- 
 tempted to commence his administration with the con- 
 stitution drawn up by Locke, but the colony was "up 
 
234 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 in arms." The militia was called out and the province 
 declared under martial law, but things grew worse 
 and worse. When William and Mary ascended the 
 throne in 1689 Colleton was sent away. Seth Sothel 
 straightway went to Charleston and took the reins of 
 government. At first the people sustained his 
 authority, but he was soon found out, and after two 
 years of constant trouble he was glad to seek a calmer 
 abode. It is said that he did one good act. In May, 
 169 1, the Huguenots were granted equal rights. 
 
 Philip Ludwell was the next governor. He did his 
 best, but the people hated the constitution and so they 
 were not satisfied. The Grand Model was annulled in 
 April, 1693, and Thomas Smith appointed governor 
 John Archdale superseded him. Archdale was a Qiaaker 
 distinguished for wisdom and judgment, and again 
 the country prospered. The quit-rents on lands were 
 remitted for four years, the Indians were conciliated 
 with kindness, and the persecuted Huguenots protected 
 in equal rights. The whole province felt it a misfor- 
 tune when this good man was recalled to England. 
 James Moore was next commissioned as chief magis- 
 trate. Very soon he declared war on the Spaniards 
 of St. Augustine. It was voted to raise and equip 
 twelve hundred men to invade Florida by land and 
 water. In September, 1702, two expeditions departed, 
 the land forces led by Colonel Daniel and the fleet 
 commanded by the governor. The English vessels 
 sailed to the St. John. Daniel went overland and 
 captured St. Augustine, but the Spaniards withdrew 
 into the castle, and as the besiegers had no artillery 
 the castle could not be taken. Two Spanish men of 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA. 235 
 
 war appearing at the mouth of the St. John, the 
 English ships were blockaded and Colonel Moore 
 could only withdraw his forces and retreat hastily into 
 Carolina. No loss of life was recorded, but there was 
 a debt contracted. The colonists were aroused. The 
 governor himself led a command in December of 
 1705 against the Indians. The invaders reached a 
 fortified town near St. Marks, and carried it by assault. 
 More than two hundred prisoners were taken and on 
 the following day a large body of Indians and Span- 
 iards were defeated. Kive towns were conquered in 
 succession and the English flag waved over the gulf 
 of Mexico. Episcopalianism was the established faith 
 of the province, though freedom of belief was allowed. 
 
 Charleston was besieged in 1706 by a French and 
 Spanish fleet. The people of the capital were com- 
 manded by Governor Johnson and Colonel Rhett. 
 One of the French vessels, carrying eight hundred 
 troops, got to shore, but retreated, losing three hun- 
 dred in killed and prisoners. The siege was aban- 
 doned. 
 
 In 17 15 the Yamassees rose upon the frontier settle- 
 ments and then followed a most cruel massacre of the 
 people living out of the capital, and so desperate were 
 the savages that they came very near the city. Gov- 
 ernor Craven rallied the militia and chased the sav- 
 ages to the banks of the Salkehatchie, where a decis- 
 ive battle was fought and the Indians completely 
 routed. Then the Yamassees collected their tribe and 
 retired to Florida. 
 
 After the war the colonists through the assembly 
 petitioned the proprietors to bear a part of the ex- 
 
236 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 pense, but they met with a stern refusal and the proprie- 
 tors would take no measures to protect the colony. The 
 people, burdened with rent and taxes, were indignant 
 and dissatisfied with proprietary government. In the 
 election that followed every delegate was chosen by 
 the popular party. This did not suit the proprie- 
 tors at all, and when James Moore, the chief magis- 
 trate elected by the people, was to be inaugurated 
 Governor Johnson attempted to prevent the ceremony, 
 but the militia collected in the public square and be- 
 fore the set of sun the old form of government in 
 Carolina was no more. Governor Moore was inaugu- 
 rated in the name of George I. It was only a short 
 time, however, till Francis Nicholson was commis- 
 sioned to succeed him. He at once concluded treaties 
 with the Cherokees and the Creeks. 
 
 The year 1729 marked still another change in the 
 affairs of the colony. Seven of the proprietors of 
 South Carolina sold their claims to the king. The 
 price paid for the two colonies by the king was 
 twenty-two thousand five hundred pounds. Royal 
 governors were appointed and the affairs of the colon- 
 ists put upon a sound basis. 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 JAMES OGLETHORPE, famous as a philanthro- 
 pist, founded the thirteenth state. In England 
 the laws for debt were so stringent that thousands 
 of laborers were every year imprisoned. In thousands 
 of cases it was no tault of the laborer. Wages were 
 so low that by constant employment only the most 
 meagre food and cheapest clothing could be afforded. 
 The dwellings were in fearful sanitary condition, and 
 when now and then some member of the family fell 
 sick the bread winner had to go to jail because he had 
 no money for the doctor. Oglethorpe felt the dread- 
 ful injustice of this and petitioned George II for the 
 privilege of planting a colony in America. The king- 
 was amiable and on the 9th of June, 1732, a charter 
 was issued by which the territory between the Savan- 
 nah and Altamaha rivers and west to the Pacific was 
 granted to a corporation, to be held in trust for the 
 poor and in honor of the king. The new province 
 was named Georgia. Oglethorpe, who was not only 
 a philanthropist, but a brave soldier and a member of 
 parliament, was the principal member of the corpora- 
 tion, and to him was the leadership entrusted. It was 
 June when the charter w^as granted and in November 
 following a hundred and twenty emigrants were ready 
 to sail, and in January, 1733, they reached Charleston 
 and were warmly welcomed. The colonists went 
 
238 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 further south and entered the river and February ist 
 found them laying the foundations of Savannah. The 
 streets were broad and soon presented a beautiful pic- 
 ture. Tents and board houses were shaded by the 
 magnificent pine trees. 
 
 The Indians were very kind. The chief of the 
 Yamacraws, Tomochichi, came from his home to 
 visit Oglethorpe. He brought with him a present of 
 a buffalo skin painted with the head and feathers of 
 an eagle. "The feathers are soft and signify love ; 
 the buffalo skin is the emblem of protection. There- 
 fore love and protect us," said the old chieftain. 
 Feeling that it would be wise to make peace with all 
 the tribes, Oglethorpe invited the Muskhogees to a 
 council at his capital and the conference was held on 
 the 29th of May. Long King, the sachem, spoke for 
 all the tribes. "The English were welcomed to the 
 country." Gifts were made and the governor re- 
 sponded in the kindest manner. 
 
 Emigration was encouraged by the councilors in 
 England, so that people of many nationalities came 
 to the new world. Oglethorpe returned to England in 
 April and took with him Tomochichi, chief of the 
 Yamacraws. It was said in London that never was a 
 colony so wisely founded as the Georgia colony. 
 The councilors wisely prohibited the importation of 
 rum, and traffic with the Indians was regulated by a 
 license. Slavery was forbidden. While Oglethrope 
 w^as abroad a company of Moravians arrived in 
 Savannah. In February of 1736 the governor returned, 
 bringing with him three hundred Moravians. They 
 vs^ere a devout people, and among them was yohn 
 
GEORGIA. 239 
 
 Wesley, the father of Methodism. He came hoping 
 to convert the Indians and spread the gospel, but he 
 found the work so different and the results of his hard 
 labor so meager that in two years he returned to 
 England. His brother, Charles Wesley, came as 
 secretary to the governor. George Whitefield came in 
 1738 and preached to all the colonists as he alone 
 could preach. He saw the need of an orphan's 
 home in Savannah and he went through all the 
 colonies preaching and asking for help to build this 
 home, and it was said that those who listened to his 
 fervid eloquence could not deny him. His heart was 
 in his work here, and he died in Newburyport in 1770- 
 He was one of the most brilliant preachers. Franklin, 
 Hume and John Newton have united in bearing 
 testimony to the beauty and effectiveness of his 
 oratory. It is stated in his memorandum book that in 
 a period embracing thirty-four years he had preached 
 upwards of 18,000 sermons. He had crossed the 
 Atlantic seven times and traveled thousands of miles 
 in Europe and America. And when his strength was 
 failing he put himself on "short allowance," as he 
 termed it, namely, preaching once every day of the 
 week and thrice on Sunday. 
 
 Oglethorpe had reason to anticipate war with 
 Florida and began to fortify. All of Georgia was 
 embraced in the Spanish claim, but Oglethorpe had a 
 charter including all the territory as far as the Alta- 
 maha. In 1736 he built a fort at Augusta, and also 
 Fort Darien was located on the north bank of the 
 Altamaha, and on St. Simon's Island the fortress 
 erected was named Frederica. From this time the 
 
340 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 St. Johns was claimed as the southern boundary of 
 Georgia. After he had done all he was able in this 
 country he went to England for troops. 
 
 England published a declaration of war against 
 Spain in October, 1739, and in the first week of the 
 following January Oglethorpe invaded Florida and 
 captured two fortified towns. Returning to Charles- 
 ton, he induced the assembly to support him, and with 
 more than a thousand men he marched against St. 
 Augustine. For five weeks they besieged the place. 
 The air was full of malaria and there were many sick 
 in the English camp, and the Carolina troops thought 
 It was wisest to return home. The Spaniards deter- 
 mined now to carry the war into Georgia and made 
 ^reat preparations. A fleet of thirty-six vessels carry- 
 ing over three thousand troops sailed in June, 1742, 
 from St. Augustine to destroy Fort William on Cum- 
 iDerland island. But Oglethorpe reinforced the gar- 
 rison and then fell back to Frederica, having cut a 
 road which lay between a morass and the forest. 
 Along this path the Spaniards must pass to attack the 
 town. The Spaniards were superior in numbers, and 
 so Oglethorpe resorted to stratagem. He wrote a 
 letter to a French deserter in the Spanish camp telling 
 him that two British fleets were coming to America 
 to aid Oglethorpe, and that if the Spaniards did not 
 make an immediate attack on Frederica they would 
 be captured. The letter was delivered and the 
 Frenchman arrested for a spy. The Spaniards scarcely 
 knew what to do, but finally decided to make the 
 attack. The English men were posted betw^een the 
 swamp and the woods. It was the 7th of July when the 
 
GEORGIA. 241 
 
 invaders reached the pass. They were fired on from 
 ambush, and driven back in great confusion. The 
 main body of the Spanish forces pressed on into the 
 same position and for a while stood the storm, but 
 when they had lost two hundred men they retreated. 
 For many years this spot Was known as Bloody 
 Marsh, and within a week atter the battle the Spanish 
 forces were withdrawn and sailed for Florida. And 
 now that the colony of Georgia was firmly established 
 Governor Oi^lethorpe felt that he had fulfilled his 
 commission (to establish a corporation to be held in 
 trust for the poor), and when his ten years of work 
 were ended he bade good-bye to his people. In the 
 time he lived in America he never owned a house or 
 even an acre of ground, and history fails to show us 
 that his people ever misunderstood him, as many noble 
 men have been. He passed the remainder of his life 
 in England and lived nearly one hundred years. 
 
 The settlers of Georgia had no titles to their lands. 
 Estates could descend only to the oldest sons. The 
 colonists thought that the cause of their poverty lay 
 in the fact that slavery was forbidden. The proprie- 
 tary laws were felt to be ill suited to the community. 
 The statute against slavery was not enforced. At 
 first they began by hiring slaves for short periods of 
 service, then for longer ones, then for a hundred years 
 (which shows how easily law may be evaded). Never 
 ' w^ere truer words than those of Pope : 
 
 Vice is a monster of so frightful mein, 
 As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ; 
 Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
 We first endure, then pity, then embrace, 
 
242 FOUR KfUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Finally slaves were brought directly from Africa 
 and sold to the planters below the Savannah. In 
 June, 1752, the councilors surrendered their patent to 
 the king. A royal government was now established 
 over the country and the people were granted the 
 same freedom as Englishmen. The growth of the 
 state was slower than Oglethorpe hoped for, but before 
 the revolutionary w^ar it had made vast strides forward. 
 The marshes of South Carolina and Georgia were well 
 adapted to the culture of rice. Cotton had long been 
 grown by the Indians, and so had tobacco. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 IN the settlement of America the English colonized 
 near the coast. France, led by Marquette and 
 La Salle, colonized the interior. The "Father of 
 Waters" was discovered by Marquette. The story of 
 the discovery is a charming one. The French 
 Catholics had established a mission for instruction of 
 the Indians at a point near the outlet of Lake Superior, 
 which they called St. Marys. "Fere" James Marquette 
 was at the head of this mission. He was an earnest 
 and devout Roman Catholic, an ardent admirer of 
 nature, and a man of true heroic mould. He resolved 
 to explore the Mississippi from its upper waters. To do 
 so he repaired to an Indian village on the Fox river, 
 which flows into Green bay. The companions he had 
 selected for this enterprise (which at first glance was 
 full of difficulty and peril) were his congenial com- 
 panion Mr. 'Joliet, and also five hardy and ex- 
 perienced Canadian boatman and two Indian guides 
 to go through that wilderness never before trodden 
 by white men. They took two birch canoes, which 
 were close and carefully packed with needful supplies 
 for cooking, hunting, fishing and sleeping. It is said 
 of Marquette that he had such faith in the protection 
 of God and in the friendliness of the Indians whom he 
 might meet by the way that he seems to have had no 
 fears of any hostile encounters. It was the mornipg 
 
244 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 of the loth of June, 1673, when the party set out from 
 Fox river. Never were there bluer skies, and as they 
 carried the canoes upon their shoulders through the 
 thick forest every footstep brought sweet, strange 
 odors from the bruised plants. Now and then a herd 
 of deer would be seen, and the air w^as vocal with 
 thousands of tiny songsters. The scenery was enchant* 
 ingly beautiful and greatly varied. They launched 
 their canoes on the Wisconsin river's placid bosom, 
 and for nearly a whole rr:oon they paddled down the 
 stream five hundred miles before they reached the 
 majestic "Father of Waters." They had found fish 
 in abundance ; game came to the river to drink. Their 
 dining room was canopied by blue skies and their 
 couches were of fragrant hemlock boughs, with naught 
 intervening between them and the stars. Their days 
 were not all sunshine, but the dwellers in the forest 
 needed no barometers to tell them of approaching 
 changes in the weather, and they always had op- 
 portunity to protect themselves from discomfort. 
 It was the 7th of July when they entered the 
 Mississippi river, at this point clear as crystal. 
 Marquette writes that "when he first caught sight of 
 this wonderful river flowing from the unknown unto 
 the unknown, he experienced emotions of joy which 
 no language could express." It was easy to be borne 
 down this majestic flood, but to paddle back against 
 the tide would be more than mortal man could do. 
 Still they swept on. It was like fairy land. Some, 
 times bold bluffs hundreds of feet in height jutted out 
 into the mighty w^aters. There were crags of tremen- 
 dous size and of such variety of form that some seemed 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 245 
 
 like vast castles reared by giant hands. Then prairies 
 seemingly boundless would spread out before them^ 
 dotted with groves and carpeted with gorgeously hued 
 flowers. There were seen vast herds of buffalo that 
 set the very earth to trembling when they ran. There 
 were herds of graceful antelopes. There were birds 
 of large size and of hue comparable only to jewels, 
 and then stretches of gloomy forest where savage 
 creatures had their haunts. 
 
 Having descended the river nearly two hundred 
 miles, they saw an Indian trail so well trodden that 
 they knew it must belong to a powerful tribe. 
 Marquette and his companion, leaving the boatmen 
 and guides on the shore, started up the trail and found 
 the village some six miles from the river. They 
 were seen a long way off, as it was on a 
 plain, and four of the village patriarchs came to 
 greet them, bearing the pipe of peace, gaily decorated. 
 As the chiefs drew near they were surprised at the 
 pale faces. These were the first they had seen, but 
 they had heard of such people, and the French had 
 shown themselves always kind and generous to the 
 Indians. One of the chieftains said as he led his 
 guest to a seat, "How beautiful is the sun. Frenchmen, 
 when it shines upon you as you come to visit us. Our 
 whole village greets you with a welcome ; you shall 
 find a home in all our dwellings." Could Chesterfield 
 himself have said better? 
 
 But the English claimed America from coast to 
 coast. The French had colonized the interior. Their 
 habitations and little hamlets and trading posts were 
 along the shores of the great lakes to the head waters 
 
246 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 of the Wabash, the Illinois and the St. Croix, and 
 then down the Mississippi and Gulf of Mexico. The 
 French intention had been to divide America and take 
 the greater portion. We have read how cruelly the 
 French were treated in Maine and other states. 
 Probably the most cruel act and the one which caused 
 life-long suffering was the destruction of Acadia, told 
 in Longfellow's pathetic story of Evangeline, who, 
 immediately after the ceremonial of betrothal, was 
 ordered, as were all the Acadians, to go on board the 
 English ships in the harbor, taking with them only such 
 things as they could carry. And while Evangeline 
 sat with her father on the sands waiting for their turn 
 to be taken to the ships he died of sorrow, and the 
 lonely maiden became separated from her betrothed 
 he being put upon another ship ; how they spent their 
 whole lives searching for each other and once were so 
 near that they could have heard each other's voices, yet 
 they met not till he was brought dying to the 
 almshouse, where she gave her life to the sick and 
 dying. 
 
 Thus, on a Sabbath morn, through the streets, deserted and silent, 
 Wending lier quiet way, she entered the door of the almshouse. 
 Sweet on the summer air was the odor of flowers in the garden ; 
 And she paused on her way to gather the fairest among them, 
 That the dying once more might rejoice in their fragrance and beauty. 
 Then, as she mounted the stairs to the corridors, cooled by the east-wind, 
 Distant and soft on her ear fell the chimes from the belfry of Christ 
 
 Church, 
 While, intermingled with these, across the meadows were wafted 
 Sounds of psalms that were sung by the Swedes in their church at Wicaco, 
 Soft as descendii wings fell the calm of the hour on her spirit ; 
 Something within her said, •• At length thy trials are ended ;" 
 And, with light in her looks, she entered the chambers of sickness. 
 Noiseless(y moved about the assiduous, careful attendants, 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 247 
 
 Moistening the feverish lip, and the aching brow, and in silence 
 Closing the sightless eyes of the dead, and concealing their faces, 
 Where on their pallets they lay, like drifts of snow by the roadside. 
 Many a languid head, upraised as Evangeline entered. 
 Turned on its pillow of pain to gaze while she passed, for her presence 
 Fell on their hearts like a ray of the sun on the walls of a prison. 
 And, as she looked around, she saw how Death, the consoler. 
 Laying his hand upon many a heart, had healed it forever. 
 Many familiar forms had disappeared in the night time ; 
 Vacant their places were, or filled already by strangers. 
 
 Suddenly, as if arrested by fear or a feeling of wonder, 
 Still she stood, with her colorless lips apart, while a shudder 
 Ran through her frame, and, forgotten, the flowerets dropped from her 
 
 fingers, 
 And from her eyes and cheeks the light and bloom of the morning. 
 Then there escaped from her lips a cry of such terrible anguish, 
 That the dying heard it, and started up from their pillows. 
 On the pallet before her was stretched the form of an old man. 
 Long, and thin, and gray were the locks that shaded his temples ; 
 But, as he lay in the morning light, his face for a moment 
 Seemed to assume once more the forms of its earlier manhood ; 
 So are wont to be changed the faces of those who are dying. 
 Hot and red on his lips still burned the flush of the fever, 
 As if life, like the Hebrew, with blood had besprinkled its portals. 
 That the Angel of Death might see the sign, and pass over. 
 Motionless, senseless, dying, he lay, and his spirit exhausted 
 Seemed to be sinking down through infinite depths in the darkness. 
 Darkness of slumber and death, forever sinking and sinking. 
 Then through those realms of shade, in multiplied reverberations, 
 Heard he that cry of pain, and through the hush that succeeded , 
 
 Whispered a gentle voice, in accents tender and saint-Hke, 
 •' Gabriel ! O my beloved ! " and died away into silence. 
 Then he beheld, in a dream, once more the home of his childhood ; 
 Green Acadian meadows, with sylvan rivers among them. 
 Village, and mountain, and woodlands; and, walking under their shadow, 
 As in the days of her youth, Evangeline rose in his vision. 
 Tears came into his eyes ; and as slowly he lifted his eyelids, 
 Vanished the vision away, but Evangeline knelt by his bedside. 
 Vainly he strove to whisper her name, for the accents unuttered 
 Died on his lips, and their motion revealed what his tongue would have 
 
 spoken 
 Vainly he strove to rise ; and Evangeline, kneeling beside him, 
 
248 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Kissed his dying lips, and laid his head on her oosom. 
 
 Sweet was the light of his eyes ; but it suddenly sank into darkness, 
 
 As when a lamp is blown out by a gust of wind at a casement. 
 
 All was ended now, the hope, and the fear, and the sorrow, 
 All the aching of heart, the restless, unsatisfied longing, 
 All the dull, deep pain, and constant anguish of patience ! 
 And, as she pressed once more the lifeless head to her bosom, 
 Meekly she bowed her own, and murmured, " Father, I thank thee 1 " 
 
 The Jesuit missionaries had established the first 
 colonies and trading posts. In 1641 Lake Huron and 
 Lake Superior had been explored by Charles Raym- 
 bault, and in the next thirty years missions were es- 
 tablished in Michigan, Wisconsin and Illinois. In 
 1673 Marquette and Joliet reached the Wisconsin and 
 passed down that river and the Mississippi to the 
 mouth of the Arkansas. 
 
 In 1678 La Salle, accompanied by an Italian officer 
 by the name of Tonty, left France on the 14th of June. 
 He had a ship well armed and supplied, and soon 
 after his arrival at Canada he built a vessel on Lake 
 Erie named "The Griffin," which was the first craft 
 larger than a birch bark canoe launched on these waters. 
 He had a crew of forty men and sailed to Mackinaw, 
 where he bought a cargo of furs of the Indians. He 
 spent his all in the purchase, but the furs were so 
 valuable that, had he been successful, he would have 
 made a fortune by them. But the vessel was wrecked 
 and La Salle was left in poverty. He remained upon 
 the Illinois river, heart-sick on account of his loss. 
 His keen eye saw the importance of the immense un- 
 explored realms whose portals he had scarcely crossed, 
 and he formed a plan of attaching them indissolubly 
 to France by a line of military posts extending from 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 249 
 
 the lakes to the gulf. To this end he built a fort near 
 where Peoria stands and named it " Crevecoeur," 
 " Broken-Hearted." His resources being exhausted, 
 he with his three companions in mid-winter passed 
 through the wilderness on foot (fifteen hundred miles) 
 to Fort Frontenac in Canada, to get supplies for those 
 left at Fort Broken-Hearted. He soon returned bring- 
 ing men and materials for building a large strong boat,, 
 to navigate unknown waters. Early in 1683 La Salle 
 with his companions floated down the stream the entire 
 length of the Mississippi, and in the grandeur of the 
 scene and the grandeur of the work he had in view he 
 forgot his own troubles ; aiid filled with tumultous joy 
 he unfurled the banner of France on the shores of the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and in honor of his sovereign he 
 called the whole explored region Louisiana, He 
 hastened back to Quebec. The voyage was long and 
 very wearisome against the tide. From Quebec he 
 went immediately to France. In a short time a 
 colony of two hundred and eighty persons were en 
 route to form a settlement on the lower Mississippi. 
 The colonists sailed, but having no chart they passed 
 by their destination and landed in Texas. On the 
 Bay of St. Bernard La Salle erected a fort and took 
 possession in the name of King Louis. This colony was 
 very unfortunate, but the details are not given in his- 
 tory. We know that they were threatened with famine 
 and that La Salle formed the heroic plan of marching 
 through to Canada (two thousand miles) ; that he 
 started, and some of his men mutinied, and killed him. 
 The colonists left behind were nearly all massacred 
 excepting a few children, who were taken captive. 
 
250 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA.' 
 
 Very soon another French expedition started for 
 the mouth of the Mississippi under the command of 
 D'Iborville. He entered the river and ascended for 
 several hundreds of miles, making forts at different 
 points. The French government v^ith increasing 
 vigor pushed forward its enterprise of establishing 
 military posts at all points of strategic importance in 
 that vast realm. There were forts on the lakes and 
 strong forts on the Illinois, the Maumee, the Ohio 
 (then called the Wabash), and the Mississippi. Buf 
 the most ^ beautiful of all the bounteous land they 
 found in the valley of the Ohio, as they called all 
 lands drained by the "beautiful river," which is now 
 divided into many states. 
 
 England became extremely jealous of the "encroach- 
 ments of the French." She claimed the whole coun^ 
 try because her people had settled the coast. France 
 claimed the territory drained by the great waters 
 which the Frenchmen were the first to explore. Both 
 nations, however, were willing to allow the Indian 
 some rights to his own hunting grounds. 
 
 News of the French settlements in what is now 
 the state of Ohio having reached the Virginia 
 colonists, a party of them joined themselves into a 
 body known as the "Ohio Company" and in March of 
 1749 they received a grant from George II oi Jive hun- 
 dred thousand acres between the Kanawha and the 
 Monongahela, and the next season sent out a survey- 
 ing party under Christopher Gist. It required a 
 journey of several hundred miles through mountainous 
 ridges and deep valleys, with only the paths of buffalos 
 and the trails of the Indians to guide them. They 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 25I 
 
 were a long time on the journey and returned to 
 Virginia in 1751. The French in the meantime were 
 by no means idle. They built Fort le Boeuf on 
 French creek and Fort Venango on the Alleghany. 
 About the same time the country south of Ohio was 
 explored by Gist and a company of armed surveyors 
 (among whom was Daniel Boone). In 1753 a road 
 was opened by the English from Will's creek through 
 the mountains and a small colony settled on the You_ 
 ghiogheny. Among the Indians there was great un- 
 easiness. The allegiance w^as uncertain. The French 
 had been kind to them, but the English were the most 
 powerful. The Miami tribes under the leadership of 
 Half-King met in the spring of 1753 with Benjamin 
 Franklin at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, and made a treaty 
 with the English. Governor Dinwiddie determined 
 to try a final remonstrance with the French before 
 proceeding to war, so a pape^ was drawn up setting 
 forth the English claim to the valley of the Ohio and 
 warning the authorities of France against further in- 
 trusion. The young surveyor who was asked to carry 
 the paper from Williamsburg to General St. Pierre at 
 Presque Isle on Lake Erie was George Washington. 
 It was the last day in October — "Halloween" in the 
 old country — 1753, when this young man, accompanied 
 by four comrades, an interpreter and Christopher Gist 
 as guide, started on the long, cold journey. They 
 reached the Youghiogheny and then floated down the 
 stream to Pittsburgh. At Logstown Washington held 
 a council with the Indians, and then hurried forward 
 to Venango, thence by foot to Fort le Boeuf. Here 
 the conference was held with St. Pierre. Washing- 
 
253 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 ton was received with courtesy, but the French 
 general would not enter into discussion with him. He 
 said he was acting under military instructions, and 
 would eject every Englishman from the valley of the 
 Ohio. Washington retired as courteously as he had 
 been received, and returned to Venango. Then with 
 Gist as his sole companion he left the river and was 
 soon lost to sight in the forest. He wore the robe of 
 an Indian ; he slept on a bed of frozen pine boughs ; 
 his robe was often frozen stiff; he took the north star 
 for his guide ; was fired at by prowling savages from 
 coverts ; lodged on one of the islands in the Alle- 
 ghany until the river was frozen so he could cross ; and 
 again took to the forest. The young man on whom 
 so much in after years would depend returned safe 
 and well to the capital of Virginia, where he laid the 
 reply of St. Pierre before the governor. 
 
 Meanwhile the Ohio Company had sent out thirty- 
 three men commanded by Captain Trent to erect a 
 fort at the source of the Ohio, the junction of the 
 Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, just below the site 
 of Pittsburgh. There the first block house was built, 
 and so they held the key to the Ohio valley. 
 
 It was only a short time before French boats came 
 down the river and forced the surrender. Washing- 
 ton had been sent to Alexandria to enlist recruits, but 
 all too late to save Trent's men from capture. The 
 French occupied the fort and strengthened it, built bar- 
 rack3 and laid the foundation of Fort du Qiiesne. To 
 retake this fort the young surveyor, now Colonel Wash- 
 ington, set out from Will's creek in May, 17=^4. Wash- 
 ington with his handful of Virginian soldiers was com- 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 253 
 
 missioned to build a fort at the source of the Ohio and 
 "to repel all who interrupted the English settlement in 
 that country." In April they left Will's creek. They 
 were obliged to drag their cannons. The roads were 
 wretched, the hills many. There were no bridges, 
 and their provisions very scanty. On the 26th of 
 May the English reached the great meadows, and here 
 Washington learned that the French were on their 
 way to attack him. He caused a stockade to be im- 
 mediately erected which he named Fort Necessity. 
 After a conference with the Mingo chiefs he deter- 
 mined to be the aggressor. Two Indians followed 
 the trail of the enemy and discovered their place of 
 concealment. The French, on the alert, flew to arms. 
 Washington commanded his soldiers to fire and that 
 was a volley whose echoes were heard wherever 
 there was a French settlement. The engagement was 
 short and sharp. Jumonville, the French commander, 
 and ten of his soldiers slept the long sleep, and 
 twenty-one were taken prisoners. Not an English- 
 man was lost, but the commander wisely returned to 
 Fort Necessity and waited for reinforcements. But 
 one company of volunteers came, but this encampment 
 in the wilderness was not an idle one, for under Wash- 
 ington's direction a road was cut for twenty miles in 
 the direction of Fort du Quesne. He was expecting 
 Indians to join him from the Muskingum and Miami, 
 but they did not come. He scarcely could number 
 four hundred in his whole command, and learning 
 that General De Villiers, commanding the French 
 forces, was approaching he abandoned the road making 
 and wended his way back to Fort Necessity. He 
 
254 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMEitlCA. 
 
 wasted no time in getting back and had scarcely got 
 safely there when the regiment of De Villiers came in 
 sight and immediately surrounded the fort, which was 
 on low ground. The French posted themselves on an 
 eminence where they could look down into the fort 
 and shoot with fatal effect. The Indians climbed into 
 the tree tops and for nine hours a shower of leaden 
 drops fell upon Washington's command. Seeing it 
 was impossible to hold out until relief might come, 
 Washington accepted the terms they offered him and 
 on the 4th of July marched out of the fort and with- 
 drew the garrison from the country. 
 
 Meantime an assembly of congress of the American 
 colonies was being held at Albany. The first object 
 was to bring about a treaty with the Iroquois Indians. 
 The convention next considered how best the colonies 
 might become a united government. Benjamin 
 Franklin presented the draft of a constitution, which 
 was finally adopted on the loth of July. Philadel- 
 phia was. to be the capital. The chief executive was 
 to be a governor appointed by the king. Each colony 
 should be represented in congress by not less than two 
 or more than seven representatives. Copies of the 
 constitution were transmitted to the several colonies, 
 but in every instance the movement was received with 
 disfavor. The English ministers' also rejected it, say- 
 ing that " the Americans were trying to make a gov- 
 ernment of their own." 
 
 During this time the French were making active 
 preparations for war. General Braddock arrived in 
 America on the 14th of April, and met the governors 
 of the colonies at Alexandria. The plans of four cam- 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 255 
 
 palgns were agreed on. Lawrence of Nova Scotia 
 was to complete the' conquest of that province ; Gov- 
 ernor Johnson of New York was to capture Crown 
 Point ; Shirley of Massachusetts was to take Fort 
 Niagara ; Braddock himself was to lead the main 
 army against Fortdu Quesne. 
 
 General Braddock, commanding two thousand vet- 
 erans, set out from Alexandria to Fort Cumberland 
 in the latter part of April. He was joined by a 
 few provincial troops. Washington became an aide- 
 de-camp of Braddock, and as he was well acquainted 
 with the savage mode of warfare he gave good advice 
 to the British general, who invariably rejected it, and 
 consequently, though he proudly marched at the head 
 of twelve hundred chosen troops, he was obliged to 
 retreat with a loss of twenty-six out of the eighty-two 
 officers, and of the twelve hundred men seven hundred 
 and fourteen were dead. The British soldiers never 
 saw the enemy who were hidden among trees and 
 stones. The next day the Indians returned to Fort 
 du Quesne clad in the red coats and gold lace of the 
 dead officers. Braddock was carried in the train of 
 the fugitives. He died on the evening of the fourth 
 day. The fugitives did not rest at Dunbar's camp. 
 The artillery, baggage and stores had been destroyed. 
 They beat a hasty retreat to Fort Cumberland and 
 finally to Philadelphia. 
 
 The second campaign was the driving of the French 
 colonists from their homes and the destruction of prop- 
 erty by burning. The third campaign planned by 
 Braddock was to be conducted by Shirley against 
 Fort Niagara. He set out for the scene of action 
 
256 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 from Albany with two thousand men. They spent 
 four weeks at Owego in making their boats. Then 
 high winds prevailed and sickness broke out in camp. 
 The Indians deserted the English and on the 24th ot 
 October the force, still headed by Shirley, marched 
 homeward. The fourth expedition, led by General 
 William Johnson, was to capture Crown Point and to 
 drive the French from Lake Champlain. They 
 started early in August and proceeded to Lake George 
 and laid out their camp. A week was spent in bring- 
 ing their artillery and stores forward. Before reach- 
 ing Lake George they had built Fort Edward on the 
 Hudson above Albany. Dicskau, the French com- 
 mandant at Crown Point, came with fourteen hundred 
 French Canadians and Indians to capture Fort 
 Edward. General Johnson ordered Colonel Williams 
 and the Mohawk chief Hendrick to relieve the fort, 
 taking with them twelve hundred men. But the 
 relief party were ambushed by Dieskau's forces and 
 driven back to Johnson's camp. The Canadians and 
 French soldiers, unsupported by the Indians, then 
 attacked the fort, and for five hours the rain of bullets 
 was incessant. Nearly all of Dieskau's men were 
 killed. At last the English troops charged across the 
 field and routed them. The French general was mor- 
 tally wounded. Two hundred and sixteen English 
 were killed. General Johnson now constructed Fort 
 William Henry on the site of the camp. The French 
 during this time were fortifying Ticonderoga. This 
 was at the close of 1755. The next year the command 
 of the English soldiers was given to Governor Shirley. 
 Washington at the head of the Virginian soldiers had 
 
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FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 25/ 
 
 repelled the French and Indians in the Shenandoah. 
 Franklin had been chosen commander of the Pennsyl- 
 vania forces and built a fort on the Lehigh river and 
 made a successful campaign. The expeditions which 
 had been laid out for the year were the conquest of 
 Quebec and the capture of Forts Frontenac, Toronto, 
 Niagara and du Quesne. The command of the British 
 forces was put in the hands of the Earl of Loudoun, 
 General Abercrombie being second in command. In 
 the last of April the general w^ith two battalions of 
 regulars sailed for New York and on the 17th of May 
 after two years of provincial war, Great Britain de- 
 clared war against France. 
 
 It was July when Lord Louaoun took command 
 of the Colonial army. The French, led by Montcalm, 
 who succeeded Dieskau, besieged and captured Oswego. 
 It was a valuable capture. Six vessels of war, three 
 hundred boats, a hundred and twenty cannon, and 
 three chests of money was their spoil. It was during- 
 this summer that the Dela wares in western Pennsyl- 
 vania rose in war and captured or killed more than a 
 thousand people. In August Colonel Armstrong" 
 with three hundred volunteers marched against the 
 Indian to^vn of Kittanning and on the 8th of Septem- 
 ber gained a victory over them and burned their town. 
 On the 20th of June, 1757, Lord Loudoun, with an 
 army of six thousand regulars, sailed from New York: 
 to capture Louisburg. At Halifax Admiral Holburn 
 joined him with a fleet of sixteen men of war, and 
 on board were five thousand troops from the armies of 
 England. But Loudoun, instead of going at once to 
 Cape Breton, must wait awhile at Halifax and then 
 
258 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 sailed back to New Tork without so much as looking 
 at Louisburg. The daring French leader Montcalm 
 with over seven thousand French Canadians and 
 Indians advanced against Fort William Henry and 
 for six days besieged it. There vv^as no more ammuni- 
 tion in the garrison and so the fort was surrendered. 
 The commander was Colonel Monro and there were 
 five hundred English soldiers, but of what avail were 
 they without ammunition. Honorable terms were 
 granted to them by the French commander, who took 
 possession on the 9th of August. The Indians came 
 upon a quantity of spirits, left by the English, and in 
 spite of Montcalm they fell upon the prisoners and 
 massacred thirty ot them. 
 
 During this year France had been so successful that 
 not an English village remained in the basin of the 
 St. Lawrence. Every cabin belonging to an English- 
 man was destroyed in the Ohio valley, and at the 
 close of the year 1757 France possessed twenty times 
 as much land in America as England,. 
 
 Loudoun was deposed from the command ot the 
 American army. General Abercrombie was appointed 
 to succeed him. William Pitt was at the head of the 
 English ministry. Admiral Boscawen was put in 
 command of the fleet, and General Amherst was to 
 lead a division. Young Lord Howe was next in rank 
 to Abercrombie. James Wolfe led a brigade and 
 Colonel Richard Montgomery was at the head of a 
 regiment. Three expeditions were planned for 1758 — 
 one to capture Louisburg, a second to take Ticonderoga 
 and Crown Fomt, and the third to retake Fort 
 du Quesne, captured by the French the year before. 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 259 
 
 Amherst with ten thousand men reached Halifax on 
 the 28th of May. Six days later the fleet was anchored 
 before Louisburg. On the 21st of July three French 
 vessels were burned in the harbor. The town was re- 
 duced to ashes. On the 28th Louisburg capitulated. 
 Cape Breton and Prince Edward's island surrendered 
 to Great Britain, and six thousand men of the garrison 
 became prisoners of war. It was the 5th of July when 
 General Abercrombie with fifteen thousand men 
 marched against Ticonderoga. The country about 
 the fort was very unfavo able to military operation. 
 They came upon the French pickets three mornings 
 later. A sharp skirmish ensued. The French were 
 overwhelmed and Lord Howe ^vas killed in the early 
 part of the contest. The English division had ar- 
 ranged to carry Ticonderoga by assault. The battle 
 for four hours was terrible. About six in the evening 
 the English were driven back. The English loss in 
 killed and wounded was nineteen hundred and sixteen 
 This was a greater loss than befell the English in any 
 battle during the revolution. 
 
 The defeated English now retreated to Fort George 
 Not long afterward Colonel Bradstreet with three 
 thousand men was sent to take Fort Frontenac, on 
 Lake Ontario. The place was poorly defended and 
 capitulated after two days' siege, and the fortress was- 
 destroyed. This success overbalanced the failure at . 
 Ticonderoga. 
 
 General Forbes marched with nine thousand 
 men against Fort du Quesne late in the summer. 
 Washington led the provincial army. The main body 
 moved slowly, but General Grant with the advance 
 
36o FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 pressed on to within a few miles of the fort. Advanc- 
 ing as other English commanders had, he was like them 
 ambushed and lost fully one-third of his force. On 
 the 24th ot November Washington was within ten 
 miles of du Quesne. During the night the garrison 
 took alarm, set fire to the fort and floated down the 
 Ohio. On the 25th the victorious army marched in, 
 raised the English flag and named the place Pitts- 
 burgh. 
 
 And now General Amherst was promoted to be 
 commander-in-chief of American forces. In the be- 
 ginning of the summer of 1759 the combined British 
 and American forces numbered about fifty thousand 
 men. The ^vhole French army was not much more 
 than seven thousand. Three campaigns were planned 
 for this year — General Prideaux to conduct an ex- 
 pedition against Niagara, Amherst to lead the main 
 division against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and 
 General Wolfe to proceed up the St. Lawrence against 
 the city of Qiiebec. 
 
 Niagara was invaded by Prideaux on the loth of 
 July. The French General D'Aubry marched to the 
 relief of the fort with twelve hundred men. General 
 Prideaux was killed on the 15th by the bursting of a 
 mortar. Sir William Johnson succeeded in command 
 and placed his forces to intercept the approaching 
 French army. D'Aubry's army came in sight on the 
 morning of the 24th. There was a desperate fight. 
 The French were completely routed, and the next day 
 Niagara surrendered, and the French force of more 
 than six hundred became prisoners of war, and at the 
 same time Amherst was marching with an army of 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 261 
 
 eleven thousand men against Ticonderoga. On the 
 22nd of July the forces were disembarked where 
 Abercrombie had landed. The French did not dare 
 to stand before such an overwhelming force, and on 
 the 26th the garrison, having partly destroyed the 
 fort, abandoned it and retreated to C:own Point. 
 Five days later this point was deserted and the united 
 forces entrenched themselves on Isle-aux-Noix, in the 
 Sorel river. 
 
 Early in the spring General Wolfe began ascending 
 the St. Lawrence. He had a force of almost eight 
 thousand men, assisted by a fleet of forty-four vessels. 
 The entire force arrived at the Isle of Orleans, four 
 miles below Quebec, on the 27th of June. The Eng- 
 lish camp was pitched at the upper end of the island. 
 Wolfe's vessels gave him command of the river, and 
 the southern bank was undefended. General Monck- 
 ton was sent to seize Point Levi the night of the 29th. 
 The lower town was soon in ruins, and the upper 
 town badly injured, but the fortress remained 
 impregnable. General Wolfe crossed the north chan- 
 nel and encamped on the east bank of the Montmo- 
 renci the 9th of July. This river at low water was 
 fordable. A severe battle was fought at the fords of 
 the river on the 31st and the English driven back 
 with heavy loss. After losing nearly five hundred 
 men Wolfe withdrew to his camp. But the exposure 
 and fatigue threw him into a fever and for many days 
 he was confined to his bed in his tent. A council of 
 officers was held and the man of indomitable spirit 
 proposed a second assault ; but this was overruled. 
 They concluded to ascend the St. Lawrence and climb 
 
Z62 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 the Plains of Abraham behind the city. So the lower 
 camp was broken up and on September 6th the troops 
 were carried to Point Levi. Wolfe then took his 
 army quite a distance up the river, he meantime busy- 
 ing himself with an examination of the northen bank, 
 hoping to find some pathway up the frowning cliffs 
 to the plains in the rear of Quebec. On the evening 
 of September 12th the English entered their boats and 
 silently dropped down the river to a place called 
 Wolfe's Cove. It was with great difficulty that the 
 soldiers climbed the precipitous cliff. The Canadian 
 guard on the summit was dispersed, and at the dawn 
 of day Wolfe got his army into battle array. Mont- 
 calm was astonished when the news was brought him 
 and he ordered his soldiers from the trenches on the 
 Montmorenci to be thrown between Quebec and the 
 English. The battle began with terrific cannonading, 
 and then Montcalm attempted to turn the English 
 flank, but was driven back, and the Canadians and 
 Indians routed and the French regulars were thrown 
 into great confusion. Wolfe, in the lead, was 
 wounded in the wrist, but never halted. At the de- 
 cisive moment he fell, pierced through the breast with 
 a bullet. "They run, they run," cried a soldier. 
 ** Who run ? " " The French are flying everywhere,*' 
 said his attendant. " Do they run already ? Then I die 
 happy." Montcalm in a vain attempt to rally his 
 forces received his death wound. " Shall I survive ? " 
 he asked the surgeon. "But a few hours at most," 
 was the reply. " So much the better," said the dying 
 hero. *'I shall not live to witness the surrender of 
 Quebec." It was five days later when Quebec sur- 
 
FRENCH AXD INDIAN -WAR. 263 
 
 J endered and an English garrison was stationed in the 
 citadel. 
 
 The next spring France made an effort to recover 
 her loss, but it was unavailing, and on the 8th of Sep- 
 tember Montreal, the last important post of the 
 French, surrendered to General Amherst, and Canada 
 became an English province. 
 
 The Cherokees of Tennessee rose against the 
 English in the spring of 1760. Fort Loudoun 
 in the north-east part of the state was be- 
 sieged by the Indians and forced to surrender. 
 Honorable terms were promised, but as soon as the 
 surrender was over the garrison w^as massacred, so 
 General Amherst sent Colonels Montgomery and 
 Grant to punish the savages, and after a hard cam- 
 paign they were driven into the mountains and com- 
 pelled to beg for peace. 
 
 For full three years the war between France and 
 England was continued on the high seas, but the 
 English fleets were always victorious. A treaty of 
 peace was concluded on the loth of February, 1763, at 
 Puris. All the French possessions in North America 
 east of the Mississippi from its source to the river 
 Iberville, and thence through lakes Maurepas and 
 Pontchartrain to the Gulf of Mexico, were surrendered 
 to Great Britain, and at the same time Spain, with 
 whom England had been at war, ceded east and west 
 Florida to the English crown. And so America be- 
 longed to England from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 EVERYTHING tended to freedom of thought and 
 speech in the new country. The right of arbitrary 
 government was claimed by Great Britain and 
 always contested by the colonists. Witness the many 
 kinds of government enforced upon the colonies, but all 
 attempts to find the right one were unavailing. Ever 
 since the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 until 1775 
 there was ever an agitation of the question. The 
 influence of France, it is true, had something to do 
 with it. The French hoped in ceding Canada to 
 Great Britain that it might secure the independence 
 of America. But England feared American independ- 
 ence so much that it was even proposed in parlia- 
 met to re-cede Canada to France, so that the growth of 
 American states might be checked. The American 
 people were at heart republicans ; the English were 
 monarchists. The king had never shown his face to 
 his American subjects, and so many royal officers had 
 been tyrants and most dishonorable men that America 
 had seen enough of foreign institutions, and for some 
 time the colonists had managed matters to suit them- 
 selves and found the system a great improvement on 
 the old way. 
 
 The matter was discussed, and in 1755 John Adams, 
 then a young school teacher, wrote in his diary, "In 
 another century all Europe will not be able to subdue 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 265 
 
 US. The only way to keep us from setting up for 
 ourselves is to disunite us." And another cause of the 
 revolution w^as the fact that, bad and dissolute as 
 former kings had been, George III vv^as worst of all. 
 He was a man without reason. He was stupid and 
 dull, and stubborn as such a man in such a place could 
 be, and his ministers were most of them of the same 
 pattern. It was in America like the gathering of a 
 great storm. Some clouds were dark and flew fast 
 and others were little mutterings of thunder, and then 
 the sun would shine out, but the clouds would spring 
 up in another quarter and the atmosphere was grow- 
 ing thicker, and the thunder grew louder, and the wind 
 moaned through the trees. And then when the im- 
 portation act came in i733> exacting exorbitant duties 
 on the things they thought could not be produced in 
 America ; and in i7s'o forbidding that iron or steel 
 should be made in this country ; and then that pine 
 trees outside the door yard should not be cut down ; 
 and a year later, when writs of assistance were issued 
 to enable the king's officers to look through every 
 house for goods that might have been smuggled in 
 without duty ; and, worst of all, when the stamp act 
 was enforced, allowing persons to write legal 
 documents on nothing but stamped paper and pay a 
 tremendous price for the stamping, too, then the 
 clouds came together and the lightning and thunder 
 v/AS like that of the Hymalayan mountains. 
 
 The news of this abominable outrage roused right- 
 eous wrath. The bells of Philadelphia and Boston 
 rang a funeral peal. In New York a copy of the 
 stamp act was carried though the streets, with a 
 
266 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 death's head nailed to it, and a placard with the in- 
 scription, " The folly of England and the ruin of 
 America.'''' There were many old loyalists among the 
 members of the assemblies, but the younger represen- 
 tatives had no hesitation in expressing their sentiments. 
 In the Virginia house of burgesses the scene was one 
 that will be rehearsed as long as patriotism exists. 
 Patrick Henry was the youngest member of the house, 
 and he with old-time courtesy waited for some older 
 delegates to lead in opposition to parliament. But 
 the older members said naught. Some of them even 
 went home. Offended beyond measure at the cring- 
 ing aspect of the assembly, he tore from an old law 
 book a blank leaf and drew up a series of resolutions, 
 declaring that the Virginians w^ere Englishmen w^ith 
 English rights ; that the colonists were not bound to 
 yield obedience to any law imposing taxation on 
 them ; and that whoever said the contrary was an 
 enemy to the country. The debate that ensued was 
 violent. Washington and Thomas Jefferson were 
 among the audience. Washington was a delegate, 
 Jefferson was a student. Henry's eloquence over- 
 powered the opposition. "Csesar had his Brutus,' 
 said he; "Charles I had his Cromwell, and George 
 in — " " Treason^ treason,^'' cried the loyalists, 
 springing to their feet. " — And George III may proiit 
 by their example," continued Henry, and then added, 
 "If that be treason, make the most of it." 
 
 The resolutions were put to the house and carried, 
 but on the next day, Henry not being present, the 
 most violent paragraph was repealed. In the assem- 
 blies of New York and Massachusetts similar resolu- 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 267 
 
 tions were adopted. James Otis proposed an Ameri- 
 can congress and it was held in New York on the 7th 
 of October, nine of the colonies being represented. 
 Timothy Ruggles of Massachusetts was president. 
 
 A declaration of rights was adopted setting forth 
 that the American colonists as Englishmen could not 
 consent to be taxed but by their own representatives. 
 Memorials were sent to parliament and a petition to 
 the king. 
 
 The stamp act was to take effect on the ist of No- 
 vember. Great quantities of the stamped paper had 
 been sent to America, but everywhere it was rejected 
 or destroyed. At first all legal business was suspended. 
 The court houses were shut up, and riot even a mar- 
 riage license could be legally issued without using the 
 abhorred paper. But it was not long till the offices 
 were opened, and business went on just as it had be- 
 fore. But no stamped paper was used. The mer- 
 chants of Boston, New York and Philadelphia entered 
 into a compact to purchase no more goods of Great 
 Britain until the stamp act should be repealed. There 
 were eminent statesmen in England who espoused the 
 cause of America. In the house of commons the 
 eloquent Mr. Pitt delivered a powerful address. He 
 said, "You have no right to tax America. I rejoice 
 that America has resisted. '* On the i8th of March 
 the stamp act was repealed, but at the same time 
 resolutions were added declaring that parliament had 
 the right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever. 
 The repeal of the stamp act brought joy to both Eng- 
 land and America. In a few months a new cabinet 
 was formed with Pitt at its head, but while he was 
 
268 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 confined at home by sickness Mr. Townshend took the 
 opportunity to bring about a new scheme for taxing 
 the colonists. On the 29th of June, 1767, an act was 
 passed imposing a duty on glass and tea, painters' 
 colors and paper. Then America was vexed beyond 
 endurance, and another agreement was entered into 
 by all American merchants not to purchase British 
 goods. Newspapers were filled with denunciations 
 of parliament. 
 
 Early in 1768 the assembly of Massachusetts 
 adopted a circular calling upon other colonies for assist- 
 ance to obtain redress of grievances. But the minis- 
 ters thought this a dreadful proceeding and asked the 
 assembly to rescind their action, and more, to express 
 '■'• regret for their rash and hasty proceeding.^"* 
 
 In June a sloop was seized by Boston custom house 
 officers. Her captain was charged with evading pay- 
 ment of duty. In these days the gathering would 
 have been called a mob which attacked the houses of 
 the officers, \vho were glad to seek safety in Castle 
 William. General Gage was ordered to bring from 
 Halifax a regiment of regulars to overawe these 
 audacious persons. The regiment arrived October ist 
 — seven hundred of them — and with fixed bayonets 
 they paraded into the capital of Massachusetts. In 
 February, 1769, the people of Massachusetts were de- 
 clared rebels and the governor was ordered to arrest 
 those suspected and send them to England for trial. 
 The general assembly met this order with defiant 
 resolutions. Similar action was taken by other 
 assemblies. 
 
 In North Carolina Governor Try on attempted to 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 269 
 
 suppress an insurrection, but the insurgents fled across 
 the mountains and founded the state of Tennessee. 
 
 The soldiers in New York early in 1770 cut down a 
 liberty pole which stood in the park. There was a 
 brisk little fight over it and the colonists won. 
 
 On the 5th of March a serious difficulty occurred in 
 Boston. Captain Preston's company of the city 
 guards were surrounded and hooted at and dared to 
 fire. But the soldiers were not to be dared, and after 
 a little delay fired a volley into the thickest of the 
 crowd. Three citizens were killed and several were 
 wounded. This is the Bosto7i ?nassacre. Captain 
 Preston and his company were arrested and tried for 
 murder and two of the company were committed for 
 manslaughter. 
 
 Parliament now was generous to revoke taxes on 
 everything but tea^ and the people to whom tea was 
 their sole dissipation said. We will use no more tea till 
 the duty shall be unconditionally repealed. 
 
 In 1772 an act was passed that the salaries of 
 the officers of Massachusetts should be paid without 
 consent of the assembly. About this time a royal 
 schooner anchored at Providence. Her name was the 
 Gaspee. She looked wicked. A band of patriots 
 boarded her, and some way she got burned up before 
 she had been there long enough to do any mischief 
 In 1773 parliament removed the export duty on tea 
 shipped from England, which lowerd the price of it 
 so much that they thought that when the cheaper tei 
 w^as offered in America it would be bought up at once 
 without question of import duty. Ships were loaded 
 with tea for America. It is true it reached American 
 
370 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 shores, but was not used as it had been heretofore. 
 The ship load which came to Charleston, S. C, was 
 stored in musty cellars, and as nothing more quickly 
 ruins tea than bad odors it was entirely spoiled. At 
 New York and Philadelphia the ships were forbidden 
 to enter, and Boston authorities would not allow the 
 cargo landed. On December i6th there was a large 
 town meeting and seven thousand people attended. 
 Adams and Qiiincy both spoke to the crowd. Even- 
 ing came on and the meeting was about to adjourn, 
 Avhen a war whoop rang through the air. Fifty men 
 disguised as Indians walked quickly to the wharf 
 where the ships containing the tea were riding at 
 anchor. These apparent Indians boarded the ships 
 and with great speed and strength unloaded these 
 vessels with a swiftness not since equalled. Three 
 hundred and forty chests of tea were dumped into the 
 bay, regardless of the old injunction, "Unless the 
 tea kettle boiling be, filling the tea pot spoils the tea." 
 
 Parliament at once took measures for revenge. The 
 Boston post bill was passed March, 1774. It enacted 
 that no kind of merchandise should any longer be 
 landed or shipped to Boston wharves. The custom 
 house w^as removed to Salem, but the people of Salem 
 would not have it in their town either. The people of 
 Marblehead gave free use of their warehouses to the 
 Boston merchants. 
 
 When it was known in Virginia that the post bill 
 had been passed the burgesses entered a protest on 
 their journal. Governor Dunmore, a strong loyalist, 
 dismissed the assembly and instructed them to go to 
 their homes, but they continued their meeting at 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 27 1 
 
 another house, without asking permission from the 
 governor, either. 
 
 The 20th of May parliament annulled the charter of 
 Massachusetts. The people were declared rebels, and 
 the governor was ordered to send abroad for trial all 
 persons who should resist the officers. 
 
 The second colonial congress assembled at Philadel- 
 phia. Eleven colonies were represented. One address 
 was sent to the king ; another to the English nation ; 
 and another to the people of Canada. A resolution 
 was adopted to suspend all commercial intercourse 
 with Great Britain ; and parliament retaliated by 
 ordering General Gage to reduce the colonists by force. 
 A fleet and ten thousand soldiers were sent to his 
 assistance. The British at once seized Boston Neck 
 and fortified it. The stores at Cambridge and Charles- 
 town were carried to Boston, and the general assembly 
 received orders to disband. But ordering and being 
 obeyedj, parliament soon learned, was not one and the 
 same thing. Instead of disbanding, the members 
 voted to equip an army of twelve thousand men for 
 defence. 
 
 No sooner were the intentions of General Gage 
 known than the people of Boston began to remove 
 their ammunition to Concord. They put it in carts 
 and carefully hid the contents from view. But of 
 course there was some tale bearer who carried the 
 news to General Gage. He despatched eight hun- 
 dred men to Concord to capture the stores on the 
 night of the i8th of April The plans of the British 
 were made with great secrecy, but every movement 
 was watched, and this was the signal : If any move- 
 
272 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 ment appeared among them, Paul Revere had said 
 to William Dawes : 
 
 • "If the British march 
 
 By land or sea from the town to-night, 
 Hang a lantern aloft in the belfry arch 
 Of the North Church tower as a signal light, — 
 One, if by land, and two, if by sea ; 
 And I on the opposite shore will be. 
 Ready to ride and spread the alarm 
 Through every Middlesex village and farm, 
 For the country folk to be up" and to arm.'* 
 ********* 
 
 Meanwhile, his friend, through alley and street. 
 Wanders and watches with eager ears, 
 Till in the silence around him he hears 
 T^he muster of men at the barrack doors. 
 The sound of arms, and the tramp of feet, 
 And the measured tread of the grenadiers. 
 Marching down to their boats on the shore. 
 
 Then he climbed the tower of the Old North Church 
 
 By the wooden stairs, with stealthy tread, 
 
 To the belfry-chamber overhead, 
 
 And startled the pigeons from their perch 
 
 On the sombre rafters, that round him made 
 
 Masses and moving shapes of shade, — 
 
 By the trembling ladder, steep and tall. 
 
 To the highest window in the wall, 
 
 Where he paused to listen and look dovni 
 
 A moment on the roofs of the town. 
 
 And the moonlight flowing over all. 
 
 ****«»*«« 
 
 For suddenly all his thoughts are bent 
 On a shadowy something far away. 
 Where the river widens to meet the bay, — 
 A line of black that bends and floats 
 On the rising tide, like a bridge of boats. 
 
 Meanwhile, impatient to mount and ride. 
 Booted and spurred, with a heavy stride 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 27J 
 
 On the opposite shore walked Paul Revere, 
 ********* 
 
 But mostly he watched with eager search 
 The belfry-tower of the Old North Church, 
 As it rose above the graves on the hill, 
 Lonely and spectral and sombre and still. 
 And lo ! as he looks, on the belfry's height 
 A glimmer, and then a gleam of light ! 
 He springs to the saddle, the bridle he turns, 
 But lingers and gazes, till full on his sight 
 A second lamp in the belfry burns! 
 
 A hurry of hoofs in a village street, 
 A shape in the moonlight, a bulk in the dark, 
 And beneath, from the pebbles, in passing, a spark 
 Struck out by a steed flying fearless and fleet : 
 That was all ! And yet, through the gloom and the light, 
 ^ The fate of a nation was riding that night ; 
 
 And the spark struck out by that steed, in his flight, 
 Kindled the land into flame with its heat. 
 
 It was two in the morning when a hundred and 
 thirty minute men were on the common of Lexington, 
 ready for the fray. It was five o'clock when Pitcairn 
 with his troops came in sight. The minute men were 
 led by Captain Parker. With scant courtesy Pitcairn 
 rode up and exclaimed, "Disperse, ye villains ! Throw 
 down your arms !" The minute-men were immovable, 
 and Pitcairn cried "Fire!" The first volley of the 
 revolution was fired, and sixteen patriots fell dead 
 or wounded. The rest fired a few shots and dispersed. 
 The British hurried to Concord, but the stores were 
 already in a place of safety, and little harm was done. 
 While the British were ransacking the town the 
 minute men came upon a body of British soldiers 
 guarding the north bridge. The officers of the minute 
 men gave command to fire upon them. Two were 
 
274 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 killed and they began retreating to Lexington, six 
 miles away, and all the six miles the battle kept up- 
 On the road, hidden behind fences and barns, the 
 patriots poured a constant shower of lead into the 
 British ranks. Once it seemed as though the whole 
 British force would be compelled to surrender. The 
 American loss was forty-nine killed, thirty-four 
 wounded, five missing. The British loss was two 
 hundred and seventy-three. 
 
 A few days later and the "spark kindled by the fire" 
 of Lexington had touched the heart of every colonist, 
 and twenty thousand were near Boston. FromRoxbury 
 to Chelsea a line of entrenchment was draw^n. It was 
 the intention to drive Gage into the sea. John Stark 
 came down from New Hampshire with tjie militia. 
 Israel Putnam, with leathern waistcoat on, not 
 stopping to change his clothes, hurried to the nearest 
 town, mounted a horse and rode to Cambridge, one 
 hundred ??ziles, in eighteen hours. Rhode Island sent 
 her men, commanded by Nathaniel Greene, and the 
 provincials of New Haven came with Benedict 
 Arnold. Ethan Allen with two hundred and seventy 
 men marched against Ticonderoga. Benedict Arnold 
 went with the expedition as a private. The force 
 reached Lake George opposite Ticonderoga on the even- 
 ing of the 9th of May. Early the next morning eighty- 
 three men, with Allen at the head, succeeded in crossing 
 without being seen from the fort. With a rush they 
 gained the gateway of the door. The sentinel was 
 driven in, the patriots followed him, nay, rushed after 
 him. Allen sprang to the commandant's quarters. 
 "Surrender this tort instantly." "By what authority?" 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 75 
 
 ** In the na^ne of the great jfehovah and the continental 
 congress^'' said Allen, waving his sword to give em- 
 phasis. There was no alternative. The garrison 
 were made prisoners and sent to Connecticut. By 
 this daring exploit great quantities of military stores 
 were secured. Two days later Crown Point surren- 
 dered. Generals Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne 
 arrived at Boston. There were now fully ten thou- 
 sand British troops in Boston this, the 25th of May, and 
 it was rumored that Gage was to sally out of Boston 
 and burn surrounding towns and devastate the country. 
 To anticipate this movement the Americans set about 
 fortifying Bunker Hill, which commanded the penin- 
 sula of Charlestown, Colonel Prescott was sent with 
 a thousand men to entrench the hill on the night of 
 the i6th of June. They reached the eminence, but 
 Prescott and his engineer did not approve the situa- 
 tion and proceeded down the peninsula to Breed's 
 Hill, within cannon range of Boston. During the 
 night a redoubt was thrown up. So near were they 
 to the enemy that they could hear the sentry's night 
 call, " All is well." General Gage, as soon as it was 
 light enough to distinguish the redoubt, ordered the 
 ships in the harbor to cannonade the American posi- 
 tion. The British batteries on Copp's Hill also 
 opened fire, and very soon after twelve o'clock noon 
 Generals Howe and Pigot landed at Morton's Point 
 with three thousand British veterans. There were about 
 fifteen hundred Americans. Generals Putnam and 
 Warren served as privates in the trenches. Charles- 
 town was burned by the British as they advanced. 
 The housetops held thousands of spectators who 
 
276 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 watched the battle. The British troops made a grand 
 appearance. The Americans were quiet and silent until 
 the fixed bay^onets were within one hundred and fifty 
 feet. Then there was a flash and a roll like thunder 
 peal. The first rank had disappeared and the rest re- 
 treated ; but General Howe rallied them to the charge. 
 Again all was quiet till they were very close, and 
 then volley after volley came so quickly that the 
 column was broken and driven to flight. The British 
 fleet now brought their vessels to bear upon the 
 American works. Then for the third time the British 
 soldiers charged up the hillside with fixed bayonets. 
 The ammunition of the Americans was now almost 
 gone. This they used, however, with good effect. 
 There came a lull and the British clambered over the 
 ramparts. They were met with a volley of stones. 
 It had been a gallant fight, but for want of ammuni- 
 tion they were driven out of the trenches at bayonet 
 point. The Americans lost a hundred and fifteen 
 killed, among them General Warren, three hundred 
 and five wounded and thirty-two prisoners. The 
 British loss was one thousand and fifty-four killed and 
 wounded. 
 
 The battle of Bunker Hill inspired instead of dis- 
 couraged the colonists. The news was carried to the 
 south, almost as they carried the news from "Ghent 
 to Aix." A spirit of resolute determination was 
 aroused in every heart and the people talked of the 
 United Colonies of America. Indeed, a declaration 
 of independence was made at a convention held in 
 Charlotte, North Carolina. 
 
 On the day that Ethan Allen captured Ticonderoga 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLULION. 277 
 
 he c olonial congress came together at Philadelphia. 
 Franklin and Patrick Henry, John Adams and Samuel 
 Adams were there and George Washington and Jef- 
 ferson a little later. Another and last appeal was 
 addressed to the king, and he was told that the colonists 
 preferred war to slavery. John Adams made an ad- 
 dress in the early part of the session. Among other 
 things he spoke of the colonists' need of a commander- 
 in-chief, and of the qualities necessary for such a high 
 officer, and he concluded by nominating George 
 Washington of Virginia. On the 15th of June con- 
 gress confirmed the nomination. The wisdom which 
 saved the wreck of Braddock's army, his courage and 
 his education made him an invincible leader and 
 worthy to be called in later years the father of his 
 country. He was born in Westmoreland county, Vir- 
 ginia, on the nth of February (old style), 1732. At 
 the age of eleven his father died, and his mother un- 
 doubtedly did very much towards forming his charac- 
 ter. His education was thorough in the limited 
 branches which he had opportunity to follow. Sur- 
 veying was his favorite study. When he was only 
 sixteen he was sent to survey a tract of land on the 
 south Potomac. The important duties he performed 
 while with the Ohio Company ahd his campaign with 
 Braddock haye been given in the wars with the French 
 and Indians. 
 
 He accepted the appointment of commander-in- 
 chief with great dignity, and at once set out to join 
 the army at Cambridge. The great elm under which 
 he took command is as fresh and well preserved to- 
 day as is Washington's memory in the heart of all 
 
278 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 t 
 
 true patriots. Congress had voted to equip twenty 
 thousand men, but there was no money to pay for 
 such equipment. Washington had a force of fourteen 
 thousand five hundred volunteers ; they were without 
 any military discipline and insubordinate. The supplies 
 of war were very insignificant. But Washington did not 
 flinch from the trust he had accepted. So the army 
 was organized and arranged in three divisions. The 
 right wing, stationed at Roxbury, was under command 
 of General Ward. The left rested on Prospect Hill, 
 commanded by General Charles Lee. The center, 
 under the commander, lay at Cambridge. In all the 
 colonies the king's authority was not recognized. 
 Lord Dunmore of Virginia was driven from his office, 
 proclaimed freedom to the slaves and attempted to 
 raise a company of loyalists, but was defeated near 
 Norfolk by the patriots. The Americans hoped for 
 aid from Canada. In order to encourage the people 
 of that country to help them, Generals Schuyler 
 and Montgomery were ordered to proceed against 
 St. John and Montreal. They reached St. John 
 on the loth of September, but could not at first 
 take it ; but afterward General Montgomery suc- 
 ceeded in capturing the fort. Montreal capitu- 
 lated on the 13th of November. With three hun- 
 dred men Montgomery proceeded against Quebec. 
 Colonel Arnold had in the meantime brought ft 
 thousand xnen from Cambridge. The march wat 
 very hard and the suffering intense before they climbed 
 the Plains of Abraham. At Point aux Trembles he 
 was joined by Montgomery, who assumed command 
 of the force, which did not contain nine hundred men. 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 279 
 
 Quebec was defended by vastly superior numbers. 
 Montgomery with his little force besieged the tort for 
 three weeks and then staked everything on an assault. 
 Before break of day on December 31st, 1775, the first 
 division under Montgomery attacked the lower town. 
 The second division, led by Arnold, attempted to 
 carry the Prescott gate by storm. As Montgomery's 
 men were rushing forward a battery before them burst 
 forth with grape shot and the gallant commander was 
 no more. The men were broken-hearted for the loss 
 of their loved commander and they retreated to Wolfs 
 Cove above the city. Arnold had fought his way 
 into the lower town. While leading the charge he 
 was severely wounded and carried in the rear. 
 Captain Morgan took command and led his brave 
 men through the narrow streets in their retreat, till 
 overwhelmed and compelled to surrender. Arnold 
 retired to a point three miles above the city, but the 
 small-pox broke out in the camp. Quebec was 
 strengthened, and the Americans evacuated Canada 
 the following June. 
 
 King George was in no hurry to answer the petition 
 of the appeal of congress, and when he did it was 
 rejected with utter contempt. His answer only has- 
 tened the day of independence. In the meantime 
 General Gage had been superseded by General Howe 
 in command of the British troops in Boston. Through 
 the whole long winter Washington had besieged 
 the city. When the spring of 1776 came, he felt 
 strong enough to attempt an assault. The officers of 
 his staff thought it was a great risk, and so another 
 plan was adopted — that of seizing Dorchester Heights 
 
28o FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 and driving Howe out of Boston. For two days the 
 British were annoyed by the American batteries till 
 their attention was concentrated on that division. 
 Then the night of March 4th a detachment went out 
 under cover of darkness and reached the heights un- 
 seen, but when day broke Howe knew that he must 
 carry the American position or else abandon the city. 
 So he ordered two thousand four hundred men to 
 storm the heights before nightfall. Washington 
 visited the trenches and exhorted his men. It was 
 the anniversary of the Boston massacre. A battle 
 was imminent, but ere the British were in readiness 
 a storm arose that made the harbor impassable. For 
 a whole day it blew and before the next morning the 
 American fortifications were so strong that the idea 
 of an assault had to be given up, and General Howe 
 decided that the best — indeed, the only — way to do 
 was to leave the capital of New England. And after 
 some days there came about an agreement between 
 Washington and Howe that the latter might retire 
 from Boston unmolested provided the city should not 
 be burned. The whole British force marched down 
 to their ships and sailed away on the 17th of March. 
 The whole country was overjoyed. The 20th 
 Washington with his army made a formal entry and 
 received an ovation. Corgress ordered a gold medal 
 struck in honor of Washington's victory over the 
 enemy. Shortly after this the commander-in-chief 
 repaired with his army to New York. General Lee 
 came with the Connecticut forces and reached the 
 city just in time to prevent the attempt of Sir Henry 
 Clinton from marching upon the town. The British 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 281 
 
 fleet had arrived off Sandy Hook. Clinton sailed 
 southward and was joined by Peter Parker and Lord 
 Cornwallis, with twenty-five hundred men. Their 
 intention was to capture Charleston. The Carolinians 
 were commanded by General Lee. They came from 
 every part of the state and flocked to Charleston. 
 The city was fortified and the entrance to the harbor 
 was commanded by a fort on Sullivan's Island. 
 
 The British squadron came in sight on the 4th of 
 June and on the 2Sth the British fleet began bombard- 
 ing the fortress in command of Colonel Moultrie. The 
 vessels of the fleet poured a tempest of balls upon the 
 fort, but as it was built of palmetto bullets were of 
 little avail. They shot away the flag staff" and Ser- 
 geant Jasper leaped from the wall, recovered it and 
 nailed it back again. At nightfall the British were 
 obliged to withdraw. They had lost two hundred 
 men. The garrison had lost thirty-two. When the 
 British had made needed repairs to their ships they 
 set sail for New York. 
 
 During the summer the American forces had been 
 increased to twenty-seven thousand men, but only 
 about half that number were to be counted on. Great 
 Britain was making immense preparations. She had 
 made a treaty with some of the Hessian states and 
 hired seventeen thousand of these to fight against 
 America. Twenty-five thousand English troops had 
 been levied, and a million of dollars devoted to the 
 expenses of the war. 
 
 We have already learned of the doings of the 
 second colonial congress and of Richard Henry Lee's 
 resolution declaring the united colonies to be free and 
 
282 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 independent states. This resolution after a long and 
 exciting debate was held tor final consideration until 
 the meeting of the assembly on July 1st. On the iitb 
 of June a committee consisting of Robert E. Living- 
 stone, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Franklin, John 
 Adams and Thomas Jefferson were appointed to make 
 the final declaration. The committee's report was 
 laid before congress on the ist day of July. On the 
 2nd Lee's resolution was adopted ; on the 3rd the 
 formal declaration was debated, and on the 4tk 
 unanimously adopted. The old bell in the state house 
 rang out the news of freedom, ard enthusiastic ap- 
 plause was the response. The king's arms were torn 
 down and burned in the street. There were huge 
 bonfires at Charleston, Williamsburg and Savannah 
 At Boston the people assembled at Faneuil Hall to 
 hear the declaration read. At New York the people 
 pulled down the statue of George III and cast it i?it0 
 bullets. Washington ordered the declaration read at 
 the head of each brigade. As all school children are 
 taught the declaration of independence, as it is always 
 read in every Fourth of July gathering, it will be only 
 necessary here to give the leading principles. "All 
 men are created free and equal ; governments are 
 instituted for the welfare of the people ; that the peo- 
 ple have a right to alter their government ; that the gov- 
 ernment of George III had become destructive to liberty ; 
 that the king's tyranny over American subjects was no 
 longer endurable ; and that therefore the United States 
 of America are, and of right ought to be, free and in- 
 dependent states." 
 
 About this ^time General Howe landed nine thou- 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 283 
 
 sand men on Staten Island, and Clinton came from 
 his siege at Charleston, and Admiral Howe from Eng- 
 land. The entire British force near New York num- 
 bered thirty thousand, but about half of them were 
 Hessians. Washington's army was meager in numbers 
 as well as knowing little of discipline. Lord Howe's 
 instructions were to try conciliatory measures with the 
 Americans. So he sent a messenger to General Wash- 
 ington with a dispatch addressed to '■'- George Wash- 
 ington^ Esquire.^'' Washington refused to receive a 
 communication which did not recognize his official 
 position. Howe then sent another message directed 
 ''^ George Washington^ etc,^ etc.^ etc.^'' and the bearer in- 
 sisted that the and-so-forths might mean general of 
 the American army. It was known to Washington 
 that Howe's authority extended only to granting par- 
 dons, and to this second message Washington replied 
 *'that since no offense had been given no pardon was 
 required." 
 
 And now Lord Howe and his brother commenced 
 hostilities. The British, numbering ten thousand, 
 landed on Long Island. The eight thousand Ameri- 
 cans were posted about Brooklyn. General Grant of 
 the British army took his division to Greenwood ceme- 
 tery, where he met General Stirling with fifieen hun- 
 dred Americans, and the battle began. This was the 
 morning of the 27th of August, and in this part of the 
 field there were no decisive results. General Heister, 
 in command of the British center, advanced beyond 
 Flatbush and engaged the main body of the Americans 
 under General Sullivan. The Hessians gained very 
 Kttle ground, until Sullivan was suddenly alarmed by 
 
284 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS UF AxMERICA. 
 
 the noise of battle on his left and rear. General Put- 
 nam had neglected to guard the passes on the left of 
 the American army. During the night General Clin- 
 ton had occupied the heights above the Jamaica road 
 and now his division came down by way of Bedford. 
 Sullivan found himself surrounded and cut off. They 
 fought gallantly. Some broke through the British 
 ranks, some were scattered, many were killed or taken 
 prisoners. Cornwallis, in attempting to cut off Stir- 
 ling's retreat, was repulsed. Most of Stirling's men 
 reached the American lines at Brooklyn. Generals 
 Stirling, Sullivan and Woodhull were taken prisoners. 
 Nearly a thousand patriots were killed or missing. It 
 seemed as though the British would have little trouble 
 in capturing the rest, and Washington wisely withdrew 
 to New York. It was a dangerous enterprise. On the 
 evening of the 29th the embarkation of the American 
 army began. Through the short night with mufflled 
 oars the boatmen sped swiftly and silently. The 
 British made the discovery at daybreak, and rushing to 
 the American entrenchments found — a few worthless 
 guns. 
 
 The defeat was almost fatal to the American army. 
 They were undisciplined, remember, and the loss so 
 great, the numbers of the enemy so overpowering, was 
 it any wonder that these men, fresh from their homes, 
 were discouraged .f* It was only by constant exertion 
 and great personal attraction that Washington was en- 
 abled to keep his army together. The British fleet 
 came and anchored within cannon shot. Then Wash- 
 ington returned to Harlem Heights, and on September 
 itjth the British chose a landing place three miles 
 
THE AMERICAN JiEVOLUTION. 285 
 
 above New York. They extended their lines across 
 the island and took possession of the city. 
 
 On the i6th there was a skirmish between the 
 advanced guards, and this time the British were driven 
 back with a loss of a hundred men. Howe embarked 
 his forces on the i6th of October, sailed down Long 
 Island sound and landed his troops near Westchester, 
 his object being to cut off communication between the 
 American army and the New England states! 
 Washington divined the movement and faced the 
 British east of Harlem river, and there was a battle 
 fought at White Plains on the 2Sth. Howe began the 
 engagement with a cannonade, which was replied to 
 " right saucily." The Americans were driven from 
 one position, but entrenched themselves immediately 
 in another. But when darkness came down Washing- 
 ton withdrew to the heights of North Castle. Howe 
 remained a few days longer and then marched back to 
 New York. Washington crossed the west bank of 
 the Hudson and took position at Fort Lee. Four 
 thousand men were left at North Castle under General 
 Lee. Fort Washington on Manhattan island con- 
 tained four thousand men under Colonel Magaw\ The 
 skill shown in the construction of this fort was ad- 
 mired by General Washington, and he made the 
 acquaintance of the young engineer, who was only 
 twenty years of age, and in after years became the 
 famous Alexander Hamilton. The i6th of November 
 saw the surrender of Fort Washington and the jails 
 were filled to overflowing with its garrison. Two days 
 later Cornwallis captured Fort Lee. The army was 
 now reduced to three thousand and with Washington 
 
286 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 retreated to Newark, followed closely by Cornwallis 
 and Knyphausen. The provincials kept on to Prince- 
 ton and then went to Trenton on the Delaware. 
 Nothing but the skill and undaunted energy of Wash- 
 ington saved the last of his force from ruin. 
 
 Cornwallis had no boats and so Washington had 
 this advantage over him. With his men he crossed 
 the Delaware. The British army were stationed in 
 towns and villages east of the Delaware. Trenton 
 was held by tw^o thousand Hessians under Colonel 
 Rahl. It was well known that as soon as the river 
 should be thoroughly frozen over the British would 
 march into Philadelphia, and congress adjourned to 
 Baltimore. The very day that Washington crossed 
 the Delaware Admiral Parker's fleet took the islands 
 of Rhode Island and Conanicut, and the American 
 squadron under Commander Hopkins was blockaded 
 in Blackstone river. While on his retreat across New 
 Jersey Washington had despatched a messenger to 
 General Lee at North Castle to join the main army as 
 soon as possible. The general marched at once with 
 his command as far as Morristown, and took up his 
 quarters at Basking Ridge. But he had the misfor- 
 tune to be captured himself by a squad of cavalry who 
 carried him away to New York. Sullivan at once 
 took command of Lee's division and wasted no time 
 in joining the commander-in-chief. The entire 
 American force was little more than six thousand. 
 But "there is a tide in the afl'airs of men which, taken 
 in the flood, leads on to victory." This was the tide 
 which led the American forces to glory. Washington 
 observed in the disposition of the British forces aa. 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 287 
 
 opportunity to rout them. The Hessians on the east 
 «ide of the river were spread out from Trenton to Bur- 
 lington. Washington's design was to cross the Dela- 
 ware and strike the detachment at Trenton, before a 
 concentration of the enemy's forces could be effected. 
 So he arranged his army in three divisions. The first, 
 commanded by Cadwallader, was to cross the river at 
 Bristol. General Ewing was to pass over a little 
 below Trenton. Washington with twenty-four hun- 
 dred men was to cross nine miles above Trenton, march 
 down the river and assault the town. Christmas 
 night this work was to be done. The Delaware was 
 full of broken ice which deterred Cadwallader and 
 Ewing from crossing, but Washington crossed and 
 then divided his army into two columns and rapidly 
 marched down to Trenton. It was eight the next 
 morning when the town was attacked from both 
 directions simultaneously. The Hessians hurried out 
 of their quarters and tried to get into line. Colonel 
 Rahl was mortally wounded ; nearly a thousand Hes- 
 sians threw down their arms and begged for quarter. 
 Before night had again fallen Washington, his army 
 and whole body of captives, were safe on the other 
 side of the Delaware. This victory was to the de- 
 spairing Americans like the sunshine to buried miners. 
 The militia flocked to the general's standard, and 
 fourteen hundred soldiers, whose term of enlistment 
 now expired, re-entered the service, and Robert Morris, 
 the great financier, came forward with his fortune to 
 the support of his country. 
 
 Three days later Washington again crossed the 
 Delaware. There all the American detachments were 
 
288 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 ordered to assemble. General Heath, who was sta- 
 tioned at Peekskill, received orders to move into New 
 Jersey. The British fell back from their outposts and 
 concentrated at Princeton. Cornwallis resumed com- 
 mand in person, and so closed the year A. D. 1776. 
 
 In 1777, January ist, Washington's army at Trenton 
 numbered some five thousand men. The next day 
 Cornwallis approached with a vastly superior force. 
 Through the afternoon there were several skirmishes 
 along the roads east of Trenton. Washington took up 
 a new position south of Assanpink creek. The British, 
 attempting to force a passage, were driven back, and 
 Cornwallis deferred the main attack until the morrow. 
 Washington called a council of war immediately after 
 night, and it was determined to leave the camp, pass 
 the British left flank, and strike the enemy at Prince- 
 ton. The army was "shod with silence." The bag- 
 gage was removed to Burlington. The camp fires were 
 kindled as usual and not allowed to go down all night,* 
 and when the sun rose the British saw only an empty 
 field. At the same time of day Washington was en- 
 tering Princeton, and the force that had been stationed 
 at Princeton vv^as on the march to join Cornwallis. 
 The Americans met them in the edge of the village 
 and the battle was on. The British charged bayonets 
 and the militia gave way in confusion. General Mer- 
 cer was mortally wounded, but the Pennsylvania regu- 
 lars, led by the commander-in-chief, stood their ground. 
 Washington, cool and calm, collected his men and 
 routed the enemy, who lost four hundred and thirty 
 men in killed, wounded and missing. 
 
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THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 289 
 
 hurried north and on January 5th took a position in 
 Morristown. Cornwallis returned to New Brunswick. 
 In a remarkably short time the patriots had regained 
 New Jersey. Cornwalh's kept gradually contracting 
 his lines until his whole force was in the narrow space 
 between New Brunswick and Amboy, Early in the 
 spring the American stores at Peekskill were destroyed 
 by the British, and Cornwallis surprised General 
 Lincoln on the Raritan April 13th, but Lincoln made 
 a retreat on the 35th of the month. General Tryon, 
 commandins: two thousand men, proceeded to take 
 Danbury, Connecticut, and burn it ; but the British 
 were in tu^'n attacked by provincials under Wooster 
 and Arnold, and lost two hundred men. The veteran 
 Wooster, of America, lost his life in this engagement- 
 Colonel Meigs, of Connecticut, on the night of the 
 23d ot May embarked two thousand men in whale 
 boats, crossed the sound and took Sag Harbor. The 
 British were completely overpowered ; only four es- 
 caped, ninety were made prisoners and five or six 
 killed. The stores were destroyed by the patriots, who 
 without the loss of a man returned to Guilford. Con- 
 gress awarded a superb sword to General Meigs. 
 
 At this time the American forces were concentrated 
 on the Hudson and a camp commanded by Arnold on 
 the Delaware. Late in May Washington broke up his 
 winter quarters and took a commanding position ten 
 miles from the British camp. Howe crossed over from 
 New York and threatened to attack the American 
 lines. For a month the two armies kept up a series of 
 skirmishes and counter marches. Then the British re" 
 tired first to Amboy, and on June 30th to Staten island. 
 
390 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 General Prescott, of the British army, was captured 
 at a farm house near Newport by Colonel William 
 Barton with forty volunteers, and now the provincials 
 were willing to exchange Prescott for Lee, who had 
 been taken prisoner by the British and held because 
 there was no one of equal rank offered in exchange. 
 Colonel Barton was rewarded for this exploit with an 
 elegant sword presented by congress, who had again 
 returned to Philadelphia. 
 
 The people of France had always shown themselves 
 friendlv to America, and now their sympathy became 
 outspoken. The French ministers would not openly 
 provoke a war with Great Britain, but they were al- 
 ways glad to hear of an English defeat. The Ameri- 
 cans somehow became aware that if money was needed 
 France was willing to loan it ; if arms were needed 
 France had them to sell ; and during the year 1777 
 twenty thousand muskets and a thousand barrels of 
 powder came from France to America. A little later 
 the republicans of France came over to see for them- 
 selves the struggle for liberty. One of the first was 
 the noble young Marquis of La Fayette. He fitted 
 out a vessel at his own expense ; he managed to elude 
 the officers and with De Kalb and a handful of follow- 
 ers reached South Carolina in April of 1777- He 
 entered the army as a volunteer and in the following 
 July became a major-general. 
 
 The campaign of General Burgoyne was an impor- 
 tant one. He superseded Sir Guy Carleton in com- 
 mand of the British forces in Canada. He spent the 
 spring in organizing a force of ten thousand men, 
 intending: to take the state of New York. The force 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 
 
 291 
 
 was a mixed one composed of British soldiers, Cana- 
 dians, Indians and Hessians. The plan was to make 
 a sudden descent on Albany and New York, and to 
 cut off New England, the middle and southern colo- 
 nies. Bur^oyne and his mixed army on the ist of June 
 reached lake Champlain, and on the i6th Crown 
 Point. This place was already occupied by the Brit- 
 ish, so he marched to Ticonderoga, occupied by Gen- 
 eral St. Clair with three thousand men. The garrison 
 got out and marched to Hubbard ton, Vermont, and the 
 British captured Ticonderoga, but followed the fleeing 
 Americans so fast that an engagement was held at 
 Hubbardton, which checked the rapid pursuit. The 
 next day the British captured a quantity of stores. 
 General Schuyler was now in command of the north- 
 ern American army. He had between four and five 
 thousand men at Fort Edward. Burgoyne captured 
 this fort on the 30th of July, the garrison retreating 
 down the Hudson. The British commander now 
 despatched Colonels Baum and Breymann with a 
 strong detachment to seize colonial stores at Benning- 
 ton, Vermont. Colonel John Stark rallied the New 
 Hampshire militia, and on the 15th of August met the 
 British near the town. The battle was a terrific one. 
 Baum's forces were completely routed. The British 
 loss was eight hundred killed, wounded and prisoners, 
 and the colonists were once more overjoyed. And 
 shortly another victory made them jubilant. A large 
 force of Canadians and Indians under command of 
 General St. Leger had been detailed to storm Fort 
 Schuyler on the Mohawk. On the 3rd of August St. 
 Leger held the fort, but General Herkimer rallied the 
 
292 POUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 militia, but was defeated with a loss of a hundred and 
 sixty men. Meantime General Arnold was at the 
 head of a detachment for the relief of the fort. When 
 he approached the savages fled and St. Leger, amazed 
 at their treachery, raised the siege and retreated. 
 Burgoyne was at Fort Edward when this discourag- 
 ing news was brought him. It took a w^hole month 
 to get British supplies from Canada, and he found 
 himself surrounded by nine thousand patriot soldiers. 
 General Lincoln arrived with the militia of New 
 England, and Washington sent several detachments 
 from the regular army. Morgan came with his rifle- 
 men. Schuyler was superseded by Gates in the 
 northern army. The American headquarters were 
 advanced to Stillwater. Burgoyne crossed the Hud- 
 son on the 14th and took a post at Saratoga. The 
 two armies now faced each other. On the 19th a 
 general battle, continuing until nightfall, occurred. 
 The conflict was severe, but gave neither* party the vic- 
 tory. Burgoyne's position was now critical. His sup- 
 plies were nearly gone. The Canadians and Indians 
 deserted him. General Clinton, who commanded the 
 British army in New York, had sailed up t'he Hudson 
 and captured Forts Clinton and Montgomery, but 
 nothing more. Burgoyne had now become desperate. 
 On the 7th of October he gave battle to the Americans 
 and lost his best officers and nearly seven hundred 
 privates. General Frazer, noted for his bravery, com- 
 manded the British right, was killed, and. his disheart- 
 ened men turned and fled. On the American side 
 Arnold was inspiring his men and the American 
 army was completely victorious. Burgoyne began his 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 
 
 293 
 
 retreat on the 9th of October. He reached Saratoga, 
 where he was intercepted by Gates and Lincoln and 
 driven to surrender. The terms of capitulation were 
 agreed to on the 17th of October, and five thousand 
 seven hundred and ninety-one — the whole English 
 army — became prisoners, and among them were six 
 members of parliament. The military stores of the 
 Americans were enriched by forty-two pieces of brass 
 artillery, five thousand muskets and an immense 
 quantity of stores. 
 
 As soon as this affair w^as over a large part of the 
 army was sent to Washington, for a great campaign 
 had been going on in the south, and the patriots had 
 been in sore straits. Howe had sailed on the 23rd of 
 July from New York with eighteen thousand men to 
 attack Philadelphia ; but hearing that Americans 
 had obstructed the Delaware he changed his plan, 
 entered the Chesapeake and made the journey by 
 land. Washington advanced his headquarters from 
 Philadelphia to Wilmington. The American army, 
 numbering between eleven and twelve thousand men, 
 were concentrated at that point. The forces of Howe 
 were very large, but Washington hoped to keep them 
 back from the capital. It was the 35th of August 
 when the British landed at Elk river, Maryland, 
 and began their march to Philadelphia. Washing- 
 ton selected the Brandywine as his post of defence. 
 The left wing was stationed at Chadsford, while the 
 right wing, under General Sullivan, was extended up 
 the river. The nth of September the British reached 
 the opposite bank and began battle. The Hessians, 
 commanded by Knyphausen, attacked at the ford ; 
 
294 
 
 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 the British, led by Cornwallis and Howe, marched up 
 the Brandywine and crossed above the American 
 right. Sullivan allov^ed himself to be out-flanked. 
 Washington was deceived by false representations. 
 The right wing was crushed by Cornwallis and the 
 day was lost. By morning the remnant of the Ameri- 
 can forces was at Westchester. The American loss was 
 one thousand men ; the British loss five hundred and 
 eighty -four. La Fayette was severely wounded. 
 Count Pulaski distinguished himself so that congress 
 honored him with the rank of brigadier. Washington 
 continued his retreat as far as Germantown, and on 
 the 15th of the month he recrossed the Schuylkill, and 
 met Howe at Warren's Tavern. There was a spirited 
 skirmish and a great battle seemed near. But a 
 tremendous tempest swept over the field. The sol- 
 diers were deluged, their cartridges useless, and fight- 
 ing was impossible. Washington still attempted to 
 keep between the British and the city, but Howe suc- 
 ceeded in crossing the river and on September 26th 
 the city was taken. Congress adjourned to Lancaster 
 and again to York, where sessions were held until 
 summer. Washington now made his camp on Skip- 
 pack creek, twenty miles from the city. He at- 
 tempted to surprise the British on the night of 
 October 3rd, but the roads were rough and the differ- 
 ent columns reached the British outposts at irregular 
 intervals. The fighting was severe, and there was a 
 time when the British seemed likely to be over- 
 powered ; but they gained possession of a large store 
 house and could not be driven out. The patriots were 
 forced to give it up. Their loss was a thousand killed, 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 2^5 
 
 wounded and missing. The British lost five hundred 
 and thirty-five. 
 
 The morning of October 22nd an assault was made 
 on Fort Mercer, on the Delaware, by twelve hundred 
 Hessians, led by Count Donop, who, with nearly four 
 hundred of his men, went down before the American 
 entrenchments. While this battle was in progress 
 the British fleet attacked Fort Mifflin on Mud island. 
 A siege ensued lasting until the 15th of November. 
 Then the garrison escaped at midnight to Fort Mercer 
 and the fortress was fired, and on the 20th of Novem- 
 ber Fort Mercer was abandoned to the English, and 
 this was the way General Howe obtained control of 
 the Delaware. 
 
 Washington made Whitemarsh his headquarters 
 after the battle of Germantown. Food and clothing 
 were very scarce. General Howe called a council of 
 war in a house belonging to Lydia Darrah, in Phila- 
 delphia. It was decided to surprise Washington in 
 his camp. Lydia Darrah overheard the plans and, 
 being a patriotic woman, she made pretence of going 
 to mill. Taking her sacks with her, she rode to the 
 American lines and told the story, so that on the morn- 
 ing of the 4th, as the British approached Whitemarsh, 
 they found mounted cannons and the patriots in 
 * attle array." For four days the British general 
 manoeuvred and then marched back to Philadelphia. 
 
 It was the nth of December when the American 
 army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge, on 
 the right bank of the Schuylkill. 
 
 This was a severe winter and the men suffered for 
 want of clothing and shoes. Many a time blood 
 
296 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA, 
 
 marked their footsteps. It was a long winter, and 
 congress in a measure abandoned him, as did many 
 men in high civil and military places. But the army 
 stood by him through all privations, and the confidence 
 of the nation increased. 
 
 To go back to our relations with other countries. 
 Silas Deane of Connecticut was appointed minister to 
 France in November, 1776. His very first service to 
 his country was to make a secret arrangement for 
 supplies to carry on the war, and a year later a ship 
 laden with two hundred thousand dollars worth of 
 arms and ammunition and the much needed specie 
 came over. With the ship came Baron Steuben, 
 commissioned by congress as inspector-general of the 
 army. Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee were 
 also appointed by congress to negotiate a treaty with 
 the French king. They reached Paris in December, 
 1776, and at once took up their duties. For a long 
 time their attempts were not successful. King Louis 
 and his ministers hated Great Britain and gave secret 
 encouragement to America, but an open treaty with 
 America was the same thing as proclaiming war with 
 England, and that the French court abhorred. The 
 brilliant genius of Franklin now shone with a 
 lustre unknown before because of want of opportun- 
 ity. " At the gay court ot Louis XVI he stood as the 
 representative of his country. His wit and genial 
 humor made him admired ; his talents and courtesy 
 commanded respect ; his patience and perseverance 
 gave him final success. During the whole of i777 ^^ 
 remained at Paris and Versailles. At last came the 
 news of Burgoyne's surrender." 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. Z^'J 
 
 Without aid from abroad a strong British army had 
 been subdued by men unused to military discipline, 
 and many times without proper arms or suitable food 
 and clothing. This wonderful success of the Ameri- 
 cans induced the king to accept the proposed alliance 
 w^th the colonies. On February 6th, 1778, a treaty 
 was concluded. "P'rance acknowledged the inde- 
 pendence of the United States, and entered into rela- 
 tions of friendship with the new nation." 
 
 Benjamin Franklin was born on the 17th of Janu- 
 ary, 1706. When twelve years of age he was appren- 
 ticed to his brother to learn the art of printing. In 
 1723 he went into a printing office in Philadelphia and 
 quickly became distinguished. He went to England, 
 and when he returned founded the first circulating 
 library in America. He also edited " Poor Richard's 
 Almanac," and discovered that lightning and electric- 
 ity were one and the same. His wisdom and charming 
 inanners did much to gain the treaty in France. 
 
 Congress ratified the treaty with France in May, 
 1778, but a month before this Count d'Estaing had 
 been sent to America with a French fleet. Immedi- 
 ately preparations for war were made by both Great 
 Britain and France. George III was now anxious to 
 treat with the Americans. Lord North brought for- 
 ward two Amarican bills in which everything claimed 
 by the colonists was conceded. The bills passed par- 
 liament, and the king was pleased to give his assent, 
 and commissioners were sent immediately to the 
 colonies. But congress, feeling that nothing short of 
 perfect independence in the United States could be 
 accepted, informed the commissioners so. 
 
%gS FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Until June of 1778 the British army remained at 
 Philadelphia. Then the rumor of D'Estaing's ap- 
 proaching fleet reached their ears, and at once the 
 English admiral set sail for New York, and on the 
 i8th Philadelphia was evacuated and the British 
 army retreated across New Jersey. Washington at 
 once occupied the capital and followed the British 
 retreat. He overtook them at Monmouth. General 
 Lee was ordered to attack them the morning of the 
 28th. The American cavalry under La Fayette was 
 driven back by Cornwallis. Lee gave orders for his 
 command to retire to a stronger position, but the order 
 was misunderstood and the retreat commenced. Wash- 
 ington met the flying army and rebuked Lee severely. 
 At nightfall they were compelled to desist, and under 
 cover of the darkness Clinton and his forces escaped. 
 The American loss was two hundred and twenty-seven. 
 The British dead on the field numbered nearly three 
 hundred. The day after the battle Lee sent to Wash- 
 ington an insulting letter demanding an apology. 
 Washington replied that his language was justified by 
 the circumstances. Lee answered in a still more 
 offensive manner, and was thereupon arrested and 
 tried by court martial and dismissed from his command 
 for twelve months. He never re-entered the service 
 and did not live to witness the independence of his 
 country. 
 
 Washington took up his quarters at White Plains^ 
 as the British forces were at New York. It was the 
 nth of July when Count d'Estaing's fleet made the 
 first attempt to attack the British squadron in the 
 bay ; but the bar at the entrance prevented the 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 299 
 
 passage of the French ships. D'Estaing sailed for 
 Rhode Island, and General Sullivan went to 
 Providence to act with him in a charge on Newport. 
 Sullivan secured a favorable position on the island, 
 and a joint attack by land and sea was planned for 
 the loth of August, and when the day dawned 
 General Howe's fleet came in sight and D'Estaing 
 sailed out to meet him. But just as the engagement 
 was about to begin a tremendous storm arose, which 
 parted the fleets and greatly damaged them. D'Estaing 
 repaired to Boston and Howe put back to New York* 
 Sullivan laid siege to Newport, but found it policy 
 to retreat, pursued by the British. A battle was 
 fought, in which the British were repulsed with a loss 
 of two hundred and sixty men. Sullivan succeeded 
 in escaping from the island the following evening and 
 General Clinton returned to New York. 
 
 Admiral Byron now took command of the British 
 forces. The American ships in Little Egg Harbor 
 were burned, Colonel Ferguson of Great Britain lead- 
 ing the incendiaries. 
 
 A little before this Major John Butler of the British 
 army, commanding six hundred loyalists (Canadians 
 and Indians), marched down Wyoming valley. The 
 settlement was entirely defenceless. A few old men 
 and boys too young to belong to the militia rallied to 
 protect their homes. The handful of patriots were 
 routed, and fled to the fort, which was already 
 crowded with women and children. Butler promised 
 honorable terms. On July 5th the gates were opened 
 and the captives murdered as soon as the invaders 
 were safely inside. Nearly all the prisoners fell under 
 
300 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 the hatchet and scalping knife of the murderous In- 
 dians. 
 
 At Cherry valley in New York state there was a 
 similar massacre, the invaders led by Joseph Brandt 
 and Walter Butler, the son of the British general. 
 The people of Cherry valley were driven from their 
 homes and tomahawked or scalped. Forty were 
 taken in captivity. Major Clarke took command of 
 the force which was to teach them something of the 
 terrors of war. After great loss to the Indians they 
 were forced to capitulate. 
 
 Count d'Estaing's fleet sailed for the West Indies on 
 the 3d of November, and in December follow^ing 
 Admiral Byron sailed, hoping on the high seas to 
 overtake the goddess of fortune. 
 
 Two thousand men commanded by Colonel Camp- 
 bell were sent by General Clinton to conquer Georgia. 
 On the 29th of December the expedition reached 
 Savannah. The place was defended by General 
 Robert Howe with eight hundred men. A battle 
 ensued and the Americans were driven out of the city. 
 The patriots went into South Carolina and found 
 refuge at Charleston. 
 
 The winter of 1778—79 found the American army in 
 winter quarters at Middlebrook. The soldiers had 
 been neither paid nor fed properly, but Washington's 
 influence prevented a mutiny. Governor Tryon (a 
 royalist) marched with fifteen hundred regulators and 
 tories to destroy the salt w^orks at Horse Neck, 
 Connecticut. General Putnam rallied the militia and 
 made a gallant defence. At length the British out- 
 flanked the Americans, who were forced to fly, and 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 3OI 
 
 General Putnam, in eminent danger of capture, rode 
 his horse down a precipice and escaped. Clinton with 
 a force went up the Hudson to Stony Point in late 
 May. The garrison saw it was useless to resist him 
 and escaped from the fort. Verplanck's Point was 
 bombarded by the British on the ist of June and 
 forced to surrender. Tryon with twenty-six hun- 
 dred Hessians and tories captured New Haven in 
 July. East Haven and Fairfield they burned, 
 and the story is told that during the burn- 
 ing of Norwalk Tryon sat in a rocking chair 
 and laughed heartily at the distress he was caus- 
 ing, even as Nero laughed at the destruction he 
 created. General Wayne came upon Stony Point on 
 the 15th of July. He halted near the fort and gave 
 his orders. The British pickets were caught and 
 gagged, and as silent as the night muskets were un- 
 loaded and bayonets fixed. Not a gun was fired* 
 The assault came a little after midnight. Not a 
 patriot flinched from his duty. The ramparts were 
 scaled, and the British awoke to find themselves be- 
 tween two lines of bayonets. They cried for quarter. 
 Sixty-three fell ; five hundred and forty-three were 
 made prisoners. The American loss was fifteen 
 killed, eighty-three wounded. General Wayne secured 
 the ordinance and stores and burned the fort. 
 
 It was only three days after this when Major Lee 
 captured the British garrison at Jersey City, and a fleet 
 was sent against a British post at the mouth of the Pen- 
 obscot on the 25th of July. On the 13th of August, 
 while the American vessels were besieging this post, 
 the British squadron sailed in upon them and destroyed 
 
302 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 them. During the summer Generals Sullivan and 
 James Clinton were sent against the Indians on the 
 Susquehanna. Tlie savages and tories had fortified 
 themselves at Elmira, but the 29th saw them forced 
 out and routed. The country between the Susque- 
 hanna and the Genesee was utterly devastated and 
 every Indian village destroyed. 
 
 Fort Sunbury on St. Catherine's sound was captured 
 by General Prevost of his majesty's command Janu- 
 ary 9th, 1779, and the general then assumed command 
 of the British forces in the south. Two thousand 
 regulars and loyalists were despatched against Augus- 
 ta on the 29th. The British took Augusta the same 
 day. Meanwhile the tories, w^ho were advancing to 
 join the British at Augusta, were whipped by Captain 
 Anderson, and on February 14th they were overtaken 
 and routed by Colonel Pickens. Colonel Boyd, the 
 tory leader, was killed and seventy of his men shared 
 Ms fate. Seventy -five w^ere captured and five ring- 
 leaders hanged, and the western half of Georgia was 
 again in the possession of patriots. On February 25th 
 the Americans, commanded by General Ashe (num- 
 bering two thousand), crossed the Savannah and pur- 
 sued Campbell as far as Brier creek. The patriots 
 halted here and tiie British General Prevost marched 
 from Savannah and surrounded Ashe's command. 
 The battle was fought on the 3rd of March. The 
 Americans were routed and driven into the swamp, 
 and now Georgia was again under royal government. 
 But again within a month Lincoln was in the field 
 with five thousand men. He marched up the left bank 
 of the river in the direction of Augusta. But General 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 303 
 
 Prevost crossed the Savannah and marched against 
 Charleston. General Lincoln turned back to attack 
 him, and Prevost made a hasty retreat. The Ameri- 
 cans overtook them at Stone Ferry, ten miles west of 
 Charleston, but were repulsed with loss. Prevost then 
 fell back to Savannah and all remained quiet during 
 the winter. 
 
 Count d'Estaing now arrived with his fleet from the 
 West Indies to co-operate with Lincoln in reducing 
 Savannah. Prevost meantime concentrated his forces 
 for the defence of the city. " The French effected a 
 landing on the 12th and advanced to the siege." It 
 was eleven days before Lincoln arrived w^ith his forces. 
 D'Estaing demanded a surrender on the i6th, but Pre- 
 vost sent a defiant reply. The siege was a hard one 
 and the town constantly bombarded. Still the de- 
 fence remained unshaken. At length D'Estaing told 
 Lincoln that the city must be carried by storm. The 
 morning of October 9th was the one settled upon for 
 assault. Before the sun had risen the allies were 
 within the redoubts of the British. The attack was 
 furious. It seemed at one time that the works must 
 be carried. The flags of Carolina and of France 
 were planted on the parapet, but were soon hurled 
 down. Sergeant Jasper, the hero of Fort Moultrie, 
 was killed. The allied forces were driven back with 
 terrible loss. Count Pulaski was struck with a grape 
 shot, and borne dying from the field. D'Estaing 
 retired ou board his fleet and Lincoln retreated to 
 Charleston, 
 
 Paul Jones was cruising oflf the coast of Scotland 
 with a fleet of French and American vessels. On the 
 
304 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 23rd of September he fell in with a British squadron, 
 and there was a bloody battle. The Serapis, a British 
 frigate of forty-four guns, enga^d 7he Poor Richard 
 within musket shot. At last the vessels were lashed 
 together, and the Serapis struck her colors. Jones 
 had his men at once board the Serapis^ and the Poor 
 Richard went down. Of the three hundred and 
 seventy-five men who had been under Jones on the 
 Poor Richard three hundred were either killed or 
 wounded. This was the last engagement of 1779. 
 
 During the early part of 1780 there was little going 
 on in military circles. Admiral de Ternay arrived at 
 Newport with a French squadron and six thousand 
 land troops under Count Rochambeau early in July, 
 and their plans for future campaigns were determined. 
 In the south the patriots suffered severely, and all 
 America was rejoiced that the French had come to 
 their relief. South Carolina had been completely 
 overrun by the enemy. On the nth of February 
 Admiral Arbuthnot anchored before Charleston. 
 Five thousand men under command of Sir Henry 
 Clinton were on board the fleet. In the city were 
 fourteen hundred men under General Lincoln. The 
 British landed and advanced up the right bank of the 
 Ashley river. On the 7th of April Lincoln was rein- 
 forced by seven hundred Virginians. Two days later 
 Arbuthnot succeeded in passing Fort Moultrie and 
 came within cannon shot of the city. A siege was 
 begun and vigorously kept up. Lincoln sent out 
 General Huger to scour the country north of Cooper 
 river. Warned of this movement, Tarleton with the 
 British cavalry stole upon Huger's forces at Monk's 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 305 
 
 Corner and dispersed the whole company. The city was 
 now surrounded. From the beginning the defence was 
 without hope. The fortifications were battered down, 
 and Lincoln, dreading an assault, was forced to capitu- 
 late. Charleston surrendered on the 12th of May and 
 the garrison became prisoners of war. Only a few days 
 before the surrender Tarleton surprised a company of 
 militia on the Santee, and a little later three expedi- 
 tions were sent out into different parts of the state. 
 The American post at Ninety Six was seized. An- 
 other detachment went prowling about the region of 
 Savannah, and Cornwallis crossed the Santee and 
 took Georgetown. Tarleton with seven hundred cav- 
 alry overtook the Americans under Colonel Buford 
 on the Waxhaw, and charged and scattered the whole 
 command. 
 
 Great "Britain's authority was now supreme over all 
 South Carolina, Clinton and Arbuthnot returned to 
 New York and Cornwallis was left to hold the con- 
 quered country. The condition of affairs was desper- 
 ate. Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion appeared as 
 protectors for the state. They rallied the militia and 
 began a partisan warfare that was effective. Detach- 
 ments of the British melted like snow under April 
 skies. At Rocky Mount Colonel Sumter burst upon 
 a party of dragoons who barely escaped, and on the 
 6th of August he attacked another detachment at 
 Hanging Rock, defeated them and retreated. In this 
 battle Andrew Jackson, then thirteen years of age, 
 fought his first battle for freedom. 
 
 The company under Marion was composed of 
 twenty boys and men, white and black, poorly dressed 
 
306 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA, 
 
 and poorly armed. The number increased as they 
 marched along, and soon the "Ragged Regiment" 
 was ridding the country of the enemy. They were 
 unseen, and yet everywhere. Frequently at midnight 
 they sallied from some horrid swamp upon the sleep- 
 ing Britons, leaving scarce one to tell the horrid tale. 
 The position of Cornwallis was swept around con-. 
 tinually, his lines of communication were cut, and the 
 onsets were incessant. This mode of warfare waft 
 very provoking to the English ; more than that, it 
 was seriously hurting them. 
 
 General Gates now came into the Carolinas. Lord 
 Rawdon brought his forces to Camden and a little 
 later Cornwallis brought reinforcements. The Ameri- 
 cans were posted at Clermont. Singularly enough, both 
 Gates and Cornwallis formed the idea of surprising 
 the other in the night. On the evening of August 
 i^th they both set out and met midway at Sander^s 
 creek. There was a severe battle and the Americans 
 were badly defeated. The loss was nearly a thousand 
 men. Baron De Kalb was fatally wounded. The 
 reputation of Gates as a commanding officer vanished 
 like smoke in a blizzard and General Greene super- 
 seded him. But a few days later Sumter's corps was 
 overtaken by Tarleton at Fishing creek and he was 
 completely routed. 
 
 There was only Marion now to harass the enemy. 
 The British advanced into North Carolina the 8th of 
 September and on the 25th they reached Charlotte. 
 Colonel Ferguson with eleven hundred regulars and 
 tories went into the country west of the Catawba to 
 encourage the loyalists. He and his men had em- 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 307 
 
 campea on King's mountain October 7th, when sudden- 
 ly, as if they had risen from under their very feet, they 
 were attacked by Colonel Campbell with a thousand 
 riflemen. The battle wa"s a desperate one. Ferguson 
 w^as slain, and three hundred of his men killed or 
 wounded. Eight hundred threw down their arms and 
 begged for quarter. Ten of the leading tory prisoners 
 were court martialed and condemned to be hanged. 
 
 To add to other troubles was added one of great 
 weight — the absence of money. Continental notes, 
 which at issue were received at par, by 1780 were 
 scarcely worth two cents on the dollar. Business was 
 paralyzed for want of money. Robert Morris and a 
 few other wealthy men came forward with their 
 private fortunes and saved tlie country. The mothers 
 of the land did all that in their power lay, and soon 
 the soldiers were comfortably clothed and fed. 
 
 And now came the news that shocked the country- 
 Benedict Arnold was a traitor. Like many men in 
 the nineteenth century, he had lived so far beyond his 
 means that he began a deliberate system of frauds on 
 the commissary department. He was commander of 
 Philadelphia at the time. For this he was tried and 
 convicted by court martial, and yet after this he asked 
 for and obtained command of West Point. He as- 
 sumed control of the arsenal and depot of that place. 
 He then entered into a secret conference with Sir 
 Henry Clinton, and offered to sell his country for 
 what he could get. And the agreement went still 
 further. The British fleet was to sail up the Hudson 
 and the garrison and fort would be given to them. 
 The man selected to hold a conference with Benedict 
 
308 FOVll HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Arnold was Major John Andre, a young man 
 of great promise and attractiveness and adju- 
 tant-general of the British army. He went in 
 full uniform and the meeting was held outside the 
 American lines. It was a little after midnight when 
 he went on shore from the Vulture, and met Arnold in 
 a thicket. Daybreak came, and Andre went inside 
 disguised as a spy. The next day saw the completion 
 of the business. Arnold was to surrender West Point 
 for ten thousand pounds and a commission as brigadier 
 in the British army. Andre received papers contain- 
 ing a description of West Point, its defences and the 
 best method of attack. But that day an American 
 battery drove the Vulture dov/n the river, and Andre 
 was obliged to cross to the other side and return by 
 land. He passed the American outposts in safety, but 
 at Tarrytown three militiamen, John Paulding, David 
 Williams and Isaac van Wart, stopped him. They 
 stripped him and found his papers, and delivered him 
 to Colonel Jameson at North Castle. Arnold on hear- 
 ing the news escaped on board the Vulture. Andre 
 was tried by court martial and under the code was 
 obliged to be hung. Though this execution was un- 
 avoidable, the people of America have always re- 
 gretted the act. Benedict Arnold never stepped his 
 foot on American ground again, and from this time 
 he was a man desolate, without friends or country. 
 
 January of 178 1 was a dark month. The army was 
 dejected. They had not received clothing or pay 
 and w^ere half starved. The entire Pennsylvania line 
 mutinied on this day and marched on to Philadelphia. 
 At Princeton they were met by emissaries sent out 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 3O9 
 
 by Sir Henry Clinton, who tempted them with offers 
 of clothing and money if they would come under the 
 British standard. But the ragged, starving men by 
 way of answer seized the British agents and delivered 
 them to General Wayne to be hanged. The com- 
 missioners of congress offered the insurgents a liberal 
 reward, but it was refused and after some liberal con- 
 cessions the mutiny was quelled. Two weeks later 
 there v^as a revolt in the New Jersey brigade. Wash- 
 ington quelled this by force. 
 
 General Howe marched to the camp with five hun- 
 dred regulars and compelled the mutineers to execute 
 their own leaders. Peace and good order was restored. 
 Congress now became thoroughly frightened and sent 
 to France for a loan of money. Robert Morris was 
 made secretary of finance and the Bank of North 
 America was organized to aid the government. 
 
 Benedict Arnold received his commission from the 
 British commandant at New York. He was brigadier 
 in the British army. In November Washington and 
 Majof-Lee had attempted to capture him in this way. 
 Sergeant John Champe undertook the work. He 
 deserted to the enemy, entered New York, joined 
 Arnold's company, and concocted measures to abduct 
 him from the city. But Arnord moved his quarters, 
 and the plan was defeated. A month afterward he 
 was given command of sixteen men, and on the i6th 
 of December left New York for Virginia, and in 
 January the traitor began war on his countrymen. 
 He seemed to find great pleasure in devastating and 
 destroying property and laid waste many of the 
 beautiful places about Richmond. He then took up 
 
310 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 quarters at Portsmouth, and Washington again planned 
 his capture. The French fleet was ordered to co- 
 operate with La Fayette in the attempt. But Admiral 
 Arbuthnot drove the French squadron back to Rhode 
 Island. La Fayette abandoned the undertaking and 
 Arnold escaped. 
 
 In April General Phillips arrived at Portsmouth 
 and assumed command of the army. In May he died 
 and for seven days Arnold was supreme commander 
 of the British forces in Virginia* On the 20th Lord 
 Cornwallis arrived and ordered him to " begone." 
 He returned to New York, and made an expedition 
 against New London. Fort Griswold, which was 
 commanded by Colonel Ledyard, was carried by 
 storm, and when Ledyard surrendered seventy-three 
 of the garrison were murdered in cold blood. Such 
 was the ferocity of Arnold. 
 
 The American army at Charlotte, North Carolina, 
 was now under command of General Greene. Gen- 
 eral Morgan had been sent early in January into the 
 Spartanburg district of South Carolina to repress the 
 tories. Colonel Tarleton followed with his cavalry. 
 The Americans stationed themselves at Cowpens, 
 where on January 17th they were attacked by the 
 British. Tarleton came at them most impetuously, 
 but Morgan held his ground. The American cavalry 
 under Colonel William Washington made a charge 
 and scattered the British dragoons like dandelion 
 seeds. Ten British officers and ninety men never 
 more answered to roll call. When Lord Cornwallis 
 heard of the battle he started out to settle the saucy 
 Morgan, but Greene hastened to the camp and took 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 3II 
 
 command in person. The Americans reached the 
 Catawba and crossed to the northern bank. Within 
 two hours the British arrived, and lo, from the 
 heavens there came a great rain, so that the ford was 
 impassable for days. Then there was a race for the 
 Yadkin. It was sixty miles away. The Americans 
 reached the river in two days. The British came in 
 eight while they were crossing, but again the heavens 
 opened and the flood came down, and Cornwallis was 
 again delayed. The lines of retreat and pursuit came 
 pretty near being parallel. There was a third race 
 and the Americans won it. On the 13th Greene with 
 the main division crossed the Dan into Virginia, and 
 on February 22nd General Greene returned into North 
 Carolina. 
 
 Meantime Cornwallis felt that the tories needed 
 encouragement, and so he sent Tarleton into the 
 region between the Haw and Deep rivers to encourage 
 the tories. Three hundred loyalists were already 
 under arms in that region. While marching to join 
 Tarleton they were met and dispersed by Colonel 
 Lee. And now Greene's army consisted of more than 
 four thousand men, and he felt ready for battle, so he 
 marched to Guilford Court House, and Cornwallis 
 moved forward to the attack. The first encounter 
 was on March 15th, but was not decisive. The 
 Americans were driven back several miles, bat the 
 British loss was much heavier. Cornwallis retreated 
 to Wilmington and from there to Virginia. Lord 
 Rawdon commanded the British forces in the Caro- 
 linas. The Americans advanced and took Fort 
 Watson on the Santee, and Greene took a position at 
 
312 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Hobkirk's Hill near Camden. Rawdon moved on 
 the American camp on April 25th. A severe battle 
 ensued, and the British seemed almost routed once, 
 but at last the American center was broken and the 
 battle lost. Rawdon retired to Eutaw Springs and 
 the British posts at Orangeburg and Augusta fell into 
 the hands of the Americans. Ninety Six was be- 
 sieged by General Greene. The water was cut off 
 from the fort, and the garrison reduced to the point of 
 surrendering when Rawdon approached and Greene 
 withdrew. 
 
 The sickly months were coming on and Greene 
 withdrew his command for sanitary reasons to the 
 mountainous district. Lord Rawdon went to Charles- 
 ton and became chief actor in one of the most dis- 
 graceful scenes of the revolution. Colonel Isaac 
 Hayne, a patriot who had once taken the oath of 
 allegiance to the king, was caught commanding a 
 troop of cavalry (American). He was brought before 
 Colonel Balfour, commandant at Charleston, con- 
 demned and ordered to be hanged. Rawdon gave his 
 sanction, and Colonel Hayne was executed. 
 
 But during all this time Sumter, Lee and Marion 
 were harassing the enemy at every point. General 
 Greene marched to Orangeburg August 22nd. 
 The British forces were at Eutaw Springs. The 
 Americans overtook them there on September 8th and 
 one of the fiercest battles of the war was fought. 
 General Greene would have had a decisive victory but 
 for the bad conduct of some of his troops. After 
 losing five hundred and fifty-five men he gave up the 
 struggle. The British loss was nearly seven hundred. 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLULION. 
 
 313 
 
 Stuart retreated to Monk's Corner ; Greene followed ; 
 and it took two months of manoeuvring to drive them 
 into Charleston again. All the south except Charles- 
 ton and Savannah were under the government of the 
 United States. Savannah was evacuated on the nth 
 of July, Charleston on the 14th of December, 1782. 
 
 It was early in May, 1781, that Cornwallis took 
 command of the British army in Virginia. The value 
 of property destroyed was not less than fifteen mil- 
 lions. They were quite equal to the Goths and Van- 
 dals. La Fayette, who commanded Virginia unde^ 
 Washington, was unable to meet Cornwallis in the 
 field. While the British were near Richmond Tarle- 
 ton proceeded to Charlottesville, where the legislators 
 were in session, and captured seven of them. Gov- 
 ernor Jefferson escaped to the mountains. General 
 Wayne, who led La Fayette's advance, on the 6th of 
 July suddenly attacked the whole British army at 
 Green Springs on the James. Cornwallis was sur- 
 prised and Wayne, observing his mistake, got his 
 forces aw^ay before Cornwallis could recover. The 
 loss of the two armies was equal, a hundred and 
 twenty on each side. 
 
 The British went to Portsmouth and a little later to 
 Yorktown on the southern bank of the York river. 
 La Fayette followed, and his post was only eight 
 miles from the British. During July and August 
 Washington, encamped on the Hudson, greatly de- 
 sired to go south. General Clinton was kept in a 
 8tate of unrest by intercepting false despatches, which 
 indicated that the Americans would soon besiege 
 New York, and when Clinton was told that Wash- 
 
314 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 ington was on his way south he had the best of 
 reasons for not believing it. Washington marched 
 rapidly and joined La Fayette at Williamsburg. 
 August 30th a French fleet with four thousand troops 
 on board sailed into the Chesapeake and anchored in 
 the mouth of the York river. And now Cornwallig 
 was blockaded by land and sea ; and Count de Barras, 
 with his fleet of French vessels at Newport, also 
 arrived on the 5th of September, and now too came 
 Admiral Graves. A naval battle ensued and the 
 British ships were no longer masters of the high seas. 
 On the 29th the allied armies camped about York- 
 town, and on the 6th of October the trenches were 
 opened at six hundred yards from the British works. 
 On the nth the allies drew their second parallel 
 within three hundred yards of the British redoubts. 
 The night of the 14th the British outer works were 
 carried by storm. On the i6th the British made a 
 sortie, but were driven back, and on the very next 
 day Cornwallis proposed a surrender, and on the i8th 
 terms of capitulation were signed, and on the 19th 
 the entire British army (seven thousand two hundred 
 and forty-seven), English and Hessians, laid down 
 their arms and surrendered themselves. The news 
 reached congress on the 23rd. Remember, there were 
 neither steam cars, telegraphs or telephones in those 
 days. And on the morrow the assembly went with 
 the citizens to the Dutch Lutheran church and had a 
 devout thanksgiving, and the notes of rejoicing were 
 echoed and re-echoed all over the land. In England 
 the king and his ministers heard the news w^ith rage, 
 but the people of England smiled when there was no 
 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 315 
 
 one to see them. Many of them sympathized with 
 America. 
 
 The 20th of March, 1783, Lord North and his 
 friends sent in their resignations. A new ministry 
 favorable to peace was formed. The command of the 
 British forces in America was given to Sir Guy 
 Carleton, who was favorable to American interests. 
 Richard Oswald was sent over in the summer of 1782 
 to make terms of peace with Franklin and Jay ; John 
 Adams and Henry Laurens also were called to assist 
 in the negotiations The 30th of November the 
 preliminary articles of peace were signed and in April 
 following congress ratified the terms, and on the 3rd 
 of November following a final treaty was signed be- 
 tween all the nations that had been at war. 
 
 The terms of treaty of 1783 were a -complete 
 recognition of the independence of the United States ; 
 the cession by Great Britain of Florida to Spain ; a 
 surrender of the remaining territory east of the 
 Mississippi to the United States ; the free navigation 
 of the Mississippi and the lakes and the retention of 
 Canada and Nova Scotia by the British. 
 
 Sir Guy Carleton received instructions to evacuate 
 New York early in August and the 25th of November 
 the British army embarked and were soon lost to 
 human vision. Washington called together his oflEicers 
 on the 4th of December and said farewell. With tears 
 and sobs they parted from him who had led them on 
 to victory through a war of eight years. He departed 
 at once for Annapolis, where congress was in session, 
 and the whole route was a triumphal procession. After 
 he reached Philadelphia, he made a report to congress 
 
3l6 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 of the entire expenses of the war — seventy-fouf 
 thousand four hundred and eighty-five dollars — every 
 penny duly accounted for. On the 23rd of December, 
 Washington was introduced to congress and delivered 
 an address incomparable for wisdom and modesty. 
 With great dignity he surrendered his commission as 
 commander-in-chief of the army. General Mifflin* 
 the president of congress, responded eloquently, and 
 the father of his country retired to Mount Vernon. 
 
 r 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 THE UNION OF THE STATES. 
 
 WHILE the revolution was in progress the civil 
 government was in a pitiable condition. It 
 was only the peril of the country that called 
 congress, and when that body met it was without a 
 constitution or efficient power of action. "There were 
 two great wants. The first was money, the second 
 v\ as a central authority to direct the war." Benjamin 
 Franklin vs^as one of the first who worked for a better 
 government. He laid before congress the better plan 
 in 1775. It was for a perpetual confederation of the 
 states. But no attention could be paid to it then, the 
 war demanding all attention. Congress without any 
 real authority conducted the government as best it 
 could, and this government was generally accepted by 
 the states. 
 
 In June, 1776 (nth day), congress appointed a com- 
 mittee to prepare a plan for the confederation of the 
 sliites. The committee labored a month and then the 
 plan was laid before the hoirse. This was about the 
 middle of July, 1776, and the plan was debated a great 
 many times before its adoption in November, 1777, 
 when it was put to vote and adopted. After this the 
 articles were to be transmitted to the state legislatures 
 for ratification. The frame of government was great- 
 ly amended before its return. The amendments hav- 
 ing been considered, the articles were signed by the 
 
3l8 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 delegates from eight states July 9th, 1778, and eight 
 months later five more states had come into the con- 
 federation, and in March, 1781, Maryland too signed 
 the articles. 
 
 This confederation was not ideally perfect. The' 
 executive and legislative powers were vested 
 in congress, a body to be composed of not less 
 than two or more than seven representatives from each 
 state. The sovereignty was reserved to the states* 
 There was no mention of chief magistrate and no 
 general judiciary provided for. The consent of nine 
 states was necessary to complete an act of legislation. 
 The union was declared to be perpetual. 
 
 Congress assembled for the first time under the new 
 constitution on March 2d, 1781. The inadequacy of 
 the government was felt from the first, for congress 
 had no real authority. The first duty was to make 
 provision for the payment of thirty-eight million 
 dollars which had been borrowed to meet expenses of 
 the war. Congress thought a general tax would be 
 the best way to meet the indebtedness. Some of 
 the states made a levy for that purpose, while others 
 refused, and Robert Morris, the richest man in 
 America, who willingly loaned his all, came to 
 poverty. The condition of affairs was disheartening. 
 Washington advised the calling of a convention to 
 meet at Annapolis. The proposition was kindly re- 
 ceived and September, 1786, found representatives of 
 five states present. The question of a tarifl[ was dis- 
 cussed and some time consumed in the revision of the 
 articles of confederation. But it was adjourned until 
 the following year. 
 
THE UNION OF THE STATES. 319 
 
 Congress asked the legislatures to appoint delegates 
 to this convention. All of the states save Rhode 
 Island sent delegates, and on the second Monday in 
 May, 1787, the representatives assembled at Philadel- 
 phia. Washington was elected president of the con- 
 vention. Edmund Randolph introduced a resolution 
 to adopt a new constitution. This was on May 29th. 
 A committee was at once appointed to revise the 
 articles of confederation. The report of the com- 
 mittee was adopted and that report was the constitu- 
 tion of the United States. The people were not in unison 
 when the question came up of adopting it. Those who 
 were in favor of adopting it were called federalists and 
 those who opposed anti-federalists. The leaders of the 
 federalists were Washington, Jay, Madison and Hamil- 
 ton, who bent all his energies in favoring the adop- 
 tion of the new constitution. In those papers which 
 upheld the federal cause Hamilton and Madison an- 
 swered every objection of the anti-federal party. To 
 Hamilton we as a nation owe more than to any one 
 «else for "having established on a firm basis the true 
 principles of free government." 
 
 Under the constitution of the United States the 
 powers of government were under three heads : legis- 
 lative, executive and judicial. The legislative power 
 is vested in congress, which is composed of a senate 
 and house of representatives. The senators are chosen 
 for a term of six years by the legislatures of the 
 several states. Each state is represented by two 
 senators. The representatives are elected by the peo- 
 ple, and each state is entitled to a number of repre- 
 sentatives in proportion to its population. These 
 
320 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 members are chosen for two years. The executive 
 power is vested in a president, chosen for four years 
 by the electoral college. The electors composing the 
 college are chosen by the people, and each state is 
 entitled to as many electors as there are representa- 
 tives and senators from that state. 
 
 The president's duty is to enforce the laws of con- 
 gress in accordance with the constitution. He is also 
 commander-in-chief of the armies and navies. In case 
 of the death or resignation of the president the vice- 
 president becomes chief magistrate. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States is vested 
 in a supreme court and in inferior courts established 
 by congress. The highest judicial officer is the chief 
 justice. The judges hold their offices through life on 
 good behavior. 
 
 The right of trial by jury is granted in all cases 
 except impeachment of public officers. Treason 
 against the United States consists in levying war 
 against them or in giving aid to their enemies. The 
 constitution also provides that new territories may be 
 organized and new states admitted into the union ; 
 that to every state shall be guaranteed a republican 
 government ; and that the constitution may be altered 
 or amended by the consent of two-thirds of both 
 houses of congress and three-fourths of the legislatures 
 of the states. In accordance with this provision 
 fifteen amendments have been made since. 
 
 Eleven states had adopted the constitution before 
 the end of 1788. The new government was to go 
 into operation when nine states should ratify. North 
 Carolina and Rhode Island believed in great delibera- 
 
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THE UNION OF THE STATES. ^2 1 
 
 tion and so took plenty of time. According lo an act 
 of congress, the first Wednesday of January, 1789, was 
 named as the day of election of chief magistrate. The 
 people chose Washington. Early in April the ballots 
 were counted and George Washington was unani- 
 mously chosen president and John Adams vice-presi- 
 dent of the United States. The notification of his 
 election reached him the 14th of the month and at 
 once he set out for New York, and he met with a 
 constant ovation everywhere through his route. 
 
 On the 30th of April Washington was inaugurated 
 first president of the United States. The ceremony 
 was performed on the balcony of the old city hall where 
 the Wall street custom house now stands. Chancellor 
 Livingston of New York administered the oath of 
 office. The streets and house tops were crowded with 
 people. Flags were hung from every house. Can- 
 nons were fired from the battery. Washington 
 delivered his inaugural address in the senate chamber. 
 Congress had already been organized. There were 
 perplexing difficulties before the first congress. By 
 the treaty with England the free navigation of the 
 Mississippi was guaranteed. Now the Spaniards of 
 New Orleans hindered the passage of American ships, 
 and on the frontier the Indians were at wf-r with the 
 settlers, and America had no financial credit. On 
 September loth an act of congress inst'tuting a 
 department of foreign affairs, a treasury department 
 and a department of war was passed. President 
 Washington nominated JefiTerson secretary of foreign 
 affairs, Knox secretary of war and Hamilton secretary 
 of the treasury. A supreme court was organized. 
 
1^22 FOUR HTTNOKKD YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 John Jay was the lirst chief justice. Edmund Ran- 
 dolph was chosen attorney-general. 
 
 In the meantime Rhode Island and North Carolina 
 had ratified the constitution. The war debt, including 
 the revolutionary expenses of several states, came to 
 nearly eighty millions of dollars. Hamilton's policy 
 was a broad and honest one. He proposed that the 
 debt of the United States to individual states, as well as 
 to American citizens, should be assumed by the govern- 
 ment and allhe paid in full. This measure did much to 
 improve the credit of the country. Hamilton's financial 
 schemes were violently opposed by Jefferson and the 
 anti-federal party. Where should the seat of govern- 
 ment be? was a question, and they agreed to establish 
 the capital for ten years at Philadelphia, and after- 
 wards somewhere else on the Potomac. 
 
 The next measure was to organize the territory 
 5outh-west of the Ohio. The Miami Indians had gone 
 to war with the United States m 1790. The tribes 
 went to war to recover lands that they nad ceded to 
 the United States. General Harmar was ordered with 
 fourteen hundred men to convince them of the error 
 of taking back what they had once given. General 
 Harmar marcned from Fort Washington (now Cincin- 
 nati) to the Maumee. The army was badly defeated 
 with heavy losses at the ford of this stream. General 
 Harmar retreated to Fort Washington. 
 
 The bank of the United States was established by 
 act of congess and Vermont, which had been an in- 
 dependent territory since 1777, came into the union, 
 making it the fourteenth State. The claim of New York 
 to the province had been purchased in 1789 for thirty 
 
THE UNION OF THE STATES. 323 
 
 thousand dollars. The census for 1790 showed the 
 population to be three million nine hundred and 
 twenty-nine thousand. 
 
 General St. Clair with two thousand men after 
 Harmar's defeat started after the Miamis. He was 
 attacked by them in Mercer county. Little Turtle 
 was captain of two thousand braves and a number of 
 renegade whites. After a terrible battle St. Clair was 
 completely defeated, with a loss of half his men. 
 The remnant fled to Fort Washington. It was with 
 great sorrow that the nation heard of this loss. General 
 Wayne superseded St. Clair. This was the Anthony 
 Wayne whom people called for his daring Mad 
 Anthony. There were now nearly seventy-three 
 thousand people in Kentucky. Daniel Boone, a noted 
 hunter of North Carolina, had seventeen years previous- 
 ly settled at Boonesborough. The towns of Lexington 
 and Harrodsbur^ were founded about the same time. 
 The pioneers had suffered greatly during the revolu- 
 tion. The Indians were constantly attacking one or 
 the other of the settlements. General Clarke came in 
 1779 and after his expedition emigrants came by scores 
 and then by thousands. Virginia had relinquished 
 her claim to the territory, and in 1792, June ist, Ken- 
 tucky came into the union. 
 
 The second presidential election was now at hand 
 and Washington and Adams were again re-elected. 
 During his second administration there was much 
 trouble with foreign governments. Citizen Genet, 
 sent out as minister to the United States, arrived at 
 Charleston. All Americans felt kindly to the French 
 government, so Genet was met with enthusiasm, and 
 
324 FOL/'K HUNDKKD YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 taking advantage of his popularity the wretched man 
 fitted out privateers at his own expense to steal on 
 the high seas the vessels laden with British stores, 
 and then planned an expedition against Louisiana, 
 and when Washington refused to enter into an alliance 
 with France the minister threatened to appeal to the 
 people. But Washington, not a whit scared, demanded 
 the minister's recall, and he found it necessary to re- 
 turn. Mr. Fouchet succeeded him. 
 
 The whiskey insurrection in Pennsylvania in 1794 
 disturbed the country. Three years previously congress 
 had imposed a tax on all ardent spirits distilled in the 
 United States. The French freebooter Genet and 
 his friends had incited the distillers to resist the tax 
 collectors. The whiskey distillers arose in arms. 
 Washington issued two proclamations warning the in- 
 surgents to disperse ; and rather than obey his orders 
 they "fired upon the government officers. Henry Lee 
 with a strong detachment of troops marched to the 
 scence of the disturbance and dispersed them. 
 
 General Wayne entered the Indian country in the 
 fall of 1793. His force was three thousand. He 
 built Fort Recovery near the scene of St. Clair's 
 defeat, and Fort Defiance at the junction of the 
 Au Glaize and Maumee. Descending the Maumee, he 
 sent proposals of peace to the enemy, who were hold- 
 ing council only a few miles away. Little Turtle 
 would have made a treaty of peace, but the majority of 
 the Indians were for war. Wayne overtook the savages 
 at the town Waynesfield on the 20th of August, and 
 routed them with great loss, so that the chieftains 
 were obliged to purchase peace by ceding to the 
 
THE UNION OF THE STATES. 325 
 
 United States all the territory east of a line drawn 
 from Fort Recovery to the mouth of the Kentucky 
 river. General Wayne died in December of 1896, and 
 was buried at Presque Isle. 
 
 George III had in 1793 issued instructions to British 
 privateers to seize all neutral vessels found trading in 
 the French West Indies. The United States was not 
 notified of this measure, and American commerce to 
 the value of many millions was taken by English 
 privateers. Chief Justice Jay was sent as envoy to 
 demand redress of the British government and his 
 mission was successful, though it was contrary to ex- 
 pectation. In 1794 an honorable treaty was concluded 
 and it was specified in the treaty that Great Britain 
 should make reparation for the injuries done and sur- 
 render to the United States certain western posts 
 which still had been held by the English. 
 
 The boundary line between the United States and 
 Louisiana was not settled until 1795. Spain granted 
 to the Americans the free navigation of the Mississippi. 
 Next came a dififtculty with the dey of Algiers, 
 Pirates from Algiers had been marauding on the ocean 
 and capturing ships of all nations. The dey had 
 agreed with several nations that his ships should not 
 annoy them if he was paid an annual tribute ; and 
 when this had been arranged he turned the pirates 
 loose in American waters, and the government of the 
 United States was also compelled to pay tribute to 
 him. 
 
 Tennessee came into the union in 1796. Six years 
 previously North Carolina had surrendered her claims 
 to the territory. There was already a population of 
 
326 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 more than seventy thousand. The first inhabitants 
 were from the Carolinas, and were said to have been 
 the hardiest of pioneers. 
 
 Washington's second term of office was about 
 ended. He could not be prevailed upon to become a 
 candidate for the third time. He issued his farewell 
 address in September of 1796. It contained great 
 wisdom as well as patriotism. The political parties 
 at once selected candidates. John Adams was the 
 choice of the federal party ahd Thomas Jefferson of 
 the anti-federal. The chief question between the 
 parties was whether it w^as the true policy to enter 
 into intimate relations with France. The anti- 
 federalists said yes, the federals said no. On that 
 issue Mr. Adams was elected, but Mr. Jeff erson, having 
 the next highest number of votes, was vice-president. 
 This was according to the old provision of the consti- 
 tution. The person who stood second on the list 
 became the second officer in the government. 
 
CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 PRESIDENT ADAMS was inaugurated on 
 March 4th, 1797. His administration was 
 annoyed by political opposition. The French 
 minister Adet urged the government to conclude a 
 league with France against Breat Britain. The presi- 
 dent and congress were opposed to the alliance. And 
 then the French directory began to demand an alli- 
 ance, and on the loth of March that body issued 
 instructions to French men-of-war to assail the com- 
 merce of the United States. And Mr. Pinckney, 
 American minister, was ordered home. This was of 
 course equivalent to a declaration of war. The presi- 
 dent convened congress in extraordinary session. 
 Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall were directed to 
 join Mr. Pinckney in a final effort for a peaceable 
 adjustment of the difficulties. But the directory re- 
 fused to receive the embassadors except upon con- 
 dition that they would pay into the French treasury a 
 quarter million of dollars. Pinckney replied that the 
 United States had fnillions for defence^ but not a cent 
 for tribute. The envoys were then ordered to leave 
 the country. 
 
 So an act was passed in 1798 by congress complet- 
 ing the organization of the army. Washington was 
 called from his retirement and appointed commander- 
 in-chief of the army. Hamilton was elected first 
 
328 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 major-general. The previous year a navy had been 
 provided for at the session, and a national loan author- 
 ized. The treaties with France were declared void, 
 and vigorous preparations made for war. The Ameri- 
 can frigates put to sea and in the fall of 1799 did 
 good service. Commodore Truxtun in the Constella- 
 tion v^z.% particularly distinguished for this. While 
 cruising in the West Indies he came across the French 
 man-of-war Insurgent^ carrying forty guns and over 
 four hundred seamen. He attacked them and the 
 battle was desperate, but Truxtun won and this was 
 on the 9th of February. 
 
 But about this time the directory of France went 
 down and Napoleon Bonaparte created himself first 
 consul. At once he sought peace with the United 
 States, and in March of 1800 three embassadors were 
 sent to France — Murray, Ellsworth and Davie. Ne- 
 gotiations were at once entered into and in September 
 a treaty of peace was confirmed. 
 
 But Washington did not live to see this peace. On 
 the 14th of December he was called to a higher place 
 than that of commander-in-chief of the American 
 army. America mourned for him. Congress went in 
 funeral procession to the German Lutheran church 
 and listened reverently to General Henry Lee's touch- 
 ing and beautiful oration. And throughout the world 
 the memory of the mighty man was honored with 
 appropriate ceremonies. Napoleon himself announced 
 the event to the legions of France in an exquisite 
 tribute. 
 
 In 1800 the population was five millions, and the 
 exports seventy-one million dollars. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 THE ADVANCE OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 THE first movement towards the improvement 
 of farm lands was in 1784 by a society for the 
 promotion of agriculture at Philadelphia. 
 Similar societies were formed in New York in 1791, 
 in Massachusetts in 1792, and in South Carolina. The 
 formation of such societies had only just begun in 
 England. Few understood how these societies were 
 to operate. The membership was small, and so there 
 was very little result at first. Washington felt the 
 good such institution might do and was a deeply 
 interested honorary member of the Philadelphia or- 
 ganization while still president. He was a thoroughly 
 practical farmer on a large scale, and so too were 
 Adams and Jefferson. He carried on a correspondence 
 with Arthur Young and Sir John Sinclair of England, 
 who were enthusiastic farmers, men who sa"w the 
 immense benefit that might accrue from earnest 
 workers in such a body. These men suggested to him 
 the value of a national agricultural board founded and 
 fostered by the United States government. But 
 Washington felt that the country was not yet ready 
 for it and that smaller societies should precede it. 
 These organizations were slow to form at first. The 
 Kennebec agricultural society was instituted at 
 Augusta, Maine, in 1800. This was the second 
 Massachusetts society, for Maine was as yet under 
 
330 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Massachusetts' jurisdiction, and was not a separate 
 state. 
 
 The first agricultural fair was held at Washington, 
 then spoken of as "the city in the woods," in 1804. 
 This was held in October under the auspices of the 
 municipal authorities, and it showed the practical ad- 
 vantage of exhibiting choice products and stock. The 
 next fair was held at Georgetown, D. C, 1809, in ^^7- 
 The society under whose auspices it was conducted 
 was called "The Columbian Agricultural Society for 
 the Promotion of Rural and Domestic Economy." 
 Large premiums were offered for sheep raising. In 
 1816 the Massachusetts society held a fair at Brighton. 
 Premiums were offered for many things and there was 
 a ploughing match to show the training of the oxen. 
 These fairs brought the people together and there was 
 iriterchange of thought and ideas. They excited pleas- 
 ant rivalry ; they brought to light those farmers who 
 had the best breeds of sheep and cattle and swine, 
 and then, as now, there was demand for fine and swift 
 horses as well as horses of endurance, for most horses 
 were accustomed to carry two persons. These agri- 
 cultural societies also collected and printed such in- 
 formation on agricultural subjects as they could get, 
 individual members contributing papers on topics they 
 were conversant with and which would be beneficial to 
 the public. These papers were treasured, too. Well I 
 remember a great chest of Maine Fartiiers and Augusta 
 Ages that my father had kept from his boyhood and on 
 leaving Maine he rented a store room tor them. He 
 knew it would be direst folly to take such things to 
 the west and in his heart he could not destroy them, 
 
THE ADVANCE OF AGRICULTURE. 33I 
 
 SO he rented space tor them and gave the neighbors 
 a general invitation to help themselves. For forty 
 years these societies held infrequent meetings, but 
 since 1840 they have grown rapidly. In 1841 quite 
 an effort was made in Washington to organize a 
 national agricultural college with the fund bequeathed 
 for that purpose by Hugh Smithson, but the estab- 
 lishment of the Smithsonian institute made the 
 endowment available for other purposes, and for a 
 time the project was abandoned. But in 1852 a con- 
 vention of one hundred and fifty-two delegates, 
 representing twelve state organizations, and eleven 
 other states and territories, met and organized a 
 national society, which was the realization of George 
 Washington's idea. In 1867 there were one thousand 
 three hundred and sixty-seven organizations in this 
 country. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 F 
 
 ROM the statistics of 1701, found in "The 
 Family Encyclopedia," published by Charles A. 
 Goodrich in 1834, I copy the following : 
 
 Massachusetts 70,000 
 
 Connecticut 30,000 
 
 Rhode Island 10,000 
 
 New Hampshire 10,000 
 
 New York 30 000 
 
 East and West Jersey I5.000 
 
 Pennsylvania 20,000 
 
 Maryland 25,000 
 
 Virginia 40,000 
 
 North Carolina , 5,000 
 
 South Carolina 7,000 
 
 Total .^ 262,000 
 
 POPULATION OF COLONIES IN 1749. 
 
 New Hampshire 30,000 
 
 Massachusetts 220.000 
 
 Rhode Island 35.000 
 
 Connecticut 100,000 
 
 New York 100,000 
 
 East and West Jersey 60.000 
 
 Pennsylvania and Delaware 250,000 
 
 Maryland 85,000 
 
 Virginia! 85 000 
 
 North Carolina 45.000 
 
 South Carolina 30.000 
 
 Georgia b,ooo 
 
CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 Jefferson's administration. 
 
 IN December of 1800, congress assembled in Wash- 
 ington City, for Maryland and Virginia had ceded 
 to the United States the District of Columbia, a 
 tract of land ten miles square lying on both sides of 
 the Potomac. The city was laid out in 1792, and in 
 1800 the population was between eight and nine 
 thousand. 
 
 It was said in those days that the Federal party 
 might have retained control of the government had 
 it not been for unpopular and unwise legislation. 
 "The alien law,'* by which the president was author- 
 ized to send foreigners out of the country, was an un- 
 popular one. The sedition law was even more odious 
 and was denounced as tyrannical. Freedom of Speech 
 and of the press was punishable with fines and im- 
 prisonment. Partisan excitement ran high. The 
 candidates for president and vice-president were Mr. 
 Adams and Mr. Pinckney on "the Federalist ticket and 
 on the Anti-Federalist Thomas Jefferson and Aaron 
 Burr. The election was thrown into the house of 
 representatives and the choice fell on Jefferson and 
 Burr. As has been done ever since, Mr. Jefferson 
 gave chief offices to those of the Anti-Federalist Oi' 
 Democratic party hecause men. of the same belief in 
 politics would work together better. Abolishing the 
 system of internal revenues was one of their first acts 
 
334 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OJF" AMERICA. 
 
 and the laws against the freedom of the press and 
 aliens were very soon repealed. 
 
 Indiana and Ohio were organized in this way : In 
 1800 a line was drawn through the north-west 
 territory from the mouth of the Great Miami river 
 through Fort Recovery to Canada. Two years later 
 the territory east of that line became Ohio and west 
 of it Indiana territory, with Vincennes for its capital, 
 and General William Henry Harrison for its governor. 
 Mississippi was the territory next organized. The 
 purchase of Louisiana was of still greater importance. 
 In 1800 Napoleon had cottipelled Spain to cede the 
 state to France, and he prepared an army to go to- 
 New Orleans to establish his authority. But the 
 United States remonstrated against such a proceeding 
 and Napoleon authorized his minister to sell Loui- 
 siana. It was on the 30th of April, 1803, that the 
 terms were agreed on. James Monroe and Mr. Liv- 
 ingston were appointed by the president to make the 
 purchase. The sum paid was eleven million two 
 hundred and fifty thousand dollars. America was 
 also to pay certain debts due from France to 
 American citizens, the sum not to exceed three million 
 seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The 
 southern portion of this immense tract of land became 
 known as the territory of Orleans, which is the same 
 as now the state of Louisiana. 
 
 John Marshall became chief justice of the United 
 States in 1801. It had now become necessary to 
 modify the law suitable to a republic, as heretofore 
 English law had prevailed in America. This great 
 work was accomplished by Justice Marshall. 
 
jeffersom's administration. 335 
 
 Still there was trouble with the pirates of the 
 Mediterranean, the emperors of Morocco, Algiers and 
 Tripoli sending out their wicked ships to seize every 
 American merchantman that was unlucky enousjh to 
 come near them. In 1803 Commodore Preble was 
 sent to the Mediterranean to protect American com- 
 merce and punish the pirates. The frigate Philadel- 
 phia^ under Captain Bainbridge, sailed to Tripoli. 
 When nearing his destination he gave chase to a 
 pirate which fled for safety to the harbor and the poor 
 Philadelphia ran upon a reef of rocks and was cap- 
 tured by the pirates, who showed some respect to the 
 officers, but enslaved the crew. The next February 
 saw Captain Decatur on his way to Tripoli in a Moor- 
 ish ship named The Intrepid. At nightfall Decatur 
 steered into the harbor, slipped alongside the Phila- 
 delphia, sprang on deck with his daring men and in a 
 very short space of time had killed or driven over- 
 board every Moor and fired the frigate. Not a man 
 was lost to the Americans. In July of 1804 Commo- 
 dore Preble arrived at Tripoli and began a siege. 
 Several vessels were destroyed and the town was 
 bombarded, and vvhile this was going on William 
 Eaton, the American consul at Tunis, had organized 
 a force and was marching overland to Tripoli. Hamet, 
 who was the rightful sovereign of Tripoli, was co- 
 operating with Eaton in an attempt to recover his 
 kingdom. Yusef, the Tripolitan emperor, alarmed at 
 the dangers around him, made overtures for peace. 
 His offer was accepted by Mr. Lear, the American 
 consul for the Barbary states, and a treaty was signed 
 June 4th, 1805. 
 
336 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 It was in 1804 that the whole country was shocked 
 with the intelligence that Vice-President Burr had 
 killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. Burr was 
 quite aware that he would not be renominated ior 
 vice-president, so in 1803 he was announced as a 
 candidate for the governorship of New York. Burr 
 was an unusually bad man, and there is no doubt but 
 Hamilton's influence in that state kept him from 
 receiving the nomination. Burr tried to quarrel with 
 Hamilton, challenged him, met him at Weehawken 
 on the morning of July nth, and deliberately rnur- 
 dered him. Hamilton was believed to have possessed 
 the brightest intellect in America, and next to Wash- 
 ington he was probably the man most universally 
 beloved. Burr fled after he had committed the mur- 
 der and came not back at opening of congress. Jef- 
 ferson was re-elected in 1804 and for vice-president 
 George Clinton was chosen instead of Burr. 
 
 The next year Michigan was taken from the great 
 north-western territory and Captains Lewis and Clarke 
 set out for the falls of the Missouri river with thirty- 
 five soldiers and hunters to explore Oregon. For two 
 years, through the forest primeval and along the banks 
 of rivers unknown to white men, they continued their 
 explorations. After traversing a route of six thousand 
 miles the adventurers with the loss of only one man 
 arrived at home. 
 
 In the meantime Burr, who was a man of great personal 
 charm, fell in with Mr. Blannerhasset and his wife. 
 They were exiles from Ireland and came to America 
 to make a home. They were possessed of great 
 wealth and built them an elegant mansion on an island 
 
JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION. 337 
 
 which still bears the name of Blannerhasset in the 
 Ohio river, opposite the mouth of the Muskingum. 
 Burr made a tool of Blannerhasset and borrowed so 
 much of him in carrying out his scheme, the truth of 
 which he kept concealed from Blannerhasset until the 
 exposure by the government's seizure of military stores. 
 It has been said that the advantage taken by Burr of 
 Blannerhasset and his beautiful wife was the crown- 
 ing wickedness of his life. So fascinating a man was 
 he that alter being arrested for treason it became 
 necesssary to have every member of the guard swear 
 they would hold no conversation with him. Burr 
 was tried for treason and again his wonderful power 
 over the hearts of men held sway, for he .was declared 
 not guilty. Poor, broken-hearted Blannerhasset, after 
 seeking an office in England, returned here and died 
 on the isle of Guernsey. Madame Blannerhasset, 
 who is described as a model of beauty as well as a 
 creature of dauntless courage, died penniless in New 
 York city and was buried by some Irish women. 
 Burr, without friends or fortune, found a home in 
 Europe, where he lived in abject poverty. Every- 
 where he was shunned as a felon and an outlaw. He 
 was peremptorily ordered from England, and when in 
 France was under police surveillance. After many 
 years passed in this way he returned to America and 
 resumed the practice of law, but was, as he himself 
 expressed it, "severed from the rest of mankind." 
 During Jefferson's second term the country was 
 troubled by the aggressions of the British navy. 
 The British authorities were determined to prevent 
 trade between French ports and other nations. The 
 
338 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 I 
 
 plan adopted by both countries was to blockade each 
 other's ports with men-of-war. By this means ihe 
 commerce of the United States was greatly injured. 
 In May, 1806, British ships blockaded the entire 
 French coast. American vessels approaching the 
 ports were seized as prizes. Bonaparte retaliated by 
 ordering the British Isles blockaded. Again American 
 merchantmen became prizes. In January Great 
 Britain prohibited the French coasting trade. Then 
 Great Britain set up her peculiar claims of citizenship 
 that whoever is born in England remains subject to 
 England through life, and English cruisers were sent 
 out to search American vessels for English subjects. 
 Those who were taken were impressed as British 
 seamen. The American frigate Chesapeake was 
 hailed near Fortress Monroe by the British man-of- 
 war Leopard oatliG 22dof June, 1807. British officers 
 came on board and demanded to search the vessel for 
 deserters. The demand was refused and the ship 
 cleared for action ; but before the guns could be 
 charged the Leopard ^owr^iS. upon them so destructive 
 a fire as to compel a surrender. Four men were taken 
 from the ship, two of them American born. Great 
 Britain disowned the outrage and promised to make 
 amends, but the promise was not kept. Then the 
 president issued a proclamation forbidding British ships 
 to enter American harbors. On the 21st of December 
 congress passed the embargo act, by w^hich all American 
 vessels were detained in the ports of the United States, 
 the object being to cut off commerce with France and 
 England. But this measure was not of avail and after 
 fourteen months the embargo \vas removed. 
 
Jefferson's administration. 339 
 
 In November, 1808, the British government pub- 
 lished an "order in council" forbidding trade with 
 France and her allies, and thereupon Napoleon issued 
 the Milan decree forbidding all trade with England 
 and her colonies. And between Brittania and France 
 American trade did not amount to much. 
 
 And while the country was in this distressed con- 
 dition Robert Fulton, an Irishman by descent and a 
 Pennsylvanian by birth, was preparing a rapid method 
 of navigation. He saw the great need of rapid trans- 
 portation to match the rapid development of the 
 nation. He built the first steamboat in New York, 
 It was a homely, awkward craft. He invited some 
 friends to go with him up the Hudson September 2d, 
 1807. Crowds of people lined the shore. The word 
 was given, but the boat stirred not. Then Fulton 
 went below. The word was given again and away the 
 vessel moved and reached Albany the next day, and 
 for many years afterward the boat, named the Cler- 
 mont, sailed the Hudson. 
 
 Jefferson's administsation drew to a close. He 
 declined a renomin^tion. During his administration 
 the territorial area had been much extended. Burr's 
 conspiracy of setting up a government of his own in 
 Mexico had come to naught. Steam had found its 
 w^ay on most of the great rivers. The valley of the 
 Mississippi promised to be soon settled by the thou- 
 sands of pioneers that came, but the foreign relations 
 were unpleasant. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 Madison's ADMiNiSTRATior 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON was succeeded by 
 James Madison of Virginia, and George Clinton, 
 who filled the seat made vacant by Burr's 
 treason, was re-elected. The new president had been 
 a member of the continental congress, a delegate to 
 the constitutional convention of 1784, and secretary 
 of state under Jefferson. He was elected by the 
 Democratic party, who sympathized with France, but 
 hated great Britain. 
 
 The embargo act was repealed by congress and 
 another measure adopted by which American ships 
 were allowed to go abroad, but forbidden to trade 
 with Great Britain. Mr. Erskine, the British minister, 
 now gave notice that by the loth of June the "order 
 in council'' should be removed as far as the United 
 States were concerned. But the pext spring the first 
 consul issued a decree for the seizure of all American 
 vessels that approached the ports of France. In 
 November, however, the decree was reversed, and all 
 restrictions as to the commerce of the United States 
 were removed. 
 
 But Great Britain did not conform to the promises 
 of Mr. Erskine, and ships of war prowled around to en- 
 force the "order in council." A crisis was approaching. 
 The government of the United States was in complete 
 control of those who sympathized with France. The 
 
Madison's administration. 341 
 
 Americans were smarting under the insults of Great 
 Britain and had adopted the motto of free trade and 
 sailors' rights, and made up their minds to fight for 
 their rights, since no other way seemed open to them. 
 In the spring of 18 10 the third census showed a 
 population of seven million two hundred and forty 
 thousand souls. There were seventeen states, and a 
 number of territories nearly ready to ask for admis- 
 sion to the union. An Indian war was imminent, for 
 the red men were alarmed at the people coming to 
 settle on their grounds. Indiana was then governed 
 by General Harrison. Tecumseh was at that time the 
 chief. He was born near the site of Springfield, Ohio. 
 His father, Puckeshinwa, had been a member of the 
 Kisopok tribe of the Swanoese nation ; his mother, 
 Methontaske, was a member of the Turtle tribe of the 
 same nation. They removed from Florida about the 
 time of Tecumseh's birth, 1768. In 1774 Tecumseh's 
 father, who had risen to be chieftain, was killed at the 
 battle of Point Pleasant. It was but a little time after 
 this till the young brave gave evidence of his courage 
 and in 1795 he was declared chief. He at this time lived 
 at Dear Creek — near what is now the beautiful little 
 city of Urbana. His brother, who announced himself 
 as a prophet, bore a long Indian name which in Eng- 
 lish signified " open door." The chieftain and the 
 prophet went to live on a tract of land on the Wabash 
 river given them by the Pottawatomies and the Kicka- 
 poos. He was now about thirty-seven years of age, 
 five feet ten inches in height, stoutly built, of com- 
 manding appearance, and of a very pleasant counte- 
 nance. He had a good education for an Indian and 
 
342 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 kept a confidential secretary and adviser, a half-bree^, 
 Billy Caldwell. Tecumseh had long been opposed to 
 disposing of large grants of land to the whites. He 
 undertook to unite all the tribes in a league and drive 
 the white men away and visited all the tribes urging 
 upon them this step, all in unison. General Harrison, 
 watching the movements, became convinced that a 
 great conspiracy was forming and made preparations 
 to defend the settlements. During the year 1809 
 Tecumseh and the prophet were constantly making 
 preparations, but in that year General Harrison suc- 
 ceeded in entering into a treaty with the Delawares, 
 Kickapoos, Pottawatomies, Miamis, Eel river Indians 
 and Weas, in which these tribes ceded to the whites 
 certain lands on the Wabash. To all of this Tecum- 
 seh entered a bitter protest, averring as a principal 
 reason that he did not want the Indians to give up 
 lands to the north and west of the Ohio river. From 
 this time on there was trouble until the death of 
 Tecumseh, who was at the head of a column of Indians 
 in the battle of the Thames. Tecumseh was killed 
 and his company fled. 
 
 Meantime Great Britain and the United States had 
 come to war on the sea. Commodore Rodgers, com- 
 manding the frigate President^ hailed a vessel off the 
 coast of Virginia on the 1 6th of May. Instead of a 
 polite reply he received a cannon ball in the main 
 mast. Rodgers responded with a broadside, silencing 
 the enemy's guns. This was in the darkness. By 
 morning it was discovered that it was his majesty's 
 ship of war Little Belt, 
 
 On November 4th, 181 1, the twelfth congress of the 
 
MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 343 
 
 United States assembled. Many of the members still 
 hoped tor peace, and there was no decisive measures 
 that winter. On the 4th of April, 1812, an act was 
 passed laying an embargo for ninety days on all 
 British ships in American harbors, but Great Britain 
 would not retract an iota. 
 
 Before the outbreak of hostilities Louisiana was ad- 
 mitted into the union, making the nineteenth state. 
 Her population had reached seventy-seven thousand, 
 and now vigorous preparations for the approaching 
 conflict was made, for on the 15th of June a declara- 
 tion of war was made against Great Britain. Congress 
 called for twenty-five thousand regular troops and 
 fifty thousand volunteers. A national loan of eleven 
 millions was authorized, and the several states were 
 requested to call out a hundred thousand militia. 
 Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was made com- 
 mander-in-chief of the army. 
 
 General William Hull, governor of Michigan 
 territory, left Dayton on the ist of June with fifteen 
 hundred men. For a long month they struggled 
 through the forests till they reached the western end 
 of Lake Erie. When he arrived at Maumee he sent 
 the baggage to Detroit, but the British at Maiden 
 were watching his movements and captured his boat 
 and its contents. The Amencans got to Detroit with- 
 out their luggage and on July i3th crossed the river to 
 Sandwich. Hull learned that Mackinaw had been 
 taken by the British and returned to Detroit, and sent 
 Major Van Home to meet Major Brush, who was at 
 Raisin river with reinforcements, but Tecumseh laid 
 £l"n ambush for Van Home's forces and defeated them 
 
544 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 near Brownstown. Colonel Miller, however, with 
 another detachment attacked Tecumseh's forces and. 
 routed them with great loss. 
 
 The British command was now given to General 
 Brock, governor of Canada. August i6th he advanced 
 to Detroit. The Americans were in their trenches 
 eager for the fray. When the British w^re within 
 iive hundred yards of the fort Hull raised a white 
 flag. This surrender was the most shameful in 
 American history. Of course all the forces under 
 Hull's command were made prisoners of war, and in- 
 deed the whole Michigan territory was surrendered to 
 the British. Hull was court-martialed and sentenced 
 to be shot, but the president pardoned him. 
 
 For^ Dearborn stood on the present site of Chicago 
 and about the time of the surrender of Detroit it also 
 surrendered to an army of Indians. The garrison 
 capitulated on condition of retiring without molesta- 
 tion, but the Irdians had filled themselves with fire 
 water and they fell on the retreating soldiers, scalping 
 some and distributing the rest as captives. 
 
 The frigate Constitution., commanded by Captain 
 Isaac Hull, overtook the British Guerriere off the 
 coast of Massachusetts. There was some manceuv;"ing 
 and then the Constitution closed with her antagonist 
 until at the distance of half pistol shot she poured a 
 broadside which swept the decks of the Guerriere 
 and decided the battle. The next morning the broken 
 Guerriere., being unmanageable, was blown up, and 
 Hull returned to port with prisoners and spoils. The 
 1 8th of October following the Ameiican Wasp under 
 Captain Jones came upon a fleet of British merchant- 
 
Madison's administration. 345 
 
 men off the Virginia coast. The merchantmen had a 
 protector in his majesty's ship of war Frolic. This 
 engagement was terrific. Finally the Frolic was 
 taken, but the Poictiers^ a British seventy-four gun 
 ship, gave chase, captured the Wasp and retook the 
 Frolic^ which was almost a wreck. 
 
 Commodore Decatur on the 25th, commanding the 
 frigate United States, captured the British Macedonian 
 a little to the west of the Canary isles. The loss of 
 the enemy in killed and wounded amounted to more 
 than a hundred. On the J3th of December the Essex, 
 commanded by Captain Porter, captured the Nocton, 
 a British packet having on board fifty-five thousand 
 dollars in specie. On the 29th of December the 
 Constitution, under Commodore Bainbridge, met the 
 yava on the Brazilian coast. The battle was furious 
 and continued for two hours. The Java was reduced 
 almost to kindling wood. The crew and passengers, 
 numbering more than four hundred, were transferred 
 to the Constitution and the hull burned at sea. There 
 is no news like that of victories, and Americans were 
 exultant. On the 13th of October a thousand men 
 under General Stephen Van Rensselaer crossed the 
 Niagara river to capture Queenstown. They were 
 met at the water's edge, but at length they carried 
 even the batteries on the heights. The enemy's forces 
 returned to the charge, but were repulsed the second 
 time. General Brock, the British commander, was 
 mortally wounded. The Americans entrenched them- 
 selves and waited for reinforcements. None came, 
 and they were obliged to surrender after losing a 
 kundred and sixty men. General Van Rensselaer 
 
34^ FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 resigned his command and General Alexander Smyth 
 succeeded him. Now the Americans rallied at Black 
 Rock, a little north ot Buffalo. On the 28th of 
 November a company was sent across to the Canada 
 shore, but General Smyth ordered the return of the 
 advance party. After a few days another crossing 
 was made and again they were directed to return to 
 winter quarters. The militia became mutinous. Gen- 
 eral Smyth was charged with cowardice, and the 
 office of commander was no longer his. 
 
 It was again election day. The president was re- 
 elected and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, vice- 
 president. 
 
 The army was now organized in three divisions — 
 the Army of the North under General Wade Hamp- 
 ton, the Army of the Center under the commander-in- 
 chief, the Army of the West under General Winches- 
 ter, who was soon superseded by General Harrison. 
 Henry Dearborn was still commander-in-chief of the 
 army. Early in January the Army of the West moved 
 toward Lake Erie, hoping to regain the ground lost 
 by the coward Hull. By the loth the advance army 
 had reached the Maumee rapids. A detachment hur- 
 ried forward to Frenchtown on the Raisin river and 
 captured the town, and on the 20th were joined by 
 Winchester with the main division. 
 
 Only two days later the Americans were assaulted 
 by fifteen hundred British and Indians under General 
 Proctor. The battle was severe. General Winchester 
 was taken by the enemy and advised his forces to 
 capitulate. The American ivounded were left to be 
 butchered by the savages^ who were not long about it, 
 
MADISON S ADMINISTRATION. 34/ 
 
 and the prisoners were dragged away with dreadful 
 sufferings to Detroit, where they w^ere ransomed. 
 
 General Harrison had built Fort Meigs on the 
 Maumee and here he was besieged by two thousand 
 British and savages led by General Proctor and the 
 chief Tecumseh. General Clay with twelve hundred 
 Kentuckians was advancing to the relief. Very soon 
 the Indians deserted in large bodies and Proctor with- 
 drew to Maiden. Late in July Proctor and Tecumseh 
 again made a siege. They failed to draw out the 
 garrison and then the British general filed ofl with 
 half his forces and took Fort Stevenson at Lower San- 
 dusky. This place was defended by a hundred and 
 sixty men under Colonel Croghan, a youth but twenty- 
 one years of age. On the 2nd of August the British, 
 having no doubts of storming the fort, crowded the 
 trenches so that they were swept away as if by a 
 cyclone. The living retreated immediately and Proc- 
 tor now raised the siege at Fort Meigs and returned 
 to Maiden. 
 
 At this time the British had a squadron of six 
 vessels on Lake Erie. Commodore Oliver H. Perry 
 undertook to recover these waters. Commodore 
 Barclay in command of the British fleet was a veteran 
 from Europe. Perry directed the construction of 
 nine ships and they were soon afloat. The fleets met 
 near Put-in-Bay. The Lawrence^ Perry's flag ship> 
 led the attack. His especial antagonist was the 
 Detroit^ under command of Barclay. So furious was 
 the engagement that in a short time both vessels were 
 ruined. Then Perry caught his banner and jumping 
 into an open boat soon hoisted it on the Niagara. 
 
348 FOUR JIUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 This vessel was a powerful one. He bore down upon 
 the enemy's line, through the midst, discharging 
 broadsides right and left. In fifteen minutes the 
 battle was won. The British fleet was helpless. 
 Perry climbed again on board of the Lawrence and 
 received the surrender from the hull, and then dis- 
 patched a fleet messenger to the president with the 
 message, " We have met the enemy ^ and they are ours^ 
 
 And now the way seemed open to Canada. On 
 September 27th Harrison's army was landed near 
 Maiden. The British retreated to the river Thames 
 and there prepared for battle. The battle field ex- 
 tended from the river to a swamp. The 5th of 
 October the attack was made by Generals Harrison 
 and Shelby. Early in the engagement Proctor disap- 
 peared. The British regulars were broken by the 
 Kentuckians under Colonel Richard M. Johnson. The 
 Americans wheeled against the fifteen hundred Indians 
 who lay hidden in the swamp. Tecumseh had staked 
 his all on the issue. There was a time when his war- 
 whoop sounded above the noise of musketry, but it 
 soon was lost. He had fallen. The red-skins knew 
 not what to do since he was no longer to direct them, 
 and they fled through "the swamp. Now all that Hull 
 had lost was regained. 
 
 But while these victories were attained in the north, 
 the Creeks of Alabama had taken up arms, and in the 
 latter part of August Fort Mims, forty miles north of 
 Fort Mobile, was surprised by the Indians, who 
 murdered about four hundred persons. The governors 
 of Tennessee, Georgia and Mississippi made haste to 
 invade the Creek country. The Tennesseeans were 
 
Madison's administration. 349 
 
 commanded by General Jackson and were the first in- 
 vaders. Nine hundred men led by General Coffee 
 reached the Indian town of Tallushatchee, burned it 
 and swept ever dweller from off the face of the earth. 
 On November Sth another battle was fought at 
 Talladega and the Indian loss was great. There was 
 another battle at Autosse, and again the Indians 
 suffered. During the winter the white troops grew 
 mutinous and wanted to go home, but glorious 
 General Jackson ate his breakfast, dinner and supper 
 of acorns without grumbling, and they followed his 
 example. On the 32d of January the battle of 
 Emucfau was foug^ht and ag^ain the victorv belongred 
 to the Tennesseeans. Then the Creeks took up a 
 position at the Horseshoe Bend. The whites stormed 
 the breastworks and the thousand Creek \varriors, 
 women and pappooses, were swept away. There was 
 not a Creek Indian in the country. 
 
 On the 25th of April, 1S13, General Dearborn, 
 commanding the Center Army, embarked his forces at 
 Sackett's Harbor and sailed for Toronto. The most 
 important British supplies were stored at this place. 
 The American fleet under Commodore Chauncey ^vere 
 already masters of Lake Ontario. On the 27th of the 
 month seventeen hundred men landed near Toronto. 
 The Americans drove the enemv from the water's edgfe, 
 stormed a battery and were striving to carry the main 
 defences when the British magazine exploded. Two 
 hundred men were killed or wounded. General Pike 
 was fatally injured, but the Americans stormed the 
 town and drove the British away. The value of 
 stores taken was about half a million, and while this 
 
350 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 was going on the enemy had slipped down to Sackett's 
 Harbor. But General Brown rallied the militia to 
 such an extent that they retreated for a time. The 
 victorious troops at Toronto re-embarked and crossed 
 the lake to the mouth of the Niagara, and on the 27th 
 of May, led by Generals Chandler and Winder, stormed 
 Fort George. The British retreated. 
 
 After the battle of the Thames General Harrison 
 sent his forces to Buffalo, and then he resigned his 
 commission. General Dearborn likewise resigned 
 and General Wilkinson succeeded him. The conquest 
 of Montreal was planned by General Armstrong. The 
 Army of the Center was ordered to join the Army of 
 the North on the St. Lawrence. British Canadians 
 and Indians in small parties on the banks hmdered 
 and annoyed the expedition. General Brown landed 
 with quite a force to drive these people into the 
 interior, and on the 14th an indecisive though severe 
 battle was fought at Chrysler's field. The Americans 
 then passed down the river to St. Regis, where the 
 forces of General Hampton were expected to join 
 Wilkinson's command. But General Hampton not 
 putting in an appearance, the army went into winter 
 quarters at Fort Covington. 
 
 But meanwhile the British on the Niagara had 
 captured Fort George. Before his retreat General 
 McClure, the commandant, had burned the town of 
 Newark. The British and Indians crossed the river, 
 took Fort Niagara and burned the towns of Man- 
 chester, Lewiston and Youngstown, and on the 30th 
 of December Buffalo and Black Rock were burned. 
 
 Away on the coast of Demarara the sloop of war 
 
Madison's administration. 351 
 
 Hornet^ commanded by Captain James Lawrence, 
 fell in with the British ship Peacock. A terrible 
 battle lasted a quarter of an hour and ^the Peacock's 
 colors came down. While the Americans were 
 transferring the conquered crew the wrecked Peacock 
 suddenly went down. 
 
 After his return to Boston General Lawrence was 
 asked to take command of the Chesapeake^ and he 
 immediately put to sea. Captain Broke, of the 
 British Shannon^ soon challenged him. The vessels 
 met to the eastward of Cape Ann June ist. The 
 battle has been described as "obstinate, brief, dread- 
 ful." In a short time every officer on the Chesapeake 
 -was wounded, dying, or dead. Lawrence was struck 
 by a musket ball and fell dying on the deck. As he 
 was carried down the hatchway, he gave his last order, 
 *■'- Don'' t give up the shipy This has been the motto of 
 American sailors since. The Shannon towed her prize 
 into Halifax. Both Lawrence and the second com- 
 mander were buried by the British. 
 
 The American brig Argus was on the 14th of 
 August chased by the Pelican and forced to surrender. 
 But on the 5th of September the saucy British brig 
 Boxer was caught by the Enterprise off the coast of 
 Maine and Captain Blyth the Briton and Captain 
 Burrows the American were buried side by side at 
 Portland. On the 3Sth of March following while the 
 Essex, commanded by Captain Porter, was in the 
 harbor of Valparaiso, she was attacked by the Phoebe 
 and Cherub and defended by Porter till nearly all his 
 men were gone, when he struck his colors and sur- 
 rendered. After this, honorable warfare ceased and 
 
352 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 great outrages were committed by B:itish mariners. 
 
 Another invasion of Canada was planned. Generals 
 Scott and Ripley were in charge of three thousand 
 men. On the evening of T"^y 5th, 1814, a battle was 
 fought in which the Americans were victorious. It 
 was fought on the high grounds in sight of 
 Niagara Falls, General Scott commanding the Ameri- 
 can army, General Riall the British. This was the 
 hardest battle of the war. The British were forced 
 to retreat. The loss on either side was about eight 
 hundred. After this battle, which is known as that 
 of Lundy's Lane or of Niagara, the American forces 
 fell back to Fort Erie. General Gaines crossed to 
 Buffalo and assumed command of the army. General 
 Drummond received reinforcements and the siege of 
 Fort Erie commenced on the 4th of August. The 
 siege continued until the 17th of September. A sortie 
 was made and the British works carried. General 
 Drummond raised the siege and retreated to Fort 
 George. On November 5th the Americans destroyed 
 the fort and went into winter quarters at Buffalo and 
 Black Rock. * 
 
 Then war on the lakes and rivers grew constant 
 until at last the English ministry grew anxious to 
 make peace. But in the meantime the war went on. 
 Among the boldest schemes was the capture of Wash- 
 ington and the destruction of all the public buildings 
 except the patent office. The president and officers 
 fled. Five days later a part of the large force would 
 have destroyed Alexandria, and to purchase peace the 
 inhabitants gave to them twenty-one ships, sixteen 
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Madison's administration. 353 
 
 tobacco. Then the siege of Baltimore commenced^ 
 but after about fifteen hours of constant bombardment 
 the fort was as good as ever. They gave up and 
 retreated. Stonington, Connecticut, was bombarded, 
 but when the British attempted to land they were 
 driven back. The fisheries of New England were 
 broken up, and the salt works of Cape Cod were com- 
 pelled to pay a heavy ransom to keep from being de- 
 stroyed. All the harbors from Maine to Delaware 
 were blockaded. The members of the Federal party 
 cried out against the war. The legislature of Massa- 
 chusetts advised the calling of a convention. The 
 other eastern states responded to the call, and the 14th 
 of December found the delegates assembled at Hart- 
 ford. 
 
 The leaders of the Democratic party did not hesitate 
 to say that this assembly was treasonable and disloyal. 
 With closed doors the assembly remained in session 
 three weeks and then published an address and ad- 
 journed. The political prospects of the delegates 
 were ruined. 
 
 While all this trouble was going on the Spaniards 
 began to sympathize with the British, and in August, 
 18 14, a British fleet was allowed the use of the Pen- 
 sacola port to fit out an expedition against Fort Bow- 
 yer, on the bay of Mobile. General Jackson, com- 
 mander of the South, remonstrated with the Spaniards 
 to no purpose, so he marched against Pensacola, 
 stormed the city and drove the British out of Florida. 
 Hearing that they were making preparations for 
 capturing Louisiana, he went immediately to New 
 Orleans, declared martial law, mustered the militia. 
 
354 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 and adopted measures for repelling the invasion. He 
 learned through a smuggler the enemy's plans. The 
 British army, numbering twelve thousand, came from 
 Jamaica under Sir Edward Packenham. On the loth 
 of December the squadrons entered lake Borgne, sixty 
 miles north-east of New Orleans. Packenham's ad- 
 vance reached the river nine miles above the city on 
 the 22nd, and Generals Jackson and Coffee advanced 
 with two thousand Tennessee riflemen to attack 
 the British camp on the 23rd. It was a bloody affair 
 and the Americans were forced to retreat and take up 
 a position four miles from the city. On the 2Slh 
 Packenham advanced to the American position and 
 cannonaded the redoubt, and on New Year's day he 
 renewed the attack, but without effect. Packenham 
 now made arrangements for a great battle.. General 
 Jackson was not idle. The battle began at daylight, 
 and was ended before nine o'clock a. m. The breast- 
 w^orks were so well constructed that the enemy could do 
 them comparatively no harm. Packenham w^as killed, 
 General Gibbs mortally wounded. General Lambert 
 was the officer who called the remnant of the army 
 from the field. The British loss besides the two 
 generals was seven hundred killed, fourteen hundred 
 w^oundcd and five hundred taken prisoners. The 
 Amer'can loss was eight killed, thirteen wounded. 
 This closed the war on land. 
 
 The American Constitutio?i off Cape Vincent cap- 
 tured two British vessels, the Cyane and the Levant. 
 This occurred on the 20th of February, and on the 23rd 
 of March the American Hornet concluded the 
 marine war by capturing the British Pengtiin off the 
 
Madison's administration. 355 
 
 coast of Brazil. But the treaty of peace had been 
 ah-eady made. • On the iSth of February it was rati- 
 fied by the senate and peace was proclaimed. 
 
 But this treaty amounted to nothing. It was de- 
 voted to the settlement ot unimportant boundaries 
 and some little islands in Passamaquoddy bay. It 
 said nothing of the wrongs done to the commerce of 
 the United States, nothing of sailors' rights and free 
 trade. The impressment of American seamen was 
 not named. Indeed, not one of the issues upon which 
 the war was undertaken was referred to in any way. 
 There was a war debt of a hundred million dollars. 
 The money matters of the entire country were about 
 as bad as they could be. The charter of the United 
 States bank expired in iSii and other banks had 
 been forced to suspend specie payment. A bill was 
 passed in 18 16 to recharter the Bank of the United 
 States. The president vetoed it, but on the 4th of 
 March, 1S17, the bank legan operation and very soon 
 business began to revive. 
 
 While the war with Great Britain was going on 
 the Algerine pirates were quite busy, making depre- 
 dations on American vessels of commerce. Commo- 
 dore Decatur was ordered to proceed to the Mediter- 
 ranean and thoroughly chastise these sea robbers. It 
 was June 17th when Decatur met the principal frigate 
 of the Algerine squadron. The fight was severe, but 
 the Moorish ship rurrendered. On December 19th 
 another Moorish ship was captured, and a few days 
 later he sailed into the bay of Algiers and the fright- 
 ened dey was glad to make a treaty. The Moorish 
 emperor released his American prisoners, relinquished 
 
55^ FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 all claim to tribute and gave a pledge that his ships 
 should never more trouble American merchantmen. 
 Decatur now turned his attention to Tunis and Tripoli 
 and compelled these states to pay large sums of money 
 for past wrongs and give pledges for future good con- 
 duct. 
 
 Near the close of Madison's administration Indiana 
 came into the union. In the same year (1816-17) the 
 Colonization Society of the United States was formed. 
 It was composed of distinguished Americans, the 
 object being to provide a refuge for free persons of 
 color. Liberia in Western Africa was selected as the 
 seat of the proposed colony. Immigrants came in 
 numbers, so that it was a flourishing negro state. The 
 capital w^as named in honor of the president, James 
 Monroe, Afojz7'ovia. Monroe succeeded Madison and 
 the vice-president was Daniel D. Tompkins of New 
 York. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII. 
 
 Monroe's administration. 
 
 THE stormy days of the war were passed and 
 peace came and staid for many years. States- 
 men of all parties worked with energy to pay 
 the national debt. Commerce revived. The govern- 
 ment was carried on economically and in a few years 
 the debt was paid. 
 
 In December, 1817, Mississippi was organized and 
 admitted into the union. There were sixty-five 
 thousand souls in the state, and there was also a 
 gang of pirates who had headquarters at Amelia 
 Island off the coast of Florida, but they were now 
 broken up, as was another company of them on the 
 island of Galveston. 
 
 And now that the country was found so productive 
 the question was how to transport the products to a 
 suitable market. Without roads and canals nothing 
 could be done in the interior. Whether congress had 
 a right to vote money to public improvements was a 
 question of serious debate. In one instance a bill 
 was passed making appropriation for a national road 
 across the Alleghanies from Cumberland to Wheeling. 
 New York state took the lead in state improvements 
 by constructing a canal from Buffalo to Albany at a 
 cost of nearly eight million dollars. 
 
 Again there was trouble among the Indians in the 
 south. The Seminoles were joined by a few Creeks 
 
358 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 and negroes, and finally General Jackson had to be 
 called upon to suppress them. It was found that two 
 Englishmen named Arbuthnot and Ambristor had 
 incited the Seminoles to insurrection. These men 
 were tried by court-martial and hanged. Jackson 
 then captured Pensacola and sent the Spanish author- 
 ities to Havana. He was heartily criticised for this 
 by some private citizens and newspapers, but the 
 president and congress justified him. And now the 
 king of Spain proposed to cede Florida to the United 
 States. A treaty was made at Washington city in 
 1819 by which the whole province was surrendered 
 to the American government. The United States 
 agreed to relinquish all claim to Texas and to pay to 
 American citizens claims for depradations by Spanish 
 vessels. 
 
 In 1818 the twenty-first state was admitted into the 
 union, Illinois, with a population of forty-seven 
 thousand. In December, 1819, Alabama was admitted 
 with one hundred and twenty-five thousand inhabit- 
 ants. In August of 182 1 Missouri came in with 
 seventy-four thousand, and in 1820 Maine was 
 separated from Massachusetts and became admitted. 
 About this time the territory of Arkansas was or- 
 ganized. With the bill to admit Alissouri was a 
 proposition to prohibit slavery in all new states. This 
 measure was supported by the free states of the North 
 and opposed by the slave states of the South. Long 
 and angry debates followed, till it was said congress 
 was nearly distracted. At last the measure known as 
 the Missouri compromise was adopted. Its provisions 
 were, firsts the admission of Missouri as a slave-hold- 
 
Monroe's administration. 35^ 
 
 ing state; secondly^ the division of the rest of the 
 Lousiaiia purchase by the parallel of thirty-six degrees 
 and thirty minutes ; thirdly^ the admission of new 
 states south of that line with or without slavery, as 
 the people might determine \fourtJily^ the prohibition 
 of slavery in all new states north of the dividing line, 
 which is generally known as Mason & Dixon's line. 
 
 The president's administration gave great satisfac- 
 tion to the people, and in the fall of 1820 he was re- 
 elected, and Mr. Tompkins as vice-president was re- 
 elected. The attention of American authorities was 
 called to a system of piracy carried on in the West 
 Indies. In 1823 Commodore Porter went after them 
 with a large squadron and the retreats of the sea 
 robbers were completely destroyed. 
 
 Many of the South American countries declared 
 their independence of foreign nations about this time, 
 and this spirit was met with sympathy by the northern 
 patriots. Henry Clay urged upon the government 
 the duty of recognizing these South American repub- 
 lics. In March of 1823 the president's message con- 
 tained the declaration that the American coittinents 
 are not subject to colonizatio7i by a7ty European power ^ 
 and this is the famous Monroe doctrine. La Fayette 
 visited the land for whose freedom he had shed his 
 blood in 1824. He was venerable in appearance. 
 Eyerywhere he was greeted and honored. His whole 
 tour was one of triumph. He returned to France in 
 September, 1S25. His name will live in the hearts of 
 Americans until the union of states shall be no more. 
 In the fall of 1824 four candidates were nominated for 
 the presidency — ^John Quincy Adams, candidate for 
 
360 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 the east ; William H. Crawford, candidate for the 
 south ; Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were the 
 favorites of the west. Neither of the candidates 
 received a majority of the electoral votes and the 
 choice of president fell to the house of representatives, 
 and Mr. Adams was declared president elect and 
 John C. Calhoun was chosen vice-president by the 
 electoral college. This year the New York gas 
 light company was incorporated, but the work was 
 not successfully carried on until 1827. 
 
 On the 13th of March, 1824, a treaty was concluded 
 between the United States and Great Britain for the 
 suppression of the slave trade. By the terms of this 
 treaty vessels were to be sent out from both countries 
 to cruise the waters over which the slave ships pass 
 and to capture and bring to trial all such vessels. 
 Tallahassee was laid out and a settlement at once 
 commenced, the city being the capital of Florida. 
 The first bank in Brooklyn was organized, by name 
 the Long Island Bank, and the first insurance company 
 organized. It, was called The Brooklyn Fire Insurance 
 Company. The Boston Courier appeared in Boston 
 on March 2d. The manufacture of flannel by water 
 power was begun in Amesbury, Massachusetts. This 
 year the use of marble for building purposes was 
 commenced, and so strong were the objections to the 
 use of it that not a builder would undertake the job, 
 and a man was pardoned out of Sing Sing for the 
 purpose of superintending the work. The city hall 
 and American museum at the corner of Broadway and 
 Ann streets were the first in New York city with 
 marble fronts. 
 
Monroe's administration. 361 
 
 Early in 1825 the first Sunday newspaper was pub- 
 lished, called The Sunday Courier^ but it soon died 
 for want of patronage. The Erie canal was com- 
 pleted in October and the event was duly celebrated, 
 and on the 20th of October the Erie, Champlain and 
 Hudson canal was completed. The Italian opera was 
 introduced into the United States and the first enter- 
 tainment was at the Park theater in New York. The 
 homeopathic method of treatment was also introduced 
 into this country by a New York physician who had 
 removed from this country to Copenhagen and brought 
 the new practice back with him. The manufacture 
 of queensware, the first in the country, was com- 
 menced at Philadelphia. Wolves must have been 
 plenty, for w^e learn from a report by the comptroller 
 of the state of New York that nearly ninety thousand 
 dollars was paid out of the treasury during the pre- 
 ceding ten years for the destruction of wolves in that 
 state. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
 
 THE SECOND ADAMS. 
 
 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS was a man of remark- 
 able attainments in literature and in statesmanship. 
 When he was eleven years old he went with his 
 father, John Adams, to Europe. At Paris and Amster- 
 dam and St. Petersburg he continued his studies and 
 became acquainted with the politics of the old world. 
 When he was older he went as ambassador to the 
 Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, Russia and England. 
 He had been United States senator and secretary of 
 state also. There was much party feeling and the 
 adherents of General Jackson and Mr. Crawford acted 
 in unison in opposition to the president, and in the 
 senate the president's political friends were in the 
 minority, and their majority lasted only one session in 
 the lower house. The president in his inaugural 
 address strongly favored internal improvements. 
 
 Fifty years after the Declaration of Independence, 
 on July 4th, John Adams, second president of the 
 United States, and Thomas Jefferson passed away. 
 Adams was ninety years of age and Jefferson eighty- 
 two. 
 
 In the congressional debates of 1828 the ques- 
 tion of tariffs was much discussed. A tariff is a duty 
 levied on imported goods. The object of the tariff is, 
 first, to procure a revenue for the government, and, 
 secondly, to raise the price of the imported article so 
 
THE SECOND ADAMS. 363 
 
 that the American manufacturers of the taxed articles 
 may be able to compete with the foreign producer. 
 When the duty is levied for the latter purpose it is a 
 protective tariff. 
 
 Mr. Adams and his party favored the protective 
 tariff, and duties were accordingly laid on fabrics of 
 silk, wool, linen and cotton, and also on manufactured 
 articles of iron, lead, and various other articles. 
 
 At the next election General Jackson was triumph- 
 antly elected by a hundred and seventy -eight electoral 
 votes against seventy -eight for Adams. 
 
 Andrew Jackson was already known to be a mili- 
 tary hero, a man of the highest honor, and one with a 
 will of iron — nothing that he attempted but was 
 crowned with success. 
 
CHTAPER XXXIX. 
 Jackson's administration. 
 
 AT the very beginning of his administration 
 Jackson removed seven hundred office holders 
 and appointed men who were politically his 
 friends. 
 
 In the congressional session of 1831-32 additional 
 tariffs were levied upon imported goods. By this act 
 the manufacturing districts were benefited, while the 
 agricultural were not. South Carolina felt that she 
 was not being favored. A convention of her people 
 was held, and it was resolved that the tariff law of 
 congress was null and void. Open resistance was 
 threatened in case the officers came to collect revenues 
 at Charleston. In the United States senate the right 
 of a state to nullify an act of congress was proclaimed. 
 It was on this question that the memorable debate 
 between Colonel Hayne, senator from South Carolina, 
 and Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, occurred. 
 Colonel Hayne was the champion of state rights. 
 Webster was in favor of constitutional supremacy. 
 The president took the matter in hand and issued a 
 proclamation denying the right of a state to nullify 
 the laws of congress. Mr. Calhoun, the vice-president, 
 resigned his position, so that he might accept a seat 
 in the senate, where he might defend the sentiments 
 of his state. The president, having warned the South 
 Carolinians, ordered a body of troops under General 
 
Jackson's administration. 365 
 
 Scott to proceed to Charleston. The leaders of the 
 nullifying party receded from their position and there 
 was no bloodshed. Soon Mr. Clay made provision 
 for a bill providing tor a gradual reduction of tariff 
 unti] it should reach the point that Carolina desired. 
 
 Early in 1832 the Sac, Fox and Winnebago Indians 
 of Wisconsin, led by the famous Black Hawk of 
 Wisconsin, began a war. The lands of the Foxes 
 and the Sacs had been purchased twenty-five years 
 previously by the United States. The Indians, how- 
 ever remained in the ceded territory, and when at last 
 they were asked for possession they stubbornly re- 
 fused and at once assumed a hostile attitude. The 
 governor of Illinois called out the militia. General 
 Scott was sent with troops to Chicago to co-operate 
 with General Atkinson, who waged a vigorous cam- 
 paign. Black Hawk was taken prisoner and carried to 
 Washington and all the large eastern cities. Return- 
 ing to his own people, he advised them to make peace. 
 The warriors gave up the disputed lands and took 
 Iowa for their hunting grounds. 
 
 There were difficulties too with the Cherokees of 
 Georgia, who were the most civilized of the nations 
 east of the Rocky Mountains. The United States had 
 promised to buy the Cherokee lands for the benefit of 
 Georgia, but had not done so. The legislature passed 
 a statute extending the laws of the state over the 
 Indians, while the Cherokees and Creeks were denied 
 the use of the state courts. The Indians appealed to 
 the president for assistance. He refused to interfere. 
 He recommended the removal of the Cherokees beyond 
 the Mississippi. The Indian territory was accordingly 
 
366 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 organized in 1834. The Indians yielded, but with 
 great reluctance. A little more than five million 
 dollars were paid them for the lands. General Scott 
 at last removed them. During the years 1837—38 the 
 Cherokees were removed to Indian territory. 
 
 The Seminoles were not settled so easily. There 
 was an attempt to remove this tribe beyond the 
 Mississippi. The hostilities were kept up from 1835 to 
 1839. Osceola and Micanopy, chiefs of the nation, 
 denied the validity of a former cession of the Seminole 
 lands. General Thompson was obliged to arrest 
 Osceola and put him in irons. The chief then gave 
 his assent to the old treaty, and was liberated, only to 
 enter into a conspiracy to destroy the whites. Major 
 Dade was dispatched from Fort Brooke on Tampa 
 iDay Twith a hundred and seventeen men to reinforce 
 General Clinch at Fort Drane. The forces fell into 
 an ambuscade and all perished but one man. On the 
 same day Osceola murdered General Thompson and 
 his companions. General Clinch defeated the Indians 
 at Withlacoochie on the 31st of December, and on the 
 29th of February, 1836, General Gaines was attacked 
 near the same battlefield and the Seminoles were re- 
 pulsed. In October Governor Call of Florida, with 
 two thousand men, overtook the savages in the Wahoo 
 swamp near the place where Dade was massacred. 
 The Indians were again defeated and driven into the 
 everglades. f 
 
 The president so repeatedly vetoed the charter of the 
 United States bank that at length it came to an end. 
 He thought the surplus funds which had accumulated 
 in the vault would be better distributed among the 
 
Jackson's administration. 367 
 
 states. So in October, 1833, he ordered the bank 
 funds, ten millions of dollars, to be distributed among 
 certain state banks designated for that purpose. The 
 financial panic of 1836-37 was attributed by the 
 Whisfs to the removal of the funds and destruction of 
 the bank. The adherents of the President declared 
 the panic due to having kept the bank so long. Dur- 
 ing this year (1834) branch mints w^ere established by 
 an act of congress at New Orleans, Dahlonega, Georgia, 
 and at Charlotte, North Carolina. 
 
 The first settlement in v^regon was in this year. 
 New Orleans was lighted with gas. There was a 
 mail carried on horse-back once a week to Chicago, 
 This came by way of Niles, Michigan. Brooklyn, 
 Long Island, was incorporated into a city, and 
 Rochester, New York, also. Burlington, Iowa, was 
 laid out. The first steam power printing press set up 
 in the west was at Cincinnati for the publication of 
 the Gazette. The first gun rifled in America was ac- 
 complished at South Boston, Massachusetts. Hammered 
 brass kettles were made at Wolcottville, Connecticut. 
 Wood screws made by machinery were turned 
 out at Providence, Rhode Island. The first table 
 cutlery was made at Greenfield, Massachusetts. The 
 New Jersey railroad from Jersey City to New Bruns- 
 wick was completed this year, and the Philadelphia & 
 Trenton railroad opened to the public. 
 
 France had not paid the five millions promised to the 
 United States, due long since. The president recom- 
 mended congress to make reprisals on French merchant- 
 men. This reminder had its effect, and the money was 
 paid. Portugal also paid her debts after such reminder. 
 
368 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Several eminent statesmen passed away during the 
 few years previous to this. On the 4th of July, 1831, 
 ex President Monroe slept his last sleep. The next 
 year Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, the last survivor of 
 the signers of the Declaration of Independence, died at 
 the age of ninety-six. Philip Freneau, the poet of the 
 revolution, passed to the happy land of which he 
 wrote. On the 24th of June, 1833, John Randolph, of 
 Roanoke, died at Philadelphia, and in 1835 Chief Jus- 
 tice Marshall joined his friends on the other side. He 
 was eighty years of age. The next year ex-President 
 Madison passed over the silent river. , 
 
 This was the year of the great meteoric display over 
 tlie United States. It was the most remarkable dis- 
 play recorded in all ages, commencing on the 13th oi 
 November, 1833. The chief scene of the display was 
 within the limits of longitude of sixty-one degrees in 
 the Atlantic ocean, one hundred degrees in Mexico 
 and from the North American lakes to the southern 
 side of the island of Jamaica. From two a. m. until 
 broad daylight the sky was cloudless, and there was a 
 constant and indescribable beautiful shower of stars. 
 
 Michigan territory now knocked at the doors of the 
 union and she brought a population of a hundred and 
 fifty-seven thousand. Another presidential election 
 ^vas at hand and Martin Van Buren was chosen. There 
 was not a majority for vice-president. The choice was 
 left to the senate. Colonel Richard M. Johnson, of 
 Kentucky, was declared vice-president. 
 
CHAPTER XL. 
 VAN buren's administration. 
 
 THE eighth president had been a senator in 182 1, 
 and in 1828 he was elected governor of New- 
 York, and a little later sent as minister to Eng- 
 land. From that mission he came to preside over the 
 United States. One of his first duties was to make 
 an end of the Seminole war. This required a long 
 time, but Colonel Zachary Taylor accomplished the 
 task. 
 
 In 1837 there was a tremendous money panic from 
 many causes — probably the chief one being that these 
 state banks were not limited, and so sent out 
 paper they had no means to redeem. Another cause 
 was that of land speculation, and still another the 
 excessive importation of merchandise beyond the 
 wants and the means of the people. Payments be- 
 came due, and as there was no money forthcoming 
 United States credit became impaired in London and 
 occasioned a large importation of specie to Europe. 
 The loth of May all the banks in the city of New 
 York by common consent suspended payment. The 
 banks in Boston, Providence, Hartford, Albany, Phila- 
 delphia and Baltimore closed their doors. During the 
 two months preceding this the financial distresses in 
 mercantile circles was dreadful. The whole country 
 suffered, but the large cities the most. In New York 
 alone there were three hundred failures of large con 
 
370 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 cerns and innumerable smaller ones. In two days the 
 houses which stopped payment in New Orleans had 
 liabilities amounting to twenty-seven millions of dol- 
 lars. In Boston there were a hundred and eighty-eight 
 failures in six months. 
 
 The time for a presidential election was now at 
 hand. Mr. Van Buren was again a candidate and 
 received the support of the Democratic party. The 
 Whigs nominated General Harrison. The canvass 
 was one of the most exciting in the history of America. 
 Harrison was elected by a large majority, and now 
 after forty consecutive years the Democratic party 
 retired for a time. Vice-President John Tyler of 
 Virginia succeeded Colonel Johnson of Kentucky. 
 
 Harrison was by birth a Virginian and the adopted 
 son of Robert Morris, whose wealth materially aided 
 the United States in the revolution. Harrison was 
 a graduate of Hampden-Sidney college and entered 
 the army under General St. Clair. He became gov- 
 ernor of Indiana territory, and showed great ability in 
 the management of the affairs of the territory. 
 
CHAPTER XLI. 
 
 HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 HARRISON began his presidential duties by call- 
 ing a special session of congress. An able cabi- 
 net was formed with Daniel Webster as secre- 
 tary of war, and all affairs were in a most promising: 
 condition under the new Whig administration, but 
 before congress could convene he took sick and died 
 just a month after his inauguration. 
 
 On the 6th of April Mr. Tyler became president. 
 He was a^so a Virginian, a graduate of William and 
 Mary college. He had been governor of Virginia and 
 senator of the United States, and he had been put on 
 the Harrison ticket through motives of expediency, 
 for though in politics a Whig he was known to be 
 opposed to the United States bank. 
 
 One of the first measures of the new congress was 
 to repeal the independent treasury bill, which was 
 passed under Van Buren's administration. A bank- 
 rupt law was passed for the assistance of insolvent 
 business men. A bill for rechartering the United 
 States bank w^as laid before the president, who vetoed 
 it, and again the bill received the assent ,of both 
 houses, only to receive the president's veto. Every 
 member of the cabinet save Daniel Webster resigned 
 his seat. 
 
 And now there was trouble about the north-east 
 boundary line between the United States and British 
 
373 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 dominions. Ever since the treaty of 1783 that line 
 had been questioned. Lord Ashburton of Great 
 Britain and Daniel Webster of the United States were 
 to decide the question. The boundaries were decided 
 to the satisfaction of both parties. 
 
 The next year Rhode Island had a war of their own. 
 The two parties were called Law-and-Order and 
 Suffrage parti s. Samuel King was elected governor 
 of the Law-and-Order party and Thomas W. Dorr of 
 the Suffrage party. Dorr was in the wrong. He fled 
 the state, but afterwards was arrested and tried for 
 treason and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He 
 was then offered a pardon, but refused to accept it, 
 but in June of 1845 he was set at liberty. 
 
 The Mormons about this time came under Joseph 
 Smith. The first settlement was in Jackson county, 
 Missouri. There were some fifteen hundred of them. 
 There was trouble between the people and state and 
 they were obliged to leave. In 1839 ^^^7 crossed the 
 Mississippi into Illinois and laid out a city which they 
 called Nauvoo, signifying the beautiful. They built 
 a splendid temple. They soon numbered ten thousand. 
 Then serious trouble arose between the state and the 
 Mormons and there was war. Smith and his brothers 
 were arrested and taken to Carthage and jailed. The 
 jail was stormed and the prisoners came near being 
 killed. At length the Mormons crossed the Rocky 
 Mountains, reached the great Salt Lake and founded 
 Utah territory. 
 
 There was trouble in Tennessee, too, from 182 1 to 
 1836. This territory had been a province of Mexico. 
 It had been the policy to keep Texas uninhabited so 
 
HARHISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATIONS. 373 
 
 the Americans might not encroach on Mexican 
 grounds. At length a land grant was made to Moses 
 Austin of Connecticut, on condition that he would 
 settle three hundred families within the limits of his 
 domain. Afterward the grant was conferred to his 
 son Stephen, with the privilege of establishing five 
 hundred additional families of immigrants. In 1835 
 the Texans rebelled and in a battle fought at Gon- 
 zales a thousand Mexicans were defeated by five hun- 
 dred Texans. On the 6th of March the Texan fort 
 called the Alamo was surrounded by eight thousand 
 Mexicans, led by Santa Anna. The garrison was 
 overpowered and massacred. David Crocket, the 
 hardy pioneer, was one of the victims. A month later 
 a decisive battle was fought at San Jacinto and Texas 
 was independent and asked to be admitted into the 
 union and in March, 1845, was admitted. 
 
 Florida and Iowa were applicants, but Iowa did not 
 come in until the following year. 
 
 In 1844 James K. Polk was elected president and 
 George M. Dallas vice-president. The news was sent 
 from Baltimore to Washington by telegraph. S. F. B. 
 Morse was the inventor of magnetic telegraphy. Peo- 
 ple were amused at the novelty, but it was a long 
 time before they saw the utility of it. It was through 
 the assistance of Ezra Cornell of New York and Mr. 
 Corcoran of Washington that it was tested sufficiently 
 to make its value known. The same year Charles 
 Goodyear, after experimenting more than ten years, 
 discovered the secret of vulcanizing India rubber. 
 Mr. E. M. Chaffee, a foreman of a Boston patent 
 leather factory, experimented by pouring some melted 
 
374 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 India rubber on a piece of thin cloth. It was found 
 to be smooth, looked like patent leather and was 
 waterproof. A number of capitalists grew interested 
 in the invention and enough could not be made to fill 
 the demand. But while the rubbers so made were 
 good in cool weather they became a mass of sticky 
 gum in summer and smelled so horribly that the re- 
 turned stock had to be buried. There was a loss of 
 over two millions to stock-holders. The first opera- 
 tions in copper mining were commenced this year at 
 Lake Superior. 
 
 A treaty was made between the United States and 
 China by which the citizens of America were allowed 
 to trade and to reside in the ports of Kwang-chow, 
 Amoy, Fuchow, Ningpo, and Shanghai. In June there 
 was a rise of the Missouri and the middle section of 
 the Mississippi which exceeded all floods heretofore 
 known and did incalculable damage. The first 
 American newspaper started on the Pacific coast was 
 issued at Oregon City and called ^he Flu7ngudgeon 
 Gazette or Btimblebee Budget. The £veni?zg yournal 
 was established at Chicago. 
 
CHAf^TER XLII. 
 folk's administration. 
 
 PRESIDENT POLK was a native of North Caro- 
 lina. When a boy he removed with his father to 
 Tennessee. In 1839 he was elected governor of 
 Tennessee. He placed James Buchanan at the head 
 of his cabinet. A war with Mexico was at hand. 
 Texas appealed for protection and General Zachary 
 Taylor was ordered from New Orleans to Mexico. 
 The question was one of the boundaries. Texas 
 claimed the Rio Grande as her western limit, while 
 Mexico was determined to have the Nueces as the 
 separating line. The United States governmemt 
 supported the claim of Texas. For years the war 
 raged and in the winter of 1847-48 a treaty was 
 signed. By the terms of settlement the boundary line 
 between Mexico and Texas was established on the 
 Rio Grande westward along the southern, and north- 
 ward along the western boundary of that territory 
 to the Gila ; thence down the river to the Colorado ; 
 thence westward to the Pacific. New Mexico and 
 upper California were relinquished to the United 
 States. Mexico guaranteed the free navigation of the 
 Gulf of California and the Colorado river. The 
 United States agreed to surrender all places in Mexico 
 and to pay that country fifteen millions of dollars and 
 to assume all debts due American citizens from the 
 Mexican government. 
 
376 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Only a few days later gold was discovered at the 
 American fork of the Sacramento river. The news 
 seemed borne upon the wind and soon the country 
 was filled with adventurers. Only once in a long 
 while was there a discovery of a nugget of much value. 
 Before the end of 1850 San Francisco had fifteen 
 thousand inhabitants, and at the close of 1852 the 
 population in the territory was more than a quarter of 
 a million. 
 
 General Jackson died in the first summer of Polk's 
 administration. He died at his home, "The Hermitage," 
 in Tennessee. Ex- President John Quincy Adams died 
 at the city of Washington. He was paralyzed in the 
 house of representatives. 
 
 In 1848 Wisconsin was admitted into the union 
 with a population of two hundred and fifty thousand. 
 
 Another presidential election was held and General 
 Taylor was elected president and Millard Fillmore of 
 New York vice-president. 
 
CHAPTER XLIII. 
 Taylor's administration. 
 
 PRESIDENT TAYLOR was a Virginian by birth 
 and a soldier always. He had distinguished 
 himself during the war of 1812. He bore a part 
 in the Seminole war, but his greatest achievement 
 was in subduing Mexico. His administration began 
 with the agitation of the slavery question in the 
 territories. He advised California to become a State. 
 A constitution was framed prohibiting slavery, sub- 
 mitted to the people and adopted. Peter H. Burnet 
 was elected governor of the territory and on December 
 29th, 1849, the new government was organized at San 
 Jose. There was great controversy about the ad- 
 mission of California as a state, and then among the 
 opponents and sustainers of slavery. Before the con- 
 troversies were over President Taylor died on the 9th 
 ©f July, 1850. 
 
 Fillmore at once took the oath of office and entered 
 upon the duties of president. A new cabinet was 
 formed with Daniel Webster as secretary of state. 
 
 In 1852 there was trouble again with England about 
 the fisheries of Newfoundland. In 1854 it was 
 settled by negotiation, and the right of Americans to 
 take fish from the bays in possession of the British 
 was conceded. Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, 
 came to America in behalf of his country in 1852. He 
 was kindly received and listened to, but the policy of 
 
37^ FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AxMERICA. 
 
 the United States forbade the interference ot the 
 government in behalf of the Hungarian patriots. 
 
 In March, 18^50, John C. Calhoun died at the age of 
 sixty-eight. He was much lamented. The president 
 died in July. Henry Clay died the 28th of June, 1852, 
 and Daniel Webster on the 24th of the following 
 October. 
 
 Edward Everett was invited to become secretary of 
 state and accepted. The next president was Franklin 
 Pierce ; William King of Alabama vice-president. 
 
CHAPTER XLIV. 
 Pierce's administration. 
 
 FRANKLIN PIERCE was from New Hampshire, 
 a graduate of Bowdoin college. He was a states- 
 man of considerable ability. Mr. King, the 
 vice-president, was in Cuba at the time of his election. 
 He returned to fulfill his duties, but became so ill that 
 he had to retire to his home in Alabama, where he 
 died in April, 1853, and William L. Marcy of New 
 York finished his unexpired term. 
 
 In 1853 a corps of engineers were sent out to ex- 
 plore a railroad route to the Pacific and the same year 
 commerce was opened with Japan. Before this the 
 Japanese ports had been closed to all Christian nations. 
 It was through Commodore Perry that the treaty was 
 made, and on the very day of the Commodore's intro- 
 duction to the emperor the Crystal Palace of New 
 York was opened for The World's Fair. The palace 
 was built of iron and glass. Specimens of arts and 
 manufactures of all countries were on exhibition. This 
 display was of great educational advantage to Ameri- 
 cans. 
 
 In January, 1854, Senator Douglas of Illinois 
 brought in a proposition to organize Kansas and 
 Nebraska. In the bill was a clause providing that 
 the people of these territories should decide for them- 
 selves whether the states should be free or slaveholding. 
 For five months this bill was debated and finally passed, 
 and then pandemonium was the result, and it became 
 the issue in the presidential election of 1856. James 
 Buchanan was elected president and John C. Breckin- 
 ridge vice-president. 
 
CHAPTER XLV. 
 Buchanan's administration. 
 
 JAMES BUCHANAN was a native of Pennsyl- 
 vanic, born in 1791. In 1831 he was appointed 
 minister to Russia and afterward senator of the 
 United States and secretary of state under President 
 Polk. In 1853 he received the appointment of minis- 
 ter to Great Britain. General Lewis Cass of Michi- 
 gan was made secretary of state under Buchanan. 
 
 The 5th of August, 1858, was noted for the comple- 
 tion of the first submarine telegraph across the Atlan- 
 tic, The success of this work was due Cyrus W. Field 
 of New York. The cable was stretched from Trinity 
 bay, Newfoundland, to Valentia bay, Ireland, and 
 telegraphic communication was established between 
 Europe and America. 
 
 Minnesota became a state in 1858 with a population 
 of a hundred and fifty thousand, and a year later 
 Oregon was admitted with a population of forty-eight 
 thousand. 
 
 The slavery question was still a vexation. The 
 Abolitionists of the North would manage to secrete 
 and send to a place of security any poor black man or 
 woman that called on them. How this was done was 
 a mystery at the time. In many a cellar was a secret 
 room in which a slave could be hidden until the way 
 for him to go on was opened. Runaway slaves were 
 often hunted with blood hounds. In 1857 the supreme 
 
Buchanan's administration. 381 
 
 court of the United States, after hearing the case of 
 Dred Scott, formerly a slave, decided that negroes are 
 not and cannot become citizens. Now in several of the 
 free states personal liberty bills w^ere passed to defeat 
 the fugitive slave law. In the fall of 1859 twenty- 
 one daring men of Kansas, led by John Brown, cap- 
 tured the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and held it two 
 days. The national troops were called out to quell 
 the revolt. Of Brown's men thirteen were killed, two 
 escaped, and John Brown and six men were captured. 
 The leader and his six companions were tried by the 
 authorities of Virginia, condemned and hanged. After 
 this the Kansas Free Soil party gained ground so 
 rapidly as to make it certain that it would not be a 
 slave state. Abraham Lincoln was nominated for the 
 presidency by the Republican party in 1S60. The 
 great principle of this party was opposition to slavery ^ 
 The Democratic convention assembled at Charleston, 
 but the Southern delegates withdrew from the assem- 
 bly. The rest adjourned to Baltimore and nominated 
 Stephen A. Douglas for president. The Democracy 
 of the South reassembled in Jilne and nominated 
 John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The American 
 party nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Abraham 
 Lincoln was elected president, but prior to the elec- 
 tion a large number of the senators and representatives 
 in congress were advocates of disunion, and it had 
 been declared that should Lincoln be elected it would 
 be just cause for the disruption of the union. The 
 president was not a disunionist, but said he had no 
 constitutional power to prevent secession by force. 
 The interval that elapsed between the election of 
 
382 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Lincoln and his inauguration was thought a fitting" 
 one for the disruption. South Carolina took the lead, 
 A convention met on the 17th of December, i860, at 
 Charleston and after a session of three days passed a 
 resolution that the union hitherto existing between 
 South Carolina and the other states was dissolved. 
 The sentiment of disunion gained ground so fast that 
 by the first of February, 1S61, six other states — Mis- 
 sissippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and 
 Texas — had all passed ordinances of secession. Nearly 
 all the senators and representatives of the South re- 
 signed their seats in congress and gave themselves to 
 the cause of disunion. It is quite true that in the 
 secession conventions there were statesmen that pro- 
 nounced the disunion as bad and ruinous. In the 
 Georgia convention Alexander H. Stephens (after- 
 ward vice-president of the Confederacy) undertook 
 to prevent the secession of his state. He delivered a 
 powerful oration in which he pronounced the measure 
 as impolitic^ unwise^ disastrous. 
 
 Delegates from six of the seceded states assembled 
 at Montgomery, Alabama, on the 4th of February, 
 186 1, and formed a new government called the Con- 
 federate States of A7ncrlca. On the 8th the govern- 
 ment was organized by the election of Jefferson Davis, 
 of Mississippi, as provisional president, and Alexander 
 H. Stephens as vice-president. Previous to this a 
 peace convention had met at Washington and proposed 
 certain amendments to the constitution, but congress 
 paid little attention to it, and the conference adjourned. 
 
 The army was on the far frontier ; the fleet on far 
 off seas. Ruin seemed to stare the country in the face, 
 
Buchanan's administration. 383 
 
 and the president felt to the utmost his responsibility. 
 Forts Sumter, Moultrie, Pickens and Monroe were in 
 possession of the United States. All the important 
 ports in the South were already in possession of the 
 seceded states. The president sent the Star of the 
 West to reinforce Fort Sumter, but the ship was fired 
 on by a battery and driven away from Charleston. 
 And so with trouble on every side Buchanan's adminis- 
 tration closed and Lincoln's began. 
 
CHAPTER XL VI. 
 
 LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN was a native of Kentucky, 
 ushered into the world February i3th, 1809. 
 His parents removed to southern Indiana when 
 he was only seven years old. He was very poor and 
 he worked hard, getting his education by the light of 
 pine knots and studying much without any teacher. 
 His stepmother was a noble woman, with limited 
 education herself, but who assisted him in every way 
 she could. On arriving at manhood he removed to 
 Illinois, where he became a distinguished lawyer^ and 
 he gained a national reputation in 1858 when, as the 
 competitor of Stephen A. Douglas, he canvassed 
 Illinois for the United States senate. 
 
 The new cabinet was organized with William H. 
 Seward of New York as secretary of state ; Salmon P. 
 Chase of Ohio secretary of the treasury; and Simon 
 Cameron secretary of war, who was soon succeeded 
 by Edwin M. Stanton. Gideon Welles was secretary 
 of the navy. In his inaugural address his policy was 
 indicated. He declared his purpose to repossess the 
 forts and property which had been seized by the 
 Confederates. 
 
 The seceded states made an effort (on the 12th of 
 March) to obtain a recognition of their independence, 
 which failed. It was after this that the government 
 made another attempt to reinforce Fort Sumter. Fort 
 
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LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 385 
 
 Sumter was commanded by Major Robert Anderson 
 with seventy-nine men. Confederate volunteers 
 flocked to Cljarleston and batteries were built about 
 the harbor. The Confederate authorities determined 
 to anticipate the movements of the government by 
 compelling the surrender of Anderson. General 
 Beauregard was commandant of Charleston. On the 
 nth of April the general sent a flag to Sumter de- 
 manding an evacuation. Major Anderson replied that 
 he should defend the Cortrcss. The next morning the 
 first gun was fired from the Confederate battery. A 
 bombardment of thirty-four hours' duration followed. 
 The fort was obliged to capitulate. The honors of 
 war were granted to Anderson and his men. Three 
 days after the fall of Sumter the president issued a 
 call for seventv-five thousand volunteers to serve three 
 months in the overthrow of the secession movement. 
 It was but two ddys later until Virginia seceded. 
 Arkansas went also on the 6th of May and North 
 Carolina followed on the 20th. Tennessee was almost 
 evenly divided, but the disunionists succeeded, yet the 
 secession ordinance was not passed until the 8th of 
 June. Civil war resulted in Missouri. Kentucky 
 authorities issued a proclamation of neutrality. The 
 people of Maryland were divided into hostile parties. 
 The Massachusetts volunteers, passing through Balti- 
 more, were fired upon by the citizens and three men 
 -killed. This was the- first blood drawn. The day 
 previous, however, a body of Confederate soldiers 
 captured the United States armory at Harper's Ferry, 
 and another company obtained possession of the great 
 navy yard at Norfolk on the 20th. The captured 
 
386 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 property amounted to fully ten millions of dollars, and 
 it was feared that Washington city would be taken. 
 
 On May 3rd the president issued a call for eighty- 
 three thousand soldiers, to serve for three years or 
 durinof the war. General Winfield Scott was made 
 commander-in-chief. War ships were sent to blockade 
 the Southern ports. The Southern congress adjourned 
 Irom Montgomery. The next meeting place was 
 Richmond and the time July 2nd. Mr. Davis met 
 here the officers of his cabinet. , 
 
 It is said that one of the first causes of secession 
 was, strangely enough, the inveiition of the cotton gin. 
 In the year of 1793 Eli Whitney, of Massachusetts, 
 went to Georgia and resided in the family of Mrs. 
 Greene, widow of General Greene. Mr. Whitney's 
 attention was called to the tedious process of picking 
 cotton by hand. The labor was so great that there 
 was really no profit in the uplan'd cultivation. Mr. 
 Whitney invented a gin \vhich astonished all be- 
 holders, and from being profitless cotton became the 
 most profitable of all the staples. It has been 
 estimated that Whitney's gin added a thousand million 
 of dollars to the revenues of the Southern states. 
 Slave labor grew in deniand Justin proportion as cotton 
 growing was profitable, and so slavery to slave holders 
 assumed a deep importance. 
 
 . Another and probably the greatest cause of the 
 disruption was the different construction put upon 
 the constitution by the people of the North and 
 the South. One party believed that the union 
 of the states is indissoluble ; that the states are 
 subordinate to the central government ; that the 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 387 
 
 acts of congress are binding on the states ; and that all 
 attempts at nullification and disunion are disloyal and 
 treasonable. The other party held that the national 
 constitution is a compact between sovereign states ; 
 that for certain reasons the union may be dissolved ; 
 that the sovereignty of the nation belongs to the in- 
 dividual states ; that a state may annul an act of con- 
 gress ; that the highest allegiance of a citizen is due to 
 his own state, and that nullification and disunion are 
 justifiable and honorable. With these different views 
 there could be nothing but war to settle the question. 
 
 Away back in 1820-21 threats of dissolving the 
 union were freely made in both the North and the 
 South. During the Missouri agitation, when the 
 Missouri compromise was enacted, it was the hope 
 of Mr. Clay and his fellow statesmen to save the union 
 by removing the slavery question from the politics of 
 the country. 
 
 Another cause of the war was the want of inter- 
 course between the people of the North and the South. 
 The great railroad traffic was from the Atlantic to the 
 Pacific. Between the North and South there was no- 
 interchange of opinion. Then, too, the eastern states 
 had given themselves to manufacturing largely. The 
 Southerners depended on agriculture. When the high 
 tariff was on the inanufacturers reaped the benefit ; 
 the Southerners complained that it interfered with 
 their interests. 
 
 And no doubt the publication of sectional books did 
 much to foster the animosity already kindled, for since 
 1840 many books were published exclusively for cer- 
 tain sections — books intended for Northern trade were 
 
388 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 written exposing and dilating upon the ridiculous 
 side of life in the South, and for the Southern trade 
 Yankeedom was shown in the worst possible light. 
 Then, too, while there were bad men who owned slaves 
 and abused and mistreated them the majority of slave- 
 holders were kind and looked after their wants just as 
 mothers look after their little children, but these people 
 did not get into these books. 
 
 At this time the good of the union was forgotten in 
 the schemes and ambitions of political leaders. In 
 order to gain power many unprincipled men in the 
 South were anxious to destroy the union, while men 
 of the same character in the North were willing to 
 abuse the union for the same purpose. Then there was 
 a very strong feeling in the North that slavery itself 
 was very wicked and had a demoralizing effect on the 
 people. 
 
 Fortress Monroe was held by twelve thousand men 
 under General B. F. Butler. At Bethel church in that 
 vicinity was stationed a detachment of Confederates. 
 On the 24th of May the Union army crossed the 
 Potomac from Washington to Alexandria and on the 
 loth a body of Union soldiers was sent to drive them 
 away, but Colonel Magruder repulsed them with con- 
 siderable loss. Very late in May General T. A. 
 Morris moved forward from Parkersburg to Grafton, 
 West Virginia. On the 3rd of June he defeated a force 
 of Confederates at Philippi. General George B.McClel- 
 lan took command and on the nth of July gained a 
 victory at Rich Mountain. General Garnett with 
 Confederate forces fell back to Carrick's Ford oh 
 Cheat river, where he was defeated and lost his life. 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 3S9 
 
 On the roth of August General Floyd with a 
 detachment of Confederates at Carnifex Ferry, on 
 Gauley river, was attacked by General William S. 
 Rosecrans and obliged to retreat. On the 14th of 
 September the Confederates under General Robert E. 
 Lee were beaten in an engagement at Cheat Moun- 
 tain. Early the next June General Robert Patterson 
 marched against Harper's Ferry. On the nth of the 
 month a division commanded by Colonel Lewis Wal- 
 lace was successful in an engagement at Romney. 
 Patterson then crossed the Potomac and pressed back 
 the Confederate forces to Winchester. The main 
 body of the Confederates under General Beauregard 
 was concentrated at Manassas Junction, twenty- 
 seven miles west of Alexandria. Another large force 
 commanded by Colonel Joseph E. Johnston was in the 
 Shenandoah valley. The Union army at Alexandria 
 was under command of General Irwin McDowell, 
 while General Patterson was stationed in front of 
 Johnston. On the i6th of July the National army 
 moved forward and on the morning of the 21st came 
 upon the Confederate army between Bull Run and 
 Manassas Junction. A battle of great severity ensued, 
 lasting until noonday. At the crisis General John- 
 ston arrived with nearly .six thousand fresh troops 
 from the Shenandoah valley, and very soon Mc- 
 Dowell's army was hurled back in rout and confusion 
 into the defences of Washington. The Union loss in 
 killed, wounded and prisoners amounted to two thou- 
 sand nine hundred and fifty-two ; the Confederate loss 
 two thousand and fifty. 
 
 On July 2nd the new Confederate government was 
 
39^ 
 
 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 organized at Richmond. Jefferson Davis, the presi- 
 dent, had ah'eady served in both houses of the national 
 consfress and as a member of Pierce's cabinet. He 
 possessed great decision of character, and ah"eady 
 quite a reputation as a soldier. Added to all this, he 
 was a man of wide experience. 
 
 And now the scene of war was chans^ed to Missouri. 
 At a convention called by the governor the previous 
 March the ordinance of secession could not be passed, 
 but the disunionists were many and strong, and the 
 state became a battle field. In many cases brother 
 fought brother. Confederate and Federal camps were 
 organized. The Confederates were fortunate early in 
 the war by capturing the United States arsenal at 
 Liberty. They obtained a supply of arms and ammu- 
 nition and by the formation of Camp Jackson near St. 
 Louis the arsenal in that city was in a precarious place. 
 However, by the vigilance of Captain Nathaniel Lyon 
 the arms and stores ^vere sent to Springfield. Troops 
 came from Arkansas and from Texas to secure the 
 lead mines in the south-west part of the state, and it 
 behooved the Union troops to be up and doing. So 
 on June 17th Captain Lyon defeated Governor Jack- 
 son at Booneville, and on the 5th of July the Union- 
 ists, led by Colonel Franz Sigel, were a second time 
 successful. This was at Carthage. On August loth 
 a hard battle was fought at Wilson's creek near 
 Springfield. General L3'on was killed, and his men 
 retreated. 
 
 General Price now hurried north to Lexington, which 
 was defended by two thousand six hundred Federals 
 commanded by Colonel Mulligan, who held the place 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 39 1 
 
 persistently, but was forced to capitulate. On the 
 i6th of October Lexington again fell into the hands 
 of the Federals, General Fremont following the re- 
 treating Confederates as far as Springfield, and here 
 he was superseded by General Hunter. The latter 
 retreated to St. Louis and Price fell back toward 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Though Kentucky had declared her neutrality, the 
 Confederate General Polk entered the state and cap- 
 tured the town of Columbus. The Confederates in 
 great numbers gathered at Belmont on the opposite 
 shore of the Mississippi. 
 
 And now General Ulysses S. Grant with three 
 thousand Illinois troops was ordered into Missouri. 
 He made a successful attack on the Confederate 
 camp at Belmont, but was not able to keep it- 
 Troops had been gathering at Washington ever 
 since the battle of Manassas. General Scott had 
 grown old and was retired, and General McClellan 
 took command of the Army of the Potomac. By 
 October his forces numbered a hundred and fifty 
 thousand men. On the 3ist two thousand troops 
 ^vere transferred across the Potomac at Ball's Bluff. 
 They were not properly supported and were attacked 
 by a force under General Evans and driven to the 
 river, their commander, Colonel Baker, killed, and the 
 whole force routed, with a loss of eight hundred men. 
 
 Commodore Stringham and General Benjamin F. 
 Butler took command of a naval expedition to the 
 coast of North Carolina and on the 34th of August 
 captured the forts at Hatteras Inlet, and on the 7th of 
 November an armament under Commodore Dupont 
 
392 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 and General Thomas W. Sherman captured Forts 
 Walker and Beauregard. The blockade was now so 
 rigorous that communication with foreign countries 
 was cut off. 
 
 And yet in these dark days the Southern aristocracy 
 still kept up. The Southern ladies wore many a time 
 gowns of unbleached muslin, and I have heard it said 
 by eye witnesses that in the halls or parlors lighted 
 with candles the effect was so like velvet that only 
 the initiated knew the material. Doubtless to this the 
 beauty of cheese cloth became known, and the in- 
 genuity which helped these people to keep appear- 
 ances of comfort and elegance when the land was 
 desolated would be a book worth reading. 
 
 The Confederate government appointed as em- 
 bassadors to France and England John M. Mason and 
 John Slidell. The envoys escaped the blockade and 
 reached Havana in safety, where they took passage on 
 the British steamer Trent for Europe. But on the 
 8th of November the vessel was overtaken by the 
 United States frigate San Jacinto^ commanded by 
 Captain Wilkes. The Trent was hailed and boarded ; 
 the two embassadors were seized, transferred to the San 
 yacintoand carried to Boston. When the Tre7it reached 
 England and the story had been told all England was 
 stirred up as it had been at the time of the Boston Tea 
 Party. Had the United States defended Captain 
 Wilkes, a war with England would have inevitably 
 followed ; and to the diplomacy of William H. Seward 
 we are indebted for the preservation of peace. Great 
 Britain demanded reparation for the insult and the re- 
 lease of the prisoners. He replied in a very able and, 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 393 
 
 at the same time cautious manner. It was conceded 
 that the seizure of Mason and Slidell was not justifi- 
 able according to the law of nations. An apology 
 for the wrong done was offered, and the embassadors 
 liberated and sent to England on a United States 
 vessel. This ended the first year of the civil war. 
 
 At the commencement of the year 1863 the 
 United States forces were about four hundred and 
 fifty thousand men. Two hundred thousand were 
 under command of General McClellan, encamped near 
 Washington. General Buell commanded another 
 division stationed near Louisville, Kentucky. Colonel 
 Humphrey Marshall, commanding a Confederate force 
 on Big Sandy river, had a battle with Federal soldiers 
 under command of James A. Garfield, colonel. The 
 Confederates were defeated. Ten days later a battle 
 of importance occurred at Mill Spring, Kentucky. 
 The Confederates, commanded by Generals Critten- 
 den and ZollicofFer, were severely defeated by the 
 forces of General George H. Thomas. General 
 Zollicoffer was killed in the battle. General Halleck 
 had planned at the beginning of the year the capture 
 of Forts Henry and Donelson on the Tennessee and 
 Cumberland. Commodore Foote was sent up the 
 Tennessee with a fleet of gunboats, and General 
 Grant was ordered to move forward against Fort 
 Henry. Before the land forces reached that place the 
 flotilla compelled the evacuation of the fort, the 
 Confederates escaping to Donelson. 
 
 The Federal gunboats now dropped down the 
 Tennessee and then went up the Cumberland. Grant 
 pressed on from Fort Henry, and began the siege of 
 
394 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Fort Donelson. General Buckner manned the de- 
 fences with ten thousand Confederates. General 
 Grant's force was about thirty thousand. On the i6th 
 of February Buckner surrendered. His army became 
 prisoners of war, and all the magazines, stores and 
 guns of the fort became the property of the United 
 States. 
 
 General Grant took his forces up the Tennessee to 
 Pittsburg landing. The camp was at Shiloh church, 
 near the river. On the 6th of April a large Con- 
 federate force commanded by Generals Johnston and 
 Beauregard charged the camp. A terrific battle 
 ensued in which the loss on either side was estimated 
 at ten thousand in killed, wounded and missing. 
 General Johnston was killed and Beauregard re- 
 treated to Corinth. 
 
 The Confederates after leaving Columbus, Kentucky, 
 fortified themselves at Island Number Ten in the 
 Mississippi, opposite New Madrid. General Pope 
 with a body of western troops advanced on Number 
 Ten, while Commodore Foote descended the Mississippi 
 with his gunboats. Pope captured New Madrid, and 
 Island Number Ten was besieged for twenty-three 
 days. On the 7th of April the Confedeiates attempted 
 to escape, but Pope had cut off the retreat. The 
 garrison was captured and it numbered five thousand. 
 
 The fleet of Commodore Davis captured Memphis 
 on the 6th of June. Quite early in the year General 
 Curtis had taken his command into Arkansas and had 
 encamped his forces at Pea Ridge in the mountains. 
 The 6th of March he was attacked by twenty thousand 
 Confederates and Indians commanded by Generals 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 395 
 
 McCulloch, Mcintosh and Pike. The battle con- 
 tinued for two days and was hard fought. General 
 Curtis was victorious. McCulloch and Mcintosh 
 were killed and the Confederates retreated in the 
 direction of Ttxas. 
 
 After the navy yard at Norfolk had been destroyed 
 the Confederates had the 3/errtmac raised (one of the 
 sunken ships) and the sides plated with iron, and then 
 sent to attack the Union fleet at Fortress Monroe. The 
 Merrimac reached her destination on the 8th of March, 
 and immediately commenced her work of havoc. The 
 two valuable vessels, the Cuinberland and the Con- 
 gress^ were sent to the bottom. During the en- 
 suing night the Monitor^ invented by Captain 
 John Ericsson, arrived from New York and the 
 next morning the two iron-clads faced each other. 
 The battle lasted five hours and then the Merrimac 
 was so disabled that she was obliged to put back to 
 Norfolk for repairs. A Federal squadron commanded 
 by General Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough 
 attacked the Confederate fortifications on Roanoke 
 island. The garrison, nearly three thousand strong, 
 were taken prisoners, and General Burnside proceeded 
 against Newbern and captured the city on the 14th of 
 March. He kept on southward till he reached the 
 harbor of Beaufort, and on the 25th of April took 
 possession of that place also. Fort Pulaski at the 
 mouth of the Savannah surrendered to General Gilmore 
 on the nth of the month, and a powerful squadron 
 early in April, commanded by General Butler and 
 Admiral Farragut, went up the Mississippi and at- 
 tacked Forts JacVson and St. Philip, thirty miles 
 
396 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 above the gulf. The fight commenced on the i8th 
 and on the sixth day afterwards the admiral succeeded 
 in running past the batteries. The next day he 
 reached New Orleans and captured the city. General 
 Butler became commandant and the fortifications were 
 manned by fifteen thousand Union soldiers. In all the 
 history of New^ Orleans this year is marked without 
 sickness — due to the excellent sanitary condition 
 maintained by General Butler. 
 
 On the 38th Forts Jackson and St. Philip surren- 
 dered to Admiral Porter, and while this was going on 
 at the South the Confederates were invading Ken- 
 tucky in two strong divisions, one led by Colonel 
 Kirby Smith and the other by General Bragg. On 
 the 30th of August Smith's army reached Rich- 
 mond and attacked the Union forces stationed there. 
 Smith w^as victorious and the Union loss heavy. 
 Lexington next succumbed and then Frankfort, and. 
 Cincinnati owes her escape to General Wallace. 
 General Bragg with his army was coming up from 
 Chattanooga, and on September 17th captured a de- 
 tachm.ent of four thousand five hundred men at Mum- 
 fordsville. The Confederate general pressed on to 
 Louisville, and had it not been for General Buell that 
 would have fallen into his hands. Buell's army now 
 numbered a hundred thousand men. In October he 
 left Louisville and overtook General Bragg at Perry- 
 ville. There was a sharp, but indecisive battle, and the 
 Confederates, carrying a supply of spoils with them, 
 retreated into east Tennessee. On September 19th 
 there was a hard battle between Generals Rosecrans 
 and Grant commandins: Union forces and General 
 
LINCOLN AND THE RKBELLION. 397 
 
 Price of the Confederates. General Price was de- 
 feated, losing a thousand prisoners besides the killed 
 and wounded. General Grant with part of the 
 Federal forces marched to Jackson, Tennessee, and 
 General Rosecrans with twenty thousand men took a 
 position at Corinth. Generals Van Dorn and Price 
 turned about to recapture Corinth, but after two days' 
 fighting they were repulsed. General Grant in the 
 meantime moved forward to co-operate with General 
 Sherman in an effort to capture Vicksburg. On the 
 loth of December General Van Dorn cut off General 
 Grant's supplies at Holly Springs, and so obliged him 
 to retreat. On the same day General Sherman dropped 
 down the river from Memphis to the Yazoo, and on 
 the 29th he made an attack on the Confederates at 
 Chickasaw Bayou, which was unsuccessful and very 
 disastrous to the Union forces, who lost in killed, 
 wounded and taken prisoners more than three thou- 
 sand men. 
 
 General Rosecrans was now transferred to the 
 Army of the Cumberland, with headquarters at Nash- 
 ville. General Bragg, when he retired from Ken- 
 tucky, had taken his forces to Murfreesborough. 
 Rosecrans with his forces set out for Stone river, 
 when Bragg's forces were near Murfreesborough. On 
 the next morning a furious battle was fought, only 
 ending when night descended. During the night 
 Rosecrans rallied his soldiers and at daybreak they 
 were ready to renew the conflict, but Bragg's army 
 was not ready. The 2nd of January, however, Bragg's 
 army rushed to the onset. At first they were success- 
 ful, but then the tide of battle turned and they were 
 
398 FOUR HU.NDKED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 driven back with heavy losses. Bragg withdrew 
 towards Chattanooga. 
 
 In Virginia tlie Shenandoah valley was the first 
 scene of war in that year. General Banks was sent 
 forward with a strong division and the last of March 
 (1862) occupied the town of Harrisburg. Stonewall 
 Jackson with twenty thousand men was sent to cut 
 off Banks' retreat. At Front Royal the Confederates 
 fell upon the Federals, routed them and captured 
 their guns and stores. General Banks, however, suc- 
 ceeded in getting his main division to Strasburg and 
 •escaping out of the valley. Jackson was now in peril, 
 General Fremont having been sent into the valley to 
 •cut oft his retreat. Jackson, however, succeeded in 
 reaching Cross Keys before Fremont could attack him, 
 :and the engagement was so ineffectual that Jackson 
 pressed on to Fort Republic, where he attacked and 
 defeated General Shields. 
 
 It was on the loth of March when the Army of the 
 Potomac broke their camp and set out for the Con- 
 federate capital. The advance proceeded to Manassas 
 Junction, where McClellan, changing his plan, sent a 
 hundred and twenty thousand of his men to Fortress 
 Monroe. From that place on the 4th of April the 
 Union army advanced to Yorktow^n, which was de- 
 fended by ten thousand Confederates under General 
 Magruder. And here the advance remained for a 
 month. Yorktown was taken on the 4th of May, and 
 the Federal army pressed forward to West Point at 
 the junction of the Mattapony and Pamunkey. Mc- 
 Clellan reached the Chickahominy without serious 
 resistance and crossed at Bottom's Bridge. General 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 399 
 
 Wool, commandant of Fortress Monroe, led an expedi- 
 tion against Norfolk and captured the town. The 
 day following the iron-clad Virginia was blown 
 up to save her from capture. The James river was 
 now opened for the supply transports of the Army of 
 the Potomac. On the 31st of May that army was 
 attacked by the Confederates at a place called Fair 
 Oaks, or Seven Pines, The battle was waged with 
 fury for two days. Then the Confederates were 
 driven back, but McClellan's victory was not a decis- 
 ive one. General Joseph E. Johnston, commander-in- 
 chief of the Confederate army, was severely wounded, 
 and General Robert E. Lee became commandant. 
 McClellan formed a plan of retiring to a point below 
 Richmond, but before the movement was fairly begun 
 General Lee struck the right wing of the Union forces 
 at Oak Grove and a hard fought battle was the result. 
 The day following an engagement followed at Me- 
 chanicsville, and the Federals won the day. The next 
 morning Lee renewed the struggle at Gaines* Mill and 
 was victorious. On the 28th McClellan's army was 
 attacked at Savage's Station and later in the White 
 Oak swamp. The Confederates were kept at bay. 
 On the 30th occurred the desperate battle of Glendale 
 on Frazier's farm. On that night the Federals reached 
 Malvern Hill, twelve miles below Richmond. Gen- 
 eral Lee determined to carry the place by storm and 
 on the morning of July ist the entire Confederate 
 army rushed forward to the assault. And all the long 
 day they struggled for possession of the high ground, 
 and for sevefi days without cessation the roar of 
 musketrv and thunder of cannon never ceased. Gen- 
 
400 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 eral McClellan retired with his army to Harrison's 
 landing, a few miles down the river. The Federal 
 army had lost more than fifteen thousand men, and 
 the Confederate loss was still greater. General Lee 
 then formed the plan of taking the Federal capital. 
 The Union troops between Richmond and Washing- 
 ton were under command of General John Pope. Lee 
 moved northward, and on the 20th of August Pope 
 retreated beyond the Rappahannock, and General 
 Banks was attacked by Stonewall Jackson at Cedar 
 Mountain, where only the most vigorous fighting 
 saved the Federals their position. Jackson hurried 
 by with his division on a flank movement to Manassas 
 Junction, where he made large captures. Pope threw 
 his army between the two Confederate armies. On 
 August 28th and 29th there was a fearful battle on 
 the same field where the first Bull Run battle had 
 occurred. Pope's reinforcements were withheld by 
 General Porter and on the 31st the Confederates 
 struck the Union army at Chantilly, winning a great 
 victory. Generals Stevens and Kearney, men of 
 courage and ability, were killed in this battle. Pope 
 withdrew his mutilated army to Washington with all 
 the speed possible. 
 
 General Lee by crossing the Potomac at the Point 
 of Rocks was enabled to capture Frederick on the 6th 
 of September. Hagerstown succumbed the loth, and 
 on the 15th Stonewall Jackson seized Harpe:'s Ferry, 
 w^ith nearly twelve thousand prisoners. On the day 
 previous there had been a hard fought battle at South 
 Mountain. In this the Federals were victorious. 
 
 McClellan's army was now in the rear of Lee, who 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 4OI 
 
 fell back to Antietam creek and took up an important 
 position near Sharpsburg. Then followed two days 
 of skirmishing, terminating- on the 7th with one of the 
 decisive battles. Lee withdrew his forces and re- 
 crossed the Potomac, 
 
 McClellan moved to Rectortown, Virginia, where 
 he was superseded by General Burnside, who changed 
 the plan of the campaign and advanced to Fredericks- 
 burg. Again the two armies faced each other. Burn- 
 side's movement was delayed and it was not until the 
 12th day of December that a passage could be effected. 
 By this delay the Confederates had opportunity to for- 
 tify the heights south of the river and were enabled to 
 do vast damage to the Union forces. This ended 1862. 
 
 On the day after the battle of Malvern Hill Presi- 
 dent Lincoln issued a call for three hundred thousand 
 troops. During Pope's retreat from Malvern Hill he 
 had made another call iov three hundred thousand, diwd 
 to that was added a draft for three hundred thousand 
 more. Most of the demands were promptly met, and 
 it now became evident that the resources of the South 
 were inferior to those of the North. 
 
 January ist, 1863, the president issued the emanci- 
 pation proclamation. Now w^hen the war w^as begun 
 it was not for the purpose of emancipation, but to 
 prove the sovereignty of the union. During the 
 years of the war the sentiment of abolition of slavery 
 had grown rapidly, "and when it became a military 
 necessity to strike a blow at the labor system of the 
 South the step was taken with little opposition.'' 
 vSlavery had existed two hundred and forty-four years 
 in America. 
 
402 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 General Sherman despatched an expedition early in 
 January to take Arkansas Post on the Arkansas river. 
 The Union forces reached their destination on the loth 
 of the month, fought a battle with the Confederates 
 and won the day. The garrison surrendered nearly 
 five thousand prisoners. Very soon the union forces 
 were gathered together for the storming of Vicksburg. 
 General Grant spent three months among the bayous 
 around Vicksburg in the hope of getting a position in 
 the rear of the town. Canals were begun and washed 
 away by floods. At length it was determined to run 
 the fleet past the Vicksburg batteries. On the night 
 of the i6th the boats dropped down the river. The 
 batteries poured out shot and shell, but the swift 
 steamers were soon out of range and were but little 
 hurt. General Grant marched his land forces down 
 to form a junction with the squadron. May ist he 
 defeated the Confederates at Port Gibson. The 
 evacuation of the Grand Gulf came next. The Union 
 army now swept round to the rear of Vicksburg. On 
 the i2th of May a Confederate force was defeated at 
 Raymond. On the 14th a battle near Jackson resulted 
 in a Union victory. General Pemberton, commander 
 of Confederate forces, sallied forth with his forces 
 from Vicksburg, was defeated by Grant on the i6th 
 at Champion Hills and on the 17th at Black River 
 bridge. Pemberton then retreated inside the defences 
 of Vicksburg. And now the city w^as besieged. 
 Grant made an attack on it the 19th of May and 
 was repulsed with a terrible loss. The siege went on 
 and Admiral Porter bombarded the town incessantly. 
 Reinforcements came to Grant, but the city held out 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 4O3 
 
 until July 4th, when Pemberton was driven to sur- 
 render. The defenders of Vicksburg, numbering 
 thirty thousand, were made prisoners of war. Thou- 
 sands of small arms, hundreds of cannon and vast 
 quantities of ammunition w^ere the spoils of Grant. 
 
 General Banks had during this time been conduct- 
 ing a campaign on the lower Mississippi. From Baton 
 Rouge he advanced to Brashear City, and gained a 
 victory oyer the Confederates at Bayou Teche. He 
 then besieged Fort Hudson (the last on the river held 
 by Confederates), and the garrison, containing six 
 thousand men who made a gallant fight, were made 
 prisoners of war on the 8th of July. 
 
 The raid of Colonel Benjamin Grierson with the 
 sixth Illinois cavalry occurred before the siege of 
 Vicksburg. He started from La Grange, Tennessee, 
 traveled over Mississippi to the east of Jackson, cut the 
 railroads, destroyed the property, and after a rapid 
 course of eight hundred miles reached Baton Rouge. 
 Late in the spring Colonel Streight's command went 
 into Georgia, but w^ere surrounded and captured by 
 General Forrest. 
 
 It was late in June when General Rosecrans suc- 
 ceeded in crowding General Bragg out of Tennessee, 
 and then Rosecrans took post at Chattanooga on the 
 left bank of the Tennessee. Later in the summer 
 Bragg was reinforced by Johnston and Longstieet. 
 On the 19th of vSeptember General Bragg turned on 
 the Federals at Chickamauga creek, in the northwest 
 angle of Georgia. A hard battle was fought, but the 
 night came before it was decided. At daylight the 
 fight was renew^ed. After the conflict had continued 
 
404 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 for some hours the national battle line was opened by 
 a mistake of General Wood. Bragg quickly thrust a 
 heavy column into the g^ap, cut the Union army in 
 two and routed the right wing. General Thomas 
 desperately held the left until nightfall and then with- 
 drew to Chattanooga. The Union loss was nineteen 
 thousand and the Confederates lost even more. Bragg 
 then pressed forward to Chattanooga. General 
 Hooker, arriving with two corps from the Army of the 
 Potomac, opened the Tennessee and the danger for 
 the time was over. 
 
 General Grant now succeeded Thomas at Chatta- 
 nooga, and General Sherman arriving with his 
 division, offensive operations were at once renewed 
 on the 24th of November. Lookout Mountain (oc- 
 cupied by the Confederates) was stormed by the 
 division under General Hooker. The next day 
 Missionary Ridge was carried and Bragg's army fell 
 back to Ringgold. Burnside arrived at Knoxville 
 with his command on the 20th of November. The 
 Confederates attempted to carry the town by storm, 
 but were defeated. General Longstreet made the 
 charge and he then retreated to Virginia. Early in 
 1863 the Confederates resumed activity in Arkansas 
 and northern Missouri, and on the Sth of January they 
 attacked Springfield, Illinois, but were repulsed. 
 Three days later a battle was fought at Hartsville 
 with like results. The 26th of April General Marma- 
 duke» attacked the post at Cape Girardeau, but the 
 garrison drove the Confederate army away. July 4th 
 General Holmes made an attack on the Federals at 
 Helena, Arkansas, but was repulsed. On the 13th of 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 
 
 405 
 
 August Lawrence, Kansas, was sacked and a hundred 
 and forty persons killed by a band ot desperadoes led 
 by Chieftain Quantrell. On the loth of September 
 General Steele with Federal soldiers captured Little 
 Rock, Arkansas. 
 
 It was in the summer of this year that the Con- 
 federate General Morgan made his famous raid 
 through Kentucky, Indiana and Ohio. He was finally 
 captured near New Lisbon by a detachment of 
 General Shackleford, and imprisoned. After four 
 months, however, he escaped and made his way back 
 to Richmond. On January ist, 1863, General ISIa- 
 gruder captured Galveston, Texas, and by this means 
 the Confederates secured a port of entry in the south- 
 west. On the 7th of April, 1S63, Admiral Dupont 
 with a fleet of iron-clads attempted to capture Charles- 
 ton, but was driven back. In June she was besieged 
 by a large land force under General Q. A. Gillmore, 
 assisted by Admiral Dahlgren's fleet. When the 
 bombardment had continued some time General 
 Gillmore on July iSth attempted to carry Fort Wagner 
 by assault, but was severely repulsed. The siege pro- 
 gressed until the 6th of September, when the Con- 
 federates abandoned the fort and souofht shelter in 
 Charleston. Gillmore turned his guns on the wharves 
 and buildings in the lower part of the city, but 
 Charleston still held out, and the real gain of the 
 Federals was a complete blockade. 
 
 General Burnside (after his repulse at Fredericks- 
 burg) had been superseded by General Joseph Hooker, 
 who late in May crossed the Rappahannock and 
 reached Chancellorsville. Here on the morning of 
 
406 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 the 2nd of May he was attacked by Lee and Jackson, 
 commanding the Army of Northern Viginia. Jackson 
 at the head of twenty-five thousand men outflanked 
 the Union army, burst upon the right wing and swept 
 the very earth, but as the night came on the general 
 received a volley from his own soldiers and spoke no 
 more. The battle was renewed on the 3rd, General 
 Sedgwick was defeated and driven across the Rappa- 
 hannock. The main army lay between Chancellors- 
 villa and the river in a narrow space. On the 5th 
 General Hooker succeeded in withdrawing his forces 
 to the north bank. The Union losses were seventeen 
 thousand, the Confederates about twelve thousand. 
 The cavalry raid of General Stoneman came next. 
 He crossed the Rappahannock with ten thousand 
 men, tore up the Virginia Central railroad, cut General 
 Lee's communications, swept within a few miles of 
 Richmond and back across the river in safety. 
 
 General Lee now thought to take the war into the 
 North. Early in June he crossed the Potomac and 
 captured Hagerstown, Maryland ; on the 22d he entered 
 Chambersbufg, Pennsylvania, and passed on through 
 Carlisle to within a few miles of Harrisburg. The 
 militia was called out, and volunteers poured in from 
 other states. General Hooker pushed forward. Gen- 
 eral Lee concentrated his forces at Gettysburg. There 
 the two armies met, each numbering about eighty 
 thousand. Just on the eve of battle the command of 
 the Union forces was transferred to General Aleade, 
 who took a position on the hills surrounding Gettys- 
 burg, and the armies stood face to face. The conflict 
 began the ist day of July and for three days raged 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 407 
 
 with terrible fury. The victory was with the Army 
 of the United States, and Lee hurried back into Vir- 
 ginia. The Confederate loss was nearly thirty thou- 
 sand, the Federal loss twenty-three thousand six 
 hundred and eighty-six. 
 
 The Union army returned to the Potomac. A little 
 later West Virginia was separated from the old 
 dominion and became the thirty-fifth state in the 
 Union. 
 
 Early in February, 1864, General Sherman moved 
 from Vicksburg to Meridian. In this region the rail- 
 road tracks had been torn up for a hundred and fifty 
 miles. At Meridian General Sherman expected a 
 force of Federal cavalry which had been sent out 
 from Memphis under General Smith. The latter 
 advanced into Mississippi, but was met by the cavalry 
 of Forrest and turned back to Memphis. General 
 Sherman retraced his steps to Vicksburg. Forrest con- 
 tinued his raid to Paducah, Kentucky, and made an 
 assault on Fort Anderson, but was repulsed with a 
 severe loss. Turning back into Tennessee, he came 
 upon Fort Pillow on the Mississippi and took it by 
 storm. 
 
 In the spring of 1864 General Banks undertook the 
 Red River expedition. The object was to take 
 Shreveport, the seat of the Confederate government 
 of Louisiana. The Federal advance captured Fort de 
 Russy the 14th of March. The Confederates retreated 
 to Alexandria, and on the i6th that place was taken 
 by the Federals, and three days later Natchitoches 
 was captured. The fleet now proceeded up the 
 stream toward Shreveport and the land forces marched 
 
408 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMErTcA. 
 
 to the left. At Mansfied on the 8th of April the 
 advancing Federals were attacked by the Confederates 
 and completely routed, and at Pleasant Hill the next 
 day the main army suffered defeat. The flotilla now 
 descended the rivei towards Shreveport. The whole 
 expedition returned rapidly to the Mississippi. Mean- 
 time General Steele had advanced from Little Rock 
 to aid in taking Shreveport, but learning of the 
 Federal defeat he withdrew after some severe engage- 
 ments. 
 
 On the 2nd of March, 1864, General Grant was 
 appointed commander-in-chief of all the armies of the 
 United States. Seven hundred thousand soldiers were 
 at his command. Two great campaigns were planned 
 for this year. The Army of the Potomac under Gen- 
 eral Meade and the commander-in-chief was to 
 advance to Richmond. * General Sherman with a hun- 
 dred thousand men was to march from Chattanooga 
 to Atlanta. 
 
 On the 7th of May the Sherman forces moved. At 
 Dalton he turned Johnston's flank and obliged him to 
 fall back to Resaca. After two hard battles on the 
 14th and 15th Dalton was carried, the Confederates 
 retreating to Dallas, where Johnston made a second 
 stand on the 28th, but was again outflanked and com- 
 pelled to flee to Lost Mountain. He was driven from 
 this position on the 17th of June. He next made a 
 stand at Great and Little Kenesaw mountains. From 
 this line on the 22nd of June the division of General 
 Hood made a desperate attack, but only to be repulsed 
 with heavy losses. Five days later General Sherman 
 attempted to carry Great Kenesaw by storm, but 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 4O9 
 
 there was a serious repulse. Sherman resumed his 
 former tactics, and on the 3d of July compelled his 
 anta<yonist to retreat across the Chattahoochee, and bv 
 the loth of July the whole Confederate army of the 
 South had retired to Atlanta. This city was at once 
 besieged. It was the stronghold of the South. Here 
 v/ere the machine shops, foundries and car works of 
 the Confederacy. At the beginning of the siege 
 General Johnston was superseded by General Hood 
 The latter on the 20th, 22nd and 28th of July made three 
 assaults on the Union lines, and was repulsed with 
 heavy loss. General James B. McPherson was killed 
 in the battle of the 22nd. For more than a month the 
 siege was steadfast. At last Hood was obliged to 
 evacuate Atlanta, and the Union army marched into 
 the captured city. 
 
 General Hood, marching northward toward Ten- 
 nessee, went through northern Alabama and crossed 
 the river at Florence and advanced on Nashville. In 
 the meantime General Thomas had been detached 
 from Sherman's army and sent north to confront 
 Hood.~ General Schofield, commanding the army in 
 Tennessee, fell back before the Confederates and took 
 a position at Franklin, and here on the 30th of No 
 vember he was attacked by Hood's legions, and held 
 in check till nightfall, when he retreated within the 
 defenses at Nashville. All General Thomas' force 
 was here concentrated. Hood came on confident of 
 victory and prepared to begin the siege, but before he 
 had made scarce a beginning General Thomas fell 
 upon the Confederate army and routed it with a loss 
 of more than twent3^-five thousand men. Hood*s 
 
4IO FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 retreat was followed until they reached Alabama. 
 
 The 14th of November General Sherman burned 
 Atlanta and began his march to the sea. His army 
 numbered sixty thousand men. He cut his communi- 
 cations with the North, abandoned his base of supplies 
 and started for the coast, two hundred and fifty miles 
 away. His army passed through Macon and Mil- 
 ledgeville, crossed the Ogeechee, captured Gibson and 
 Waynesborough, and on the loth of Decembe'r arrived 
 near Savannah. On the 13th Fort McAllister was 
 taken by storm. On the night of the 20th General 
 Hardee, the Confederate commandant, escaped from 
 Savannah and retreated to Charleston. On the 22nd 
 General Sherman's headquarters were in Savannah. 
 
 January, 1865, was spent by the Union army at 
 Savannah. On February ist Sherman took up the 
 march to Columbia, South Carolina. There were not 
 sufficient Confederates to make him trouble. On the 
 same night Hardee, having destroyed the public prop- 
 erty of Charleston, kindled fires which laid in ashes 
 four squares and then ran away. The next morning the 
 National forces entered. From Charleston General 
 Sherman marched into North Carolina and on March 
 nth captured Fayetteville. 
 
 General Johnston was now recalled to the command 
 ot the Southern army, and he began to oppose the 
 march of the powerful army. At Averasborough on 
 Cape Fear river General Hardee made a stand, but 
 ^vas repulsed. General Johnston's army attacked the 
 Union forces on March 19th when they were ap- 
 proaching Bentonsville, and for a while the Union 
 forces were in danger, but hard fighting won the day, 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 4I I 
 
 and on the 21st Sherman entered Goldsborough, 
 where he was reinforced by Generals Schofield and 
 Terry. The Federal army turned to the north-west 
 and on April 13th entered Raleigh. Here on the 
 22nd of April General Johnston formally surrendered 
 his army to General Sherman. 
 
 During this war on land Admiral Farragut bore 
 down on the defences of Mobile, which consisted of 
 a monster iron-clad (the Tennessee) and Confederate 
 fleet. Farragut managed to run past Forts Morgan 
 and Gaines into the harbor, and it is related that in 
 order to direct the movements of his vessels he 
 mounted to the main top of the Hartford^ lashed him- 
 self to the rigging, and from that lofty place gave out 
 order's during the battle. One of his ships struck a 
 torpedo and sank. The rest dispersed the Confederate 
 squadron, but just as it seemed the day w^as won 
 the Tennessee came down upon the Hartford. The 
 Union ships closed around her and battered her with 
 fifteen inch bolts of iron until she surrendered. Next 
 came the capture of Fort Fisher, at the entrance 
 of Cape Fear river. In December Admiral Porter 
 was sent w^ith a large squadron to besiege and take 
 the fort. General Butler, commanding six thousand 
 and five hundred men, accompanied the expedition. 
 The troops went ashore on the 24th to storm the 
 works, but General Weitzel, who led, came near 
 enough to reconnoitre and decided that an assault 
 would not carry the fort. General Butler was of the 
 same opinion, so the enterprise was abandoned. Early 
 in January the siege w^as renewed and on the 15th 
 Fort Fisher was taken bv storm. 
 
4^2 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 During the war much damage was done by the 
 Confederate iron-clad ship. Lieutenant Gushing with 
 a number of volunteers on board a small steamer 
 entered the Roanoke and saw an immense iron ram, 
 the Albemarle^ lying in Plymouth harbor. Very 
 cautiously he approached and placed a torpedo be- 
 neath it. The ship was blown to pieces and all of 
 Lieutenant Cushing's men but one were lost also. 
 The Savannah was the first ship sent out. She was 
 captured the day she escaped from Charleston. In 
 June of 1861 the Stifnter^ commanded by Captain 
 Semmes, ran the blockade at New Orleans and did 
 tremendous execution with Union merchant ships. 
 But in February, 1862, Semmes was chased into the 
 harbor of Gibraltar, where he sold his vessel. The 
 Nashville ran out of Charleston and returned with a 
 cargo worth several million of dollars. In March, 
 1863, she was sunk by a Union iron-clad in the 
 Savannah river. When the Union vessels had 
 blockaded all the Southern ports the Confederates 
 built their monster cruisers in English ship yards. 
 The. Florida was built-in Liverpool harbor, and she 
 succeeded in getting into Mobile bay. She destroyed 
 fifteen merchantmen before she was captured and 
 sunk in Hampton Roads. The Georgia^ Olustee 
 Shenandoah and Chickamauga, all built at the ship 
 yards ot Glasgow, Scotland, worked ruin to many a 
 merchant ship of the United States. The Alabama 
 built at Liverpool, was the most destructive of all 
 Confederate ships. She destroyed sixty-six ships, 
 whose valuation with cargoes was more than 
 ten millions of dollars. She was commanded 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 4I3 
 
 Captain Semmes, who before that had com. 
 manded the Szcmter, In the whole career of the 
 Alabama she never entered a Confederate fort. The 
 Alabama was caught in the harbor of Cherbourg, 
 France, by Captain Winslow, commander of the 
 steamer Kearsarge. June 19th Semmes went out of 
 the harbor to give his antagonist battle. The fight 
 for an hour w^as desperate/ and then the Alabaina 
 >vas sunk. Semmes was picked up by the English 
 Deerhound and carried to England. 
 
 The night of May 3rd, 1864, the National camp at 
 Culpepper was broken and the march to Richmond 
 Tvas begun. The first day of the advance Grant 
 crossed the Rapidan and entered the wilderness, a 
 forest of thickets and oaks. He was immediately at- 
 tacked by the Confederate army. The fighting was in- 
 cessant during the 5th^ 6th and 7th of the month. There 
 were terrible losses on both sides, but nothing decisive. 
 Grant then made a flank inovement in the direction of 
 Spottsylvania Court House, and here from the 9th to 
 the 1 3th followed the bitterest struggle of the war. 
 The Federals gained some ground. They captured ' 
 General Stewart's division. The losses of the Con- 
 federates was less than the Nationals. Grant now 
 moved to the left, crossed the Famunkey and came to 
 Cold Harbor, twelve miles northwest of Richmond. 
 Here he attacked the Confederates on the ist of June, 
 ^ut was repulsed with serious losses. On the morn- 
 ing of the 3rd the assault was renewed and in thirty 
 minutes nearly ten thousand Union soldiers were 
 killed or wounded before the Confederate trenches. 
 The Federals lines never wavered, however. General 
 
414 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Grant now changed his base to James river. General 
 Butler had already taken City Point and the Bermuda 
 Hundred. On the 15th of June Butler was joined 
 by the whole of Grant's army. The combined forces 
 moved forward and began the siege of Petersburg. 
 
 In the Shenandoah valley very important move- 
 ments were going on. As soon as Grant moved from 
 the Rapidan, General Sigel marched up the valley 
 to New Market, where he met and was defeated by 
 the Confederate cavalry under General Breckinridge, 
 who after the victory returned to Richmond. The 
 Federals, perceiving his course, turned about, over- 
 took the Confederates at Piedmont, and gained a 
 signal victory, and from there Generals Hunter and 
 Averill advanced against Lynchburg, and so the valley 
 was again opened to invasion. 
 
 Lee dispatched General Early to cross the Blue 
 Ridge, invade Maryland and threaten Washington 
 city. Early at once began the march with twenty 
 thousand men, and on July 5th crossed the Potomac. 
 On the 9th he defeated the division of General 
 Wallace on [the Monocacy, but this battle saved 
 Washington and Baltimore from capture. General 
 Wright with his command followed close upon Early 
 as far as Winchester. There Early wheeled upon 
 Wright and the Union troops were forced to cross th-e 
 Potomac. Early marched to Chambersburg, Pennsyl- 
 vania, which he burned. 
 
 General Grant now gave General Philip H. Sheridan 
 command of the army of the upper Potomac. Thf> 
 troops placed at his disposal were about forty thou- 
 sand. On the 19th of September Sheridan marched 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 415 
 
 upon Early at Winchester and routed him by hard 
 fighting. On the 22d he gained another victory at 
 Fisher's Hill. Sheridan turned the attention of his 
 troops to devastating the valley and soon there was 
 nothing worth fighting about between the Blue 
 Ridge and the Alleghanies. Maddened by his defeats, 
 Early rallied his forces and again entered the valley. 
 Sheridan, having posted his men on Cedar Creek, felt 
 secure in leaving the army and going to Washington. 
 On the 19th of October Early surprised the camp, 
 captured the artillery, and sent the routed soldiers in 
 great confusion to Winchester. The Confederates 
 pursued as far as Middletown, and there paused to eat 
 and rest. On the previous night Sheridan had returned 
 to Winchester, and was now coming to rejoin his 
 army. He rode (as Jehu might have done under the 
 circumstances) twelve miles, rallied the fugitives, and 
 gained one of the most distinguished victories of the 
 war, Early's army being completely ruined. 
 
 All through the fall and winter the siege of Peter- 
 burg still went on. The 30th of July a mine was ex- 
 ploded under one of the forts, but the assaulting com- 
 pany were repulsed forcibly. A divison of the Union 
 army seized the Weldon railroad and held it against 
 several assaults. This was on the i8th of August. 
 Battery Harrison was stormed by the Federals Sep- 
 tember 28th, and on the next day General Paine's 
 brigade carried the redoubt on Spring Hill. On the 
 27th of October Boydton road was the scene of 
 another battle, which ended the campaign, the army 
 going into winter quarters. 
 
 Sheridan stained a victory over Early on the 27th of 
 
416 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 February and then joined the commander-in-chief. A 
 severe battle was fought April ist at Five Forks. 
 The Confederates w^ere defeated with a loss of six 
 thousand prisoners. The next day Grant ordered a 
 general assault on the lines of Petersburg and the 
 place was carried. On Ihat night Lee and the Con- 
 federate government shook off the dust of Richmond. 
 The next morning it was filled with Federal troops. 
 The Confederates before leaving burned the ware- 
 houses and the best part of the city. 
 
 The Confederate army retreated as fast as possible 
 to the southwest. At Deatonsville, when hard 
 pressed by the pursuing army, they did turn and fight. 
 The pursuit was kept up for five days, and then Lee 
 was brought to bay at Appomatox court house. It 
 was the 9th of April, 1865, when the Army of North 
 Virginia surrendered and the Confederacy was no 
 more. 
 
 General Grant gave Lee and his army the most 
 liberal terms known in war. Federal authority was 
 speedily established in the South. Mr. Davis and 
 his cabinet escaped to Danville, and for a few days 
 kept up the form of government. From Danville 
 they fled into North Carolina. The ex-president con- 
 tinued his flight into Georgia, and encamped near 
 Irwinsville, where he fell into the hands of General 
 Wilson's cavalry on May loth. He was taken to 
 Fortress Monroe and confined until May, 1867, when 
 he was carried to Richmond to be tried for treason. 
 He was admitted to bail and the case dismissed. 
 
 At the election in 1864 President Lincoln was re- 
 elected. Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was elected 
 
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LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 
 
 417 
 
 vice president. Nebraska came into the union, the 
 • thirty sixth state. The gold and silver mines of 
 Nevada now exceeded those of California. The New 
 York quotations of gold were on January ist, 152 ; 
 April ist, 166^; July ist, 245; October ist, 191^ tO" 
 193^. The market price of middling upland cotton in 
 New York on January ist, 1S64, was 81 to 82 cents ; 
 on April ist, 76 cents ; on July ist, $1.50 to $1.52 :. 
 and on October ist, $1.15 to $1.20. 
 
 In the year 1S62 the expenses of the army averaged 
 a million of dollars daily. This was greatly increased 
 afterward, and to pay off the debt congress provided 
 an internal revenue — made up from two sources — one- 
 on manufactures, salaries and incomes ; the other a 
 stamp on all legal documents. Then came the issue-- 
 of legal tender notes of the United States used as; 
 money. These were the greenbacks. These notes 
 were redeemable after certain times in specie. The 
 third source of revenue was the sale of United States 
 bonds. The interest on these were six per cent, pay- 
 able in gold semi-annually. Then congress passed an. 
 act providing for the establishment of national banks.. 
 National bonds instead of gold and siver were used as a. 
 basis of the circulation of these banks, and the redemp-- 
 tion of their bills was guaranteed by the treasury of the: 
 United States. The lowest denomination of paper- 
 money (then vulgarly called shin-plasters) was three: 
 cents. 
 
 At that time everything was high. In the Nortb 
 good calico, such as sells for 8 cents in 1S92, cost 75 
 cents per yard ; bleached muslin or shirting sometimes 
 cost 80 cents ; white sugar of the quality known as 
 
4l8 FOUR IILWDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 coffee A was 75 cents per pound. Goods of all kinds 
 were much more expensive. I have seen a little 
 pink calico gown made from seven yards of material 
 that cost three hundred dollars in Confederate money. 
 During the war the national debt had reached 
 nearly three tJtousand millions of dollars. President 
 Lincoln was inaugurated for his second term on the 
 4th of March, 1S65. On the evening of the 14th of 
 April the president with his wife and a party of 
 friends attended Ford's theatre in Washington. As 
 the play neared the close John Wilkes Booth, a de- 
 generate son of the great actor, slipped into the presi- 
 dent's box and shot him through the upper part of the 
 head. The president became unconscious until morn- 
 ing, when his sufferings were ended. The tragic 
 death just after peace had been declared filled the 
 whole North with the deepest sorrow. The bells that 
 had not ceased to ring the joyful news of peace now 
 tolled their grief from the Atlantic to the Pacific. No 
 loyal man or woman was so poor that a badge of 
 mourning fastened somewhere on the house did not 
 tell of the heartache inside. Cities were draped with 
 black for thirty days. Lincoln, like Wasliington, was 
 universally beloved. While the assassination was 
 going on in the theater another murderer, Lewis 
 Payne Powell, burst into the chamber of Secretary 
 Seward, sprang upon the bed where the sick old man 
 lay, and stabbed him. The news was quickly spread, 
 and the city thoroughly alarmed. Troops of cavalry 
 departed in all directions to hunt down the assassins. 
 Booth was found on the 26th of April hidden in a 
 barn near Fredericksburg. He refused to surrender 
 
LINCOLN AND THE REBELLION. 4I9 
 
 and was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett. Powell 
 was caught and hung. David E. Harrold and George 
 A. Atzerott and Mrs. Mary E. Surratt, at whose 
 house the plot was laid, were condemned and exe- 
 cuted. Michael O'Laughlin, Dr. Samuel A. Mudd 
 and Samuel Arnold were sentenced to imprisonment 
 for life and Edward Spangler for six years. 
 
 The funeral and procession to Springfield, Illinois 
 was the most imposing of any recorded in the history 
 of the world. The embalmed body resting in the 
 coffin was placed on a m.agnilicent catafalque in the 
 green room of the White House nearly filled with 
 flowers. The exercises took place in the east room. 
 Rev. Drs. Hall, Gurley and Gray and Bishop Simpson 
 officiating. The throng of dignitaries was such as 
 had never been gathered together under one roof be- 
 fore. When the services were concluded the casket 
 « was placed in the hearse and gonveyed slowly along 
 Pennsylvania avenue. Mournful dirges changed to a 
 requiem as they reached the Capitol and were ^^e- 
 sponded to by miriute guns from the fortifications. 
 The body was borne into the rotunda and the religious 
 exercises completed by Dr. Gurley, and then all that 
 was mortal of the beloved president, guarded by his 
 tried and true veterans, lay in state. Thousands of 
 people came to take a last look, and on the morrov^ 
 began the long, long journey. It was the 21st of 
 April when the cortege left Washington. It was the 
 4th of May when "ashes to ashes, dust to dust," was 
 repeated as they laid him down to. the long rest God 
 gives his beloved. 
 
CHAPTER XLVII. 
 Johnson's administration. 
 
 /\ NDREW JOHNSON became president on the 
 day after the assassination. He was born in 
 1800 and was a native of Raleigh, North 
 Carolina. He had no educational advantages in his 
 boyhood. He removed to Greenville, Tennessee, in 
 1828, He was a tailor by trade. His wife had some 
 educational advantages, and she taught him to read 
 and write, and then he grew to "love learning for 
 learning's sake." He soon rose to distinction and was 
 sent to congress. As a member of the United States 
 senate in 1860-61 he opposed secession to his utmost.^ 
 In 1862 he was appointed military governor of 
 Tennessee. This office he held until elected vice- 
 president. 
 
 On the 29th of May the ammesty proclamation was 
 issued by the president. By its provisions "a pardon 
 -was extended to all persons (except those specified in 
 <:ertain classes) who had taken part in upholding the 
 Confederacy." 
 
 During the summer of 1865 the great armies were 
 discharged and the soldiers returned to their homes. 
 The war debt was increasing so rapidly (interest counts 
 so fast when it gets into the hundred millions) that 
 the yearly interest grew to a hundred and thirty-three 
 millions in _s:'old. Government expenses were two 
 
JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION. 42 I 
 
 hundred millions yearly. But the national revenues 
 were sufficient and the debt shrank very fast. 
 
 Napoleon III, the nephev^ of his illustrous uncle, 
 had during the civil war set up a little empire of his 
 own in Mexico. In 1864 ^^^ Mexican crown was 
 conferred on Maximilian of Austria, very little above 
 an imbecile, who sustained his authority by French 
 and Austrian soldiers. The Mexican president Juarez 
 headed a revolution. The government of the United 
 States feared not to rebuke France. Napoleon went 
 home with his army and Maximilian was forced to 
 flee to Queretaro, where he was besieged and taken 
 prisoner. He was tried and condemned to be shot 
 and the sentence executed on the 19th of June, 1867. 
 
 On March 30th a treaty was signed by the pleni- 
 polentiary of the emperor of Russia and the president 
 of the United States, the ratification of which by the 
 respective powers were exchanged on the 20th of June 
 following. By this treaty the tract of land known as 
 Russian America was ceded to the United States for 
 the consideration of the sum of seven million two 
 hundred thousand dollars. This territory is now known 
 as Alaska. Its area is estimated at five hundred 
 thousand square miles, with a coast line greater than 
 that of the United States on the Atlantic Ocean and 
 Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 The Cincinnati suspension bridge across the Ohio 
 river connecting Covington with Cincinnati was com- 
 pleted and opened for travel this year (1S67). In the 
 summer and autumn New Orleans and other cities in 
 the southwest were scourged with yellow fever. On 
 the 23rd of January, 1868, the East river between New 
 
422 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 York and Brooklyn was bridged over with ice and 
 the number of people who crossed the temporary 
 bridge was estimated at five thousand. The price of 
 gold this year ranged between 133 and 143, very little 
 fluctuation. The export of tobacco in this year was 
 184,803,005 pounds. The Atlantic telegraph cable 
 after a few weeks could not be managed successfully. 
 But Mr. Field continued to advocate the practical 
 utility of it and he crossed the ocean fifty times trying 
 to get sufficient capital to lay another cable. The 
 work was begun from the coast of Ireland in the 
 summer of 1865, but the cable parted and was lost. 
 In July a third cable two thousand miles in length 
 was carried on board the Gi'eat Easter7i and again 
 the great work v^as commenced, and this time suc- 
 cessfully completed. Congress had a gold medal 
 struck for him and as a public benefactor his name 
 will live forever. 
 
 It was only a short time after the beginning of 
 President Johnson's administration when a disagree- 
 ment arose between congress and the president. This 
 difficulty was about the reorganization of the Southern 
 states. The disputed point was the relations these 
 states had sustained to the union during the civil war. 
 The president held that the ordinances of secession 
 were null and void, and that the seceded states had not 
 bec7t out of the union. The majority in congress held 
 that secession was illegal and unconstitutional, but 
 that these states had been detached from the union, 
 and that special legislation was necessary to restore 
 them to their former relation. The president com- 
 menced measures of reconstruction in 1S65. On the 
 
JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION. 433 
 
 9th of May a proclamation was issued for receiving. 
 Virginia again into the union. A provisional govern- 
 ment was established over South Carolina on the 
 29th of the sam.e month, and measures very similar 
 were adopted for the remaining Southern "states. All 
 restrictions on trade and commerce with the Southern 
 states were removed on June 24th. A second amnesty 
 proclamation was issued on the 7th of September, by 
 which all persons who had upheld the Confederate 
 cause excepting the leaders were unconditionally 
 pardoned. Meanwhile Tennessee had been reor- 
 ganized and restored to the Union in 1866. 
 
 A committee of fifteen members was appointed at 
 the following meeting of congress to which all ques- 
 tions were referred concerning the reorganization of the 
 Southern states. In accordance with measures re- 
 ported by this committee Arkansas, Alabama, Georgia, 
 Florida, Lousiana, North Carolina and South Carolina 
 were reconstructed and in June and July of 1868 re- 
 admitted to the union. The civil rights bill in the 
 meantime had been passed in congress. This gave all 
 the rights and privileges of citizens to the freedmen of 
 the South. It was passed over the veto of the president^ 
 who was opposed to both bills. 
 
 Then another difficulty arose which led to his im- 
 peachnxent. He had notified Edwin M. Stanton, 
 secretary of war, of his dismissal from office on 
 February 3ist, 1868. This was believed by congress 
 to be a usurpation of authority and a violation of law. 
 Articles of impeachment were agreed to by the house 
 of representatives on March 3rd and the president was 
 summoned before the senate for trial, which was con- 
 
434 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 tinued for nearly two months and ended in acquittal. 
 Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase of Ohio presided dur- 
 ing the trial. 
 
 The time for another election was at hand and 
 General Ulysses S. Grant was nominated by the 
 Republican party, and Horatio Seymour of New York 
 by the Democrats. The canvass was an animated one. 
 General Grant was elected by a large majority and 
 Schuyler Colfax of Indiana vice-president. 
 
CHAPTER XLVni. 
 
 grant's administration. 
 
 THE eighteenth president was born in Ohio and 
 at the age of seventeen entered West Point and 
 was graduated in 1843. He served with dis- 
 tinction during the Mexican war, but the capture of 
 Forts Henry and Donelson won him a national repu- 
 tation. In March, 1864, he was appointed lieutenant- 
 general and commander-in-chief of the Union army. 
 
 The Pacific railroad was the first great event in the 
 new administration. Congress authorized the forma- 
 tion of Wyoming territory and extended the laws of 
 the United States to Alaska and formed that territoy 
 into one district. The president was given power to 
 regulate the importation of arms, ammunition and 
 spirits into Alaska, and the secretary of the treasury 
 to regulate the fur trade and seal hunting there. The 
 secretary of state announced that the fourteenth 
 amendment of the constitution had been accepted by 
 three-fourths of the states and was therefore part of the 
 constitution. Early in 1869 the fifteenth amendment 
 was adopted by congress providing that the right of 
 citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged on 
 account of race, color or previous condition of servi- 
 tude. This clause was proclaimed a part of the con- 
 stitution on March 30th, 1870. In the first three 
 months 01 the same year the completion of reorganiz- 
 ing the remaining Southern states was announced. 
 
426 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 In this year the ninth census of the United States was 
 taken. Though so many thousands of men had been 
 swept from the earth by the long war, the ten years 
 that had elapsed had been a period of success and 
 great growth. The population was now thirty-eight 
 million five hundred and eighty-seven souls. The 
 national debt was decreasing very fast. The prod- 
 ucts of the United States had grown tremendously. 
 American manufactures were equalling those of 
 Europe. There were thirty-eight states and eleven 
 territories. 
 
 The year of 1871 was noted for the burning of 
 Chicago. The area destroyed was t^vo thousand one 
 hundred acres. About two hundred lives were lost* 
 In October there were very destructive fires in the 
 north-west — Wisconsin, Central Minnesota and Michi- 
 gan — towns, villages and forests all disappeared ; 
 nothing but the naked earth was left. The eve of 
 another election drew near. The president's adminis- 
 tration had been criticised. , 
 
 Reconstruction had been unfavorably received m the 
 South. The fifteenth amendment was not at all liked 
 in the South and all the bitterness of the long war 
 was not subdued, and on these issues there was a divi- 
 sion of the people in the election of 1872. The Re- 
 publicans renominated General Grant for president 
 and Henry Wilson of Massachusetts for vice-president. 
 Horace Greeley was nominated by the Liberal Repub- 
 licans and Democrats. He Avas a remarkable man, 
 wise, just and good. He had been a leader of the 
 people for thirty years as editor of the New York 
 Tribune The canvass Avas one of the most exciting 
 
grant's administration. 427 
 
 in our history. Mr. Greeley was overwhelmingly 
 defeated, and according to nearly all political papers 
 he who had been considered so wise before was now 
 little better than a fool. It broke the old man's heart 
 and he lived but thirty days afterward, and then every 
 newspaper in the la7id lauded him to the skies. Such 
 an uncertain thing is public opinion. 
 
 Boston was nearly burned on the 9th of November. 
 The burnt district was in the best part of the city and 
 covered an area of sixty-five acres. Eight hundred 
 buildings and property to the amount of eighty mill- 
 ions was destroyed. Fifteen lives were lost. 
 
 In the spring of 1873 the Modocs were to be re- 
 moved to a new reservation. They, however, decided 
 to stay where they were, and it took a small army to 
 make them reconsider their determination and cost the 
 lives of several noble white men and some bad Indians. 
 
 In 1873 a difficulty arose in Louisiana which threat- 
 ened the peace of the country and troops were twice 
 despatched before everything became serene. 
 
 The credit mobilier investigation by congress was 
 a subject over which the country was much agitated. 
 It was 2i gigantic steal which reflected small credit on 
 certain members of congress. Others had been drawn 
 into it without understanding the nature of the trans- 
 actions. 
 
 In the fall occurred one of the most disastrous finan- 
 cial panics known in America. The failure of Jay 
 Cooke & Company of Philadelphia was the first, and 
 then bank after bank failed until it seemed as though 
 the only comfortably happy people were those who 
 i.ever had any money in any bank. 
 
428 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Many public men had fallen out of the ranks in 
 the past few years — Edwin M. Stanton in December, 
 1869 ; General Robert E. Lee (president of the Wash- 
 ington and Lee university), 1870; and in the same 
 year the two Union veterans General George H. 
 Thomas and Admiral Farragut ; in 1872 William 
 n. Seward, Professor Morse (the inventor of teleg- 
 raphy), Horace Greeley and General Meade. On 
 May 7th, 1873, Chief Justice Chase suffered a stroke of 
 paralysis and passed on, and on the nth of March, 
 1874, Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts ; on 
 the 31st of May, 1875, Andrew Jackson, ex-president 
 of the United States ; on the 22d of November follow- 
 ing Vice-President Henry Wilson. 
 
 As the year 1876 approached the people were 
 anxious to demonstrate the growth of the country and 
 its marvellous resources. The city where freedom 
 sprang into existence seemed the most "fitting one for 
 many reasons, and in it was held the centennial of Amer- 
 ica?i independence. In Fairmount park on the Schuylkill 
 were erected beautiful buildings, and before the open- 
 ing in May were filled with productions not only of 
 America, but articles of art and beauty from almost 
 every nation on the globe. The gate receipts 
 amounted to more than three million seven hundred 
 thousand dollars. » 
 
 There was a war with the Sioux Indians the last 
 year of Grant's administration. General Custer and 
 all his command were destroyed and the battles were 
 many after the loss of this brave general, but at length 
 the savages were driven into the British territory, 
 scornfully refusing all ofTers of peace. 
 
grant's administration. 
 
 429 
 
 About the ist of August, 1876, Colorado entered 
 the union, the thirty-eighth member. The population 
 numbered forty-five thousand. Until 1850 Colorado 
 had been a part of Kansas. In that year a convention 
 was held in Denver and a district terrritorial govern- 
 ment was organized. 
 
 The twenty-third presidential election was, as had 
 been the previous one, a very exciting one. General 
 Rutheford B. Hayes, of Ohio, was the choice of the 
 Republican party and William A. Wheeler of New 
 York vice-president. Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, 
 and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana, were the Demo- 
 cratic nominees. The independent Greenback party 
 nominated Peter Cooper of New York and Samuel F. 
 Gary of Ohio. The canvass was spirited from the be- 
 ginning and began early, too. Tne contest lay be- 
 tween the Democrats and Republicans. The votes 
 were counted and both parties claimed the victory. 
 There were many reasons why the true vote could not 
 be ascertained. There had been much irregularity in 
 the elections in South Carolina, Florida, Louisiana, 
 and Oregon, and the power of congress over the 
 electoral college was so ill-defined that no certain re- 
 sult could be announced. For the first time in the 
 history of over a hundred years there were two 
 presidents elect. The Democrats were so firmly Or 
 the opinion that Tilden was elected that they had re. 
 joicings galore all over the land. But when congress 
 convened in December the whole question came be- 
 fore that body. After many debates it was agreed 
 that the election returns should be decided by a joint 
 liiiSh couimission consistinsf of five members chosen 
 
43^ FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 from the senate, five from the house of representatives 
 and five from the supreme court. The commission was 
 constituted, the returns of the disputed states referred 
 to the tribunal and the Republican candidates were 
 declared elected. One hundred and Jive electoral 
 votes were cast for Hayes 'and Wheeler and one hu?i- 
 dred and four for Tilden and Hendricks. 
 
CHAPTER XLIX. 
 
 HAYES' ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 THE nineteenth president was born in Delaware, 
 Ohio, October 4th, 1822. His ancestors were 
 revolutionary soldiers. He graduated from 
 Kenyon college when twenty years of age. His legal 
 studies were completed in 1845 ^^^^ he began the 
 practice ot his profession first at Marietta, then at 
 Fremont and later at Cincinnati as city solicitor. He 
 arose to the distinction of major-general during the 
 war and while still in the army was elected to con- 
 gress in 1864. In 1867 he was elected governor of 
 Ohio and was re-elected the following: term and also 
 in 1875. '^^^ policy of his administration was shown 
 in his inaugural address. The conciliatory as well as 
 patriotic sentiment had a peaceful effect on the bitter 
 and almost turbulent spirit of partisanship which had 
 so disturbed the country. The 8th of March the 
 cabinet was formed — William M. Evarts of New 
 York secretary of state, John Sherman of Ohio secre- 
 tary of the treasury, George W. McCrary of Iowa 
 secretary of war, Richard W. Thompson of Indiana 
 secretary of the navy, Carl Schurz of Missouri secretary 
 of the interior, David M. Key of Tennessee postmaster- 
 general, Charles Devens of Massachusetts attorney- 
 general. The nominations were duly ratified and the 
 new administration commenced its duties. 
 
 In the summer of 1877 occurred the great railroad 
 
432 FOUR HUND11P:D years ok AMERICA. 
 
 strike. The managers of the leading raih^oads from 
 coast to coast had declared a reduction of wages and 
 this measure was violently resisted by the employes 
 on the railroads. The men gathered their forces 
 together at Baltimore and Martinsburg, West 
 Virginia, so as to stop the passage of trains 
 and defy officials. The militia was called out by 
 Governor Matthews and sent to Martinsburg, but 
 ^were soon sent home again by the strikers. Then the 
 regulars came and the blockade was removed. But 
 at Baltimore there was a terrible tumult and some 
 shedding of blood. The strike became epidemic. 
 Trains were stopped everywhere, business was de- 
 stroyed. Pittsburgh was under mob law ruled by 
 twenty thousand dangerous men. The union depot, 
 all the machine shops and railroad buildings were 
 -destroyed. A hundred and twenty- five locomotives 
 and two thousand five hundred cars laden with all 
 Tcinds of valuable products were also destroyed. A 
 riot similar, but not as large, occurred in Chicago, and 
 the next was at St. Louis, and then San Francisco, Cin- 
 cinnati, Columbus, Louisville, Indianapolis and Fort 
 Wayne were in dread and danger, but escaped serious 
 havoc. 
 
 The Nez Perces Indians of Idaho commenced 
 depredations in 1877. A treaty hnd been made with 
 them m 1S06, and all had been peace with them until 
 now. General Howard commanded the campaign 
 and was exceedingly successful. 
 
 The first business telephone was put in operation in 
 Boston this year. It was from the house of Charles 
 Williams in Somerville to his business office, three 
 
HAVES AUMlNISTJiA riON. 433 
 
 miles away. The instrument attached was patented 
 by Alexander Graham Bell of Boston. 
 
 In the fall of 1877 the nation mourned the death of 
 Oliver P. Morton of Indiana, a leader in the affairs of 
 the nation. He was only fifty-four and died of paral- 
 ysis. 
 
 The resumption of specie payments by the United 
 States government was commenced January ist, 1874. 
 Only $11,000,000 in greenbacks were presented for 
 redemption that day, though it was known that 
 the treasury contained $138,000,000, mostly in gold 
 coin, and when the people knew they could get gold 
 for their greenbacks they did not want it — paper was 
 ^o much more convenient. 
 
 A disastrous fire occurred in the town of Reno, 
 Nevada, consuming a million dollars worth of prop- 
 erty. On the 30th of May a tornado in parts of Mis- 
 souri, Kansas and Nebraska did vast damage. The 
 water was scooped from rivers and wells. The lives 
 of more than forty persons were lost, and the injured 
 were twice as many. 
 
CHAPTER L. 
 
 GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 AT the presidential election of 1880 James A. 
 Garfield was nominated by the Republican 
 party, with Chester A. Arthur of New York 
 as vice-prtsident. General Winfield Scott Hancock 
 and William H. English of Indiana were the Demo- 
 cratic nominees, Samuel Tilden declining to run. The 
 electoral vote stood two hundred and fourteen for 
 Garfield, and one hundred and fifty-five for Hancock . 
 James A. Garfield, the twentieth president, was born 
 November 19th, 1S31, in Orange Woods, Cuyahoga 
 county, Ohio. His parents were of New England 
 ancestry and came from families well known in the 
 early 4iistory of our country. They had moved to the 
 Western Reserve in Ohio about the time it was 
 opened. 
 
 Like many of our western presidents, his early 
 education was limited. He was a graduate from Wil- 
 liams college in 1856, and was elected to the Ohio 
 senate in 1859. When volunteers were called for he 
 enlisted and received his commission as lieutenant- 
 celonel of the forty-second Ohio volunteers. He 
 showed so much ability in the management of his 
 forces in driving Humphrey Marshall out of Ken- 
 tucky, that President Lincoln commissioned him 
 bngadier-general. As two years previous he had 
 been the youngest man in the senate, so he was now 
 
GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATIONS. 435 
 
 the youngest general in the army. At Chickamauga 
 he won the stars of major-general. 
 
 He was elected to congress in 1S63. It was a 
 struggle for him to resign his position in the army. 
 At the time he entered congress he was the youngest 
 member. In January, iSSo, General Garfield was 
 elected to the United States senate. He was elected 
 president in November of the same year, and inaugu- 
 rated in March, iSSi, and murdered while in the 
 depot at Washington, July ist, on his way to Wil- 
 liams college to meet his old friends. A cowardly 
 assassin stepped behind him, put a revolver at his 
 back and fired it. For eighty long, hot days he 
 suffered. Death mercifully released him September 
 19th. The universal sorrow for this brilliant man, cut 
 down when he had reached the highest office it was 
 in the powder of his country to bestow, w as deep and 
 more widespread than that of Lincoln ; for peace had 
 so long reigned that the bitter spiiit which was felt 
 soon after the war had passed away and the people of 
 the South mingled their tears and prayers wath those 
 of the people of the North. Again a murdered presi- 
 dent lay on a magnificent catafalque, whose base was 
 a inass of floral offerings, and again the people came 
 to gaze on the majesty of death. Again a long train 
 of cars heavily draped bore a slain president on his 
 last journey. Again were cities on the route draped 
 in mourning and all along the route solemn dirges 
 voiced the people's sorrow. They laid him to rest in 
 the beautiful Lake View cemetery of Cleveland, Ohio. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur, vice-president of the United 
 States, took the presidential oath on the nigfht of 
 
43^ FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 Garfield's death, first in the city of New York and on 
 the 2ist of September in the presence of the judges of 
 the supreme court in the capital. He wab the twenty- 
 first president. lie was born in Franklin county, 
 Vermont, on the 5 th of October, 1830. He was 
 educated at Union college, Schenectady. General 
 Arthur was a delegate to the convention at Saratoga 
 that founded the Republican party. Belore the war 
 he was judge-advocate of the second brigade of the 
 state militia of New York, and Governor Morgan of 
 that state appointed him engineer-in-chief of his staff, 
 in 1 86 1 he became inspector-general and soon after- 
 wards quartermaster-general, and it is said that in 
 each of these offices he rendered srreat service durinsr 
 the war. He was appointed collector of the port of 
 New York by President Grant. 
 
 Guiteau, the murderer of President Garfield, was 
 arraigned in Washington. His trial lasted tt n weeks. 
 He was sentenced to be hanged and the sentence 
 executed the 30th of June, 1S82. 
 
 The town of New Ulm in Minnesota was struck by 
 a cyclone on the i8th of July rnd more than a hundred 
 houses demolished and thirty persons killed or serious- 
 ly injured. Early in September serious forest fires be- 
 gan in eastern IMichigan, spreading over Huron, 
 Sanilac and Tuscola counties. Three hundred persons 
 were burned to death and a vast amount of property 
 was destroyed. The star route trials occurred this year — 
 one of the most noted and political and criminal 
 events in the history of the United State After a 
 six months' trial in court, and the whole prooccution 
 lasting eighteen months, the jury acquitted Brady 
 
GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATIONS. 437 
 
 and the Dorseys, to the amazement of all intelligent 
 readers of the daily papers. In this year ( 1S82) a law 
 was passed excluding newly immigrated Chinese labor- 
 ers from the United States, and requiring those already 
 here to take out certificates in order, if they left the 
 United States, to prove their identity when they re- 
 turned. A strong law of this kind was enacted in 
 1879, but President Hayes vetoed it. Congress also 
 passed the most effective anti-polygamy laws re- 
 corded on the statute books. It disenfranchised and 
 rendered ineligible to office all polygamists. Senator 
 Edmunds was the originator of the bill and it was 
 named for him. Jn March of this year there was a 
 tremendous overflow of the Mississippi. According 
 to a report made to the secretary of war, eighty-five 
 thousand persons were rendered destitute by the floods^ 
 The 18th of June was marked^ by a cyclone passing 
 over the town of Grinnell, Iowa, and destroying half 
 the town and killing more than one hundred persons. 
 The year 1883 was marked by the opening of the East 
 river bridge connecting Brooklyn with New York 
 on the 34th of May. It is about six thousand feet long, 
 including the approaches, and in summer the highest 
 point of the arch is one hundred and thirty-five feet 
 above the river. The stone towers on either side are two 
 hundred and seventy-six feet and nine inches high, 
 and the mass of masonry in which the wires are 
 fastened stretches back nine hundred and thirty feet 
 from the water. This bridge was designed by John 
 A. Roebling, of Trenton, New Jersey, builder of the 
 first suspension bridge at Niagara and many others. 
 It is said that his wife assisted him greatly in his 
 
43S FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA 
 
 plans and understood so thoroughly the work that 
 she was enabled to carry on the work after his death, 
 which occurred in 1869 from lockjaw. 
 
 The rate of postage for letters in America was re- 
 duced to two cents, and the transmission of money by 
 postal note began in September. Congress reduced 
 the tariff and removed nearly all of the remaining 
 internal revenue tax. The Northern Pacific railroad 
 was finished on August 23nd. The survivors of the 
 Greely party were brought from the Arctic region? by 
 a special relief expedition under Commodore Schley 
 of the United States navy. In the summer of 18S1 
 Lieutenant A. W. Greely, commanding a party of 
 soldiers, was sent to Fort Conger, Lady Franklin bay, 
 by the signal service of the United States. There were 
 about a dozen such expeditions sent out at various 
 circumpolar stations established by several countries 
 for scientific observation for a year or two. Great 
 difficulty was experienced in getting supplies to this 
 expedition. The steam wheeler Proteics^ under com- 
 mand of Lieutenant E. A. Garlington was crushed in 
 the ice and sank, the commander and crew barely 
 escaping with their lives and suffering greatly 
 before they reached the companion ship Ta7itick^ 
 which had been left at Upernavik. Commo 
 dore Schley found Greely and six companions 
 alive. Two died on the homeward voyage. Eighteen 
 were already dead. 
 
 In the presidential campaign of 1884 James G. 
 Blaine, of Maine, and John A. Logan, of Illinois, were 
 the candidates of the Republican party. Grover 
 Cleveland and Thomas A. Hendricks of Indiana were 
 
GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATIONS. 439 
 
 the Democratic nominees. The Southern issue was 
 entirely ignored by the Republicans, who staked their 
 all on the tariff. The election, however, was very 
 close. Enough Republicans in New York state 
 voted for Cleveland to give the balance in his favor. 
 Out of 07ie' niillioit one hundred thousand woi^xs in 
 New York Cleveland's plurality was one thousand and 
 forty-seven. But as the election depended upon New 
 York Cleveland was elected. He received the support 
 of every Southern state, besides New York, Connecti- 
 cut, New Jersey and Indiana. The electoral vote for 
 Cleveland was two hundred and nineteen ; for Blaine 
 one hundred and eighty-two. 
 
CHAPTER LI. 
 
 Cleveland's administration. 
 
 STEPHEN GROVER CLEVELAND was born 
 in the little town of Caldwell, Essex counlw 
 New Jersey, in 1837. ^^® father was a Presb) - 
 terian minister, who when Grover was three years old 
 moved to Fayetteville on the Hudson river and Eric 
 canal. Here he went to the village school for a time, 
 afterwards going to the academy at Clinton. He 
 studied law in the office of Rogers, Bowen & Rogers 
 of Buffalo. He was elected mayor of that city in 
 1881 and governor of New York in 1882. He was 
 nominated for president July nth, 1884, in the Demo- 
 cratic convention at Chicago. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1881^, he took the oath of 
 office and commenced his administration by appoint- 
 ing the following cabinet : Thomas F. Bayard, secre- 
 tary of state ; Daniel Manning, secretary of the treas- 
 ury ; secretary of war, William C. Endicott ; secretary 
 of the navy, William C. Whitney ; secretary of the 
 interior, L. Q. C. Lamar ; postmaster-general, Wil- 
 liam F. Vilas ; attorney-general, A. H. Garland. 
 
 At New Orleans in December, 1884, was opened a 
 World's Fair which continued about six months. It 
 was not so well attended as the centennial, and the 
 exhibits were not equal to those of 1876. The main 
 building was the largest of its kind ever built. Mex- 
 ico, Central and South America sent many beautiful 
 
Cleveland's administration. 441 
 
 exhibits. The machinery was set in motion by the 
 president in Washington. 
 
 Among the prominent men who laid off their cares 
 this year were ex-President and General Grant, who 
 died July 23rd; Vice-President Hendricks, November 
 26th; William H. Vanderbilt (the Rothschild of 
 America), December 8th. 
 
 Natural gas came into extensive use in Pennsyl- 
 vania. In some other states ii was searched for and 
 now most of the wells are exhausted. The wells in 
 Mercer county, Ohio, and those in central Indiana arc 
 still furnishing fuel to countless families, but from the 
 experiences in Pennsylvania it is not to be relietl 
 upon as the fuel of the future. In August a West 
 India hurricane visited Savannah and Charleston, 
 destroying property worth $500,000 near the former 
 and $1,500,000 in the latter. In 1886 occurred labor 
 troubles which were more formidable in many respects 
 than those of previous years. An organization of 
 workingmen called the Knights of Labor was organ- 
 ized and very serious damage was done to the manu- 
 facturers by these Knights. 
 
 In this year France presented America with a mag- 
 nificent statue, "''Liberty Enlightening the World!''* 
 It stands on a small island in the harbor of New York, 
 but its grandeur is half destroyed by the low position. 
 Could it be set on an eminence with only the sky 
 behind it, the magnificent proportions would be appre- 
 ciated. The heigth of the woman's figure is one 
 hundred and fifty-one feet ; the heigth of the pedestal 
 is one hundred and fifty-four feet; and yet in ap- 
 proaching the harbor it has the appearance of stand- 
 
442 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 ing too low. Auguste Bartholdi, the famous sculptor, 
 was the designer. 
 
 Henry Ward Beecher, the world-famous preacher, 
 minister of Plymouth church, Brooklyn, died March 
 8th at his home in Brooklyn. Lieutenant A. W. 
 Greely, who commanded one of the circumpolar 
 scientific expeditions in 1S81-83, was made brigadier- 
 general and chief signal officer in February, and 
 placed at the head of the government signal service, 
 previously under command of Albert J. Myer and 
 William B. Hazen. 
 
 Two centennials fell within Cleveland's term of 
 office. The first was September 15th, 1887, in com- 
 memoration of the adoption of the United States con- 
 stitution. This was celebrated in Philadelphia. The 
 second centennial cominemorated the settlement of 
 the Ohio valley. This was first celebrated at Marietta, 
 the oldest town in the state, and afterward at Cleve- 
 land, Columbus, Cincinnati and other cities. The 
 celebration in Cincinnati was during the time of the 
 Cincinnati exposition. There a long hall was filled 
 with articles that had been brought into the country 
 at the settlement. Even a hundred-year-old house 
 was taken to pieces and transported to the exposition 
 and put together again. It was furnished as it had 
 been originally and its principal ornament was the 
 musket hung over the high fire-place. There were 
 "silken gowns and satin shoon" that had been worn 
 by gay belles in the time of Washington. 
 
 Again the time for the presidential election was at 
 hand. Harrison was the choice of the Republicans 
 and of the people. Cleveland was his opponent. 
 
CHAPTER LII. 
 
 Harrison's administration. 
 
 ARRISON was the twenty-third president of 
 the United States. His grandfather, William 
 Henry Harrison, had been the ninth. He 
 came of a long line of distinguished people. The 
 head of the family was a Major-General Harrison, one 
 of Oliver Cromwell's trusted followers, and at the 
 height ox Cromwell's power it became the duty of 
 Harrison to participate in the trial of Charles I and to 
 sign his death warrant. But for this he paid with his 
 life when Charles II came into power. His de- 
 scendants came to America. And the next mention of 
 the family is of Benjamin Harrison of Virginia (the 
 great-grandfather of the twenty-third president), who 
 was a member of the continental congress and one of 
 the signers of the original constitution, and three times 
 elected governor of Virginia. 
 
 President Harrison was born at North Bend, Hamil- 
 ton county, Ohio, August 30th, 1853. He graduated 
 from the Miami university at Oxford, Ohio, and went 
 immediately to Cincinnati and began the study of law, 
 which he continued for two years. In 1S60 he was 
 nominated for the position of supreme court reporter 
 and then his influence as a stump speaker drew at- 
 tention to him and he was elected by a handsome 
 majority. In 1S63 he raised the seventeenth Indiana 
 infantry and was chosen colonel. This regiment was 
 
444 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 composed of the rawest material and the colonel spent 
 many weary hours teaching the "awkward brigade," 
 and when he came to move towards the east with 
 Sherman his regiment was one of the best drilled and 
 organized in the army. His office was left vacant and 
 another appointed to fill the vacancy. During the 
 engagemen at Resaca he distinguished himself and 
 for bravery at Peach creek he was made brigadier- 
 general. From 1863 to 1864 he had no leave of absence, 
 but having received the nomination for the same office 
 in 1864 he got leave of absence for a month, came 
 home and stumped the state and was re-elected. On 
 his way back to the seat of war he was stricken with 
 scarlet fever and was not again able to take part until 
 the very close of the war. Afterward he filled the 
 office to which he had been elected and still later was 
 elected governor of Indiana. 
 
 On March 4th, 1S89, he took the oath of office stand- 
 ing on the portico of the capitol. There was a terrific 
 ram storm, but as the grounds were filled with people 
 anxious to hear him take the oath he did so, though 
 the rain was blinding. He appointed James G. Blaine 
 secretary of state ; William Windom, secretary of the 
 treasury ; Redfield Proctor, secretary of war ; W. H. H. 
 Miller, attorney general ; John Wannamaker, p st- 
 master-general ; Benjamin F. Tracy, secretary of the 
 navy; John W. Noble, secretary of the interior; 
 Jeremiah M. Rusk, secretary of agriculture. 
 
 Immediately after Harrison's inauguration he an- 
 nounced that the lands of Oklahoma would be opened 
 at noon of April 33nd. Then began the mad rush for 
 that region.. Probably every state contributed its 
 
Harrison's administration. 445 
 
 quota, for on opening day there was a throng laVge 
 enough to make two cities in one day — Guthrie and 
 Oklahoma City. The territory was organized in May, 
 1890. Guthrie was made the capital. Six states were 
 annexed to the union in two years — Washington, 
 Montana, North and South Dakota were admitted in 
 1689, and Idaho and Wyoming in 1890. In Wyoming 
 women vote on the same conditions as men, and so 
 far the elections have been carried on for the good of 
 tJie state and not for political power. Idaho does not 
 allow Mormons to vote or hold public office. 
 
 The centennial at New York was held April 29th 
 and May ist. It was a hundred years since Washing- 
 ton had been inaugurated as first president of the 
 federal republic. Three days were devoted to a 
 grand celebration inthe city and harbor of New York. 
 ^'President Harrison and his family were received by 
 a guard of honor upon a barge of state at the point of 
 the New Jersey coast where Washington embarked 
 for New York in 1789." A grand naval review was 
 held April 29th. Every ship in the harbor was gay 
 with flags and pennons. Never before in this country 
 had there been so beautiful a sight in any harbor. 
 The next day there was a service at St. Paul's church, 
 near where Washington had taken his official oath, 
 followed by an oration and other appropriate exercises ; 
 then came a grand military parade and review. The 
 first day of May was devoted to an interesting display 
 of the improved industries of the country and a civic 
 celebration. 
 
 It was but a month later when the great dam at 
 Connemaugh lake gave way and the valley was 
 
446 FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 flooded. In some places the very earth was carried 
 away. Johnstown, a city of twenty-five thousand 
 inhabitants, was in the way of this torrent and the 
 tremendous current ctit for itself a path half a mile 
 wide through the heart of the town. No pen has 
 ever adequately described it. No tongue can tell the 
 horrors. Whole families perished, and it was months 
 before the drowned could be given the burial due to 
 all creatures. 
 
 Two very important congresses met at Washington 
 in the fall of 18S9. One was the international mari- 
 time council, comprising delegates from twenty-six 
 nations, called to decide upon a code of signals to be 
 used at sea, the paths of ocean steamers, etc. Of still 
 greater importance was the Pan-American conference, 
 the object of this conference being to promote com- 
 mercial intercourse among the countries of North and 
 South America through a better understanding of 
 each other's resources. 
 
 The fifty-first congress met December 2nd, 1889. 
 The first important debate was on a new code of rules, 
 designed to prevent the wilful obstruction of public 
 business (the country having suffered so much from 
 strikes in the past few years). Before this members 
 who did not vote upon the question before the house 
 had been considered as absent, and so in a full house 
 it was often impossible to obtain a quorum for the 
 transaction of business. Speaker Reed, of Maine, 
 ruled in this session that all members present, w^hether 
 voting or not, should be included in counting for a 
 quorum : and after an exceedingly hot debate he was 
 sustained by a large vote. 
 
HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 44^ 
 
 A new tariff known as the McKinley bill passed 
 both houses in September and became a law October 
 ist, 1S90. It admitted foreign sugar free of duty, but 
 increased the rates on many other articles. Treaties, 
 however, were afterwards made with Brazil and other 
 South and Central American countries providing for a 
 free interchacge of food and other products with the 
 United States. 
 
 An international copyright law ivas passed after 
 sixty years, giving copyright protection to foreign 
 authors of such nations as grant corresponding pro- 
 tection to American authors. 
 
 The pension list was extended to all men who after 
 honorable service in the war should become incapable 
 of support, whether injured while in service or not. 
 
 Another notable act of the fifty-first congress which 
 decided a question that had been discussed for many 
 years was that federal funds, shall not be used in aid 
 of common school education in the United States. 
 But it was resolved to distribute ten millions of dol- 
 lars during the next ten years for the better support of 
 agricultural colleges and mechanical arts. Congress 
 voted aid to a World's Columbian Exposition, to be 
 held at Chicago, celebrating the four hundred and 
 first anniversary of the discovery of America by 
 Christopher Columbus. 
 
 Another presidential election was approaching. 
 The Republicans renominated Benjamin Harrison for 
 president and Whitelaw Reid for vice-president. The 
 Democratic convention nominated Grover Cleveland 
 for president and Adlai Stevenson for vice-president. 
 The latter ticket was elected by the largest majority 
 
44^ FOUR HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 that has ever been received by a Democratic president. 
 During the wnnter of 1890-91, Mrs. Harrison 
 suffered severely from "La Grippe." This v^as fol- 
 lowed by bronchitis, w^hich lasted several weeks, but 
 seemed to leave no bad effects. In January, 1892, 
 Mrs. Harrison again contracted a severe cold, though 
 not sufficient to confine her to her room for any length 
 of time; but in March came another attack of "La 
 Grippe," followed by catarrhal pneumonia, but no 
 alarm was felt by those near to her. After recovering 
 from the pneumonia her cough grew w^orse and there 
 was a hemorrhage which was the first danger signal. 
 Everything that medical science knew was done to 
 - rolong her life, but she gradually sank and died 
 October 25th in the White House. The president 
 lOok no part in the campaign. He sat by the bedside 
 of the woman he had loved from girlhood, for he be- 
 caine engaged to her while attending the college over 
 which her father, Dr. Scott, presided. She was a 
 beautiful woman, of rare attainments, and possessing 
 marvellous taste. Many sorro\vs had come to the 
 president's family during the occupancy of the White 
 House. Mrs. Harrison's sister, Mrs. Scott Lord, died 
 in December, 1889. The loss of Secretary Blaine's 
 two children, Mrs. Coppinger and Mr. Walker Blaine^ 
 within a fortnight of each other was deeply felt by 
 the president's family. The tragic death of Mr. Tracy 
 and his daughter at the same time and the next wmter 
 the sudden death of Secretary Windom, in each 
 instance occurring during the social season, has made 
 tlid administration the most sad of anv recorded. 
 
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CHAPTER LIII. 
 
 COLUMBIAN DAYS, 
 
 FOR three days New York city was in gala dress 
 all day and far into the night. Music was 
 heard. The parade was immense. Children 
 marched like veterans, and the Indian school children 
 of Carlisle^ Pennsylvania, outdistanced the pale-faces. 
 They marched in a solid line and moved with a rythm 
 surpassing all that preceded and all that followed. 
 They were sturdy fellows, led by a band of their own 
 school children, and followed by a hundred Indian 
 maidens dressed like the boys in blue. 
 
 In Union Square two thousand girls belonging to 
 Catholic churches, dressed in national colors, sat on a 
 stand and sang national airs. To attempt to describe 
 all that went on in these three days would take more 
 space than w^e are allowed. 
 
 Tuesday was naval parade and the harbor was 
 crowded as it never had been before. Ocean grey- 
 hounds, immense steamers, ships of all kinds dotted — 
 nay, crowded— the harbor. The sight was of the 
 gayest; no craft so small that it did not carry pennons 
 and streamers and flags. 
 
 There was a grand parade and review of the ninth 
 regiment on Fourteenth street and Union Square. 
 But the parade of school boys, twenty-five thousand 
 in line, marching in almost perfect order, eclipsed 
 even the famous ninth. At night the scene about 
 Madison Square and Fifth avenue was one never to be 
 
450 
 
 FOLK HUNDRED YEARS OF AMERICA. 
 
 forg"Otten bv eye witnesses, so magnificent was the 
 pageant of floats, the electric one dazzling the eyes of 
 all beholders. 
 
 Columbian day at Chicago was observed by the 
 opening of the most magnificent World's Fair build- 
 ings ever presented to a people. To say there were a 
 hundred thousand visitors would naturally make one 
 think of a throng ; but in the vast main building it 
 was still almost em.pty enough to awe one. The 
 parade was magnificent. General Miles and staff 
 rode at the head of the military procession. The 
 Connecticut military guards were especially admired 
 for their perfect drill. The foreign diplomats in the 
 military parade was one of the especial features. 
 Vice-President Morton dedicated the fair to the 
 nations, the president being at the bedside of his 
 dying wife. No words of mine could do justice to 
 the scene — the grand expanse of blue lake in the fore- 
 ground, the giant oaks that seemed a forest were it 
 not for the broad boulevards and the throng. Is there 
 anything that stirs the heart like the sight of the 
 national colors, and the ears like national odes? 
 
 And here honor was accorded the women, to whose 
 good taste much of the beauty was due. Mrs. John 
 A. Logan, lady manager for the District of Columbia ; 
 Mrs. Potter Palmer, president of the- board of lady 
 managers, and Lady Somerset are included in the 
 official photographs. The reviewing stand from 
 which Vice-President Morton reviewed the civic pa- 
 rade was in front of the postoffice. The dedicatory 
 services were in the manufacturers' building, exquis- 
 itely decorated for the occasion. 
 
The National Platforms 
 
 OF ALL 
 
 Political Pafties from Commencement of ttie Government. 
 
 The history of a nation is largely a history of politics, 
 and a history of politics in a country like this is largely a 
 history of parties, and a history of parties is incomplete 
 without a history of the platforms of those parties. 
 
 In fact, the platforms of the political parties in the 
 United States give the most perfect record of the progress 
 of political thought of any history that could be written, 
 and no history is really a complete record of the progress 
 of the country without this important feature. 
 
 We therefore give in the following pages the platforms 
 of the political parties from the time that platforms were 
 first promulgated to the date of this volume. 
 
 1832. 
 
 No regular national nominating conventions were held 
 till the campaign of 1832, when there were two, the Demo- 
 cratic and National Republican. Neither of these conven- 
 tions adopted any platform, but at a ratification meeting 
 held in Washington, May 11th, the Democrats adopted the 
 following: 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 Resolved, That an adequate protection to American in- 
 dustry is indispensable to the prosperity of the country; 
 and that an abandonment of the policy at this period would 
 be attended with consequences ruinous to the best interests 
 of the nation. 
 
452 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 Resolved, That a uniform system of internal improve- 
 ments, sustained and supported by the general govern- 
 ment, is calculated to secure, in the highest degree, the 
 harmony, the strength and permanency of the republic. 
 
 Resolved, That the indiscriminate removal of public 
 officers for a mere difference of political opinion is a gross 
 abuse of power; and that the doctrine lately boldly 
 preached in the United States senate, that " to the victors 
 belong the spoils of the vanquished," is detrimental to the 
 interests, corrupting to the morals and dangerous to the 
 liberties of the country. 
 
 1836, 
 
 National Republican or Whig Party. 
 
 Held no national convention, but at a State convention in 
 Albany, N. Y., February, ]836, adopted the following: 
 
 Resolved, That in support of our cause we invite all citi- 
 zens opposed to Martin Van Buren and the Baltimore 
 nominees. 
 
 Resolved, That Martin Van Buren, by intriguing with 
 the executive to obtain his influence to elect him to the 
 presidency, has set an example dangerous to our freedom 
 and corrupting to our free institutions. 
 
 Resolved, That the support we render to William H. Har- 
 rison is by no means given to him solely on account of his 
 brilliant and successful services as leader of our armies 
 during the last war, but that in him we view also the man 
 of high intellect, the stern patriot, uncontaminated by the 
 machinery of hackneyed politicians — a man of the school 
 of Washington. 
 
 Resolved, That in Francis Granger we recognize one of 
 our most distinguished fellow citizens, whose talents we 
 admire, whose patriotism we trust, and whose principles 
 we sanction. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 Held a national convention, but adopted no platform. 
 The following was adopted in January, 1836, by the New 
 York Democrats : 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are 
 created free and equal; that they are endowed by their 
 Creator with certain inalienable rights, among which are 
 life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness; that the true 
 foundation of Republican government is the equal rights 
 
WHIG AND DEMOCRATIC, 1S4O. 453 
 
 of every citizen in his person and property, and in their 
 management; that the idea is quite unfounded that on 
 entering into society we give up our natural right; that 
 the rightful power of all legislation is to declare and en- 
 force only our natural rights and duties, and to take none 
 of them from us; that no man has the natural right to com- 
 mit aggressions on the equal rights of another, and this is 
 all from which the law ought to restrain him; that every 
 man is under the natural duty of contributing to the 
 necessities of society, and this is all the law should enforce 
 on him ; that when the laws have declared and enforced all 
 this they have fulfilled their functions. 
 
 We declare unqualified hostility to bank notes and paper 
 money as a circulating medium, because gold and silver is 
 the only safe and constitutional currency; hostility to any 
 and all monopolies by legislation, because they are viola- 
 tions of equal rights of the people; hostility to the danger- 
 ous and unconstitutional creation of vested rights or pre- 
 rogatives by legislation, because they are usurpations 
 of the people's sovereign rights ; no legislative or other 
 authority in the body politic can rightfully, by charter or 
 otherwise, exempt any man or body of men, in any case 
 whatever, for trial by jury and the jurisdiction or opera- 
 tion of the laws which govern the community. 
 
 We hold that each and every law or act of incorporation 
 passed by preceding legislatures can be rightfully altered 
 and repealed by their successors; and that they should be 
 altered or repealed when necessary for the public good, or 
 when required by a majority of the people. 
 
 I840. 
 
 Whig Party. 
 
 Adopted no platform. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 i Resolved, That the federal government is one of limited 
 powers, derived solely from the constitution, and the grants 
 of power shown therein ought to be strictly construed by 
 all the deparments and agents of the government, and that 
 it is inexpedient and dangerous to exercise doubtful con- 
 stitutional powers. 
 
 2. Resolved, That the constitution does not confer upon 
 the general government the power to commence and carry 
 on a general system of internal improvements. 
 
 8. Resolved, That the constitution does not confer author- 
 
454 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 ity upon the federal government, directly or indirectly, to 
 assume the debts of the several States, contracted for local 
 internal improvements or other State purposes; nor would 
 such assumption be just or expedient. 
 
 4. Resolved, That justice and sound policy forbid the 
 federal government to foster one branch of industry to the 
 detriment of another, or to cherish the interests of one 
 portion to the injury of another portion of our common 
 country ; that every citizen and every section of the country 
 has a right to demand and insist upon an equality of rights 
 and privileges, and to complete and ample protection of 
 persons and property from domestic violence or foreign 
 aggression. 
 
 5. Resolved, That it is the duty of every branch of the 
 government to enforce and practice the most rigid economy 
 in conducting our public affairs, and that no more revenue 
 ought to be raised than is required to defray the necessary 
 expenses of the government. 
 
 6. Resolved, That congress has no power to charter a 
 United States bank; that we believe such an institution one 
 of deadly hostility to the best interests of the country, 
 dangerous to our Republican institutions and the liberties 
 of the people, and calculated to place the business of the 
 country within the control of a concentrated money power 
 and above the laws and the will of the people. 
 
 7. Resolved, That congress has no power under the con- 
 stitution to interfere w4th or control the domestic institu- 
 tions of the several States; and that such States are the sole 
 and proper judges of everything pertaining to their own 
 affairs, not prohibited by the constitution; that all efforts 
 by Abolitionists, or others, made to induce congress to in- 
 terfere with questions of slavery or to take incipient steps 
 in relation thereto, are calculated to lead to the most alarm- 
 ing and dangerous consequences, and that all such eft'orts 
 have an inevitable tendency to diminish the happiness of the 
 people and endanger the stability and permanence of the 
 Union, and ought not to be countenanced by any friend to 
 our political institutions. 
 
 8. Resolved, That the separation of the moneys of the 
 government from banking institutions is indispensable for 
 the safety of the funds of the government and the rights of 
 the people. 
 
 9. Resolved, That the liberal principles embodied by 
 Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence, and sanc- 
 tioned in the constitution, which makes ours the land of 
 liberty and the asylum of the oppressed of every nation 
 have ever been cardinal principles in the Democratic faith; 
 
LIBERTY, 1S4O, AND DEMOCRATIC 1844. 4=55 
 
 and every attempt to abridge the present privilege of be- 
 coming citizens and the owners of soil among us ought to 
 be resisted with the same spirit which swept the alien and 
 sedition laws from our statute book. 
 
 Whereas, Several of the States which have nominated 
 Martin Van Buren as a candidate for the presidency have 
 put in nomination different individuals as candidates for 
 vice-president, thus indicating a diversity of opinion as to 
 the person best entitled to the nomination ; and, whereas, 
 some of the said States are not represented in this conven- 
 tion; therefore, 
 
 Kesolved, That the convention deem it expedient at the 
 present time not to choose between the individuals in 
 nomination, but to leave the decision to their Republican 
 fellow-citizens in the several States, trusting that before 
 the election shall take place their opijiions will become so 
 concentrated as to secure the choice ©"f a vice-president by 
 the electoral college. 
 
 Liberty Party. 
 
 Resolved, That, in our judgment, every consideration of 
 duty and expediency which ought to control the action of 
 Christian freemen requires of the Abolitionists of the 
 United States to organize a distinct and independent politi- 
 cal party, embracing all the necessary means for nominat- 
 ing candidates for office and sustaining them by public 
 suffrage. 
 
 •O' 
 
 1844. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 Resolutions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of the platform of 
 1840 were [reaffirmed, to which were added the following : 
 
 10. Resolved, That the proceeds of the public lands 
 ought to be sacredly applied to the national objects speci- 
 fied in the constitution, and that we are opposed to the 
 laws lately adopted, and to any law for the distribution of 
 such proceeds among the States, as alike inexpedient in 
 policy and repugnant to the constitution. ' 
 
 11. Resolved, That we are decidedly opposed to taking 
 from the president the qualifled veto power by which he is 
 enabled, under restrictions and responsibilities amply suffi- 
 cient to guard the public interest, to suspend the passage of 
 a bill whose merits cannot secure the approval of two- 
 thirds of the senate and house of representatives, until 
 the judgment of the people can be obtained thereon, and 
 
456 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 which has thrice saved the American people from the cor- 
 rupt and tyrannical domination of the bank of tbe United 
 States. 
 
 12. Resolved, That our title to the whole of the territory 
 of Oregon is clear and unquestionable; that no portion of 
 the same ought to be ceded to England or any other power, 
 and that the reoccupation of Oregon and the reannexation 
 of Texas at the earliest practicable period are great 
 American measures, w^hich this convention recommends to 
 the cordial support of the Democracy of the Union. 
 
 Whig Party. 
 
 1. Resolved, That these principles may be summed as 
 compromising a well-regulated national currency; a tariff 
 for revenue to defray the necessary expenses of the gov- 
 ernment, and discriminating with special reference to the 
 protection of the domestic labor of the country; the dis- 
 tribution of the proceeds from the sales of the public 
 lands; a single term for the presidency; a reform of ex- 
 ecutive usurpations; and generally such an administration 
 of the affairs of the country as shall impart to every 
 branch of the public service the greatest practical effi- 
 ciency, controlled by a well regulated and wise economy. 
 
 Liberty Party. 
 
 1. Resolved, That human brotherhood is a cardinal prin- 
 ciple of true democracy, as well as of pure Christianity, 
 which spurns all inconsistent limitations; and neither the 
 political party which repudiates it, nor the political system 
 which is not based upon it, can be truly democratic or per- 
 manent. 
 
 2. Resolved, That the Liberty party, placing itself upon 
 this broad principle, will demand the absolute and unquali- 
 lied divorce of tl^e general government from slavery, and 
 also the restoration of equality of rights among men, in 
 every State where the party exists, or may exist. 
 
 3. Resolved, that the Liberty party has not been organ- 
 ized for any temporary purpose by interested politicians, 
 but has arisen from among the people in consequence of a 
 conviction, hourly gaining ground, that no other party in 
 the country represents the true principles of American 
 liberty, or the true spirit of the constitution of the United 
 States. 
 
 4. Resolved, That the Liberty party has not been organ- 
 ized merely for the overthrow of slavery; its first decided 
 effort must, indeed, be directed against slaveholding as the 
 
LIBERTY, 1844. 457 
 
 grossefit and most revoltino- manifestation of despotism, 
 but it will also carry out the principle of equal rights into 
 all its practical consequences and applications, and support 
 every just measure conducive to individual and social free- 
 dom. 
 
 5. Resolved, That the Liberty party is not a sectional 
 party, but a national party; was not originated in a desire 
 to accomplish a single object, but in a comprehensive regard 
 to the great interests of the whole country ; is not a new 
 party, nor a third party, but it is the party of 1776, reviving 
 the principles of that memorable era, and striving to carry 
 them into practical application. 
 
 6. Resolved, That it was understood in the times of the 
 Declaration and the constitution, that the existence of 
 slavery in some of the States was in derogation of the 
 principles of American liberty, and a deep stain upon the 
 character of the country, and in the implied faith of the 
 States and the nation was pledged that slavery should 
 never be extended beyond its then existing limits, but 
 s-hould be gradually, and yet, at no distant day, wholly 
 abolished by State authority. 
 
 7. Resolved, That the faith of the States and the nation 
 thus pledged was most nobly redeemed by the voluntary 
 abolition of slavery in several of the States ; and by the 
 adoption of the ordinance of 1787, for the government of 
 the territory north-west of the river Ohio, then the only 
 territory in the United States, and consequently the only 
 territory subject in this respect to the control of congress, 
 by which ordinance slavery was forever excluded from the 
 vast regions which now compose the States of Ohio, Indiana, 
 Illinois, Michigan, and the territory of Wisconsin, and an 
 incapacity to bear up any other than freemen was im- 
 pressed on the soil itself. 
 
 8. Resolved, That the faith of the States and 'the nation 
 thus pledged has been shamefully violated by the omission, 
 on the part of many of the States, to take any measures 
 whatever for the abolition of slavery within their respec- 
 tive limits; by the continuance of slavery in the District 
 of Columbia, and in the territories of Louisiana and Florida ; 
 by the legislation of congress; by the protection afforded 
 by national legislation and negotiation of slaveholding in 
 American vessels, on the high seas, employed in the coast- 
 wise slave traffic; and by the extension of slavery far be- 
 yond its original limits, by acts of congress admitting 
 new slave States into the Union. 
 
 9. Resolved, That the fundamental truths of the Dec- 
 laration of Independence, that all men are endowed by 
 
45^ THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 their Creator with certain inalienable rights, among which 
 are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, was made the 
 fundamental law of our national government, by that 
 amendment of the constitution which declares that no 
 person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- 
 out due* process of law. 
 
 10. Resolved, That we recognize as sound the doctrine 
 maintained by slaveholding jurists, that slavery is against 
 natural rights, and strictly local, and that its existence and 
 continuance rests on no other support than State legisla- 
 tion, and not on any authority of congress. 
 
 11. Resolved, That the general government has under 
 the constitution no power to establish or continue slavery 
 anywhere, and therefore that all treaties and acts of con- 
 gress establishing, continuing or favoring slavery in the 
 District of Columbia, in the territory of Florida, or on the 
 high seas, are unconstitutional, and all attempts to hold 
 men as property within the limits of exclusive national 
 jurisdiction ought to be prohibited by law. 
 
 12. Resolved, That the provisions of the constitution of 
 the United States which confers extraordinary political 
 powers on the owners of slaves, and thereby constituting 
 the two hundred and fifty thousand slaveholders in the 
 slave States a privileged aristocracy ; and the provisions for 
 the reclamation of fugitive slaves from service, are anti- 
 republican in their character, dangerous to the liberties of 
 the people and ought to be abrogated. 
 
 13. Resolved, That the practical operation of the second 
 of these provisions is seen in the enactment of the act of 
 congress respecting persons escaping from their masters, 
 which act, if the construction given to it by the supreme 
 court of the United States in the case of Priggs vs. Penn- 
 sylvania be correct, nullifies the habeas corpus acts of all 
 the States, takes away the whole legal security of personal 
 freedom, and ought, therefore, to be immediately repealed. 
 
 14. Resolved, That the peculiar patronage and support 
 hitherto extended to slavery and slaveholding by the 
 general government ought to*be immediately withdrawn, 
 and the example and'influence of national authority ought 
 to be arrayed on the side of liberty and free labor. 
 
 15. Resolved, That the practice of the general government, 
 which prevails in the slave States, of employing slaves upon 
 the public works, instead of free laborers, and paying aristo- 
 cratic masters, with a view to secure or reward political 
 services, is utterly indefensible and ought to be abandoned. 
 
 16. Resolved, That freedom of speech and of the press, 
 and the right of petition, and the right of trial by jury, are 
 sacred and inviolable; and that all rules, regulations and 
 
LIBERTY, 1844. 459 
 
 laws, in derogation of either, are oppressive, unconstitu- 
 tional, and not to be endured by a free people. 
 
 17. Resolved, That we regard voting, in an eminent 
 degree, as a moral and reli.^-ious duty, which when exer- 
 cised should be by voting for those who will do all in their 
 power for immediate emancipation. 
 
 18. Resolved, That this convention recommend to the 
 friends of liberty in all those free States where any ine- 
 quality of rights and privileges exists on account of color, 
 to employ their utmost energies to remove all such rem- 
 nants and effects of the slave system. 
 
 Whereas, The constitution of the United States is a 
 series of agreements, covenants or contracts between the 
 people of the United States, each with all, and all with 
 each; and, 
 
 Whereas, It is a principle of universal morality that the 
 moral laws of the Creator are paramount to all human 
 laws; or, in the language of an Apostle, that "we ought to 
 obey God rather than men ;" and, 
 
 Whereas, The principle of common law — that any con- 
 tract, covenant or agreement, to do an act derogatory to 
 natural right, is vitiated and annulled by its inherent im- 
 morality — has been recognized by one of the justices of 
 the supreme court of the United States, who in a recent 
 case expressly holds that "any contract that rests upon such 
 a basis is void\'^ and. 
 
 Whereas, The third clause of the second section of the 
 fourth article of the constitution of the United States, when 
 construed as providing for the surrender of a fugitive 
 slave, does "rest upon such a basis," in that it is a contract 
 to rob a man of a natural right — namely, his natural right 
 to his own liberty — and is therefore absolutely void; there- 
 fore 
 
 19. Resolved, That we hereby give it to be distinctly 
 understood by this nation and the world that, as Abolition- 
 ists, considering that the strength of our cause lies in its 
 righteousness, and our hope for it in our conformity to the 
 laws of Grod, and our respect for the rights of man, we owe 
 it to the sovereign ruler of the universe, as a proof of our 
 allegiance to Uim, in all our civil relations and offices, 
 whether as private citizens or public functionaries sworn 
 to support the constitution of the United States, to regard 
 and to treat the third clause of the fourth article of that 
 instrument, whenever applied to the case of a fugitive 
 slave, as utterly null and void, and consequently as form- 
 ing no part of the constitution of the United States, when- 
 ever we are called upon or sworn to support it. 
 
^6o THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 20. Resolved, That the power given to congress by the 
 constitution to provide for calling out the militia to sup- 
 press insurrection does not make it the duty of the govern- 
 ment to maintain slavery by military force, much less does 
 it make it the duty of the citizens to form a part of such 
 military force; when freemen unsheathe the sword it 
 should be to strike for liberty, not for despotism. 
 
 21. Resolved, That to preserve the peace of the citizens, 
 and secure the blessings of freedom, the legislature of each 
 of the free States ought to keep in force suitable statutes 
 rendering it penal for any of its inhabitants to transport, 
 or aid in transporting from such State, any person sought 
 to be thus transported, merely because subject to the slave 
 laws of any other State; this remnant of independence 
 being accorded to the free States by the decision of the 
 supreme court, in the case of Prigg vs. the State of Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 1848, 
 
 Whig Party. 
 
 Adopted no platform at the convention, but at a ratifica- 
 tion meeting held in Philadelphia, June 9, 1848, adopted the 
 following: 
 
 1. Resolved, That the Whigs of the United States, here 
 assembled by their representatives, heartily ratify the 
 nomination of General Zachary Taylor, as president, and 
 Millard Fillmore, as vice-president, of the United States, 
 and pledge themselves to their support. 
 
 2. Resolved, That in the choice of General Taylor as the 
 Whig candidate for president we are glad to discover 
 sympathy with a great popular sentiment throughout the 
 nation — a sentiment which, having its origin in admiration 
 of great military success, has been strengthened by the 
 development, in every action and every word, of sound 
 conservative opinions, and of true fidelity to the great ex- 
 ample of former days and to the principles of the consti- 
 
 . tution as administered by its founders. 
 
 3. Resolved, That General Taylor, in saying that, had he 
 voted in 1844, he would have voted the Whig ticket, gives us 
 the assurance— and no better is needed from a consistent 
 and truth-speaking man — that his heart was with^us at the 
 crisis of our political destiny when Henry Clay was our 
 candidate, and when not only Whig principles were well 
 defined and clearly asserted, but Whig measures depended 
 upon success. The heart that was with us then is with us 
 
WHIG, 1848. 461 
 
 now, and we have a soldier's word of honor, and a life of 
 public and private virtue as the security. 
 
 4. Resolved, That we look on General Taylor's adminis- 
 tration of the government as one conducive of peace, 
 prosperity and union; of peace, because no one better 
 knows, or has greater reason to deplore, what he has seen 
 sadly on the field of victory, the horrors of war, and 
 especially of a foreign and aggressive war; of prosperity, 
 now more than ever needed to relieve the nation from a 
 burden of debt and restore industry — agricultural, manu- 
 facturing, and commercial — to its accustomed and peaceful 
 functions and influences; of union, because we have a can- 
 didate whose very position as a Southwestern man, reared 
 on the banks of the great stream whose tributaries, natural 
 and artificial, embrace the whole Union, renders the pro- 
 tection of the interests of the whole country his first trust, 
 and whose various duties in past life have been rendered 
 not on the soil, or under the flag of any State or section, 
 but over the wide frontier and under the broad banner of 
 the nation. 
 
 5. Resolved, That standing, as the Whig party does, on 
 the broad and firm platform of the constitution, braced up 
 by all its inviolable and sacred guarantees and compromises, 
 and cherished in the afl:'ections, because protecti\nB of the 
 interests of the people, we are proud to have as the expo- 
 nent of our opinions one who is pledged to construe it by 
 the wise and generous rules which Washington applied to 
 it, and who has said— and no Whig desires any other assur- 
 ance — that he will make Washington's administration his 
 model. 
 
 6. Resolved, That as Whigs and Americans we are proud 
 to acknowledge our gratitude for the great military ser- 
 vices, which, beginning at Palo Alto and ending at Buena 
 Vista, first awakened the American people to a just esti- 
 mate of him who is now our Whig candidate. In'the dis- 
 charge of a painful duty — for his march into the enemy's 
 country was a reluctant one; in the command of regulars 
 at one time, and volunteers at another, and of both com- 
 bined; in the decisive though punctual discipline of his 
 camp, where all respected and loved him; in the negotia- 
 tions of terms for a dejected and desperate enemy; in the 
 exigency of actual conflict when the balance was perilously 
 doubtful — we have found him the same — brave, distinguish- 
 ed, and considerate, no heartless spectator of bloodshed, no 
 trifler with human life or human happiness; and we do not 
 know which to admire most, his heroism in withstanding 
 the assaults of the enemy in the most hopeless fields of 
 
463 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 Buena Vista — mourning in generous sorrow over the graves 
 of Kinggold, of Clay, of Hardin — or in giving, in the heat 
 of battle, terms of merciful capitulation to a vanquished 
 foe at Monterey, and not being ashamed to avovv^ that he 
 did it to spare w^omen and children, helpless infancy and 
 more helpless age, against whom no American soldier 
 wars. Such a military man, whose triumphs are neither 
 remote nor doubtful, W' hose virtues these trials have tested, 
 we are proud to make our candidate. 
 
 7. Resolved, That in support of this nomination we ask 
 our Whig friends throughout the nation to unite to co-oper- 
 ate zealously, resolutely, w^ith earnestness, in behalf of our 
 candidate, whom calumny cannot reach, and -with respect- 
 ful demeanor to our adversaries, whose candidates have yet 
 to prove their claims on the gratitude of the nation. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 1. Resolved, That the American Democracy place their 
 trust in the intelligence, the patriotism, and the discrimin- 
 ating justice of the American people. 
 
 2. Resolved, That we regard this as a distinctive feature of 
 our political creed, which we are proud to maintain before 
 the world as the great moral element in a form of govern- 
 ment springing from and upheld by the popular will, and 
 contrasted with the creed and practice of federalism, under 
 w^hatever name or f5rm, which seeks to palsy the will of the 
 constituent and which conceives no imposture too mon- 
 strous for the popular credulity. 
 
 3. Resolved, therefore, that entertaining these views, 
 the Democratic party of this Union, through the delegates 
 here assembled in general conventions of the States, coming 
 together in a spirit of concord, of devotion to the doctrines 
 and faith of a free representative government, and appeal- 
 ing to their fellow citizens for the rectitude of their inten- 
 tions, renew and reassert before the American people the 
 declaration of principles avowed by them on a former 
 occasion, when, in general convention, they presented their 
 candidates for the popular suffrage. 
 
 Resolutions 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the platform of 1840 were re- 
 affirmed. (See Democratic platform of 1840, page 453). 
 
 8. Resolved, That it is the duty of every branch of the 
 government to enforce and practice the most rigid economy 
 in conducting our public affairs, and that no more revenue 
 ought to be raised than is required to defray the necessary 
 expenses of the government, and for the gradual, but cer- 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 184S. 463 
 
 tain extinction of the debt created by the prosecution of a 
 just and necessary war. 
 
 Resolution 5 of the platform of 1840 was enlarged by the 
 
 following: 
 
 And that the results of Democratic legislation in this and 
 all other financial measures upon which issues have been 
 made between the two political parties of the country have 
 demonstrated to careful and practical men of all parties 
 their soundness, safety and utility in all business pursuits. 
 
 Resolutions 7, 8 and 9 of the platform of 1840 were here 
 
 inserted. (See Democratic platform of 1840, page 454). 
 
 13. Resolved, That the proceeds of the public lands 
 ought to be sacredly applied to the national objects specified 
 in the constitution; and that we are opposed to any law 
 for the distribution of such proceeds among the States as 
 alike inexpedient in policy and repugnantto the constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 14. Resolved, That we are decidedly opposed to taking 
 from the president the qualified veto power, by which he is 
 enabled, under restrictions and responsibilities amply 
 sufficient to guard the public interests, to suspend the pass- 
 age of a bill whose merits cannot secure the approval of two- 
 thirds of the senate and house of representatives, until 
 the judgment of the people can be obtained thereon, and 
 which has saved the American people from the corrupt and' 
 tyrannical domination of the Bank of the United States, 
 and from a corrupting system of general internal improve- 
 ments. 
 
 15. Resolved, That the war with Mexico, provoked on her 
 part hj years of insults and injury, was commenced by her 
 army crossing the Rio Grande, attacking the American 
 troops, and invading our sister State of Texas, and upon 
 all the principles of patriotism and the laW'S of nations it 
 is a just and necessary war on our part, in which every 
 American citizen should have shown himself on the side 
 of his country, and neither morally nor physically, by word 
 or by deed, have given "aid and comfort to the enemy." 
 
 16. Resolved, That we would be rejoiced at the assur- 
 ance of peace with Mexico, founded on the just principles 
 of indemnity for the past and security for the future; but 
 that while the ratification of the liberal treaty oft'ered to 
 Mexico remains in doubt it is the duty of the country to 
 sustain the administration and to sustain the country in 
 every measure necessary to provide for the vigorous prose- 
 cution of the war, should that treaty be rejected. 
 
 17. Resolved, That the officers and soldiers who have 
 
464 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 •carried the arms of their country into Mexico have crowned 
 it with imperishable glory. Their unconquerable courage, 
 their daring enterprise, their unfaltering perseverance 
 and fortitude when assailed on all sides by innumerable 
 foes and that more formidable enemy — the disease of the 
 climate — exalt their devoted patriotism into the highest 
 heroism, and give them a right to the profound gratitude 
 of their country, and the admiration of the world. 
 
 18. Resolved, That the Democratic national convention 
 of thirty States composing the American republic tender 
 their fraternal congratulations to the national convention 
 of the republic of France, now assembled as the free suffrage 
 representative of the sovereignty of thirty-five millions of 
 Republicans, to establish government on those eternal 
 principles of equal rights, for which their LaFayette and 
 our Washington fought side by side in the struggle for our 
 national independence; and we would especially convey to 
 them, and to the whole people of France, our earnest wishes 
 for the consolidation of their liberties, through the wisdom 
 that shall guide their councils, on the basis of a democratic 
 constitution, not derived from the grants or concessions of 
 kings or dynasties, but originating from the only true 
 source of political power recognized in the States of this 
 Union — the inherent and inalienable right of the people in 
 their sovereign capacity to make and to amend their forms 
 of government in such manner as the welfare of the com- 
 munity may require. 
 
 19. Resolved, That in view of the recent development of 
 this grand political truth, of the sovereignty of the people 
 and their capacity and power for self-government, which 
 is prostrating thrones and erecting republics on the ruins 
 of despotism in the old world, we feel that a high and sacred 
 duty is devolved, with increased responsibility, upon the 
 Democratic party of this country, as the party of the people, 
 to sustain and advance among us constitutional liberty, 
 equality, and fraternity by continuing to resist all monopo- 
 lies and exclusive legislation for the benefit of the few at 
 the expense of the many, and by a vigilant and constant ad- 
 herence to those principles and compromises of the consti- 
 tution, which are broad enough and strong enough to em- 
 brace and uphold the Union as it was, the Union as it is, 
 and the Union as it shall be, in the full expansion of the 
 energies and capacity of this great and progressive people. 
 
 20. Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be for- 
 warded, through the American minister at Paris, to the 
 national convention of the republic of France. 
 
 21. Resolved, That the fruits of the great political 
 
FREE SOIL, 1S4S. 465 
 
 triumph of 1844, which elected James K. Polk and G-eorge 
 M. Dallas president and vice-president of the United 
 States, have fulfilled the hopes of the Democracy of the 
 Union in defeating the declared purposes of their oppo- 
 nents increatinganational bank; in preventing the corrupt 
 and unconstitutional distribution of the land proceeds 
 from the common treasury of the Union for local purposes; 
 in protecting the currency and labor of the country from 
 ruinous fluctuations, and (guarding the money of the country 
 for the uso of tho people by the establishment of the con- 
 stitutional treasury; in the noble impulse given to the 
 cause of froe trade by the repeal of the tariff of '42, and the 
 creation of tho more equal, honest, and productive tariff of 
 1846; and that in our opinion it would be a fatal error to 
 weaken tho bands of a political organization by which 
 these great reforms have been achieved, and risk them in 
 tho hands of their known adversaries with wiiatever delu- 
 sive appeals they may solicit our surrender of that vigil- 
 ance which is the only safe-guard of liberty. 
 
 22. Resolved, That the confidence of the Democracy of 
 the Union in the principles, capacity, firmness, and in- 
 tegrity of James K. Polk, manifested by his nomination 
 and election in 1844, has been signally justified by the 
 strictness of his adherence to sound Democratic doctrines, 
 by the purity of purpose, the energy and ability which 
 have characterized his administration in all our affairs at 
 home and abroad ; that we tender to him our cordial con- 
 gratulation upon the brilliant success which has hitherto 
 crowned his patriotic efforts, and assure him in advance 
 
 * that at the expiration of his presidential term he will carry 
 with him to his retirement the esteem, respect and admira- 
 tion of a grateful country. 
 
 23. Resolved, That this convention hereby present to 
 the people of the United States, Lewis Cass, of Michigan, 
 as the candidate of the Democratic party for the office of 
 president, and William O. Butler, of Kentucky, for vice- 
 president of the United States. 
 
 Free Soil Party. 
 
 (Composed of a branch of the Democratic party which 
 opposed the extension of slavery into its territories, and 
 the Liberty party.) 
 
 Whereas, We have assembled in convention as a union 
 of freemen, for the sake of freedom, forgetting all political 
 difference, in a common resolve to maintain the rights of 
 
^66 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 free labor against the aggression of the slave power and to 
 secure free soil to a free people ; and 
 
 Whereas, The political conventions recently assembled 
 at Baltimore and Philadelphia — the one stilling the voice 
 of a great constituency, entitled to be heard in its delibera- 
 tions, and the other abandoning its distinctive principles 
 for mere availability — have dissolved the national party 
 organization heretofore existing, by nominating for the 
 chief magistracy of the United States, under the slave- 
 holding dictation, candidates, neither of whom can be sup- 
 ported by the opponents of slavery extension without a 
 sacrifice of consistency, duty and self-respect; and 
 
 Whereas, These nominations so made furnish the occa- 
 sion and demonstrate the necessity of the union of the 
 people under the banner of free democracy, in a solemn 
 and formal declaration of their independence of the slave 
 power, and of their fixed determination to rescue the fed- 
 eral government from its control ; 
 
 1. Resolved, Therefore, that we, the people here assem- 
 bled, remembering the example of our fathers in the days 
 of the first Declaration of Independence, putting our trust in 
 God for the triumph of our cause, and invoking His guid- 
 ance in our endeavors to advance it, do now plant ourselves 
 upon the national platform of freedom, in opposition to the 
 sectional platform of slavery. 
 
 2. Resolved, That slavery in the several States of this 
 Union which recognize its existence depends upon the 
 State laws alone, which cannot be repealed or modified by 
 the federal government, and for which laws that govern- 
 ment is not responsible. We therefore propose no inter- 
 ference by congress with slavery within the limits of any 
 State. 
 
 3. Resolved, That the proviso of Jefferson, to prohibit 
 the existence of slavery after 1800 in all the territories of 
 the United States, southern and northern ; the votes of six 
 States and sixteen delegates in congress of 1784 for the 
 proviso, to three States and seven delegates against it; the 
 actual exclusion of slavery from the northwestern terri- 
 tory, by the ordinance of 1787, unanimously adopted by the 
 States in congress, and the entire history of that period 
 clearly show that it was the settled policy of the nation 
 not to extend, nationalize or encourage, but to limit, local- 
 ize and discourage, slavery; and to this policy, which 
 should never have been departed from, the government 
 ought to return. 
 
 4. Resolved, That our fathers ordained the constitution 
 of the United States in order, among other great national 
 
FREE SOIL, 1S48. 467 
 
 objects, to establish justice, promote the general welfare, 
 and secure the blessings of liberty ; but expressly denied 
 to the federal government which they created all constitu- 
 tional power to deprive any person of life, liberty, or prop- 
 erty without due legal process. 
 
 5. Resolved, That in the judgment of this convention, 
 Congress has no more power to make a slave than to make a 
 king, no more power to institute or establish slavery than 
 to institute or establish a monarchy; no such power can be 
 found among those specifically conferred by the constitu- 
 tion, or derived by just implication from them. 
 
 6. Resolved, That it is the duty of the federal govern- 
 ment to relieve itself from all responsibility for the exist- 
 ence or continance of slavery wherever the government 
 possesses constitutional power to legislate on that sub- 
 ject, and it is thus responsible for its existence. 
 
 7. Resolved, That the true, and, in the judgment of this 
 convention, the only safe means of preventing the exten- 
 sion of slavery into territory now free is to prohibit its 
 extension in all such territory by an act of Congress. 
 
 8. Resolved, That we accept the issue which the slave 
 power has forced upon us; and to their demand for more 
 slave States and more slave territory, our calm, but final 
 answer is : No more slave States and no more slave terri- 
 tory. Let the soil of our extensive domain be kept free 
 for the hardy pioneers of our own land and the oppressed 
 and banished of other lands seeking homes of comfort and 
 fields of enterprise in the new world. 
 
 9. Resolved, That the bill lately reported by the com- 
 mittee of eight in the senate of the United States was no 
 compromise, but an absolute surrender of the rights of the 
 non-slave holders of the State; and while we rejoice to 
 know that a measure which, while opening the door for the 
 introduction of slavery into the territories now free, would 
 also have opened the door to litigation and strife among 
 the future inhabitants thereof, to the ruin of their peace 
 and prosperity, was defeated in the house of representa- 
 tives; its passage in hot haste by a majority, embracing 
 several senators who voted in open violation of the known 
 will of their constituents, should warn the people to see to 
 it that their representatives be not suffered to betray them. 
 There musf; be no more compromises with slavery ; if made, 
 they must be repealed. 
 
 10. Resolved, 'That we demand freedom and establish 
 institutions for our brethren in Oregon now exposed to 
 hardships, peril, and massacre, by the reckless hostility of 
 the slave power to the establishment of free government 
 
468 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 and free territories; and not only for them, but for our 
 brethren in California and New Mexico. 
 
 11. Resolved, It is due not only to this occasion, but to 
 the whole people of the United States, that we should also 
 declare ourselves on certain other questions of national 
 policy; therefore, 
 
 12. Resolved, That we demand cheap postage for the 
 people; a retrenchment of the expenses and patronage of 
 the federal government; the abolition of all unnecessary 
 offices and salaries; and the election by the people of all 
 civil officers in the service of the government so far as the 
 same may be practicable. 
 
 13. Resolved, That river and harbor improvements, 
 when demanded by the safety and convenience of com- 
 merce with foreign nations, or among the several States, 
 are objects of national concern, and that it is the duty of 
 Congress, in the exercise of its constitutional power, to 
 provide therefor. 
 
 14. Resolved, That the free grant to actual settlers, in 
 consideration of the expenses they incur in making settle- 
 ments in the wilderness, which are usually fully equal to 
 their actual cost, and of the public benefits resulting there- 
 from, of reasonable portions of the public lands under 
 suitable limitations, is a wise and just measure of public 
 policy, which will promote, in various ways, the interest of 
 all the States of this Union ; and we, therefore, recommend 
 it to the favorable consideration of the American people. 
 
 15. Resolved, That the obligations of honor and patriot- 
 ism require the earliest practical payment of the national 
 debt, and we are, therefore, in favor of such a tariff of du- 
 ties as will raise revenue adequate to defray the expenses 
 of the federal government and to pay annual instalments 
 of our debt and the interest thereon. 
 
 16. Resolved, That we inscribe on our banner, "Free 
 Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men," and under 
 it we will fight on, and fight forever until a triumphant 
 victory shall reward our exertions. 
 
 1852. 
 
 Democeatic Party. 
 
 Resolutions 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 of the platform of 1848 
 were reaffirmed, to which were added the following : 
 
 8. Resolved, That it is the duty of ever^ branch of gov- 
 ernment to enforce and practice the most rigid economy 
 in conducting our public affairs, and that no more revenue 
 ought to be raised than is required to defray the necessary 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1852. 469 
 
 expenses of the government, and for the gradual, but cer- 
 tain extinction of the public debt, 
 
 9. Resolved, That Congress has no power to charter a 
 national bank; that we believe such an institution one of 
 deadly hostility to the best interests of the country, dan- 
 gerous to our Republican institutions and the liberties of 
 the people, and calculated to place the business of the 
 country within the control of a concentrated money power, 
 and that above the laws and will of the people; and that 
 the results of Democratic legislation in this and all other 
 financial measures upon which issues have been made be- 
 tween the two political parties of the country have demon- 
 strated to candid and practical men of all parties their 
 soundness, safety and utility in all business pursuits. 
 
 10. Resolved, That the separation of the moneys of the 
 government from banking institutions is indispensable for 
 the safety of the funds of the government and the rights of 
 the people. 
 
 11. Resolved, That the liberal principles embodied by 
 Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence and sanc- 
 tioned in the constiution, which makes ours the land'of 
 liberty and the asylum of the oppessed of every nation, 
 have ever been cardinal principles in the Democratic faith; 
 and every attempt to abridge the privilege of becoming 
 citizens and the owners of the soil among us ought to be 
 resisted with the same spirit that swept the alien and 
 sedition laws from our statute books. 
 
 12. Resolved, That Congress has no power, under the 
 constitution, to interfere with or control the domestic in- 
 stitutions of the several States, and that such States are the 
 sole and proper judges of everything appertaining to their 
 own affairs not prohibited by the constitution; that all 
 efforts of the Abolitionists or others made to induce Con- 
 gress to interfere with questions of slavery, or to take in- 
 cipient steps in relation thereto, are calculated to lead to 
 the most alarming and dangerous consequences; and that 
 all such efforts have an inevitable tendency to diminish the 
 happiness of the people and endanger the stability and 
 permanency of the Union, and ought not to be counte- 
 nanced by any ffieud of our political institutions. 
 
 13. Resolved, That the foregoing proposition covers, 
 and is intended to embrace, the whole subject of slavery 
 agitation in Congress; and, therefore, the Democratic 
 party of the Union, standing on this national platform, 
 will abide by and adhere to a faithful execution of the acts 
 known as the compromise measures settled by last Con- 
 gress — "the act for reclaiming fugitives from service labor" 
 
470 THE NATIONAL PLATFORM.S. 
 
 included; which act being- designed to carry out an express 
 provision of the constitution cannot, with fidelity thereto, be 
 repealed nor so changed as to destroy or impair its efficiency. 
 
 14. Resolved, That the Democratic party will resist all 
 attempts at renewing in Congress, or out of it, the agita- 
 tion of the slavery question under whatever shape or color 
 the attempt may be made. 
 
 (Here resolutions 13 and 14 of the platform of 1848 were 
 inserted.) 
 
 17. Resolved, That the Democratic party will faithfully 
 a^bide by and uphold the principles laid down in the Ken- 
 tucky and Virginia resolutions of 1792 and 1798, and in the 
 report of Mr. Madison to the Virginia legislature in 1799; 
 that it adopts those principles as constituting one of the 
 main foundations of its political creed, and is resolved to 
 carry them out in their obvious meaning and import. 
 
 18. Resolved, That the war with Mexico, upon all the 
 principles of patriotism and the law of nations, was a just 
 and necessary war on our part, in which no American citi- 
 zen should have shown himself opposed to his country, and 
 neither morally nor physically, by word or deed, given aid 
 and comfort to the enemy. 
 
 19. Resolved, That we rejoice at the restoration of 
 friendly relations with our sister republic of Mexico, and 
 earnestly desire for her all the blessings and the pros- 
 perity which we enjoy under republican institutions, and 
 we congratulate the American people on the results of that 
 war which have so manifestly justified the policy and con- 
 duct of the Democratic party and insured to the United 
 States indemnity for the past and security for the future. 
 
 20. Resolved, That, in view of the condition of popular 
 institutions in the Old World, a high and sacred duty is 
 devolved with increased responsibility upon the Democracy 
 of this country, as the party of the people, to uphold and 
 maintain the rights of every State, and thereby the union 
 of States, and to sustain and advance among them constitu- 
 tional liberty by continuing to resist all monopolies and 
 exclusive legislation for the benefit of the few at the ex- 
 pense of the many, and by a vigilant and constant adher- 
 ence to those principles and compromises of the constitu- 
 tion which are broad enough and strong enough to embrace 
 and uphold the Union as it is, and the Union as it should 
 be, in the full expansion of the energies and capacity of 
 this great and progressive people. 
 
 Whig Party. 
 The Whigs of the T'nited States, in convention assem- 
 
WHIG, 1853. 471 
 
 bled, adhering to the great conservative principles hj 
 which they are controlled and governed, and now^ as ever 
 relying upon the intelligence of the American people, with 
 an abiding confidence in their capacity for self-govern- 
 ment and their devotion to the constitution and the Union, 
 do proclaim the following as the political sentiments and 
 determination for the establishment and maintenance of 
 which their national organization as a party was effected : 
 
 First. The government of tbe United States is of a lim- 
 ited character, and is contined to the exercise of powers 
 expressly granted by the constitution, and such as may be 
 necessary and proper for carrying the granted powers into 
 full execution, and that powers not granted or necessarily 
 implied are reserved to the States respectively and to the 
 people. 
 
 Second. The State governments should be held secure 
 to their reserved rights, and the general government sus- 
 tained in its constitutional powers, and that the Union 
 should be revered and watched over as the palladium of 
 our liberties. * 
 
 Third. That while struggling freedom everywhere en- 
 lists the warmest sympathy of the Whig party we still 
 adhere to the doctrines of the father of his country, as 
 announced in his farewell address, of keeping ourselves 
 free from all entangling alliances with foreign countries, 
 and never quitting our own to stand upon foreign grounds; 
 that our mission as a republic is not to propagate our 
 opinions, or impose upon other countries our form of gov- 
 ernment by artifice, or force, but to teach by example, and 
 show by our success, moderation and justice, the blessings 
 of self-government and the advantages of free institutions. 
 
 Fourth. That as the people make and control the gov- 
 ernment, they should obey its constitution, laws and trea- 
 ties as they would retain their self-respect and the respect 
 which they claim and will enforce from foreign powers. 
 
 Fifth. Governments should be conducted on the princi- 
 ples of the strictest economy, and revenue sufficient for the 
 expenses thereof in time of peace ought to be derived 
 mainly from a duty on imports, and not from direct taxes; 
 and in laying such duties sound policy requires a just dis- 
 crimination, and wheu practicable by specific duties, 
 whereby suitable encouragement may be afi'orded to Amer- 
 ican industry equal to all classes and to all portions of the 
 country. 
 
 Sixth. The constitution vests in Congress the power to 
 open and repair harbors and remove obstructions from 
 navigable rivers whenever such improvements are neces- 
 
472 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 sary for the common defence and for the protection and 
 facility of commerce with foreign nations or among the 
 States, said improvements being in every instance national 
 and general in their character. 
 
 Seventh. The federal and State governments are parts 
 of one system, alike necessary for the common prosperity, 
 peace and security, and ought to be regarded alike with a 
 cordial, habitual and immovable attachment. Respect for 
 the authority of each and acquiescence in the just consti- 
 tutional measures of each are duties required by the plain-^ 
 est considerations of national, State and individual wel- 
 fare. 
 
 Eighth. That the series of acts of the Thirty-second 
 Congress, the act known as the Fugitive Slave Law includ- 
 ed, are received and acquiesced in by the Whig party of 
 the United States as a settlement in principle and sub- 
 stance of the dangerous and exciting questions which they 
 embrace, and so far as they are concerned we will maintain 
 them and insist upon their strict enforcement until time 
 and experience s^all demonstrate the necessity for further 
 legislation to guard against the evasion of the laws on the 
 one hand and the abuse of their powers on the other, not 
 impairing their present efficiency; and we deprecate all 
 further agitation of the question thus settled as dangerous 
 to our peace, and will discountenance all efforts to continue 
 or renew such agitation whenever, wherever or however 
 the attempt may be made; and we will maintain the sys- 
 tem as essential to the nationality of the Whig party and 
 the integrity of the Union. 
 
 Free Soil Platform. 
 
 Having assembled in national convention as the free 
 Democracy of the United States, united by a common 
 resolve to maintain right against wrong, and freedom 
 against slavery; confiding in the intelligence, patriotism 
 and discriminating justice of the American people; putting 
 our trust in God for the triumph of our cause, and invoking 
 His guidance in our endeavors to advance it, we now submit 
 to the candid judgment of all men the following declaration 
 of principles and measures : 
 
 1. That governments, deriving their just powers from 
 consent of the governed, are instituted among men to 
 'secure to all those inalienable rights of life, liberty and the 
 pursuit of happiness, with which they are endowed by their 
 Creator, and of which none can be deprived bylvalid legisla- 
 tion, except for crime. 
 .2. That the true mission of American democracy is to 
 
FREE SOIL, 1S53. 472 
 
 maintain the liberties of the people, the sovereignty of the 
 States, and the perpetuity of the Union by the impartial 
 application to public affairs, without sectional discrimina- 
 tion, of the fundamental principles of human rights, strict 
 justice and an economical administration. 
 
 3. That the federal governinent is one of limited powers, 
 derived solely from the constitution, and the grants of 
 power therein ought to be strictly construed by all the de- 
 partments and agents of the government, and it is inex- 
 pedient and dangerous to exercise doubtful constitutional 
 powers. 
 
 4. That the constitution of the United States, ordained 
 to form a more perfect union, to establish justice, and 
 secure the blessings of liberty, expressly denies to the 
 general government all power to deprive any person of 
 life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; and, 
 therefore, the government, having no more power to make 
 a slave than to make a king, and no more power to establish 
 slavery that to establish a monarchy, should at once pro- 
 ceed to relieve itself from all responsibility for the existence 
 of slavery wherever it possesses constitutional power to 
 legislate for its extinction. 
 
 5. That to the persevering and importunate demands of 
 the slave power for more slave States, new slave territories, 
 and the nationalization of slavery, our distinct and final 
 answer is no more slave States, no slave territory, no 
 nationalized slavery, and no national legislation for the 
 extradition of slaves. 
 
 6. That slavery is a sin against God, and a crime against 
 man, which no human enactment or usage can make right; 
 and that Christianity, humanity and patriotism alike de- 
 mand its abolition. 
 
 7. That the fugitive slave act of 1850 is repugnant to the 
 constitution, to the principles of the common law, to the 
 spirit of Christianity, and to the sentiments of the civilized 
 world; we therefore deny its binding force on the Amer- 
 ican people and demand its immediate and total repeal. 
 
 8. That the doctrine that any human law is a finality, 
 and not subject to modification or repeal, is not in accord- 
 ance with the creed of the founders of our government, and 
 is dangerous to the liberties of the people, 
 
 9. That the acts of Congress, known as the compromise . 
 measures of 1850, by making the admission of a sovereign 
 State contingent upon the adoption of other measures de- 
 manded by the special interests of slavery; by their omis- 
 sion to guarantee freedom in the free territories, by their 
 attempt to impose unconstitutional limitations on the 
 
 / 
 
474 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 powers of Congress and the people to admit new States; by 
 their provisions for the assumption of five millions of the 
 State debt of Texas, and for the payment of five millions 
 more, and the session of large territory to the same State 
 under menace, as an inducement to the relinquishment of 
 a groundless claim ; and by their invasion of the sovereignty 
 of the States and the liberties of the people, through the 
 enactment of an unjust, oppressive, and unconstitutional 
 fugitive slave law, are proved to be inconsistent with all 
 the principles and maxims of democracy, and wholly inade- 
 quate to the settlement of the questions of which they are 
 claimed to be an adjustment. 
 
 10. That no permanent settlement of the slavery ques- 
 tion can be looked for except in the practical recognition 
 of the truth that slavery is sectional and freedom national ; 
 by the total separation of the general government from 
 slavery, and the exercise of its legitimate and constitutional 
 influence on the side of freedom ; and by leaving to the States 
 the whole subject of slavery and the extradition of fugitives 
 from service. 
 
 11. That all men have a natural right to a portion of the 
 soil; and that as the use of the soil is indispensable to 
 life, the right of all men to the soil is as sacred as their 
 right to life itself. 
 
 12. That the public lands of the United States belong 
 to the people and should not be sold to individuals nor 
 granted to corporations, but should be held as a sacred 
 trust for the benefit of the people, and should be granted 
 in limited quantities, free of cost, to landless settlers. 
 
 13. That due regard for the federal constitution, a sound 
 administrative policy, demand that the funds of the general 
 government be kept separate from banking institutions; 
 that inland and ocean postage should be reduced to the 
 lowest possible point; that no more revenue should be 
 raised than is required to defray the strictly necessary ex- 
 penses of the public service and to pay oft' the public debt; 
 and that the power and patronage of the government should 
 be diminished by the abolition of all unnecessary ofiices, 
 salaries and privileges, and by the election of the people 
 of all civil officers in the service of the United States, so far 
 as may be consistent with the prompt and efficient trans- 
 action of the public business. 
 
 14. That river and harbor improvements, when necessary 
 to the safety and convenience of commerce with foreign 
 nations, or among the several States, are objects of national 
 concern; and it is the duty of Congress, in the exercise of 
 its constitutional powers, to provide for the same. 
 
FREE SOIL, 1852. 475 
 
 15. That emigrants and exiles from the Old World 
 should find a cordial welcome to homes of comfort and 
 fields of enterprise in the new; and every attempt to 
 abridge their privilege of becoming citizens and owners 
 of soil among us ought to be resisted with inflexible 
 determination. 
 
 16. That every nation has a clear right to alter or change 
 its own government and to administer its own concerns in 
 such manner as may best secure the rights and promote the 
 happiness of the people; and foreign interference with 
 that right is a dangerous violation of the law of nations, 
 against which all independent governments should protest, 
 and endeavor by all proper means to prevent; and espe- 
 cially is it the duty of the American government, repre- 
 senting the chief republic of the world, to protest against 
 and by all proper means to prevent, the intervention of 
 kings and emperors against nations seeking to establish 
 for themselves republican or constitutional governments. 
 
 17. That the independence of Hayti ought to be recog- 
 nized by our government, and our commercial relations 
 with it placed on the footing of the most favored nations. 
 
 18. That as by the constitution "the citizens of each 
 State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities 
 of citizens in the several States," the practice of imprison- 
 ing colored seamen of other States, while the vessels to 
 which they belong lie in port, and refusing the exercise of 
 the right to bring such cases before the supreme court of 
 the United states, to test the legality of such proceedings, 
 is a flagrant violation of the constitution, and an invasion 
 of the rights of the citizens of other States, utterly incon- 
 sistent with the profession made by the slaveholders, that 
 
 ' they wish the provisions of the constitution faithfully ob- 
 served by every State in the Union. 
 
 19. That we recommend the introduction into all treaties 
 hereafter to be negotiated between the United States and 
 foreign nations, of some provision for the amicable settle- 
 ment of difficulties by a resort to decisive arbitrations. 
 
 20. That the free Democratic party is not organized to 
 aid either the Whig or Democratic wing of the great 
 slave compromise party of the nation, but to defeat them 
 both; and that repudiating and denouncing both as hope- 
 lessly corrupt and utterly unworthy of confidence, the pur- 
 pose of the free Democracy is to take possession of the 
 federal government and administer it for the better pro- 
 tection of the rights and interests of the whole people. 
 
 21. That we inscribe on our banner free soil, free speech, 
 free labor, and free men, and under it will fight on and 
 
476 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. ' 
 
 fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall rew^ard our 
 exertions. 
 
 22. That upon this platform the convention presents to 
 tbe American people, as a candidate for the office of presi- 
 dent of the United States, John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, 
 and as a candidate for the office of vice-president of the 
 United States George W. Julian, of Indiana, and earnestly 
 commend them to the support of all freemen and all 
 parties. 
 
 1856. 
 
 ^""""^ Democratic Party. 
 
 Resolved, That the American Democracy place their 
 trust in the intelligence, the patriotism, and the discrimi- 
 nating justice of the American people. 
 
 Kesolved, That we regard this as a distinctive feature 
 of our political creed, which we are proud to maintain ber 
 fore the world as the great moral element in a form of gov- 
 ernment springing from and upheld by the popular will; 
 and we contrast it with the creed and practice of federal- 
 ism, under whatever name or form, which seeks to palsy 
 the will of the constituent, and which conceives no impos- 
 ture too monstrous for the popular credulity. 
 
 Resolved, therefore, that, entertaining these views, the 
 Democratic party of this Union, through their delegates 
 assembled in a general convention of the States, coming to- 
 gether in a spirit of concord, of devotion to the doctrines 
 and faith of a free representati-ve government, and appeal- 
 ing to their fellow-citizens for the rectitude of their inten- 
 tions, renew and reassert before the American people the 
 declarations of principles avowed by them when, on former 
 occasions, in general convention, they presented their can-, 
 didates for the popular suffrage : 
 
 1. That the federal government is one of limited power, 
 derived solely from the constitution, and the grants of 
 power made therein ought to be strictly construed by all 
 the departments and agents of the government, and that it 
 is inexpedient and dangerous to exercise doubtful consti- 
 tutional powers. 
 
 2. That the constitution does not confer upon the gen- 
 eral government the power to commence and carry on a 
 general system of internal improvements. 
 
 3. That the constitution does not confer authority upon 
 the federal government, directly or indirectly, to assume 
 the debts of the several States, contracted for local and in- 
 ternal improvements, or other State purposes; nor would 
 such assumption be just or expedient. 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1S56. 477 
 
 4. That justice and sound policy forbid the federal gov- 
 ernment to foster one branch of industry to the detriment 
 of any other, or to cherish the interests of one portion to 
 the injury of another portion of our common country; that 
 every citizen and every section of the country has a right 
 to demand and insist upon an equality of rights and privi- 
 leges, and to complete and ample protection of persons and 
 property from domestic violence or foreign aggression. 
 
 5. That it is the duty of every branch of the government 
 to enforce and practice the most rigid economy in conduct- 
 ing our public affairs, and that no more revenue ought to 
 be raised than is required to defray the necessary expenses 
 of the government, and for the gradual, but certain extinc- 
 tion of the public debt. 
 
 6. That the proceeds of the public lands ought to be sa- 
 credly applied to the national objects specified in the con- 
 stitution ; and that we are opposed to any law for the 
 distribution of such proceeds among the States, as alike in- 
 expedient in policy and repugnant to the constitution. 
 
 7. That Congress has no power to charter a national 
 bank; that we believe such an institution one of deadly 
 hostility to the best interests of the country, dangerous to 
 our republican institutions and the liberties of the people, 
 and calculated to place the business of the country within 
 the control of a concentrated money power, and above the 
 laws and the will of the people; and that the results of 
 Democratic legislation in this and all other financial meas- 
 ures upon which issues have been made between the two 
 political parties of the country have demonstrated to can- 
 did and practical men of all parties their soundness, safety, 
 and utility in all business pursuits. 
 
 8. That the separation of the moneys of the government 
 from banking institutions is indispensable for the safety 
 of the funds of the government and the rights of the 
 people. 
 
 9. That we are decidedly opposed to taking from the 
 president the qualified veto power, by which he is enabled, 
 under restrictions and responsibilities amply sufiicient to 
 guard the public interests, to suspend the passage of c bill 
 whose merits cannot secure the approval of twi)-thirds of 
 the senate and house of representatives, until the judgment 
 of the people can be obtained thereon, and which has saved 
 the American people from the corrupt and tyrannical dom- 
 ination of the Bank of the United States, and from a cor- 
 rupting system of general internal improvements. 
 
 10. That the liberal principles embodied by Jefi'erson in 
 the Declaration of Independence, and sanctioned in the 
 
478 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 constitution, which makes ours the land of liberty and the 
 asylum of the oppressed of every nation, have ever been 
 cardinal principles in the Democratic faith, and every at- 
 tempt to abridge the privilege of becoming citizens and the 
 owners of soil among us ought to be resisted with the same 
 spirit which swept the alien and sedition laws from our 
 statute books; and, 
 
 Whereas, Since the foregoing declaration was uniformly 
 adopted by our predecessors in national conventions, an 
 adverse political and religious test has been secretly or- 
 ganized by a party claiming to be exclusively American, it 
 is proper that the American Democracy should clearly de- 
 fine its relation thereto, and declare its determined opposi- 
 tion to all secret political societies, by whatever name they 
 may be called. 
 
 Resolved, That the foundation of this union of States 
 having been laid in, and its prosperity, expansion, and 
 pre-eminent example in free government built upon entire 
 freedom in matters of religious concernment, and no re- 
 spect of persons in regard to rank or place of birth, no 
 party can justly be deemed national, constitutional, or in 
 accordance with American principles, which bases its ex- 
 clusive organization upon religious opinions and accidental 
 birthplace. And hence a political crusade in the nine- 
 teenth century, and in the United States of America, 
 against Catholic and foreign-born, is neither justified by 
 the past history or the future prospects of the country, nor 
 in unison with the spirit of toleration and enlarged free- 
 dom which peculiarly distinguishes the American system 
 of popular government. 
 
 Resolved, That we reiterate with renewed energy of 
 purpose the well-considered declarations of former con- 
 ventions upon the sectional issue of domestic slavery and 
 concerning the reserved rights of the States. 
 
 1. That Congress has no power under the constitution 
 to interfere with or control the domestic institutions of the 
 several States, and that such States are the sole and proper 
 judges of everything appertaining to their own affairs not 
 prohibited by the constitution; that all efforts of the 
 Abolitionists, or others, made to induce Congress to inter- 
 fere with questions of slavery, or to take incipient steps in 
 relation thereto, are calculated to lead to the most alarm- 
 ing and dangerous consequences; and that all such efforts 
 have an inevitable tendency to diminish the happiness of 
 the people and endanger the stability and permanency of 
 the Union, and ought not to be countenanced by any friend 
 of our political institutions. 
 
DEMOCRATIC, lS^6. 4^9 
 
 2. That the foregoing proposition covers, and was in- 
 tended to embrace, the whole subject of slavery agitation 
 in Congress; and therefore the Democratic party of the 
 Union, standing on this national platform, will abide by 
 and adhere to a faithful execution of the acts known as the 
 compromise measures, settled by the Congress of 1850; 
 "the act for reclaiming fugitives from service or labor" 
 included; which act, being designed to carry out an ex- 
 press provision of the constitution, cannot, with fidelity 
 thereto, be repealed or so changed as to destroy or impair 
 its efiiciency. 
 
 3. That the Democratic party will resist all attempts at 
 renewing, in Congress or out of it, the agitation of the 
 slavery question under whatever shape or color the at- 
 tempt may be made. 
 
 4. That the Democratic party will faithfully abide by 
 and uphold the principles laid down in the Kentucky and 
 Virginia resolutions of 1798, and in the report of Mr. Madi- 
 son to the Virginia legislature in 1799; that it adopts those 
 principles as constituting one of the main foundations of 
 its political creed, and is resolved to carry them out in 
 their obvious meaning and import. 
 
 And that W3 may more distinctly meet the issue on 
 which a sectional party, subsisting exclusively on slavery 
 agitation, now relies to test the fidelity of the people, North 
 and South, to the constitution and the Union — 
 
 1. Resolved,. That claiming fellowship with and desiring 
 the co-operation of all who regard the preservation of the 
 Union under the constitution as the paramount issue — and 
 repudiating all sectional parties and platforms concerning 
 domestic slavery, w^hich seek to embroil the States and in- 
 cite to treason and armed resistance to law in the Terri- 
 tories, and whose avowed purposes, if consummated, must 
 end in civil war and disunion — the American Democracy 
 recognize and adopt the principles contained in the organic 
 laws establishing the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska 
 as embodying the only sound and safe solution of the 
 "slavery question" upon which the great national idea of 
 the people of this whole country can repose in its deter- 
 mined conservatism of the Union — Non-interference by 
 Congress with Slavery in State and Territory, or in the 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 2. That was the basis of the compromises of 1850 — con- 
 firmed by both the Democratic and Whig parties in na- 
 tional conventions — ratified by the people in the election 
 of 1852 — and rightly applied to the organization of Terri- 
 tories in 1854. 
 
480 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 3. That by the uniform application of this Democratic 
 principle to the organization of Territories and to the ad- 
 mission of new States, with or without domestic slavery, 
 as they may elect — the equal rights of all the States will be 
 preserved intact — the original compacts of the constitution 
 maintained inviolate — and the perpetuity and expansion of 
 this Union insured to its utmost capacity of embracing, in 
 peace and harmony, every future American State that may 
 be constituted or annexed, with a republican form of gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Kesolved, That we recognize the right of the people of all 
 the Territories, including Kansas and Nebraska, acting 
 through the legally and fairly expressed will of a majority 
 of actual residents, and whenever the number of their in- 
 habitants justifies it, to form a constitution, with or with- 
 out domestic slavery, and be admitted into the Union upon 
 terms of perfect equality with the other States. 
 
 Resolved, finally, That in view of the condition of pop- 
 ular institutions in the Old World (and the dangerous 
 tendencies of sectional agitation, combined with the at- 
 tempt to enforce civil and religious disabilities against the 
 rights of acquiring and enjoying citizenship in our own 
 land) a high and sacred duty is devolved with increased 
 responsibility upon the Democratic party of this country, 
 as the party of the Union, to uphold and maintain the 
 rights of every State, and thereby the union of the States; 
 and to sustain and advance among us constitutional liberty, 
 by continuing to resist all monopolies and exclusive legis- 
 lation for the benefit of the few at the expense of the many, 
 and by a vigilant and constant adherence to those princi- 
 ples and compromises of the constitution which are broad 
 enough and strong enough to embrace and uphold the 
 Union as it was, the Union as it is, and the Union as it 
 shall be, in the full expansion of the energies and capacity 
 of this great and progressive people. 
 
 1. Eesolved, That there are questions connected with 
 the foreign policy of this country which are inferior to no 
 domestic questions whatever. The time has come for the 
 people of the United States to declare themselves in favor 
 of free seas and progressive free trade throughout the 
 world, and by solemn manifestations to place their moral 
 influence at the side of their successful example. 
 
 2. Resolved, That our geographical and political posi- 
 tion with reference to the other States of this continent, 
 no less than the interest of our commerce and the develop- 
 ment of our growing power, requires that we should hold 
 sacred the principles involved in the Monroe doctrine. 
 
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REPUBLICAN, 1856. 481 
 
 Their bearing and import admit of no misconstruction, and 
 should be applied with unbending rigidity. 
 
 3. Resolved, that the great highway which nature, as 
 well as the assent of States most immediately interested in 
 its maintenance, has marked out for free communication 
 between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, constitute one of 
 the most important achievements realized by the spirit of 
 modern times, in the unconquerable energy of our people; 
 and that result would be secured by a timely and efficient 
 exertion of the control which we have the right to claim 
 over it ; and no power on earth should be suffered to im- 
 pede or clog its progress by any interference with relations 
 that may suit our policy to establish between our govern- 
 ment and the governments of the States within whose do- 
 
 'minions it lies; we can under no circumstances surrender 
 our preponderance in the adjustment of all questions aris- 
 ing out of it, 
 
 4. Resolved, That, in view of so commanding an interest, 
 the people of the United States cannot but sympathize with 
 the eft'orts which are being made by the people of Central 
 America to regenerate that portion of the continent which 
 covers the passage across the inter-oceanic isthmus. 
 
 5. Resolved, That the Democratic party will expect of 
 the next administration that every proper effort be made to 
 insure our ascendancy in the Gulf of Mexico, and to main- 
 tain permanent protection to the great outlets through 
 which are emptied into its waters the products raised out 
 of the soil and the commodities created by the industry of 
 the people of our western valleys and of the Union at large. 
 
 6. Resolved, That the administration of Franklin Pierce 
 has been true to Democratic principles, and, therefore, true 
 to the great interests of the country; in the face of violent 
 opposition he has maintained the laws at home and vindi- 
 cated the rights of American citizens abroad, and, there- 
 fore, we proclaim our unqualified admiration of his meas- 
 ures and policy. 
 
 Republican Party. 
 
 (Made by a union of the Free Soil party and the northern 
 
 branch of the Whig party.) 
 
 This convention of delegates, assembled in pursuance of 
 a call addressed to the people of the United States, without 
 regard to past political differences or divisions, who are 
 opposed to the repeal of the Missouri compromise, to the 
 policy of the present administration, to the extension of 
 slavery into free territory ; in favor of admitting Kansas 
 
^83 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 as a free State, of restoring the action of the federal 
 g'overnment to the principles of Washington and Jefferson ; 
 and who propose to unite in presenting candidates for the 
 offices of president and vice-president, do resolve as 
 follows : 
 
 Resolved, That the maintenance of the principles pro- 
 mulgated in the Declaration of Independence, and em- 
 bodied in the federal constitution, is essential to the 
 preservation of our republican institutions, and that the 
 federal constitution, the rights of the States, and the union 
 of the States shall be preserved. 
 
 Resolved, That with our republican fathers we ) old it to 
 be a self-evident truth that all men are endowed with the 
 inalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- 
 piness, and that the primary object and ulterior design of 
 our federal government were to secure these rights to all 
 persons within its exclusive jurisdiction; that as our re- 
 publican fathers, when they had abolished slavery in all 
 our national territory, ordained that no person should be 
 deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process 
 «of law, it becomes our duty to maintain this provision of 
 the constitution against all attempts to violate it for the 
 purpose of establishing slavery in any territory of th« 
 United States, by positive legislation, prohibiting its exist- 
 ence or extension therein. That we deny the authority of 
 Congress, of a territorial legislature, of any individual or 
 association of individuals, to give legal existence to slavery 
 in any territory of the United States, while the present 
 constitution shall be maintained. 
 
 Hesolved, That the constitution confers upon Congress 
 sovereign power over the territories of the United States 
 for their government, and that in the exercise of this power 
 It is both the right and the imperative duty of Congress to 
 prohibit in the territories those twin relics of barbarism, 
 polygamy and slavery. 
 
 Resolved, That while the constitution of the United 
 States was ordained and established, in order to form a 
 more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic 
 tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the 
 general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty, and 
 contains ample provisions for the protection of the life, 
 liberty and property of every citizen, the dearest constitu- 
 tional rights of the people of Kansas have been fraudulent- 
 ly and violently taken from them ; their territory has been 
 invaded by an armed force; spurious and pretended legis- 
 lative, judicial and executive officers have been set over 
 them, by whose usurped authority, sustained by the mili- 
 
REPUBLICAN, lSi^6. 485 
 
 tary power of the government, tyrannical and unconstitu- 
 tional laws have been enacted and enforced; the rights of 
 the people to keep and bear arms have been infringed ; 
 test oaths of an extraordinary and entangling nature have- 
 been imposed, as a condition of exercising the right of suf- 
 frage and holding office; the right of an accused person to* 
 a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury has been 
 denied; the right of the people to be secure in their persons^ 
 houses, papers, and effects against unreasonable searches 
 and seizures has been violated; they have been deprived of 
 life, liberty and property without due process of law ; that 
 the freedom of speech and of the press has been abridged; 
 the right to choose their representatives has been made of 
 no effect; murders, robberies and arsons have been in- 
 stigated or encouraged, and the offenders have been 
 allowed to go unpunished; that all these things have been 
 done with the knowledge, sanction, and procurement of the' 
 present national administration, and that for this higls 
 crime against the constitution, the union and humanity^ 
 we arraign the administration, the president, his advisers,, 
 agents, supporters, apologists and accessories, either before 
 or after the facts, before the country and before the worlds 
 and that it is our fixed purpose to bring the actual per- 
 petrators of these atrocious outrages and their accomplices. 
 to a sure and condign punishment hereafter. 
 
 Besolved, That Kansas should be immediately admitted 
 as a State of the Union with her present free constitution^ 
 as at once the most eft'ectual way of securing to her citizens 
 the emjoyment of the rights and 'privileges to which they 
 are entitled, and of ending the civil strife now raging in 
 her territory. 
 
 Resolved, That the highwayman's plea that "might make* 
 right," embodied in the Ostend circular, was in every re- 
 spect unworthy of American diplomacy, and would bring: 
 shame and dishonor upon any government or people who 
 gave it their sanction. 
 
 Resolved, That a railroad to the Pacific ocean, by the 
 most central and practical route, is imperatively demandecJ 
 by the interests of the whole country, and that the federal 
 government ought to render immediate and eflicient aid in 
 its construction ; and as an auxiliary thereto, to the imme- 
 diate construction of an emigrant route on the line of the 
 railroad. 
 
 Resolved, That appropriations by Congress for the im- 
 provement of rivers and harbors of a national character, re- 
 quired for the accommodation and security of our existingj" 
 commerce, ar<^ authorized by the constitution and justifiedl 
 
484 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 by the obligation of government to protect the lives and 
 property of its citizens. 
 
 Resolved, That we invite the affiliation and co-operation 
 of freemen of all parties, however dilt'ering from us in 
 other respects, in support of the principles herein declared; 
 and, believing that the spirit of our institutions as well as 
 the constitution of our country guarantees liberty of con- 
 science and equality of rights among citizens, we oppose 
 all legislation impairing their security. 
 
 Amebic AN (Know Nothing) Party. 
 
 1. An humble acknowledgment to the Supreme Being 
 for His protecting care vouchsafed to our fathers in their 
 successful revolutionary struggle, and hitherto manifested 
 to us, their descendants, in the preservation of the liberties, 
 the independence, and the union of these states. 
 
 2. The perpetuation of the federal union and constitu- 
 tion as the palladium of our civil and religious liberties, 
 and the only sure bulwarks of American independence. 
 
 3. Americans must rule America; and to this end native 
 born citizens should be selected for all state, federal, and 
 municipal government employment, in preference to all 
 others. Nevertheless, 
 
 4. Persons born of American parents residing temporar- 
 ily abroad should be entitled to all the rights of native 
 born citizens. 
 
 5. No person should be selected for political station 
 (whether of native or foreign birth) who recognizes any 
 allegiance or obligation of any description to any foreiga 
 prince, potentate or power, or who refuses to recognize the 
 federal and state constitution (each within its own sphere) 
 as paramount to all other laws as rules of political action. 
 
 6. The unequalled recognition and maintenance of the 
 reserved rights of the several states, and the cultivation of 
 haruiony and fraternal good will between the citizens of 
 the several states, and to this end non-interference by Con- 
 gress with questions appertaining solely to the individual 
 states, and non-intervention by each state with the affairs 
 of any other state. 
 
 7. The recognition of the right of native born and nat- 
 uralized citizens of the United States permanently resid- 
 ing in any territory thereof to frame their constitution and 
 laws, and to regulate their domestic and social affairs in 
 their own mode, subject only to the provisions of the fed- 
 eral constitution, with the privilege of admission into the 
 Union whenever they have the requisite population for one 
 repres^^-ntative in Congress. 
 
AMERICAN (know NOTHINg), 1856. 485 
 
 Provided, That none but those who are citizens of the 
 United States under the constitution and laws thereof, and 
 who have a fixed residence in any such territory, are to 
 participate in the formation of the constitution or in the 
 enactment of laws for said territory or state. 
 
 8. An enforcement of the principles that no state or 
 territory ought to admit others than citizens to the right of 
 iuffrage or of holding political oflices of the United States. 
 
 9. A change in the laws of naturalization, making a 
 «ontinued residence of twenty-one years, of all not hereto- 
 fore provided for, an indispensable requisite for citizenship 
 hereafter, and excluding all paupers or persons convicted 
 of crime from landing upon our shores; but no interfer- 
 ence with the vested rights of foreigners. 
 
 10. Opposition to any union between church and state; 
 BO interference with religious faith or worship; and no test 
 oaths for ofiice. 
 
 11. Free and thorough investigation into any and all 
 alleged abuses of public functionaries and a strict economy 
 in public expenditures. 
 
 12. The maintenance and enforcement of all laws con- 
 stitutionally enacted until said laws shall be repealed or 
 shall be declared null and void by competent judiciary 
 authority. 
 
 13. Opposition to the reckless and unwise policy of the 
 present administration in the general management of our 
 national affairs, and more especially as shown in removing 
 "Americans" (by designation) and conservatives in princi- 
 ple from office, and placing foreigners and ultraists in 
 their places; as shown in truckling subserviency to the 
 stronger and an insolent and cowardly bravado toward the 
 weaker powers; as shown in re-opening sectional agita- 
 tion, by the repeal of the Missouri Compromise; as shown 
 in the granting to unnaturalized foreigners the right of 
 suffrage in Kansas and Nebraska; as shown in its vacillat- 
 ing course on the Kansas and Nebraska question; as 
 shown in the corruption which pervades some of the de- 
 partments of the government; as shown in disgracing 
 meritorious naval officers through prejudiced caprice; and 
 as shown in the blundering mismanagement of our foreign 
 relation. 
 
 14. Therefore, to remedy existing evils and prevent the 
 disastrous consequences otherwise resulting therefrom, we 
 would build up the "American Party " upon the principles 
 hereinbefore stated. 
 
 15. That each state council shall have authority to 
 amend their several constitutions, so as to abolish the sev- 
 
486 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 eral degrees and substitute a pledge of honor, instead of 
 other obligations, for fellowship and admission into the 
 party. 
 
 16. A free and open discussion of all political principles 
 embraced in our platform. 
 
 Whig Party. 
 
 (The Southern branch of the old Whig party. Their con- 
 vention ratified the nomination of the American party, but 
 adopted a separate platform.) 
 
 Resolved, T'.iat the Whigs of the United States, now here 
 assembled, hi^reby declare their reverence for the constitu- 
 tion of the United States, their unalterable attachment to 
 the national union and a fixed determination to do all in 
 their power to preserve them for themselves and their pos- 
 terity. They have no new principles to announce; no new 
 platform to establish; but are content to broadly rest — 
 where their fathers rested — upon the constitution of the 
 United States, wishing no safer guide, no higher law. 
 
 Resolved, That we regard with the deepest interest and 
 anxiety the present disordered condition of our national 
 affairs — a portion of the country rabid by civil war, large 
 sections of our population embittered by mutual recrimi- 
 nations ; and we distinctly trace these calamities to the cul- 
 pable neglect of duty by the present national administra- 
 tion. 
 
 Resolved, That the government of the United States was 
 formed by the conjunction in political unity of widespread 
 geographical sections, materially differing, not only in cli- 
 mate and products, but in social and domestic institutions; 
 and that any cause that shall permanently array the differ- 
 ent sections of the union in political hostility and organize 
 parties founded only on geographical distinctions must in- 
 evitably prove fatal to a continuance of the national union. 
 
 Resolved, That the Whigs of the United States declare, 
 as a fundamental article of political faith, an absolute ne- 
 cessity for avoiding geographical parties. The danger, so 
 clearly discerned by the father of his country, has now be- 
 come fearfully apparent in the agitation now convulsing 
 the nation and must be arrested at once if we would pre- 
 serve our constitution and our union from dismemberment 
 and the name of America from being blotted out from the 
 family of civilized nations. 
 
 Resolved, That all who revere the constitution and the 
 union must look with alarm at the parties in the field in 
 thfc present presidential campaign - one claiming only to 
 
REPUBLICAN, lS6o. 487 
 
 represent sixteen Northern states, and the other appealing 
 mainly to the passions and prejudices of the Southern 
 states; that the success of either faction must add fuel to 
 the flame which now threatens to wrap our dearest inter- 
 ests in a common ruin. 
 
 Resolved, That the only remedy for an evil so appalling 
 is to support a candidate pledged to neither of the geo- 
 graphical sections nor arrayed in political antagonism, but 
 holding both in a just and equal regard. We congratu- 
 late the friends of the union that such a candidate exists 
 in Millard Fillmore. 
 
 Resolved, That, without adopting or referring to the 
 peculiar doctrines of the party which has already selected 
 Mr. Fillmore as a candidate, we look to him as a well-tried 
 and faithful friend of the constitution and the union, 
 eminent alike for his wisdom and firmness — for his justice 
 and moderation in our foreign relations — calm and pacific 
 temperament, so well becoming the head of a great nation 
 — for his devotion to the constitution in its true spirit — his 
 inflexibility in executing the laws; but, beyond all these 
 attributes, in possessing the one transcendant merit of be- 
 ing a representative of neither of the two sectional parties 
 now struggling for political supremacy. 
 
 Resolved, That in the present exigency of political 
 affairs we are not called upon to discuss the subordinate 
 questions of administration in the exercising of the con- 
 stitutional powers of the government. It is enough to 
 know that civil war is raging, and that the union is in 
 peril; and we proclaim the conviction that the restoration 
 of Mr. Fillmore to the presidency will furnish the best, if 
 not the only means of restoring peace. 
 
 1860. 
 
 Republican Party. 
 
 Resolved, That we, the delegated representatives of the 
 Republican electors of the United States, in convention 
 assembled, in discharge of the duty we owe to our constitu- 
 ents and our country, unite in the following declarations: 
 
 1. That the history of the nation during the last four 
 years has fully established the propriety and necessity of 
 the organization and perpetuation of the Republican party, 
 and that the causes which called it into existence are per- 
 manent in their nature, and now, more than ever before, 
 demand its peaceful and constitutional triumph. 
 
 2. That the maintenance of the principles promulgated 
 in the Declaration of Independence and embodied in the 
 federal constitution, "That all men are created equal; that 
 
488 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienabl'* 
 rights; that among- these are life, liberty and the pursuit 
 of happiness; that to secure these rights governments are 
 instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the 
 consent of the governed," is essential to the preservation of 
 our republican institutions; and that the federal constitu- 
 tion, the rights of the states and the union of the states 
 must and shall be preserved. 
 
 3. That to the union of the states this nation owes its 
 unprecedented increase in population, its surprising de- 
 velopment of material resources, its rapid augmentation of 
 wealth, its happiness at home and its honor abroad; and 
 we hold in abhorrence all schemes for disunion, come from 
 whatever source they may ; and we congratulate the coun- 
 try that no Republican member of Congress has uttered or 
 countenanced the threats of disunion so often made by 
 Democratic members, without rebuke and wi'h applause 
 from their political associates; and we denounce those 
 threats of disunion, in case of a popular overthrow of their 
 ascendency, as denying the vi'al principles of a free gov- 
 ernment, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which 
 it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to 
 rebuke and forever silence. 
 
 4. That the maintenance inviolate of the rights of the 
 states, aud especially the right of each state to order and 
 control its own domestic ins itutions according to its own 
 judgment exclusively, is essential to that balance of power 
 on which the perfection and endurance of our political fab- 
 ric depends; and we denounce the lawless invasion by 
 armed force of ihe soil of any state or territory, no matter 
 under what pretext, as among the gravest of crimes. 
 
 5. That the present Democratic adminis ration has far 
 exceeded our worst apprehensions, in its measureless sub- 
 serviency to the exactions of a sectional interest, as es- 
 pecially evinced in its desperate exertions to force the in- 
 famous Lecompton constitution upon the protesting people 
 of Kansas; in construing the personal relations between 
 master and servant to involve an unqualified property in 
 persons; in its attempted enforcement everywhere, on land 
 and sea, through the intervention of Congress and of the 
 federal courts of the extreme pretensions of a purely local 
 interest; and in its general and unvarying abuse of the 
 power intrusted to it by a confiding people. 
 
 6. That the people justly view with alarm the reckless 
 extravagance which pervades every department of the fed- 
 eral government; that a return to rigid economy and ac- 
 countability is indispensable to arrest the systematic plun- 
 
REPUBLICAN, lS6o. 489 
 
 der of the public treasury by favored partisans, while the 
 recent startling- developments of frauds and corruptions at 
 the federal metropolis show that an entire change of ad- 
 ministration is imperatively demanded. 
 
 7. That the new dogma, that the constitution of its own 
 force carries slavery into any or all of the territories of 
 the United States, is a dangerous political heresy, at vari- 
 ance with the explicit provisions of that instrument itself, 
 with contemporaneous exposition, and with legislative and 
 judicial precedent; is revolutionary in its tendency and sub- 
 versive of the peace and harmony of the country. 
 
 8. That the normal condition of all the territory of the 
 United States is that of freedom; that as our republican 
 fathers when they had abolished slavery in all our national 
 territory ordained that '• no person should be deprived of 
 life, liberty or property without due process of law," it be- 
 comes our duty, by legislation, whenever such legislation 
 is necessary, to maintain thio provision of the constitution 
 against all attempts to violate it; and we deny the authori- 
 ty of Congress, of a territorial legislature, or of any indi- 
 viduals, to give legal existence to slavery in any territory 
 of the United States. 
 
 9. That we brand the recent re-opening of the African 
 slave trade, under the cover of our national flag, aided by 
 perversions of judicial t ower, as a crime against humanity 
 and a burning shame to our country and age; and we call 
 upon Congress to take prompt and efticient measures for 
 the total and final suppression of tnat execrable trafiic. 
 
 10. That in the recent vetoes by their federal governors 
 of the acts of the legislatures of Kansas and Nebraska, pro- 
 hibiting slavery in those territories, we find a practical 
 illustration of the boasted Democratic principle of non-in- 
 tervention and popular sovereignty, embodied in the Kan- 
 sas-Nebraska bill, and a demonstration of the deception 
 and fraud involved therein. 
 
 11. That KansJis should of right be immediately admit- 
 ted as a state under the constitution recently formed and 
 adopted by her people and accepted by the house of repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 12. That, while providing revenue for the support of the 
 general government by duties upon imports, sound policy 
 requires such an adjustment of these imports as to en- 
 courage the development of the industrial interests of the 
 whole country; and we commend that policy of national ex- 
 changes which secures to the workingmen liberal wages, 
 to agriculture remunerative prices, to mechanics and man- 
 ufacturers an adequate reward for their skill, labor and en- 
 
490 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 terprise, and to the nation commercial prosperity and in- 
 dependence. 
 
 13. That we protest against any sale or alienation to 
 others of the public lands held by actual settlers, and 
 against any view of the free homestead policy which re- 
 gards the settlers as paupers or suppliants for public boun- 
 ty ; and we demand the passage by Congress of the complete 
 and satisfactory homestead measure which has already 
 passed the house. 
 
 14. That the Kepublican party is opposed to any change 
 in our naturalization laws, or any state legislation by 
 which the rights of citizenship hitherto accorded to immi- 
 grants from foreign lands shall be abridged or impaired; 
 and in favor of giving a full and eflficient protection to the 
 rights of all classes of citizens, whether native or natural- 
 ized, both at home and abroad. 
 
 15. That appropriations by Congress for river and har- 
 bor improvements of a national character, required for the 
 accommodation and security of an existing commerce, are 
 authorized by the constitution and justified by the obliga- 
 tion of government to protect the lives and property of its 
 citizens. 
 
 16. That a railroad to the Pacific Ocean is imperatively 
 demanded by the interests of the whole country ; that the 
 federal government ought to render immediate and efficient 
 aid in its construction; and that, as preliminary thereto, a 
 daily overland mail should be promptly established. 
 
 17. Finally, having thus set forth our distinctive prin- 
 ciples and views, we invite the co-operation of all citizens, 
 however differing on other questions, who substantially 
 agree with us in their affirmance and support. 
 
 Democratic Party (Northern Wing). 
 
 (The Democratic party met in convention in Charleston 
 S. C, April 23d, but the difference between the northern 
 and southern wings was so wide that the convention split 
 and two conventions were consequently held in Baltimore^ 
 the northern wing nominating Stephen A. Douglas, and the 
 southern wing nominating John C. Breckinridge.) 
 
 1. Resolved, That we, the Democracy of the Union, in 
 convention assembled, hereby declare our affirmance of the 
 resolutions unanimously adopted and declared as a plat- 
 form of principles by the Democratic convention in Cincin- 
 nati in the year 1856, believing that Democratic principles 
 are unchangeable in their nature when applied to the same 
 
DEMOCRATIC (SOUTHERN WIXg), 1856. 49I 
 
 subject matters, and we recommend, as the only further 
 resolutions, the following-: — Inasmuch as differences of 
 opinion exist in the Democratic party as to the nature and 
 extent of the powers of a territorial legislature, and as to 
 the powers and duties of Congress, under the constitution 
 of the United States over the institution of slavery within 
 the territories : 
 
 2. Resolved, That the Democratic party will abide by the 
 decisions of the supreme court of the United States on the 
 questions of constitutional law. 
 
 3. Resolved, That it is the duty of the United States to 
 afford ample and complete protection to all its citizens, 
 whether at home or abroad, and whether native or foreign. 
 
 4. Resolved, That one of the necessities of the age, in a 
 military, commercial, and postal point of view, is speedy 
 communication between the Atlantic and Pacific states; 
 and tlie Democratic party pledge such constitutional gov- 
 ernment aid as will insure the construction of a railroad to 
 the Pacific coast at the earliest practicable period. 
 
 5. Resolved, That the Democratic party are in favor of 
 the acquisition of the island of Cuba on such terms as shall 
 be honorable to ourselves and just to Spain. 
 
 6. Resolved, That the enactments of state legislatures to 
 defeat the faithful execution of the fugitive slave law are 
 hostile in character, subversive of the constitution, and 
 revolutionary in their effect. 
 
 7. Resolved, That it is in accordance with the true inter- 
 pretation of the Cincinnati platform that during the ex- 
 istence of the territorial governments the measures of 
 restriction, whatever it may be, imposed by the federal 
 constitution on the power of the territorial legislature 
 over the subject of the domestic relations, as the same has 
 been, or shall hereafter be, finally determined by the su- 
 preme court of the United States, should be respected by 
 all good citizens and enforced with promptness and fidelity 
 by every branch of the general government. 
 
 The Democratic convention met in Charleston, S. C, 
 April 23; 1860. The convention after fifty-seven ballots 
 adjourned without nominating candidates. 
 
 Democratic Party (Southern Wing). 
 
 Resolved, That the platform adopted by the Democratio 
 party at Cincinnati be affirmed, with the following ex- 
 planatory resolutions: 
 
 1. That the government of a territory organized by an 
 act of Congress is provisional and temporary, and during 
 
49^ 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 its existence all citizens of the United States have an* equal 
 right to settle with their property in the territory, with- 
 out their right, either of person or property, being de- 
 stroyed or impaired by congressional or territorial legisla- 
 tion. 
 
 2. That it is the duty of' the federal government, in all 
 its departments, to protect when necessary the rights of 
 persons and property in the territories and wherever els« 
 its constitutional authority extends. 
 
 3. That when the settlers in a territory, having an ade- 
 quate y^opulation, form a state constitution, tlie right of 
 sovereignty commences, and being consumma<^ed by admis- 
 sion into the union, they stand on an equal footing with 
 the people of other states; and the sta e thus organized 
 ought to be admitted into the federal union, whether its 
 constitution prohibits or recognizes the institution of 
 slavery. 
 
 4. That the Democratic party are in favor of the ac- 
 quisition of the island of Cuba on such terms as shall be 
 honorable to ourselves and just to Spain, at the earliest 
 practicable moment. 
 
 5. That the enactments of the state legislatures to defeat 
 the faithful execution of the fugitive slave law are hostile 
 in character, subversive of the constitution and revolution- 
 ary in their effect. 
 
 6. The Democracy of the United States recognize it as 
 the impera ive duty of this government to protect the 
 naturalized citizen in all his rights, whether at home or in 
 foreign lands, to the same extent as its native-born citi- 
 zens. 
 
 Whereas, One of the greatest necessities of the age, in a 
 political, commercial, postal and military point of view, is a 
 speedy communication between the Pacific and Ailantio 
 coasts, therefore, be it 
 
 Resolved, That the national Democratic party do hereby 
 pledge themselves to use every means in their power to 
 secure the passage of some bill, to the extent of the consti- 
 tutional authority of Congress, for the construction of a 
 Pacific railroad from the Mississippi river to the Pacifio 
 Ocean, at the earliest practicable moment. 
 
 Constitutional Union Party. 
 
 This was a continuation of the American party. 
 
 Whereas, Experience has demonstrated that platforms 
 adopted by the partisan conventions of the country hav« 
 had the effect to mislead and deceive the people and at th» 
 same time to widen the political divisions of the country^ 
 
REPUBLICAN ( REGULAR), 1S64. 493 
 
 by the creation and encouragement of geographical and 
 sectional parties; therefore, 
 
 Resolved, That it is both part of patriotism and of duty to 
 recognize no political principles other than the constitu- 
 tion of the country the union of the states, and the en- 
 forcement of the laws; and that as representatives of the 
 constitutional union men of the country, in national con- 
 vention assembled we hereby pledge ourselves to maintain, 
 protect and defend, separately and unitedly, these great 
 principles of public liberty and national safety against all 
 enemies at home and abroad, believing that thereby peace 
 may once more be restored to the country ; the rights of the 
 people and of the states re-established, and the government 
 again placed in that condition of justice, fraternity and 
 equality which under the example and constitution of our 
 fathers has solemnly bound every citizen of the United 
 States to maintain a more perfect union, establish justice, 
 insure domestic tranquillity, provide for common defense, 
 promote the general welfare, and secure t))e blessings of 
 liberty to ourselves and our posterity. 
 
 j864. 
 
 Republican Party (Regular). 
 
 1. Resolved, That it is the highest duty of every Amer^ 
 can citizen to maintain against all their enemies the inte^" 
 rity of the union and the paramount authority of The con- 
 stitution and laws of the United States; and that, laying 
 aside all differences of political opinions, we pledge our- 
 selves as union men, animated by a common sentiment, and 
 aiming at a common object, to do everything in our power 
 to aid the government in quelling by force of arms the re- 
 bellion now raging against its authority, and in bringing 
 to the punishment due to their crimes the rebels and 
 traitors arrayed against it. 
 
 2. Resolved, That we approve the determination of the 
 government of the United States not to compromise with 
 rebels, or to offer them any terms of peace except such as 
 may be based upon an unconditional surrender of their 
 hostility and a return to their just allegiance to the consti- 
 tution and laws of the United States; and that we call upon 
 the government to maintain this position and to prosecute 
 the war with the utmost possible vigor to the complete sup- 
 pression of the rebellion, in full reliance upon the self- 
 sacrificing patriotism, the heroic valor and the undying 
 devotion of the American people to the country and its 
 free institutions. 
 
 3. Resolved, That as slavery was the cause, and now con- 
 
494 '^^^^ NATIONAL rLATFOKxMS. 
 
 stitutes the strength of this rebellion, and as it must be 
 always and everywhere hostile to the principles of republi- 
 can government, justice and the national safety demand its 
 utter and complete extirpation from the soil of the repub- 
 lic; and that while we uphold and maintain the acts and 
 proclamations by which the government, in its own defense, 
 has aimed a death-blow at this gigantic evil, we are in fa- 
 vor furthermore of such an amendment to the constitution, 
 to be made by the people in conformity with itb provisions, 
 as shall terminate and forever prohibit the existence of 
 slavery within the limits of the jurisdiction of the United 
 States. 
 
 4. Resolved, That the thanks of the American people are 
 <due to the soldiers and sailors of the army and navy who 
 tiave periled their lives in defense of the country and in 
 vindication of the honor of its flag; that the nation owes to 
 ■them some permanent recognition of their patriotism and 
 their valor, and ample and permanent provision for those 
 of their survivors who have received disabling and honora- 
 ble wounds in the service of the coun ry; and that the 
 memories of those who have fallen in its defense shall be 
 lield in grateful and everlasting remembrance. 
 
 5. Resolved, That we approve and applaud the practical 
 ^visdom, the unselfish patriotism, and the unswerving fidel- 
 ity to the constitution and the principles of American lib- 
 erty with which Abraham Lincoln has discharged, under 
 -circumstances of unparalleled difiiculty, the great duties 
 and responsibilities of the presidential office; that we ap- 
 prove and indorse as demanded by the emergency and 
 -essential to the preservation of the nation, and as within 
 the provisions of the constitution, the measures and acts 
 which he has adopted to defend the nation against its open 
 and secret foes; that we approve especially the proclama- 
 tion of emancipation and the employment as union soldiers 
 <of men heretofore held in slavery ^ and that we have full 
 •confidence in his determination to carry these and all other 
 constitutional measures essential to the salvation of the 
 country into full and complete effect. 
 
 6. Resolved, That we deem it essential to the general 
 welfare that harmony should prevail in the national coun- 
 cils, and we regard as worthy of public confidence and ofii- 
 cial trust those only who cordially indorse the principles 
 proclaimed in these resolutions, and which should charac- 
 terize the administration of the government. 
 
 7. Resolved, That the government owes to all men em- 
 ployed in its armies, without regard to distinction of color, 
 the full protection of the laws of war; and that any viola- 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1864. 49=^ 
 
 tion of these laws, or of the usages of civilized nations ia 
 time of war by the rebels now in arms, should be made the 
 subject of prompt and full redress. 
 
 8. Resolved, That foreign immigration, which in the 
 past has added so much to the wealth, development of re- 
 sources, and increase of power to the nation — the asylum of 
 the oppre ssed of all nations — should be fostered and en- 
 couraged by a liberal and just policy. 
 
 9. Resolved, That we are in favor of the speedy con- 
 struction of the railroad to the Pacific coast. 
 
 10. Resolved, That the national faith, pledged for the 
 redemption of the public debt, must be kept inviolate, and 
 that for this purpose we recommend economy and rigid 
 responsibility in the public expenditures, and a vigorous 
 and just system of taxation; and that it is the duty of ev- 
 ery loyal state to sustain the credit and promote the use of 
 the national currency. 
 
 11. Resolved, That we approve the position taken by the 
 government that the people of the United States can never 
 regard with indifference the attempt of any Europeare 
 power to overthrow by force, or to supplant by fraud, the 
 institutions of any republican government on the westerns 
 continent; and tl at they will view with extreme jealousy^ 
 as menacing to the peace and independence of their own 
 country, the efforts of any such power to obtain new foot- 
 holds for monarchial governments, sustained by foreiga 
 military force, in near proximity to the United States. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 Resolved, That in the future as in the past, we will ad- 
 here with unswerving fidelity to the union under the con- 
 stitution as the only solid foundation of our strength,, 
 security and happiness as a people, and as a framework of 
 government equally conducive to the welfare and prosper- 
 ity of all the States, both northern and southern. 
 
 Resolved, That this convention does explicitly declare, as 
 the sense of the American people, that after four years of 
 failure to restore the union by the experiment of war, dur- 
 ing which, under the pretense of a military necessity of 
 war-power higher than the constitution, the constitution! 
 itself has been disregarded in every part, and public liber- 
 ty and private right alike trodden down, and the material 
 prosperity of the country essentially impaired, justice, hu- 
 manity, liberty, and the public welfare demand that imme- 
 diate efi'orts be made for a cessation of hostilities, with a 
 view to the ultimate convention of the states, or other 
 peaceable means, to the end that, at the earliest practicable 
 
496 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 moment, peace may be restored on the basis of the federal 
 union of the states. 
 
 Resolved, That the direct interference of the military au- 
 thorities of the United States in the recent elections held 
 in Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri and Delaware was a 
 shameful violation of the constitution, and a repetition of 
 such acts in the approaching- election will be held as revo- 
 lutionary and resisted with all the means and power under 
 our control. 
 
 Resolved, That the aim and object of the Democratic 
 party is to preserve the federal union and the rights of the 
 states unimpaired, and they hereby dec^lare that they con- 
 sider that the administrative usurpation of extraordinary 
 and dangerous powers not granted by the constitution — the 
 subversion of the civil by military law in states not in in- 
 surrection; the arbitrary military arrest, imprisonment, 
 trial, and sentence of American citizens in states where 
 civil law exists in full force; the suppression of freedom of 
 speech and of the press; the denial of the right of asylum; 
 the open and avowed disregard of state rights; the employ- 
 ment of unusual test oaths; and the interference with and 
 denial of the right of the people to bear arms in their de- 
 fense is calculated to prevent a restoration of the union 
 and the perpetuation of a government deriving its just 
 powers from the consent of the governed. 
 
 Resolved, That the shameful disregard of the administra- 
 tion to its duty in respect to our fellow-citizens who now 
 are and long have been prisoners of war in a suffering con- 
 dition deserves the severest reprobation on the score alike 
 of public policy and common humaniry. 
 
 Resolved, That the sympathy of the Democratic party is 
 heartily and earnestly extended to the soldiers of our army 
 and sailors of our navy, w^ho are and have been in the field 
 and on the sea under'the flag of our country, and in the 
 event of its attaining pow«r they will receive all the care, 
 protection, and regard that the brave soldiers and sailors 
 of the republic have so nobly earned. 
 
 Republican Party (Radical). 
 
 The radical Republicans -were in favor of more extreme 
 measures in dealing with the South, and met at Cleveland, 
 May 31, nominating John C. Fremont for president. He 
 afterwards withdrew and recommended the support of 
 the regular Republican ticket (Lincoln and Johnson), 
 which was done. 
 
 1. That the federal union shall be preserved. 
 
REPUBLICAN, 1868. 497 
 
 2. That the constitution and laws of the United States 
 must be observed and obeyed. 
 
 3. Tliat the rebellion must be suppressed by force of 
 arms and without compromise. 
 
 4. That the rights of free speech, free press and habeas 
 corpus be held inviolate, save in districts where martial 
 law has been proclaimed. 
 
 5. That the rebellion has destroyed slavery; and the fed- 
 eral constitution should be so amended as to prohibit its 
 re-establishment, and to secure to all men absolute equality 
 before the law. 
 
 6. That integrity and -economy are demanded at all 
 times in the administration of the government, and that 
 in time of war the want of them is criminal. 
 
 7. That the right of asylum, except for crime and subject 
 to law, is a recognized principle of American liberty; and 
 that any violation of it cannot be overlooked, and must not 
 go un rebuked. 
 
 8. That the national policy known as the "Monroe Doc- 
 trine" has become a recognized j)rinciple; and that the 
 establishment of any anti-republican government on this 
 continent by any foreign power cannot be tolerated. 
 
 9. That the gratitude and support of the nation are due 
 to the faithful soldiers and the earnest leaders of the union 
 army and navy for their heroic achievements and deathless 
 valor in defense of our imperiled country and civil liberty. 
 
 10. That the one-term policy for the presidency adopted 
 by the people is strengthened by the force of the existing 
 crisis, and should be maintained by constitutional amend- 
 ment, 
 
 11. That the constitution should be so amended that the 
 president and vice-president shall be elected by a direct 
 vote of the people. 
 
 12. That the question of the reconstruction of the rebel- 
 lious states belongs to the people, through their represen- 
 tatives m Congress, and not to the executive. 
 
 lb. That the confiscation of the lands of the rebels and 
 their distribution among the soldiers and actual settlers is 
 a measure of justice. 
 
 I8G8, 
 
 Eefublican Party. 
 The national Republican party of the United States, 
 assembled in national convention m the city of Chicago, on 
 Che 21st da^ ol May 1868 make the following declaration 
 •of principles 
 
498 
 
 THE NATlOiNAI. PLATFORMS. 
 
 1. We congratulate the country on the assured success 
 of the reconstruction policy of Congress, as evinced by the 
 adoption, in the majority of the states lately in rebellion, 
 of constitutions securing equal civil and political rights 
 to all; and it is the duty of the government to sustain those 
 institutions and prevent the people of such states fron> 
 being remitted to a state of anarchy. 
 
 2. The guaranty by Congress of equal suffrage to all 
 loyal men at the South w^as demanded by every considera- 
 tion of public safety, of gratitude, and of justice, and must 
 be maintained; while the question of suffrage in all the 
 loyal states properly belongs to.the people of those states. 
 
 3. We denounce all forms of repudiation as a national 
 crime; and the national honor requires the payment of the 
 public indebtedness in the uttermost good faith to all 
 creditors at home and abroad, not only according to the 
 letter, but the spirit of the laws under which it was con- 
 tracted. 
 
 4. It is due to the labor of the nation that taxation 
 should be equalized and reduced as rapidly as the national 
 faith will permit. 
 
 5. The national debt, contracted as it has been for the 
 preservation of the union for all time to come, should be 
 extended over a fair period for redemption; and it is the 
 duty of Congress to reduce the rate of interest thereon 
 whenever it can be honestly done. 
 
 6. That the best policy to diminish our burden of debts 
 is to so improve our credit that capitalists will seek to 
 loan us money at lower rates of interest than we novy pay 
 and must continue to pay so long as repudiation, partial or 
 total, open or covert, is threatened or suspected. 
 
 7. The government of the United States should be ad- 
 ministered with the strictest economy ; and the corruptions 
 which have been so shamefully nursed and fostered by An- 
 drew Johnson call loudly for radical reform. 
 
 8. We profoundly deplore the untimely and tragic death 
 of Abraham Lincoln, and regret the accession to the presi- 
 dency of Andrew Johnson, who has acted treacherously to 
 the people who elected him and the cause he was pledged 
 to support; who has usurped high legislative and judicial 
 functions; who has refused to execute the laws; who has 
 used his high ofhce to induce other officers to ignore and 
 violate the laws; who has employed his executive powers to 
 render insecure the property, the peace, liberty and life of 
 the citizen; who has abused the pardoning power; who has 
 denounced the national legislature as unconstitutional; 
 who has persistently and corruptly resisted^ by every 
 
REPUBLICAN, lS68. 4^1^ 
 
 means in his power, every proper attempt at the recon- 
 struction of the states lately in rebellion ; who has pervert- 
 ed the public patronage into an engine of wholesale corrup- 
 tion ; and who has been justly impeached for high crimes 
 and misdenjeanors, and properly pronounced guilty thereof 
 by the vote of thirty-five senators. 
 
 9. The doctrine of Great Britain and other European 
 powers, that because a man is once a subject he is always 
 so, must be resisted at every hazard by the United States, 
 as a relic of feudal times, not authorized by the laws of na- 
 tions, and at war with our national honor and independ- 
 ence. Naturalized citizens are entitled to protection in all 
 their rights of citizenship as though they were native- 
 born; and no citizen of the United States, native or natur- 
 alized, must be liable to arrest and imprisonment by any 
 foreign power for acts done or words spoken in this coun- 
 try ; and if so arrested and imprisoned it is the duty of the 
 government to interfere in his behalf. 
 
 10. Of all who were faithful in the trials of the late war 
 there were none entitled to more especial honor than the 
 brave soldiers and seamen who endured the hardships of 
 campaign and cruise, and imperiled their lives in the ser- 
 vice of the country; the bounties and pensions provided by 
 the laws for these brave defenders of the nation are obliga- 
 tions never to be forgotten; the widows and orphans of the 
 gallant dead are the wards of the people — a sacred legacy 
 bequeathed to the nation's protecting care. 
 
 11. Foreign immigration, which in the past has added so 
 much to the wealth, development, and resources and in- 
 crease of power to this republic, the asylum of the op- 
 pressed of all nations, should be fostered and encouraged 
 by a liberal and just policy. 
 
 12. This convention declares itself in sympathy with all 
 oppressed people struggling for their rights. 
 
 13. That we highly commend the spirit of magnanimity 
 and forbearance with which men who have served in the 
 rebellion, but who now frankly and honestly co-operate 
 with us in restoring the peace of the country and recon- 
 structing the Southern state governments upon the basis 
 of impartial justice and equal rights, are received back into 
 the communion of the loyal people; and we favor the re- 
 moval of the disqualifications and restrictions imposed 
 upon the late rebels in the same measure as the spirit of 
 disloyalty will die out, and as may be consistent with the 
 safety of the loyal people. 
 
 14. That we recognize the great principles laid down in 
 the immortal Declaration of Tudcpendeuce as the true 
 
500 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 foundation of democratic government; and we hail with 
 gladness every effort toward making these principles a 
 living reality on every inch of American soil. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 The Democratic party in national convention assembled, 
 reposing its trust in the intelligence, patriotism, and dis- 
 criminating justice of the people, standing upon the con- 
 stitution as the foundation and limitation of the powers of 
 the government, and the guarantee of the liberties of the 
 citizen, and recognizing the questions of slavery and seces- 
 sion as having been settled for all time to come by the war 
 or the voluntary action of the Southern states in constitu- 
 tional conventions assembled, and never to be renewed or 
 reagitated, do, with the return of peace, demand : 
 
 1. Immediate restoration of all the states to their rights 
 in the union under the constitution, and of civil govern- 
 ment to the American people. 
 
 2. Amnesty for all pasr political offenses, and the regu- 
 lation of the elective franchise in the states by their citi- 
 zens. 
 
 3. Payment of the public debt of the United States as 
 rapidly as practicable; all moneys drawn from the people 
 by taxation, except so much as is requisite for the necessi- 
 ties of the government, economically administered, being 
 honestly applied to such payment, and where the obliga- 
 tions of the government do not expressly state upon their 
 face, or the law under which they were issued does not 
 provide that they shall be paid in coin, they ought in right 
 and in justice to be paid in the lawful money of the United 
 States. 
 
 4. Equal taxation of every species of property actording 
 to its real value, including government bonds and other 
 public securities. 
 
 5. One currency for the government and the people, the 
 laborer and the office-holder, the pensioner and the soldier, 
 the producer and the bondholder. 
 
 6. Economy in the administration of the government; 
 the reduction of the standing army and navy; the abolition 
 of the freedmen's bureau and all political instrumentalities 
 designed to secure negro supremacy; simplification of the 
 system, and discontinuance of inquisitorial modes of assess- 
 ing and collecting internal revenue, so that the burden of 
 taxation may be equalized and lessened; the credit of the 
 government and the curiency made good; the repeal of all 
 enactments for enrolling the state militia into national 
 forces in time of peace; and a tariff for revenue upon for- 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1868. 5OI 
 
 eign imports, and such equal taxation under the internal 
 revenue laws as will afford incidental protection to domes- 
 tic manufacturers, and as will without impairing- the reve- 
 nue impose the least burden upon and best promote and 
 encourage the great industrial interests of the country. 
 
 7. Reform of abuses in the administration, the expulsion 
 of corrupt men from office, the abrogation of useless offices, 
 the restoration of rightful authority to, and the independ- 
 ence of the executive and judicial departments of the 
 government, the subordination of the military to the civil 
 power, to the end that the usurpations of Congress and 
 despotism of the sword may cease. 
 
 8. Equal rights and protection for naturalized and 
 native-born citizens at home and abroad, the assertion^of 
 American nationality which shall command the respect of 
 foreign powers and furnish an example and encourage- 
 ment to people struggling for national integrity, constitu- 
 tional liberty, and individual rights and the maintenance 
 of the rights of naturalized citizens against the absolute 
 doctrine of immutable allegiance, and the claims of for- 
 eign powers to punish them for alleged crime committed 
 beyond their jurisdiction. 
 
 In demanding these measures and reforms we arraign 
 the radical party for its disregard of right and the unpar- 
 alleled oppression and tyranny which have marked its 
 career. After the most solemn and unanimous pledge of 
 both houses of Congress to prosecute the war exclusively 
 for the maintenance of the government and the preserva- 
 tion of the union under the constitution, it has repeatedly 
 violated that most sacred pledge under which alorie was 
 rallied that noble volunteer army which carried our flag to 
 victory. Instead of restoring the union, it has, so far as in 
 its power, dissolved it, and subjected ten states in time of 
 profound peace to military despotism and negro suprem- 
 acy. It has nullified there the right of trial by jury ; it has 
 abolished the habeas corpus, that most sacred writ of liber- 
 ty; it has overthrown the freedom of speech and the press; 
 it has substituted arbitrary seizures and arrests and mili- 
 tary trials and secret star-chamber inquisitions for thf* con- 
 stitutional tribunals; it J as disregarded in time of peace 
 the right of the people to be free from searches and seizures ; 
 it has entered the post and telegraph offices, and even the 
 private rooms of individuals, and seized their private pa- 
 pers and letters without any specific charge or notice of 
 affidavit, as required by the organic law; it has converted 
 the American capitol into a bastile; it has established a 
 system of spies and official espionage to which no constitu- 
 
502 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 tional monarchy of Europe would now dare to resort; it has 
 abolished the right of appeal on important constitutional 
 questions to the supreme judicial tribunals, and threatens 
 to curtail or destroy its original jurisdiction, which is irrev- 
 ocably vested by the constitution, while the learned 
 chief justice has been subjected to the most atrocious 
 calumnies, merely because he would not prostitute his high 
 office to the support of the false and partisan charges pre- 
 ferred against the president. Its corruption and extrava- 
 gance have exceeded anything known in history and by its 
 frauds and monopolies it has nearly doubled the burden of 
 the debt created by the war. It has stripped the president 
 of his constitutional power of appointment even of his own 
 cabinet. Under its repeated assaults the pillars of the 
 government are rocking on their base, and should it succeed 
 in November next and inaugurate its president we will 
 meet as a subjected and conquered people, amid the ruins 
 of liberty and the scattered fragments of the constitution. 
 
 And we do declare and resolve that ever since the people 
 of the United States threw off all subjection to the British 
 crown the privilege and trust of suffrage have belonged to 
 the several states, and have been granted, regulated and 
 controlled exclusively by the political power of each state 
 respectively, and that any a tempt by Congress on any pre- 
 text whatever to deprive any state of this right or interfere 
 with its exercise is a flagrant usurpation of power which 
 can iind no warrant in the constitution, and, if sanctioned 
 by the people, will subvert our form of government, and 
 can only end in a single, centralized and consolidated gov- 
 ernment, in which the separate existence of the states will 
 be entirely absorbed, and an unqualified despotism be es- 
 tablished in place of a federal union of co-equal states. 
 
 And that we regard the reconstruction acts (so-called) of 
 Congress as such, as usurpations and unconstitutional, 
 revolutionary and void. That our soldiers and sailors, who 
 carried the flag of our country to victory against a most 
 gallant and determined foe, must ever be gratefully remem- 
 bered, and all the guarantees given in their favor must be 
 faithfully carried into execution. 
 
 That the public lands should be distributed as widely as 
 possible among the people, and should be disposed of either 
 under the pre-emption of homestead lands or sold in rea- 
 sonable quantities, and to none but actual occupants, at the 
 minimum price established by the government. When 
 grants of the public lands may be allowed, necessary foF 
 the encouragement of important public improvements, the 
 
REPUBLICAN ( REGULAR), 1872. 503 
 
 proceeds of the sale of such lands, and not the lands them- 
 selves, should be so applied. 
 
 That the president of the United States, Andrew John- 
 son, in exercising the power of his high office in resisting 
 the aggressions of Congress upon the constitutional rights 
 of the states and the people, is entitled to the gratitude of 
 the whole American people, and in behalf of the Demo- 
 cratic party we tender him our thanks for his patriotic 
 efforts in that regard. 
 
 Upon this platform the Democratic party appeal to every 
 patriot, including all the conservative element and all who 
 desire to support the constitution and restore the union, 
 forgetting all past differences of opinion, to unite with us 
 in the present great struggle for the liberties of the people; 
 and that to all such, to whatever party they may have here- 
 tofore belonged, we extend the right hand of fellowship, 
 and hail all such co-operating with us as friends and breth- 
 ren. 
 
 Resolved, That this convention sympathize cordially 
 with the workingmen of the United States in their efforts 
 to protect the rights and interests of the laboring^classes 
 of the country. 
 
 Resolved, That the thanks of the convention are tendered 
 to Chief Justice Salmon P.Chase for the justice, dignity 
 and impartiality with which he presided over the court of 
 impeachment on the trial of President Andrew Johnson. 
 
 1872, 
 
 """"^^^ Republican" Party (Regular). 
 
 The Republican party of the United States assembled in 
 national convention in the city of Philadelphia on the 5th 
 and 6th days of June, 1872, again declares its faith, appeals 
 to its history and announces its position upon the ques- 
 tions before the country. 
 
 1. During eleven years of supremacy it has accepted 
 with grand courage the solemn duties of the time. It sup- 
 pressed a gigantic rebellion, emancipated four millions of 
 slaves, decreed the equal citizenship of all, and established 
 universal suffrage. Exhibiting unparalleled magnanimity, 
 it criminally punished no man for political offenses, and 
 warmly welcomed all who proved loyalty by obeying the 
 laws and dealing justly with their neighbors. It has stead- 
 ily decreased with firm hand the resultant disorders of a 
 great war and initiated a wise and humane policy toward 
 the Indians. The Pacific railroad and similar vast enter- 
 prises have been generously aided and successfully con- 
 ducted, the public lands freely given to actual settlers, im- 
 
504 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 migration protected and encouraged, and a full acknowl- 
 edgment of the naturalized citizen's rights secured from 
 European powers. A uniform national currency has been 
 provided, repudiation frowned down, the national credit 
 sustained under the most extraordinary burdens, and new 
 bonds negotiated at lower rates. The revenues have been 
 carefully collected and honesfly applied. Despite annual 
 large reductions in the rates of taxation, the public debt 
 has been reduced during General Grant's presidency at the 
 ra'eof a hundred millions a year, great financial crises 
 have been avoided and peace and plenty prevail through- 
 out the land. Menacing foreign difficulties have been 
 peacefully and honorably composed, and the honor and 
 power of the nation kept in high respect throughout the 
 world. This glorious record of the past is the party's best 
 pledge for the future. We believe the people will not in- 
 trust the government to any party or combination of men 
 composed chiefly of those who have resisted every step of 
 this beneficent progress, 
 
 2. The recent amendments to the national constitution 
 should «be cordially sustained because they are right not 
 merely tolerated because they are law, and should be car- 
 ried out according to their spirit by appropriate legislation, 
 the enforcement of which can safely be entrusted only to 
 the party that secured those amendments, 
 
 3. Complete liberty and exact equality in the enjoyment 
 of all civil, political and public rights should be established 
 and effectually maintained throughout the union by effi- 
 cient and appropriate state and federal legislation. Neither 
 the law nor its administration should admit any discrimin- 
 ation in respect of citizens by reason of race, creed, color 
 or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 4. The national government should seek to maintain 
 honorable peace with all nations, protecting its citizens 
 everywhere and sympathizing with all people who strive 
 for greater liberty. 
 
 5. Any system of the civil service under which the 
 subordinate positions of the government are considered 
 rewards for mere party zeal is fatally demoralizing, and we 
 therefore favor a reform of the system by laws which shall 
 abolish the evils of patronage and make honesty, efficiency 
 and fidelity the essential qualifications for public positions 
 without practically creating a life tenure of office. 
 
 6. We are opposed to further grants of the public lands 
 to corporations and monopolies, and demand that the na- 
 tional domain be set apart for free homes for the people. 
 
 7. The annual revenue, after paying curreat expendi- 
 
REPUBLICAN (rEGULAr), 1872. 505 
 
 tures, pensions and the interest on the public debt, should 
 furnish a moderate balance for the reduction of the princi- 
 pal, and that revenue, except so much as maybe derived 
 from a tax on tobacco and liquors, should be raised by du- 
 ties upon importations, the details of which should be so 
 adjusted as to aid in securing remunerative wages to labor, 
 and promote the industries, prosperity and growth of the 
 whole country. 
 
 8. We hold in undying honor the soldiers and sailors 
 whose valor saved the union. Their pensions are a sacred 
 debt of the nation, and the widows and orphans of those 
 who died for their country are entitled to the care of a 
 generous and grateful people. We favor such additional 
 legislation as will extend the bounty of the government to 
 all our soldiers and sailors who were honorably discharged, 
 and who in the line of duty became disabled, without re- 
 gard to the length of service or the cause of such dis- 
 charge. 
 
 9. The doctrine of Great Britain and other European 
 powers concerning allegiance — "once a subject always a 
 subject" — having at last through the efforts of the Republi- 
 can party been abandoned, and the American idea of the 
 individual's right to transfer allegiance having been ac- 
 cepted by European nations, it is the duty of our govern- 
 ment to guard with jealous care the rights of adopted citi- 
 zens against the assumption of unauthorized claims by 
 their former governments, and we urge continued careful 
 encouragement and protection of voluntary immigration. 
 
 10. The franking privilege ought to be abolished and 
 the way prepared for a speedy reduction in the rates of 
 postage. 
 
 11. Among the questions which press for attention is 
 that which concerns the relations of capital and labor, and 
 the Republican party recognizes the duty of so shapiuij:- 
 legislation as to secure fall protection and the amplest 
 field for capital and for labor, the creator of capital, the 
 largest opportunities and a just share of the mutual profits 
 of these two great servants of civilization. 
 
 12. We hold that Congress and the president hr.ve only 
 fulfilled an imperative duty jn their measures for the sup- 
 pression of violent and treasonable organizations in certain 
 lately rebellious regions, and for the protection of the bal- 
 lot-box; and therefore they are entitled to the thanks of the 
 nation, 
 
 13. We denounce repudiation of the public debt in any 
 form or disguise as a national crime. We witness with 
 pride the reduction of the principal of the debt and of the 
 
506 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 rates of interest upon the balance, and confidently expect 
 that our excellent national currency will be perfected by a 
 speedy resumption of specie payment. 
 
 14. The Republican party is mindful of its obligations 
 to the loyal women of America for their noble devotion to 
 the cause of freedom. Their admission to wider fields of 
 usefulness is viewed with satisfaction; and the honest de- 
 mand of any class of citizens for additional rights should be 
 treated with respectful consideration. 
 
 15. We heartily approve the action of Congress in ex- 
 tending amnesty to those lately in rebellion and rejoice in 
 the growth of peace and fraternal feeling throughout the 
 land. 
 
 16. The Republican party proposes to respect the rights 
 reserved by the people to themselves as carefully as the 
 powers delegated by them to the state and to the federal 
 government. It disapproves of the resort to unconstitu- 
 tional laws for the purpose of removing evils by interfer- 
 ence with rights not surrendered by the people to either 
 the state or national government. 
 
 17. It is the duty of the general government to adopt 
 such measures as may tend to encourage and restore Ameri- 
 can commerce and ship-building. 
 
 18. We believe that the modest patriotism, the earnest 
 purpose, the sound judgment, the practical wisdom, the in- 
 corruptible integrity and the illustrious services of Ulysses 
 S. Grant have commended him to the hearts of the Ameri- 
 can people, and with him at Our head we start to-day upon 
 a new march to victory. 
 
 19. Henry Wilson, nominated for the vice-presidency, 
 known to the whole land from the early days of the great 
 struggle for liberty as an indefatigable laborer in all cam- 
 paigns, an incorruptible legislator and representative ma« 
 of American institutions, is worthy to associate with our 
 great leader and share the honors which we pledge our 
 best efforts to bestow upon them. 
 
 Republican Party (Liberal). 
 A branch of the Republican party favoring more liberal 
 views of reconstruction met at Cincinnati May 1st, nomi- 
 nated Horace Greely and B. Gratz Brown, and adopted the 
 following platform : 
 
 We, the Liberal Republicans of the United States, in na- 
 tional convention assembled at Cincinnati, proclaim the 
 following principles as essential to just government : 
 
 1. We recognize the equality of all men before the law 
 
REPUBLICAN (lIBERAl), 1872. 507 
 
 and hold that it is the duty of government in its dealings 
 with the people to mete out equal and exact justice to all, 
 of whatever nativity, race, color, or persuasion, religious or 
 political. 
 
 2. We pledge ourselves to maintain the union of these 
 states, emancipation and enfranchisement, and to oppose 
 any reopening of the questions settled by the thirteenth, 
 fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the constitution. 
 
 3. We demand the immediate and absolute removal of 
 all disabilities imposed on account of the rebellion, which 
 was finally subdued seven years ago, believing that uni- 
 versal amnesty will result in complete pacification in all 
 sections of the country. 
 
 4. Local self-government, with impartial suffrage, will 
 guard the rights of all citizens more securely than any cen- 
 tralized power. The public welfare requires the supremacy 
 of the civil over the military authority, and freedom of 
 persons under the protection of the habeas corpus. We 
 demand for the individual the largest liberty consistent 
 with public order; for the state self-government, and for 
 the nation a return to the methods of peace and the consti- 
 tutional limitations of power. 
 
 5. The civil service of the government has become a 
 mere instrument of partisan tyranny and personal am- 
 bition and object of selfish greed. It is a scandal and re- 
 proach upon free institutions, and breeds a demoralization 
 dangerous to the perpetuity of republican government. 
 We therefore regard a thorough reform of the civil service 
 as one of the most pressing necessities of the hour; that 
 honesty, capacity and fidelity constitute the only valid 
 claim to public employment; that the offices of the govern- 
 ment cease to be a matter of arbitrary favoritism and 
 patronage, and that public station become again a post of 
 honor. To this end it is imperatively required that no 
 president shall be a candidate for re-election. 
 
 6. We demand a system of federal taxation which shall 
 not unnecessarily interfere with the industry of the people, 
 and which shall provide the means necessary to pay the 
 expenses of the government economically administered, 
 the pensions, the interest on the public debt and a moderate 
 reduction annually of the principal thereof; and recogniz- 
 ing that there are in our midst honest, but irreconcilable 
 differences of opinion with regard to the respective sys- 
 tems of protection and free trade, we remit the discussion 
 of the subject to the people in their congressional district's, 
 and to the decision of the Congress thereon, wholly free 
 from executive interference or dictation. 
 
5o8 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 7. The public credit must be sacredly maintained, and 
 we denounce repudiation in every form and guise. 
 
 8. A speedy return to specie payment is demanded alike 
 by the highest considerations of commercial morality and 
 honest government. 
 
 9. We remember with gratitude the herT)ism and sacri- 
 fices of the soldiers and sailors of the republic, and no act 
 of ours shall ever detract from their justly earned fame for 
 the full reward of their patriotism. 
 
 10. We are opposed to all further grants of lands to 
 railroads or other corporations. The public domain should 
 be held sacred to actual settlers. 
 
 11. We hold that it is the duty of the government in its 
 intercourse with foreign nations to cultivate the friend- 
 ships of peace by treating with all on fair and equal terms, 
 regarding it alike dishonorable either to demand what is 
 not right or to submit to what is wrong. 
 
 12. For the promotion and success of these vital princi- 
 ples, and the support of the candidates nominated by this 
 convention, we invite and cordially welcome the co-opera- 
 tion of all patriotic citizens without regard to previous 
 political affiliations. 
 
 Democratic Party (Regular). 
 The regular Democratic convention was held at Balti- 
 more, July 9th, and endorsed the platform and nominees of 
 the Liberal Republican convention. 
 
 Democratic Party (Straight Out). 
 
 A portion of the Democratic party, not approving the 
 fusion with the Libera? Republicans, met at Louisville, 
 September 3d, and nominated Charles O'Connor and John 
 Quincy Adams (both of whom afterwards declined) and 
 adopted the following platform : 
 
 Whereas, A frequent recurrence to first principles and 
 eternal vigilance against abuses are the wisest provisions 
 for liberty, which is the source of progress, and fidelity to 
 our constitutional system is the only protection for either; 
 therefore, 
 
 Resolved, That the original basis of our whole political 
 structure is consent in every part thereof. The people of 
 each state voluntarily created their state, and the states 
 voluntarily formed the union; and each state provided by 
 its written constitution for everything a state could do for 
 
LABOR REFORM, 1872. 509 
 
 the protection of life, liberty and property within it; and 
 each state, jointly with the others, provided a federal union 
 for foreign and inter-state relations. 
 
 Resolved, That all governmental powers, whether state or 
 federal, are trust powers coming from the people of each 
 state, and that they are limited to the written letter of the 
 constitution and the laws passed in pursuance of it; which 
 powe-rs must be exercised in the utmost good faith, the 
 constitution itself stating in what manner they may be 
 altered and amended. 
 
 Resolved, That the interests of labor and capital should 
 not be permitted to conflict, but should be harmonized by 
 judicious legislation. While such a conflict continues, la- 
 bor, which is the parent of wealth, is entitled to paramount 
 consideration. 
 
 Resolved, That we proclaim to the world that principle is 
 to be preferred to pt)wer; that the Democratic party is 
 held together by the cohesion of time-honored principles, 
 which they will never surrender in exchange for all the 
 offices which presidents can confer. The pangs of the mi- 
 norities are doubtless excruciating; but we welcome an 
 eternal minority under the banner inscribed with our prin- 
 ciples rather than an almighty and everlasting majority 
 purchased by their abandonment. 
 
 Resolved, That, having been betrayed at Baltimore into 
 a false creed and a false leadership by the convention, we 
 repudiate both, and appeal to the people to approve our 
 platform and to rally to the fold and support the true plat- 
 form and the candidates who embody it. 
 
 Labor Reform Party. 
 
 The convention was held at Columbus, O., February.21st 
 and 22d. David Davis and Joel Parker were nominated, 
 but declined, and O'Connor and Adams were afterward en- 
 dorsed. They adopted the following platform : 
 
 We hold that all political power is inherent in the people, 
 and free government founded on their authority and estab- 
 lished for their benefit; that all citizens are equal in politi- 
 cal rights, entitled to the largest religious and political 
 liberty compatible with the good order of society, as also 
 the use and enjoyment of the fruits of their labor and 
 talents; and no man or set of men is entitled to exclusive 
 separable endowments and privileges, or immunities from 
 the government, but in consideration of public services; 
 and any laws destructive of these fundamental principles 
 
510 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 are without moral binding force, and should be repealed. 
 And believing that all the evils resulting from unjust legis- 
 lation now aifecting the industrial classes can be removed 
 by the adoption of the principle contained in the following 
 declaration ; therefore, 
 
 Resolved, That it is the duty of the government to estab- 
 lish a just standard of distribution of capital and labor by- 
 providing a purely national circulating medium, based on 
 the faith and resources of the nation, issued directly to the 
 people without the intervention of any system of banking 
 corporations, which money shall be legal tender in the pay- 
 ment of all debts, public and private, and interchangeable 
 at the option of the holder for government bonds bearing a 
 rate of interest not to exceed 3-65 per cent, subject to fu- 
 ture legislation by Congress. 
 
 2. That the national debt should be paid in good faith, 
 according to the original contract, at the earliest option of 
 the government, without mortgaging the property of the 
 people or the future exigencies of labor to enrich a few 
 capitalists at home and abroad. 
 
 3. That justice demands that the burdens of government 
 should be so adjusted as to bear equally on all classes, and 
 that the exemption from taxation of government bonds 
 bearing extravagant rates of interest is a violation of all 
 just principles of revenue laws. 
 
 4. That the public lands of the United States belong to 
 the people and should not be sold to individuals nor grant- 
 ed to corporations, but should be held as a sacred trust for 
 the benefit of the people, and should be granted the land- 
 less settlers only in amounts not exceeding one hundred 
 and sixty acres of land. 
 
 5. That Congress should modify the tariff so as to admit 
 free such articles of common use as we can neither produce 
 nor grow, and lay duties for revenue mainly upon articles 
 of luxury and upon such articles of manufacture as will, 
 we having the raw materials, assist in further developing 
 the resources of the country. 
 
 6. That the presence in our country of Chinese labor, 
 imported by capitalists in large numbers, for servile use, is 
 an evil, entailing want and its attendant train of misery 
 and crime on all classes of the American people, and should 
 be prohibited by legislation. 
 
 7. That we ask for the enactment of a law by which all 
 mechanics and day laborers employed by or on behalf of 
 the government, whether directly or indirectly, through 
 persons, firms or corporations, contracting with the state, 
 shall conform to the reduced standard of eight hours a day. 
 
LABOR REFORM, 1872. 5ll 
 
 recently adopted by Congress for national employees, and 
 also for an amendment to the acts of incorporation for 
 «ities and towns by which all laborers and mechanics em- 
 ployed at their expense shall conform to the same number 
 •f hours. 
 
 8. That the enlightened spirit of the age demands the 
 abolition of the system of contract labor in our prisons and 
 •ther reformatory institutions. 
 
 9. That the protection of life, liberty and property are 
 the three cardinal principles of government, and the first 
 two are more sacred than the latter; therefore money 
 needed for prosecuting wars should, as it is required, be 
 assessed and collected from the wealthy of the country, and 
 not entailed as a burden on posterity. 
 
 10. That it is the duty of the government to exercise its 
 power over railroads and telegraph corporations, that they 
 shall not in any case be privileged to exact such rates of 
 freight, transportation or charges, by w^hatever name, as 
 may bear unduly or unequally upon the producer or con- 
 sumer. 
 
 11. That there should be such a reform in the civil ser- 
 Tice of the national government as w^ill remove it beyond 
 all partisan influence and place it in the charge and under 
 the direction of intelligent and competent business men. 
 
 12. That as both history and experience teach us that 
 power ever seeks to perpetuate itself by every and all 
 means, and that its prolonged possession in the hands of 
 one person is always dangerous to the interest of a free 
 people, and believing that the spirit of our organic laws 
 and the stability and safety of our free institutions are 
 best obeyed on the one hand and secured on the other by a 
 regular constitutional change in the chief of the country at 
 «ach election; therefore we are in favor of limiting the 
 occupancy of the presidential chair to one term. 
 
 13. But we are in favor of granting general amnesty and 
 restoring the union at once on the basis of the equality of 
 rights and privileges to all, the impartial administration of 
 justice being the only true bond of union to bind the states 
 together and restore the government of the people. 
 
 14. That we demand the subjection of the military to 
 the civil authorities, and the confinement of its operations 
 to national purposes alone. 
 
 15. That we deem it expedient for Congress to supervise 
 the patent laws, so as to give labor more fully the benefit 
 of its own ideas and inventions. 
 
 16. That fitness, and not political or personal considera- 
 tions, should be the only recommendation to public office 
 
513 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 either appointive or elective, and any and all lavps looking 
 to the establishment of this principle are heartily ap- 
 proved. 
 
 Prohibition Party. 
 
 Resolved, That we reaffirm the following- resolu'ions 
 adopted by the national Prohibition convention, held at 
 Chicago, September 2, 1S69 
 
 Whereas, Protection and allegiance are reciprocal duties, and every citi- 
 zen who yields obedience to the just commands of the government is en- 
 titled to the full, free and perfect protection of that government in the 
 enjoyment of personal security, personal liberty and private property; 
 and 
 
 Whereas, The traffic in intoxicating drinks greatly impairs the personal 
 security and personal liberty of a large mass of citizens, and renders private 
 property insecure ; and 
 
 Whereas, All other political parties are hopelessly unwilling to adopt an 
 adequate policy on this question ; therefore 
 
 We, in national convention assembled, as citizens of this free republic, 
 sharing the duties and responsibilities of its government, in discharge of a 
 solemn duty we owe to our country and our race, unite in the following 
 declaration of principles : 
 
 1. That while we acknowledge the pure patriotism and profound states- 
 manship of those patriots who laid the foundations of this government, se- 
 curing at once the rights of the states severally, and their inseparable 
 union by the federal constitution, we would not merely garnish the sepul- 
 chers of our republican fathers, but we do hereby renew our solemn 
 pledges of fealty to the imperishable principles of civil and religious liberty 
 embodied in the Declaration of American Independence and our federal 
 constitution. 
 
 2. That the traffic in intoxicating beverages is a dishonor to Christian 
 civilization, inimical to the best interests of society, a political wrong of un- 
 equaled enormity, subversive of the ordinary objects of government, not 
 capable of being regulated or restrained by any system of license whatever, 
 but imperatively demanding for its suppression effective legal prohibition 
 by both state and national legislation. 
 
 3. That while we recognize the g-ood providence of Al- 
 mighty God in supervising the interests of this nation 
 from its establishment to the present time, having organ- 
 ized our party for the legal prohibition of the liquor traffic, 
 our reliance for success is upon the same omnipotent arm. 
 
 4. That there can be no greater peril to the nation than 
 the existing party competition for the liquor vote; that 
 any party not openly opposed to the traffic, experience 
 shows, will engage in this competition, will court the favor 
 of the criminal classes, will barter away the public morals, 
 the purity of the ballot, and every object of good govern- 
 ment, for party success. 
 
 5 That while adopting national political measures for 
 
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PROHIBITION, 1S72. 513 
 
 the prohibition of the liquor traffic, we will continue the 
 use of all moral means in our power to persuade men away 
 from the injurious practice of using intoxicating bever- 
 ages. 
 
 6. That we invite all persons, whether total abstainers 
 or not, who recognize the terrible injuries inflicted by the 
 liquor traffic, to unite with us for its overthrow, and to se- 
 cure thereby peace, order and the protection of persons 
 and property. 
 
 7. That competency, honesty and sobriety are indispen- 
 sable qualifications for holding public office. 
 
 8. That removals from public service for mere difference 
 of political opinion is a practice opposed to sound policy 
 and just principles. 
 
 9. That fixed and moderate salaries should take the place 
 of official fees and perquisites; the franking privilege, sine- 
 cures and all unnecessary offices and expenses should be 
 abolished, and every possible means be employed to prevent 
 corruption and venality in office; and by a rigid system of 
 accountability from all its officers and guards over the pub- 
 lic treasury the utmost economy should be practiced and 
 enforced in every department of the government. 
 
 10. That we favor the election of president, vice-presi- 
 dent and United States senators by direct vote of the peo-- 
 pie. 
 
 11. That we are in favor of a sound national currency, 
 adequate to the demands of business and convertible into 
 gold and silver at the will of the holder, and the adoption 
 of every measure compatible with justice and the public 
 safety, to appreciate our present currency to the gold 
 standard. 
 
 12. That the rates of inland and ocean postage, of 
 telegraphic communication, of railroad and water trans- 
 portation and travel, should be reduced to the lowest prac- 
 ticable point by force of laws wisely and justly framed, 
 with reference not only to the interest of capital employed, 
 feut to the higher claim of the general good. 
 
 13. That an adequate public revenue being necessary, it 
 may properly be raised by impost duties and by an equita- 
 ble assessment upon the property and legitimate business 
 of the country, nevertheless we are opposed to any dis- 
 arimmation of capital against labor, as well as to all 
 monopoly and class legislation. 
 
 14. That the removal of the burdens, moral, physical, 
 pecuniary and social, imposed by the traffic in intoxicating 
 drinks, will, in our judgment, emancipate labor and prac- 
 tically thus promote labor reform. 
 
514 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 15. That the fostering and extension of common schools 
 under the care and support of the state to supply the want 
 of a general and liberal education is a primary duty of a 
 good government. 
 
 16. That the right of suffrage rests on no mere circum- 
 stance of color, race, former social condition, sex or nation- 
 ality, but inheres in the nature of man ; and when from any 
 cause it has been withheld from citizens of our country who 
 are of suitable age and mentally and morally qualified for 
 the discharge of its duties it should be speedily restored 
 by the people in their sovereign capacity. 
 
 17. That a liberal and just policy should be pursued to 
 promote foreign immigration to our shores, always allow- 
 ing to the naturalized citizens equal rights, privileges and 
 protection under the constitution with those who are 
 native-born. 
 
 1876. 
 
 Republican Party. 
 
 When, in the economy of Providence, this land was to be 
 purged of human slavery, and when the strength of gov- 
 ..ernment of the people, by the people and for the people 
 was to be demonstrated, the Republican party came into 
 power. Its deeds have passed into history, and we look 
 back to them with pride. Incited by their memories to 
 high aims for the good of our country and mankind, and 
 looking to the future with unfaltering courage, hope and 
 purpose, we, the representatives of the party in national 
 convention assembled, make the following declaration of 
 principles : 
 
 1. The United States of America is a nation, not a 
 league. By the combined workings of the national and 
 state governments, under their respective constitutions, 
 the rights of every citizen are secured at home and abroad, 
 and the common welfare promoted. 
 
 2. The Republican party has preserved these govern- 
 ments to the hundredth anniversary of the nation's birth, 
 and they are now embodiments of the great truth spoken at 
 its cradle — " that all men are created equal; that they are 
 endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, 
 among which are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, 
 that for the attainment of these ends governments have 
 been instituted among men, deriving their just powers 
 from the consent of the governed." Until these truths are 
 cheerfully obeyed, or, if need be, vigorously enforced, the 
 work of the Republican party is unfinished. 
 
REPUBLICAN, 1876. 515 
 
 3. The permanent pacification of the Southern section of 
 the union and the complete protection of all its citizens in 
 the free enjoyment of all their rights is a duty to which the 
 Republican party stands sacredly pledged. The power to 
 provide for the enforcement of the principles embodied in 
 the recent constitutional amendments is vested by those 
 amendments in the Congress of the United States, and we 
 declare it to be the solemn obligation of the legislative and 
 executive departments of the government to put into imme- 
 diate and vigorous exercise all their constitutional powers 
 for removing any just causes of discontent on the part of 
 any class, and for securing to every American citizen com- 
 plete liberty and exact equality in the exercise of all civil, 
 political and public rights. To this end we imperatively 
 demand a Congress and a chief executive whose courage 
 and fidelity to these duties shall not falter until these re- 
 sults are placed beyond dispute or recall. 
 
 4. In the first act of Congress signed by President 
 Grant the national government assumed to remove any 
 doubts of its purpose to discharge all just obligations to the 
 public creditors, and " solemnly pledged its faith to make 
 provisions at the earliest practicable period for the re- 
 demption of the United States notes in coin." Commercial 
 prosperity, public morals and the national credit demand 
 that this promise be fulfilled by a continuous and steady 
 progress to specie pay men ^ 
 
 5. Under the constitution the president and heads of 
 departments are to make nominations for office; the senate 
 is to advise and consent to appointments, and the house of 
 representatives is to accuse and prosecute faithless oflicers. 
 The best interest of the public service demands that these 
 distinctions be respected ; that senators and representatives 
 who may be judges and accusers should not dictate appoint- 
 ments to ofiice. The invariable rule in appointments should 
 have reference k) the honesty, fidelity and capacity of the 
 appointees, giving to the party in power those places 
 where harmony and vigor of administration require its 
 policy to be represented, but permitting all otherc to be 
 filled by persons selected with sole reference to the efii- 
 ciency of the public service, and the right of all citizens to 
 share in the honor of rendering faithful service to the 
 country. 
 
 6. We rejoice in the quickening conscience of the people 
 concerning political affairs, and will hold all public officers 
 to a rigid responsibility, and engage that the prosecution 
 and punishment of all who betray official trusts shall be 
 swift, thorough and unsparing. 
 
:> 
 
 1 6 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 7. The public school system of the several states is the 
 bulwark of the American republic, and with a view to its 
 security and permanence we recommend an amendment to 
 the constitution of the United States, forbidding the appli- 
 cation of any public funds or property for the benefit of 
 any schools or institutions under sectarian control. 
 
 8. The revenue necessary for current expenditures and 
 the obligation of the public debt must be largely derived 
 from duties upon importations, which, so far as possible, 
 should be adjiisted to promote the interests of American 
 labor and advance the prosperity of the whole country. 
 
 9. We reaffirm our opposition to further grants of the 
 public lands to corporations and monopolies, and demand 
 that the national domain be devoted to free homes for the 
 people. 
 
 10. It is the imperative duty of the government so to 
 modify existing treaties with European governments that 
 the same protection shall be afforded to the adopted Ameri- 
 can citizen that is given to the native born; and that all 
 necessary laws should be passed to protect emigrants in 
 the absence of power in the states for that purpose. 
 
 • 11. It is the immediate duty of Congress to fully investi- 
 gate the effect of the immigration and importation of Mon- 
 golians upon the moral and material Interests of the 
 country. 
 
 12. The. Eepublican party recognizes with approval the 
 substantial advances recently made toward the establish- 
 ment of equal rights for women by the many important 
 amendments effected by Republican legislatures, in the laws 
 which concern the personal and property relations of wives, 
 mothers, and widows, and by the appointment and election 
 of women to the superintendence of education, charities 
 and other public trusts. The honest demands of this class 
 of citizens for additional rights, privileges and immunities 
 should be treated wirh respectful consideration. 
 
 13. The constitution confers upon Congress sovereign 
 power over the territories of the United States for their 
 government, and in the exercise of this power it is the 
 right and duty of Congress to prohibit and extirpate, in 
 the territories, that relic of barbarism — polygamy; and we 
 demand such leg.slation as shall secure this end and the 
 supremacy of American institutions in all the territories. 
 
 M. The pledges which the nation has given to her sol- 
 diers and sailors must be fulfilled, and a grateful people 
 will always hold those who imperiled their lives for th« 
 country's preservation in the kindest remembrance. 
 
 ]5. We sincerely deprecate all sectional feeling and ten- 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1876. S^7 
 
 ilencies. We therefore note with deep solicitude that the 
 Democratic party counts, as its chief hope of success, upon 
 the electoral vote of a united South, secured through the 
 •ft'orts of those who were recently arrayed against the na- 
 tion; and we invoke the earnest attention of the country to 
 the grave truth that a success thus achieved would reopen 
 •ectional strife and imperil national honor and human 
 rights. 
 
 16. We charge the Democratic party with being the same 
 in character and spirit as when it sympathized with trea- 
 son ; with making its control of the house of representa- 
 tives the triumph and opportunity of the nation's recent 
 foes; with reasserting and applauding in the national capi- 
 tol the sentiments of unrepentant rebellion ; with sending 
 Union soldiers to the rear, and promoting Confederate sol- 
 diers to the front; with deliberately proposing to repudiate 
 the plighted faith of the government; with being equally 
 false and imbecile upon the overshadowing financial ques- 
 tion ; with thwarting the ends of justice by its partisan 
 mismanagements and obstruction of investigation; with 
 proving itself, through the period of its ascendancy in the 
 lower house of Congress, utterly incompetent|to administer 
 the government; and we warn the country against trusting 
 a party thus alike unworthy, recreant and incapable. 
 
 17. The national administration merits commendation 
 for its honorable work in the management of domestic and 
 foreign affairs, and President Grant deserves the continued 
 hearty gratitude of the American people for his patriotism 
 and his eminent services in war and in peace. 
 
 18. We present as our candidates for president and vice- 
 president of the United States two distinguished states- 
 men, of eminent ability and character, and conspicuously 
 fitted for those high offices, and we confidently appeal to 
 the American people to intrust the administration of their 
 public affairs to Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. 
 Wheeler. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 We, the delegates of the Democratic party of the United 
 States in national convention assembled, do hereby declare 
 the administration of the federal government to be in ur- 
 gent need of immediate reform; do hereby enjoin upon the 
 nominees of this convention, and of the Democratic party 
 in each state, a zealous effort and co-operation to this end; 
 and do hereby appeal to our fellow-citizens of every former 
 political connection to undertake with us this first and 
 most pressing patriotic duty. 
 
Si8 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 For the Democracy of the whole country we do here re- 
 affirm our faith in the permanence of the federal union, our 
 devotion to the constitution of the United States, with its 
 amendments universally accepted as a final settlement of 
 the controversies that engendered civil war, and do here 
 record our steadfast confidence in the perpetuity of repub- 
 lican self-government. 
 
 In absolute acquiescence in the will of the piajority — the 
 vital principle of republics; in the supremacy of the civil 
 over the military authority; in the total separation of 
 church and state, for the sake alike of civil and religious 
 freedom; in the equality of all citizens before just laws of 
 their own enactment; in the liberty of individual conduct, 
 ilnvexed by sumptuary laws; in the faithful education of 
 the rising generation, that they may preserve, enjoy, and 
 transmit these best conditions of human happiness and 
 hope, we behold the noblest products of a hundred years 
 of changeful history; but while upholding the bond of our 
 union and great charter of these our rights, it behooves a 
 free people to practice also that eternal vigilance which is 
 the price of liberty. 
 
 Reform is necessary to rebuild and establish in the hearts 
 of the whole people the union, eleven years ago happily 
 rescued from the danger of a secession of states; but now 
 to be saved from a corrupt centralism which, after inflict- 
 ing upon ten states the rapacity of carpet-bag tyrannies, 
 has honey-combed the offices of the federal government 
 itself with incapacity, waste and fraud; infected states and 
 municipalities with the contagion of misrule, and locked 
 fast the prosperity of an industrious people in the paralysis 
 of " hard times." 
 
 Reform is necessary to establish a sound currency, restore 
 the public credit, and maintain the national honor. 
 
 We denounce the failure, for all these eleven years of 
 peace, to make good the promise of the legal-tender notes, 
 which are a changing standard of value in the hands of 
 the people, and the non-payment of which is a disregard of 
 the plighted faith of the nation. 
 
 We denounce the improvidence which, in eleven years of 
 peace, has taken from the people in federal taxes thirteen 
 times the whole amount of the legal-tender notes, and 
 squandered four times their sum in useless expense with- 
 out accumulating any reserve for their redemption. 
 
 We denounce the financial imbecility and immorality of 
 that party which, during eleven years of peace, has made 
 no advance toward resumption, no preparation for re- 
 sumption, but instead has obstructed resumption by wast- 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1S76. 519 
 
 ing" our resources and exhausting all our surplus income; 
 and, while annually professing to intend a speedy return 
 to specie payments, has annually enacted fresh hindrances 
 thereto. As such hindrance we denounce the resumption 
 clause of the act of 1875, and we here demand its repeal. 
 
 We demand a judicious system of preparation by public 
 economies, by official retrenchments, and by wise finance, 
 which shall enable the nation soon to assure the whole 
 world of its perfect ability and its perfect readiness to 
 meet any of its promises at the call of the creditor entitled 
 to payment. 
 
 We believe such a system, well devised, and, above all, 
 intrusted to competent hands for execution, creating at no 
 time an artificial scarcity of currency, and at no time 
 alarming the public mind into a withdrawal of that vaster 
 machinery of credit by which ninety-five per cent of all 
 business transactions are performed — a system open, public, 
 and inspiring general confidence, would from the day of its 
 adoption bring healing on its wings to all our harassed in- 
 dustries, set in motion the wheels of commerce, manufac- 
 tures, and the mechanic arts, restore employment to labor, 
 and renew in all its natural sources the prosperity of the 
 people. 
 
 Reform is necessary in the sum and modes of federal 
 taxation, to the end that capital may be set free from dis- 
 trust, and labor lightly burdened. 
 
 We denounce the present tarift', levied upon nearly 4,000 
 articles, as a masterpiece of injustice, inequality, and false 
 pretense. It yields a dwindling, not a yearly rising reve- 
 nue. It has impoverished many industries to subsidize a 
 few. It prohibits imports that might purchase the prod- 
 ucts of American labor. It has degraded American com- 
 merce from the first to an inferior rank on the high seas. 
 It has cut down the sales of American manufactures at 
 home and abroad, and depleted the returns of American 
 agriculture, an industry followed by half our people. It 
 costs the people five times more than it produces to the 
 treasury, obstructs the processes of production, and wastes 
 the fruits of labor. It promotes fraud, fosters smuggling, 
 enriches dishonest officials and bankrupts' honest mer- 
 chants. We demand that all custom house taxation shall 
 be only for revenue. 
 
 Reform is necessary in the scale of public expense — fed- 
 eral, state and municipal. Our federal taxation has swol- 
 len from sixty millions gold, in 1860, to four hundred and 
 fifty millions currency, in 1870; our aggregate taxation 
 from one hundred and fifty-four millions gold, In 1860, to 
 
520 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 seven hundred and thirty millions currency, in 1870; or in 
 one decade from less than five dollars per head to more 
 than eighteen dollars per head. Since the peace, the peo- 
 ple have paid to their rax gatherers more than thrice the 
 sum of the national debt, and more than twice that sum 
 for the federal government alone. We demand a rigorous 
 frugality in every department and from every officer of the 
 government. 
 
 Keform is necessary to put a stop to the profligate waste 
 of public lands and their diversion from actual settlers by 
 the party in power, which has squandered 200,000,000 of 
 acres upon railroads alone, and out of more than thrice that 
 aggregate has disposed of less than a sixth directly to 
 tillers of the soil. 
 
 Keform is necessary to correct the omissions of a Repub- 
 lican Congress and the errors of our treaties and our di- 
 plomacy, which have stripped our fellow-citizens of foreign 
 birth and kindred race recrossing the Atlantic of the 
 shield of American citizenship, and have exposed our breth- 
 ren of the Pacific coast to the incursions of a race not 
 sprung from the same great parent stock, and in fact now 
 by law denied citizenship through naturalization as being 
 neither accustomed to the traditions of a progressive civil- 
 ization nor exercised in liberty under equal laws. We de- 
 nounce the policy which thus discards the liberty-loving 
 German and tolerates a revival of the coolie trade in Mon- 
 golian women Imported for immoral purposes, and Mongo- 
 lian men held to perform servile labor contracts, and de- 
 mand such modification of the treaty with the Chinese em- 
 pire, or such legislation within constitutional limitations 
 as shall prevent further importation or immigration of the 
 Mongolian race. 
 
 Reform is necessary, and can never be effected but by 
 making it the controlling issue of the elections, and lifting 
 it above the two false issues with which the office-holding 
 class and the party in power seek to smother it. 
 
 1. The false issue with which they would enkindle sec- 
 tarian strife in respect to the public schools, of which the 
 establishment and support belong exclusively to the several 
 states, and which the Democratic party has cherished from 
 their foundation, and is resolved to maintain without preju- 
 dice or preference for any class, sect, or creed, and without 
 largesses from the treasury to any. 
 
 2. The false issue by which they seek to light anew the 
 dying embers of sectional bate between kindred people 
 once estranged, but now reunited in one indivisible republia 
 and a common destiny. 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1876. 52 1 
 
 Reform is necessary in the civil service. Experience 
 proves that efficient, economical conduct of the governmen- 
 tal business is not possible if its civil service be subject to 
 change at every election, be a prize fought for at the ballot- 
 box, be a brief reward of party zeal instead of posts of hon- 
 or assigned for proved competency, and held for fidelity in 
 the public employ ; that the dispensing of patronage should 
 neither be a tax upon the time of all our public men nor 
 t><e instrument of their ambition. Here again promises 
 falsified in the performance attest that the party in power 
 can work out no practical or salutary reform. 
 
 Reform is necessary even more in the higher grades of 
 the public service. President, vice-president. Judges, sena- 
 tors, representatives, cabinet officers, these and all others 
 in authority are the people's servants. Their offices are not 
 a private perquisite; they are a public trust. 
 
 When the annals of this republic show the disgrace and 
 censure of a vice-president; a late speaker of the house of 
 representatives marketing his rulings as a presiding officer ; 
 three senators profiting secretly by their votes as law- 
 makers; five chairmen of the leading committees of the late 
 house of representatives exposed in jobbery ; a late secre- 
 tary of the treasury forcing balances in the public ac- 
 counts; a late attorney-general misappropriating public 
 funds; a secretary of the navy enriched or enriching 
 friends by percentages levied off the profits of contractors 
 with his department; an ambassador to England censured 
 in a dishonorable speculation; the president's private secre- 
 tary barely escaping conviction upon trial for guilty com- 
 plicity in frauds upon the revenue; a secretary of war im- 
 peached for high crimes and misdemeanors — the demon- 
 stration is complete that the first step in reform must be 
 the people's choice of honest men from another party, lest 
 the disease of one political organization infect the body 
 politic, and lest by making no change of men or parties we 
 get no change of measures and no real reform. 
 
 All these abuses, wrongs and crimes, the product of six- 
 teen years' ascendancy of the Republican party, create a 
 necessity for reform confessed by Republicans themselves; 
 but their reformers are voted down in convention and dis- 
 placed from the cabinet. The party's mass of honest voters 
 is powerless to resist the 80,000 office-holders, its leaders 
 and guides. 
 
 Reform^can only be had by a peaceful civic revolution. 
 We demand a change of system, a change of administra- 
 tion, a change of parties, that we may have a change of 
 measures and of men. 
 
522 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 Resolved, That this convention, representing the Demo- 
 cratic party of the United States, do cordially indorse the 
 action of the present house of representatives in reducing 
 and curtailing the expenses of the federal government, in 
 cutting down salaries, extravagant appropriations, and in 
 abolishing useless offices, and places not required by the 
 public necessities, and we shall trust to the firmness of the 
 Democratic members of the house that no committee of con- 
 ference and no misinterpretation of the rules will be al- 
 lowed to defeat these wholesome measures of economy de- 
 manded by the country. 
 
 Resolved, That the soldiers and sailors of the republic, 
 and the widows and orphans of those who have fallen in 
 battle, have a just claim upon the care, protection and grat- 
 itude of their fellow-citizens. 
 
 Independent (Greenback) Party. 
 
 This was a continuance under a new name of the Labor 
 Reform party of 1872 : 
 
 The Independent party is called into existence by the 
 necessities of the people, whose industries are prostrated, 
 whose labor is deprived of its just reward by a ruinous 
 policy which the Republican and Democratic parties re- 
 fused to change ; and, in view of the failure of these parties 
 to furnish relief to the depressed industries of the country, 
 thereby disappointing the just hopes an4 expectations of 
 the suffering people, we declare our principles, and invite 
 all independent and patriotic men to join our ranks in this 
 movement for financial reform and industrial emancipa- 
 tion. 
 
 First. We demand the immediate and unconditional re- 
 peal of the specie resumption act of January 14, 1875, and 
 the rescue of our industries from ruin and disaster result- 
 ing from its enforcement; and we call upon all patriotic 
 men to organize in every congressional district of the 
 country, with a view of electing representatives to Con- 
 gress who will carry out the wishes of the people in this 
 regard and stop the present suicidal and destructive policy 
 of contraction. 
 
 Second. We believe that a United States note, issued 
 directly by the government and convertible on demand, 
 into United States obligations, bearing a rate of interest 
 not exceeding one cent a day on each one hundred dollars, 
 and exchangeable for United States notes at par, will afford 
 the best circulating medium ever devised. Such United 
 States notes should be full legal tenders for all purposes, 
 
PROHIBITION, 1876. 523 
 
 except for the payment of such obligations as are, by ex- 
 isting contracts, especially made payable in coin; and we 
 hold that it is the duty of the government to provide such 
 a circulating medium, and insist in the language of Thomas 
 Jefferson, that " bank paper must be suppressed and the 
 circulation restored to the nation, to whom it belongs." 
 
 Third. It is the paramount duty of the government, in 
 all its legislation, to keep in view the full development of 
 all legitimate business, agricultural, mining, manufactur- 
 ing and commercial. 
 
 Fourth. We most earnestly protest against any further 
 issue of gold bonds for sale in foreign markets, by which 
 we would be made for a long period " hewers of wood and 
 drawers of water" to foreigners, especially as the Ameri- 
 can people would gladly and promptly take at par all bonds 
 the government may need to sell, providing they are made 
 payable at the option of the holder, and bearing interest at 
 3.65 per cent per annum or even a lower rate. 
 
 Fifth. We further protest against the sale of govern- 
 ment bonds for the purpose of purchasing silver to be used 
 as a substitute for our more convenient and less fractional 
 currency, which, although well calculated to enrich owners 
 of silver mines, yet in operation it will still further oppress 
 in taxation an already overburdened people. 
 
 Peohibition Reform (Prohibition) Party. 
 
 The Prohibition Reform party of the United States, or- 
 ganized in the name of the people to revive, enforce and per- 
 petuate in the government the doctrines of the Declaration 
 of Independence, submit in this centennial year of the re- 
 public for the suffrages of all good citizens the following 
 platform of national reforms and measures : 
 
 1. The legal prohibition in the District of Columbia, the 
 territories and every other place subject to the laws of 
 Congress, of the importation, exportation, manufacture and 
 traffic of all alcoholic beverages, as high crimes against so- 
 ciety ; an amendment of the national constitution to render 
 these prohibitory measures universal and permanent, and 
 the adoption of treaty stipulations with foreign powers to 
 prevent the importation and exportation of all alcoholic 
 beverages. 
 
 2. The abolition of class legislation and of special privi- 
 leges in the government, and the adoption of equal suffrage 
 and eligibility to office without distinction of race, relig- 
 ious creed, property or sex. 
 
 3. The appropriation of the public lands in limited 
 quantities to actual settlers only ; the reduction of the rates 
 
524 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 of inland and ocean postage, of telegraphic communicatioB, 
 of railroad and water transportation and travel to the low- 
 est practical point by force of laws, wisely and justly 
 framed, with reference not only to the interests of capital 
 employed, but to the higher claims of the general good. 
 
 4. The suppression, by law, of lotteries and gambling ia 
 gold, stocks, produce and every form of money and proper- 
 ty, and the penal inhibition of the use of the public mails 
 for advertising schemes of gambling and lotteries. 
 
 5. The abolition of those foul enormities, polygamy anil 
 the social evil, and the protection of purity, peace and hap- 
 piness of homes by ample and efficient legislation. 
 
 6. The national observance of the Christian Sabbath, 
 established by laws prohibiting ordinary labor and business 
 in all departments of public service and private employ- 
 ments (works of necessity, charity and religion excepted) 
 on that day. 
 
 7. The establishment by mandatory provisions in na- 
 tional and state constitutions, and by all necessary legisla- 
 tion, of a system of free public schools for the universal 
 and forced education of all the youth of the land. 
 
 8. The free use of the Bible, not as a ground of religious 
 creeds, but as a text-book of purest morality, the best liber- 
 ty and the noblest literature, in our public schools, that our 
 children may grow up in its light and that its spirit and 
 principles may pervade our nation. 
 
 9. The separation of the government in all its depart- 
 ments and institutions, including the public schools, and 
 all funds for their maintenance, from the control of every 
 religious sect or other association, and the protection alike 
 of all sects by equal laws with entire freedom of religious 
 faith and worship. 
 
 10. The introduction into all treaties, hereafter nego- 
 tiated with foreign governments, of a provision for the 
 amicable settlement of international difficulties by arbitra- 
 tion. 
 
 11. The abolition of all barbarous modes and instruments 
 of punishment; the recognition of the laws of God and the 
 claims of humanity in the discipline of jails and prisons, 
 and of that higher and wiser civilization worthy of our 
 age and nation, which regards the reform of criminals as a 
 means for the prevention of crime. 
 
 12. The abolition of executive and legislative patronage, 
 and the election of president, vice-president. United States 
 senators, and of all civil officers, so far as practicable, by 
 the direct vote of the people. 
 
 13. The practice of a friendly and liberal policy to im- 
 
AMERICAN, 1876. ' 525 
 
 migrants from all nations, the guaranty to them of ample 
 protection and of equal rights and privileges. 
 
 14. The separation of the money of government from all 
 banking institutions. The national government only 
 should exercise the high prerogative of issuing paper 
 money, and that should be subject to prompt redemption 
 on demand, in gold and silver, the only equal standards of 
 value recognized by the civilized world. 
 
 15. The reduction of the salaries of public officers in a 
 jUst ratio v^ith the decline of w^ages and market prices, the 
 abolition of sinecures, unnecessary offices and ofiicial fees 
 and perquisites ;*the practice of strict economy in govern- 
 ment expenses, and a free and thorough investigation into 
 any and all alleged abuses of public trusts. 
 
 American Party. 
 We hold : 
 
 1. That ours is a Christian and not a heathen nation, 
 and that the God of the Christian Scriptures is the author 
 of civil government. 
 
 2. That God requires and man needs a Sabbath. 
 
 3. That the prohibition of the importation, manufacture 
 and sale of intoxicating drinks as a beverage is the true 
 policy on the temperance question. 
 
 4. The charters of all secret lodges granted by our fed- 
 eral and state legislatures should be withdrav^n, and their 
 oaths prohibited by law. 
 
 6, That the civil qualities secured to all American citi- 
 zens by articles 13, 14 and 15 of our amended constitution 
 should be preserved inviolate. 
 
 6. The arbitration of difi'erences with nations is the 
 most direct and sure method of securing and perpetuating 
 a permanent peace. 
 
 7. That to cultivate the intellect without improving the 
 morals of men is to make ijiere adepts and experts; there- 
 fore the Bible should be associated with books of science 
 and literature in all our educational institutions. 
 
 8. That land and other monopolies should be discounte- 
 nanced. 
 
 9. That the government should furnish the people with 
 an ample and sound currency and a return to specie pay- 
 ment as soon as practicable. 
 
 10. That maintenance of the public credit, protection to 
 all loyal citizens, and justice to Indians are essential to the 
 honor and safety of our nation. 
 
 11. And, finally, we demand for the American people 
 the abolition of electoral colleges and a direct vote for 
 president and vice-president of the United States. 
 
t26 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 I880, 
 
 Republican Party. 
 
 The Republican party in national convention assembled, 
 at the end of twenty years since the federal g-overnment 
 was first committed to its charge, submits to the people of 
 the United States this brief report of its administration : 
 
 It suppressed a rebellion which had armed nearly a mill- 
 ion of men to subvert the national authority, it recon- 
 structed the union of the states with freedom instead of 
 slavery as its corner-stone, it transformed. 4,000,000 human 
 beings from the likeness of things to the rank of citizens, 
 it relieved Congress of the infamous work of hunting fugi- 
 tive slaves, and charged it to see that slavery does not 
 exist. 
 
 It has raised the value of our paper currency from 38 per 
 cent to the par of gold; it has restored, upon a solid basis, 
 payment in coin of all national obligations, and has given 
 us a currency absolutely good and equal in every part of 
 our extended country, it has lifted the credit of the nation 
 from the point of where 6 per cent bonds sold at 86 to that 
 where 4 per cent bonds are eagerly sought at a premium. 
 
 Under its administration railways have increased from 
 31,000 miles in 1860 to more than 82,000 miles in 1879. 
 
 Our foreign trade increased from $700,000,000 to $1,150,- 
 000,000 in the same time, and our exports, which were $20,- 
 000,000 less than our imports in 1860, were $265,000,000 more 
 than our imports in 1879. 
 
 Without resorting to loans, it has, since the war closed, 
 defrayed the ordinary expenses of government besides the 
 accruingj interest on the public debt, and has disbursed 
 annually more than $30,000,000 for soldiers' and sailors' 
 pensions. It has paid $880,000,000 of the public debt, and, 
 by refunding the balance at lower rates, has reduced the 
 annual interest charge from nearly $150,000,000 to less than 
 .$89,000,000. 
 
 All the industries of the country have revived, labor is in 
 demand, w^ages have increased, and throughout the entire 
 country there is evidence of a coming prosperity greater 
 than we have ever enjoyed. 
 
 Upon this record the Republican party asks for the con- 
 tinued confidence and support of the people, and this con- 
 vention submits for their approval the following statement 
 of the principles and purposes which will continue to guide 
 and inspire its efforts : 
 
 1. We affirm that the work of the Republican party for 
 the last twenty years has been such as to commend it to the 
 favor of the nation; that the fruits of the costly victories 
 
REPUBLICAN, l8So. 537 
 
 which we have achieved through immense difHculties 
 should be preserved; that the peace regained should be 
 cherished; that the union should be perpetuated, and that 
 the liberty secured to this generation should be transmitted 
 undiminished to other generations; that the order estab- 
 lished and the credit acquired should never be impaired; 
 that the pensions promised should be paid; that the debt 
 so much reduced should be extinguished by the full pay- 
 ment of every dollar thereof; that the reviving industries 
 should be further promoted, and that the commerce already 
 increasing should be steadily encouraged. 
 
 2. The constitution of the United States is a supreme 
 law, and not a mere contract. Out of confederated states it 
 made a sovereign nation. Some powers are denied to the 
 nation, while others are denied to the states, but the boun- 
 dary between the powers delegated and those reserved is 
 to be determined by the national, and not by the state 
 tribunal. 
 
 3. The work of popular education is one left to the care 
 of the several states, but it is the duty of the national gov- 
 ernment to aid that work to the extent of its constitutional 
 ability. The intelligence of the nation is but the aggregate 
 of the intelligence in the several states, and the destiny of 
 the nation must be guided, not by the genius of any one 
 state, but by the average genius of all. 
 
 4. The constitution wisely forbids Congress to make any 
 law respecting the establishment of religion, but it is idle 
 to hope that the nation can be protected against the influ- 
 ence of secret sectarianism while each state is exposed to its 
 domination. We therefore recommend that the constitu- 
 tion be so amended as to lay the same prohibition upon the 
 legislature of each state, and to forbid the appropriation of 
 public funds to the support of sectarian schools. 
 
 5. We reaffirm the belief avowed in 1876, that the duties 
 levied for the purpose of revenue should so discriminate 
 as to favor American labor; that no further grants of the 
 public domain should be made to any railway or other 
 corporation; that slavery having perished in the states, its 
 twin barbarity, polygamy, must die in the territories; that 
 everywhere the protection accorded to a citizen of Ameri- 
 can birth must be secured to citizens by American adoption. 
 That we deem it the duty of Congress to develop and im- 
 prove our sea-coast and harbors, but insist that further sub- 
 sidies to private persons or corporations must cease; that 
 the obligations of the republic to the men who preserved 
 its integrity in the day of battle are undiminished by the 
 lapse of fifteen years since their final victory. To do them 
 
528 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 honor is and shall forever be the grateful privilege and 
 sacred duty of the American people. 
 
 6. Since the authority to regulate immigration and in- 
 tercourse between the United States and foreign nations 
 rests with the Congress of the United States and the treaty- 
 making power, the Kepublican party, regarding the unre- 
 stricted immigration of the Chinese as a matter of grave 
 concernment under the exercise of both these powers, 
 would limit and restrict that immigration by the enact- 
 ment of such just, humane and reasonable laws and treaties 
 as will produce that result. 
 
 7. That the purity and patriotism wh'ich characterized 
 t he earlier career of Kutherford B. Hayes in peace and war, 
 and which guided the thoughts of our immediate predeces- 
 sors to him for a presidential candidate, have continued to 
 inspire him in his career as chief executive; and that his- 
 tory will accord to his administration the honors which are 
 due to an efficient, just and courteous discharge of the pub- 
 lic business, and will honor his vetoes interposed between 
 the people and attempted partisan laws. 
 
 8. We charge upon the Democratic party the habitual 
 sacrifice of patriotism and justice to a supreme and insatia- 
 ble lust for office and patronage; that, to obtain possession 
 of the national government and control of the place, they 
 have obstructed all efforts to promote the purity and to 
 conserve the freedom of the suffrage, and have devised 
 fraudulent ballots, and invented fraudulent certification of 
 returns; have labored to unseat lawfully elected members 
 of Congress to secure at all hazards the vote of a -majority 
 of states in the house of representatives; have endeavored 
 to occupy by force and fraud the places of trust given to 
 others by the people of Maine, rescued by the courage and 
 action of Maine's patriotic sons; have, by methods vicious 
 in principle and tyrannical in practice, attached partisan 
 legislation to appropriation bills upon whose passage the 
 very movement of the government depended ; have crushed 
 the rights of the individual; have advocated the principles 
 and sought the favor of the rebellion against the nation, 
 and have endeavored to obliterate the sacred memories and 
 to overcome its inestimably valuable results of nationality, 
 personal freedom, and individual equality. 
 
 The equal and steady and complete enforcement of the 
 laws, and the protection of all our citizens in the enjoy- 
 ment of all privileges and immunity guaranteed by the 
 constitution, are the first duties of the nation. 
 
 The dangers of a " Solid South " can only be averted by 
 a faithful performance of every promise which the nation 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1880. 529 
 
 has made to the citizen. The execution of the laws, and 
 the punishment of all those who violate them, are the only 
 safe methods by w^hich an enduring peace can be secured 
 and genuine prosperity established throughout the South. 
 Whatever promises the nation makes the nation must per- 
 form. A nation cannot with safety relegate this duty to 
 the states. The " Solid South " must be divided by the 
 peaceful agencies of the ballot, and all honest opinions 
 must there find free expression. To this end the honest 
 voter must be protected against terrorism, violence or 
 fraud. 
 
 And we affirm it to be the duty and the purpose of the 
 Kepublican party to use all legitimate means to restore all 
 the states of this union to the most perfect harmony which 
 maybe possible, and we submit to the practical, sensible 
 people of these United States to say whether it would not 
 be dangerous to the dearest interests of our country at this 
 time to surrender the administration of the national gov- 
 ernment to a party which seeks to overthrow the existing 
 policy under which we are so prosperous, and thus bring 
 distrust and confusion where there is now order, confi- 
 dence and hope. 
 
 9. The Republican party, adhering to the principles 
 affirmed by its last national convention of respect for the 
 constitutional rules governing appointments to office, 
 adopts the declaration of President Hayes that the reform 
 of the civil service should be thorough, radical and com- 
 plete. To this end it demands the co-operation of the legis- 
 lative with the executive departments of the government, 
 and that Congress shall so legislate that fitness, ascertained 
 by proper practical tests, shall admit to the public service. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 The Democrats of the United States, in convention 
 assembled, declare — 
 
 1. We pledge ourselves anew to the constitutional doc- 
 trines and traditions of the Democratic party, as illustrat- 
 ed by the teachings and example of a long line of Demo- 
 cratic statesmen and patriots, and embodied in the plat- 
 form of the last national convention of the party. 
 
 2. Opposition to centralizationism, and to that danger- 
 ous spirit of encroachment which tends to consolidate the 
 powers of all the departments in one, and thus to create, 
 whatever be the form of government, a real despotism. !N'o 
 sumptuary laws; separation of church and state, for the 
 good of each; common schools fostered and protected. 
 
 3. Home rule; honest money — the strict maintenance of 
 
 ^ 
 
^30 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 the public faith — consisting of gold and silver, and paper 
 convertible into coin on demand; the strict maintenance of 
 the public faith, state and national, and a tariff for revenue 
 only. The subordination of the military to the civil power, 
 and a general and thorough reform of the civil service. 
 
 4. The right to a free ballot is the right preservative of 
 all rights, and must and shall be maintained in every part 
 of the United States. 
 
 5. The existing administration is the representative of 
 conspiracy only, and its claim of right to surr,ound the 
 ballot-boxes with troops and deputy marshals, to intimidate 
 and obstruct the electors, and the unprecedented use of the 
 ■veto to maintain its corrupt and despotic power, insult the 
 people and imperil their institutions. We execrate the 
 course of this administration in making places in the civil 
 service a reward for political crime, and demand a reform by 
 statute which shall make it forever impossible for the de- 
 feated candidate to bribe his way to the seat of the usurper 
 by billeting villains upon the people. 
 
 6. The great fraud of 1876-77, by which, upon a false 
 count of the electoral votes of two states, the candidate de- 
 feated at the polls was declared to be president, and, for the 
 first time in American history, the will of the people was 
 set aside under a threat of military violence, struck a dead- 
 ly blow at our system of representative government; the 
 Democratic party, to preserve the country from a civil war, 
 submitted for a time in firm and patriotic faith that the 
 people would punish this crime in 1880; this issue precedes 
 and dwarfs every other; it imposes a more sacred duty 
 upon the people of the union than ever addressed the con- 
 science of a nation of free men. 
 
 7. The resolution of Samuel J. Tilden not again to be a 
 candidate for the exalted place to which he was elected by 
 a majority of his countrymen, and from which he was ex- 
 cluded by the leaders of the Republican party, is received 
 by the Democrats of the United States with sensibility, and 
 they declare their confidence in his wisdom, patriotism 
 andfintegrity, unshaken by the assaults of a common enemy, 
 and they further assure him that he is followed into the re- 
 tiiement he has chosen for himself by the sympathy and 
 respect of his fellow-citizens, who regard him as one who, 
 b> elevating the standards of public morality, merits the 
 lasting gratitude of his country and his party. 
 
 8. Free ships and a living chance for American com- 
 merce on the seas and on the land. Nor discrimination in 
 favor of transportation lines, corporations or monopolies. 
 
 9. Amendment of the Burlingame treaty. No more 
 
NATIONAL (greenback), iS8o. 53I 
 
 Chinese immigration, except for travel, education, and for- 
 eign commerce, and therein carefully guarded. 
 
 10. Public money and public credit for public purposes 
 solely, and public land for actual settlers. ^ 
 
 11. The Democratic party is the friend of labor and the 
 laboring man, and pledges itself to protect him alike 
 against the cormorant and the commune, 
 
 12. We congratulate the country upon the honesty and 
 thrift of a Democratic Congress which has reduced the 
 public expenditure $40,000,000 a year; upon the continua- 
 tion of prosperity at home and the national honor abroad, 
 and, above all, upon the promise of such a change in the 
 administration of the government as shall insure us genu- 
 ine and lasting reform in every department of the public 
 service. 
 
 National (Greenback) Party. 
 
 The civil government should guarantee the divine right 
 of every laborer to the results of his toil, thus enabling the 
 producers of wealth to provide themselves with the means 
 for physical comfort, and facilities for mental, social and 
 moral culture; and we condemn, as unworthy of our civili- 
 zation, the barbarism which imposes upon wealth-producers 
 a state of drudgery as the price of a bare animal existence. 
 Notwithstanding the enormous increase of productive 
 power by the universal introduction of labor-saving ma- 
 chinery and the discovery of new agents for the increase of 
 wealth, the task of the laborer is scarcely lightened, the 
 hours of toil are but little shortened, and few producers are 
 lifted from poverty into comfort and pecuniary independ- 
 ence. The associated monopolies, the international syndi- 
 cates, and other income classes demand dear money, cheap 
 labor, and a strong government, and, hence, a weak people. 
 
 Corporate control of the volume of money has been the 
 means of dividing society into hostile classes, of an unjust 
 distribution of the products of labor, and of building up 
 monopolies of associated capital, endowed with power to 
 confiscate private property. It has kept money scarce ; and 
 the scarcity of money enforces debt, trade, and public and 
 corporate loans; debt engenders usury, and usury e-nds in 
 the bankruptcy of the borrower. Other results are — de- 
 ranged markets, uncertainty in manufacturing enterprises 
 and agriculture, precarious and intermittent employment 
 for the laborer, industrial war, increasing pauperism and 
 crime, and the consequent intimidation and disfranchise- 
 ment of the producer, and a rapid declension into corporate 
 feudalism. Therefore, we declare : 
 
532 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 First. That the right to make and issue money is a sov- 
 ereign power, to be maintained by the people for their 
 common benefit. The delegation of this right to corpora- 
 ^tions is a surrender of the central attribute of sovereignty, 
 void of constitutional sanction, and conferring upon a sub- 
 ordinate and irresponsible power an absolute dominion over 
 industry and commerce. All money, whether metallic or 
 paper, should be issued, and its volume controlled, by the 
 government, and not by or through banking corporations; 
 and, when so issued, should be a full legal tender for all 
 debts, public and private. 
 
 Second. That the bonds of the United States should not 
 be refunded, but paid as rapidly as practicable, according 
 to contract. To enable the government to meet these obli- 
 gations, legal-tender currency should be substituted for the 
 notes of the national banks, the national banking system 
 abolished, and the unlimited coinage of silver as well as 
 gold established by law. 
 
 Third. That labor should be so protected by national 
 and state authority as to equalize its burdens and insure a 
 just distribution of its results. The eight hour law of Con- 
 gress should be enforced, the sanitary condition of indus- 
 trial establishments placed under rigid control, the compe- 
 tition of contract convict labor abolished, a bureau of labor 
 statistics established, factories, mines, and workshops in- 
 spected, the employment of children under fourteen years 
 of age forbidden, and wages paid in cash. 
 
 Fourth. Slavery being simply cheap labor, and cheap 
 labor being simply slavery, the importation and presence 
 of Chinese serfs necessarily tends to brutalize and degrade, 
 American labor; therefore immediate steps should be 
 taken to abrogate the Burlingame treaty. 
 
 Fifth. Railroad land grants forfeited by reason of non- 
 fulfillment of contract should be immediately reclaimed by 
 the government, and, henceforth, the public domain re- 
 served exclusively as homes for actual settlers. 
 
 Sixth. It is the duty of Congress to regulate interstate 
 commerce. All lines of communication and transportation 
 should be brought under such legislative control as shall 
 secure moderate, fair and uniform rates for passenger and 
 freight trafiic. 
 
 Seventh. We denounce as destructive to property and 
 dangerous to liberty the action of the old parties in foster- 
 ing and sustaining gigantic land, railroad and money cor- 
 porations, and monopolies invested with and exercising- 
 powers belonging to the government, and yet not responsi- 
 ble to it for the manner of their exercise. 
 
PROHIBITION REFORM, 1880. 533 
 
 Eighth. That the constitution in giving Congress the 
 power to borrow money, to declare war, to raise and sup- 
 port armies, to provide and maintain a navy, never intend- 
 ed that the men who loaned their money for an interest 
 consideration should be preferred to the soldiers and sail- 
 ors who periled their lives and shed their blood on land and 
 sea in defence of their country; and we condemn the cruel 
 class legislation of the Republican party, which, whije pro- 
 fessing great gratitude to the soldier, has most unjustly 
 discriminated against him and in favor of the bondholder. 
 
 Ninth. All property should bear its just proportion of 
 taxation, and we demand a graduated income tax. 
 
 Tenth. We denounce as dangerous the efforts every- 
 where manifest to restrict the right of^suffrage. 
 
 Eleventh. We are opposed to the increase of the stand- 
 ing army in time of peace, and the insidious scheme 'o es- 
 tablish an enormous military power under the guise of mili- 
 tia laws. 
 
 Twelfth. We demand absolute democratic rules for the 
 government of Congress, placing all representatives of the 
 people upon an equal footing, and taking away from com- 
 mittees a veto power greater than that of the president. 
 
 Thirteenth. We demand a government of the people, by 
 the people, and for the people, instead of a government of 
 the bondholder, by the bondholder, and for the bondholder; 
 and we denounce every attempt to stir up sectional strife 
 as an effort to conceal monstrous crimes against the 
 people. 
 
 Fourteenth. In the furtherance of these ends we ask the 
 co-operation of all fair minded people. We have no quar- 
 rel with individuals, wage no war on classes, but only 
 against vicious institutions. We are not content to endure 
 further discipline from our present actual rulers, who, 
 having dominion over money, over transportation, over 
 land and labor, over the press and the machinery of gov- 
 ernment, wield unwarrantable power over our institutions 
 and over life and property. 
 
 Prohibition Reform Party. 
 
 The Prohibition Reform party of the United States, or- 
 ganized in the name of the people to revive, enforce and 
 perpetuate in the government the doctrines of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, submit for the suffrages of all good 
 citizens the following platform of national reforms and 
 measures : 
 
 1. In the examination and discussion of the temperance 
 question it has been proven, and is an accepted truth, that 
 
534 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 alcoholic drinks, whether fermented, brewed or distilled, 
 are poisonous to the healthy human body, the drinking of 
 which is not only needless, but hurtful, necessarily tending 
 to form intemperate habits, increasing greatly the number, 
 severity and fatal termination of diseases, weakening and 
 deranging the intellect, polluting the affections, hardening 
 the heart and corrupting the morals, depriring many of 
 reason, and still more of its healthful exercise, and annual- 
 ly bringing down large numbers to untimely graves, pro- 
 ducing in the children of many who drink a predisposition 
 to intemperance, insanity and various bodily and mental 
 diseases, causing a diminution of strength, feebleness of 
 vision, fickleness of purpose and premature old age, and 
 producing to all future generations a deterioration of 
 moral and physical character. The legaJized importation, 
 manufacture and sale of intoxicating drinks minister to 
 their uses and teach the erroneous and destructive senti- 
 ment thai such use is right, thus tending to produce and 
 perpetuate the above-mentioned evils. Alcoholic drinks 
 are thus the implacable enemy of man as an individual. 
 
 2. That the liquor traflic is to the home equally an ene- 
 my, providing a disturber and a destroyer of its peace, pros- 
 perity and happiness, taking from it the earnings of the 
 husband, depriving the dependent wife and children of 
 essential food, clothing and education, bringing into it 
 profanity and abuse, setting at naught the vows of the mar- 
 riage altar, breaking up the family and sundering children 
 from parents, and thus destroying one of the most benefi- 
 cent institutions of our Creator, and removing the sure 
 foundation for good government, national prosperity and 
 welfare. 
 
 3. That to the community it is equally an enemy, pro- 
 ducing demoralization, vice and wickedness; its places of 
 sale being often resorts for gambling, lewdness and de- 
 bauchery, and the hiding places of those who prey upon so- 
 ciety, counteracting the efiicacy of religious effort and of 
 all means for the intellectual elevation, moral purity, social 
 happiness and the eternal good of mankind, without render- 
 ing any counteracting or compensating benefits, being in 
 its influence and effect evil and only evil, and that contin- 
 ually. 
 
 4. That to the state it is equally an enemy, legislative 
 inquiry, judicial investigation and the official reports of all 
 penal, reformatory and dependent institutions showing 
 that the manufacture and sale of such beverages is the pro- 
 moting cause of intemperance, crime and pauperism, of 
 demands upon public and private charity ; imposing the 
 
PROHIBITION REFORM, 1880. 535 
 
 larger part of taxation, thus paralyzing thrift, industry, 
 manufacture and commercial life, which but for it would be 
 unnecessary; disturbing the peace of the streets and high- 
 ways; filling prisons and poorhouses; corrupting politics, 
 legislation and the execution of the laws; shortening lives, 
 diminishing health, industry and productive power in man- 
 ufacture and art; and is manifestly unjust as well as injuri- 
 ous to the community upon which it is imposed, and con- 
 trary to all just views of civil liberty, as well as a viola- 
 tion of a fundamental maxim of our common law to use 
 your own property or liberty so as not to injure others. 
 
 5. That it is neither right nor politic for the state to 
 afford legal protection to any traffic or system which tends 
 to waste the resources, to corrupt the social habits and to 
 destroy the health and lives of the people; that the impor- 
 tation, manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages is 
 proven to be inimical to the true interests of the individual, 
 the home, the community, the state, and destructive to the 
 order and welfare of society, and ought, therefore, to be 
 classed among crimes to be prohibited. 
 
 6. That in this time of profound peace at home and 
 abroad the entire separation of the general government 
 from the drink traffic, and its prohibition in the District of 
 Columbia, the territories and in all places and ways over 
 which (under the constitution) Congress has control or 
 power, is a political isssue of first importance to the peace 
 and prosperity of the nation. There can be no stable peace 
 and protection to personal liberty, life or property until 
 secured by national and state constitutional prohibition en- 
 forced by adequate laws. 
 
 7. That all legitimate industries require deliverance 
 from taxation and loss which the liquor traffic imposes upon 
 them, and financial or other legislation can not accomplish 
 so much to increase production and cause demand for labor 
 and as a result, for the comfort of living, aa the suppression 
 of this traffic would bring to thousands of homes as one of 
 its blessings. 
 
 8. That the administration of government and the exe- 
 cution of the laws being by and through political parties, 
 we arraign the Republican party, which has been in con- 
 tinuous power in the nation for twenty years, as being false 
 to its duty, as false to its loudly-proclaimed principles of 
 " equal justice to all and special favors to none," and of pro- 
 tection to the weak and dependent; and that through moral 
 cowardice it has been and is unable to correct the mischief 
 which the trade in liquor has constantly inflicted upon the 
 industrial interests, commerce and social happiness of the 
 
536 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 people. On the contray, its subjection to and complicitj 
 with the liquor interest appears : (1) By the facts that 5,652 
 distilleries, 2,830 breweries, and 3 75,266 places of sale of th© 
 poisonous liquors, involving- an annual waste, direct and in- 
 direct, to the nation of $1,500,000,000, and a sacrifice of 100,- 
 000 lives, have under its legislation grown up and been 
 fostered as a legitimate source of revenue; (2) That during 
 its history six territories have been organized and five 
 states admitted into the union with constitutions provided 
 and approved by Congress, but the prohibition of this de- 
 basing and destructive traffic has not been provided for, 
 nor even the people given at the time of admission the pow- 
 er to forbid it in any one of them; (3) That its history fur- 
 ther shows that not in a single instance has an original 
 prohibitory law been enacted in any state controlled by it, 
 while in four st^ates so governed the laws found on its ad- 
 vent to power have been repealed; (4) That at its national 
 convention of 1872 it declared as a part of its party faith 
 that "it disapproves of a resort to unconstitutional laws for 
 the purpose of removing evils by interference with the 
 right not surrendered by the people to either state or na- 
 tional government," which the author of this plank says 
 twas adopted by the platform committee with the full and 
 explicit understanding that its purpose was the discounte- 
 nancing of all so-called temperance (prohibitory) and Sun- 
 day laws;" (5) That notwithstanding the deep interest felt 
 by the people during the lastquadrennium in the legal sup- 
 pression of the drink curse, shown by many forms of public 
 expression, this party at its last national convention, held 
 in Chicago during the present month, in making new 
 promises by its platform, says not one word on this ques- 
 tion, nor holds out any hope of relief. 
 
 9. That we arraign also the Democratic party as un- 
 faithful and unworthy of reliance on this question; for 
 although not clothed with power, but occupying the rela- 
 tion of the opposition party during twenty years past, 
 strong in number and organization, it has allied itself with 
 the liquoi'-traffickers and has become in all the states of the 
 union their special political defenders. In its national 
 convention in 1876, as an article of its political faith, it de- 
 clared against prohibition and just laws in restraint of the 
 trade in drink by saying it was opposed to what it was 
 pleased to call "all sumptuary laws." The National party 
 has been dumb on the question. 
 
 10. That the drink traffickers, Vea'lV/iIng that history and 
 experience, in all ages, climes and conditions of men de- 
 clare their business destructive of all good, and finding no 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1884. 537 
 
 support from the Bible, morals or reason, appeal to misap' 
 plied law for their justification, and entrench themselves 
 behind the evil elements of political party for defense, par- 
 ty tactics and party inertia having become the battling 
 forces protecting this evil. 
 
 11. That in viev^ of the foregoing facts and history, we 
 eordially invite all voters, without regard to former party 
 affiliation, to unite with us in the use of the ballot for the 
 abolition of the drink system now existing under the au- 
 thority of our national and state governments. We also 
 demand as a right that women, having in other respects the 
 privileges of citizens, shall be clothed with the ballot for 
 their protection, and as a rightful means for a proper set- 
 tlement of the liquor question. 
 
 12. That to remove the apprehensions of some who allege 
 that loss of public revenue would follow the suppression of 
 the drink trade, we confidently point to the experience of 
 government abroad and at home, which shows that thrift 
 and revenue from consumption of legitimate manufacture 
 and commerce have so largely followed the abolition of the 
 drink as to fully supply all loss of liquor taxes. 
 
 13. That we recognize the good providence of Almighty 
 God, who has preserved and prospered us as a nation, and, 
 asking for his spirit to guide us to ultimate success, we will 
 look for it, relying upon his omnipotent arm. 
 
 1884. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 The Democratic party of the union, through its represen- 
 tatives in national convention assembled, recognizes that, 
 as the nation grows older, new issues are born of time and 
 progress, and old issues perish, but the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of the Democracy, approved by the united voice of 
 the people, remain and will ever remain as the best and 
 only security for the continuance of free government. The 
 preservation of personal rights; the equality of all citizens 
 before the law ; the reserved rights of the states, and the 
 supremacy of the federal government within the limits of 
 the constitution, will ever form the true basis of our liber- 
 ties, and can never be surrendered without destroying that 
 balance of rights and powers which enables a continent to 
 be developed in peace, and social order to be maintained by 
 means of local self-government. But it is indispensable for 
 the practical application and enforcement of these funda- 
 mental principles that the government should not always 
 be controlled by one political party. Frequent change of 
 administration is as necessary as constant recurrence to 
 
538 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 the popular will. Otherwise abuses grow, and the govern- 
 ment, instead of being carried on for the general welfare, 
 becomes an instrumentality for imposing heavy burdens on 
 the many who are governed, for the benefit of the few who 
 govern. Public servants thus become arbitrary rulers. 
 This is now the condition of the country; hence a change 
 is demanded. 
 
 The Republican party so far as principle is concerned is 
 a reminiscence. In practice it is an organization for en- 
 riching those who control its machinery. The frauds and 
 jobbery which have been brought to light in every depart- 
 ment of the government are sufficient to have called for 
 reform within the Republican party; yet those in authority, 
 made reckless by the long possession of power, have suc- 
 cumbed to its corrupting influence and have placed in nomi- 
 nation a ticket against which the independent portion of 
 the party are in open revolt. Therefore a change is de- 
 manded. Such a change was alike necessary in 1876, but 
 the will of the people was then defeated by a fraud which 
 can never be forgotten nor condoned. Again, in 1880, the 
 change demanded by the people was defeated by the lavish 
 use of money contributed by unscrupulous contractors and 
 shameless jobbers who had bargained for unlawful profits 
 or high office. The Republican party during its legal, its 
 stolen and its bought tenures of power, has steadily de- 
 cayed in moral character and political capacity. Its plat- 
 form promises are now a list of its past failur^. It de- 
 mands the restoration of our navy — it has squandered 
 hundreds of millions to create a navy that does not exist. 
 It calls upon Congress to remove the burdens under which 
 i^nerican shipping has been depressed; it imposed and has 
 continued those burdens. It professes a policy of reserving 
 the public lands for small holdings by actual settlers — it 
 has given away the people's heritage till now a few rail- 
 roads and non-resident aliens, individual and coporate, 
 possess a larger area than that of all our farms between the 
 two seas. It professes a preference for free institutions — 
 it organized and tried to legalize a control of state elections 
 by federal troops. It professes a desire to elevate labor — it 
 has subjected American workingmen to the competition of 
 convict and imported contract labor. It professes grati- 
 tude to all who were disabled or died in the war, leaving 
 widows and orphans — it left to a Democratic house of rep- 
 resentatives the first effort to equalize both bounty and 
 pensions. It proffers a pledge to correct the irregularities 
 of tariff — it created and has continued them. Its own tarift' 
 commission confess the needs of more than twenty per cent 
 
DEMOCRA' IC, 1884. 539 
 
 reduction— its Congress gave a reduction of less than four 
 per cent. It professes the protection of American manu- 
 factures — it has subjected them to an increasing flood of 
 manufactured goods and a hopeless competition with man- 
 ufacturing nations, not one of which taxes raw materials. 
 It professes to protect all American industries — it has im- 
 poverished many to subsidize a few. It professes the pro- 
 tection of American labor — it has depleted the returns of 
 American agriculture and industry followed by half of our 
 people. It professes the equality of all men before the law, 
 attempting to fix the status of colored citizens — the acts of 
 its Congress were overset by the decisions of its courts. It 
 "accepts anew the duty of leading in the work of progress 
 and reform " — its caught criminals are permitted to escape 
 through contrived delays or actual connivance in the prose- 
 cution. Honeycombed with corruption, outbreaking ex- 
 posures no longer shock its moral sense. Its honest mem- 
 bers, its independent journals no longer maintain a suc- 
 cessful contest for authority in its councils or a veto upon 
 bad nominations. That change is necessary is proved by 
 an existing surplus of more than $100,000,000 which has 
 yearly been collected from a suffering people. Unnecessary 
 taxation is unjust taxation. We denounce the Republican 
 party for having failed to relieve the people from crushing 
 war taxes, which have paralyzed business, crippled indus- 
 try, and deprived labor of employment and of just reward. 
 
 The Democracy pledges itseljf to purify the administra- 
 tion from corruption, to restore economy, to revive respect 
 for law, and to reduce taxation to the lowest limit consist- 
 ent with due regard to the preservation of the faith of the 
 nation to its creditors and pensioners. Knowing full well, 
 however, that legislation aft^ecting the operations of the 
 people should be cautious and conservative in method, not 
 in advance of public opinion, but responsive to its demands, 
 the Democratic party is pledged to revise the tariff* in a 
 spirit of fairness to all interests. But, in making reduction 
 in taxes, it is not proposed to injure any domestic indus- 
 tries, but rather to promote their healthy growth. From 
 the foundation of this government taxes collected at the 
 custom house have been the chief source of federal revenue. 
 Such they must continue to be. Moreover, many industries 
 have come to rely upon legislation for successful continu- 
 ance, so that any change of law must be at every step re- 
 gardful of the labor and capital thus involved. The pro- 
 cess of the reform must be subject in the execution to this 
 plain dictate of justice — all taxation shall be limited to the 
 requirements of economical government. The necessary 
 
540 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 reduction and taxation can and must be effected without 
 depriving American labor of tbe ability to compete success- 
 fully with foreign labor and without imposing lower rates 
 of duty than will be ample to cover any increased cost of 
 production which may exist in consequence of the higher 
 rate of wages prevailing in this country. Sufficient reve- 
 nue to pay all the expenses of the federal government 
 economically administered, including pensions, interest 
 and principal of the public debt, can be got under our 
 present system of taxation from the custom house taxes on 
 fewer imported articles, bearing heaviest on articles of lux- 
 ury and bearing lightest on articles of necessity. We, 
 therefore, denounce the abuses of the existing tariff; and, 
 subject to the preceding limitations, we demand that feder- 
 al taxation shall be exclusively for public purposes, and 
 shall not exceed the needs of the government economically 
 adx/iinistered. 
 
 The system of direct taxation known as the "internal 
 revenue" is a war tax, and so long as the law continues 
 the money derived therefrom should be sacredly devof'ed to 
 the relief of the people from the remaining burdens of the 
 war, and be made a fund to defray the expense of the care 
 and comfort of worthy soldiers disabled in the line of duty 
 in the wars of the republic, and for the payment of such 
 pensions as Congress may from time to time grant to such 
 soldiers, a like fund for the sailors having already been 
 provided; and any surplus shall be paid into the treasury. 
 
 We favor an American, continental policy based upoB 
 more intimate commercial and political relation with th« 
 fifteen sister republics of North, Central and South Ameri- 
 ca, but entangling alliances with none. 
 
 We believe in honest money, the gold and silver coinage 
 of the constitution, and a circulating medium convertible 
 into such money without loss. 
 
 Asserting the equality of all men before the law, we hold 
 that it is the duty of the government in its dealings witb 
 the people to mete out equal and exact justice to all citi- 
 zens of whatever nativity, race, color or persuasion, relig- 
 ious and political. 
 
 We believe in a free ballot and a fair count, and we recall 
 to the memory of the people the noble struggle of the Dem- 
 ocrats in the forty-fifth and forty-sixth Congresses,by which 
 a reluctant Kepublican opposition was compelled to assent 
 to legislation making everywhere illegal the presence of 
 troops at the polls, as the conclusive proof that a Democrati« 
 administration will preserve liberty with order. 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1884. 54I 
 
 The selection of federal officers for the territories should 
 he restricted to citizens previously resident therein. 
 
 We oppose sumptuary laws which vex the citizen and 
 interfere with individual liberty. 
 
 We favor honest civil service reform and a compensation 
 ©f all United States officers by fixed salaries; the separation 
 ®f church and state and the diffusion of free education by 
 «ommon schools, so that every child in the land may be 
 taught the rights and duties of citizenship. 
 
 While we favor all legislation which will tend to the 
 equitable distribution of property, to the prevention of 
 monopoly, and to the strict enforcement of individual 
 rights against corporate abuses, we hold that the welfare 
 of society depends upon a scrupulous regard for the right 
 of property as defined by law. We believe that labor is 
 best rewarded where it is freest and most enlightened. It 
 should therefore be fostered and cherished. We favor the 
 repeal of all laws restricting the free action of labor, and 
 the enactment of laws by which labor organizations may be 
 incorporated, and of all such legislation as will tend to en- 
 lighten the people as to the true relations of capital and 
 labor. 
 
 We believe that the public land ought, as far as possible, 
 to be kept as homesteads for actual settlers; that all un- 
 earned lands heretofore inprovidently granted to railroad 
 corporations by the action of the Republican party should 
 be restored to the public domain, and that no more grants 
 of land shall be made to corporations, or be allowed to fall 
 into the ownership of alien absentees. 
 
 We are opposed to all propositions which, upon any pre- 
 text, would convert the general government into a machine 
 for collecting taxes to be distributed among the states or 
 the citizens thereof. 
 
 In reaffirming the declaration of the Democratic platform 
 of 1856, that the liberal princiijles embodied by Jefferson 
 in the Declaration of Independence, and sanctioned in the 
 constitution, wliich makes ours the land of liberty and the 
 asylum of the oppressed of every nation, have ever been 
 cardinal principles in the Democratic faith, we neverthe- 
 less do not sanction the importation of foreign labor or the 
 admission of servile races, unfitted by habits, training, re- 
 ligion, or kindred, for absorption into the great body of our 
 people, or for the citizenship which our laws confer. 
 American civilization demands that against the immigra- 
 tion or importation of Mongolians to these shores our gates 
 l>e closed. 
 
 The Democratic party insists that it is the duty of the 
 
542 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 government to protect with equal fidelity and vigilance the 
 rights of its citizens, native and naturalized, at home and 
 abroad, and to the end that this protection may be assured 
 United States papers of naturalization, issued by courts of 
 competent jurisdiction, must be respected by the executive 
 and legislative departments of our own government and all 
 foreign powers. It is an imperative duty of this govern- 
 ment to efficiently protect all the rights of persons and 
 property of every American citizen in foreign lands, and 
 demand and enforce full reparation for any invasion there- 
 of. An American citizen is only responsible to his own 
 government for any act done in his own country or under 
 her flag, and can only be tried therefor on her own soil, 
 and according to her laws; and no power exists in this gov- 
 ernment to expatriate an American citizen to be tried in 
 any foreign land for any such act. 
 
 This country has never had a well-defined and executed 
 foreign policy save under Democratic administration. 
 That policy has ever been in regard to foreign nations, so 
 long as they do not act detrimental to the interest of the 
 country or hurtful to our citizens, to let them alone; that 
 as a result of this policy we recall the acquisition of Louisi- 
 ana, Florida, California and of the adjacent Mexican terri- 
 tory by purchase alone, and contrast these grand acquisi- 
 tions of Democratic statesmanship with the purchase of 
 Alaska, the sole fruit of a Republican administration of 
 nearly a quarter of a century. 
 
 The federal government should care for and improve the 
 Mississippi river and other great water-ways of the repub- 
 lic, so as to secure for the interior states easy and cheap 
 transportation to tide water. 
 
 Under a long period of Democratic rule and policy our 
 merchant marine was fast overtaking and on the point of 
 outstripping that of Great Britain. Under twenty years of 
 Republican rule and policy our commerce has been left to 
 British bottoms, and the American flag has almost been 
 swept off the high seas. Instead of the Republican party's 
 British policy, we demand for the people of the United 
 States an American policy. Under Democratic rule and 
 policy our merchants and sailors, flying the stars and 
 stripes in every port, successfully searched out a market 
 for the varied products of American industry; under a 
 quarter century of Republican rule and policy, despite our 
 manifest advantage over all other nations in high-paid 
 labor, favorable climate and teeming soils; despite freedom 
 of trade among all these United States; despite their popu- 
 lation by the foremost races of men, and an annual immi- 
 
REPUBLICAN, 18S4. 543 
 
 gration of the youngf, thrifty, and adventurous of all nations ; 
 despite our freedom here from the inherited burdens of life 
 and industry in the Old World monarchies, their costly war 
 navies, their vast tax-consuming, non-producing standing 
 armies; despite twenty years of peace, that Republican rule 
 and policy have managed to surrender to Great Britain, 
 along with our commerce, the control of the markets of the 
 world. Instead of the Republican party's British policy, 
 we demand, in behalf of the American Democracy, an 
 American policy. Instead of the Republican party's dis- 
 credited scheme and false pretense of friendship for Amer- 
 ican labor, expressed by imposing taxes, we demand, in be- 
 half of the Democracy, freedom for American labor by 
 reducing taxes, to the end that these United States may 
 compete with unhindered powers for the primacy among 
 nations in all the arts of peace and fruits of liberty. 
 
 With profound regret we have been apprised by the ven- 
 erable statesman through whose person was struck that 
 blow at the vital principle of republics, acquiescence in the 
 will of the majority, that he cannot permit us again to place 
 in his hand^ the leadership of the Democratic hosts, for the 
 reason that the achievement of reform in the administra- 
 tion of the federal government is an undertaking now too 
 heavy for his age and failing strength. Rejoicing that his 
 life has been prolonged until the general judgment of our 
 fellow countrymen is united in the wish that that wrong 
 were righted in his person, for the Democracy of the 
 United States we offer to him, in his withdrawal from pub- 
 lic cares, not only our respectful sympathy and esteem, but 
 also the best homage of freedom, the pledge of our devotion 
 to the principles and the cause now inseparable in the his- 
 tory of this republic from the labors and the name of Sam- 
 uel J. Tilden. 
 
 With this statement of the hopes, principles and pur- 
 poses of the Democratic party, the great issue of reform 
 and change in administration is submitted to the people, 
 in calm confidence that the popular voice will pronounce 
 in favor of new men and new and more favorable conditions 
 for the growth of industry, the extension of trade and em- 
 ployment and due reward of labor and of capital, and the 
 general welfare of the whole country. 
 
 Republican Party. 
 
 The Republicans of the United States in national conven- 
 tion assembled renew their allegiance to the principles 
 upon which they have triumphed in six successive presi- 
 dential elections; and congratulate the American people on 
 
544 "^^^ NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 the attainment of so many results in legislation and ad- 
 ministration by which the Kepublican party has, after sav- 
 ing the union, done so much to render its institutions just, 
 equal and beneficent, the safeguard of liberty and the em- 
 bodiment of the best thought and highest purpose of our 
 citizens. 
 
 The Republican party has gained its strength by quick 
 and faithful response to the demands of the people for the 
 freedom and equality of all men ; for a united nation, assur- 
 ing the rights of all citizens; for the elevation of labor; for 
 an honest currency ; for purity in legislation, and for in- 
 tegrity and accountability in all departments of the gov- 
 ernment, and it accepts anew the duty of leading in the 
 work of progress and reform. 
 
 We lament the death of President Garfield, whose sound 
 statesmanship, long conspicuous in Congress, gave promise 
 of a strong and successful administration ; a promise fully 
 realized during the short period of his olfice as president of 
 the United States. His distinguished services in war and 
 peace have endeared him to the hearts of the American 
 people. 
 
 In the administration of President Arthur we recognize a 
 wise, conservative and patriotic policy, under which the 
 couni^ry has been blessed with remarkable prosperity, and 
 we believe his eminent services are entitled to and will 
 receive the hearty approval of every citizen. 
 
 It is the first duty of a good government to protect the 
 rights and promote the interests of its own people. 
 
 The largest diversity of industry is most productive of 
 general prosperity and of the comfort and independence of 
 the people. • 
 
 We, therefore, demand that the imposition of duties o» 
 foreign imports shall be made not " for revenue only," but 
 that in raising the requisite revenues for the government 
 such duties shall be so levied as to afford security to our 
 diversified industries and protection to the rights and 
 wages of the laborer, to the end that active and intelligent 
 labor as well as capital may have its just reward and the 
 laboring man his full share in the national prosperity. 
 
 Against the so-called economic system of the Democratic 
 party, which would degrade our labor to the foreign stand- 
 ard, we enter our earnest protest. 
 
 The Democratic party has failed completely to relieve 
 the people of the burden of unnecessary taxation by a wise 
 reduction of the surplus. 
 
 The Republican party pledges itself to correct the in- 
 equalities of the tariff and to reduce the surplus, not by 
 
REPUBLICAN, 1884. 545 
 
 the vicious and indiscriminate process of horizontal reduc- 
 tion, but by sach methods as will relieve the tax-payer 
 without injuring the labor or the great productive inter- 
 ests of the country. 
 
 We recognize the importance of sheep-husbandry in the 
 United States, the serious depression which it is now ex- 
 periencing and the danger threatening its future prosperi- 
 ty ; and we, therefore, respect the demands of the represen- 
 tatives of this important agricultural interest for a read- 
 justment of duties upon foreign wool in order that such 
 industry shall have full and adequate protection. 
 
 We have always recommended the best money known to 
 the civilized world; and we urge that efforts should be 
 made to unite all commercial nations in the establishment 
 of an international standard which shall fix for all the rela- 
 tive value of gold and silver coinage. 
 
 The regulation of commerce with foreign nations and be- 
 tween the states is one of the most important prerogatives 
 of the general government; and the Republican party dis- 
 tinctly announces its purpose to support such legislation as 
 will fully and efliciently carry out the constitutional power 
 of Congress over inter-state commerce. 
 
 The principle of public regulation of railway corpora- 
 tions is a wise and salutary one for the protection of all 
 classes of the people, and we favor legislation that shall 
 prevent unjust discrimination and excessive charges for 
 transportation, and that shall secure to the people and the 
 railways alike the fair and equal protection of the laws. 
 
 We favor the establishment of a national bureau of labor; 
 the enforcement of the eight hour law ; a wise and judicious 
 system of general legislation by adequate appropriation 
 from the national revenues, wherever the same is needed. 
 We believe that everywhere the protection to a citizen of 
 American birth must be secured to citizens by American 
 adoption; and we favor the settlement of national differ- 
 ences by international arbitration. 
 
 The Republican party, having its birth in a hatred of 
 slave labor and a desire that all men may be truly free and 
 equal, is unalterably opposed to placing our workingmen in 
 competition with any form of servile labor, whether at 
 home or abroad. In this spirit we denounce the importa- 
 tion of contract labor, whether from Europe or Asia, as an 
 offence against the spirit of American institutions; and we 
 pledge ourselves to sustain the present law restricting 
 Chinese immigration, and to provide such further legisla- 
 tion as is necessary to carry out its purposes. 
 
 Reform of the civil service, auspiciously begun under Re- 
 
54^ 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 publican administration, should be completed by the fur- 
 ther extension of the reform system, already established by 
 law, to all the grades of the service to which it is. applicable. 
 The spirit and purpose of the reform should be observed in 
 all executive appointments; and all laws at variance with 
 the objects of existing reform legislation should be re- 
 pealed, to the end that the dangers to free institutions 
 which lurk in the pow^er of official patronage may be wisely 
 and effectively avoided. 
 
 The public lands are a heritage of the people of the 
 United States, and should be reserved as far as possible for 
 small holdings by actual settlers. We are opposed to the 
 acquisition of large tracts of these lands by corporations or 
 individuals, especially where such holdings are in the 
 hands of non-residents or aliens. And we will endeavor to 
 obtain such legislation as will tend to correct thi.- evil. We 
 demand of Congress the speedy forfeiture of all land grants 
 which have lapsed by reason of non-compliance with acts 
 of incorporation in all cases where there has been no at- 
 tempt in good faith to perform the conditions of such 
 grants. 
 
 The grateful thanks of the American people are due to 
 the union soldiers and sailors of the late war; and the Re- 
 publican party stands pledged to suitable pensions for all 
 who were disabled, and for the widows and orphans of those 
 who died in the war. The Kepublican party also j^ledges 
 itself to the repeal of the limitations contained in the 
 arrears act of 1879; so that all invalid soldiers shall share 
 alike, and their pensions begin with the date of disability 
 or discharge, and not with the date of application. 
 
 The Republican party favors a policy which shall keep us 
 from entangling alliance with foreign nations, and which 
 gives us the right to expect that foreign nations shall re- 
 frain from meddling in American affairs — a policy which 
 seeks peace and trade with all powers, but especially with 
 those of the Western Hemisphere. 
 
 We demand the restoration of our navy to its old-time 
 strength and efficiency, that it may in any sea protect the 
 rights of American citizens and the interests of American 
 commerce; and we call upon Congress to remove the bur- 
 dens under which American shipping has been depressed, 
 so that it may again be true that we have a commerce 
 w^hich leaves no sea unexplored, and a navy which takes no 
 law from superior force. 
 
 Resolved, That appointments by the president to offices 
 in the territories should be made from the bona fide citizens 
 iind residents of the territories wherein thev are to serve. 
 
PROHIBITION, 18S4. 54^ 
 
 Resolved, That it is the duty of Congress to enact such 
 laws as shall promptly and effectually suppress the system 
 of polyg-amy yvithin our territories, and divorce the politi- 
 cal from the ecclesiastical power of the so-called Mormon 
 church; and that the laws so enacted should he rigidly en- 
 forced, hj the civil authorities, if possible, and by the mili- 
 tary, if need be. 
 
 The people of the United States in their organized ca- 
 pacity constitute a nation, and not an American federacy 
 of states; the national government is supreme within the 
 sphere of its national duties; but the states have reserved 
 rights which should be faithfully maintained; each should 
 be guarded with jealous care; so that the harmony of our 
 system of government may be preserved and the union kept 
 inviolate. 
 
 The perpetuity of our institutions rests upon the main- 
 tenance of a free ballot, an honest count, and correct re- 
 turns. We denounce the fraud and violence practiced by 
 the Democracy in southern states, by which the will of a 
 voter is defeated, as dangerous to the preservation of free 
 institutions; and we solemnly arraign the Democratic par- 
 ty as being the guilty recipient of fruits of such fraud and 
 violence. 
 
 We extend to the Republicans of the South, regardless of 
 their former party affiliations, our cordial sympathy; and 
 pledge to them our most earnest efforts to promote the 
 passage of such legislation as will secure to every citizen, 
 of whatever race and color, the full and complete recogni- 
 tion, possession and exercise of all civil and political rights. 
 
 Prohibition Party. 
 
 1. The Prohibition party, in national convention assem- 
 bled, acknowledge Almighty God as the rightful sovereign 
 of all men, from whom the just powers of government are 
 derived and to whose laws human enactments should con- 
 form as an absolute condition of peace, prosperity and hap- 
 piness. 
 
 2. That the importation, manufacture, supply and sale of 
 alcoholic beverages, created and maintained by the laws of 
 the national and state governments during the entire his- 
 tory of such laws, are everywhere shown to be the promot- 
 ing cause of intemperance, with resulting crime and pau- 
 perism, making large demands upon public and private 
 charity; imposing large and unjust taxation for the sup- 
 port of penal aijd sheltering institutions upon thrift, in- 
 dustry, manufactures and commerce; endangering the 
 public peace; desecrating the Sabbath; corrupting our poH- 
 
548 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 tics, legislation and administration of the laws; shortening- 
 lives, impairing health and diminishing productive indus- 
 try; causing education to be neglected and despised; nul- 
 lifying the teachings of the Bible, the church and the 
 school, the standards and guides of our fathers and their 
 children in the founding and growth of our widely extend- 
 ed country; and which, imperiling the perpetuity of our 
 civil and religious liberties, are baleful fruits by which we 
 know that these laws are contrary to God's laws and contra- 
 vene our happiness. We therefore call upon our fellow- 
 citizens to aid in the repeal of these laws and in the legal 
 suppression of this baneful liquor traffic. 
 
 3. During the twenty-four years in which the Republi- 
 can party has controlled the general government and many 
 of the states, no effort has 'been made to change this policy. 
 Territories have been created, governments for them es- 
 tablished, states admitted to the union, and in no instance 
 in either case has this traffic been forbidden or the people 
 been permitted to prohibit it. That there are now over 
 
 .200,000 distilleries, breweries, wholesale and retail dealers 
 in their products, holding certificates and claiming the au- 
 thority of government for the continuation of the business 
 so destructive to the moral and material welfare of the peo- 
 ple, together with the fact that they have turned a deaf ear 
 to remonstrance and petition for the correction of tv>ls 
 abuse of civil government, is conclusive that the Fcpubli- 
 can party is insensible to or impotent for tb': redress of 
 these wrongs, and should no longer be entrusted with the 
 powers and responsibilities of government. Although this 
 party in its late national convention was silent on the 
 liquor question, not so its candidates, Messrs. Blaine and 
 Logan. Witiiin the year past Mr. Blaine has recommended 
 that the revenue derived from the liquor traffic be dis- 
 tributed among tbp states; and Senator Logan has, by bill, 
 proposed to devoie these revenues to the support of the 
 public schools. "Thus both virtually recommend the per- 
 petuation of the traffic, and that the states and their citi- 
 zens become partners in the liquor crime. 
 
 4. That the Democratic party has in its national deliver- 
 ances of party policy arrayed itself on the side of the drink- 
 makers and sellers by declaring against the policy of pro- 
 hibition under the false name of " sumptuary laws;" that 
 when in power in many of the states it has refused remedi- 
 al legislation, and that in Congress it has obstructed the 
 creation of a commission of inquiry into the effects of this 
 traffic, proving that it should not be entrusted with power 
 and place. 
 
PROTTTRTTION. 1884, tT/jQ 
 
 5. That there (nn "l>e no ^realer peril to the nation tliad 
 
 the existing competition of the Republican and Democratic 
 parties for the liquor vote. Experience shows that any 
 party not openly opposed to the traffic will engag-e in this 
 competition, will court the favor of the criminal classes, will 
 barter the public morals, the purity of the ballot and every 
 trust and object of good government for party success. 
 Patriots and good citizens should, therefore, immediately 
 withdraw from all connection with these parties. 
 
 6. That we favor reforms in the abolition of all sinecures 
 with useless offices and officers, and in elections by the peo- 
 ple instead of app(»ihtments by the president; that as com- 
 petency, honesty and sobriety are essential qualifications 
 for office, we oppose removals except when absolutely neces- 
 sary to secure eftectiveness in vital issues; that the collec- 
 tion of revenues from alcoholic liquors and tobacco should 
 be abolished, since the vices of men are not proper subjects 
 of taxation ; that revenues from customs duties should be 
 levied for the support of the government economically ad- 
 ministered, and in such manner as will foster American 
 industries and labor; that the public lands should be held 
 for homes for the people, and not bestowed as gifts to cor- 
 porations, or sold in large tracts for speculation upon the 
 needs of acmal settlers; that grateful care and support 
 should be given fo our soldiers and sailors disabled in the 
 service of their country, and to heir dependent widows and 
 orphans; that we repudiate as un-American and contrary 
 to and subversive of the principles of the Declaration of 
 Independence, that any person or people should be exclud- 
 ed from residence or citizenship who may desire the bene- 
 fits which our institutions confer upon the oppressed of all 
 nations; that while these are important reforms, and are 
 demanded for purity of administration and the welfare of 
 the people, their importance sinks into insignificance when 
 compared with the drink traffic, which now annually 
 wastes $800,000,000 of the wealth created by toil and thrift,- 
 dragging down thousands of families from comfort to pov- 
 erty, filling jails, penitentiaries, insane asylums, hospitals 
 and institutions for dependency, impairing the healtli and 
 destroying the lives of thousands, lowering, intellectual 
 vigor and dulling the cunning hand of the artisan, causing 
 bankruptcy, insolvency and loss in trade, and by its cor- 
 rupting power endangering the perpetuity of free institu- 
 tions; . that Congress should exercise its undoubted^power 
 by prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intox/cating 
 beverages in the District of Columbia, the territories of the 
 Unite! States and' all places over which the governiaent 
 
55© THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 has exclusive jurisdiction; that hereafter no state should 
 be admitted to the union until its constitution shall ex- 
 pressly and forever prohibit polygamy and the manufacture 
 and sale of intoxicating beverages, and that Congress shall 
 submit to the states an amendment to the constitution for- 
 ever prohibiting the importation, exportation, manufacture 
 and sale of alcoholic drinks. 
 
 7. We earnestly call the attention of the mechanic, the 
 miner and manufacturer to the investigation of the bane- 
 ful effects upon labor and industry of the needless liquor 
 business. It will be found the robber vv'ho lessens wages 
 and profits, foments discontent and strikes, and the destroy- 
 er of family welfare. Labor and all legitimate industries 
 demand deliverance from the taxation and loss which this 
 traffic imposes; and no tariff or other legislation can so 
 healthily stimulate production, or increase the demand for 
 capital and labor, or insure so much of comfort and content 
 to the laborer, mechanic and capitalist as would the sup- 
 pression of this traffic. 
 
 8. That the activity and co-operation of the women of 
 America for the promotion of temperance has in all the 
 history of the past been a strength and encouragement 
 which we gratefully acknowledge and record. In the later 
 and present phase of the movement for the prohibition of 
 the traffic, the purity of purpose and method, the earnest- 
 ness, zeal, intelligence and devotion of the mothers and 
 daughters of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union 
 have been eminently blessed of God. Kansas and Iowa 
 have been given them as " sheaves " of rejoicing, and the 
 education and arousing of the public mind, and the now 
 prevailing demand for the constitutional amendment, are 
 largely the fruit of their prayers and labors. Sharing in 
 the efforts that shall bring the question of the abolition of 
 this traffic to the polls, they shall join in the grand " Praise 
 God, from whom all blessings flow," when by law victory 
 shall be achieved. 
 
 9. That, believing in the civil and political equality of 
 the sexes, and that the ballot in the hands of woman is her 
 right for protection and would prove a powerful ally for the 
 abolition of the liquor traffic, the execution of the law, the 
 promotion of reform in civil aff'airs, the removal of corrup- 
 tion in public life, we enunciate the principle and relegate 
 the practical outworking of this reform to the discretion of 
 the Prohibition party in the several states according to the 
 condition of public sentiment in those states. 
 
 10. That we gratefully acknowledge the presence of the 
 divine spirit guiding the counsels and granting the success 
 
NATlOiNAI. (greenback LABOr), 1884. 55^ 
 
 which has been rouchsafed in the progress of the temper- 
 ance reform ; and we earnestly ask the voters of these 
 United States to make the principles of the above declara- 
 tion dominant in the government of the nation. 
 
 National (Greenback Labor) Party. 
 
 1. That we hold the late decision of the supreme courts 
 on the legal-tender question to be a full vindication of the 
 theory which our party has always advocated on the right 
 and authority of Congress over the issue of legal-tender 
 notes, and we hereby pledge ourselves to uphold said de- 
 cision, and to defend the constitution against alterations or 
 amendments intended to deprive the people of any rights 
 or privileges conferred by that instrument. We demand 
 the issue of such money in sufficient quantities to supply 
 the actual demands of trade and commerce in accordance 
 with the increas-e of population and the development of our 
 industries. We demand the substitution of greenbacks for 
 national bank notes, and the prompt payment of the public 
 debt. We want that money which saved our country in 
 time of war and which has given it prosperity and happi- 
 ness in peace. We condemn the retirement of the fraction- 
 al currency and the small denominations of greenbacks and 
 demand their restoration. We demand the issue of the 
 hoards of money now locked up in the United States treas- 
 ury, by applyiiig them to the payment of the public debt 
 now due. 
 
 2. We denounce as dangerous to our republican institu- 
 tions those methods and policies of the Democratic and 
 Republican parties which have sanctioned or permitted the 
 establishment of land, railroad, money, and other gigantic 
 monopolies; and we demand such governmental action as 
 may be necessary to take from such monopolies the power 
 they have so corruptly and unjustly usurped, and restore 
 them to the people, to whom they belong. 
 
 3. The public lands being the natural inheritance of the 
 people, we denounce that policy which has granted to cor- 
 porations vast tracts of land, and we demand that immedi- 
 ate and vigorous measures be taken to reclaim from such 
 corporations, for the people's use and benefit, all such land 
 grants as have been forfeited by reason of non-fulfillment 
 of contract, or that may have been wrongfully acquired by 
 corrupt legislation, and that such reclainuHl lands and oth- 
 er public domain be henceforth held as a sacred trust, to be 
 granted only to actual settlers in limited quantities; and 
 we also demand that the alien ownership of land, indivi- 
 dual or corporate, shall be prohibited. 
 
552 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 4. We demand congressional regulations of inter-state 
 commerce, we denounce " pooling," stock watering and dis- 
 crimination in rates and cliarges, and demand that Con- 
 gress shall correct these abuses, even, if necessary, by the 
 construction of national railroads. We also demand the 
 establishment of a government postal telegraph system. 
 
 5. All private property, all forms of money and obliga- 
 tions to pay money, should bear their just proportion of the 
 taxes. We demand a graduated income tax. 
 
 6. We demand the amelioration of the condition of labor 
 by enforcing the sanitary law^s in industrial establish- 
 ments, by the abolition of the convict labor system, by a 
 rigid inspection of mines and factories, by a reduction of 
 the hours of labor in industrial establishments, by foster- 
 ing educational institutions and by abolishing child labor. 
 
 7. We condemn all importations of contracted labor, 
 made with a view of reducing to starvation wages the 
 working men of this country, and demand laws for its pre- 
 vention. 
 
 8. We insist upon a constitutional amendment reducing 
 the terms of United States senators. 
 
 9. Wo demand such rules for the government of Congress 
 as shall place all representatives of the people upon an 
 equal footing, and take away from committees a veto power 
 greater than that of the president. 
 
 10. The question as to the amount of duties to be levied 
 upon various articles of import has been agitated and quar- 
 reled over, and has divided communities for nearly a hun- 
 dred years. It is not now and never will be settled unless 
 by the abolition of indirect taxation. It is a convenient 
 issue — ahvays raised when the people are excited over 
 abuses in their midst. While we favor a wise revision of 
 the tariff laws, w^ith a view to raising a revenue from the 
 luxuries, rather than necessaries, we insist that as an 
 economic question its importance is insignificant as com- 
 pared with financial issues; for whereas we have suffered 
 our worst panics under low and also under high tariff, we 
 have never suffered from a panic or seen our factories or 
 W'orkshojjs closed w^hile the volume of money in circulation 
 W'as adequate to the needs of commerce. Give our farmers 
 and manufacturers money as cheap as you now give it to 
 our bankers, and they can pay high wages to labor and 
 compete with all the world. 
 
 11. For the purpose of testing the sense of the people 
 upon the subject, we are in favor of submitting to the peo- 
 ple an amendment to the constitution in favor of suffrage 
 
REPUBLICAN, 1888. CC3 
 
 regardless of sex, and also on the subject of the liquor 
 traffic. 
 
 12. All disabled soldiers of the late war should be equita- 
 bly pensioned, and we denounce the policy of keeping a 
 small army of office-holders whose only business is to pre- 
 vent, on technical grounds, deserving soldiers from obtain- 
 ing justice from the government they helped to save. 
 
 13. As our name indicates, we are a national party, 
 knowing no East, no West, no North, no South. Having no 
 sectional prejudices, we can properly place in nomination 
 for the high offices of state as candidates men from any 
 section of the union. 
 
 14. We appeal to all people who believe in our principles 
 to aid us by voice, pen and votes. 
 
 1888, 
 
 Republican Party. 
 
 The Republicans of the United States, as&ermbled by their 
 delegates in national convention, pause on the threshold of 
 their proceedings to honor the memory of their tirst great 
 leader, the immortal champion of liberty and the rights of 
 the people — Abraham Lincoln; and to cover also with 
 wreaths of imperishable remembrance and gratitude the 
 heroic names of our later leaders who have more recently 
 been called away from our councils — Grant, Garfield, Ar- 
 thur, Logan, Conkling. May their memories be faithfully 
 cherished. We also recall with our greetings, and with 
 prayer for his recovery, the name of one of our living he- 
 roes, whose memory will be treasured in the history both of 
 Republicans and of the republic — the name of that noble 
 soldier and favorite child of victory, Philip H. Sheridan. 
 
 In the spirit of those great leaders, and of our own de- 
 votion to human liberty, and with that hostility to all forms 
 of despotism and oppression which is the fundamental idea 
 of the Republican party, we send fraternal congratulation 
 to our fellow-Americans of Brazil upon their great act of 
 emancipation, which completed the abolition of slavery 
 throughout the two American continents. We earnestly 
 hope that we may soon congratulate ocr fellow-citizens of 
 Irish birth upon the peaceful recovery of home rule for 
 Ireland. 
 
 We reaffirm our unswerving devotion to the national con- 
 stitution and to the indissoluble union of the states; to the 
 autonomy reserved to the states under the constitution; to 
 the personal rights and liberties of citizens in all theptates 
 and territories in the union, and especially to the supreme 
 and sovereign right of every lawful citizen, rich or poor. 
 
554 
 
 THE JiATlOJSJAL. PLATFORMS. 
 
 native or foreign born, white or black, to cast one free bal- 
 lot in public elections and to have that ballot duly counted. 
 We hold the free and honest popular ballot and the just 
 and equal representation of all the people to be the founda- 
 tion of our republican government, and demand effective 
 legislation to secure the integrity and purity of elections, 
 w^hich are the fountains of all public authority. We charge 
 that the present administration and the Democratic majori- 
 ty in Congress owe their existence to the suppression of 
 the ballot by a criminal nullification of the constitution 
 and laws of the United States. 
 
 We are uncompromisingly in favor of the American sys- 
 tem of protection ; we protest against its destruction as pro- 
 posed by the president and his party. They serve the in- 
 terests of Europe; we will support the interests of America. 
 We accept the issue and confidently appeal to the people 
 for their judgment. The protective system must be main- 
 tained. Its abandonment has always been followed by 
 general disaster to all interests, except those of the usurer 
 and the sheriff. Vfe denounce the Mills bill as destructive 
 to the general business, the labor and the farming interests 
 of the country, and we heartily indorse the consistent and 
 patriotic action of the Republican representatives in Con- 
 gress in opposing its passage. 
 
 We condemn the proposition of the Democratic party to 
 place wool on the free list, and we insist that the duties 
 thereon shall be adjusted and maintained so as to furnish 
 full and adequate protection to that industry. 
 
 The Republican party would effect all needed reduction 
 of the national revenue by repealing the ta^^es upon tobac- 
 co, which are an annoyance and burden to agriculture, and 
 the tax upon spirits used in the arts and for mechanical 
 purposes, and by such revision of the tariff laws as will 
 tend to check imports of such articles as are produced by 
 our people, the production of which gives employment to 
 our labor, and release from import duties those articles of 
 foreign production (except luxuries) the like of which can- 
 not be produced at home. If there shall still remain a 
 larger revenue than is requisite for the wants of the gov- 
 ernment, we favor the entire repeal of internal taxes rath- 
 er than the surrender of any part of our protective system, 
 at the joint behests of the whisky trusts and the agents of 
 foreign manufactures. 
 
 We declare our hostility to the introduction into this 
 country of foreign contract labor and of Chinese labor, 
 alien to our civilization and our constitution, and we de- 
 mand the rigid enforcement of the existing laws against it, 
 
REPUBLICAN, 1888. 555 
 
 and favor such immediate legislation as will exclude such 
 labor from our shoreSo 
 
 We declare our opposition to all combinations of capital, 
 organized in trusts or otherwise, to control arbitrarily the 
 condition of trade among our citizens; and we recommend 
 to Congress and the stale legislatures, in their respective 
 jurisdictions, such legislation as will prevent the execu- 
 tion of all schemes to oppress the peoi^le by undue charges 
 on their supplies, or by unjust rates for the transportation 
 ~6f their products to market. We approve the legislation by 
 Congress to prevent alike unjust burdens and unfair dis- 
 criminations between the states. 
 
 We reaffirm the policy of appropriating the public lands 
 of the United States to be homesteads for American citizens 
 and settlers, not aliens, which the Republican party estab- 
 lished in 1862, against the persistent opposition of the 
 Democrats in Conij:ress, and which has brought our great 
 Western domain into such magnificent development. The 
 restoration of unearned railroad land grants to the public 
 domain for the use of actual settlers, which was begun un- 
 der the administration of President Arthur, should be con- 
 tinued. We deny that the Democratic party has ever re- 
 stored one acre to the people, but declare that by the joint 
 action of the Republicans and Democrats about 50,000,000 of 
 acres of unearned lands originally granted for the con- 
 struction of railroads have been restored to the public 
 domain, in pursuance of the conditions inserted by the 
 Republican party in the original grants. We charge the 
 Democratic administration with failure to execute the laws 
 securing to settlers title to their homesteads, and with 
 using appropriations made for that purpose to harass inno- 
 cent settlers with spies and prosecutions under the false 
 pretence of exposing frauds and vindicating the law. 
 
 The government by Congress of the territories is based 
 upon necessity only, to the end that they may become 
 states in the union; therefore, whenever the conditions of 
 population, material resources, public intelligence and 
 morality are such as to insure a stable local government 
 therein, the people of such territories should be permitted, 
 as a right inherent in them, the right to form for them- 
 selves constitutions and state governments, and be admit- 
 ted into the union. Pending the preparation for statehood 
 all officers thereof should be selected from the bona fide 
 residents and citizens of the territory wherein they are to 
 serve. 
 
 South Dakota should of right be immediately admitted 
 as a state in the union, under the constitution framed and 
 
556 
 
 THE XAT10^"AL TLATFORMS. 
 
 adopted by her people, and we heartily indorse the action 
 of the Kepublican senate in twice passing bills for her ad- 
 mission. "The refusal of the Democratic house of represent- 
 atives, for partisan purposes, to favorably consider these 
 bills, is a willful violation of the sacred American principle 
 of local self-government, and merits the condemnation of 
 all just men. The pending bills in the senate for acts to 
 enable the people of AVashington, North Dakota and Mon- 
 tana territories to form constitutions and establish state 
 governments should be passed without unnecessary delay. 
 The Kepublican party pledges itself to do all in its power 
 to facilitate the admission of the territories of Xew Mexi- 
 co, Wyoming, Idaho, and Arizona to the enjoyment of self- 
 government as states, such of them as are now qualified as 
 soon as possible, and the others as soon as they may be- 
 come so. 
 
 The political power of the Mormon church in the terri- 
 tories as exercised in the past is a menace to free institu- 
 tions, a danger no longer to be sutl'ered. Therefore we 
 pledge the Republican party to appropriate legislation, 
 asserting the sovereignty of the nation in all territories 
 where tne same is questioned, and in furtherance of that 
 end to place upon the statute books legislation stringent 
 enough to divorce the political from the ecclesiastical 
 power, and thus stamp out the attendant wickedness of 
 polygamy. 
 
 The Kepublican party is in favor of the use of both gold 
 and silver as money, and condemns the policy of the Demo- 
 cratic administration in its eti'orts to demonetize silver. 
 
 We demand the reduction of letter postage to one cent 
 per ounce. 
 
 In a republic like ours, where the citizen is the sovereign 
 and the official the servant, where no power is exercised 
 except by the will of the people, it is important that the 
 sovereign — the people — should possess intelligence. The 
 free school is the promoter of that intelligence which is to 
 preserve us a free nation; therefore the state or nation, or 
 both combined, should support free institutions of learning 
 sufficient to afford to every child growing up in the land 
 the opportunity of a good common school education. 
 
 We earnestly recommend that prompt action be taken by 
 Congress in the enactment of such legislation as will best 
 secure the rehabilitation of our American merchant ma- 
 rine, and we protest against the passage by Congress of a 
 free ship bill, as calculated to work injustice to labor by 
 lessening the wages of those engaged in preparing materi- 
 als as well as those directly employed in our shipyards. 
 
KKl'UBLICA.N, 1888. 557 
 
 We demand appropriations for the early rebuilding of out 
 navy; for the construction of coast fortifications and mod- 
 ern ordnance and other approved modern means of defence 
 for the protection of our defenceless harbors and cities; for 
 the payment of just pensions to our soldiers; for the neces- 
 sary works of national importance in the improve jiant of 
 harbors and the channels of internal, coastwise and foreign 
 commerce; for the encouragement of the shipping interests 
 of the Atlantic;, Gulf and l*acitic states, as well as for the 
 payment of the maturing public debt. This policy will 
 give employment to our labor, activity to our various indus- 
 tries, int^rease the security of our country, promote trade, 
 open new and direct markets for our jjroduce, and cheapen 
 the cost of transportation. We affirm this to be far better 
 for our country than the Democratic policy of loaning the 
 government's money without interest to " pet banks." 
 
 The conduct of foreign affairs by the present administra- 
 tion has been distinguished by its inefficiency and its 
 cowardice. Having withdrawn from the senate all pending 
 treaties effected by Republican administrations for the re- 
 moval of foreign burdens and restrictions upon our com- 
 merce and for its extension into better markets, it has nei- 
 ther effected nor proposed any others in their stead. Pro- 
 fessing adherence to the Monroe doctrine, it has seen with 
 idlti camplacency the extension of foreign influence in 
 Central America and of foreign trade everywhere among 
 our neighbors. It has refused to charter, sanction, or en- 
 courage any American organization for constructing the 
 Nicaragua canal, a work of vital importance to the main- 
 tenance of the Monroe doctrine, and of our national intlu- 
 ence in Central and South America; and necessary for the 
 development of trade with our Pacific territory, with South 
 America, and with the islands and further coasts of the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 We arraign the present Democratic administration for 
 its weak and unpatriotic treatment of the fisheries ques- 
 tion, and its pusillanimous surrender of the essential privi- 
 leges to which our fishing vessels are entitled in Canadian 
 ports under the treaty of 181 8, the reciprocal maritime legis- 
 lation of 1830 and the comity of nations, and which Cana- 
 dian fishing vessels receive in the ports of the Tnited 
 States. We condemn the policy of the present adminis- 
 tration and the Democratic majority in Congress toward 
 our fisheries as unfriendly and conspicuously unpatriotic, 
 and as tending to destroy a valuable national industry and 
 an indispensable resource of defence against a foreign 
 enemy. The name of American applies alike to aU citi- 
 
55^ THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 zens of the republic and imposes upon all alike the same 
 obligation of obedience to the laws. At the same time that 
 citizenship is and must be the panoply and safeguard of 
 him who wears it, and protect him, whether high or low, 
 rich or poor, in all his civil rights. It should and must 
 afford him protection at home, and follow and protect hini 
 abroad in whatever land he may be on a lawful errand. 
 
 The men who abandoned the Kepublian party in 1884 and 
 continue to adhere to the Democratic party have deserted 
 not only the cause of honest government, of sound finance, 
 of freedom, of purity of the ballot, but especially have de- 
 serted the cause of reform in the civil service. We will 
 not fail to keep our pledges because they have broken theirs, 
 or because their candidate has broken his. We therefore 
 repeat our declaration of 1884, to wit : " The reform of the 
 civil service auspiciously begun under the Republican ad- 
 ministration should be completed by the further extension 
 of the reform system already established by law to all the 
 grades of the service to which it is applicable. The spirit 
 and purpose of the reform should be observed in all execu- 
 tive appointments, and all laws at variance with the object 
 of existing reform legislation should be repealed, to the 
 end that the dangers to free institutions which lurk in the 
 power of official patronage may be wisely and effectually 
 avoided." 
 
 The gratitude of the nation to the defenders of the union 
 cannot be measured by lav,s. The legislation of Congress 
 should conform to the pledge made by a loyal people, and 
 be so enlarged and extended as to provide against the pos- 
 sibility that any man who honorably wore the Federal 
 uniform should become the inmate of an almshouse, or de- 
 pendent upon private charity. In the presence of an over- 
 flowing treasury it would be a public scandal to do less for 
 those whose valorous service preserved the government. 
 We denounce the hostile spirit of President Cleveland in 
 his numerous vetoes of measures for pension relief, and 
 the action of the Democratic iiouse of representatives in 
 refusing even a consideration of general pension legisla- 
 tion. 
 
 In support of the principles herewith enunciated, we in- 
 vite the co-operation of patriotic men of all parties, and 
 especially of all workingmen, whose prosperity is seriously 
 threatened by the free-trade policy of the present admin- 
 istration. 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY RESOLUTION. 
 
 The first concern of all good government is the virtue 
 and sobriety of the people and the purity of their homes. 
 
DEMOCRATIC, lS88. 559 
 
 The Republican party cordially sympathizes with all wise 
 and well-directed efforts for the promotion of temperance 
 and morality. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 The Democratic party of the United States, in national 
 convention assembled, renews the pledge of its fidelity to 
 Democratic faith, and reaffirms the platform Adopted by its 
 representatives at the convention of 1884, and indorses the 
 views expressed by President Cleveland in his last earnest 
 message to Congress as the correct interpretation of that 
 platform upon the question of tariff reduction, and also en- 
 dorses the efforts of our Democratic representatives in 
 Congress to secure a reduction of excessive taxation. 
 
 Chief among its principles of party faith are the mainte- 
 nance of an indissoluble union of free and indestructible 
 states, now about to enter upon its second century of unex- 
 ampled progress and renown; devotion to a plan of gov- 
 ernment regulated by a written constitution, strictly speci- 
 fying every granted power and expressly reserving to the 
 states or people the entire ungranted residue of power; the 
 encouragement of a jealous popular vigilance directed to 
 all who have been chosen for brief terms to enact and exe- 
 cute the laws, and are charged with the duty of preserving 
 peace, insuring equality and establishing justice. 
 
 The Democratic party welcomes an exacting scrutiny of 
 the administration of the executive power, which four years 
 ago was committed to its trust in the selection of Grrover 
 Cleveland president of the United States, but it challenges 
 the most searching scrutiny concerning its fidelity and de- 
 votion to the pledges which then invited the suffrages of 
 the people. During a most critical period of our financial 
 affairs, resulting from over taxation, the anomalous condi- 
 tion of our currency, and a public debt unmatured it has, 
 by the adoption of a wise and conservative course, not only 
 averted disaster, but greatly promoted the prosperity of 
 the people. 
 
 It has reversed the improvident and unwise policy of the 
 Republican party touching the public domain, and has re- 
 claimed from corporations and syndicates, alien and do- 
 mestic, and restored to the people nearly 100,000,000 acres 
 of valuable land, to be sacredly held as homesteads for our 
 citizens. 
 
 While carefully guarding the interests of the tax-payers 
 and conforming strictly to the principles of justice and 
 equity, it has paid out more for pensions and bounties to 
 the soldiers and sailors of the republic than was ever paid 
 before during an equal period. 
 
560 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 It has adopted and consistently pursued a firm and pru- 
 dent foreign policy, preserving peace with all nations while 
 scrupulously maintaining all the rights and interests of our 
 own government and people at home and abroad. The ex- 
 clusion from our shores of Chinese laborers has been ef- 
 fectually secured under the provisions of a treaty the 
 operation of which has been postponed by the action of a 
 Republican majority in the senate. 
 
 Honest reform in the civil service has been inaugurated 
 and maintained by President Cleveland, and he has brought 
 the public service to the highest standard of efficiency, not 
 only by rule and precept, but by the example of his own 
 untiring and unselfish administration of public affairs. 
 
 In every branch and department of the government un- 
 der Democratic control the rights and the welfare of all the 
 people have been guarded and defended; every public in- 
 terest has been protected, and the equality of all our citi- 
 zens before the law without regard to race or color has been 
 steadfastly maintained. Upon its record thus exhibited 
 and upon the pledge of a continuance to the people of these 
 benefits, the Democracy invokes a renewal of popular trust 
 by the re-election of a chief magistrate who has been faith- 
 ful, able and prudent. We invoke in addition to that trust 
 the transfer also to the Democracy of the entire legislative 
 power. 
 
 The Republican party, controlling ♦he senate and resist- 
 ing in both houses of Congress a reformation of unjust and 
 unequal tax laws which have outlasted the necessities of 
 war and are now undermining the abundance of a long 
 peace, deny to the people equality before t'lie law and the 
 fairness and the justice which are their right. Then the 
 cry of American labor for a better share in the rewards of 
 industry is stifled with false pretenses, enterprise is fet- 
 tered and bound down to home markets, capital is discour- 
 aged with doubt, and unequal, unjust laws can neither be 
 properly amended nor repealed. The Democratic party 
 will continue with all the power confided to it the strug- 
 gle to reform these laws in -accordance with the pledges of 
 its last platform, indorsed at the ballot box by the suf- 
 frages of the people. 
 
 Of all the industrious freemen of our land the immense 
 majority, including every tiller of the soil, gain no advan- 
 tage from excessive tax laws, but the price of nearly every- 
 thing they buy is increased by the favoritism of an unequal 
 system of tax legislation. All unnecessary taxation is un- 
 just taxation. It is repugnant to the creed of Democracy 
 that by such taxation the cost of the necessaries of life 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1888. 561 
 
 should be unjustifiably increased to all our people. Judged 
 by Democrat ic principles, the interests of the people are be- 
 trayed when, by unnecessary taxation, trusts and combina- 
 tions are permitted to exist, which, while unduly enriching 
 the few that combine, rob the body of our citizens by de- 
 priving them of the benefits of na' ural competition. 
 
 Every Democratic rule of governmental action is violated 
 when, through unnecessary taxation, a vast sum of money 
 far beyond the needs of an economical administration is 
 drawn from the people and the channels of trade and a(^cu- 
 niulated as a demoralizing surplus in the national treasury. 
 The money now lying idle in the general treasury, result- 
 ing from superfluous taxation, amounts to more that one 
 hundred and twenty-five millions, and the surplus collect- 
 ed is reaching the sum of more than sixty millions annual- 
 ly. Debauched by this immense temptation, the remedy of 
 the Republican party is to meet and exhaust by extrava- 
 gant appropriation and expenses, whether constitutional 
 or not, the accumulation of extravagant taxation. The 
 Democratic policy is to enforce frugality in public ex- 
 pense and abolish unnecessary taxation. 
 
 Our established domestic industries and enterprises 
 should not and need not be endangered by the reduction 
 and correction of the burdens of taxation. On the contrary, 
 a fair and careful revision of our tax laws, with due allow- 
 ance for the difference between the wages of American and 
 foreign labor, must promote and encourage every branch 
 of such industries and enterprises by giving them assurance 
 of an extended market and steady and continuous opera- 
 tions. In the interests of American labor, which should in 
 no event be neglected, the revision of our tax laws contem- 
 plated by the Democratic party should promote the advan- 
 tage of such labor by cheapening the cost of necessaries of 
 life iji the home of every workingman, and at the same- 
 time securing to him steady and remunerative employment. 
 Upon this question of tariff reform, so closely concerning 
 every phase of our national life, and upon every question 
 involved in the problem of good government the Demo- 
 cratic party submits its principles and professions to the 
 intelligent suffrages of the American people. 
 
 Resolved, That this convention hereby endorses and 
 recommends the early passage of the bill for the reduction 
 of the revenue now pending in the house of representa- 
 tives. 
 
 Resolved, That a just and liberal policy should be pur- 
 sued in reference to the territories; that right of self-gov- 
 ernment is inherent in the people and guaranteed under 
 
56: 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 the constitution; that the territories of Washington, Dako- 
 ta, Montana and New Mexico are by virtue of population and 
 development entitled to admission into the union as states, 
 and vs^e unqualifiedly condemn the course of the Republi- 
 can party in refusing statehood and self-government to 
 their people. 
 
 Resolved, That we express our cordial sympathy with the 
 struggling people of all nations in their efforts to secure 
 for themselves the inestimable blessings of self-government 
 and civil and religious liberty, and we especially declare 
 our sympathy with the efforts of those noble patriots who, 
 led by Gladstone and Parnell, have conducted their grand 
 and peaceful contest for home rule in Ireland. 
 
 Prohibition Party. 
 
 The Prohibition party, in national convention assembled, 
 acknowledging Almighty God as the source of all power in 
 government, does hereby declare: 
 
 1. That the manufacture, importation, exportation, 
 transportation and sale of alcoholic beverages should be 
 made public crimes and prohibited as such. 
 
 2. That such prohibition must be secured through 
 amendments to our national and state constitutions, en- 
 forced by adequate laws adequately supported by adminis- 
 trative authority, and to this end the organization of the 
 Prohibition party is imperatively demanded in state and 
 nation. 
 
 3. That any form of license, taxation, or regulation of 
 the liquor traffic is contrary to good government; that any 
 party which supports regulation, license or taxation enters 
 into an alliance with such traffic and becomes the actual 
 foe of the state's welfare, and that we arraign the Republi- 
 can and Democratic parties for their present attitude in 
 favor of licensed iniquity, whereby they oppose the de- 
 mand of the people for prohibition, and through open com- 
 plicity with the liquor crime defeat the enforcement of the 
 law. 
 
 4 For the immediate abolition of the internal revenue 
 system, whereby our national government is deriving sup- 
 port from our greatest national vice. 
 
 5. That, an adequate public revenue being necessary, it 
 may properly be raised by import duties, but import duties 
 should be so reduced that no surplus shall be accumulated 
 in the treasury, and the burdens of taxation should'be re- 
 moved from foods, clothing and other comforts and neces- 
 saries of life, and imposed on such other articles of import as 
 
PROHIBITION, lS8S. 563 
 
 will give protection to the manufacturing employer and pro- 
 ducing laborer against the cornpi'tition of the world.* 
 
 6. That the right of suffrage rests on no mere circum- 
 stance of race, color, sex or nationality, and that where, 
 from any cause, it has been withheld from citizens who are 
 of suitable age and mentally and morally qualified for the 
 exercise of an intelligent ballot, it should be restored by 
 the people through the legislatures of the several states on 
 such educational basis as tliey may deem w.se. 
 
 7 That civil service appointments for all civil offices, 
 chiefly clerical in their duties, should be based upon moral, 
 intellectual and physical qualifications, and not upon party 
 service or party necessity. 
 
 8. For tlie abolition of polygamy and the establishment 
 of uniform laws governing marriage and divorce. 
 
 9. For prohibiting all combinations of capital to control 
 and to increase the cost of products for popular consump- 
 tion 
 
 10. For the preservation and defense of the Sabbath as a 
 civil institution, without oppressing any who religiously 
 observe the same on any other than the first day of the 
 week, 
 
 n That arbitration is the Christian, wise and economi- 
 cal method of settling national differences, and the same 
 method should, by judicious legislation, be applied to the 
 settlement of disputes between large bodies of employes 
 and employers; that the abolition of the saloon would re- 
 move the burdens, moral, physical, pecuniary and social, 
 which now oppress labor and rob it of its earnings, and 
 would prove to be the wise and successful way of promot- 
 ing labor reform; and we invite labor and capital to unite 
 with us for the accomplishment thereof; that monopoly in 
 land is a wrong to the people, and public land should be 
 reserved to actual settlers, and that men and women should 
 receive equal wages for equal work. 
 
 12. That our immigration laws should be so enforced as 
 to prevent the introduction of all convicts, inmates of oth- 
 er dependent institutions, and others physically incapaci- 
 tated for self-support, and that no person shall have the 
 oallot in any state who is not a citizen of the United Gtates. 
 
 13. Recognizing and declaring that the prohibition of 
 the liquor traflic has become the dominant issue in national 
 
 *The italicized portion of the 5th plank was adopted in haste on the even- 
 ing of the last day, without being referred to the 'committee on resolutions, 
 as provided by the order of business. It is claimed that this clause was not 
 legally adopted by the convention, and is not properly a part of the piat- 
 iorm. 
 
5% 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 politics, we invite to full party fellowship all those who on 
 this one dominant issue are with us agreed, in the full be- 
 lief ihat this party can and will remove sectional differ- 
 ences, promote national unity, and insure the best welfare 
 of our entire land. 
 
 Union Labor Party. 
 
 General discontent prevails on the part of the wealth pro- 
 ducers. Farmers are suffering from a poverty which has 
 forced most of them lo mortgage their estates, and the 
 prices of products are so low as to offer no relief except 
 through bankruptcy, and laborers are sinking into greater 
 dependence. Strikes are resorted to without relief because 
 of the inability of employers in many cases to pay living 
 wages, while more and' more are driven into the street. 
 Business men find collections almost impossible, and mean- 
 time hundreds of millions of idle public money which is 
 needed for relief is locked up in the United States treasury 
 or placed without interest in favored banks in grim mock- 
 ery of distress. Land monopoly flourishes as never before, 
 and more owners of the soil are daily becoming tenants. 
 Great transportation corporations still succeed in extorting 
 their profits on watered stock through unjust charges. 
 The United States senate has become an open scandal, its 
 membership being purchased by the rich in open defiance 
 of the popular will. Various efforts are made to squander 
 the public money, which are designed to empty the treas- 
 ury without paying the public debt. Under these and other 
 alarming conditions we appeal to the people of our country 
 to come out of old party organizations, whose indifference 
 to the public welfare is responsible for this distress, and 
 aid the Union Labor party to repeal existing class legisla- 
 tion and relieve the distress of our industries by establish- 
 ing the following principles : 
 
 While we believe that the proper solution of the financial 
 question will greatly i-elieve those now in danger of losing 
 their homes by mortgages and foreclosures, and enable all 
 industrious persons to secure a home as the highest result 
 of civilization, we oppose land monopoly in every form, de- 
 mand the forfeiture of unearned grants, the limitation of 
 land ownership, and such other legislation as will stop 
 speculations in lands and holding it unu§ed from those 
 whose necessities require it. 
 
 We believe the earth was made for the people, and not to 
 enable an idle aristocracy to subsist through rents upon the 
 toil of the industrious, and that corners in land are as bad 
 
UNION LABOR, 1 888. 565 
 
 as corners in food, and that those who are not residents 
 or citizens should not be allowed to own lands In the 
 United States. A homestead should be exempt to a limited 
 extent from execution or taxation. 
 
 The means of communication and transportation shall be 
 owned by the people, as is the United States postal service. 
 
 The establishment of a national monetary system in the 
 interests of the producer, instead of the speculator and 
 usurer, by which the circulating- medium, in necessary 
 quantity and full legal tender, shall be issued directly to the 
 people, without the intervention of banks, or loaned to citi- 
 zens upon land security at a low rate of interest, to relieve 
 them from extortions of usury and enable them to control 
 the money supply. Postal savings banks should be estab- 
 lished. While we have free coinage of gold, we should hav^* 
 free coinage of silver. We demand the immediate applica- 
 tion of all the money in the United States treasury to the 
 payment of the bonded debt, and condemn the further issue 
 of interest-bearing bonds, either by the national govern- 
 ment or by states, territories, or municipalities. 
 
 Arbitration should take the place of strikes and other in- 
 jurious methods of settling labor disputes. T) e letting 
 of contract labor to contractors should be prohibited, the 
 contract system be abolished in public works, the hours 
 of labor in industrial establishments be reduced, com- 
 mensurate with the increased production by labor- 
 saving machinery, employes protected from bodily 
 injury, equal pay for equal work for both sexes, and labor, 
 agricultural and co-operative associations be fostered and 
 encouraged by law. The foundations of a republic is in the 
 intelligence of its citizens, and children who are driven in- 
 to workshops, mines and factories are deprived of the edu- 
 cation which should be secured to all by proper legislation. 
 
 We demand the passage of a service pension bill to every 
 honorably discharged soldier and sailor of the United 
 States. 
 
 A graduated income tax is the most equitable system of 
 taxation, placing the burden of government on those who 
 can best afford to pay, instead of laying it on the farmers 
 and producers, and exempting millionaire bondholders and 
 corporations. 
 
 We demand a constitutional amendment making United 
 States senators elective by a direct vote of the people. 
 
 We demaild the strict enforcement of laws prohibiting 
 the importation of subjects of foreign countries under 
 contract. 
 
 We demand the passage and enforcement of such legisla- 
 
566 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 tion as will absolutely exclude the Chinese from the United 
 States. 
 
 The right to vote is inherent in citizenship, irrespective 
 of sex, and is properly within the province of state legis- 
 lation. 
 
 The paramount issues to be solved in the interests of hu- 
 manity are the abolitions of usury, monopoly, and trusts, 
 and we denounce the Democratic and Republican parties 
 for creating and perpetuating these monstrous evils. 
 
 ^ United Labor Party. 
 
 We, the delegates of the United Labor party of the 
 United States in national convention assembled, hold that 
 the corruptions of government and the impoverishment of 
 the masses result from neglect of the self-evident truths 
 proclaimed by the founders of this republic, that all men 
 are created equal and are endowed with inalienable rights. 
 We aim at the abolition of the system which compels men 
 to pay their fellow creatures for the use of the common 
 bounties of nature, and permits monopolizers to deprive 
 labor of natural opportunities for employment. 
 
 We see access to farming land denied to labor except on 
 payment of exorbitant rent or the acceptance of mortgage 
 burdens, and labor, thus forbidden to employ itself, driven 
 into the cities. We see the wage-workers of the cities sub- 
 jected to this unnatural competition and forced to pay an 
 exorbitant share of their scanty earnings for cramped and 
 unhealthful lodgings. We see the same intense competi- 
 tion condemning the great majority of business and pro- 
 fessional men to a bitter and often unavailing struggle to 
 avoid bankruptcy, and that while the price of all that labor 
 produces ever falls, the price of land ever rises. We trace 
 these evils to a fundamental wrong — the making of the 
 land on which all must live the exclusive property of but a 
 portion of the community. To this denial of natural rights 
 are due want of employment, low wages, business depres- 
 sions, that intense competition which makes it so difficult 
 for the majority of men to get a comfortable living, and 
 that wrongful distribution of wealth which is producing 
 the millionaire on one side and the tramp on the other. 
 
 To give all men an interest in the land of their country; 
 to enable all to share in the benefits of social growth and 
 improvement; to prevent the shutting out of labor from 
 employment by the monopolization of natural opportuni- 
 ties; to do away with the one-sided competition which cuts 
 down wages to starvation rates; to restore life to business 
 and prevent periodical depressions; to do away with that 
 
UNITED LABOR, 1888. 567 
 
 monstrous injustice which deprives producers of the fruits 
 of their toil while idlers grow rich; to prevent the conflicts 
 which are arraying class against class, and which are 
 fraught with menacing dangers to society, we propose so to 
 change the existing system of taxation that no one shall be 
 taxed on the wealth he produces, nor any one suffered to 
 appropriate wealth he does not produce by taking to him- 
 self the increasing values which the growth of society adds 
 to land. What we propose is not the disturbing of any man 
 in his holding or title; but, by taxation of land according 
 to its value and not according to its area, to devote to com- 
 mon use and benefit those values which arise not from the 
 exertion of the individual, but from the growth of society, 
 and to abolish all taxes on industry and its products. This 
 increased taxation of land values must, while relieving the 
 working farmer and small homestead owner of the undue 
 burdens now imposed upon them, make it unprofitable to 
 hold land for speculation, and thus tnrow open abundant 
 opportunities for the employment of labor and the building 
 up of homes. 
 
 We would do away with the present unjust and wasteful 
 system of finance which piles up hundreds of millions of 
 dollars in treasury vaults while we are paying interest on 
 an enormous debt; and we would establish in its stead a 
 monetary system in which a legal tender circulating medi- 
 um should be issued by the government without the inter- 
 vention of banks. 
 
 We wish to abolish the present unjust and wasteful sys- 
 tem of ownership of railroads and telegraphs by private 
 corporations — a system which, while failing to supply ade- 
 quately public needs, impoverishes the farmer, oppresses 
 the manufacturer, hampers the merchant, impedes travel 
 and communication, and builds up enormous fortunes and 
 corrupting monopolies that are becoming more powerful 
 than the government itself. For this system we would sub- 
 stitute government ownership and control for the benefit of 
 the whole people instead of private profit. 
 
 While declaring the foregoing to be the fundamental 
 principles and aims of the United Labor party, and while 
 conscious that no reform can give effectual and permanent 
 relief to labor that does not involve the legal recognition 
 of equal rights to natural opportunities, we, nevertheless, 
 as measures of relief from some of the evil effects of ignor- 
 ing those rights, favor such legislation as may tend to re- 
 duce the hours of labor, to prevent the employment of chil- 
 dren of tender years, io avoid the competition of convict 
 labor with honest industry, to secure the sanitary inspec- 
 
568^ THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 tion of tenements, factories and mines, and to put an end to 
 the abuse of conspiracy laws. 
 
 We desire also to so simplify the procedure of our courts 
 and diminish the expense of legal proceedings that the 
 poor may therein be placed on an equality with the rich, 
 and the long delays which now result in scandalous mis- 
 carriages of justice may be prevented. 
 
 Since the ballot is the only means by which in our repub- 
 lic the redress of political and social grievances is to be 
 sought, we especially and emphatically declare for the 
 adoption of what is known as the Australian system of 
 voting, in order that the effectual secrecy of the ballot, and 
 the relief of candidates for public office from the heavy ex- 
 penses now imposed upon them, may prevent bribery and 
 intimidation, do away with practical discriminations in 
 favor of the rich and unscrupulous, and lessen the perni- 
 cious influence of money in politics. 
 
 We denounce the Democratic and Republican parties as 
 hopelessly and shamelessly corrupt, and, by reason of their 
 affiliations with monopolies, equally unworthy of the suf- 
 frages of those who do not live upon public plunder; we 
 therefore require of those who would act with us that they 
 sever all connections with both. 
 
 In support of these aims, we solicit the co-operation of 
 all patriotic citizens who, sick of the degradation of poli- 
 tics, desire by constitutional methods to establish justice, 
 to preserve liberty, to extend the spirit of fraternity, and 
 to elevate humanity. 
 
 American Party. 
 
 Believing that the time has arrived when a due regard 
 for the present and future prosperity of our country makes 
 it imperative that the people of the United States of Ameri- 
 ca should take full and entire control of their government, 
 to the exclusion of revolutionary and incendiary foreigners 
 now seeking our shores from every quarter of the world, 
 and recognizing that the first and most important duty of 
 an American citizen is to maintain this government in all 
 attainable purity and strength, we make the following dec- 
 laration of principles : 
 
 Resolved, That all law-abiding citizens of the United 
 States of America, whether native or foreign born, are 
 political equals (except as provided by the constitution), 
 and all are entitled to and should receive the full protec- 
 tion of the laws. 
 
 Whereas, There are seventeen states in this union where- 
 in persons are allowed to vote at all elections without being 
 
AMERICAN, 1888. 569 
 
 citizens of the United States; and, whereas, such a system 
 tends to place the management of the government into the 
 hands of those who owe no allegiance to our political insti- 
 tutions; therefore, 
 
 Resolved, That the constitution of the United States 
 should be so amended as to prohibit the federal and state 
 governments from conferring upon any person the right to 
 vote unless such person be a citizen of the United States. 
 
 Resolved, That we are in favor of fostering and encourag- 
 ing American industries of every class and kind; that the 
 issue of " protection " versus " free trade " is a fraud and a 
 snare. The best " protection " is that which protects the 
 labor and life-blood of the republic from the degrading 
 competitioi with and contamination by imported foreign- 
 ers; and the most dangerous " free trade " is that in pau- 
 pers, criminals, communists and anarchists, in which the 
 balance has always been against the United States. 
 
 Whereas, One of the greatest evils of unrestricted foreign 
 immigration is the reduction of the wages of American 
 workingmen and American workingwomen to the level of 
 the underfed and underpaid laborer of foreign countries; 
 therefore, 
 
 Resolved, That we demand that no immigrant shall be 
 admitted into the United States without a passport "ob- 
 tained from the American consul at the port from which he 
 sails; that no passport shall be issued to any pauper, crimi- 
 nal or insane person, or to any person who, in the judg- 
 ment of the consul, is not likely to become a desirable citi- 
 zen of the United States; and that for each emigrant pass- 
 port there shall be collected by the consul issuing the same 
 the sum of $100, to be by him paid into the treasury of the 
 United States. 
 
 Resolved, That all persons not in sympathy with our gov- 
 ernment should be prohibited from immigration to these 
 United States. 
 
 Resolved, That the naturalization laws of tfie United 
 States should be unconditionally repealed. 
 
 Resolved, That the soil of America should belong to 
 Americans; that no alien non-resident should be permitted 
 to own real estate in the.United States, and that the realty 
 ])OS3essions of the resident alien should be limited in value 
 and area. 
 
 Resolved, That we favor educating the boys and girls of 
 American citizens as mechanics and artisans, thus litting 
 them for the places now filled by foreigners, who supply 
 the greater part of our skilled labor, and thereby almost en- 
 tirely control the great industries of our country, save, per- 
 
570 THE NATIONAL PLATFORM.S. 
 
 haps, that of agriculture alone; and that our boys and girls 
 may be taught trades, we demand the establishment and 
 maintenance of free technical schools. 
 
 Resolved, That universal education is a necessity of our 
 government, and that an American free-school system 
 should be maintained and preserved as the safeguard of 
 American liberty. 
 
 Resolved, That no language except the English shall be 
 taught in the common schools supported at the public ex- 
 pense. 
 
 Whereas, Unemployed population is the greatest evif that 
 can befall any nation, and in this country it cannot be 
 eliminated by any European methods, such as extra police 
 and standing armies; therefore, 
 
 Resolved, That the surplus in the treasury should be de- 
 voted to the material improvement of our coast and frontier 
 defenses and the construction of an American navy in 
 American workshops by American labor. 
 
 Resolved, That we demand the enactment of a law which 
 shall require all persons having charge in any way, in any 
 department, bureau or division of the government, to forth- 
 with dismiss from the public service all persons employed 
 in or about any such department, bureau or division, in any 
 way or manner, who are not citizens of the United States 
 by nativity or by having fully completed their naturaliza- 
 tion papers by due process of law; that no person shall be 
 appointed to or hold office or place in the service of the 
 United States who is not a citizen of the United States, 
 either by having fully completed his naturalization and 
 taken out his final papers by due form and process of law, 
 or who is not a citizen of th^ United States by nativity. 
 
 Resolved, That after the year 1898 it shall be required of 
 every voter, before he exercises the right of suffrage, to be 
 able to read the written or printed constitution of the 
 United States in the English language and to write his own 
 name upon the register, to show that he is fitted to share 
 the administration of the republic. 
 
 Resolved, That we recognize the right of labor to organ- 
 ize for its protection, and by all lawful and peaceful means 
 to secure to itself the greatest reward for its thrift and in- 
 dustry, and we believe in governmental arbitration in the 
 settlement of industrial differences. 
 
 Resolved, That we are in favor of such legislation by 
 Congress as will re-establish the American marine. 
 
 Resolved, That no flag shall float over any public build- 
 ing — municipal, state or national — in the United States ex- 
 cept the stars and stripes. 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1892. ^^I 
 
 Resolved, That we reassert the American principles of 
 absolute freedom of religious worship and belief; the per- 
 manent separation of church and state; and we oppose the 
 appropriation of public money or property to any church 
 or institution administered by a church. We main ain that 
 all church jjroperty should be subject to taxation. 
 
 Besolved, That the presidential term shall be extended to 
 six years, and the president shall be ineligible for re-elec- 
 tion. 
 
 Resolved, That the American party declares that it recog- 
 nizes no North, no South, no East, no West, in these United 
 States, but one people, pledged to our liberty and our inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 1892. 
 
 Democratic Party. 
 
 Sec. 1. The representatives of the Democratic party of 
 the United States, in national convention assembled, do re- 
 afhrm their allegiance to the principles of the party as 
 formulated by Jefferson and exemplified by the long and 
 illustrious line of successors in Democratic leadership from 
 Madison to Cleveland; we believe the public welfare de- 
 mands that these principles be applied to the conduct of 
 the federal government through accession to power of the 
 party that advocates them; and we solemnly declare that 
 the need of a return to these fundamental principles of a 
 free, popular government, based on home rule and indivi- 
 vidual liberty, was never more urgent than now, when the 
 tendency to centralize all power at the federal capital has' 
 become a menace to the reserved rights oX the states that 
 strikes at the very roots of our government, and under the 
 constitution, as framed by the fathers of the republic. 
 
 Sec. 2. We warn the people of our common country, 
 jealous for the preservation of their free institutions, that 
 the policy of the federal control of elections to which the 
 Republican party has committed itself is fraught with the 
 gravest dangers, scarcely less momentous than would re- 
 sult from a revolution practically establishing monarchy 
 on the ruins of the republic. It strikes at the North as well 
 as at the South, and injures the colored citizen even more 
 than the white; it means a horde of deputy marshals at 
 every polling place, armed with federal power, returning 
 boards appointed and controlled by federal authority, the 
 outrage of the electoral rights of the people in the several 
 states, the subjugation of the colored people to the control 
 of the party in power and the reviving of race antagonisms 
 
^^2 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 now happily abated, of the utmost peril to the safety and 
 happiness of all: a measure deliberately and justly de- 
 scribed by a leading Republican senator as " the most infa- 
 mous bilf that ever crossed the threshold of the senate.'' 
 Such a policy, if sanctioned by law, would mean the domi- 
 nance of a self-perpetuating oligarchy of office-holders, and 
 the party first entrusted with its machinery could be dis- 
 lodged from power onlj' by an appeal to the reserved right 
 of the people to resist oppression, which is inherent in all 
 self-governing communities. Two years ago this revolution- 
 ary policy was emphatically condemned by the people at 
 the polls: t)ut, in contempt of the verdict, the Republican 
 party has defiantly declared in its latest authoritative ut- 
 terance that its success in the coming elections will mean 
 the enactment of the force bill and the usurpation of des- 
 potic control over elections in all the states. Believing 
 that the preservation of republican government in the 
 United States is dependent upon the defeat of this policy of 
 legalized force and fraud, we invite the assistance of all 
 citizens who desire to see the constitution maintained in 
 its integrity with the laws pursuant thereto which have 
 given our country a hundred years of unexampled pros- 
 perity, and we pledge the Democratic party, if it be intrust- 
 ed wfth power, not only to the defeat of the force bill, bur 
 also to relentless opposition to the Republican policy of 
 profligate expenditure, which, in the short space of two 
 years, has squandered an enormous surplus, and emptied an 
 overflowing treasury, after piling new burdens of taxation 
 upon the already over-taxed labor of the country. 
 
 Sec. 3. VTe denounce the Republican protection as a 
 fraud. The labor of the great majority of the American 
 people is for the benefit of the few. We declare it to be the 
 fundamental principle of the Democratic party that the 
 federal government has no constitutional power to impose 
 and collect tarifi:' duties except for purposes of revenue 
 only. And we demand that the collection of such taxes 
 shall be limited to the necessities of the government when 
 honestly and economically administered. We denounce 
 the McKinley law enacted by the fifty-first congress as the 
 cj-ilminating atrocity of class legislation. We indorse the 
 efforts made by the Democrats of the present Congress to 
 modify its most oppressive features in the direction of free 
 raw m'aterial and cheaper manufactured goods that enter 
 into general consumption: and we promise its repeal as one 
 of the beneficent results that will follow the action of the 
 people in intrusting power to the Democratic party. Since 
 the McKinley tariff went into operation there have been 
 
DEMOCRATIC, 1092. C73 
 
 ten reductions of the wages of laboring naen to one of in- 
 crease. We deny that there has been any increase of pros- 
 perity to the country since the tariff went into operation 
 and we point to the dullness and distress, the wage reduc- 
 tions and strikes in the iron trade as the best possible evi • 
 dence that no such prosperity has resulted from the Mc- 
 Kinley act. We call the attention of thoughtful Americans 
 to the fact that after thirty years of restrictive taxes 
 against the importation of foreign wealth in exchange for 
 our agricultural surplus the homes and farms of the coun- 
 try have become burdened with a real estate mortgage debt 
 of over two billion tilve hundred million dollars, exclusive 
 of all other forms of indebtedness: that in one of the chief 
 agricultural states of the West there appears a real estate 
 mortgage debt averaging one hundred and sixty-five dollars 
 per capita of the total population : and that similar condi- 
 tions and tendencies are shown to exist in the other agri- 
 cultural exporting states. "We denounce a policy which fos- 
 ters no industry so much as it does that of the sheriff. 
 
 Sec. 4. Trade ititerchange on the basis of reciprocal ad- 
 vaiitages to the countries participating is a time-honored 
 doctrine of the Democratic faith, but we denounce the sham 
 reciprocity that juggles with the people's desire for en- 
 larged foreign markets and freer exchanges by pretending 
 to establish closer trade gelations for a country whose arti- 
 cles of export are almost exclusively agricultural products 
 with other countries that are also agricultural, while erect- 
 ing a custom house barrier of prohibitive tariff taxes 
 against the richest countries of the world that stand ready 
 to take our entire surplus of products and to exchange 
 therefor commodities which are necessaries and comforts 
 of life among our own people. 
 
 Sec. 5. We recognize in the trusts and combinations 
 which are designed to enable capital to secure more than 
 its just share of the joint product of capital and labor a 
 natural consequence of the prohibitive taxes which prevent 
 the free competition, w^hich is the life of honest trade, but we . 
 believe their worst evils can be abated by law, and we de- 
 mand rigid enforcement of the laws made to prevent and 
 control them, together with such further legislation in re- 
 straint of their abuses as experience may show- to be neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Sec. 6. The Republican party, while professing a policy 
 of reserving the public land for small holdings by actual 
 settlers, has given away the people's heritage till now a 
 few railroads and non-resident aliens, individual and cor- 
 porate possess a larger area than that of all our farm lands 
 
574 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 between the two seas. The last Democratic administration 
 reversed the imprudent and unwise policy of the Kepubli- 
 can party touching the public domain, and reclaimed from 
 corporations and syndicates, alien and domestic, and re- 
 stored to the people nearly one hundred million acres of 
 valuable land, to be sacredly held as homesteads for our 
 citizens, and we pledge ourselves to continue this polioy 
 until every acre of land so unlawfully held shall be re- 
 claimed and restored to the people. 
 
 Sec. 7. We denounce the Republican legislation known 
 as the Sherman act of 1890 as a cow^ardly makeshift fraught 
 with possibilities of danger in the future wliich should 
 make all of its supporters, as w^ell as its author, anxious for 
 its speedy repeal. We hold to the use of both gold and sil- 
 ver as the standard money of the country, and to thef coin- 
 age of both gold and silver without discriminating against 
 either metal or charge for mintage but the dollar unit of 
 coinage of both metals must be of equal intrinsic and ex- 
 changeable value, or be adjusted through international 
 agreement, or by such safeguards of legislation as shall in- 
 sure the maintenance of the parity of the two metals, and 
 the equal power of every dollar at all times in the markets 
 and the payment of debts; and we demand that all paper 
 currency shall be kept at par with and redeemable in such 
 coin. We insist upon this policy as especially necessary for 
 the protection of the farmers and'the laboring classes, the 
 first and most defenseless victims of unstable money and a 
 fluctuating currency. 
 
 Sec. 8. We recommend that the prohibitory ten per cent 
 tax on state bank issues be repealed. 
 
 Sec. 9. Public office is a public trust. We reaffirm the 
 declaration of the Democratic national convention of 1876 
 for the reform of the civil service, and we call for the hon- 
 est enforcement of all laws regulating the same. The 
 nomination of a president, as in the recent Republican con- 
 vention, by delegations composed largely of business ap- 
 pointees, holding office at his pleasure, is a scandalous 
 satire upon free, popular institutions, and a startling illus- 
 tration of the methods by which a president may gratify 
 his ambition. We denounce a policy under wiiich federal 
 office holders usurp control of party conventions in the 
 states, and we pledge the Democratic party to the reform 
 of these and all other abuses which threaten individual 
 liberty and local self-government. 
 
 Sec. 10. The Democratic party is the only party that has 
 over given the country a foreign policy consistent and 
 vigorous, compelling respect abroad and inspiring conii- 
 
DExMOCRATlC, 1893, 575 
 
 dence at liome. While avoiding entangling alliances, it has 
 aimed to cultivate friendly relations with other nations, 
 and especially with our neighbors on the American conti- 
 nent, whose destiny is closely linked with our own, and we 
 view with alarm the tendency to a policy of irritation and 
 bluster which is liable at any time to confront us with the 
 alternative of humiliation or war. We favor the mainte- 
 nance of a navy strong enough for all purposes of national 
 defense and to properly maintain the honor and dignity of 
 the country abroad. 
 
 Sec. 11. This country has always been the refuge of the 
 oppressed from every land — exiles for conscience sake — and 
 in the spirit of the founders of our government we con- 
 demn the oppression practiced by the Russian government 
 upon its Lutheran and Jewish subjects, and we call upon 
 our national government in the interest of Justice and hu- 
 manity, by all just and proper means, to use its prompt and 
 best efforts to bring about a cessation of these cruel perse- 
 cutions in the dominions of the czar, and to secure to the 
 oppressed equal rights. We tender our profound and ear- 
 nest sympathy to those lovers of freedom who are struggling 
 for home rule and the great cause of local self-government 
 in Ireland. 
 
 Sec. 12. We heartily approve all legitimate efforts to 
 prevent the United States from being used as the dumping 
 ground for the known criminals and professional paupers 
 of Europe, and we demand the rigid enforcement of the 
 laws against Chinese immigration, of the importation of 
 foreign v/orkmen under contract to degrade American la- 
 bor and lessen its wages; but we condemn and denounce 
 any and all attempts to restrict the immigration of the in- 
 dustrious and worthy of foreign lands. 
 
 Sec. 13. This convention hereby renews the expression 
 of appreciation of the patriotism of the soldiers and sailors 
 of the union in the war for its preservation, and we favor 
 just and liberal pensions for all disabled Union soldiers, 
 their widows and dependents, but demand that the work of 
 the pension office shall be done industriously, impartially 
 and honestly. We denounce the present administration of 
 that office as incompetent, corrupt, disgraceful and dis- 
 honest. 
 
 Sec, 14. The federal government should care for and im- 
 prove the Mississippi river and other great water-ways of 
 the republic so as to secure for the interior oiates easy and 
 cheap transportation to the tide water. When any water- 
 way of the republic is of sufficient importance to de- 
 mand the aid of the govern rnont, that such aid shall be 
 
5/6 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 extended upon a definite plan of continuous wor^ until 
 permanent improvement is secured. 
 
 Sec. 15. For purposes of national defense and tne pro- 
 motion of commerce by and between the states, we recog- 
 nize the early construction of the Xicaragiia canal and its 
 protection against foreign control as of great importance to 
 the L^nited States. 
 
 Sec. 16. Kecognizing the world's Columbian exposition 
 as a national undertaking of vast importance, in which the 
 general government has invited the co-operation of all the 
 powers of the world, and appreciating the acceptance by 
 many such powers of the invitation so extended and the 
 broadest liberal efforts being made by them to contribute 
 to the grandeur of the undertaking, we are of opinion that 
 Congress should make such necessary financial provision as 
 shall be requisite to the maintenance of the national honor 
 and public faith. 
 
 Sec. 17. Popular education being the only safe basis of 
 popular sufl'rage, we recommend to the several states most 
 liberal appropriations for the public school. Free common 
 schools are the nursery of good government, and they have 
 always received the fostering care of the Democratic party, 
 which favors every means of increasing intelligence. Free- 
 dom of education, being an essential of civil and religious 
 liberty, as well as a necessity for the development of intel- 
 ligence, must not be interfered with under any pretext 
 whatever. We are opposed to state interference with pa- 
 rental rights and rights of conscience in the education of 
 children as an infringement of the fundamental Democratic 
 doctrine that the largest individual liberty consistent with 
 the rights of others insures the highest type of American 
 citizenship and the best government. 
 
 Sec. is. AVe approve the action of the present bouse of 
 representavives in passing bills for the admission into the 
 union as states of the territories of Xew Mexico and Arizo- 
 na, and we favor the early admission of all the territories 
 having necessary population and resources to entitle them 
 to statehood, and while they remain territories we hold 
 that the ofiicials appointed to administer the government of 
 any territory, together with the Districts of Columbia and 
 Alaska, should be bona fide residents of the territory or 
 district in which their duties are to be performed. The 
 Democratic party believes in home rule and the control of 
 their own aftairs by the people of the vicinage. 
 
 Sec. 19. We favor legislation by Congress and state 
 legislatures to protect the lives and limbs of railway em- 
 ployes and those of other hazardous transportation com- 
 
REPUBLICAN, 1892. 577 
 
 panics, and denounce the inactivity of the Republican 
 party, and particularly the Republican senate, for causing 
 the defeat of measures beneficial and protective to this class 
 ©f wage-workers. 
 
 Sec. 20. We are in favor of the enactment by the states 
 of laws for abolishing the notorious sweating system, for 
 abolishing contract convict labor, and prohibiting the em- 
 ployment in factories of children under fifteen years of 
 
 age. 
 
 Sec. 21. We are opposed to all sumptuary laws as an in- 
 terference with the individual rights of the citizen. 
 
 Sec. 22. Upon this statement of principles and politics 
 the Democratic party asks the intelligent judgment of the 
 American people. It asks a change of administration and 
 a change of party, in order that there may be a change of 
 system and a change of methods, thus assuring the mainte- 
 nance unimpaired of institutions under which the republic 
 has grown great and powerful. 
 
 Republican Party. 
 
 The representatives of the Republicans of the United 
 States, assembled in general convention on the shores of 
 the Mississippi river, the everlasting bond of an indestruc- 
 tible republic, whose most glorious chapter of history is the 
 record of the Republican party, congratulate their coun- 
 trymen on the majestic march of the nation under the ban- 
 ners inscribed with the principles of our platform of 1888, 
 vindicated by victory at the polls and prosperity in our 
 fields, workshops and mines, and make the following dec- 
 laration of principles: 
 
 We reaffirm the American doctrine of protection. We 
 call attention to its growth abroad. We maintain that the 
 prosperous condition of our country is largely due to the 
 wise revenue legislation of the Republican congress. 
 
 We believe that all articles which cannot be manufac- 
 tured in the United States, except <he luxuries, should be 
 admitted free of duty, and that on al' imports coming in 
 competition with the products of American labor there 
 should be levied duties equal to the difference between 
 wages abroad and at home. 
 
 We assert that the prices of manufactured articles of gen- 
 eral consumption have been reduced under the operations of' 
 the tariff act of 1890. 
 
 We denounce the efforts of the Democratic majority of 
 the liouee of representatives to destroy our tariff laws b\ 
 piecemeal, as is manifested by their attacks upon wool, leaii 
 
57^ THE imational platforms. 
 
 and lead ores, the chief products of a number of states, an* 
 we ask the people for their judgment thereon. 
 
 We point to the success of the Republican policy of reci- 
 procity, under which our export trade has vastly increased, 
 and new and enlarged markets have been opened for the 
 produc s of our farms and workshops. 
 
 We remind the people of the bitter opposition of the 
 Democratic party to this practical business measure, and 
 claim that, executed by a Republican administration, our 
 present laws will eventually give us control of the trade of 
 the world. 
 
 The American people from tradition and interest favor 
 bi-metalism, and the Republican party demands the use of 
 both gold and silver as standard money, with such restric- 
 tions and under such provisions to be determined by the 
 legislation as will secure the maintenance of the parity of 
 values of the two metals, so that the purchasing and debt 
 paying power of the dollar, whether of silver, gold or paper, 
 shall be at all times equal. The interests of the producers 
 of tne country, its farmers and its workingmen, demand 
 that every dollar, paper or coin, issued by the government, 
 shall be as good as any other. 
 
 We commend the wise and patriotic steps already taken 
 by our government to secure an international conference 
 to adopt such measures as will insure a parity of value be- 
 tween gold and silver for use as money throughout the 
 world. 
 
 We demand that every citizen of the United States shall 
 be allowed to cast one free and unrestricted ballot in all 
 public elections, and That such ballot shall be counted and 
 returned as cast; that such laws shall be enacted and en- 
 forced as will secure to every citizen, be he rich or poor, 
 native or foreign born, white or black, this sovereign right 
 guaranteed by the constitution. The free and honest popu- 
 lar ballot, the just and equal representation of all the peo- 
 ple, as well as their just and equal protection under 
 the laws, are the foundation of our republican ijistitutions, 
 and the party will never relent its efforts until the integri- 
 ty of the ballot and the purity of elections shall be fully 
 guaranteed and protected in every state. 
 
 We denounce the continued inhuman outrages perpetrat- 
 ed upon American citizens for political reasons in certain 
 ' Southern states of the union. 
 
 We favor the extension of our foreign commerce, the 
 restoration of our mercantile marine by home built ships, 
 and the creation of a navy for the protection of our nation- 
 al Interests and the honor of our flag; the maintenance of 
 
REPUBLICAN, 1892. 5*^9 
 
 the most friendly relations with all foreign powers; en- 
 tang-ling alliances with none, and protection of the rights 
 of our tishermen. 
 
 We reaffirm our approval of the Monroe doctrine, and be- 
 lieve in the achievement of the manifest destiny of the re- 
 public in its broadest sense. 
 
 We favor the enactment of more stringent laws and re- 
 lations for the restriction of criminal, pauper and contract 
 immigration. 
 
 We favor efficient legislation by Congress to protect the 
 life and limbs of employes of transportation companies en- 
 gaged in carrying on inter-state commerce, and recommend 
 legislation by the respective states that will protect em- 
 ployes engaged in state commerce, in mining and manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 The Republican party has always been the champion of 
 the oppressed, and recognizes the dignity of manhood, 
 irrespective of faith, color or nationality ; it sympathizes 
 with the cause of home rule in Ireland, and protests against 
 the persecution of the Jews in Russia. 
 
 The ultimate reliance of free popular government is the 
 intelligence of the people, and the maintenance of freedom 
 among men. We therefore declare anew our devotion t© 
 liberty of thought and conscience, of speech and press, and 
 approve all agencies and instrumentalities which contribute 
 to the education of the children of the land; but while in- 
 sisting upon the fullest measures of religious liberty, we 
 are opposed to any union of church and state. We reaffirm 
 our opposition, declared in the Republican platform of 
 1888, to all combinations of capital organized in trusts or 
 otherwise to control arbitrarily the condition of trade 
 among our citizens. We heartily endorse the action al- 
 ready taken upon this subject, and ask for such further 
 legislation as may be required to remedy any defects in 
 existing laws, and lo render their enforcement more com- 
 plete and effective. We approve the j)olicy of extending to 
 towns, villages and rural communities the advantages of 
 the free delivery service now enjoyed by the larger cities 
 of the country, and reaffirm the declaration contained in 
 the Republican convention of 1888, pledging the reduction 
 of letter postage to one cent at the earliest possible mo- 
 ment consistent with the maintenance of the postoffice de- 
 partment and the highest class of postal service. 
 
 We commend the spirit and evidence of reform in the 
 civil service, and the wise and consistent enforcement bj 
 the RepubLcan party of the laws regulating the same 
 
 'Xtie construction of the Nicaragua canal is of the nighest 
 
580 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 importance to the American people but as a measure of na- 
 tional defense and to build up and maintain American com- 
 merce, and it should be controlled by the United Sta'"es 
 government. 
 
 "We favor the admission of the remaining territories at 
 the earliest practicable date, having due regard to the in- 
 terests of the people of the territories and of the United 
 States. All of the federal officers appointed for the terri- 
 tories should be selected from bona fide residents thereof, 
 and the right of self-government should be accorded as far 
 as practicable. 
 
 We favor cession, subject to the homestead lav^^s, of the 
 arid public lands to the states and territories in which they 
 lie, under such congressional restrictions as to disposition, 
 reclamation and occupancy by settlers as will secure the 
 maximum benefits to the people. 
 
 The world's Columbian exposition is a great national un- 
 dertaking, and Congress should promptly enact such rea- 
 sonable legislation in aid thereof as will insure a discharg- 
 ing of the expense and obligations incident thereto and the 
 attainment of results commensurate with the dignity and 
 progress of the nation. 
 
 We sympathize with all wise and legitimate efforts to 
 lessen and prevent the evils of intemperance and promote 
 morality. 
 
 Ever mindful of the services and sacrifices of the men 
 who saved the life of the nation, we pledge anew to the 
 veteran soldiers of the republic a watchful care and recog- 
 nition of their just claims upon a grateful people. 
 
 We commend the able, patriotic and thoroughly Ameri- 
 can administration of President Harrison. Under it the 
 country has enjoyed remarkable prosperity, and the digni- 
 ty and honor of the nation at home and abroad have been 
 faithfully maintained, and we offer the record of pledges 
 kept as a guarantee of faithful performances in the future. 
 
 People's Party. 
 
 Assembled upon the one hundred and sixteenth anniver- 
 versary of the Declaration of Independence, the People's 
 party of America, in their first national convention, invok- 
 ing upon their action the blessing of Almighi y God, put 
 forth in the name and on behalf of the people of this coun- 
 try the following preamble and declaration of principles: 
 
 T) e conditions which surround us best justify our co- 
 operation; we meet in the midst of a nation brought to the 
 verge of a moral, political and material ruin. Corruption 
 dominates the ballot-box, the legislatures, the Congress, and 
 touches even the ermine of the bench. The people are de- 
 
PEOPLES, 1892. 581 
 
 moralized; most of the states have been compelled to isolats 
 the voters at the polling places to prevent universal intimi- 
 dation or bribery. The newspapers are largely subsidized 
 or muzzled; public opinion silenced; business prostrated; 
 our homes covered with mortgages; labor impoverished; 
 and the land concentrating in the hands of the capitalists. 
 The urban workmen are denied the right of organizatiom 
 for self-protection; imported pauperized labor beats dow* 
 their wages; a hireling standing army, unrecognized by 
 our laws, is established to shoot them down, and they are 
 rapidly degenerating into European conditions. The fruits 
 of the toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up colossal 
 fortunes for a few, unprecedented in the history of man- 
 kind; and the possessors of these in turn despise the repub- 
 lic and endanger liberty. From the same prolific womb of 
 governmental injustice we breed the two classes — tramps 
 and millionaires. The national power to create money is 
 appropriated to enrich bond holders. A vast public debt, 
 payable in legal tender currency, has been funded intio 
 gold-bearing bonds, thereby adding millions to the bur- 
 dens of the people. Silver, which has been accepted as coin 
 since the dawn of history, has been demonetized to add to 
 the purchasing power of gold by decreasing the value of all 
 forms of property as well as human labor, and the supply 
 of currency is purposely abridged to fatten usurers, bank- 
 rupt enterprise and enslave industry. A vast conspiracy 
 against mankind has been organized on two continents, 
 and it is rapidly taking possession of the world. If not 
 met and overthrown at once it forebodes terrible social con- 
 vulsions, the destruction of civilization or the establish- 
 ment of an absolute despotism. We have witnessed for 
 more than a quarter of a century the struggles of the two 
 great political parties for power and plunder, while griev- 
 ous wrongs have been inflicted upon the suffering people. 
 We charge that the controlling influences dominating both 
 these parties have permitted the existing dreadful condi- 
 tions to develop without serious effort to prevent or re- 
 strain them. !N"either do they now promise us any substan- 
 tial reform. They have agreed together to ignore, in the 
 coming campaign, every issue but one. They propose to 
 drown the outcries of a plundered people with the uproar 
 of a sham battle over the tariff, so that capitalists, corpora- 
 tions, national banks, rings, trusts, watered stock, the de- 
 monetization of silver and the oppressions of the usurer 
 may all be lost sight of. They propose to sacrifice our 
 homes, lives and children on the altar of Mammon; to de- 
 stroy the multitude in order to secure corruption funds 
 from all the millionaires. 
 
58; 
 
 THE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 Assembled on the anniversary of the birthday of the na- 
 tion and tilled with the spirit of the grand generation who 
 established our independence, we seek to restore the gov- 
 ernment of the republic to the hands of " the plain people," 
 with which class it originated. We assert our purposes to 
 be identical with the purposes of the national constitution, 
 to form a most perfect union ; to establish justice, insure 
 domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, pro- 
 mote the general welfare and secure the blessings of liber- 
 ty for our posterity. 
 
 "VVe declare that this republic can only endure as a free 
 government which is built upon the love of the whole peo- 
 ple for each other and for the nation; that it cannot be 
 pinned together by bayonets; that the civil war is over, and 
 that every passion and resentment which grew out of it 
 must die with it, and that we must be in fact, as we are in 
 name, one united brotherhood of free men. Our country 
 finds itself confronted by conditions for which there is no 
 precedent in the history of the world; our annual agricul- 
 tural productions amount to billions of dollars in value, 
 which must within a few weeks or months be exchanged for 
 billions of dollars of commoditieo consumed in their pro- 
 duction; the existing currency supply is wholly inade- 
 quate to make this exchange; the results are falling prices, 
 the formation of comb.nes and rings, the impoverishment 
 of the producing class. We pledge ourselves that if given 
 the power we will labor to correct these evils by wise and 
 reasonable legislation in accordance with the terms of our 
 platform. 
 
 We believe that the powers of government — in other 
 words, of the people — should be extended (as in the case of 
 the postal service) as rapidly and as far as the good sense 
 of an intelligent people and the teachings of experience 
 shall justify, to the end that oppression and injustice and 
 poverty shall eventually cease in the land. 
 
 While our sympathies as a party of reform are naturally 
 upon the side of every proposition which will tend to make 
 men intelligent, virtuous and temperate, we nevertheless 
 regard these questions — important as they are — as second- 
 ary to the great issues now pressing for solution and upon 
 which not only our individual prosperity, but the very ex- 
 istence of free institutions, depend; and we ask all men to 
 first help us to determine whether we are to have a republic 
 to administer before we differ as to the conditions upon 
 which it is to be administered; believing that the forces of 
 reform this day organized will never cease to move for- 
 ward until every wrong is remedied, and equal rights and 
 
equal privileges securely established for all the men and 
 women of this country. 
 
 We declare, therefore : 
 
 1. That the union of the labor forces of the United States 
 this day consummated siiall be permanent and perpetual ; 
 may its spirit enter into all hearts for the salvation of the 
 republic and the uplifting of mankind. 
 
 2. Weal'^h belongs to him who creates it, and every dol- 
 lar taken from industry without an equivalent is robbery. 
 *' If any will not work, neither shall he eat." The interests 
 of rural and civic labor are the same, their enemies are 
 identical. 
 
 3. We believe that the time has come when the railroad 
 corporations will either own the people or the people musr, 
 own the railroads, and should the government enter upon 
 the working and owning and managing of all railroads we 
 should favor an amendment to the constitution by which 
 all persons engaged in the government service shall bs* 
 placed under a civil service regulation of the most rigid 
 character so as to prevent the increase of the power of the 
 na'ional administration by the use of such additional gov- 
 ernment employes. 
 
 We demand a national currency, safe, sound and flexible, 
 issued by the general government only, a full legal tender 
 for all debts, public and private, and that without the use of 
 banking corporations, a just, equitable and efficient means 
 of distribution direct to the people, at a tax not to exceed 
 two per cent per annum, to be provi ed as set forth in the 
 sub-treasury plan of the Farmer's Alliance or a better sys- 
 tem ; also by payments in discharge of its obligations for 
 public improvements. 
 
 1. We demand free and unlimited coinage of silver and 
 gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to ]. 
 
 2. We demand that the amount of circulating medium 
 be speadily increased to not less than $50 per capita. 
 
 3. We demand a graduated income tax. 
 
 4. We believe that the money of the country should be 
 kept as much as possible in the hands of the people, and 
 hence we demand that all state and national revenues shall 
 be limited to the necessary expenses of the government, 
 economically and honestly administered. 
 
 5. We demand that postal savings banks be established 
 by the government for the safe deposit of the earnings of 
 the people and to facilitate exchange. 
 
 Transportation being a means of exchange and a public 
 necessity, the government should own and operate the rail- 
 roads in the inierest of t lie people. 
 
584 THE Is'ATlONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 The telegraph and telephone, like the post-office system, 
 being a necessity for the transmission of news, should be 
 owned and operated by the government in the interest of 
 the people. 
 
 The land, including all the natural resources of wealth, 
 is the heritage of the people and should not be monopolized 
 for speculative purposes, and alien ownership of land 
 should be prohibited. All land now held by railroads and 
 other corporations in excess of their actual needs and all 
 lands now owned by aliens should be reclaimed by the gov- 
 ernment and held for actual settlers only. 
 
 Prohibition Party. 
 
 The Prohibition party, in national convention assembled, 
 acknowledging Almighty God as the source of all true gov- 
 ernment and his laws as the standard to which human en- 
 actments must conform to secure the blessings of peace 
 and prosperity, presents the following declaration of prin- 
 ciples : 
 
 1. The liquor traffic is a foe to civilization and the arch- 
 enemy of the popular government. It is the citadel of the 
 forces that corrupt politics, promote poverty and crime, de- 
 grade the nation's home life, thwart the will of the people, 
 and deliver our nation into the hands of rapacious class 
 interests. All revenue laws that, under the guise of regu- 
 lation, legalize and protect this traffic, or make the govern- 
 ment share in its ill-gotten gains, are^' vicious in principle 
 and powerless as a remedy." We declare anew for the en- 
 tire suppression of the manufacture, sale, importation, ex- 
 portation and transporta ion of alcoholic liquors as a bev- 
 erage, by federal and state legislation, and the full powers 
 of government should be exerted to secure this result. No 
 party that fails to recognize the dominant nature of this 
 issue in American politics is deserving the support of the 
 people. 
 
 2. No citizen should be denied the right to vote on ac- 
 count of sex; and equal labor should receive equal wages 
 without regard to sex. 
 
 3. The money of the country should consist of gold, sil- 
 ver and paper, to be issued by the general government only, 
 and in sufficient quantities to meet the demands of business, 
 and give full opportunity for the employment of labor. 
 To this end an increase in the volume of money is demand- 
 ed. No individual or corporation should be allowed to 
 make any profit through its issue. It should be made a 
 legal tender for the payment of all debts, public and pri- 
 vate. Its volume should be fixed at a definite sum per 
 
PROHIBITION, 1892. 585 
 
 «apita, and made to increase with our increase in popula- 
 tion. 
 
 4. Tariff should be levied only as a defense against for- 
 eign governments which levy tariff upon or bar out our 
 products from their markets, revenue being incidental. 
 The residue of means necessary to an economical adminis- 
 tration of the government should be raised by levying the 
 burden on what the people possess instead of upon whak 
 they consume. 
 
 5. Kailroads, telegraph and other public corporations 
 should be controlled by the government in the interest of 
 the people, and no higher charges allowed than necessary 
 to give fair interest on the capital actually invested. 
 
 6. Foreign immigration has become a burden upon in- 
 dustry, one of the factors in depressing wages, and causing 
 discontent; therefore our immigration laws should be re- 
 vised and strictly enforced. The time of residence for 
 naturalization should be extended and no naturalized per- 
 son should be allowed to vote until a year after he becomes 
 a citizen. 
 
 7. Non-resident aliens should not be allowed to acquire 
 land in this country, and we favor the limitation of indi- 
 vidual and corporate ownership of land. All unearned 
 grants of land to railroad companies or other corporations 
 should be reclaimed. 
 
 8. All men should be protected by law in their right to 
 one day of rest in seven. 
 
 9. Speculation in margins, the cornering of grain, money 
 and products, and the formation of pools, trusts and com- 
 binations for the arbitrary advancement of prices should b© 
 suppressed. 
 
 10. Years of inaction and treachery of the Republican 
 and Democratic parties have resulted in the present reign 
 of mob law, and we demand that every citizen be protected 
 in the right of trial by a constitutional tribunal. 
 
 11. Arbitration is the wisest and most economical and 
 humane method of settling national differences. 
 
 12. We stand unequivocally for the American public 
 schools, and are opposed to any appropriation of public 
 money for sectarian schools. We declare that only by 
 united support of such common schools taught in the Eng- 
 lish language can we hope to become and remain one 
 homogeneous and harmonious people. 
 
 13. We pledge that the Prohibition party when elected 
 to power will ever grant just pensions to disabled veterans 
 «f the Union army and navy, their widows and orphans. 
 
 14. We arraign the Republican and Democratic parties 
 
586 
 
 :'HE NATIONAL PLATFORMS. 
 
 as false to the standards reared by their founders, and 
 faithless to the principles of the illustrious leaders of the 
 past to whom they do homage with the lips; as recreant to 
 the " higher law " which is as inflexible in })olitical alfairs 
 as in personal life, and as no longer enibodying the aspira- 
 tions of the American people or inviting the confidence of 
 enlightened, progressive patriotism. Their protest against 
 the admission of "moral issues" into politics is a con- 
 fession of their own moral degeneracy. The declaration of 
 an eminent authority that municipal misrule is " the one 
 conspicuous failure of American politics" follows as a 
 natural consequence of such degeneracy, and is true alike 
 of cities under Republican and Democratic control. Each 
 accuses the other of extravagance in congressional appro- 
 priations, and both are alike guilty. Each protests, when 
 out of power, against infraction of the civil service law, 
 and each when in power violates those laws in letter and 
 spirit. Each professes fealty to the interest of the toiling 
 masses, but both covertly truckle to the money power in 
 their administration of public affairs. Even the tariff issue 
 as represented in the Democratic Mills bill and the Repub- 
 lican McKJnley bill is no longer treated by them as an issue 
 between great and divergent principles of government, but . 
 IS a mere catering to the different sectional and class inter- 
 ests. The attempt in many states to wrest the Australian 
 ballot system from its true purpose, and to so deform it as 
 to render it extremely difficult for new parties to exercise 
 the rights of suffrage, is an outrage upon popular govern- 
 ment. The competition of both these parties for the vote 
 of the slums, their assiduous courting of the liquor power 
 and their sulDserviency to the money power has resulted in 
 placing those powers in the position of practical arbiters of 
 the destinies of the nation. We renew our protest against 
 these perilous tendencies, and invite all citizens to join us 
 in the upbuilding of a party that has shown in five national 
 campaigns that it prefers tempor.iry defeat to an abandon- 
 ment of the claims of justice, sobriety, personal rights, and 
 the protection of American homes. 
 
 *15. Recognizing and declaring that prohibition of the 
 liquor traffic has become the dominant issue in national 
 politics, we invite to full party fellowship all those who on 
 this one dominant issue are wnth us agreed, in the full be- 
 lief that this party can and will remove sectional differ- 
 ences, promote national unity, and insure the best welfare 
 of our entire land. 
 
 *This plank was rejected by an overwhelming majority, but afterwards 
 adopted under a special stress. 
 
The WORLD'S Fair Build'ings. 
 
 'HE Manufactures and Liberal Arts Building is sym- 
 metrically proportioned, though mammoth in size. 
 It measures 1,688 feet in length by 788 feet in width, 
 and covers more than thirty-one acres. It is the largest 
 exposition building ever constructed. Within the building 
 a gallery fifty feet wide extends around the four sides, add- 
 ing more than eight acres to the floor space. Projecting 
 from this gallery are eighty-six smaller galleries twelve 
 feet wide, from which visitors may view the array of exhib- 
 its and the vast moving throng below. Columbia Avenue, 
 fifty feet wide, extends through the mammoth building 
 longitudinally. The main roof is of glass and iron. 
 
 The Liberal Arts Building is in the Corinthian style of 
 architecture, and severely classic. The long array of 
 columns and arches which its facades present is relieved 
 from monotony by very elaborate ornamentation, Female 
 figures, symbolical of the various arts and sciences, make it 
 in many respects the most beautiful of the buildings. 
 
 The Government Building covers an area of 350 by 420 
 feet. It is constructed of iron, bricks and glass. The cost 
 was $400,000. A central octagonal dome one hundred and 
 twenty feet in diameter and one hundred and fifty feet in 
 height is one of the many attractions of this beautiful 
 building. The south hall is devoted to the exhibits of the 
 Postoffice, Treasury Department, War Department, Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. The north half is devoted to the ex- 
 hibits of the Fisheries Commission, Smithsonian Institute 
 and Interior Department. 
 
 The Casino and Pier, with their surroundings, will no 
 doubt delight all visitors to the World's Fair. The Pier is 
 
588 THE world's fair BUILDINGS. 
 
 80 feet wide and extends 1,000 feet out into Lake Michigan 
 On this the visitors will promenade out to the Casino. Thd 
 Casino embraces nine pavilions, of the Venetian order of 
 architecture. It is built on piles and its dimensions ar» 
 400 by 180 feet. The central pavilion is 180 feet in height, 
 the rest two stories, rising 80 feet from the water. The 
 Pier and Casino will constitute a popular Exposition re- 
 sort. 
 
 Machinery Hall measures 850 feet by 500 feet and with 
 Machinery Annex and Power House cost about $1,000,000. 
 It is located at the extreme south end of the park. 
 
 The Electrical Building is 351 by 767 feet. The south 
 front is on the great quadrangle, the north front faces the 
 lagoon; the east faces the Manufactures Building, the west 
 the Mines Building. This building will exhibit everything 
 relative to electricity. 
 
 The Fisheries Building is an interesting one. The ex- 
 treme length of the building is 1,100 feet and the width 
 200. It is built on a banana shaped island and sub- 
 divided into three parts to conform to the subdivisions 
 The total water capacity of the Aquaria, exclusive of reser- 
 voirs, is 140,000 gallons. 
 
 The Horticultural Building is immediately south of the 
 entrance to Jackson Park from the midway plaisance, and 
 facing east on the lagoon. It is 1,000 feet in length and 
 the extreme width is 286 feet. 
 
 The Woman's Building is encompassed by luxuriant beds 
 of odorous flowers with a background of stately oaks. It 
 is situated in the north-western part of the park and sep- 
 arated by a spacious distance from the Horticultural Build- 
 ing on the one side and the Illinois State Building on the 
 other, and facing the great lagoon with the wooded islands 
 in the foreground. The site is unsurpassed for beauty of 
 view. 
 
 The Transportation Exhibit Building is situated at the 
 southern end of the west flank, and lies between the Horti- 
 cultural and the Mines Building. The length of the main 
 building measures 960 feet front and 256 feet in depth. 
 
THE world's fair BUILDINGS. , 589 
 
 From this will extend westward to Stony Island Avenue a 
 triangular annex covering about nine acres and consisting 
 of one story buildings set side by side. There is a railway 
 track every sixteen feet, and all these tracks will run east 
 and west. The annex may be used to exhibit a full train, 
 either passenger or freight. It is likely that the display of 
 locomotives will be stupendous. In all probability there 
 will be a hundred locomotives exhibited and placed so as 
 to face each other. The exhibits in the building will in- 
 clude everything, of whatsoever name or sort, devoted to the 
 use of transportation, from a baby carriage to a mogul en- 
 gine; from a cash conveyor to a carrier pigeon. To assist 
 in placing the exhibits a transfer railway with seventy-five- 
 foot tables will run the entire length of the structure 
 
 The Administration Building is the gem of the whole 
 Exposition buildings. The gilded dome of this building 
 attracts the attention of every one. The cost was $550,000. 
 It covers an area 250 feet square and has four pavilions 84 
 feet square. The architecture is French renaissance. 
 
 The Art Palace is of the style known as Grecian Ionic, 
 the most refined of all classic architecture. It is oblong in 
 shape and is 500 by 320 feet, intersected north, east, south 
 and west by a great nave and transept, 100 feet wide and 
 70 feet high, at the intersection of which is a great dome 
 sixty feet in diameter. The building is 125 feet to the top 
 of the dome, which is surmounted by a colossal statue of 
 the type of Winged Victory. The transept has a clear 
 space of sixty feet, being lighted entirely from above. This 
 building is located beautifully in the northern portion of 
 the park. The immediate neighborhood of the building is 
 ornamented with classic statuary in both heroic and life 
 size. This building cost between $500,000 and $600,000. 
 
 The Naval Exhibit is the most unique of all the exhibits. 
 It is surrounded by water and is in appearance a gigantic 
 model of the new coast line battle ships, designed by the 
 bureau of construction and repairs of the Navy Depart- 
 ment. The cost is about $3,000,000. The dimensions are 
 those of the actual battle ship now being built, the length 
 
1, 
 
 59© F THE WORLD S FAIR BUILDINGS. 
 
 is 348 feet and width amidship 69 feet and 3 inches. 
 From the water line to the top of the main deck \% 
 is 12 feet. Centrally placed on deck is a superstructure 
 8 feet high with a hammock berthing on the same 7 feet 
 high,|and above these are the bridge,'chart house and boats. 
 
 The Mines Building, the architecture of which is early 
 Italian renaissance, is 700 feet long and 350 feet wide. 
 There are four entrances to the building, one on each side. 
 There are galleries lighted on the sides by large windows 
 and from above by a high clearstory. The exhibits will be 
 interesting in the extreme. 
 
 The Agricultural Building, one of the most magnificent 
 structures on the Exposition Grounds, is for the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture. The style is classic renaissance and 
 it is very near the lake shore and almost surrounded by the 
 lagoons that lead to the park from the lake. The build- 
 ing is 500 by 800 feet and the lagoon stretches the full 
 length in the front of the building, which is of one story, 
 65 feet above the grade. On either side of the main 
 entrance are Corinthian pillars 50 feet high and 5 feet in 
 diameter. Pavilions are reared from each corner and from 
 the center. The latter is 144 feet square. The corner 
 buildings are connected by curtains, forming continuous 
 arcades around the top of the building. This structure 
 covers more than nine acres, and together with the Dairy 
 and Forestry Buildings cost about $1,000,000, 
 
Candidates, Electoral and Popular Votes. 
 
 
 
 — H 
 
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 ^1 
 
 For President. 
 
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 1789. 
 
 
 
 
 1804. 
 
 
 
 
 Geo. Washington 
 
 
 69 
 
 
 Thomas Jefferson . . . 
 
 R. 
 
 162 
 
 i' 
 
 . ohn Adams 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 C. as. C, "Pinckney 
 
 Fed 
 
 14 
 
 
 * ohn Jay 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '1. H. Harrison . . . 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 1808. 
 
 
 
 
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 ^ ohn Hancock 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 JamesMadison 
 
 R 
 
 122 
 
 
 George Clinton 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Chas. c Pin' kney, . 
 
 Fed 
 
 47 
 
 
 Samuel Huntingdon 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 George C inton 
 
 R. 
 
 
 
 
 John Milton ...... 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ ames Armstrong.. 
 " Jf-njamin Lincoln. . 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1812. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Edward Telfair... 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 James Madison 
 
 R. 
 
 128 
 
 
 1792. 
 
 
 
 
 D-Witt Clinton 
 
 Fed 
 
 89 
 
 
 Geo. Washington.. 
 
 Fed 
 
 132 
 
 
 1816. 
 
 
 
 
 John Adams 
 
 Fed 
 
 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 George Cltn»on. .. 
 
 R. 
 
 50 
 
 
 James Monroe ... 
 
 R 
 
 183 
 
 
 Thoma.s Jefferson 
 
 R. 
 
 4 
 
 
 Rufus King 
 
 Fed 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 Aaron Burr 
 
 R. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1820. 
 
 
 
 
 1796. 
 
 
 
 
 James Monroe 
 
 R. 
 
 231 
 
 
 John Adams 
 
 Fed 
 
 71 
 
 
 John Q. Adams 
 
 Op. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Thorn as Jefferson . . 
 
 R. 
 
 68 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ST 
 
 
 
 Thomas Pinckney. . 
 
 Fed 
 
 59 
 
 
 1824. 
 
 
 
 
 Aaron Burr 
 
 R. 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Samuel Adams. . . 
 Oliver Ellsworth... 
 George Clinton 
 
 T 1 T 
 
 R. 
 
 Ird. 
 R 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 
 John Q.Adams 
 
 Andrew Jackson. . . 
 Henry Clay 
 
 R. 
 
 84 
 99 
 37 
 
 105,3^ 
 
 155,872 
 46,587 
 
 ^ ohn Jay . 
 
 James Iredell. 
 
 Fed 
 Fed 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 
 Wm. H. Crawford.. 
 
 R. 
 
 41 
 
 41,282 
 
 Geo. Washington.. 
 
 Fed 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 John Henry 
 
 Fed 
 
 2 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 
 
 
 S. Johnson 
 
 Chas. C. Pinckney . . 
 
 Fed 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fed 
 
 1 
 
 
 Andrew J-ickson. . . 
 
 D 
 
 178 
 
 647.??51 
 
 
 
 
 John Q. Adams 
 
 NR 
 
 83 
 
 509,097 
 
 1800. 
 
 
 
 
 1832. 
 
 
 
 
 Thomas Jeflerson.. 
 
 R. 
 
 73 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aaron Burr 
 
 R. 
 
 73 
 
 
 Andrew Jackson .. 
 
 D. 
 
 219 
 
 687,608 
 
 John Adams 
 
 Cba=, C. Pinckney.. 
 
 Fed 
 
 65 
 
 
 Henry Clay 
 
 NR 
 
 49 
 
 5304B9 
 33,106 
 
 Fed 
 
 64 
 
 
 f-^hn Floyd 
 
 Ind. 
 
 11 
 
 John Jay 
 
 Fed 
 
 1 
 
 
 William Wirt 
 
 AN 
 
 7 
 
592 
 
 CANDIDATES AND VOTES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 For President. 
 
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 For President. 
 
 
 
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 Oh 
 
 ±> 
 
 ;?> 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 &< 
 
 
 
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 Oi 
 
 1836. 
 
 
 
 
 1872. 
 
 
 
 
 Mnrtin Van Buren.. 
 
 D. 
 
 170 
 
 761,549 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant. . . 
 
 R 
 
 286 
 
 3,?i97,07» 
 
 Wm. H. Harrison. . . 
 
 w. 
 
 73 
 
 
 Horace Greeley 
 
 DL 
 
 
 2,834,079 
 
 lluffh L.White .... 
 
 w. 
 
 26 
 
 1736656 
 
 Charles O'Conor... 
 
 D. 
 
 
 29.40H 
 
 J>Tniei Webster. 
 
 w. 
 
 14 
 
 James Black 
 
 T. 
 
 
 5,60* 
 
 Willie P. Mangum . . 
 
 w. 
 
 11 
 
 
 rhos. A.Hendricks 
 
 D. 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B. Gratz-B'own 
 
 D. 
 
 18 
 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 
 
 Charles J.Jenkins.. 
 
 D. 
 
 2 
 
 
 MIfm. H. Harrison . . . 
 
 W. 
 
 234 
 
 1,27.^,017 
 
 David Davis 
 
 Ind 
 
 1 
 
 
 Martin Van Buren. . 
 
 D, 
 
 60 
 
 1,128,702 
 
 
 
 
 
 James G. Birney 
 
 Lib 
 
 
 7,0o9 
 
 1876. 
 
 
 
 
 1844. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R. B. Hayes 
 
 R. 
 
 185 
 
 4.034,950 
 
 James K. Polk. 
 Henry Clay 
 
 D 
 
 170 
 
 1.337.243 
 
 Samuel J. Tilden . 
 
 D. 
 
 184 
 
 4,284,885 
 
 W. 
 
 105 
 
 1,299,068 
 
 Peter Cooper 
 
 G. 
 
 
 81,740 
 
 James G. Birney 
 
 Lib 
 
 
 62,300 
 
 Green C. Smith 
 
 James B. Walker . . . 
 
 Pro 
 
 Am 
 
 
 9,522 
 2,636 
 
 1848 
 
 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 
 
 
 Zachary Taylor 
 
 W. 
 
 163 
 
 1,360.101 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lewis Cass .... 
 
 D 
 
 127 
 
 l,-20,.'>i4 
 
 Tames A. G'irfield. 
 \V. S. Hancock . 
 
 R 
 
 214 
 
 4,449,053 
 
 Martin Van Buren. . 
 
 F S 
 
 
 291,263 
 
 D. 
 
 155 
 
 4,442,035 
 
 
 
 
 
 James B. Weaver 
 
 Gr. 
 
 
 307.306 
 
 1862. 
 
 
 
 
 Neal Dow 
 
 John W.Phelps... . 
 
 Pro 
 Am 
 
 
 10,305 
 707 
 
 Franklin Pierce 
 
 D. 
 
 •214 
 
 1,601,474 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winiield Scott .... 
 
 W 
 
 42 
 
 1,380,578 
 
 1884. 
 
 
 
 
 John P.Hale 
 
 FD 
 
 
 156,149 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grover Cleveland.. 
 
 D. 
 
 219 
 
 4.911,017 
 
 1856. 
 
 
 
 
 James G. Blaine. . . . 
 "John P St. John .. 
 
 R. 
 Pro 
 
 182 
 
 4,848.335 
 151,809 
 
 James Buchanan ,. 
 
 D. 
 
 174 
 
 1,838,169 
 
 Benjamin F. Bntler 
 
 Peo 
 
 
 133,825 
 
 John C. Fremont 
 
 R. 
 
 114 
 
 l,:-4l,2()4t 
 
 P. D. Wigginton... 
 
 Am 
 
 
 
 'Millard Fillmore 
 
 Am 
 
 8 
 
 873,538 
 
 1888. 
 
 
 
 
 1860. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Benjamin Harrison. 
 
 R. 
 
 233 
 
 ^440,216 
 
 Abraham Lincoln . . . 
 
 R. 
 
 180 
 
 1,866,-352 
 
 Grover Cleveland.. 
 
 D. 
 
 168 
 
 5,538,233 
 
 S. A. Douglas. 
 
 D. 
 
 12 
 
 1,375,157 
 
 Clinton B. Fisk.... 
 
 Pro 
 
 
 249,907 
 
 J.C. Breckinrige 
 
 D, 
 
 72 
 
 845,763 
 
 Vlson J. Streeter. . . 
 R. H. Cowdry 
 
 UL 
 
 
 148,105 
 
 John Bell 
 
 U'n 
 
 39 
 
 589,581 
 
 UL 
 
 
 2,80S 
 
 
 
 
 
 James L. Curtis . . 
 
 Am 
 
 
 1.591 
 
 1864. 
 
 
 
 
 Mrs. B. Lockwood. 
 A. E.Redstone 
 
 ER 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 Abraham Lincoln . . . 
 
 R. 
 
 212 
 
 2,216.067 
 
 
 1 
 
 f < 
 
 >7 
 
 Geo. B. McClellan. 
 
 D. 
 
 21 
 
 1,808,725 
 
 1892. 
 
 • ■ 
 
 J A 
 
 1868. 
 
 
 
 
 Grover Cleveland.. 
 Benjamin Harrison 
 
 D. 
 R. 
 
 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant . . 
 
 R. 
 
 214 8.015,0711 
 
 John F.Bidwell 
 
 Pro 
 
 
 
 Horatio Seymour.. 
 
 D. 
 
 80 
 
 2,709,615 
 
 James B. Weaver . 
 
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