UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN Vol. X March 17, 1913 No. 25 (Entered as second class matter December 11, 1912, at the Post Office at Urbana, Illinois, under the Act of Congress of AuKust 24. 1912.) Department of Household Science Some Points in the Making and Judging of Bread By Isabel Bevier, Ph. M. PUBLISHED WEEKLY BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS URBANA Monograph . I 113 TX-163 .3 4 PREFACE For many years the Household Science Department of the University of Illinois has been interested in various phases of the bread question, and members of the Depart- ment, both faculty and students, have worked with bread. It has seemed desirable thai the results of these experiments should be brought together in such a way that the public might have the advantage of the information. This bulletin, it is hoped, may serve to disseminate this information. Much of the earlier work was done by Miss Anna VanMeler, Miss Ruth A. Wardall, and Miss Carolyn Busey, under the direction of the author; the later work largely by Miss Katherine Jensen and Miss Anna Williams, under the direct supervision of Dr. N. E. Goldlhwaite. Isabel Bevier TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Preface ■> Responsibility of Women as Regards Bread Standards. . . ... 5 Types of Flour ._ ^ Terms Used Bread as Food 8 Chemical Composition of Wheat, Flour, Bread 10 Changes Produced in Making Bread ,, 10 Characteristics of Good Bread ' j j Essential and Non-essential Factors ..... 1:1 Recipes .0 Study of Essential Ingredients 16 Yeast ........ 16 Liquid 91 Study of Non-essential Ingredients '.'.'.'.'.'' 23 Salt — Influence 93 Sugar — Influence. 9 6 salt and Sugar— Combined Influence 2(3 Breadmaking o - Time of Fermentation . 39 Bulk of Dough ' '" 33 Baking „ •Material of Pans ' ' 34 Covered and Uncovered Pans . " " 35 Use of Winter Wheat Flour '.... ,". " 36 Score Cards for Bread - r Williams, Anna ',,', Jensen, Katherinc ' . ' ■;',, Simmons, Owen ;o Bevier, Isabel Original 38 Revised y Explanations ' , ! Summarv !., i-i SOME POINTS IN THE MAKING AND JUDGING OF BREAD "Bread is the staff of life." This old and familiar state- ment represents a universal idea, for, in whatever terms it may be expressed, there is very general agreement as to the value as food of some form of bread. The German, the Frenchman, the Englishman, and the American may have in mind a very different product, yet each of them would agree to the general statement. Aside from its value as food and its vast commercial importance, bread has a peculiar interest to women because, while many primitive industries have gone from the home, statistics seem to show that fifty percent of the bread used in the United States is made in the home. If this statement be true, it indicates at once the responsibility of the Ameri- can housekeeper for the standard of bread and her oppor- tunity to influence that standard. If she is to meet this responsibility wisely and well, knowledge of various kinds about bread is demanded of her. She must know its sources, its value as food, the factors of bread making, the cost in time, energy and materials. In short she must have an ideal of what good bread is and be familiar with the de- tails of the process by which it may be obtained. She must be able to recognize essentials and non-essentials in the process. The Book of Bread 1 , for example, gives some three hundred recipes for making bread and all of them agree that to obtain desirable results, yeast and flour must be in good condition and must be kept at a proper temper- ature throughout the process. This bulletin proposes to deal with but two of the in- numerable types of bread to be found : first, that made from i Simmons' Book of Bread. 6 the flour obtained from spring wheal, and, second, lhal made from the flour obtained from winter wheat. The study of a product so familiar as bread develops many surprising points of ignorance about it. For example, questions such as, how much bread ought to be obtained from a pound of flour, do you use spring or winter wheat flour in this region, usually bring to light the fact that women in general are quite ignorant on these two points; yet everyone recognizes that any true estimate of the actual cost of bread implies a knowledge of the yield of a pound of II >iir in bread, ani bikers know that, in order to attain desirable results, these two varieties of wheat flour require quite different treatment in the process of bread making. TYPES OP WHEAT FLOUR Let us understand then the general differences in these two types of flour in regard to source and properties. (The bread-making processes adapted to the two kinds will be discussed later.) Winter wheat is that type sown in the fall and harvested in the early summer. It is grown usually in the central and eastern parts of the United States where the winters are not severe enough to destroy the crop, while spring wheat is the type grown largely in the north- western parts of the United States and Canada. In general, the grains differ in appearance: the spring wheat type is harder, yields a flour that has a granular feel, has a larger proportion of gluten, will absorb more water and is known as a ''strong, hard wheat flour." In distinction from this, the grains from winter wheat are larger, softer, the flour has a powdery feel, a smaller percentage of gluten and a larger percentage of starch, and is known as a "soft lluur.'' THE PEEL OP FLOUR The woman who handles flour readily distinguishes this difference in feel, but she does not learn to interpret this difference in terms of a bread recipe,— that is, she does not understand thai the granular one will take up more water, or, to put it another way, that spring wheal Hour will require less flour to a given quantity of liquid than a winter wheat flour. She does not understand that the manu- facturer's claim that the housekeeper can save flour by us- ing his variety is based upon just this fact of the difference between spring and winter wheat in this power to absorb water. She needs to know the cost per sack of each variety in her market and the yield in bread of each before she can tell which is really the cheaper for her. THE COLOR OF FLOUR Perhaps next to feel in the understanding of the home baker comes color in flour. Now that bleaching of flour is forbidden by law, one is more likely to find on the market flour of a creamy color. If it is very white or grayish, it indicates that the flour probably is not new, and that it con- tains a large porportion of starch. Age has a tendency to lessen the color. Moreover, new flour from spring wheat is apt to have more of the creamy color than that made from winter wheat, because of the larger porportion of gluten in the former, and the larger proportion of starch in the latter. In any case, a dull gray color does not indicate a good flour for bread making. Neither is it true that a deep cream colored flour will not yield an excellent quality of bread. The world has been slow to learn that whiteness is not necessarily a mark of excellence in quality in bread. Whiteness has sometimes indicated the use of flour bleached either by age or by chemicals. TERMS USED It is clear then that it is desirable for the woman who bakes to understand the use and meaning of the terms feel, color, gluten, and strength as applied to flour, and their in- fluence upon the bread making process. She can have first- hand information in regard to gluten and strength by a very simple experiment. Take a cup of any two flours which are to be compared. Measure the amount of water required to make each of these into a dough of the same consistency. This will give an idea of their power to absorb water. That is one of the differences between a strong and a weak flour. Let these doughs stand for an hour. Empty each upon a separate square of cheese cloth, place over a colander or strainer, and wash under running water. The starch will go through the cheese cloth and the threads of gluten will remain on the cloth. When the water goes through clear, presumably all the starch has been washed out and the wet gluten is left. ftoll the gluten into a ball and then stretch to show differ- ence in elasticity. Weigh to get difference in wet gluten. While one experiment is not conclusive, yet by these simple tests one may become familiar with the physical prop- erties of flour and learn to understand the terms color and feel as applied to flour and their probable influence on the bread made from that flour. One will also understand the differ- ence in gluten, whether it is elastic or not, and can judge something of its ability to expand as a framework for the loaf of bread. This difference between a strong and a weak flour is an important one from the economic standpoint. The strong flour absorbs more water and yields a loaf that weighs more. Flours differ considerably in this respect. In the writer's experience, a pound of flour has yielded in bread from 1.25 to 1.65 pounds. Bakers consider that 1 Mi pounds of bread from a pound of flour is a fair average yield. BREAD AS FOOD The prime object in bread making is to secure a nutri- tious, palatable, and attractive form of food. The value of the cereals as food is well understood. It is known that when properly cooked, the cereals yield a large amount of easily digested food for a comparatively small sum of money. One thinks of cereals, and rightly, as the chief source of starchy food, bul the peculiar value of wheat bread lies in the fact that it is one of the cheapest sources of protein. Again this form of protein known as gluten which occurs in wheat flour enhances the value of the Hour because the gluten has the property of expanding and serving as a frame work for the retention of air or carbon-dioxide. Because this quality is lacking in the protein of corn and oats, neither of thesegrains is as extensively used for bread. The value of a flour, then, for bread depends upon the quantity and quality of its gluten and upon its strength, and this latter quality is usually judged by its capacity to absorb water. Large bakeries con- duct experiments constantly to find just the blend of flour that will absorb the greatest amount of water, or, in other words, yield the greatest amount of bread, or take and retain water. CHEAP FOOD AND DEAR FOOD It has been understood for a long time that the terms cheap and dear as applied to foods mean not only the amount of money expended, but rather the amount 1 of nutritive materials secured for a given sum, or, to put it in another way, the amount of building material, — protein, and energy, — calories, that can be secured. The following table shows how favorably bread compares with other food stuffs in these two points. Amounts of Protein and Energy Obtained for 10 Cents Expended for Bread and Other Foods at Certain Assumed Prices Per Pound Food materials Wheat bread.. ■ . . Cheese Beef, average. ... Porterhouse steak Dried beef Eggs Milk Potatoes . Apples Price 5 cents per lb, 22 20 25 25 24 9 60 H qt. bu lb. 10 cents will buy Ounces 32.0 7.3 8.0 6.4 6.4 10.0 38.3 160.0 106.7 10 cents worth will contain Protein A fuel valueof Ounces 2.9 1.9 1.2 1.3 .1 1.3 1.2 Calories 2,400 886 467 444 315 198 736 2,950 1,270 l XJ. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin 487. 10 It will be seen that, at the prices quoted above, ten cents expended in bread will secure more than twice the protein obtained from beef, and almosl three times the energy; also thai ten cents invested in bread at five cents per pound, com- pared with eggs at twenty-four cents per dozen, will yield more than twice as much protein and twelve times the energy. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION The relation between the chemical compositon of spring and winter wheats, as well as wheat, flour and bread, is shown by the following figures : Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Wheat Spring varieties.. . 10.4 1 2.5 2.2 73. 1.9 Winter varieties. . 10.5 11.8 2.1 73.8 1.8 2 Flour Minnesota Standard Patent 10 54 11 99 1.61 75 36 5 Bread from Minnesota Standard Patent — 34.1 9. 1.30 54.9 .7 3 Bread — Average of 198 analyses 35.3 9.2 1.3 53.1 1.1 JFarmers' Bulletin 389, p 16 -Farmers' Bulletin 389, p 41 3 Farmers' Bulletin 389, 3 38 Climate, soil and rainfall influence the composition of both wheat and flour, so the figures showing the chemical compositions vary. One hundred and ninety-eight analyses of bread give a fair average of its chemical composition. For practical purposes one would do well tojemember that, chemically speaking, bread is approximately one-third water, one-tenth protein, and one-half starch. It is evident from the above table that various changes are wrought in converting wheat into flour and flour into bread. These changes are greatest in the conversion of flour into bread. The process of bread making is accom- plished by Ihe addition of a liquid— milk, water, or potato water — and yeast to the flour. Usually fat, sugar, and salt 11 are added also. The flour, by the addition of the liquid, is converted into dough. The yeast cells are separated and distributed through the mass of the dough. The yeasts grow and multiply, and in the process of their growth some of Ihe starch of the flour is changed into sugar; carbon-dioxide and alcohol are formed from the sugar. The distribution of this carbon-dioxide through the mass makes it light. Gas cavities are formed throughout the dough in the process of rising, and it is upon the number, size, and distribution of these cavities that the lightness and grain of the bread depend. When the loaf is baked, the heat of the oven causes the gas to expand, the alcohol to be driven off, the proteins to coagulate and set, forming the walls of these cavities and a framework, as it were, for the loaf. Some of the starch is changed into dextrin. Thus the crust is formed. It is the dextrin which gives the crust its glazed appearance. As shown by the chemical composition given above, there is a large gain in the proportion of water in the bread, and a small loss in nutritive material due to the conversion of the starch into alcohol and the changes wrought in the protein and fat. CHARACTERISTICS OP GOOD BREAD It is perhaps well at this point to give what are regarded as the characteristics of a good loaf of bread. Authorities, as Simmon's Book of Bread, Jago's Technology of Bread Making, and United States Government Reports, agree quite generally in the characteristics of good bread. 1. Symmetry of Shape. — Size such that the crust will not be baked too hard in order to bake the crumb thoroughly. It is just at this point that the busy housewife often fails. In her desire to get a large quantity of bread ready for the workmen who are with her, she uses the dripping pan, puts into it three loaves so as to gain space in the oven, and does not realize that in order to bake the center loaf the heat must penetrate that mass cf moist dough, which is not nearly so good a conductor of heat as Ihe metal of the pan which is 12 on the bottom and sides of the end loaves, so, as a frequent result, the end loaves are scorched before the middle one is baked. Better results in baking can be attained by the use of smaller pans which can be moved about, because most ovens have a different temperature in the center than at the edges, and if single pans are used, or, at most, those which hold but two loaves, a more even crust and a better baked crumb can be obtained; and it is to be remembered that the crust is the most easily digested part of the bread, and that under-done, soggy crumb is very indigestible. 2. Crust. — As regards the crust, there is considerable difference of opinion concerning the depth of color, some preferring a deep golden brown, others a very light shade, but all like a uniform color over the whole loaf and a certain crisp quality obtained from a slack dough well aerated and quickly baked. Simmons says: "These surface cracks or lines area sign of quality and are formed usually when the dough is cod- ing and give the crackling sound regarded as a sign of good bread. A tough, leathery crust may mean an immature dough, that is, dough not sufficiently fermented or a crust rendered thick and hard by a cold oven. A crackly, pliable, thin crust indicates a superior loaf." 3. Crumb. — Many qualities are demanded of the crumb of good bread. It must feel and look light, have the gas cavities evenly distributed and of small size, with thin and delicate cell walls. Bakers say that the gas cavities should be oblong in shape rather than round. There must be no heavy streaks at the sides or bottom of the loaf, no marks of bad kneading or chilling. There must be elasticity, so that the part will resume its original shape after pressure is removed. The crumb must be tender, neither crumbly nor doughy. As said before, cretiminess in color is to be pre- ferred to whiteness, and, above all, good bread should have the flavor of the wheat grain, — should give the character- istic taste of the wheat grain when chewed. 18 ESSENTIAL FACTORS Even a superficial study of bread reveals that here, as in most processes and products, there are essential and non- essential ingredients. One finds very general agreement that flour, yeast, and liquid are essential ingredients, while sugar, shortening, and salt, though desirable, cannot be considered as essential to the production of a loaf of bread. RECIPES In order to secure the consensus of opinion by those in authority in regard to these ingredients, the amount and proportion of them used in bread. Miss Jensen compiled from standard cook books twelve recipes for the making of bread, and tabulated the amounts of essential and non- essential ingredients which the different authorities asked for. The results are shown in the following table. 1 Bread Recipes (One Loaf) References Flour c. Young Housekeeper (Parloa 1 Kitchen Companion (Parloa) Lowney's Cook Book (Howard) Boston CookingSchool (Farmer) Vegetable Cookery (Rorer) Practical Cooking and Serving (Hill) Amer. School of Home Economics Theory and Practice of Cookery (Williams and Fisher) Mrs. Alice Kirk, of Cleveland Home Science CookBook (Lincoln and Barrows) The Art of Cookery (Ewing) Selection and Prepara- tion of Food (Bevier and Van Meter) . . . 3+ 3 Liquid c. Yeast cakes Shorten- ing, tsp. Water 1 1 1 1 1 i Milk i Water i Milk i Water i Milk I Water Milk or i Milk i Water i Milk i Water 1 Water V-L % y 2 Vs V± -IVs m %-i i 3 3 3 6 3 3 Sug- ar, tsp. 1 % lV-> iy 2 3 31/2 % y-2 Salt, tsp. V-2 % 1 % Vs V-2 1 V-2 V-2 V<2 V2 !Miss Jensen's Thesis, p. 20. 14 DISCUSSION OF TABLE Evidently most authorities prefer to use three cups of flour to one of liquid; only two suggest a different propor- tion; water has the preference as the liquid, though five suggest the use of milk; the amount of yeast used varies considerably, from one-eighth to one and one-half cakes per loaf; shortening varies from none to six teaspoonfuls. but five omit it altogether; sugar is omitted by three, while the nine others vary the amount from one-half to three tea- spoonfuls. While no recipe omits salt, there is less varia- tion in the amounts used, viz., one-eighth to one tea- spoonful. One should observe not only the actual amounts used, but also the relation these three ingredients, shortening, sugar, and salt, sustain to each other. Three recipes omit shortening and sugar entirely; three recipes call for equal measures of sugar and salt, but there is quite general agreement in the idea that the measure of sugar should exceed that of the salt (in one case six times as much) while in six cases the quantity of the shortening exceeds that of both sugar and salt. After looking at such a table the ques- tion arises, what influence has the quantity and quality of yeast, the proportion of shortening, sugar and salt on the final product, the loaf of bread. Fortunately, an answer to these questions is found on consulting further the work of these students. RECIPE USED lr The recipe and method of procedure by Miss Williams were as follows: Salt, 1 tsp.=6 g. Sugar, 1 tsp.=5 g. Butter, \ tsp.=5 g. Water, 1 cup=260 c. c. Compressed yeast, Yz cake=7 g. Gold Medal Flour, 3.0 cups=440g. Miss Williams' Thesis, p 3. 15 "The cup of water, having been measured at room temperature, was warmed to 42° G. ; three-fourths of it was added to the butter, salt and sugar, in a mixing bowl, and one-fourth of it was used to soften the yeast. The yeast mixture was added to the liquid in the bowl; then the flour, slightly warmed, was beaten in gradually. The dough was kneaded for 20 minutes, and put to rise at 26° C, until doubled in bulk. It was then made into a loaf and again put to rise until doubled in bulk in the pan. In many cases three risings, instead of two, were allowed. The loaf was baked in the gas range for 45 minutes. The oven tempera- ture most used was 180° C. for 10 minutes, 180°-235° G. rising very gradually during 15 minutes, and 218° G. for 20 minutes. The size of the pan used was SV 2 x d 1 ^ x 3 inches." PROCESSES "This method, termed the the short process, required six or seven hours for completion, according to whether two or three risings were allowed. The changes in method which were made in order to produce a long-process bread were as follows: (1) One-fourth of a cake of dry yeast was used, instead of compressed yeast. (2) The ingredients were mixed at night, only iy 2 cups of flour being used; this sponge was thoroughly beaten and placed at 21° G. to fer- ment over night. In the morning the remainder of the flour was worked in, and the resulting dough allowed two subse- quent risings." There seems evident gain in reducing the time of the process of bread making. In fact, one great reason for the extensive use of compressed yeast is that its use enables the bread maker to complete the entire process in from five to seven hours. This avoids the difficulty that frequently arises of keeping the sponge warm at night, and since this is sometimes accomplished by the unsanitary method of wrapping the pan containing the bread in a woolen shawl or blanket, soiled by use, it is desirable to find a method involving less risk to the flavor of the bread. 16 The live- or seven-hour process allows the whole work to be accomplished in the daylight, while the housewife is carrying on the day's work and the maintenance of the proper temperature for the bread is a necessary accompani- ment of other operations in the kitchen. In the short pro- cess, compressed yeast was used because it facilitates measuring the quantity used. Study of Essential Ingredients yeast The usual forms of yeast on the market are compressed and dry yeast. Liquid yeast can be secured at most bake shops, from which some women prefer to secure it as needed, while others prefer to make it in their own homes or to buy in the market one of the two forms to be found there. In any case, all women recognize that the essential part of the product is the yeast plant, which, in the dried cake, may be combined with corn meal as a carrier. (Sometimes the flavor of the bread is spoiled by the rancid- ity of the corn meal used.) "Compressed yeast" is a term applied to yeasts grown in a special way, purified by re- peated washing and compressed into cakes by the addition of corn starch or other binding material. It has the advan- tage of giving a large amount of yeast in a small bulk, but care is needed in keeping it because it deteriorates rapidly on exposure to air or warmth. Home-made yeasts are essentially mixtures of flour, water, and potatoes, with the dry yeasts found in the market or with other yeast as a "starter." Home-made yeast is sometimes made into cakes as is the dry yeast of the market, but more often it is kept in liquid form or in that of a sponge. Much difficulty has arisen in the use and care of home- made yeasts because of a failure to appreciate the fact thai yeasts are plants and therefore require conditions favorable for plant growth. Moreover, careless or uncleanly hand- ling of the yeast in regard to the vessel in which it is kept allows bacteria to mingle with the yeasts. As these multi- 17 ply, they sometimes give an unpleasant flavor to the bread. The practice of keeping a bit of dough in the flour barrel as a "starter" is not to be commended, and the woman who does not understand ''why this yeast that made such good bread a month ago will not work now," will find a prob- able explanation in the fact that the yeasts have taken from the potato water, or the Hour and sugar, all the food they con- tained for the yeast plant and so it has died from starvation, or from the poisonous effects of its own growth. Mean- time the bacteria have increased in number and given an acid character to the bread, resulting in the familiar unde- sirable sour flavor so characteristic of certain home-made breads. Miss Williams' experiments confirmed previous work done in this laboratory in regard to the deterioration of home- made yeasts and seemed to establish the fact that the way to maintain such yeasts in good condition is to change the medium frequently, that is, make the yeast frequently— in summer as often as twice a week— or at least give the plants new food in the form of sugar or water or both, and keep in a cool place. Even a change of the vessel or addi- tion of water gives air and apparently revives the yeast. She speaks on the deterioration of yeast as follows : ^'The quantity of bread produced seems to depend to a large extent upon the activity, and consequently upon the age of the yeast cells, those being neither new nor old giv- ing best results. "For maintenance of a healthy, active growth of yeast, there must be frequent change of the medium of growth; this is probably due to the fact that if allowed to remain unchanged, too great a concentration of by-products is formed. Simmons 2 says 'Yeast cannot ferment healthily when surrounded by excess of alcohol ; to keep in active state yeast must be brewed twice a week; do not use sponge after the fourth or fifth day in any case'; also, 'Yeast in sugar water reaches a stage where it will not continue to act until the water is changed.' Lindet 3 says in substance, ^Miss Williams' Thesis, p. 44. 2 Simmons: "Book of Bread, " pp. 48, 53. 54. 3L. Lindet: "Role of Yeast in Baking." Compt. rend. 150. 802-4. is the process of refreshing yeasts, as carried on by the baker, by the addition of Hour and water to a portion of the dough, is less for the purpose of supplying the yeast new food than for helping it to overcome bacterial or acid fer- mentation, and for diluting a toxic substance which Hayduck showed was formed at the expense of the proteins of the Hour. Many other investigators 1 speak of this toxicity of flours towards yeasts. In addition to this necessity for change because of harmful by-products, there is also a necessity for oxygen, and yeast action is accelerated merely by change from one vessel to another, air being introduced." QUANTITY OP YEAST One objection indeed to the use of liquid yeast is be- cause it is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the quantity available in a given measure, as a cupful. If a pound of compressed yeast is secured, one may establish a very definite relation between the proportion of yeast used by starting with one-half cake per loaf and increasing the amount regularly, say to eight cakes per loaf. Experi- ments of this kind showed that as the amount of yeast in- creased, the time of rising decreased, — in this particular instance from one hour and fifty-five minutes for the ris- ing with one cake of yeast, to one hour with five cakes per loaf. The maximum volume was reached in loaves G and H with five and six cakes of yeast, respectively. See Plate II. Excess of yeast of course increases the cost and does detract from the appearance of both the crumb and the crust, and is therefore not to be commended. While excel- lent results, as regards texture, time, and tenderness, may be attained with as high as two cakes per loaf, it is not an economical procedure, and one-half cake is ample. More- over, experiments show that if sufficient time is allowed, a small quantity of yeast will yield as good results as a much larger quantity. 1 "Toxicity of Flours Towards Saccharomyces Cerevisiae," and "Behaviour of Wheaten Flours Towards Baker's and Brewer's Yeasts." Baker and Hulton, Journ. Soc Chem. Ind., Vol. 28, p. 778. CD < Ed Q Q CM U *H pq r << f> ffi -o O 10 Pt| >5f W « 21 FLAVOR BY YEAST Excess of yeast also gives increase of volume, of crumb- liness, and causes some loss of color in crust. Its influence upon the flavor seems to be an unsettled one, though the common opinion seems to be that an excess of yeast causes a loss of flavor. People frequently speak of the yeasty flavor of bread. In the writer's opinion this flavor is due in many cases to the condition of the yeast or the material with which it was combined. Corn meal, for example, will grow rancid and give a bad flavor to a yeast cake. 1 Miss Wardall failed to find that flavor was influenced by yeast in good condition, while Miss Williams' experiments seem- ed to show a deterioration of flavor when more than three cakes per loaf were used. Simmons says: "Much importance is placed by some people on the kind of yeast used, but on the same principle as the salt and vinegar, the yeast is not added in sufficient quantity to give a direct flavor of its own. In fact, any flavor is chiefly due to the amount of fermentation that the yeast is allowed, by lime or heat, to produce. When the system of straight doughs first came into vogue with large quantities of yeast, it was frequently remarked by those who were coun- selled to use it thatsuch larger quantities of yeast would taste, and it was frequently futile for the author to point out the fallacy of such a statement. The indisputable proof to the contrary, however, is given by the fact that bread is fre- quently made for special purposes with even five pounds of yeast to the sack, and has no yeasty taste whatever when properly managed, in fact, not nearly so much of this so- called yeasty taste as in the case of very much less yeast under other conditions, as, for instance, with a small quan- tity worked a long time." LIQUIDS USED There are two points to be considered regarding the liquid used in bread, viz., the proportion and the kind. It has already been stated that most recipes give one cup of liquid 1 Miss Wardall's Thesis: American Home Econmics Journal, Vol II: No. 1, p. 75. 22 to Ihree of flour as a desirable proportion. In the experi- ments conducted in this laboratory, a different proportion has been found to be desirable. Of course, exactness is best attained by weight rather than by measure. Persons have been known to differ about one-half cup by measure for the same weight of flour. Four hundred and forty grams — almost one pound or 3. (i cups — of spring wheat flour to one cup of liquid, with short process, in this laboratory has been found to give most satisfactory results as regards shape, size and general characteristics of loaf. A larger proportion of liquid gives a soft dough which on baking is likely to be slightly flat on top, to seem of heavy weight with a tendency to clamminess of crumb and coarseness of texture, while less liquid yields a stiff dough, usually a loaf rounded on top and of finer texture, with a tendency to crack open during bak- ing. The kind of liquid is a subject of perennial interest and one often used by food faddists who praise at intervals the merits of buttermilk bread, of sweet milk bread, and of potato water bread. Experiments seem to show that, in so far as flavor is concerned, no liquid is better than water. Milk and potato water both improve the keepingquality, contribute to the tenderness of the crumb, the color of the crust, and the elasticity. Buttermilk has much the same effect as milk and potato water but differs from them in the fact that it often leaves an unpleasant impression after lasting. The extrav- agant claims as regards the increase in nutritive value by the addition of milk overlook the fact that the proportion of milk used is small and that chemical analysis shows the com- position of milk to be 87 percent water. The addition of potato water may introduce an undesirable element if the potatoes are old or not well washed. On the whole, it seems better to add the cooked potato to clean, warm water rather than water in which old, green, and possibly unclean potatoes have been cooked. So much for the essential ingredients in the process of breadmaking. The non-essentials, shortening, sugar and salt, are next to be considered as to their influence on the product. 23 N0N-ESSENTL\LS INGREDIENTS By reference to the lable on page 13 it will be seen that opinions differ widely concerning the use of the non-es- sentials. Five omit shortening entirely, live advise three teaspoonfuls per loaf, while the remaining two recipes call for one and six teaspoonfuls, respectively. Just the exact role which shortening plays in the process is not known. It is supposed to give tenderness to the crumb and to prevent the drying out of the bread. The use of shorten- ing is not, as is that of the other non-essentials, confined to the interior of the loaf. It is a quite common practice to grease the dough while rising to prevent the formation of a hard crust, while others brush lard or butter over the hot loaves when first taken from the oven, to soften the crust. This latter process seems to the writer undesirable because much more of the lard or butter is likely to be added than can be absorbed, leaving the loaves, when cooled, greasy and unattractive. Moreover, this process detracts from the crisp- ness of the crust, which is a very desirable attribute. For- tunately, more data is available concerning the use both of sugar and of salt. It is easy to show that both of these substances have a very material influence upon the flavor. Some people, for instance, like the very sweet taste obtained in the use of much sugar, while others object to it because it conceals the characteristic flavor of the wheat grain. They do not wish their bread to suggest cake in its flavor. USE OF SALT Again the use of salt to avoid a flat taste is very general. The work done by Miss Jensen on these ingredients seems to indicate that salt, as is to be expected from its antiseptic properties, inhibits the growth of the yeast and therefore retards fermentation. In these particular experiments, two teaspoonfuls per loaf checked it three and one-half hours, and any larger amount checked it entirely. Moreover, salt affected both the weight and the volume of the loaf, as well as the color of the crust and the tenderness of the crumb. Q " C CM < fa O ^j ^ 20 The weight increased with the increase of (he amount of salt, while the volume was decreased by the addition of more than one teaspoonful per loaf. The crust lost in color and the crumb in tenderness, flavor, and texture when more than one teaspoonful of salt por loaf was used, though flavor and texture were improved by the use of this amount. USE OF SUGAR The results from the use of sua;ar were quite different. Sugar, of course, serves as a food for the yeast plant and so hastens the fermentation and decreases the total time of bread making. The effect upon the volume of the use of sugar was not so apparent as in the case of the use of salt, but it was quite the reverse, for with sugar, after one teaspoonful, up to four or six, there was a steady gain in volume, while with salt there was a decrease in volume. Perhaps the most striking effect was the deepening color of the crust as the amount of sugar was increased. The best results, however, on the loaf as a whole, in regard to both flavor and texture, were secured by the use of two teaspoonfuls per loaf. Any excess of sugar beyond this amount seemed to give a certain toughness to both crust and crumb. SALT AND SUGAR These data concerning the influence of salt and sugar used separately were obtained that one might be aided to form an intelligent idea about the amount to be used in combination in the making of bread. Miss Jensen con- ducted experiments to determine the combinedeffectof vary- ing proportions of sugar and salt as regards (a) the qual- ity of the bread, (b) the volume of the loaf. Her results are given below. ^'Examination of results shows that when the proportion of salt. 1 teaspoonful to the loaf, remained constant as the proportion of sugar added was increased, the lotal time re- quired for the bread-making process was greatly decreased. 'Miss Jensen's thesis, p. 48. W ■ pq -. o H H r- < ^ & — CI S — ~r. r. ~< *. s s — s s S n ^^ "r- 20 _ s ° ^ 29 This time varied from 7 hours, 30 minutes, in bread which contained no sugar, to 5 hours, 40 minutesinbread which con- tained 4 teaspoonfuls of sugar per loaf. Results also show that when the salt factor was increased to 2 teaspoonfuls per loaf the fermentation was retarded, as was to be expected; moreover fermentation was not hastened as much by the addition of sugar as it was in the bread containing less salt The time in these experiments varied from 9 hours and *5 mi nutes in bread containing no sugar, to 8 hours and 30 min- utes in bread containing 4 teaspoonfuls of sugar per loat. It should also be noted that breads containing 1 teaspoon- ful of salt and 2 and 4 teaspoonfuls of sugar, respectively, nerloaf viz., loaves D and E, required less time for the entire process 'than any of the other breads, the time required being only about 5% hours. "It is also evident that as the proportion of sugar per loaf was increased, the salt factor remaining constant, there was an increase in the weight of the loaf. The increase in weight was greatest in bread containing 2 teaspoonfuls of su-ar per loaf, and in breads containing 4 teaspoonfuls per loa"f These results are analogous with those recorded in Table V in which the breads containing 2, 4, 6, and 8 teas- spoonfuls of sugar per loaf, respectively, showed a propor- tional increase in weight. "Salt up to 1 teaspoonful per loaf, and sugar up to 4 teaspoonfuls per loaf, increased the volume It is interest- ing that the loaf of greatest volume was obtained by the relative proportions of 1% teaspoonfuls of salt, and 3 tea- spoonfuls of sugar per loaf. This bread, however, was not the best in quality. # "When scoring these breads, the majority of judges in- variably gave the highest score to breads containing 1 tea- spoonful of salt and 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar. These breads were always excellent in shape, with a beautiful golden- brown crust ; the crumb was moist yet tender and elastic, he texture fine and even, the flavor sweet and pleasing, and the color of the crumb, a creamy white. Breads containing less than 1 teaspoonful of salt per loaf were scored low, especially in flavor (such breads had a flat taste) ; those containing iHousehold Science Faculty. University of Illinois. 30 Plate VII. Loaf of Largest Volume TeaspoonfulsSa.lt IVj Teaspoonfuls Sugar 3 a greater proportion of salt than 1 teaspoonful per loaf tasted too strongly of salt, Other qualities of these breads were likewise inferior: the shape of such loaves was lop- sided, the crust deteriorated in appearance, the crumb tough, coarse in texture and poor in color; breads containing less than 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar per loaf were lacking in flavor, especially when compared with breads containing the 2 tea- spoonfuls; more than this amount of sugar per loaf, how- ever, made the bread too sweet, ''From the results of these experiments the proportions, 1 teaspoonful of salt and 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, per loaf, will henceforth be considered, by the writer, standard amounts. It is interesting to note that not one of the twelve recipes, tabulated on page 13, designate these propor- tions of salt and sugar. It is of further interest that 1 teaspoonful of salt and 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, per loaf, were the amounts worked out for the tentative recipe.'' 31 Bread Making Two very important parts of the bread-making process yel remain to be considered after the character and relative proportion of ingredients have been determined. It may as well be understood that bread making is so complex a pro- cess, includes so many factors, that the strictest attention to details is necessary if one would secure an ideal loaf of bread. The art of making good bread is attained only by those who, consciously or unconsciously, attend to these details. It is just because of the lack of this attention that, to so many housewives, the process of making bread is, as it were, a journey into the great unknown, from which she emerges with a lump of unsavory dough, sour, soggy, misshapen, not worthy to be regarded as bread. Under the terms mak- ing and baking of breads, many factors could be discussed. A few of the most important ones have been selected. MAKING This includes careful selection of materials, correct pro- portions, cleanliness at every point, suitable utensils, know- ledge of the process of fermentation, and the right way to manipulate the dough. If one understands the processes involved in the fermentation of dough, it may be either checked by cold or hastened by heat, but such changes must be made intelligently. The temperature best adapted to the growth of the yeast plant is 25° — 35°G. Hence the general practice obtains of keeping the bread warm, but "warm" is a very indefinite term. The investment of from one to two dollars in a chem- ical thermometer would enable the housewife to dispense with this uncertainty of temperature which causes so much havoc in many household operations, including all forms of baking and churning. "The world do move." Itmayhave been all right for our grandmother to have tested the heat of the oven by singeing the hair on the back of her hand, but in a hundred years someone ought to have been shrewd enough to have found a method involving less discomfort to the owner of the hand, as well as a method more easily inter- preted by the novice. 32 METHOD OF PROCEDURE By reference to the general method of procedure (see page 15 ) it is observed that both water and flour were warmed and the dough put to rise at a given temperature, viz., 26° C. (79°F.). Later, experiments showed that a vari- ation of temperature between 20° and 35° G. did not percep- tibly affeol the result. Either over-heating or chilling of bread during the last rising seems to result in reducing the volume of the loaf, making the crumb tough and the crust dull. TIME . OF FERMENTATK >N This, of course, depends upon the process used in mak- ing the bread. Where the whole process of bread making is completed in five hours, the total time of the rising of both sponge and the dough in the pan is perhaps not over three hours. Where the long process is used, the yeast cake with a little flour started at noon, it may be twenty-four hours before the process is completed. Bakers say the newer the dough, the better the flavor of the bread, while many people feel that a belter flavor is secured by a long fermenta- tion. To their minds a certain mellowing and blending of flavors, which they prefer, is attained. It is certain that the two processes produce bread differing considerably in elast- icity, grain and texture, and almost always in flavor. The longer fermentation allows time for the development of acid fermentation, and one can detect its presence by odor, if not by taste, in almost all long-process bread. Such bread is usually lighter to handle, more crumbly, more porous than short-process bread. In this connection the writer recalls the remark of a baker whose shop she was visiting: "Now this bread I lets rise seven hours, but this bread, madam. I makes for folks who wants all they can get for their money, 1 gives it to them. I lets this bread rise seventeen hours." This seventeen-hour loaf was a large one, coarse-grained, over-light, and sour, to both taste and smell. One would not be understood as conveying the impression that all long- process bread is sour, but rather that there is much greater 33 probability that it will be sour than bread made with short process. In the opinion of the writer, it is more difficult to secure a sweet-flavored bread by the long process than by the short. Moreover, much depends upon the treatment of the dough during the rising process. Some people cut it down occasionally to let out the gas; others knead it two or three times. It seemed pretty well established by these ex- periments that while two risings did make the bread a lit- tle whiter and of finer grain, the third rising did not yield results that compensated for Ihe extra time and trouble. Miss Williams found that increased time of fermentation, with frequent letting out of gas, gave increasing fineness of texture, mellowness and pile. When the gas was not let out frequently, in long fermentation, silkiness of texture was obtained, but with it a sour flavor, showing that to pre- vent the sour flavor in the long-process bread, the dough must be frequently kneaded or cut down to allow the gas to escape. She found also that the treatment of the dough in the pan had the most influence on the final product, not only in regard to size and shape, but also in texture and grain. BULK OP DOUGH The bulk to which the dough is to be allowed to rise in the pan is an important factor in the results. The general rule that the dough should double in volume seems to yield the best result. Invariably that which rose to three times the bulk gave a coarser texture, BAKING OF TUP BREAD The temperature and time, as well as the degree of lightness attained before the baking begins, all influence the general results. Know your oven, is a most important rule for the baker. Good results can be attained even with poor tools if one understands how to manage them, but it seems to the writer a great pity that women are not more insistent upon good tools. No one article, probably, makes for economy and efficiency in the home more than a really 34 good stove with an ample fire box. drafts that regulate the heat, and a thick-walled, well-insulated oven to retain the heat. Much material and energy is worse than wasted by attempting to work with a poor oven. The novice at bread making will find it easier to let her bread rise to double its bulk, put it into an oven hot enough to set it at once, and then slowly reduce the temperature and bake her loaf for forty-live minutes or one hour, ac- cording to size. Carefully conducted experiments have shown, however, that if one allows the bread to rise to not quite double the bulk, then puts it into an oven at a temper- ature of 18U°C, and allows it to rise for ten minutes as the temperature slowly rises to 220°C, a well-shaped loaf with a good brown crust will be secured. In any case, the temperature of baking must be conditioned on the size and degree of lightness of the dough. Two minor points in reference to the baking of bread have been given considerable attention from time to lime in the laboratories of this department, viz.. (1) the material of the pan used in baking, (2) its size and shape. Miss Van Meter worked with pans of various materials and summar- ized her results as follows : 1 MATERIAL OP BREAD PANS "In order to observe the effect upon the bread of the material of the pan used in baking, three experiments were made, using single loaf pans of sheet iron, granite ware, and tin. The pans were of practically the same size. "The temperature used in baking was about 175°-200°C. in each case. "In every instance the loaves baked in the tin pan had a satisfactory crust, both as to color and to texture. '"The crust of the loaves from the sheet-iron pan showed signs of over-baking. Otherwise the bread was satisfactory. "Each loaf baked in the granite-ware pan had a hard shiny undercrust which had drawn up from the pan. leav- ing the bottom of the loaf concave. The texture of the loaf 'Unpublished data. 35 in general was also not so good as in the loaves baked in tin or sheet-iron pans. "Observations were also made of student work in bread making where tin and sheet-iron pans were used indiscrim- inately. "Of twelve loaves made by different individuals and baked in tin pans, eight were first class as to general ap- pearance and crust. "Of four loaves observed which had been baked in sheet-iron pans, none were first class in these respects. "While these experiments are not conclusive, they do show that tin pans give satisfactory results, while it would appear that if either granite or sheet-iron pans are used, to attain the same results the oven should be at a lower tem- perature than with tin pans". UNCOVERED AND COVERED PANS "Four experiments were made using pans of sheet iron 9 inches long, 4y 2 inches wide, and 2% inches deep. The covered pan was made by hinging together two pans of the size given. "Three of the four experiments were made with quick process' bread, using compressed yeast (1 cake to 2 loaves). The fourth was 'long process' using yeast foam (1/2 cake) . The flour used throughout was Pillsbury's Best. "Temperatures used in baking were as follows (Fahren- heit) : Ex I. Initial temp. 360°. 408° in 15 min. 392° in 35 min. Ex. II. Initial temp. 400°. 416° in 15 min. 370° in 35 min. 372° in 50 min. Ex III. Initial temp. 494°. 402° in 15 min. 396° in 40 min. Ex. IV. Initial temp. 392°. 398° in 15 min. 340° in 35 min. "In so far as these four experiments are concerned, the following facts were observed: "The flavor, texture, grain, and color of the bread was not affected by the pan used. "In three cases the loaf baked in the uncovered pan was a trifle deeper than that baked in the covered pan. 36 "In three cases the covered loaf weighed a trifle (a fraction of an ounce) more than the uncovered loaf. "In three cases the crust upon the covered loaf was not so thick as that upon the uncovered. This was true at the high temperature used in Experiment III. "In all cases the crust upon the covered loaf was of better appearance and more tender lo the knife. Various people have worked with the size and shape of pans and have comelo a unanimous agreement that it is de- sirable to have the bottom a little narrower than the top. The slanting rather than the straight sides are preferred. The dimensions found most satisfactory in this laboratory are Sy 2 x S 1 /^ x 3. CHARACTER OF FLOUR USED This discussion has dealt only with spring wheat flour, but in many parts of the country the winter wheat flour is in quite general use. In fact, excellent authorities say that the best bread is obtained by a careful blending of flours from spring and winter wheat. Wiley 1 speaks of a ''patent and family flour that will combine the strength and the quality of retaining moisture of spring wheat flour and the sweetness and tenderness of the winter wheat," and again, "but it cannot be denied that the very best bread in the world is made from the soft winter wheat of France." It is well known that many bakers consider that winter wheat flour makes more tender biscuits and other forms of quick breads. PROCESS FOR USE OF FLOUR FROM WINTER WHEAT Miss Jensen worked both with the problem of blending flours and also with developing a satisfactory process for making bread from winter wheat flour. The process used in the experiments with spring wheat flour yielded very unsatisfactory results when tried with winter wheat flour. She summarizes her results as follows. 'Bulletin 13, part IX. p. 1235. 37 lu It appears lhat the process of bread making from winter wheat flour differs from that of spring wheat flour in the following particulars. "(1) Liquid. — For a given weight of flour, winter wheat requires more liquid per loaf than spring wheat flour. A dough from winter wheat flour should be made just stiff enough to hold its shape,— just stiff enough to spring back with the touch of the finger. "(2) Manipulation.— A winter wheat flour dough re- quires three risings; it should never get over-light; it should rise to a little less than 1% times its original volume in the last rising. "(3) Baking.— Winter wheat flour dough should be baked at 180°-220°C., thus allowing it to finish its proving in the oven. The dough can, with profit, go to the limit of fermentation in the oven. "(4) Shape of loaf.— The best shaped \o&? from winter wheat flour is produced by allowing the dough to double its bulk and then baking at 220°C, but such bread is not of good quality. "(5) Flavor.— Winter wheat bread is more nutty in flavor than that from spring wheat. " (0) Time.— The total time required to make a loaf of winter wheat bread in these experiments was less than that necessary to make a loaf of bread from spring wheat flour." Score Cards For Bread Some twelve years since, the writer was impressed with the fact lhat in teaching the students how to make bread, one ought to set before them a standard loaf as an ideal to be worked for in the making of bread and at the same time to give some measuring unit by which they might judge their results. She had been impressed by the use of the score card in the judging of butter and decided to develop a similar judging card for bread. The following tentative card was made and later was J Miss Jensen's Thesis, p. 67 38 introduced into the work of the farmers' Institute by Mrs. S. Noble King, then President of the Woman's Department of the Farmers' Institute. The maker of the score card expected that radical changes would be made in it very soon after its adoption, for she realized that it had many defects, but, for one reason or another.it has been modified only slightly, either oy the the Farmers' Institute or by the Depart- ment of Household Science, and there seems abundant evidence that it has been useful in calling attention to and improving the quality of the bread in regions where it has been used. Other states have found the method desirable, so that many modifications of this pioneer score card are now to be found. ORIGINAL SCORE CARD OF MISS BEVIER Flavor 35 Lightness 15 Grain and Texture 30 f Color l Crust ■; Depth 5 { Texture r . [ Color ] 5 Lrumo ^ Doughiness J Shape and Size 5 Moisture 5 Total 100 REVISED BREAD SCORE CARD DEPARTMENT OF HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE ILLINOIS FARMERS' INSTITUTE Flavor. ... 35 Lightness 15 Grain and Texture 20 [ Color 1 Crust; Depth 1 10 Texture f Color \ 10 Crumb | Moisture j Shape and Size 10 Total 100 The author of the pioneer score card is glad to publish in this connection those suggested by Miss Jensen and Miss Wi lliams. 'Year Book of the Illinois Association of Domestic Science, 1904. p. 55. 39' SUGGESTED SCORE CARD OF MISS WILLIAMS "From a study of score cards used in other institutions and experience in judging the qualities of bread by the one in use in this Department, the following score card is sug- gested: Points 40 Flavor j 30 Crumb r 20 Crust' 10 — General Appearance of Loaf Odor 20 Taste 20 Texture.... 10 Moisture.. ..10 Lightness. . 5 Color 5 Color 5 Depth.. .. 5 Crispness.. 5 Texture 5 Size 5 Shape 5 Note. — To be of good texture a loaf must be of and regular mesh, and of tender, elastic crumb." fine SUGGESTED SCORE CARD OP MISS JENSEN Points 30 Flavor f •iO Crumb-; I 30 General Appearance- Odor 15 Taste 15 Texture.... 8 Color 8 Tenderness. 8 Elasticity. .. 8 Moisture.... 8 Crust. .10 Size 10 Shape 10 "It will be noted that in making her score card the writer has omitted the terms 'lightness' and 'grain'; she con- siders that texture, meaning the even distribution of air cells in comparison with the solid matter, includes lightness ; likewise crumb includes grain. Hence, the terms 'grain' and 'lightness' are dropped. Then again she considers that the texture applies directly to the crumb and so it is placed under that head. 40 "In addition to the terms applying lo the crumb, the writer has added tenderness, elasticity, and moisture; the importance of proper baking is thus emphasized, as these qualities are largely dependent upon the baking. "General appearance, including crust, size and shape, are given a separate heading and a large score; the writer thinks that by emphasizing especially the size and shape of the loaf, the housewife will solve more quickly the problem of making ideal bread, since the doughiness and sogginess are apt to accompany large, misshapen loaves. "It is considered that flavor will fellow as a sequence of the qualities enumerated in the writer's score card, so it is given a lower score than appears in the Illinois Bread Score Card.' 1 1 Simmons gives the following table : SUMMONS' SCORE CARD THE WAY POINTS HAVE USUALLY BEEN ALLOCATED AT EXHIBITIONS English, Welsh and Irish Scotch Formerly Recently FlavOr 20 25 I :> Color (2) Of Crust 20 10 1 Of Crumb.... 20 25 5 Texture 20 25 10 Volume 20 25 10 Maximum 100 100 5 1 Book of Bread, p. 81. 41 The writer of this bulletin offers the following modifi- cation of her original card with the explanation following: REVISED SCORE CARD OP MISS BEVIER General Appearance , 20 Size (5) Shape (5) , Crust (10) Color Character Depth Flavor ...35 Odor Taste Lightness 15 Crumb 30 Character (20) Coarse — fine Tough-tender Texture Moist dry Elastic or not j Color (5) Grain — Distribution of gas (5) Total 100 EXPLANATION OF SCORE CARD General appearance is placed first simply because il comes first in the order of impressions which the loaf makes upon the eye. Moreover, in judging a loaf one cuts il and thereby may destroy its shape. Crust. — The color and character of the crust enter into the general appearance and are, therefore, grouped with it. The characteristics of a good crust are given on page 12 and may be summarized as follows : Brightness of bloom or color, crispness, crackly, pliable, smooth feel (coarse grainy crust means bad molding.) Flavor. — In all the early work with bread it seemed most desirable to emphasize flavor because there was so much bread that looked very well and yet was really sour both in odor and to the taste. Moreover, the author feels that emphasis should be put upon flavor in all foods. The 42 teacher habil acquired through the years of teaching in- clines her to indicaie at once as "below passing" or un- worthy of futher consideration, any bread that is conspicu- ously "off" in flavor. Flavor is made up of the two elements, odor and taste." A well-lrained nose will detect in in the freshly cut loaf the lack of flavor or the approach to sourness before it can be detected by taste. The degree of fermentation, the quality and condition of the flour, and the amount and character of the added substances all modify flavor, but the ideal is the flavor ob- tained by chewing the wheat grain. Lightness. — This is a quality best shown in the loaf though made up of many elements. It is often judged by size, by apparent weight, by presence or absence of holes, by crumbliness, and these points do enter into the judg- ment of lightness. Possibly the volume per weight of materials used would be more correct, but it is not easy for the home maker to determine volume. Crumb. — A very large part of the value of a loaf of bread is determined by the condition of the crumb. The author has given the points in judging the crumb in great detail because in previous work she has found much con- fusion regarding the term texture. She hopes in this arrangement she has indicated in detail the elements that enter into the formation of texture. The Book of Bread gives the following definition for it: "Texture can be de- fined as being the disposition or connection of interwm en threads or fibers," and again, "A loaf to be of good texture must not only be of fine and regular mesh but also of soft, pliable and springy crumb, that is. not coarse to look at. nor hard or unyielding to the thumb when pressed, nor yielding too much." If a thin slice of bread be looked at by placing it be- tween the observer and the light, the mesh and the distri- bution of the gluten walls can be seen easily. drain. — There is very general agreement that by grain is meant the distribution of the gas cavities, also their size and number. This, too, may be seen in the thin slice when examining texture. 43 Elasticity is perhaps best shown in the half loaf by pressing the cut edges together and seeing if they resume the original position when the pressure is removed. SUMMARY Bread making is an important industry for women be- cause one-half the bread used is made at home. In this fact lies the opportunity and responsibility to influence the standard. Lack of knowledge of difference in bread-making qualities of flour from spring and winter wheat is very pre- valent—distinguished by color, feel, quality, and quantity of gluten. Chemical composition of wheat, flour, and bread, shows that there is a steady gain in the proportion of water, and a loss in the proportion of protein and starch. Characteristics of good bread are symmetry of size and shape, bloom of crust as well as crispness, and a tender, elastic crumb of fine grain. Recipes differ widely as regards non-essentials, sugar, salt, shortening, but agree as to proportion of one cup of liquid to three of flour. Yeast is a plant, and so subject to laws of plant growth as regards food and moisture. If in good condition, yeast probably does not influence the flavor of bread. Water is the best liquid as regards flavor. Because of the small proportion used and the fact that almost any form of milk is largely water, little effect is produced by the use of skim milk or buttermilk. Both seem to contribute to tend- erness of crumb. Salt prevents flat taste, retards fermentation, and, used to excess, causes loss of color in crust and of tenderness in crumb. Sugar darkens color of crust. Within limits, it in- creases volume of loaf. Salt and sugar combined in proportion of one to two respectively improve flavor and volume. Bread making is an art that demands careful attention to certain essential details such as character, temperature, 44 and amount of yeast, condition and amount of Hour, lime and temperature of fermentation and baking. Material of pans is a question of choice. Tin seems to yield best results in common practice. Covered and un- covered pans have not been tried enough for definite conclusions. The process for winter wheat Hour differs from the pro- cess for spring wheat Hour in that winter wheat requires more liquid, a slacker dough, is much better with three ris- ings instead of two. and should be allowed to finish proving in the oven. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ii i ii III 014 337 200 5 , LIBRARY OF CONGRESS llllf 0014 337 200 5