Class _L^_aT__ Book .Ij lA( r Goj5yrigM]^?__La-^^ COF^OUGHT DEPOSm MACE'S SCHOOL HISTORY of the UNITED STATES THE WASHINGTON PORTRAIT )inS portrait of Geori^e ll'as/iins^ton is called the " Gibbs-Channin^" portrait, -was painted by Gilbert Stuart, and is now (/QO^) owned by and in the possession of Samuel P. Avery of New York City. It is the representative picture of Washington s first sitting to Gilbert Stuart, i7i Sep- tember, I7g^> this sitting having originated the first type of II 'ashing ton ' s face. This painting was sold by Stuart to Col. George Gibbs of New York, his per- sonal friend, with the statement that it was on the easel while Washington was sitting, a7id worked upon from. life. Mr. Gibbs sold it to Mrs. William Ellery Channing {his sister), who, in turn, gave it to Dr. William F. Channing. The second sitting of Wash- ington, April, I/QO, is the "Athenaum" head, now {igo^) deposited in the Bostoft Museian of Fine Arts. This Gibbs- Channing portrait is the first Washington, and has been only ten times reproduced. Through the courtesy of Mr. Avery it is here reproduced as a fron- tispiece in Mace's School History of the United States. / A SCHOOL HISTORY of the UNITED STATES WILLIAM H. MACE Formerly Professor of History in Syracuse University Author of "Method in History" and "A Working Manual of American History" Ilhcstrated by HOMER W. COLBY, H. W. DIETZLER, and DENMAN FINK Portraits by JACQUES REICH ^ RAND, M9NALLY & COMPANY Chicago New York London Copyright, IO04, 2y William H. Mace .1// rights reserved Copyright, 1^22, By William H. Mace Revised Edition ^" B t AUG 19-? ©CI.AOHI'44 9 *tN^ I>-22 THE PREFACE ELEMENTARY text-books on History should be so simple and transparent in style that the child can come into immediate possession of the meaning- without overcoming obstacles in the shape of strange words and involved sentences. It has been the aim of the writer to fulfill this condition. At the same time an attempt has been made to have the narrative vivid in order that the pupil may not escape the impression that American History is an interesting move- ment, and that, whether in cooperation or in collision, men are always struggling to attain great ends. This quality seizes upon the human and dramatic feelings of the child and holds his interest in the subject. As a result the people who inhabit the world of history are made akin to those who are in action in the real world around him. To encourage this interest and to enable the pupil to enter more fully into the spirit of the past, important and typical events have been frequently made to stand out vividly by a somewhat full description. To impress great historical scenes upon the mind of the young is as important as to paint them on canvas. As a further stimulus to the sympathetic and constructive im- agination, and as an appeal to the higher tastes, ten full-page illustrations in colors have been introduced. These illustrate ten of the most dramatic or important events in American History and serve as historical milestones to the pupil. The grouping of events into series and of a number of series into periods, on the basis of the common movement of which they were a part, is one of the most important helps to a right understanding of History. Hence, although the chronological order has been followed in arranging events in natural series, no event foreign to a particular series has been permitted to break up the continuity because it happened (V) vi Maces School History of the United States to occur between two events of a series. Such events are, in turn, placed in a series of their own. Holding- to this natural connection not only stimulates the understanding but strengthens the memory by the law of association. The great majority of dates in the text are not even to be called for in recitation, to say nothing of committing them to memory. They are simply to be observed by the pupil in order to help make the impression of an orderly succession in history. To enable the pupil to see more clearly that any event has a meaning far beyond that which appears on the surface, the period and sub-period headings have been so carefully worked out, and so placed as page headings, that he will carry in mind the central and subordinate ideas of entire periods while studying particular events. This arrangement encourages the pupil to read a larger meaning into events than is possible by any other plan. The entire arrangement and presentation of material is based, as far as practical, upon the ideas suggested in the author's work on Method in History. The Study Questions are not intended to take the place of the teacher's questions. They may be used or omitted altogether. Some pupils will use them because of ability or interest in the subject, while others will have neither time nor ability. The Collateral Reading may be treated in the same way, but because most of the books are interesting to children, and because exact references are given to page and volume, it is believed that great interest can be created and great profit derived by assigning topics to be read and reported orally or in writing. In order to emphasize the ideas of growth and continuity as applied to History, and in order to present an uninterrupted story in the text, the Study Questions and the Collateral Reading are placed, with the other reference matter, in the Appendix. The experience and scholarship of a number of public school and college men have been freely drawn upon in the preparation of this work. But the author must make special and grateful acknowledgment to Professor Edwin P. Tanner, TJie Preface vii of AdclpJii College, two years his associate in American History, for his scholarly and invaluable services. The proof of the entire work has profited by the critical readings of P. P. Claxton, Professor of the Sciejice a7id Art of Teaching in the University of Tennessee ; F. D. Losey, Associate Professor of English in Syracuse University ; W. H. Scott, Principal of the Porter Grammar School, Syracuse, Nezu York; General H. V, Boynton, of Washington, D. C; Franklin L. Riley, Professor of History in the University of Mississippi ; John Spencer Bassett, Professor of History in Trinity College, Durham, North Carolina ; Maurice Francis Egan, Professor of English Language and Literature and Dean of tJie Faculty of Philosophy, of the Catholic University of America, Wash- ington, D. C. ; William MacDonald, Professor of History in Brozvn Utiiversity, Providence, Rhode Island ; F. W. Shep- hardson, Associate Professor of American History in the Uni- versity of Chicago ; and A. R. Sabin, Principal of tJie Audubon School, Chicago. William H. Mace. Syracuse University, THE TABLE OF CONTENTS ■ PAGE The Preface ' v A List of the Maps xii A List of the Plates xiii Ci)c perioB of ^DiecoDerp anU ©jrploratton (1492-4607) How Europe Found America i Europe Needs a New Route to India i Columbus Seeks a New Route aud Finds a New World ... 6 Where Europe Planted Institutions 13 The Foundation of Claims to Territory 13 The Indians ' 21 Cbe IJcrioU of Colonisation (16071760) The Colony ok Virginia 25 Period of Experiment (1607-1616) 25 Getting a Permanent Foothold (1616-1624) 31 Virginia as a Royal Province (1624-1652) 35 Virginia Under the Commonwealth (1652-1660) ...... 37 The King's Supporters Again in Power (1660-1690) 38 The Other Southern Colonies 41 Maryland (1634) 41 The Carolinas (1653 and 1663) 45 Georgia (1733) 49 Massachusetts 52 The Pilgrims Settle Plymouth (1620) 52 The Great Puritan Migration Founds the Bay Colony (1630- 1640) 57 Growth in Politics and Religion (1631-1639) 59 Beginnings of Education .63 Outside Dangers and Their Consequences (1635-1C89) .... 64 The Other New England Colonies 69 Maine and New Hampshire (1630) 69 Connecticut and New Haven (1635) 70 Rhode Island (1636) 75 (viii) TJie Tabic of Contents ix PAGE New York (1609-1 700) 77 Holland Plants a Colony in America (1613) 77 The People of New Netherland Want Self-Government (1630-1664) 80 Progress Toward Self-Government (1664-1691) 83 The Other Middle Colonies 85 Delaware (1638) 85 New Jersey (1664) 86 Pennsylvania Becomes a Home for the Persecuted (1681) ... 89 Colonial Life (i 700-1 750) 95 The People g5 Home Life and Pastimes 102 Schools, Books, and Newspapers 107 Religious Belief and Customs no Industry and Travel 113 The Struggle for North America 117 The Growth of French Power 117 Preparatory Struggles (1689-1748) 121 The Final Struggle (i 754-1 763) 124 The Results of the War 133 Cde perioU of X\t KeDolutian (17604789) Separation from England and Union Among the Colonies (i 760- 1789) 1 36 General Causes of the Conflict 136 The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen (i 760-1776) .... 139 The Question of Taxation (i 765-1774) 139 Parliament Punishes the Colonies (1774) 151 The Fighting Begins (1775) 155 The Struggle for the Rights of Man (1776-1783) 162 The Movement for Independence (1775-1776) 162 The Campaigns for the Possession of the Middle States(i776-i778) 165 Winning Our First Western Boundary (1778-1779) 180 Irregular Warfare on Land and Sea (1778-1779) 183 Overrunning the Far South (1778-1780) 186 Winning Back the South (1780-1781) 188 The Struggle for a Permanent Union (1775-1789) 198 The Country Tries State Sovereignty (1781-1785) 198 Working for a Stronger Government (1785-1787) 199 The Constitutional Convention (1787) 207 The People Endorse the Constitution (1787-1788) 2H X Maces School History of the United States CI)e pcrioU of J^ational (Srototb (1789=1360) PAGE The Rule OF THE Federalist Party ( 1 789-1800) 214 Our Country when Washington Became President (1789) . . . 214 Origin of Political Parties (1 789-1 794) 221 Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy ( 1 793-1 796) 227 The Decline of the Federalists ( 1 796-1800) 232 The Rule OF THE Republican Party (1801-1824) 235 Jefferson's New Policy (1800-1806) 235 A Struggle for Commercial Freedom (1S01-1812) 241 The Second War for Independence (1812-1815) 247 Immediate Results of the War 255 A New Era (1815-1850) 257 The Signs of a New National Life (1815-1830) 257 The Beginnings of a National Literature 264 Foreign Relations 267 Old Parties with New Names (1824-1840) 268 Industrial and Social Development 279 C!)c perioU of Sectional Dispute anU ^ar (1830-1865) The Growth OF Sectional Feeling (1830-1861) 295 Growing Differences Between the Free and the Slave States (1820-1S35) 295 The Struggle for More Slave Territory (1835-1848) : War with Mexico (1840-1848) 303 Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free ? (1846-1854) .... 310 Drifting Rapidly Apart (1854-1860) 321 Secession and Conciliation (1861) 333 The War for the Union (1861-1865) 337 The Beginnings of the War (1861) 337 Foreign Nations and the Blockade of Southern Ports (1861-1863) 344 Campaigns for the Western Border States and the Mississippi (1861-1S62) 343 Blow and Counter Blow in the East (1862-1863) 354 Grant Opens the Mississippi and Relieves Chattanooga 1862-1863) 362 The Effect of the War on Politics (1861-1864) 366 The Final Campaigns (1864-1865) 369 Immediate Results of the War 379 Cf)e perloU of ConsoIiHatton anD (!^|:pan£(ion (1 865- 191 9) Reconstruction UK the Seceueu States (1865-1872) 386 Lincoln and Johnson's Ideas of Reconstruction 386 The Congressional Plan of Reconstruction 389 Till' Table of Contoits xi PAGE The Congressional Plan of Rceonstruetion 389 New Political Problems (1872- 1900) 394 Foreign Relations (i 865-1 872) '. 394 Old Parties Divide and New Ones Rise (1872- 1 896) .... 396 A New Industrial Era (1870-1904) 415 The New Northwest (i 870-1 890) 415 The New South (i 872-1904) 428 New Inventions and Industrial Problems (i860- 1904) . . . 434 Growth in the Means of Edueation (i860- 1904) 442 The Beginnings of Expansion (1898-1919) 446 The War with Spain (1898) 446 Later Political Developments (i 899-1914) 456 Recent Events (1914-1919) 471 THE APPENDIX Study Questions and Collateral Reading xv The "Mayflower" Compact li The Declaration of Independence li Provisions of the Constitution Iv The Constitution of the United States Ivii The Fourteen Points Ixxi The Covenant of the League of Nations Ixxii A Table of the States and Territories Ixxxi Date of Admission, Area, Population, etc. Growth of the United States Ixxxii The Increase in Town and City Poi)ulation Gross Area of the United States Ixxxii Facts about Our Dependencies Ixxxii A Table of the Presidents Ixxxiii Some Statistics of the United States and Territories . Ixxxiv Representation in Congress, School Statistics, etc. A Pronouncing Index Ixxxv The Index Ixxxviii A LIST OF THE MAPS PAGE Old Trade Routes to India 2 Portuguese Voyages to India 5 The Toscanelli Map, 1474. 7 The Four Voyages of Columbus 10 Early Settlements in Virginia 21 The Distribution of Indian Families and Tkiises (in colors) Fachiq- 24 London and Plymouth Companies 26 Territory Claimed by Virginia Under the Charter of 1609 .... 30 The Maryland Colony . 44 The Carolina and Georgia Colonies 46 North America in 1650: Showing Clai.ms of Spain, France, Eng- land, Holland, and Sweden (in colors) Facitig 52 The Settlements Along the New England Coast 60 The Region Ruled by Sir Edmund Andros . . 69 The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies 72 Early Settlements in Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations 76 New Netherland and the Five Nations 78 East and West Jersey and the Surrounding Colonies 87 The Early Settlements in Pennsylvania 91 French Explorations and Posts 120 North America in 1750: Showing the Conflicting Spanish, French, and English Claims (in colors) Facing 124 Fort Duquesne and Its Approaches 127 The European Possessions, 1765 : Result of the French and Indian War (in colors) Facing 133 The Colonies During THE Revolution (in colors) . . . Facing 154 A Map of Boston and Vicinity 155 The Military Movements in the Middle Colonies, 1 776-1 77S . . . 166 The Campaigns Around Philadelphia i?i Burgoyne's Campaign 173 The George Rogers Clark Expedition 182 Campaigns in the South During the Revolution 189 The War in Virginia 192 Siege of Yorktown 195 The United States at the Close of the Revolutionary War (in colors) Facing 196 The Northwest Territory 205 The United States After the Louisiana Pukchase, 1S03 (in colors) Facing 238 (xii) A List of Maps and Plates xiii PAGE The Lewis and Clark Expedition 239 The United States in 1821: Admission of States, Missouri Com- promise, AND Florida Purchase (in colors) .... Facing 250 The Texas Boundary Dispute 305 The Oregon Boundary Dispute (in colors) Facing 306 Territory Gained by the Treaty of Peace, 1848 311 Changes in Slave and Free Territory, 1820-1850 (in colors) Facing 318 Slave and Free States After the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 (in colors) Facing 322 Union and Confederate States, 1861 (in colors) .... Facitig 34c. Campaigns for the Western Border States 351 The Peninsular Campaigns 356 The Campaign Around Vicksburg 363 Territorial Growth of the United States Since 1776 (in colons) Facing 386 The Alaskan Purchase of 1867 395 The Hawaiian Group of Islands 413 Principal Railroads of the United States, 1904 (in colors) Facing 416 Industrial Map of the United States, 1904 (in colors) . Facing 428 Center of Population in the United States, 1 790-1900 430 Porto Rico and Cuba 450 The Philippine Islands 455 The United States and Its Territorial Possessions (in colors) . . . . .• Facing 456 The Republic of Panama 461 The Alaskan Boundary Dispute 463 A LIST OF THE PLATES The pictures in color are intended to illustrate ten turniitg points in American history George Washington the Gibbs-Channing portrait, from the painting by Gilbert Stuart Facing title Columbus Sighting Land " i The Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth " 55 Wolfe's Victory on the Heights of Abraham " 131 Washington Taking Command of the Troops at Cambridge " 160 The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown .... " 194 Settlers Moving West Along the Cumberland Road ... " 261 A Whig Parade in the Presidential Campaign of 1840 . . " 278 Pickett's Charge at the Battle of Gettysburg " 361 Driving the " Golden Spike ■' on the Union Pacific Railroad " 415 The Battle of Manila Bay . " 451 to Ida Donsox Mace in appreciation of sympathy and help in the preparation of this book coi.uMnrs sighting lanp The heffinniiii^ of fJie history 0/ our country MACE'S SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES €|)e ^etioti of 2Di$fcoberp anD oBrploration HOW EUROPE FOUND AMERICA EUROPE NEEDS A NEW ROUTE TO INDIA 1. The Visits of the Northmen. We do not know exactly when people from Europe first visited America. In early times the people of Norway, who were called Northmen, were bold sailors, and, although their vessels were only latge, open boats, they did not fear to make voyages upon the stormy Atlantic, Driven by oar as well as by sail, and crowded with tall, fair-haired warriors eager for conquest and adventure, the long black ships of these sea-rovers were often seen thousands of miles from home. We know that the Northmen dis- Northmen's ships r>r»fr<=.f«ar1 cti-\r\ cfi+flAr1 ^^^ raven on the sail and the dragon' s head on the v-uvcicu ctiiu. JjCLUCU prow are symbols of swiftness and fierceness 2 (i) How Europe Found Avicrica both Iceland and Greenland, and that about the year looo, under the lead of a bold chief, Leif Ericson, they reached the coast of what is probably now New England. They landed, built huts, and spent the winter in this region, which they named Vinland, because w41d grapes were abundant. Later other parties of Northmen visited the new land, but, on account of the hostility of the Indians, made no settlements. The story of their dis- covery probably did not reach the other parts of Europe at that time. 2. The Crusades ; Old Routes to India. For hun- dreds of years European nations along the Mediterranean Sea had been interested in the people and products of o o ^ ^^r" /^^ ^'fl INDIAN OCEAN "■Z"^"' Vc 8 r^ 5puTH ■;^ VMERICA C.of Good Hope >7^- ^<:^Dias i^Sb £ ,j^^% PORTUGUESE VOYAGES TO INDIA An all-ivater route to India was the object of the Portuguese at the equator; that the sea was up-hill and down-hill; and that ocean giants stood ready to destroy their ves- sels. But Henry urged his seamen to sail past the dreaded Cape Bojador and bring back an account of the seas beyond. This brave deed was accomplished in 1434, and all Portugal rang with applause. From that time on, attracted by the slave trade, by stories of the "gold coast," and encouraged by the hope of reaching the East Indies, the Portuguese pushed slowly down the African coast till Bartholomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Storms, as he called it, and sailed into the Indian Ocean (i486). With Dias on this famous voyage was a brother of Christopher Columbus. In his enthusiasm over the exploit of Dias, tne King of Portugal renamed the Cape of Storms the Cape of Good Hope. The way to India was at last known, and many terrors of the deep had vanished. But the journey was long and tedious, and men hoped for a shorter route. Hoiv Europe Found America COLUMBUS SEEKS A NEW ROUTE AND FINDS A NEW WORLD 6. Early Life of Columbus. Christopher Columbtis was born in Genoa, probably in 1446, when that city was at the height of its maritime enterprise. In his boyhood days he studied geography, astronomy, and drawing. When not in school he made frequent voyages on the Mediterranean, the ancient training school for sailors, and on his return he some- times engaged in mak- ing maps and charts. In 1470 Columbus, attracted by the fame of Portuguese discov- eries, journeyed- to Lisbon. The story runs that while there he married the daugh- ter of one of Prince Henry's most famous navigators, and went to live on the island of Porto Santo, of which his father-in- law had been gov- ernor. There he came into possession of the old sailor's charts and maps. 7. Columbus Thinks Out a Shorter Route. It is said that the idea of a shorter route to India by way of the west first came to Columbus while he was poring over these maps. He had gradually come to believe that the earth is round. This was not a new theory, for it had been believed for hundreds of years by learned men. But Columbus alone determined to make good his theory by a voyage to the westward. He had figured CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS From the portrait by Autonis van Moor, painted in 1^42, from t~iv6 mini at tires in the Palace of JPardo. Reproduced by permission of C. F. Gunther, Chicago Columbus Finds a New World 7 out from maps, charts, and books of travel tliat the earth was a third smaller than it is, and that Asia was a great deal larger than it is, and from this he reasoned that the East Indies were about where the West Indies are. THE TOSCANELLI MAP, 1474 // explains the prevalent idea of the size of the world at that time., and how Colutnbus expected to find India when he found A7nerica Toscanelli, a celebrated Italian geographer, sent Columbus a map which he used on his first voyage. On this map Zipangu (Japan) and the mainland of India were both shown, Japan being placed only twenty-five hundred miles west of the Canaries. This mistake was a fortunate one, for probably neither Columbus nor any one else would have then ventured on a voyage that promised to be longer, more dangerous, and more expen- sive than that around the southern point of Africa. 8. Columbus Begins the Struggle for Aid (1474). And now began one of the most heroic struggles in the history of the world — a struggle of faith, patience, and wisdom against superstition, jealousy, and ignorance. Only great courage and resolution could have succeeded. 8 How Europe Found America As the mind of Columbus dwelt upon the greatness of his undertaking, he felt that God had called him to carry it out. Once convinced of this, no opposition was too strong for him to overcome, no suffering too great for him to bear. Columbus believed, too, that the untold wealth of India would be his ; but even here his noble views led him to pledge the riches he was to gain to the service of the church. He was also ambitious to win an honorable place for himself by doing great deeds. With such reasons to urge him on, Columbus went bravely forward. Tradition telis us that, still loving the land of his birth, he first offered his services to Genoa, but in vain. Later he appealed to the King of Portugal. The king, although he pretended to reject the scheme, sent a secret expedition to test the ideas of Columbus. But the sailors lost heart and soon returned. Insulted by such two-faced treatment, Columbus resolved to try his fortunes in Spain. ' 9. Columbus in Spain (1484-1492). Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spanish king and queen, were busy trying to drive the Moors, a people from Africa, out of Spain, but they summoned Columbus to meet their wise men in the University of Salamanca. The majority doubted his views and argued against him. Though he found friends among the most learned friars, no decision was made. Then came years of waiting and disappointment. His brother Bartholomew, having returned from the great voyage of Dias, appealed in vain to England and to France for help. In the fall of 1491 Columbus, grown old with waiting, decided to go to France himself. While on the way he told the story of his hopes and disappointments to the prior of a convent near Palos on the coast of Spain. The prior hastened to the queen and begged her to call Columbus Finds a Neiv World 9 Columbus back. She did so and sent him money to buy clothes and food. But he had to wait still another year ! Spain was carrying on her last great struggle with the Moors ; but soon Granada, the Moorish capital, fell, and COLUMBUS AND HIS SON ASKING ALMS AT THE CONVENT NEAR PALOS The prior of this convent was the person w/io begged the queen to call Columbus back all Spain was now Christian. America's time was at hand, for the good queen was at last ready to aid Colum- bus. She provided more than half the money for the voyage and compelled the town of Palos to furnish him two vessels. 10. The First Voyage (1492-1493). After very sol- emn religious services had been held, Columbus, with three small vessels and about one hundred sailors, left the little port of Palos, August 3, 1492. The world's most famous voyage had begun. The little fleet sailed directly for the Canary Islands, where final preparations were made. In September it began its journey across an unknown sea. The sailors lO How Europe Found America were sad, because they felt that they had said good-by to the world, while Columbus was happy because he saw the hopes of a lifetime about to be realized. For over a month they sailed directly west. When the sea was calm the sailors feared the breezes would never blow again; and when the trade-winds carried them steadily away from their home the crews imagined no west wind would ever rise to carry them back. But worst of all, that steadfast friend, the compass, began to vary. The sailors clamored to return, and at one time threatened to rebel, but Columbus held resolutely on his way. Finally he yielded to their wishes to follow a flock of birds to the southwest, hoping sooner to reach land. On October 12th the shores of a new world came into view, although what they saw was to them only an island of the East Indies. The dream of Columbus had more than come true. With great pomp and ceremony the A T L A N T I C . Azores V^( SPAIN -isbonttl .,j\o^ ^t)"' AMERICA^ 9, BthllCUA Is. ^^*'' * . ' San Salvador Columbv.%_ coii- o4^ Cf<* "^ Columbus taileJ ■tuf. 3, iWi^jP Madeihi I.^ .j^i^ Arrivt,!. /tuf. Ulh ,;^^ Vtparltd.Stpl.CtK.^y' . /«2 :-^>:', '^^.^' / S A F R I C A 2 SOUTH AMERICA O C E A N THE FOUR VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS The period covered by Colujiibus on his voyages was twelve years flag of Spain was planted on one of the Bahama Islands. Later Cuba, which they thought to be a portion of Asia itself, was discovered. Columbus Finds a New World II Columbus coasted among the West Indies until Jan- uary, 1493, exploring the region, studying the natives, and searching for gold and spices. On his return to _ f^^^^a^^.^% After the painting by John Vanderljn in the rotunda of the Capitol tt Washington COLUMBUS CLAIMING POSSESSION BY PLANTING THE FLAG OF SPAIN ON THE ISLAND OF SAN SALVADOR Spain he was received by Ferdinand and Isabella with every mark of favor. There was no sign as yet of the neglect and unjust treatment which Spain was later to bestow upon her greatest benefactor. II. Effects of the Discovery in Europe; The Naming of the New World. Spain and Portugal were the first to be aroused by the news of Columbus's discovery. Portugal, deeply disappointed at having let slip the golden opportunity, pushed her explorations around Africa, and had the satisfaction of seeing her own sailor, da Gama, reach India before any other European navi- gator (1498). Cabral, another Portuguese, discovered Brazil (1500), and Portugal sent Amerigo Vespucci (Latin, Americus Vespucius) to make further explorations (1501). He 12 Hoiv Europe Found America followed the coast of vSoutli America till Antarctic ice drove him back. It was supposed that he had discovered a new and different continent from that seen by Columbus, which was still believed to be a part of Asia, and the geographers named it America, after its explorer. As time passed, but without any intention of tak- ing honor from Columbus, this name was also applied to the north- ern continent. Spain, in the meantime, had hurried a messenger to Rome to tell Pope Alexander VI. the story of Columbus' wonderful discov- ery, and to ask for his blessing on the work and for his authority to hold the new lands. This author- ity was granted, and the Pope, drawing a meridian one hundred leagues west of the Azores, de- creed that all new lands west of this line should belong to Spain and those east to Portugal. 12. Later Voyages of Columbus. Spain, however, had not waited for the Pope's answer, but had hurried Columbus off, with a splendidly equipped expedition, to make a settlement. How different from the first expe- dition ! Then the sailors of Palos refused to go; now fif- teen hundred persons overcrowded the vessels. Then the crew was made up in part of criminals ; now, of Spanish grandees. Then there were only three small vessels ; now there was a large and strong fleet of ships. Then all Spain looked on the voyage as leading to cer- tain destruction ; now, with joy as leading to vast riches and fame. But although on this voyage Columbus dis- covered Jamaica and Porto Rico, the expedition failed AMERIGO VESPUCCI From the original fresco by Domenico Corradi Gliirlan- daio in the church of the Og- nissantiy Florence. Repro- duced through the courtesv of The Century Co., New York Foundation of Clai^ns to Territory 13 to accomplish the dazzling results which Spain had so eagerly expected. Again in 1498, on a third voyage, Columbus saw South America and the mouth of the Orinoco, but still thought the country was only a part of India. His fourth and final voyage was begun in 1 502, from which he returned, old, disappointed, and despised because he had not found the hoped-for riches. He died before he could know that he had discovered a new world. 13. England Sends Out the Cabots (1497-1498). Even the miserly King of England, Henry VII., was so stirred by the news from Spain that he decided that England, too, should try to find new routes to the Indies. Accordingly, in 1497, John Cabot, a native of Columbus* own town, but resident in England, sailed away from the port of Bristol to the coast of North America. The next year John Cabot's son, Sebastian, continued his explorations, and probably visited the coast of what is now the United States. On these voyages England rested her claim to North America, but as neither gold nor a passage to India had been found, the work of the Cabots was not at once followed up. WHERE EUROPE PLANTED INSTITUTIONS THE FOUNDATION OF CLAIMS TO TERRITORY 14. How European Institutions Differed. It was of the greatest importance to this country and to the world which of the nations of Europe settled in North Amer- ica, and which one occupied the largest and best part of the continent, because these nations differed much in their ideas about government, religion, and social life. Spain and France had kings who ruled with almost absolute power over their people, and who did not allow them to take much part in the government or to think much for themselves. 14 Where Europe Planted Institutions England, too, had a king, but her people for centuries had elected a body of men called the Parliament which helped to make the laws. Moreover, English towns and cities had the right to manage their own affairs. Hol- land also had an assembly of lawmakers and some self- government in her towns and cities. In France and Spain people were sharply divided into classes. All the men of one class were expected to fol- low the occupations of their fathers, and could not easily rise to higher positions. In England and Holland there were also classes, but men did not find it so hard to rise. So, while Spain at first had the advantage in the contest for the possession of North America, because of the work of Columbus, it is not surprising that she waS soon out- stripped by nations whose people had more freedom. 15. What a Nation Had to Do to Make Its Claims Good. In their struggle for American territory Euro- pean nations were not troubled by the fact that the new lands were already occupied by natives, for it was a rule among them that Christian nations had the right to con- quer and possess any country occupied by heathen tribes. But to hold such lands against the claims of other Christian nations, two things were necessary — the nation making the claim must have been not only the first to discover the country, but must have settled it within a reasonable time. This was called the " law of nations " in regard to newly found lands, but there was no one to enforce the law except the nations themselves. Hence they violated it whenever they dared, thus some- times causing war. 16. Foundation of Spanish Claims. By right of dis- covery and settlement, Spain was entitled to most of the West Indies, and had taken the first steps toward possessing parts of South America. (See §11.) In 1 5 13 Ponce de Leon discovered and named Florida, and Foundation of Claims to Tcrj-itory 15 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien and planted the flag of Spain in the waters of the Pacific. The year 15 19 was a most celebrated one in the history of Spain, for then the famous Cortes began his conquest of Mexico (1519-1521), by far the richest and most advanced country of North America, and Magellan started from Spain to sail around the world by the way of South America, the East Indies, and the Cape of Good Hope (1519- 1522). This voy- age proved two things: (/) that the earth is round and can be circum- navigated ; {2) that the new lands al- ready discovered ar^ not only not a part of Asia, but/ stand across the pathway to that country. The La- drones and the Philippine Islands were added to Spain's claim. A little later Narvaez, following in the footsteps of De Leon, carried a colony to Florida, but the expedition ended in failure. 17. Expeditions of De Soto and Coronado. In 1539 Ferdinand de Soto, with a very large expedition, once more invaded Florida. He traveled many weary miles through forest and swamp, and sought in vain for rich cities which Spanish imagination had painted in more golden colors than the cities conquered by Cortes. He FERDINAND MAGELLAN From the portrait designed and engraved by Ferdinand Selma in 1788 l6 Where Europe Planted Institutions wandered through the northern portion of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas, but only a remnant of the expedition ever returned. De Soto himself died and was buried beneath the waters of the Mississippi, which he discovered in 1541. Before De Soto's fate was known, Coronado marched northward from Mexico (1540), with a large expedition, and explored regions along the Gila, the Colorado, and the upper Arkansas rivers. He found no rich empires, but he did see the cliff towns of the Zuni Indians. These failures, together with the success of Cortes in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru, which excited the Spaniards anew by the stories of gold and silver mines, turned their attention southward, from central North America. Therefore, not until 1565 did Spain establish the first permanent settlement in what is now the United States at St. Augustine Florida. The second was not founded until 1582 at Santa Fe, New Mexico. Later the Span- iards planted missions in Southern California. It soon appeared that Spain would succeed in planting her ideas and institutions only in the southern part of North America. 18. What the French Claimed. Of all the great nations of western Europe, France was the last to be stirred by the stories of the New World. (See §4.) Hardy French fishermen, however, braved the fogs of Newfoundland as early as 1504 to find the codfish John Cabot had seen. Verrazano, a bold 'Italian sailor under the French flag, seeking to pounce upon Spanish ships laden with gold, coasted from North Carolina to New England (i 524). Ten years later Cartier sailed up the St, Lawrence to an Indian town near a hill which he named Montreal. This voyage formed the basis of the French claim to the St. Lawrence region. Foundation of Claims to Territory 17 The first effort of the French to found a settlement was made by Roberval and Cartier (i 540-1 543). But the nation at home gave no aid to these bold pioneers, and failures resulted. 19. The Huguenots; Champlain. It was not long, however, before civil war in France between Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) drove the latter to seek pro- tection in the wilds of America (1562), and they planted a colony on the St, John's River, in Florida (i 564-1 565). Florida, however, was claimed by the Spaniards, who fitted out an expedition under Menendez and de- stroyed the colony. A French expedition took revenge by hanging the Spaniards, but Menendez later reestablished the Spanish colony (1568). A cruel civil war now weak- ened the energies of France for a long time, and not/^ until 1605 was the first permanent French settle- ment made at Port Royal, Acadia, now Nova Scotia. (See map facing page 52.) Soon after, Champlain, often called the father of New France, established Quebec (1608). His energy and wisdom as governor laid the foundation of French power in Canada. Just as Spanish ideas had taken root to the southward of what is now the United States, so French civilization was to be firmly planted to the northward along the St. Lawrence. 20. England's Claims; Her Famous Sea-Rovers. Little was done by England to follow up the voyages SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN From the portrait painting in Indepen- dence Hull, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Where Europe Planted Institutions of the Cabots (§ 13) till the great Elizabeth was on the throne. England's most dangerous enemy was Spain, and the religious and trade rivalry between them aroused those hardy sailors, who soon made England famous as well as feared. The most cele- brated of the Eliza- bethan seamen was Sir Francis Drake, whom the Spaniards nicknamed "The Dragon." In 1577 he sailed for the western coast of America to plun- der the rich treas- ure ships of Spain. From one ship alone he obtained twenty-six tons of silver and eighty pounds of gold. We call such work piracy, but Drake looked upon it as a patriotic and relig- ious duty. He spent a winter on the California coast, thus founding England's claim to the Oregon region which Drake named New Albion. He returned to Eng- land by way of the Cape of Good Hope (i 580). Frobisher, Davis, and other daring sailors made less important voyages in search of a northwest passage to Asia. The efforts of these English "sea dogs" aroused new interest in America. The stories of adventure, of new lands, of vast riches awaiting any one bold enough to QUEEN ELIZABETH The Queen at the age of forty-eight . From a reprint of the original engraving by theyouni Hendrik de Hondt. By permission of the Virginia Historical Society ibjz unger 'if the Foundation of Claims to Territory 19 seek them, stirred the imaginations of all classes of Englishmen. Queen Elizabeth herself encouraged this interest by granting a charter to Sir Humphrey Gilbert for trade and settlement. Gilbert's voyages were unsuc- cessful, and on the last one (i 583) he was lost and no word was ever again heard of leader, crew, or ship. 21. Raleigh Becomes Interested in America. Gil- bert's rights fell to his half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, who already had in mind a scheme for planting an Eng- lish colony in America. Raleigh was one of the most prominent characters at the court of Elizabeth and stood high in her favor. He was full of chivalrous devotion to his queen and country, and was one of the most accom- plished men of that brilliant age of English history. He could write poetry and history, fight the Spaniard, and give counsel in affairs of state. Raleigh was among the first to see that English colonies in America would not only check the power of Spain, but also add to the greatness of Eng- land. He induced a friend to tell the queen how the pro- posed voyage would be "a great bridle to the Indies of.. the Kinge of Spaine — and would bringe Kinge Phillip from his highe throne." Two vessels sent out by him ex- plored the coast of North Carolina in the summer of 1584, and returned with such glowing accounts of the beauty and richness of the country that the queen named the region Virginia, in honor of her own virgin life. SIR FRANCIS DRAKE From the original portrait attrib- uted to Sir Antonis van Moor, in the possession of Viscount Dillon^ at Ditchly Park, England 20 Where Europe Planted Institutions 22. Raleigh Tries to Make Good England's Claim. The next year Raleigh planted his first colony, over one hundred strong, on Roanoke Island (see map, page 21), with Ralph Lane as deputy governor. But the settlers, enticed by the prospect of gold, forgot the common good and quarreled with the In- dians. Threatened by starva- tion, they were only too glad when Sir Francis Drake took pity on them and carried them back to their native land. The colonists took home two important American products, the "Irish" potato and tobacco, the one to be- come an almost universal food, and the other very soon to become the basis of Vir- ginia's prosperity. Raleigh was more in earnest than the colonists, and his courage held out longer than his purse. But a num- ber of rich men came to his support and it was resolved to start another settlement (1587) on Chesapeake Bay, not with men only, but with whole families. The colo- nists, however, landed at the old place. Here was born Virginia Dare, the first white child of American birth. John White, who was to govern, soon returned to Eng- land for aid, but when it arrived (1590) almost every trace of the colony had disappeared, and Sir Walter searched in vain for his " lost colony." After the death of Queen Elizabeth, Raleigh was imprisoned for many years, and finally beheaded. The work of settlement was shown to be too costly for SIR WALTF.K KALKIGH From the orij^'nal portrait painted by Federigo Zuccaro TJie Indians 21 altiinjrr y '0O7 t^'^/l,' one person, and had to be undertaken by a great company of merchants. Before we study how the English made good their claims to American soil, we must look briefly at the most dangerous obstacle which they had to over- come. THE INDIANS 23. The Original Own- ers of America. When Europeans first set foot on American soil they found it already occupied by another race of men, the Indians (see map facing page 24), so named by Columbus because he be- lieved that they were really the people of India. How long the Indian had been here when the white man came, no one knows. In certain parts of the country, especially in the Missis- sippi Valley region, large mounds have been found, shaped like animals or serpents. These contain the remains of what is believed by some to have been a still , earlier race, known as the Mound Builders. But they may have been the ancestors of the race with whom the white men had to deal when they settled America. So, in addition to disputing among themselves about the land, the Europeans had to settle matters with the Indians, either by peace or war. The English particu- larly had great difficulty. Sometimes treaties were made ( T- \*,«ANOKE I. N '■y^--^ Ocracuke Jnltt ^ ":J^;;;J^ROAToA^^ C. Lookout EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN "VIRGINIA" T/te sivamps about Pamlico Sound made pei-manent settlement impossible in this region 22 Where Europe Planted Institutions and the two races got on happily together for a time. But the white men were greedy and the Indians suspi- cious, so the treaties were broken and war followed. It was very hard for them to understand each other.' The Indians had no notion of the value of the land to the white men, nor for what they really wanted it. The Englishmen cut down trees to make farms and villages, and thus destroyed the hunting grounds of the Indians. Since the Indians could not live like the white men and become civilized, they were forced to push back into the forests. But one tribe could not go far before it was on the lands occupied by another. This usually resulted in war between the tribes. Therefore, the Indians were frequently unwilling to give up their lands. From these and other causes, permanent peace between the two races was almost impossible. The white man learned many useful things from the Indian — how to raise Indian corn ; how to take wild game and prepare it for use; how to build birch-bark canoes and wigwams. He soon taught the white man his method of fighting, also — that of getting behind trees rather than fighting in line. But, on the whole, the Indian hindered more than he helped the occupation of America by the white man. To what extent the Indians hindered settlement, and why they were beaten back step by * step, we can understand best by a short study of them. 24. Indian Characteristics. Be- cause the Indian's skin is copper-colored he is called the Red Man. His eyes are small and dark and his hair is long, coarse, and jet black. His body is AN INDIAN WARRIOR The Indians 23 straight and slender, and his movements are easy, quick, and quiet. Because his home was in the great forest or on the wide prairie, he knew all the sights and sounds of both. Because the beasts, birds, and fish fur- nished him with food, clothing, and many necessary articles, he knev^ their habits and ways of li . He could track the wil^" 1 to his den, follow traces ^.-.lO^i^h the forests which no whitf ;Tian could see, and could irii\*n?a the cry of beasts and birds so perfectly that the animals themselves were deceived. The Indian was a faithful friend, but a most cruel enemy. He delighted in the suffering of his foes, and used every means for their torture which his mind could invent, from making slaves of them to burn- ing them, by slow fires, at the stake. He did not fight openly, but stole unawares upon the enemy or lay in ambush to wait for his coming, when he shot him or rushed out with murderous yells and cut him down with his tomahawk and " scalped " him. 25. Indian Society. The Indian man was a warrior and hunter, and spent his time chiefly in battle and the chase. When going to war, he painted his body to make himself look fierce, and armed himself with bow and arrow and tomahawk. After a time he obtained the rifle and hunting-knife from his white enemy. As a hunter he trapped and shot his game, sometimes going a very long way to find it. AN INDIAN SQUAW 24 Where Europe Planted Institutions The Indian woman or squaw not only cooked and sewed and built the wigwam, but even raised the scanty- crop of corn, beans, melons, and squashes. The squaw was a drudge, for she not only carried the wood for the wigwam fires, but when the Indian changed his dwelling place she carried the wigwam poles and skins also. In spite of her hard toil, he ^er, the Indian mother often had much influence ov - husband and children, and sometimes even in the c*ii.airs of the tribe. The Indian had no domestic animal e-gppt the dog to increase his supply of food and cloth^x^; and therefore was compelled to move from place to place in search of good hunting and a mild climate. But in spite of all the warrior and the squaw could do, they often suffered from hunger and cold. 26. Organization and Government. From the map given (see map facing this page), it is easy to find the location of the Indian families and tribes. (See also pages 60, 69, and 78.) We are most concerned with those tribes which occupied portions of the United States, although the story of the more advanced ones in Peru and Mexico is even more interesting. Among all Indians there was very imperfect government. The largest divisions of Indians were the great fami- lies, such as the Algonquins, the Iroquois, and the Da- kotas. These were divided into tribes and the tribes into clans. The clans were made up of persons supposed to be descended from the same female ancestor. Each clan was governed by its own elected sachem. To the clan, and not to the individual, belonged most of the property, except weapons and ornaments. The tribe was governed by a council of sachems which decided all important questions, such as war. One great weakness of the Indian race in contending with the white man was lack of union. There was no Period of Experiment 25 government over all the tribes of the same great family, and often there was war between them. The most noted union or confederacy among the Indians was made up of five tribes of the Iroquois family known as the Five Nations. Their strength was feared by the other tribes and respected by the white man. Although the Indian tribes were the original occu- pants of the soil of America, it is now clear why they had to fight to continue to live in the land of their fathers, and why in that struggle they were defeated. €f)e IPerioli of Colonisation THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA PERIOD OF EXPERIMENT 27. The London and Plymouth Companies. Even after Raleigh's failure English vessels sailed almost every year to make explorations and to trade with the Indians. Finally two great companies of merchants were formed in London and Plymouth ( 1 606). They obtained a charter from King James by which the Plymouth Company could plant colonies between Nova Scotia and Long Island and the London Company from the Potomac to Cape Fear. The region from Long Island to the Potomac was open to both companies. (See map, page 26.) The charter promised the colonists and their children that they should still be Englishmen with the rights of Englishmen, "as if they had been abiding and born within the realm of England." But the king took care that all power should be in his own hands, by appointing a council to remain in England, which should appoint another council to reside in Virginia. Although the latter council could elect their own president, the settlers were allowed to take no part whatever in governing themselves. One-fifth of all gold and silver found was 26 The Colony of Virginia to go into the king's treasury, and the products of labor were to be placed in a common storehouse. The king and the company were evidently going to try some strange experi- ments. 28. James- town, the First Permanent Eng- lish Settlement in America (1607). The London Company was the first to oc- cupy Virginia, as the entire region from Cape Fear to Nova Scotia was then called. All classes of people were in- terested in send- LO.NDON AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES The charter of these companies alloived them to plant settlements one hundred miles inland ing out the colony. Sermons were preached, and books, pamphlets, and poems were written in praise of Virginia. It was looked upon as a " promised land," and was called " Earth's only paradise." The stories of its gold, silver, and precious stones were readily believed. It was expected that Virginia would rival Mexico and Peru. An English play of that time shows what the people liked to hear about Virginia. One of the characters, Scapethrift, says, " But is there such treasure there, Cap- tain, as I have heard?" To which another character, Captain Seagull, replies, " I tell thee gold is more plentiful there than copper is Period of Experiment 27 with tis. Why, man, all their dripping pans are pure gold ; and all the chains with which they chain up their streets are massy gold ; all the prisoners they take are fettered in gold ; and for rubies and diamonds, they go forth on holidays and gather them by the seashore to hang on their children's coats and stick in their chil- dren's caps." 29. Character of the Settlers. The natural result of su&h talk was seen in the character of the one hundred and five emigrants who set sail in 1607 under the com- mand of Captain Newport. About half of them were English "gentlemen," who belonged to a class which did no work. The rest were mechanics and laborers, who, attracted by the hope of riches, were no more willing to work than the gentlemen. There were no farmers among them to till the soil, nor women and children to make homes. Most of the settlers hoped soon to return to England to enjoy their new-found wealth. This was not good material with which to establish the first permanent English colony in America. Even 'J^ the leaders quarreled among themselves, and threw their ablest man, John Smith, into prison be- fore the long voyage was ended. T TIT 1 11 i • JOHN SMITH In May, when all nature m Frofn an engraving- made by TT- • • „ i. • I. -u 4. j-f- ii- Simon van Pass^ in 1614, on the Virgmia was at its best, the three martrin of smith's map of ''New 1 . 1 • 1 • J J.1 j.j_i Englatid" in "A Description of ships which carried the settlers New England:' This shows him • 1 -I . , r^-, 1 T-« A at the age of thirty-seven sailed into Chesapeake Bay. A low, marshy peninsula, about thirty-five miles above the mouth of the James River, was the place selected for the landing. A rude fort was soon built and cannon 28 The Colony of Virginia were mounted as a protection against their most danger- ous enemies, the Indians and Spaniards. If the settlers had been ever so sober and industrious they would have found many things more interesting than hard labor. They were in a new land in the midst of strange sights and sounds; about them were vast forests peopled with birds and beasts of unknown kinds ; a new race of men was here with strange manners and customs. What wonders their imaginations pictured ! A few miles inland might be another nation like the Mexicans, or just over the mountains the Pacific Ocean ; among the hills, mines like those of Peru ; or deeper in the forests, streams whose sands were pure gold. The idleness which this dreaming led to, together with the poor food and the hot climate, destroyed more than half the settlers before fall. 30. John Smith Saves Jamestown. In 1608 Captain Newport brought over more settlers, and when John Smith was made president of the council — the first two presidents had proved to be failures — the little group became hopeful. Smith had already explored the rivers near at hand, had visited the Indians and traded for corn. On one of these expeditions he was captured by them and taken to Powhatan, the chief. He became interested in Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas,' who afterward married John Rolfe and became a sort of good angel to the settlers by keeping peace between them and the Indians. John Smith permitted no idleness among the settlers. Each man had to bear his share in repairing the fort, • The story of how John Smith was tried, condemned to death, and rescued at the last moment by this Indian maiden is seriously doubted. Pocahontas afterward visited England, and was received by the king and queen. The able but eccentric John Randolph of Roanoke, once a leader in the House of Representatives, was a descendant of John Rolfe and Pocahontas. Period of Experiment 29 building log cabins, planting corn, hunting and fishing, and trading with the Indians for provisions. The con- dition of the colony greatly improved and the people became more contented. Thus Smith saved the colony for the time being. In spite of all his work, however, the company blamed him for not sending home gold. In reply he plainly told them that they ought not to ex- pect such people to do much. "When you send again," said he, "better send but thirty carpenters, husband- men, gardeners, fish- ermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers of trees' roots, well pro-^ vided, than one thou- sand of such as we have ! " 31. The Starving Time (1609-1610). John Smith's advice was not taken. Several hundred more emigrants arrived, most of them "unruly gallants" sent over as a good riddance. For a time Smith made them obey, but he was dangerously wounded by an explosion of gunpowder, and had to leave for England. Idleness and disorder began again. The Indians refused supplies, and killed the settlers when they could. Not enough houses had been built, and people died from exposure and disease. By spring starvation was at hand and only sixty of the five hundred were left alive. It was decided to abandon Jamestown, but as the colonists sailed down ■''■'■^//^ ' ' ' From a photograph RUINS OF THE OLD CHURCH AT JAMESTOWN 30 The Colony of Virginia the river they met Lord Delaware, the new governor, with three well-stocked vessels. JamestoAvn was rees- tablished and the colony was once more saved. 32. The New Charter (1609); Sir Thomas' Dale. Something must be done. A large amount of money had been spent; hundreds of emigrants had been shipped to Virginia, but most of them were dead, and T^ke -Yi'/iiji/i ( ' A X A ] ) A TERRITORY CLAIMED BY VIRGINIA UNDER THE CHARTER OK 1609 TAi's grant gi-eatly enlarged the territory previously held by the London Company. Compare with map on page sti the stories of suffering produced a bad impression in England. The king gave the company a better charter, greatly enlarging the grant of land. (See map above.) Along the Atlantic coast the boundary line ran two hun- dred miles north and two hundred miles south of Old Point Comfort, and extended " up into the land through- out from sea to sea, west and northwest." The council in Virginia was abolished, and a governor with absolute authority took its place. Getting a Permanent Foothold 31 By March, 161 1, eight hundred more settlers had arrived. Unfortunately they, too, were a shiftless set, and could be controlled only by severe laws. But the man to govern was at hand. Sir Thomas Dale, a fearless soldier, ruled the colony by military law. All offenses were punished with great severity, and order and quiet were established. The common storehouse (§ 27), instead of making men industrious, had made them lazy. Dale gave each man a few acres to till as his own, and the effect was magical. Even idlers went to work ; content- ment increased and crime decreased. New settlements were established and, for the first time, prosperity really smiled on Jamestown. GETTING A PERMANENT FOOTHOLD 33. A Virginian Industry. In John Smith's time the manufacture of ashes, soap, pitch, and glass was begun. But these articles were made cheaper at home. In Dale's time, however, a native plant, not grown in England, began to be raised. This was tobacco. The profits were large, and plantations sprang up on both sides of the James River. Two classes of settlers came : the one to get land and establish tobacco plantations, and the other to find work. Many of the laborers were " indented servants," because, too poor to pay their passage to America, they made written contracts which bound them to work for a num- ber of years. The planters bought their labor from the owners of the vessels bringing them over. Indented serv- ants were little less than slaves until their time was out. 34. How Good Came Out of Evil. Under a third charter (161 2) Samuel Argall was sent out to rule the colony. He was a tyrant, and worked for his own instead of the colony's good. He cheated the company and oppressed the settlers. To remedy this the company immediately appointed Sir George Yeardley as governor, 32 TJic Colony of Virginia with orders to arrest Argall, abolish Dale's hard laws, and allow the settlers some share in a government. The long period of experiment was coming to an end. Englishmen had governed themselves for centu- ries by electing representatives who formed a great assembly called the House of Commons. In 1619 Yeardley instructed the people to elect two men from each neighborhood to meet at Jamestown and form a representative assembly, called the House of Burgesses, an English name meaning the representatives of boroughs or towns. 35. The First Representative Assembly in America (1619). On July 30th, Governor Yeardley and his coun cil of advisers, together with the burgesses, met in the little wooden church at Jamestown, organized the Gen- eral Assembly of Virginia, and began the work of self- government on this continent. The picture is worth remembering. The governor and his council, keeping their hats on, took the front seats, while the burgesses occupied those in the rear. The session was opened with prayer by the clergyman, after which each member took the oath. A speaker, his clerk, and a sergeant were elected and sat facing the assembly. Some members not having been regularly elected were dismissed.' The instructions which the company had given Yeardley were brought in and read, in order to see whether there was in them "any law pressing or binding too hard — because this great Charter is to bind us and our heirs forever." 1 Most of these were English customs. The members of the House of Commons still sit with their hats on, a custom which probably once signified the equality of its members, but which is now kept up because the English like to preserve old and quaint ways. The Commons still have their Speaker, who does not speak much, but who acts as a kind of chairman and wears a wig instead of a hat. The Burgesses imitated the Commons in having a secretary and a sergeant, in taking an oath, and in exercising the right to dismiss members. Getting a Permanent Foothold 33 Acts to take the place of Dale's "cruell lawes" were then passed. One law compelled all persons to attend the Church of England; another provided for the punish- ment of idleness, gambling and drunkenness, and discour- aged the wearing of fine clothes. The assembly tried cases as a court, and at this first session punished an unruly servant by nailing him by his ears to the pillory for four days, and by whipping him once each day. Thus the House of Burgesses began its great career. It served as a training school for Virginia statesmen, and kept alive the spirit of liberty. When the Revolution came one hundred and fifty years later, the House of Burgesses furnished both camp and Congress with a longer list of brilliant men than any other assembly in America. Among its famous members were Washing- ton, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, Edmund Pendleton, Benjamin Harrison, Richard Bland, Edmund Randolph, and George Mason. 36. Founding the Family and Social Life (1619). The colonists, since they could now earn a good living and govern themselves, began to wish to remain in Virginia. But not many families had yet emigrated. It was a colony chiefly of bachelors; there were not enough homes with faithful mothers, happy children, and cheerful firesides. To encourage the settlers, the London Company sent out a large number of women to become their wives. The results were most happy. Social life was elevated. Greater cheer and comfort were soon visible in the log houses of Virginia, and the colonists began to labor not only for themselves but for their children. Four great institutions of human life were now well planted in Virginia: government, reli- gion, industry, and the family. Only the school was still wanting. Why schools grew slowly in Virginia we shall soon see. 34 The Colony of Virginia 37. The Beginnings of Negro Slavery (1619). The year 1619 is one of the most famous in the annals of Virginia. Then it was that a Dutch vessel landed at .A. THE DUTCH SELLING NE- ^ > "''••^d GROES TO THE VIRGINL\ ' i^^W^ PLANTERS, 1619 '""''' -rJP The beginnings of negro slavery in America C~^J^ ^S^^- Jamestown and sold twenty negroes to the planters. At this time slavery existed in all the nations of the world, and found its way into all the English colonies. In Virginia the soil, climate, and chief occupation espe- cially favored it. Slaves came in very slowly at first, but in 1700 nearly one-fourth the population were negroes. The greater their number, the larger became the plantations and the tobacco crops. But the larger the plantations grew, the farther from one another planters lived and the more difficult it became to have towns with stores and trade, churches and schools. The slaveholder did not need to work with his hands, Virginia as a Royal Province 35 but often held office and made the laws, while the non- slaveholder had to labor all the harder because he worked in competition with the slave who labored only for food, clothing, and a house of a very poor kind. The non- slaveholder was seldom able to hire a teacher for his children. 38. The Last Days of the London Company. The last days of the company were its best. In 1621 it gave Virginia a written document confirming and enlarging the rights and privileges established by Yeardley. But the company was hated by the king because it granted free government to Virginia and opposed his tyranny at home. At this time, too, a great disaster came upon the col- ony. The Indians, who had been quiet and peaceful for several years, suddenly fell upon the whites, massacred large numbers, and destroyed many settlements. Vir- ginia staggered under the blow. The king was quick to take advantage of the trouble, and took away the com- pany's charter in 1624, although the Virginians took the company's side in the dispute. America owes a debt of gratitude to the London Company. It did a great work for the English race in establishing firmly Raleigh's " barrier against the Span- iard," and in planting the germs of self-government in America when James I. was upholding the " divine right of kings " to rule as they pleased. VIRGINIA AS A ROYAL PROVINCE 39. A New King Brings Trouble. When King James died (1625), Charles I. inherited not only his father's throne, but also his quarrels. Most of the English people thought it wrong for the king to tax them without the consent of Parliament. Besides, many demanded that the English church change its forms and ceremonies. Over these questions James and Charles quarreled with the people of England for many years. The result was the 36 The Colony of J^irgiiiia Puritan Revolution, which led to the execution of Charles I. (1649) and the rule of Oliver Cromwell in his place (165 2-1 660). During this revolution Charles I. troubled himself little about Virginia, except to appoint the governors and the council. The struggle in England encouraged the bur- gesses to declare repeatedly that no tax could be raised in Virginia without their con- sent. In 1635 the council turned Governor John Har- vey out of office for insulting its members, wasting the taxes, and giving away lands belonging to the planters. King Charles, believing in the divine right of kings, put Harvey back in office for a time, but he was soon suc- ceeded by Sir William Berkeley, who ruled the colony for many years. 40. Virginia Banishes the Puritans and Welcomes the Cavaliers. On the question of " taxation without representation " Virginia sided with the king's enemies in England, but took the king's part against the Puritans, who demanded changes in the church. Under the rule of Sir William Berkeley none but Episcopalians were permitted to teach and preach, and a law banished all other sects from the colony. By 1649 more than one thousand Puritans had removed to Maryland, where they found religious toleration. While Virginia was losing this most vigorous people, another equally vigorous was coming to take its place. CHARLES I., KING OF ENGLAND From a portrait painted by Sir An- thony Vandyke after Sir Peter Lety, now in t/ie Dresden gallery Virginia Under the Commonwealth 37 The news of the beheading of the king was received with sorrow in Virginia. The burgesses immediately declared any one a traitor who tried to justify the king's death or denied the right of his son Charles II. to the throne. In marked contrast to the people of Massachu- setts, who gave shelter to some of the judges who had condemned Charles I., all Virginians gave a hearty welcome to the follow- ers of the king, who were now forced to leave England in large numbers. They were great people in the eyes of the Virginians, for they had fought for the king and the church, and many of them belonged to aristo- cratic families. These Cavaliers, as they were called, were educated, re- fined, and brave, and were a valuable addition to the colony. From them descended some of the greatest men of our Revolutionary period, states- men as well as soldiers. (See list in § 35, page 33.) A CAVALIER A ty pe of the king" s followers who were forced to flee to America VIRGINIA UNDER THE COMMONWEALTH 41. Cromwell's Commissioners in Virginia (1652). The conduct of Virginia toward Cromwell was brave but dangerous (§ 40). Commissioners with war vessels from England sailed up the James River in 1652, either to treat with Berkeley or to conquer him. The governor, hearing of their coming, summoned the militia and pre- pared to fight, but a treaty was finally arranged. The Virginians submitted to_ the authority of Cromwell on condition that they were "to enjoy such freedom and. privileges as belong to the free-born people of England." Both parties were satisfied with the treaty. 42. A Period of Freedom. After this agreement all 38 The Colony of Virginia authority was left, for the first time, in the hands of the burgesses. They now elected both governor and coun- cil, and proceeded to rule Virginia in a quiet way. It was a period of great prosperity. The colony had free trade with all the world. Cavalier and Puritan lived together without strife. The lesson was a good one, but soon forgotten. The death of Cromwell brought Charles II. to the throne, and in Virginia, as well as in England, there was great rejoicing over the new king. THE KING'S SUPPORTERS AGAIN IN POWER 43. Berkeley Governor a Second Time ; Charles II. JIc^iKsl^ei c How Repaid Virginia's Loyalty. As soon as Virginia got word that Charles II. was king in England, the burgesses elected Sir William Berkeley governor, and the king's friends ruled Virginia once more. They were in a majority and soon passed laws banishing Puritans, Quakers, and Baptists. The House of Burgesses took away the right to vote from people hold- ing no land, and then continued to sit for sixteen years without a new election. In 1 65 1 Parliament had passed the OLIVER CROMWELL ^oTav^e Ten'tati Navigation Act, which compelled English ihe^'couealon'''^ colouists to trade with the mother coun- ^ulsefi^Z'tuyH't try alone. Cromwell promised not to ^Buckinghamshire, cuforcc this law iu Virginia, but under England ' cij^j-ieg n jt ^^s not Only enforced, but made so severe that even Berkeley, the friend of the king, joined with the planters in protesting against it, but all in vain. Under this law the people of Virginia could send and receive articles only in English ships, and deal only with English merchants. But the " merry monarch," as Charles II. was called, cared more for the greedy favorites hanging around his The King's Supporters Again in Power 39 court than he did for the interests of his forty thousand loyal subjects in Virginia. So, in 1673, he granted the whole colony, for / ^^ thirty-one years, '^" - ^,^ to two of his fa- vorites, Lords Culpeper and Arlington. This action raised such a storm of protests that the easy-going king did not dare to carry out his in- tentions. 44. Bacon's Rebellion (1676). As early as 1663 a small uprising occurred as a pro- test against the way Virginia was being governed. But this trouble " ' tofiglU the Indians only made the governor and burgesses go further in taking power into their own hands. The people did not forget the freedom enjoyed from 1650 to 1660, and only waited an occasion for rebellion. It came when Berke- ley, bent on getting rich out of the fur trade, refused to protect the settlers from repeated Indian attacks. Nathaniel Bacon, a young member of the council, rallied the frontiersmen and defeated the Indians. The governor proclaimed Bacon and his men rebels, and raised a force to pursue them. By this time Virginia was in tumult, and the people demanded the election BACON AND HIS FOLLOWERS Demanding from Governor Berkeley permission 40 The Colony of Virginia of a new House of Burgesses. Berkeley yielded. Bacon was chosen a member of the new assembly, which repealed many bad laws and sent a petition to the king setting forth the ills from which the people suffered. Meanwhile the Indians became bolder than before, but Berkeley still refused Bacon permission to fight. After again defeating the savages. Bacon's army marched against the village of Jamestown, where the governor's troops were located. A bit of strategy alone prevented a battle. Bacon seized some ladies belonging to the governor's party and compelled them to stand on the breastworks. After a skirmish Berkeley abandoned Jamestown, and some of Bacon's men set fire to its less than two-score houses. Although the old town was rebuilt, it was later burned again by accident. When everything seemed to favor the "rebels" Bacon was taken sick and died, and there was no one to lead in his stead. Berkeley now took his revenge. He put to death twenty of Bacon's leading supporters, threw some into prison, and seized the property of others. Even Charles H. was displeased at the governor's cruelty, and declared that "the old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I did here for the death of my father." One of the burgesses said, " If we had let him alone he would have hanged half the country." Charles II. removed Berkeley from office and refused to see him at court, and the old governor died broken- hearted soon after his return to England. Virginia never forgot Bacon's rebellion. 45. The Founding of the College of William and Mary (1693). From the first days of the colony there had been talk of schools, and a small number of private schools early came into existence. In 1693 a famous college was established mainly through the efforts and enthusiasm of James Blair, a Scotch clergyman in the Maryland : A Neiv Kind of Colony 41 Church of England. He raised some money in Virginia and then sailed for England to obtain more money and a charter. It was the second college founded in America, and took its name from the two English rulers who then occupied the throne. Many interesting stories cluster around its eventful history, and many of Vir- ginia's great sons were educated there. When we meet the Virginians again we shall find them rallying under the leadership of a young Cavalier for the final struggle between France and England in North America. THE OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES MARYLAND: A NEW KIND OF COLONY 46. The Baltimores Found a Colony of Catholics and Protestants (1634). For nearly one hundred years Catholics and Protestants had persecuted each other in England. Catholics were still fined large sums for not attending the Epis- copal church, and were believed to be more in sympathy with Catholic countries like Spain and France than with England. George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, saddened by the bitter persecution of his fellow Catholics in England, generously re- solved to find them a place of refuge in America. He first tried Newfoundland, but his colony suffered too much from the hard climate. GEORGE CALVERT First Lord Baltimore. After a portrait painted by Daniel Mytens, formerly in the possession of Sir Francis Bacon 42 TJie Other Southern Colonies Finally, Charles I. granted him a portion of Virginia and named the country Maryland (see map, page 44), in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria, formerly a French Cath- olic princess, who pitied her persecuted people, and sympa- thized with the aims of Lord Baltimore. The latter died be- fore he saw the success of his plans, but his eldest son, Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Balti- more, took up the work. In 1634 the two brothers of Cecil Calvert sailed up the Potomac with over three hundred "pilgrims," pur- chased an Indian village, and planted their first settlement, St. Mary's. Here, in keeping with the wishes of the founder, reli- gious toleration was established. 47. A New Kind of Colony. Maryland differed from Virginia not only in the people who settled it, but particularly in the powers of government granted by the king. In fact, Charles I. gave all his own right to govern the colony to his friend, Lord Baltimore, who thus became its owner or proprietor. In Virginia the king could appoint the governor and veto laws passed by the assembly, but in Maryland these powers belonged to Lord Baltimore. In England the king alone could appoint judges and grant titles of nobility, while in Maryland such powers were exercised by the proprietor. For all this authority two Indian arrows must be delivered to the king every year as a token of loyalty, and one-fifth of all gold and silver, if any should be found. A CATHOLIC TRIEST OF THE MARYLAND COLONY Maryland : A New Kind of Colony 43 Baltimore, therefore, was almost a king in Maryland. But he gave the people self-government by establishing a representative assembly very much like the House of Burgesses. Maryland profited by the sad experi- ence of Virginia. Her settlers did not suffer from hunger and disease, for in- stead of being "fine gentle- men" and adventurers they were industrious, seeking homes for their families and relief from persecu- tion. Instead of hunting for gold they raised to- bacco, wheat, and corn for export, and won the friend- ship of the Indians at the very beginning by just treatment. 48. Troubles of the Proprietors. But Maryland's troubles came from a different source. The Virginians were displeased because Maryland had been a part of their own territory and because her proprietor was a Catholic. Besides, a high Virginian ofScer, William Claiborne, had built a trading post on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay, before the grant of Maryland was made. He refused to give up his rich trade in furs and to submit to Lord Baltimore's authority. Claiborne was driven out by an armed force, but bided his time. We have seen that many Puritans, driven out of Vir- ginia, went to Maryland. Their settlement, first called Providence, but later Annapolis, became the rival of St. Mary's. During the civil war in England (§ 39), Lord QUEEN HENRIETTA MARIA Fro7n a portrait painted by Sir Anthony Vandyke^ in the gallery at Windsor Castle 44 The OtJicr SoiitJicrn Colonies Phir'acfe'lpnial 'Original charter boundary as claimed by proprietors^^:^>- ^jjj^ ,;gy:^^;^i present boundary THE MARYLAND COLONY Showing the early settlements and the original and present boundaries (See also map on page 91) Baltimore and the Catholics sided with Charles I., while the Puritans sided with Cromwell. Claiborne took advantage of these quarrels, and the Puritans, forgetting the kindness of Baltimore's rule, joined Claiborne and captured St, Mary's. 49. Baltimores Finally Hold Maryland. After Crom- well's commissioners had received the surrender of Virginia they turned their attention to Maryland. Clai- borne was one of the commissioners. They set up their own authority, and decided that no Catholic should be elected to the assembly, while the assembly went even further and ungenerously passed an act refusing tolera- tion to Catholics. In 1655 another battle was fought and the Catholics were once more defeated, leaving one-third of their little army on the field. But that greatest of Puritans, Oliver Cromwell, knew how to be just, as well as stem ; he restored Lord Balti- The Carolinas : The Home of Many Kinds of Settlers 45 more's authority, on his promising perpetual toleration. On the other hand, Virginia made grants to Claiborne for his loss of Kent Island and the fur trade. Maryland was now happy, grew rapidly, and prospered for many years. She did not make as many changes in gov- ernment, after the king was restored, as Virginia did, although voting was limited to men who owned fifty acres or considerable other property. The revolution in England in 1688 drove James II. from the throne, partly be- cause the English people believed that he was trying to overthrow both their govern- ment and their religion. In- fluenced by the news of the struggle in England, the Protestants in Maryland, who were now in a large majority, overthrew the authority of Lord Baltimore again. Will- iam and Mary, who succeeded King James, made Maryland a royal province, and all classes were compelled to pay taxes to support the Church of Eng- land. Later, however, the Baltimores regained their au- thority and did not lose it un- til the American Revolution, in which struggle no troops did better service than the "Maryland Continentals." THE CAROLINAS: THE HOME OF MANY KINDS OF SETTLERS 50. Early Settlements and the Struggle for Self-gov- ernment. North and South Carolina were first known simply as Carolina. A few Virginians very early made their way into this region ; some to escape persecution, CECIL CALVERT Second Lord Baltimore. After i portrait in possession of the Mary- land Historical Society 46 TJie Other Southern Colonics others to seek traffic with the Indians, and still others to find homes. In 1653 a number of Virginians were encouraged by grants from the House of Burgesses to settle on Albemarle Sound. Later a few New Englanders tried to establish a settlement at the mouth of the Cape Fear River, but soon gave up the attempt and left the place to be occupied by people from Barbados (1664). The next important settlement was made in the southern part of Carolina at the mouth of the Ashley and Cooper rivers and named Charles- ton (1670). In time it proved itself a second " barrier " against the Spaniard (§38). This most vigorous of the Carolina settle- ments was begun by emigrants di- rect from Eng- land, sent out by the new owners of the colony. In ' d)A R O LUI IS A -f. Fayettev SOUTH CAROLINA vp»Charleston >Tort Royal annali Frederica /7j6 I Caroline /j6^ ^it. Augustine 1 ^ THE CAROLINA AND GEORGIA COLONIES The divisions here shoivn remained until the close oj the Revolution 1663 King Charles II. had given the whole of the Car- olinas to eight of his favorites. They were to own the land and, if possible, the people too. John Locke, a great English philosopher, and Lord Shaftsbury, one of the proprietors, drew a plan of gov- ernment called the " Grand Model." It was entirely too aristocratic, however, since it provided for a great num- ber of officers with absurd titles, who had the entire government in their own hands. The plan could not have been carried out in England, and much less in The Carolinas : The Home of Many Kinds of Settlers 47 America. The people of the Carolinas would have noth- ing to do with a scheme that gave a laboring man scarcely more rights than a slave. This plan of govern- ment made the settlers suspicious of the proprietors and of the governors sent over by them. 51. Overthrow of the Proprietors. Albemarle and Charleston at first had separate governors. The forn*er colony was restless and turbulent and several times showed its independent spirit by overthrowing its tyrannical officials. Charleston got on better at the beginning and grew rapidly. But in 1691 it also drove out an oppressive governor, and the proprietors united the two provinces. Under a Quaker governor, John Archdale, the united colonies quieted down and prospered. Opposition to the Church of England compelled toleration for all Protestant sects. But the proprie- tors could not really win the sympathy of the colonists. Troubles between them once more broke out, and finally in 1729 the proprietors sold out their rights to the king. The Carolinas were again divided and remained royal provinces down to the Revolution. (See map, page 46.) 52. The People of North Carolina. The character of the people of Carolina is seen in the way in which they defended their rights against the proprietors and bad governors. The Carolinas differed from Virginia in having more kinds of people. In North Carolina the Quakers f^/.^iS,?{/ were numerous and influential. The majority of the population were English, but in no other southern colony were the non-English settlers so numerous. The Scotch-Irish Presbyterians A TYPICAL SCOTCH HIGHLANDER i - Opposition to the king, and settled in Carolina 48 TJie Other Southern Colonies who settled here were a hardy, vigorous people, driven to America by the unfriendly laws of Parliament aimed against Irish manufacturers and Irish Presbyterians. A few Swiss and Germans early settled along the seacoast. Afterward other Germans from Pennsylvania moved into the mountain valleys. But the most romantic portion of the population came latest. (3nly a generation before the Rev- olution there arrived a band of Scotch Highlanders who had re- belled against the English king and who had been driven from their native land by severe laws. 53. The People of South Caro- lina. A small number of Germans, Scotch-Irish, and Highlanders also made their way into South Carolina. But the most inter- esting part of the non-English population were the French Huguenots, driven from their beautiful country by the cruelty of their king. They were Protestants and he was a Catholic. The Huguenots added an industrious and educated element to the Charleston colony, and many of their descendants stand high among Carolina's famous men. 54. Difference Between the Carolinas. The two Carolinas also differed from one another in industries. The people of North Carolina were small farmers, many of whom had no slaves, while South Carolina had great plantations, and by 1750 contained more negroes than whites. North Carolina had a larger number of occupa- tions than South Carolina, where the settlers became rich chiefly by growing rice in the swamps, and later by A HUGUENOT GENTLEMAN Georgia : The Final Barrier 49 cultivating- indigo. Charleston became the rice and indigo town of America. In North Carolina the population was scattered, as in Virginia and Maryland, but in South Carolina it was gathered around Charleston. The large planters lived in the city and only visited their plantations. The effect was to make Charleston the greatest center of social life in the southern colonies. flQ.^^ A CAROLINA COLONIAL MANSION Simplicity and comfort in architecture were brought from England by the settlers Here the owner of hundreds of acres and hundreds of slaves lived and displayed his wealth and pride. He was proud of his great mansion with its imported furni- ture, broad piazzas, and wide halls ; of his many house- servants, of his fine carriage with his coat of arms on its windows, and of his spirited horses. He was generous in entertaining visitors, and gave frequent dinners, balls, and supper parties. Charleston boasted some good pri- vate schools and a number of private libraries. GEORGIA: THE FINAL BARRIER 55. Oglethorpe Plants Still Another Kind of Colony (1732). Georgia was the last of the thirteen colonies, and was not settled until long after the Carolinas. General so The Other Southern Colonies Oglethorpe, who had won renown as a soldier and as a member of Parliament, became interested in English prisons. He was shocked at the hopeless condition of the men in jail for debt. An honest man might be imprisoned for owing less than a dollar, and by fines put on him by corrupt jailors, he might be held while his family was in poverty, till his health was broken down by the foul prison. The heart of Oglethorpe was greatly touched, and he conceived the idea of taking these debtors to a colony where they might begin life anew with hope of success. (See map, page 46.) Another purpose moved Oglethorpe and other Eng- lishmen to plant a new colony. The time had come to push Raleigh's " barrier " farther south. The Spaniards were now alarmed at the progress of the English in America, and hated the colony of South Carolina in par- ticular, as they looked upon it as being in Spanish terri- tory. The Spaniards had already attacked and destroyed A CHARLESTON MANSION From a pbotofrftpk the English outpost at Port Royal, and a French expe- dition against Charleston in 1706 was encouraged by them. Georgia was a new outpost against the Spaniards. Georgia : The FtJial Barrier 51 For Oglethorpe's noble objects about five hundred thousand dollars were raised by vote of Parliament and by private subscription. A number of men formed an "associa- tion," received a char- ter, named the colony after George II., and made the founder gov- ernor. For the first twenty-one years the settlers were to take no part in their govern- ., ment, and slaves and strong drink were pro- hibited. 56. Savannah Set- tled. As news of Ogle- thorpe's undertaking spread, plenty of people wanted to embark for the new colony, especially since free passage, free tools, and free lands were promised. Thirty-five fami- lies settled Savannah early in 1733. Later Oglethorpe brought over more settlers, and with them came Charles and John Wesley, the latter as a missionary to the Indians. 57. The Colony Proves Itself a Third Barrier. Just as Georgia was an outpost for the Carolinas, so Georgia must have some town as its outpost against the Spaniards. For this purpose Frederica was founded (1736) well down toward Florida, and was protected by a fort. In 1739 England and Spain were at war. General Oglethorpe did not wait for the enemy to advance, but attacked the Spanish stronghold, St. Augustine. He was JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE From an original portrait painted by Simon Francois Ravenet,fr07n a tnezzotint by Bur- ford in the print room at the British Museum 52 Massachusetts unsuccessful, and the Spaniards retaliated by attacking Frederica with a fleet and an army of five thousand men. Although Oglethorpe had but eight hundred men, he won a victory, and again tried to capture St. Augus- tine. Once more he failed, but the Spaniard had been taught a lesson, and never afterward attacked the Eng- lish of the southern colonies. A line of settlements had now made good England's claim along the Atlantic coast from Maryland to Georgia. 58. Growth of the Colony. Georgia grew rapidly, and other classes of people were soon added to the popula- tion. Among them were Germans and Scotch High- landers. But the prohibitions against rum and slaves displeased the settlers and so were finally withdrawn. In addition to raising rice, indigo, and tobacco, Georgia undertook to produce silk, but this industry did not pros- per, especially after the introduction of slaves. In 1752 Georgia became a royal province, and was soon involved in the current of the Revolution. MASSACHUSETTS THE PILGRIMS SETTLE PLYMOUTH 59. Early English Efforts in New England. After 1600, Englishmen frequently visited various parts of the New England coast; some were bent on exploration, others on trade with the Indians, and still others on making settlements. We know that the charter of 1606 gave "North Virginia" to the Plymouth Company. (See map, page 26.) In the same year that Captain Newport carried his colony to the banks of the James, George Popham sailed with one hundred and twenty emigrants for the mouth of the Kennebec, but the winter was so severe that the attempt to found a settlement had to be abandoned. In 16 14 Captain John Smith explored this region, Claims based on Disco-very Exploration and Occupancy English nHJ SpanishI 1 French ^ZI\ Dulch Swedish r3!l The Pilgrims Settle Plymouth 53 mapped the coast line, and named the country "New England." But the planting of a line of colonies along this coast, which would keep the French in Canada just as the southern colonies kept the Spaniards in Florida, was to be the work of a very different kind of people from John Smith and the Plymouth Company. 60. The Puritans, their Origin and Ideas. We have already met the Puritans (§40), but we have not learned who they were, what they wanted, or why they came to America. The change from the Catholic to the Protestant religion in England was very gradual. Some Englishmen remained Catholic, others changed slowly and became ^ members of the English or Established church, while still others changed their ideas more rapidly and became Puritans. These were so called because they insisted on "purifying" the Church of England by getting rid of some of its ceremonies. They objected especially to making the sign of the cross, to using the ring in marriage, and to the wearing of the surplice by clergymen. At first, most of the Puritans did not really want to form a church of their own. But in the time of Elizabeth, and later under James I., some of them felt forced to leave the Established church and worship in private places. Such persons were called Separatists. They were a simple-minded folk, very religious and rather democratic, and wanted no great head to the A PURITAN MINISTER 54 Massachusetts church like the king. The government of England, foL lowing the custom of that time, punished them severely for such opinions. The officers broke up their meetings, imprisoned their leaders, and even hanged some of them. 6i. The Separatists Become Pilgrims. Among the Separatists was a small congregation in the town of Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire. Its members were mostly working people who tilled the soil and watched the flocks, but their pastor was the learned and gentle John Robinson, and their elder, William Brewster, a man who had held high office under Elizabeth. Early in the reign of James I. the little band at Scrooby fled to Holland and settled at Leiden. Although they were welcome in Holland, Holland was not England and Dutchmen were not Englishmen. Like all men they loved their native land best, and longed to be under its flag. Besides, in a few years, by the death of the aged and the marriage of the young^ their descendants would become Hollanders. 62. The Voy- age to America ; The Compact ; Plymouth Rock. The Pilgrims, as they now called themselves, de- cided to seek a new home in America. The London Com- pany gave them permission to set- tle within its grant, and a num- ber of English merchants loaned them money. The king agreed not to trouble them, but would give them P^^^§ti^^::% THE "MAYFLOWER" ON ITS WAY TO AMERICA The Pilgrims Settle Plymouth 55 no charter. In 1620 Pastor Robinson and others who remained in Holland bade the Pilgrims a sad farewell. They first sailed for England, where about one hundred finally embarked in the " Mayflower " for America. After a rough voyage, which tried the bravest hearts, and which drove them far out of their intended way, the Pilgrims saw the shores of Cape Cod (November 9th). They had hoped to reach land near the mouth of the Hudson, but storms had driven them northward. While still on board the "May- flower,"they drew up and Sig'ned an signing the compact in the cabin of thk"mayflower' agreement or compact, which pledged loyalty to James I., their bitter enemy, and bound them to make "just and equal laws for the general good of the colony." John Carver was elected their first governor. (See page li.) After examining the coast they selected Plymouth Harbor as their home. (See map, page 60.) At their landing place was a boulder — afterward named "Ply- mouth Rock" — which is still kept in memory of the Pilgrims. 6?- The Struggle for Existence. Amid snow and ice th'OS. ,tle colony battled with disease and death. Their lo^.lbuses did not protect them very well, and their food waji^heot of the best. They had been accustomed to the 56 Massachusetts gentler climate of England and Holland, and they did not yet know how, or have the time, to build strong and warm houses. Neither did they yet know much about taking the wild animals for food and clothing. The natural result was that before spring came with its " cheer, half of them were in their graves, and many of the living were broken in health, But Brewster, Brad- ford, Winslow, and that bold soldier. Miles ' Standish, were still alive. When the "May. flower" went back to England not a man, woman, or child re- turned. New emigrants from Leiden made food scarcer, but a treaty with the neighboring chief, Massasoit, brought safety for many years and made it easier to secure supplies. The skill of Governor Bradford, and the courage of Miles Standish and his little army, kept the Indians from doing harm to the settlement. In a few years the colonists felt able to repay the merchants who had furnished them the means to come to America. Courage and perseverance had overcome the hardships of the wilderness, and the second ~«erma- nent English colony in America was founded. 64. The True Greatness of the Pilgrims. Tl^ -ue glory of Plymouth was not in its size or in its wea' , but |||^Mll( From a photogrftpb PLYMOUTH KOCK TO-DAY, SHELTERED BY A GRANITE CANOPY The Great Puritan Migration 57 in the ideas and the spirit of its people. It never became great in population or resources; in 1630 there were but three hundred inhabitants, and in the next dozen years this number grew to only about one thousand. The land was not rich, and the people divided their time between farming, fishing, and fur trading. They did not become wealthy, but they were contented. The Pilgrims were among the most democratic people in the world. They had no church officers or other rulers not elected by themselves. They were more tol- erant than any of the New England colonies except Rhode Island. Their compact pledged them to seek only the common good, and they were true to their pledge. Every year excepting five, until 1657, they came to- gether in town meetingand rj p| elect e d the faithful Brad- ford governor. All other im- portant ques- tions, such as raising money and m a'k i n g laws, came be- fore all the men of proper age in town meeting, where they were discussed and then voted upon. The noble lesson of devotion to duty and of democracy in government is the imperishable glory of the Pilgrim Fathers. THE GREAT PURITAN MIGRATION FOUNDS THE BAY COLONY 65. The Massachusetts Company. The Puritans who had remained in the Established church only put off the day of separation. James I. drove hundreds of PILGRIM FURNITURE BROUGHT OVER ON THE "MAYFLOWER" 58 Massachusetts their ministers from their positions. Charles I. did even worse. He dismissed his Parliament for opposing his wishes in this and other matters, and resolved never to call another. Before that, however, the Puritans had felt that their political and religious rights were in dan- ger in England, and had resolved to establish these rights in the New World, as the Pilgrims had done before. A number of Puritan leaders formed a company and obtained a grant of land. Strangely enough, Charles gave them a very liberal charter (1629), by which they could do about as they pleased in their colony except that no laws were to be made contrary to the laws of England. Each year the company was to elect a gov- ernor, a deputy governor, and eighteen "assistants." The meeting of the company was called the General Court. The leaders were men of education and influence in England, and soon three hundred people tinder John Endicott were settled at Salem, on the New England coast. 66. The Bay Colony (1630). The Puritan leaders now decided to send the charter to America, and elected sturdy John Winthrop governor of the colony. In 1630 he sailed with a fleet of eleven vessels, carrying over seven hundred emigrants, who established a colony at Boston. Over twenty thousand more followed in the next ten years and settled in various parts of New England. Although the Puritans were now free to plant a new JOHN WINTHROP From a portrait painted by John Singleton Copley: reproductd by permission of the trustees of Har- vard University Growth in Poiitics and Religion 59 church and a new government in a new world, they parted sorrowfully from England, their native land. As her hills were fading from view, one of them wrote: " We cannot part from our native country without much sadness of heart and many tears in our eyes." 67. Massachusetts a Typical New England Colony. Winthrop's colonists named their settlement Boston to remind them of Boston in England. The hundreds who immediately followed founded new towns near by. Among these were Charlestown, already partly settled; Newtown, afterward Cambridge ; Watertown, Roxbury, Dorchester, and others. (See map, page 60.) The making of many little settlements was natural, since most of the people came as church congregations, led by their faithful pastors who had been through the fire of persecution with them. Each group selected its own location and went bravely to work to make homes in the new land. The arrival of a new group of emigrants meant the making of a new town, and thus Massachusetts became covered with towns, as did the other colonies of New England. What the plantations were to the south- ern colonies the towns were to New England. GROWTH IN POLITICS AND RELIGION 68. Mixing Politics and Religion. The Puritan, having suffered so much for both his political and religious beliefs, was determined to follow his own ideas. On arriving in America he put aside very quietly the authority of the Episcopal church, and became as much a Separatist as the Pilgrim. If any one in Massachusetts refused to comply with this change he was sent back to England or punished in some other way. None but Puritans were wanted in the colony. The very rapid increase of settlers led to making a law that only members of the Puritan church could vote ( 1 63 1 ). This was not a very great hardship at first, because 6o Massachusetts the majority were members of some Puritan congrega- tion, and because very few people had the right to vote in England; but it placed the entire con- trol of the gov- ernment in the hands of the Puritans. This "mixing poli- tics and reli- gion" led to some very in- teresting re- sults. 69. Begin- ning to Differ. It was sim- ply impossible for stro n g- minded men and women like the Puritans always to think alike. It was a sign of progress for them to differ and dispute. At first the governor and the "assistants" alone made laws, but in 1 63 1 Watertown refused to pay a tax because she was not represented in the General Court (§ 65). Her people highly prized the right of representation, for they and their fathers had suffered much in England to preserve it (§ 65). Watertown's protest led to the yearly election of deputies from each town to help govern. These depu- ties were more democratic than the governor and the THE SETTLEMENTS AI-ONG THE NEW ENGLAND COAST Groivih in Politics and Relizion 61 "assistants," and, after a bitter quarrel, in Avhicli the depu- ties took sides with a poor widow while the "assistants" favored a rich man, they separated, thus establishing- two houses of the General Court or Legislature (1641). 70. Separation ; Emigration to Connecticut (1636). The growth of differences in religious and political opinions gradually formed two parties. Governor Win- throp's words show what the ruling party thought: " The best part (of the people) is always the least, and of that best part the wiser is always the lesser." The words of that learned minister, Thomas Hooker, voice the views of the other party : " In matters which concern the common good, a general council chosen by all to transact business which concerns all, I conceive most suit- able to rule and most safe for the relief of the whole." Hooker and his followers, not liking the undemocratic character of the government, and being dissatisfied with their location, emigrated (1636) to the rich valley of the Connecticut. (§§ 87-93. See also map, page 72.) 71. Banishment of Roger Williams (1636). The two parties in Massachusetts came to a serious clash over the teachings of Roger Williams, a minister at Salem. He was a man of great ability and advanced ideas, who loved de- bate. He held that people ought not to be punished for religious opin- ions and for staying away from church. This seems reasonable to us, but England and other nations did punish men for their beliefs, and so did the Bay Colony THE ROGER WILLIAMS CHURCH AT SALEM, i6Sx 62 Massachusetts But other questions were mixed with this one. Roger Williams asserted that no king had the right to give away the lands of the Indians by means of chart-ers. These opinions were very dangerous just then, because Charles I. was already planning (1635) to take away the charter he had granted to the Massachusetts Company. Had he caught a whisper of such great contempt for his royal authority, nothing could have vsaved the charter. The people took sides over this and other questions, and the colony was divided when it should have been united. The General Court tried Roger Williams and decided by a small majority that he must go back to England. But he had no notion of doing so, and in midwinter made his way into the wilderness. He later became the founder of Rhode Island, the most tolerant and democratic of New England colonies. 72. Mrs. Hutchinson (1638). This excitement had hardly quieted down before a greater one arose over the teachings of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. She drew large audiences in Boston each week, and discussed deep reli- gious questions in such a way as to displease the lead- ing ministers of the colony and the officers of the gov- ernment. However, a few ministers and the governor, Sir Henry Vane, belonged to her party. Feeling ran high and even interfered with preparations for the war against the Pequot Indians (§ 88). Mrs. Hutchinson was banished (1638), and with some of her followers moved to Rhode Island, while others settled towns in what became New Hampshire. (See map, page 60.) 73. The Body of Liberties (1641). All this excite- ment and discussion made men think. The more they thought over their disputes, the more they were deter- mined to have a body of written laws. The charter was written, but it did not tell what rights belonged to the people. Beginnings of Education 63 In 1 64 1, therefore, Nathaniel Ward, once a lawyer but now a minister, presented one hundred laws to the General Court. These were discussed and sent around for the towns to examine. Thus Massachusetts, follow- ing the example of Connecticut (1639), established a set of written laws, The Body of Liberties, to which the poorest and weakest could appeal for protection. BEGINNINGS OF EDUCATION 74. Why the Puritans Favored Education. No class in England believed more in learning than the Puritans, and of these, few encouraged it more than those emigrating to America. The custom in New England of settling in towns was far more favorable to schools than the southern way of settling on planta- tions (§37). The Puritans were earnest students of the Bible, and each wanted at least to be able to read it for himself. Besides, the Puritan ministers were well-educated men, having, as a rule, studied at Cambridge University. The people talked over the sermons heard on Sunday, and opposed or defended the minister's ideas. This frequent discussion made men wish to learn. 75. Harvard College. The first school founded in New England was the Boston Latin School, although private teaching had been going on from the beginning. In 1636 the General Court voted four hundred pounds for a college in Newtown. Two years later John Har- vard gave his valuable library and about seven hundred and fifty pounds to the new institution, which then took his name. Newtown was afterward called Cambridge, to keep alive the memories of that English Cambridge where so many Puritan leaders had studied. 76. The First Printing Press ; Founding of Public Schools. The year 1639 was a most important one in our history. It was not only the year of the first written 64 Massacniisetts constitution in America (§ 89), but of our first printing press and first free public school. The printing press was set up at Cambridge and the public school- estab- lished at Dorchester. A little later it was ordered that " none of the brethren shall suffer so much barbarism in their families as not to teach their children and appren- tices ... to read the English tongue." To make sure that the children were taught to read, the General Court commanded every township of fifty householders to set up a school for reading and writing, and each town of one hundred householders to establish a grammar school. These were the beginnings of a system of free public schools. OUTSIDE DANGERS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES 77. The First Danger from England (1635). During the excitement over Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutch- inson, Massachusetts had been in danger of losing her charter. Not all the settlers liked the stern rule of the Bay Colony. Some complained to the king that the peo- ple of Massachusetts were now Separatists, were perse- cuting the people of the English church, and were even setting up an independent government. This looked to the king like rebellion and he immediately ordered Mas- sachusetts to give up her charter. When the little colony heard this news it was not frightened. The governor called in the "assistants" and the ministers for advice, who promptly refused to accept a governor from the king, and decided to " defend our lawful possessions if we are able." New forts were built and the men were ordered to practice military drill ; but before the king could take away the charter he had quar- reled with Parliament and there was war in England (§ 39). 78. The New England Confederation (1643). The dangers from England, the claims of the Dutch to the Connecticut valley, the presence of the French in the Outside Dangers and Their Consequences 65 north, and the war with the Pequot Indians (§88), led the colonists of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven to form a union, Rhode Island was not permitted to join, because Plymouth claimed her and because the other colonies thought Rhode Island was not governed strictly enough. Each colony sent two delegates to the union, in order to make them equal in power, but Massachusetts, with as many people as the other three colonies taken together, natu- rally had more influence than the others. This New England league lasted over forty years and taught its people the hard, though valuable, lesson of now and then giving up supposed advantages for the common good. Although it was finally disbanded (1684), this lesson was remembered when the thirteen colonies were forming a greater union in the next century. 79. The Coming of the Quakers (1656). The Quak- ers, a new sect, opposed all forms and ceremonies in religion, Puritan as well as Episcopal (§§ 1 14-1 15). Eng- land soon had her jails full of them, but their zeal was not checked. Fired by the desire to make converts, two Quaker women came to Boston. They were thrust into jail and then sent away by the same ship that brought them over. More came, for not even the prison, or cropping of the ears, or boring of the tongue, or even hanging could keep them away. The league recom- mended the death penalty, but only in Massachusetts, where four Quakers were hanged, was the law enforced. Meanwhile public opinion was so aroused that when another Quaker, Wenlock Christison, was thrown into jail, mutterings of rebellion were heard. The officers were alarmed, and the court hesitated to condemn him. After the court had debated two weeks, grim old John Endicott, who presided, became disgusted with their hesi- tation. On the last day of the trial he arose in great 66 Massachusetts anger, struck the table with his fist, scolded the judges for their cowardice, and declared he " was ready to go back to England!" Christison was condemned, but not exe- cuted, public opinion finally forcing the repeal of the death penalty. This was a deadly blow at the Puritan effort to make all men think alike or keep those who differed out of Massachusetts. Quakers, I^aptists, and people of (jther sects continued to come, and gradually won toleration. 80. King Philip's War (1675). One of the saddest results of the settlement of America was that the Indians had to be driven from their homes. When the settlers moved into the Connecticut region the Pequots made war upon them (1637), but the tribe was almost destroyed (§88). The other Indians remembered this lesson until a new gener- ation grew up. In 1675 the Wampanoag Indians, under their great leader, "King Philip," successor of the faithful Massasoit, began war. Philip saw he must destroy the English or forever give up his hunting grounds. No quarter was shown on either side. Indian wigwams and white men's houses were burned and families murdered. After nearly two years of fighting, one-tenth of New England's soldiers had been killed, but the Indian power was com- pletely broken. When Philip's wife and boy were taken JOHN ENDICOIT From a portrait painted by John Stnibert. Reproduced by permission of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, Massachusetts Outside Dangers and Their Consequences 6"/ and sold as slaves he said, " Now my heart breaks. I am ready to die." He was slain soon after, and the Indians in this portion of the country never again made war on the white man. 8i. Massachusetts Loses Its Charter (1684). During King Philip's war Massachusetts was again threatened with danger from England. While Cromwell ruled England, the Puritans in New England were safe. But Charles II. (1660-1685) was no friend to Puritans any- where. They had executed his father and had made Charles himself a wanderer for many years (§40). Besides, some of the judges who had condemned his father were hiding in New England. Stories of how Massachusetts persecuted Quakers and violated the navigation laws (§ 43) soon reached the king's ears. He commanded Massachusetts to cease persecution, to permit Episcopalians to worship, and to abolish the requirement of church membership for voting. Massachusetts did not like this meddling with her government, and opposed the changes demanded. The longer Charles II. reigned, the more he became dissatisfied with Massachusetts. Suddenly, in 1684, he ordered the charter taken away and Massachusetts became a royal province. 82. Governor Andros Strikes at New England Liberty (1685-1689). Charles II. died before he gave Massachu- setts a new government. But his brother, James II. (1685-1688), was still more bent on ruling to suit himself, and made Sir Edmund Andros viceroy over all New Eng- land, New York, and New Jersey. (See map, page 69.) Andros was not only to rule in place of the king, but to govern instead of the people. The General Court, the town meetings, and the courts of justice were abolished. People were taxed without their consent, imprisoned without trial, and browbeaten for raising objections. 68 Mdssm /in Sifts The public schools were neglected, but religious tolera- tion was established. New England was beginning to plan resistance to Andros' high-handed measures, when, in April, 1689, came the news that a great revolution had taken place in England, and that William and Mary were on the throne. The tyrant. King James, had fled to France. This was the spark that caused the explosion. 83. Fall of Andros. One day the commander of the war vessel which was sta- tioned in Boston Harbor came on shore. The ship carpenters who were col- lected on the pier arrested him. Great excitement fol- lowed ; the sheriff tried to stop it, but the crowd arrested him, too. The boys of the town gathered with clubs in their hands, drums beat the alarm, sig- nal fires blazed on Beacon Hill, and Andros and his From a plwtographof tlie original taint- ofilCCrS fled tO the fort. ing in the possession of Amias Charles rryi r Andros, Esq., of London 1 he f Omicr gOVCmor, Bradstreet, now appeared, and the people gave a mighty shout. A committee of safety was appointed and Boston was ready to fight for its liberties. A thousand soldiers gathered at Charlestown, and the next day hundreds of men from the country, headed by a schoolmaster, came swarming in to fight. The governor's castle was taken, the warship captured, and the forts seized. Andros sur- rendered, and New England was again free. SIR EDMUND ANDROS Maine and Nctu Hampshire 69 84. The New Charter. The victory over Andros showed how promptly and powerfully Massachusetts could act, because her people lived in towns near together. But although the Bay Col- ony wanted the old char- ter back, King William sent her a different one (1691). The new charter added Plymouth and Maine to Massachusetts; the king appointed the governor, who might veto any law not to his liking ; church membership as a condition for voting was abolished, and all sects were to be tolerated. Although Massachusetts accepted the new charter she frequently quarreled with the king's governors and thus kept alive down to the Revolution the spirit of opposition to royal authority. THE OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 85, The Work of Mason and Gorges. The Plymouth Company had failed to establish a settlement in New England (§ 59), but some of its members were still interested' in America. Chief among these were Sir Ferdinando Gorges, a brave old soldier, and his friend Captain John Mason. They were strong Church of Eng- land men, who hated both the religious ideas of the Puritans and their democratic notions of government. Like Raleigh and Lord Baltimore, Gorges dreamed of becoming the lord of a province in the New World. THE REGION RULED BY SIR EDMUND ANDROS 70 TJic Other New England Colonies Gorges and Mason were given a grant of the land between the Merrimac and the Kennebec rivers, a region which they called Maine. (See map, page 60.) In 1630 their first colony was founded at Portsmouth. A little earlier, however, Dover had been settled by men bent on trade in fur and fish. But the two proprietors had already divided their property (1629). Mason came into posses- sion of the western part, which he called New Hamp- shire, while Gorges kept what w^as left. 86. Other Settlements and Union with Massachu- setts. We have seen how some of the banished sup- porters of Mrs. Hutchinson fled to New Hampshire (§ 72). They settled the towns of Exeter and Hampton, but New Hampshire did not grow rapidly at first. As time went on, Puritans from Massachusetts came in faster than the supporters of Mason, and when he died Massachusetts annexed the whole territory. Though Charles H. separated them and made New Hamp- shire a royal province, it had really become a Puritan colony. Meanwhile Gorges had continued his attempts to colonize Maine. Saco was his chief settlement. The people did not take kindly to his aristocratic govern- ment, and disorder resulted. Progress was slow. At length, like New Hampshire, the colony was annexed by Massachusetts. Nevertheless, both grew in strength and formed strong barriers against the French moving southward. CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 87. The Dutch Outwitted ; Connecticut Valley Set- tled. A race early began between the Dutch and the Puritans for possession of the beautiful Connecticut valley. The former had already settled New York, and, hoping to get possession of the fur trade, had built a fort at Hartford. But John Winthrop. Jr., cut them otf Connecticut and Nciv Haven 71 from the sea by erecting a fort, Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut River (1635). The rich farming lands of this region were already attracting the Puritans of Massachusetts. The very next year, as we have seen, under the leadership of Thomas Hooker and other pastors, settlers from Massachusetts began to pour in. They soon founded three towns, Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor. (See map, page 72.) 88. War with the Pequot Indians (1637). The sudden appearance of so many settlers in the very heart of the Indian country excited great alarm and anger among the powerful Pequot tribe. They urged the Narragansett Indians to join them in a common war against the invaders, but the good arguments of Roger Williams kept this tribe at peace. Connecticut then asked and received aid from Massa- chusetts and from Plymouth. Their combined force of seventy-seven whites and some friendly Indians invaded the Pequot country. They burned the Indian fort in a night attack and killed almost all the inmates. This blow practically ended the struggle, and no New England tribe ventured again on the warpath till the time of King Philip (§ 80). 89. The First Popular Written Constitution (1639). The increase of population, the experiences of the ROGER WILLIAMS PLEADING WITH THE NAR- RAGANSETT CHIEF NOT TO GO TO WAR The Other New England Colonies THE CONNECTICUT AND NE%V HAVEN COLONIES Indian war, as well as a de- sire to found a well-gov- erned colony, led the three Connecticut towns (§87) to consider uniting under one general government. The liberal-minded Hooker favored the union of the towns, and preached a sermon declaring that the right to rule is found "in the free consent of the governed," and that the choice of officers "belongs unto the people by God's own allowance " (§ 70). In 1639 the citizens of the three towns met at Hartford and drew up a written constitution. This docu- ment provided for equal representation from the several towns, and the choice of a governor and council by the vote of all the free people, but it contained not a word about the king or Parliament. This union of towns made up the Connecticut colony. 90. The Founding of New Haven (1638). In the midst of the excitement over Mrs. Hutchinson ($5 ^2), a large number of London Puritans had arrived in Boston, led by Theophilus Eaton, a rich merchant, and John Davenport, an able minister. They were bent on found- ing a new colony and were attracted by stories of the beauty and richness of the northern shore of Long Island Sound. The little company landed there in 1638, and Davenport, standing under the friendly branches of a spreading oak, preached a sermon. A day of fastmg and prayer was followed by the simple agreement that Connecticut and Netv Haven 73 " all of them would be ordered by the rules which the Scriptures held forth to them." Thus the town of New Haven was founded. 91. A Union of Towns Forms the New Haven Colony. Other settlements were quickly made. Among- them were Milford, Guilford, and Stamford. (See map, page 72.) These, with New Haven, desiring each other's good, formed a union (1643) which, in the same year, was admitted to the greater New England Confederation under the name of the Colony of New Haven. These four towns formed a government more like the Bay Colony than like Connecticut. Voting and office- holding were limited to church members. Each town was governed by "seven pillars of the church." Finally the General Court of New Haven ordered all officers to observe the laws of God as they were given by Moses (1644). Some of the acts passed by New Haven have been called the " Blue Laws," because they were so strict. Yet the laws of New Haven were not so severe in many respects as those of England. 92. Connecticut and New Haven United (1662). Through the influence of the younger Winthrop, who was governor of the colony, Charles II. was induced to grant a very liberal charter to Connecticut. The popular government, so happily begun in 1639, was continued with royal authority. So firmly were the people attached to this system that it was not changed till 181 8. More- over, Charles disliked the people of the New Haven colony because they protected, from the officers sent to arrest them, Goffe and Whalley, two of the men who had condemned his father to death. Therefore, in addition to giving Connecticut a liberal charter, he gave her the whole colony of New Haven. Thus the two colonies became one under the name of Connecticut. 93. The Conflict with Andros (1687). Under the new 74 The Other New England Colonies charter the people grew prosperous, built new towns, increased their schools, and were generally happy. But on an evil day the "Tyrant of New England," Governor Andros (j^ 82), came among them wearing a big wig and a scarlet coat, and guarded by a band of soldiers. He had come for their charter. The Assembly, one October afternoon, met to discuss the matter with Andros. A great crowd of excited people gathered. The debate lasted until evening, and candles were brought in. The charter was on the table. Their be- loved Governor Treat told the story of their hardships and sacrifices to make homes in the wilderness, and pleaded earnestly with Andros to spare the charter, but in vain. Suddenly the lights were blown out. When they were relighted, the charter was gone. Brave Cap- tain Wadsworth had seized 'it, borne it away, and hidden it safely in the hollow of a great oak. Nevertheless, Andros ruled Connecticut till the people of Massachusetts rose in rebellion. Then the charter was triumphantly brought from its hiding place anc^ Connecticut was once more free. This story, if not strictly true, well shows the feeling of the people toward Andros and toward their government. The tree was named the Charter Oak, and in the city of Hartford is a memo- rial tablet where it once stood. THE "CHARTER OAK " AS IT STOOD Al- ii AKIKORD, CONNECTICUT Rhode Island : the Most Democratic Colony 75 RHODE ISLAND: THE MOST DEMOCRATIC COLONY IN POLITICS AND RELIGION 94. Roger Williams Plants Providence (1636). B5' the stern decision of Massachusetts, Roger Williams had been ordered to return to England, but he preferred the dangers of the New England wilderness in winter and the companion- ship of savage Indians (§71). " For fourteen weeks he was sorely tost in a bitter season, not knowing what bread or bed did mean." Sometimes he was without companions and without guides other than the sun and stars. At other times he had neither food nor fire, and no sleeping, place but the friendly trunk of a hollow tree. He finally reached the wigwam of his good friend Massasoit, where he rested for a time. In June, 1636, with five companions, he founded Prov- idence as " a shelter for persons distressed in conscience." (See map, page 72.) The Indian chief gave him a tract of land, and he in turn almost gave it away to settlers. Each month the people of the little community met to regulate their affairs, but only in civil matters, for no law passed by them touched religious belief or interfered with freedom of conscience. 95. Portsmouth and Newport Settled. Some ban- ished friends of Mrs. Hutchinson, on invitation from Roger Williams, settled on the island of Rhode Island ROGER WILLIAMS ON HIS WAY SOUTH TO FOUND RHODE ISLAND 76 The Other Neiv England Colonics and named their town Portsmouth (1637). (See map below.) Mrs. Hutchinson herself soon arrived, and there she expressed her opinions without check. On account oi disputes among the leaders of the colony, William Cod- dington. a liberal-minded gentleman, led off a party and planted Newport. . These two towns soon united and formed the "Colony of Rhode Island." In 1641 the people declared "that the government of this island is a Democracie." 96. Union Under One Charter (1644). Roger Will- iams now had great influence with the English govern- ment and obtained a charter from Parliament which united Providence, Portsmouth, Newport, and Warwick into one colony under the name of the Providence Plan- tations. This was a very liberal charter, for it permitted the people to make their own laws and to govern themselves as they pleased. Freedom of conscience was in no way interfered with, and it is to the great honor of Roger Williams and Rhode Island that no one ever suffered in that colony on account of his religious belief. In 166^ a new charter was obtained ProvidenQc t 1 ( ^' r^' i: ATLAS i^^^ from Charles II. which confirmed the rights and privileges of the colonists, and particularly asserted that no one should ever be made to suffer " for any difference in opinion in matters of religion." Rhode Island was so well con- tented with this new charter, which in all essential respects made her a republic, that comparatively few changes were made in it till 1842, when it became neces- sary to allow more people to vote. KARI.Y SET'l l.KMENTS IN KHODE ISLAND AND 1 HE PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS Holland Plants a Colony in America 77 NEW YORK HOLLAND PLANTS A COLONY IN AMERICA 97„ Henry Hudson ; The Dutch Fur Traders. Henry Hudson, an English sailor employed by the Dutch East India Company, failing in an effort to find a northeast route to India, turned his vessel , the " Half Moon," westward to- ward the shores of America. He entered the river which bears his name, and sailed up to the present site of Albany (1609). He traded with the In- dians, noted the char- acter of the soil, the beautiful scenery, the great forests everywhere, and the abundance of rich fur-bearing animals. Hudson reported his discovery to the company. The Dutch merchants were among the most enter- prising in their day, and they soon had their boats in New Netherland, as the country was called, to take advantage of Hudson's discovery. By 161 3 the fur traders had built four rude houses on Manhattan Island and about the same time they constructed a fort near Albany. (See map, page 78.) 98. A Lasting Indian Treaty (1616). The fur trade was the foundation of New Netherland 's prosperity, but success in the fur trade demanded friendship with the Indians. The Dutch, through Henry Hudson, had made a good beginning, but their rivals, the French in Canada (§ 150), had made a bad one by attacking the HENRY HUDSON IN THE "HALF MOON PASSING THE PALISADES 78 New York Iroquois, or Five Nations, \vho occupied New York. Hence these powerful tribes were glad enough to make a treaty with the Dutch fur traders. The Indians wanted arms and ammunition, and the Dutch wanted furs. These they agreed to exchange, and both were happy. For over one hundred years the powerful Five Nations stood as a barrier between the French and the valleys of the Hudson and the Mohawk. (See map below.) 99. The West India Company ; New Amsterdam. News from the fur traders encouraged the formation in Holland of the West India Company. Under its authority settlers had no political rights, but were ruled by a gov- ernor and a council appointed by the company. Immi- grants to New Netherland now came to stay and settled among the many trading posts. Besides those of ^Man- hattan and Fort Orange, later Albany, the enterprising traders had built posts on the Delaware near the site of Philadelphia, on Long Island, and later in the valley of the Connecti- cut. But Manhat- tan, which soon took the name of New Amsterdam, grew faster than the others. In 1626 Governor Peter Minuit pur- chased the whole of Manhattan Island from the NEW NETHERLAND AND THE "FIVE NATIONS" Indians. This land, now worth hundreds of millions, cost the old Dutch governor less than one cent per acre. Holland Plants a Colony in America 79 100. The Patroons (1629). To increase population and to attract rich men to the colony, the company offered any of its members sending over fifty settlers mmMj — ' From a pholograph A MANSION OF A PATROON, ON THE FAMOUS VAN RENSSELAER ESTATE the title of patroon, or patron, and a large grant of land. The settlers were to live on this plantation, pay no taxes for ten years, be furnished a farming outfit, and have the services of a minister and teacher. On the other hand, they were not to vote, hold office, or be tried by a jury. The patroon was to be their lawmaker, governor, and judge. The settlers were not to hunt, fish, or man- ufacture, or remove from the plantation for ten years. They had to sell their products to the patroon and grind their grain at his mill. The most celebrated patroon was Van Rensselaer, who selected an immense estate on both sides of the Hudson near Fort Orange. Others located near New Amster- dam. In summer all lived upon their estates. In winter they resided in New Amsterdam, and, by their wealth and social position, aided in making it the most aristo* cratic of the northern cities. 8o New York THE PEOPLE OF NEW NETHERLAND WANT SELF-GOVERNMENT loi. The Dutch Colonists Dissatisfied. The people of the Dutch Republic were a liberty-loving people and their liking for free government was made stronger by- living in America. The absolute rule of the governor of New Netherland and the aristocratic patroon system could hardly please the settlers as they grew in num- Ijers and influence during the next quarter of a century. Besides, as the Dutch traders journeyed about they learned of the town governments of New England, and gained many new ideas from English Puritans settled on Long Island. The immediate cause of the people's demanding a share in the government was a disastrous war with the Algonquin Indians (i 641 -1645). which Governor Kieft carried on against the wishes of the people. The burden of taxation and the destruction of life and prop- erty fell upon them, and yet they had no voice or vote in the affairs of the colony. The people, therefore, demanded a share in the gov- ernment, but Kieft opposed them and forbade public meetings without his consent. They sent a strong pro- test to Holland, begging for the establishment of self- government or permission to return to their native land. This protest did not bring self-government, but it did bring a new governor (1647). 102. Peter Stuyvesant Opposes the People. The colonists were thankful for any change. Peter Stuyve- sant, the new governor, was a better and abler man than Kieft, although her had not a particle of sympathy with popular government. The struggle continued. Stuyve- sant wanted money badly, for New Amsterdam and all New Netherland needed defenses. The people alone bad money. In 1647 the governor was forced to give Nc7U Netherland Wants Self'Govcrninciit 8 1 them permission to elect a number of their most trusted men from whom he might select nine as a committee to advise him when he judged it necessary. In his dealing with religious sects the governor made himself still more unpopular. Toleration was a Dutch custom, and persecuted sects — Huguenots, Jews, Scotch Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, and Puritans — sought shelter in New Netherland. The governor favored the Dutch Reformed church, and tried to keep other churches out of the colony. A few Baptists were fined and impris- oned, while Quakers were even whipped and banished. But the people favored toleration, and finally compelled the governor to treat all religious sects more kindly. 103. The Struggle for Self-Government Continues. When the quarrel between the governor and the peo- ple broke out afresh, the government of Holland gave New Amsterdam its own city government (1653). But the appoint- ment of officers was left to the governor, and so the people obtained little real power. The population of New Amsterdam was only about eight hundred. Growth had been very slow, because the town and colony had been ruled for the benefit of a trading company instead of for the people. In the same year the citizens objected to paying for a great wall — whence the name Wall Street — built along the north side of the town, for military protection, and Stuyvesant was forced to permit a popular convention of eight towns to discuss public affairs. The convention charged the governor with being tyrannical, and he in 1 THE PALISADE ON MANHATTAN ISLAND SHOWING THE ORIGIN OF WALL STREET 82 New York turn dismissed it, asserting that his authority came from God and the company, and not from the people. 104. The Natural Results of Tyranny. War between England and Holland broke out in 1.664. New Amster- dam was in danger, but the people had little interest in affairs in which they had no voice. The defenses of the town were weak. Stuyvesant had only one hundred and fifty regular soldiers, twenty cannon, and a little powder. The English fleet, carrying one hundred and twenty THE DUTCH MOTHERS BEGGING STUYVESANT TO SURRENDER cannon, sailed into the bay. The English officers came on shore and offered the governor favorable terms of surrender, but Stuyvesant angrily tore up the paper containing the offer in order to keep the people from hearing it. The news, however, got out among the gathered multitude, and the governor's conduct was roundly hissed. Still Stuyvesant wanted to fight, but the next day his good friend, the minister, put his hand on his shoulder and told him it was wrong to shed blood in a hopeless cause. The people signed a protest against fighting, and the good Dutch mothers, with Progress Toivard Sclf-Government 83 tears in their eyes, begged Stuyvesant to surrender. " Let it be so. I had rather be carried to my grave," said the brave old governor. The result was a most happy one for the English. Before the surrender the line of English colonies was broken in the middle by New Netherland. No enemy was now nearer than the French in Canada and the Spanish in Florida. PROGRESS TOWARD SELF-GOVERNMENT 105. The Colony in 1664; Duke's Laws (1665). Ever since Cabot's voyage (§ 13) England had claimed the Hud- son River region. Charles IL had already granted it to his brother James, Duke of York and Albany. In honor of the new owner, New Netherland was now renamed New York, and Fort Orange became Albany. The pop- ulation of the colony was about ten thousand. The rich owned slaves, and there was already a greater mixture of races and nations than in any other colony in America. As early as 1643, eighteen different lan- guages could have been heard in New Amsterdam, It thus began very early to be a " city of foreigners." Next to self-government, the colony was in need of a good system of schools. From an early date schools of some sort had existed, and a "common school" had been opened in New Amsterdam in 1650. Later a Latin school had been founded whose fame drew students even from the Carolinas. Just before the surrender a grant for school purposes had been made to Brooklyn, by the governor and his council. Unfortunately the English neglected for many years the promising begin- nings in education already made by the Dutch. But the people felt keenly their lack of a share in public affairs, and the hope of obtaining this made many welcome the English. The " Duke's Laws," drawn up by Governor Nichols and a convention of representatives 84 Nciv York of the people, were in the right direction. They pro- vided for : (/) Election of town officers by landholders. {2) Trial by jury, (j) Freedom of worship. There was still, however, no representative assembly. The colonists again became dissatisfied, and the Dutch inhabitants rejoiced when a Dutch fleet recaptured New Netherland (1674). But their joy was cut short, for a treaty soon restored the province to England. 106. The First Assembly; The Charter of Liberties. With the return of the English the demand for repre- sentative government was renewed. Andros, the new governor, later the " Tyrant of New England " (§ 82), opposed the demand, but he wrote to the Duke of York for advice. The duke had already learned to fear repre- sentative assemblies, and said that he did not " see any use of them." But the people did not lose heart, and sent a strong petition for an assembly. It is said that William Penn advised the duke to grant the favor, and a new governor, Thomas Dongan, brought the good news of the duke's consent. The first assembly consisted of eighteen representa- tives elected by the landholders of the colony. Good laws were made, and a Charter of Liberties was drawn up and sent to England for the duke's approval. But when the Duke of York became James IL, King of England, he not only refused to approve the Charter of Liberties, but destroyed the assembly so happily begun, annexed New York to New England, and then appointed Andros as governor over the whole. (See map, page 69.) 107. Rule of Leisler (1689). When the news came that the people of England had risen in rebellion and had driven James from the throne, a bold German shop- keeper, named Leisler, who had been a soldier, took com- mand of the militia and seized the government of New Delazvarc 85 York in the name of William and Mary, the new rulers of England. Leisler was opposed by many, especially by the wealthier people, but was stoutly supported by most of the other classes. He kept his position for a time by force, and, though he intended well, his rule was harsh. Gov- ernor Sloughter, who was sent from England, had Leisler tried for treason, and, while intoxicated, signed his death warrant. The bitter feeling aroused over Leisler's con- duct and death divided New York for many years. 108. Representative Government Firmly Estab- lished. Just as in England the Revolution of 1688 over- threw the tyrannical rule of James II., so in New Eng- land, New York, and New Jersey it restored the liberties of the people. William and Mary granted New York's wish for a permanent representative assembly. After a struggle lasting half a century the right of the people to a share in their own government was thus secured. The English kings did not always send wise gov- ernors to rule New York, and her assembly often quar- reled bitterly with them. By resisting the arbitrary con- duct of the governors the people of the colony kept alive that spirit of independence which later led them to bear their part in the American Revolution. THE OTHER MIDDLE COLONIES DELAWARE 109. New Sweden. In 1638 the eyes of all Europe were on Sweden. Her great king, Gustavus Adolphus, had won many victories, and her statesmen became ambitious to extend the dominion of their country to the New World. Accordingly, the Swedes planted a colony on the banks of the Delaware River, where Wil- mington now stands, and named it Christina, in honor of their new queen. (See map, page 87.) New Netherland 86 TJie Other Middle Colonies at once declared that her territory had been invaded. The Swedes, however, made other settlements and their colony prospered, but the quarrel with the Dutch con- tinued until sturdy Peter Stuyvesant's army forced the Swedes to surrender (1655). no. A Part of Pennsylvania (1682), Delaware did not remain long under the Dutch, but passed into the hands of the Duke of York, along with New Nether- land (1664). Maryland tried to get possession of the little colony, but William Penn, the personal friend of the Duke of York, won the prize and 'added it to Penn- sylvania to give his great colony a more direct outlet to the sea. But the people of Delaware were not happy in this union, and obtained an assembly and a deputy governor of their own. From 1693 to 1703 Delaware was again united with Pennsylvania, but in the latter year was once more made a distinct colony, although she continued to have the same governor as Pennsylvania. NEW JERSEY III. First Settlements. The Dutch fur traders from New Netherland were the first to occupy New Jersey by establishing a post at Bergen, but the entire region between the Delaware and the Hudson fell to the Duke of York by the conquest (1664). (See map, page 87.) He granted it to two friends, Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. The name New Jersey was given to it because Carteret had won fame as governor of the Island of Jersey. The government established by the proprie- tors was liberal, consisting of a governor, a council, and an elective assembly. Toleration was granted to all sects who behaved themselves. In 1665 Elizabethtown was founded by English emi- grants led by their first governor, Philip Carteret. A little later, people from New Haven, dissatisfied on Neiv Jersey 87 account of their union with Connecticut, came and settled Newark. (See §92.) They immediately organ- ized a town government, and resolved that only church members could vote and hold office. Several other settle- ments were also made by New England people. Two years later deputies were sent to Elizabethtown to frame a set of laws for the government of the colony. A liberal government, tolera- tion, safety from Indian attacks, and a moderate cli- mate, all had an influence in attracting large numbers of settlers. 112. East and West Jersey. The settlers, follow- ing the custom of other col- onists, purchased their lands from the Indians. This purchase was not only just, but gave the colonists an excuse for refusing the pro- prietors' demand for a small land rent. Their main ob- jection to paying rent, how- ever, was their claim that they had occupied the land before the proprietors. The trouble which fol- lowed led Berkeley to sell his share of New Jersey to Quakers who sought a refuge from English persecution. This part of New Jersey finally fell into the hands of William Penn and other Friends. A line was drawn separating the colony into East and West Jersey, the latter falling to the Quakers. William Penn tried to give West Jersey genuine EAST AND WEST JERSEY AND THE SURROUNDING COLONIES 88 The Other Middle Colonies self-government. Ten " honest and able men," chosen by the assembly, were to act instead of a governor. Reli- gious toleration was granted, and no power was retained by the owners. " We put the power in the people," said the Quaker proprietors. Four hundred Quakers imme- diately left England for West Jersey, where they founded Burlington (1677). In 1682 William Penn and twenty-three others, chiefly Friends and Scotch Presbyterians, encouraged by the success in West Jersey, purchased East Jersey from Car- teret's heirs. While the new owners continued Carteret's government, they succeeded in settling, for a time, the rent disputes. A large number of Scotch Presbyterians settled in East Jersey in order to enjoy toleration. 113. Quarrel with the Duke of York; New Jersey Becomes a Royal Province. Meanwhile the colony was threatened from without. The Duke of York soon came to regret that he had given away so valuable a posses- sion, and wished to bring New Jersey once more under his authority. But when Governor Andros of New York tried to carry out his master's wishes, he was met by resolute opposition. William Penn argued the case of New Jersey in Eng- land with great skill and the duke was forced to give up his claims. Later, when he became king, he united the Jerseys to New England and New York under the rule of Andros (§ 82). But when Andros was overthrown New Jersey welcomed back her old proprietors. The trouble over rents arose again, however. This time the settlers resisted their collection by force of arms, and the proprietors, tired of quarreling, gave up to the crown (1 702) their right to govern the colony. Until 1 738 New Jersey had the same governor as New York. As in other colonies of this kind, the king appointed the governor and the council, but the assembly was elected Pennsylvania a Home for the Persecuted 89 w by the people. Although all Christians were tolerated, only Protestants holding property could vote. Now independent of New York and having her own government, New Jersey faced toward the future, to work out her own destiny and to bear her share in the movements of the new century. PENNSYLVANIA BECOMES A HOME FOR THE PERSECUTED 114. The Origin of the Quakers. We have already met the Quakers in several of the colonies, but now we shall study them in their own great colony of Pennsyl- vania. George Fox, the first Quaker, grew to manhood in England during the stirring times of the war between Charles I. and the Puritans. It was a period which gave birth to new ideas and new sects. The first followers of the Quaker faith came from among the lowly. Of this the leaders were not ashamed. The new converts were enthusiastic and were soon preaching in many parts of Europe and in America (§ 79)- 115. Their Doctrines. The doc- trines and practices of the Friends, as they called themselves, were simple. They rejected all forms and outward show in worship even more com- pletely than the Puritans (§ 60). The corner stone of their faith was that truth is made known to every man by a ''divine inner light," or an "inward voice," which, to them, was the voice of God. Many important consequences grew out of this belief. (/) They held that every man is his own priest, that paid ministers are unnecessary, and that taxes for the church are wrong. {2) They believed that all men are equal in A TYPICAL QUAKER 90 The Other Mieidle Colonies the sight of God and should be so in the sight of men. Hence, no titles of rank or honor should be given, and the hat should not be removed before any one. All men, kings and common people, should be addressed by the simple word "friend," or by the words "thee" and "thou." (j) It was only one step more to the conclu- sion that all men should have equal political rights. The Quakers were more democratic than the Puritans. {4) They denied the authority of all churches, and refused to take an oath, even as a witness in court. In fact they were not always favorable to lawyers and courts, but believed it better to agree than to go to law or war. (5) They abso- lutely refused to make war, even in self-defense. 116. William Penn. The greatest among the Quakers was William Penn, son of Admiral Penn, the friend of King Charles II. While a student at Oxford, young Penn became a Quaker, was fined, had to leave college, and was driven from home. His father finally forgave him ; but in Ireland, and by his grandson, GrahviUe F'enn of Stoke I^oges qcrnin and liTain in England, he was thrown into prison, owing to his belief. Nothing, however, could break his resolution to follow the teachings of his conscience. WILLIAM PENN At the age of 22, from a painting in the rooms of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, presented Pennsylvania a Home for the Persecuted 9^ 117. Penn's Grant; The Charter. Persecution in England soon led the Quakers to turn their thoughts to America. We have already seen how Penn and other Friends suc- ceeded in founding a prosperous Quaker col- ony in West Jersey (§ 112). The success of this undertak- ing led him to form a new plan. He de- termined to plant a colony of his own. the early settlements in PENNSYLVANIA, SHOWING -^ , THEIR RELATIONS TO THE NEIGHBORING COLONIES rortune fav- ored the young Quaker. The English government owed his father a large sum of money, and in payment of the debt Charles II. granted Penn the title to about forty thousand square miles in America, under the name of Pennsylvania. (See map above.) William Penn drew up his own charter and made it true to the ideas of the Friends. (/) Absolute freedom of conscience was granted, without regard to sect, color, or nation. {2) Government was declared to be for the benefit of the people, and was to be conducted by them. (j) Criminals were to be reformed and not merely pun- ished. {4) Only two crimes, murder and treason, were to be punished with death. (5) Trial by jury was given to Indians as well as to Englishmen. (6) By the charter, Penn was made proprietor and, of course, personal owner of all the land of the colony. 92 Tlie Other Middle Colonies Ii8. The Migration to Pennsylvania. Early in the spring of 1 68 1 the work of founding the new colony began. Penn sent a letter to the people of Delaware, who had been placed under his authority, 'wishing them "happi- ness here and hereafter," and saying that he was no governor coming "to make his fortunes great." "You shall be governed by laws of your own making and live a free, sober, and industrious people. I shall not usurp the right of any, or oppress his person." Penn's plans were published on the continent of Europe. The good news spread rapidly, and new hope sprang up in the hearts of the poor and the oppressed. No movement since the days of Winthrop and the Puri- tans could compare with the emigration of Penn and the Quakers. Over twenty ships carrying three thousand settlers sailed for the Delaware the first year, and within four or five years seven thousand persons were in the new colony. From England, Germany, France, Sweden, and other lands they came, attracted by advantages offered by no other country. 119. Penn's Arrival; Assembly at Chester. In 1682 Penn, with one hundred Quakers, arrived at Newcastle in the ship " Welcome." The settlers gathered to give him a hearty greeting and to acknowledge his authority. The men wore leather breeches and jerkins, while the women were clad in skin jackets and linsey petticoats. One settler handed Penn water and soil, signifying that the great Quaker owned the land and the water ; another gave turf and twig, showing that Penn had authority over all things that grew upon the land. Finally Penn received the keys of the fort, which meant that he could hold his possessions by force of arms. This was a very ancient ceremony much used in Europe, but even then seldom employed in America, for it reminded people too mucii of aristocracy. PciDisylvania a Home for the Perseeutcd 93 In a few weeks Penn met the representatives of the people at Chester to establish the Great Law of Pennsyl- vania for their better government. These toilers in the western wilderness decreed that man should rest from labor on the first day of the week, but that no one should be persecuted for religion's sake, and that no taxes should be raised for the support of a church. Every person pay- ing taxes was to vote, and all Christians could hold office. No oath was required in giving testimony in court, but " the false accuser was liable to double damages." Prisons were not to be jails merely, but were to be provided with workshops where useful trades could be learned. 120. Penn Treats with the Indians (1682) ; Founding of Philadelphia (1683). William Penn treated all men After the painting by Benjamin West, owiieJ by the l'( PENN TREATING WITH THE INDIANS Jemj of Fine Arts as brothers, the red man as well as the white man. He met the Indians on terms of equality and friendship, ate with them, joined in their pastimes, gave them presents, and completely won the hearts of these children of the American forest. ' As long as the Friends controlled the 94 'J ^tc Other Middle Colonics colony the agreements between Penn and the Indians remained unbroken. Penn soon turned his attention to founding his capi- tal, Philadelphia, the "city of brotherly love." He marked broad and regular streets and- named them after the trees that grew on all sides. Settlers came more rapidly than houses could be built, and not a few lived in caves dug along the banks of the Delaware. Before the year closed, there were more than three hundred and fifty houses, and within the next two years over two thousand people had made it their home, and the school and the printing press were at work. This rapid growth con- tinued imtil Philadelphia became one of the most impor- tant cities of colonial times. It was the scene, in the next PENN'S TREATY BELT OF WAMPUM century, of some of the most interesting events in Amer- ican history. The colony had become, as Penn himself declared, the greatest that had been planted in America by private effort. 121. Penn's Return ; Mason and Dixon's Line. Penn was compelled to return to England (1684) because of a dispute with the Baltimores about the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland. The dispute was not settled till long after, when two English surveyors, Mason and Dixon, ran a line between the two colonies from east to west three hundred miles. Every few miles they placed a stone, on one side of which was cut the coat of arms of the Baltimores, and on the other that of the Penn family. This became The People 95 known as "Mason and Dixon's line," and later marked the separation of the slave and the free states. 122. Dissatisfaction in Pennsylvania. The governors appointed by Penn were not always as wise and unselfish as he, and many of the settlers forgot what Penn had done for them in founding the great colony. Even if these two causes had not existed, it would have been impossible for people so different in nationality, ideas, and habits as the settlers of Pennsylvania, to have agreed with the Quakers on all questions. We have seen how " the lower counties," which made up Delaware, objected to being a part of Pennsylvania (§ no). But the greatest difficulties arose over the pay- ment of quit-rent, a small sum annually due William Penn as proprietor. The people did not like to go on paying rent forever to him and his heirs, yet this is just what "quit-rent" meant. Penn came back in 1699 and things went better for a time. But the quarrel broke out again with his descendants, and ended only when the Revolution turned the attention of the people to greater questions. Penn's colony prospered; agriculture and commerce grew, and schools and newspapers multiplied. Emigra- tion from Ireland and Germany increased, so that Penn- sylvania, although settled much later than most of the colonies, soon became larger than New York, and was exceeded in population only by Virginia and Massachu- setts. COLONIAL LIFE THE PEOPLE 123. Distribution and Grovrth. The surrender of New Netherland gave to the English an unbroken line of colonies from Maine to Florida. By 1750 settlers had already pushed up the larger streams, such as the 96 Colonial Ijfc Connecticut, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the James, and the Roanoke. The hardy pioneers of Virginia and Carolina were preparing to cross the mountains into what is now Tennessee and Ken- tucky, Beyond the line of settlements was a region where the English woodsman contended for the Indian trade with his hated rival, the French fur trader. In 1750 Boston, New York, Albany, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Williamsburg, and Charleston were the most important places in the col- onies, either on account of their size and trade or because they were capital towns. None of them were very large, for the great majority of the colonists lived on farms or in small villages. Although population was increasing very fast, the thirteen colonies in 1750 contained less than one million five hundred thousand inhabitants. New York City with its immediate vicinity alone now has more than twice as many inhabitants. Moreover, this number included the negro slaves. In Virginia the blacks nearly equaled the whites, while in South Carolina they were more numer- ous. The middle colonies had fewer slaves than the southern, and New England had fewest of all. 124. English and Non-English Colonists. In 1750 the majority of the people of the thirteen colonies were English. In New England nearly everybody was of English descent. The southern colonies, especially A FRENCH FUR TRADER WITH HIS PACK The People 97 Maryland and Virginia, came next in the number of English settlers, though both of the Carolinas contained many non-English people. The middle colonies, how- ever, had a greater mixture of nationalities than the others. In 1700 the Dutch were still in a majority in New York. Soon after, thousands of Germans arrived and settled along the Hudson and the Mohawk, where they became prosperous farmers, and where to-day are many towns with German names. But the majority of these Germans settled in Pennsyl- vania and made up a very large part of the population. The Pennsylvania Germans, nicknamed " Pennsylvania Dutch," for a long time kept the language and customs of their native land. Some of their quaint ways may still be seen in the nooks and corners of that state. From them, as well as from the other non-English set- tlers, have come some of the famous men of the country. Among the boldest and most energetic pioneers of the colonial period were the Scotch-Irish, whose fore- fathers originally lived in Scotland, but who afterward moved to the northern part of Ireland. They settled largely in the mountain val- r- leys of Pennsylvania, Vir- ginia, and the Carolinas, where they had few or no slaves, and lived very plainly in their log houses on little farms. They were the " backwoodsmen " of later colonial >^ THE HARDY BACKWOODSMAN 98 Coloiial Life days. These Scotch-Irish settlers were the greatest Indian fighters and the best marksmen in America. The sore oppression which drove them from Ireland made them among the first to resist the king's tyranny in America. 125. Social Classes. The American colonists did not quickly get rid of all their old-world customs. People everywhere were more separated into social classes than now. Although few per- sons who emigrated to America had titles and belonged to aristocratic society, yet in all the colonies there were great social differences. The negroes were the lowest class. They and their children were bought and sold as slaves, unless some kind- hearted master set them free. Even when treated kindly their life was a hard one. Next to the negro slaves were the white " indented " or bond servant and the poor white laborer. They were *f.]L*BSB?*s»^~ _'J^,|< widely separated from the negro by .^'^^''' pl§§^ their color and by the fact that they ^•-"': "^ were free or would soon become so, but A COLONIAL GENTLEMAN ^^^^ ^^^^^ generally ignorant and sel- dom got ahead in life unless they moved into the newer regions where people thought less about social standing. In the second class of whites were the mechanics, shop- keepers, and small farmers. These were a sturdy and promising class, and made up the majority of the colonists. They struggled to improve their condition by saving their earnings and by educating their children. The third, or highest social class, was made up not only of educated people, as ministers, lawyers, governors, The People 99 and judges, but, especially in the middle and the soathern colonies, of the rich, such as the patroons and the great planters. 126. How Social Differences Were Shown. The differences between classes were shown in many ways. The lower classes were expected to be very polite and respectful to the upper. Marriage between persons of different social rank was strongly opposed. At church the people were often seated according to social standing, and the common people sometimes remained outside the church till the great officers or the rich planters and their families had entered. Students at Harvard College were seated according to their social standing. Social rank was partly shown in dress. ; The slaves wore little, and that little of the cheapest kind. The poorer class of whites dressed plainly because they could afford no better. In place of shoes they often, like the Indians, wore moccasins made of the furs and skins of wild animals. When cloth was scarce the men wore leather breeches sometimes trimmed with fur. The mid- dle class dressed more comfortably, while the men and women of the highest class tried in every way to show their standing by their clothing. For weddings, receptions, and balls the men powdered their hair, wore wigs, rich velvet coats, knee breeches, silk stockings, and silver shoe-buckles, and carried gold- headed canes and gold snuffboxes. Fashionable young men sometimes wore swords, laced hats, and red cloth coats. The women on such occasions were dressed in silks, satins, and velvets brought from London. The royal governors and other officers appointed by the king made great efforts to impress the people with their rank, not only by receptions and baHs, but by ceremonies in opening and closing the legislatures and by "processions" through the colony. lOO Colonial Life 127. The Governor's Reception at Williamsburg. The greatest social event in any colony was the gover- nor's reception and ball. To be invited was to receive the highest honor. In no colony was the old-world pomp and pride kept up better than in the " Old Dominion." The great recep- tion occurred at Williamsburg, the capital town, to cele- THE GOVERNOR'S RECEPTION IN THE COLONIAL DAYS, ONE OF THE GREAT EVENTS OF THE YEAR brate the meeting of the House of Burgesses. The families of the planters looked forward to this reception for months,' and the mothers and daughters made great preparations. It was the most interesting subject for talk for many days before the event. Among the heir- looms of some of the old families of Virginia are letters written at the time that some of these festivities took place, and describing what occurred. In his great coach, decorated with the family coat of arms and drawn by fine horses, the planter and his family journeyed toward the capital. Before them rode negro servants and behind them came others, all proud The People lOI to belong to such a man as their master. What busy and noisy scenes the old capital town presented, as the great planters with their families and trains of servants came pouring in ! How grand and stately was the reception ! The governor and his family received the officers of the colony, the burgesses, and other distinguished people. Everybody was dressed in his best, and all bowed low to the governor and his wife and then backed stiffly away, because no one might turn his back upon the king's representative. How happy and proud were the planter and his family if the governor smiled and spoke with more than usual friendliness ! 128. Rent Day on the Hudson. On the great estates owned by the patroons, events took place which were seen nowhere else in the colonies. The patroon's house, usually made of brick or stone, Avas of great size, often three stories high. The rooms were many and large, and frequently finely decorated. The furniture and the dia- mond-shaped windows spoke of great wealth. Around the mansion ran wide, well-cared-for walks lined with beau- tiful shrubbery. Farther away lay the gardens and the orchards, sometimes extending down to the Hudson. Near by stood the great barns where the grain was stored and w^here horses and cattle found comfortable quarters. Nearer still were the plainer houses for the white and the black servants belonging to the patroon. How like the estate of some European lord all this appears ! Once or twice a year rent day came around. Then all the small farmers living on the patroon's vast estate gathered with rent money in their pockets, and in their wagons they brought the patroon's share of what they had raised. It was a holiday and every farmer and his family were dressed in their best clothes, A great feast was prepared. An ox, sheep, and pigs had been roasted. I02 Colonial Life Dozens of vServants, white and black, hastened to and fro, waiting upon the people, who ate, drank, and made merry. Everybody declared that the patroon was a kind-hearted man. But when the farmers went to their homes to begin again their hard labor, they could not help washing that the farms were their own and that they did not have to pay rent. HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 129. Colonial Houses. The first settlers lived in log cabins, and down to the end of the colonial period the majority of houses were made of roughly dressed logs. After the introduction of saw mills the well-to-do people began to have houses built of lumber. Later, a few of From » pbotofrmph A MANSION OF THE MIDDLE COLONIES — THE BEVERLY CHEW HOME the rich had stone or brick houses. From 1700 on, colo- nial homes grew larger and more elegant, especially in the towns and cities. After the families of the first settlers were made comfortable the men hastened to build a church and a blockhouse. The latter was made of great logs and Home Life and Pastimes T03 From % pbotogrmph A BLOCKHOUSE BUILT FOR PROTECTION AGAINST THE INDIANS had portholes and an overhanging second story. Some- times a watchtower was added. Whenever an Indian alarm was given, the people for miles around ran to the blockhouse for safety. For over two hundred years the log cabin and the block- house followed the march of settlement westward. The long winters of the northern colonies compelled the people to build houses in which to keep warm, while the long sum- mers of the southern colonies compelled them to build houses in which to keep cool (§ 54). The northern dwellings were closely built and did not have many doors or windows, while the southern houses were often divided by long, wide halls, and had verandas and bal- conies. Window glass came into use slowly, many houses having nothing better than oiled paper to let in the light and keep out the storm. One important part of every colonial home, whether rich or poor, was the great fireplace, the only means of heating. In the smaller homes the fireplace occupied a large part of one side of the house. If the family had a separate room for a kitchen, it, too, had a fireplace where the cooking was done, for there were no cooking stoves in colonial times. The kitchen had very few of the many conveniences now used by the poorest housewife. 130. Furniture and Light. Aside from the furniture brought from Europe, the colonists had to depend on I04 Colonial Life A WHALE OIL LAMP that which they made themselves. In hundreds of homes in every colony stools served as chairs, and benches as setters, while rude tables were made with ax and saw. Outside of the towns, tables were furnished with wooden dishes, and the well-to-do more often ate from pewter plates than from china. Instead of the smooth solid floors which the poorest have to-day, the settlers then often used the hard earth for a floor. Instead of carpets, even those better off had only the bare floor, with here and there a home-made mat. To light the finest houses there was neither electricity nor gas, nor even ker- osene lamps, but only tallow candles. When these were wanting, the "tallow dips," whale-oil lamps, or the light of the great fireplace drove away the darkness. When the fire accidentally went out, some one had to bring live coals from a -^ ' neighbor's or " strike "^^^^ fire" from a flint, for.^^^ matches were yet un- known. 131. Clothing. The settler's rifle and dog secured not only food for the table, but clothing for the body. The skin of the deer was dressed and made into breeches for the men and into carrying fire from the neighbor's Home Life and Pastimes 105 moccasins to be worn instead of shoes. Fur-bearing animals like the beaver and the raccoon furnished hats and material for other clothes. The farmers raised flax and wool which the women of the household made into cloth. The wealthy people in all the colonies imported fine clothes from London, but among the industrious mid- dle class every family spun its own yarn or thread, wove its own cloth, and cut and made its own clothes. 132. Pastimes. In New England and the middle col- onies indoor pleasures and pastimes occurred before the great fireplace. Here neighbors gathered to pass the long winter evenings in social chat, story-telling, nut- --' cracking, or to take part in J some kind of "bee." In the daytime, spinning, sewing, and quilting bees gave pleasant and profitable occupation to mothers and daughters. In the southern colonies dancing was a popular amusement. But outdoor games and sports also added to the enjoyment of colonial times. New England and New York were happy with their husking bees, sleighing and skating parties, while farther to the southward fox- hunting was a favorite pastime. South Carolina added football to the long list of southern outdoor sports. SPINNING IN A COLONIAL HOME io6 Colonial Life 133. Training Day and Rifle Practice. The rifle helped not only to furnish food and clothing, but to protect the settler from the Indians. It was, therefore, every man's companion, whether he was at work in the fields or on a visit to a neighbor, or in the village. Sometimes the people went armed even to church. The result was that the colonists became natural soldiers. But to improve them still more, "training days" were held in all the colonies, when the men A TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND HOME gathered to be taught by some veteran how to form in ranks, march, load, and fire at the word of command. Such a meeting was a sort of holiday, when whole families went to see the militia drill like real soldiers and to visit with old friends. After the drill was over, the men took part in running, jumping, boxing, wrest- ling, and other athletic games. But they did not forget the rifle. The pioneer was proud of his marksmanship. Shooting-matches were a common pastime, and such contests frequently followed the drill. Judges were chosen, the distance measured. Schools, Books, and Newspapers 107 and the target set up. The one who hit the mark oftenest was declared the champion rifleman. This was a proud honor in those days when the American col- onists were among the best marksmen in the world, SCHOOLS, BOOKS, AND NEWSPAPERS 134. Northern Schools. The first thing the Ameri- can colonists had to do was to cut away the forests, build houses, and make farms. Everybody had to help, men, women, and children. The settlers had few books. Even after the printing press was set up, not many books or papers were made in the colonies, for the people were too poor to buy and too busy to read them. In New England the schoolhouse came next after the church and the blockhouse (§ 1 29), but if . - a town was not large - -'^ enough for a public /^^ school, the minister often taught the children. Al- though, under the Dutch, a school of some sort existed in almost every town, when the English conquered New Netherland they neglected the schools for a long time. In New Jersey, soon after 1700, every county had a school supported by taxation. When Philadelphia was founded public schools sprang up, the most famous of which was the Penn Charter School. It was open to both boys and girls — a very unusual thing in any colony — to the rich for a fee, but to the poor without pay. Outside of Philadelphia, schools grew more slowly, but the faithful pastors among the Germans and the Irish often taught the children of their own congregations. A NEW ENGLAND SCHOOLHOUSE io8 Colonial Life 135, Education in the South. South of Pennsylvania the public schools were fewer in number, because the people lived far apart. Governor Berkeley of Vir- ginia was opposed to public schools, and thanked God that there were no free schools or newspapers in Virginia. Nevertheless Virginia boys had a number of schools, supported by gifts, where they could study. In South Carolina, also, " free schools " were maintained by private gifts. In the southern colonies the sons of the wealthier planters often studied at home under private tutors, while others depended on the clergy, who taught the children of their neighborhood when other schools were lacking. 136. Colonial Colleges. New England not only had a school for every town, but a college for every colon}-. ">s^.:^ ■_:>$ '1S''^>' 'ii HARVARD COLLEGE IN THE EARLY DAVS Massachusetts had Harvard (1636), Connecticut had Yale (1701), Rhode Island, Brown (1764), and New Hampshire, Dartmouth (1769). The middle colonies also averaged one each. New York had Kings, now Columbia (1754); New Jersey had two, Princeton (1746) and Rutgers (1770); Schools, Books, and Newspapers 109 while Pennsylvania had the largest college in America, the University of Pennsylvania (1755), which soon had four hundred students. But the boys in the southern colonies generally went either to the College of William and Mary or to the north, while a few of the wealthiest studied in England. No southern college was established outside of Virginia until after the War for Independence. The colonies had about as many colleges, according to population, as we now have, but not nearly so many public schools. 137. Libraries. The school is for children, but books and newspapers are the teachers of older people. The one book found in colonial homes was the Bible. Books were then scarce everywhere in the world, but particu- larly in America. Hundreds of towns, cities, and schools have libraries now, but in colonial times there were few libraries, even in the larger towns. Charleston had the only important town library in the southern group. Most of the libraries belonged to private persons or to the colleges. One great Virginia planter owned a library of over three thousand volumes ; one or two others had collections of two or three hundred books. 138. Newspapers. The first printing in America was done at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. Pam- phlets and almanacs were printed before the first book, which was the Bay Psalm Book, appeared from the press. The first real American newspaper, the Boston News Letter, did not appear until 1704. Other papers soon sprang up in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Charleston, All the colonies had one or more printing presses before the war broke out with England. But how slow it all appears to us! No telegraph, telephone, or reporters to collect the news. The printer gathered his news, set his own type, and then worked no Colonial Life the press himself, printing only one page at a time. After the paper was printed, there were no newsboys or fast trains to carry it to its readers. How old the news must have been ! When the first daily paper, the Penn- sylvania Packet, appeared in Philadelphia, the colonists must have felt that they were making rapid progress. 139. How a New York Newspaper Won Free Speech. Toward the end of the colonial period the newspapers began to discuss politics, like the great journals of to-day. But when Peter Zenger, editor of a New York paper, dared to find fault with Governor Cosby he was cast into prison. His trial caused the greatest excitement in the colony. To secure the punishment of Zenger, Cosby took away from the able lawyers who had agreed to defend him the right to practice in New York. All hope for Zenger seemed gone. But when the trial began the judges were surprised to see in the courtroom Andrew Hamilton, a venerable and skillful Quaker lawyer who had hurried from Phila- delphia to plead the case. In a great speech he declared : " It is not the cause of a poor printer, nor of New York alone, which the jury is now trying. It is the cause of liberty!" In spite of all the governor could do, Zenger was acquitted. In the crowded courtroom the result was received with deafening cheers, and w^hen the chief justice threatened the people they answered by cheering louder still. Hamilton was the hero of the hour. He was given a banquet, a salute was fired in his honor, and he was voted the freedom of the city. Never again was the right of free speech in such danger in America. RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND CUSTOMS 140. Many Religious Sects Bring Toleration. In the Old World each nation wanted only one religion, just as it had only one government. When a new way of Religions Belief and Customs III worship arose, its followers were punished or had to leave their homes if they wished to remain true to their belief. Many of these sects from different countries found new homes in America, where they could worship as they pleased. At first some of them did not wish other sects to live among them. Governor Endicott wanted only Puritans in Massachusetts and tried to keep out Episcopalians. Peter Stuyvesant encouraged the Dutch church and persecuted the Quakers. Governor Berkeley wanted only Episcopalians in Virginia and drove away Puritans and Baptists. Among the early colonies Rhode Island and Mary- land set the example of religious toleration, while the later ones, like the Quaker colonies and Georgia, either allowed religious freedom or treated religious sects kindly. The other colonies gradually learned that it was best not to quarrel over religious questions. It turned out well for America that she tolerated many sects, for it not only prevented a state church from being set up and supported by taxation, but it also induced people of all sorts of beliefs to come to this country. Toleration became the rule in America. 141. Colonial Church Ways. The colonists were very much in earnest about their religious ideas and cus- toms. At some time in most of the colonies all persons were compelled to attend church on Sunday. The min- ister was usually the most highly educated person in his neighborhood, and was looked up to with great respect by all classes of people. They asked his advice in family matters as well as in public affairs. The min- isters had most influence in New England, and were often called in by the governors and judges to advise them in regard to the government. In most of the colonies the Sabbath was kept very 1 1 2 Colonial Life strictly. Little work was done in the home and none out of doors. The people went to church and heard very long sermons. The church buildings were plain and, in the northern colonies, very uncomfortable in the winter, since there was no way of heating them. The men wore their heavy coats, and women brought heated stones for their hands and feet. In New England, if persons fell asleep during the service, an officer tapped them on the head with a rod, sometimes gently and sometimes severely. In the middle colonies, especially in New York, the Sabbath was not kept so strictly as in New England. 142. Severe Punishments. Laws were stricter and punishments more severe in colonial times than now. In our day criminals are put to death for two crimes only, but then there were more than a dozen crimes, in some of the colonies, for which a man might suffer death. Criminals were more frequently punished in public than now. We lock them in jails and prisons where people cannot see them, but the colonists put them in public places in order that people might see them. In almost every county the gallows on which men were hanged stood in some public place, while in almost every town there were the pillory and the stocks, and now and then the ducking stool. Sometimes men were seen with great scars on their faces or hands, made by a hot iron which burnt in the first letter of their crime. More often in some public place a man was to be seen with a curious crowd around him pointing to a large letter or word on his back or breast. The letter or word showed what his offense had been. These were severe ways of making people behave themselves. 143. Witchcraft. A little over two hundred years ago people almost everywhere believed in witches. That is, they thought that a person migrht become Industry and Travel \ 1 3 the friend and companion of evil spirits and obtain their aid in doing harm to others. Very ugly and deformed persons were usually the ones accused of bringing misfortune or even death upon people whom they disliked. Persons supposed to have such a power were called witches, and by the laws of all nations, including most of the colonies, were to be put to death. In 1692, at Salem, Massachusetts, a regular witchcraft craze broke out. Some young people acted strangely and declared that certain other persons had "bewitched" them. In the excitement the craze spread, and large numbers of innocent people were thrown into prison on the charge of being witches. Nineteen persons were tried and hanged before the craze came to an end. The people of Salem saw that if the excitement kept on, most of them would be in jail and many innocent people be put to death. Nearly one hundred years afterward witches were still tried and executed in parts of Europe. Even now a few people are ignorant enough to believe in witches. INDUSTRY AND TRAVEL 144. Colonial Occupations. The colonists were engaged in three great occupations : agriculture, manu- facture, and commerce. Farming was the chief occupa- tion, whether in New England where the farms were small, or in the middle group where they were larger, or in the south where the great plantations existed. Manufacturing was carried on in all the colonies. But making cloth, furniture, and other things was a very different occupation from what it is now. In colonial days it was not done by great machines and in factories, but by the simplest sort of tools and almost entirely in private houses and small shops. 145. New England Industries. The fishing and shipbuilding industries were most prosperous in New 114 Colon ia I L ifc England. Shipbuilding required sawmills, carpenters, ropemakers, and sailmakers. Every year hundreds of vessels vsailed in search of the codfish or the whale. They came back, added lumber and furs to their cargoes, and sailed away for the West Indies or Europe. After sell- ing their cargoes the shipowners brought back loads of English goods, or sold their vessels and came home and built or bought new ones. Shipbuilding was thus encouraged and gold and silver money was brought in from Europe. Sometimes the trader sold his lumber and fish for sugar and molasses in the West Indies. This new cargo he brought back to New England to be used for food or to be made into rum. Often the ship captain carried the rum to Afric^ and with it he purchased slaves whom he carried to the West Indies or to the southern colonies. Though all the colonies built ships and carried on foreign com- merce, New England took the lead. By 1750 she was building not far from two hundred vessels every year. 146. Occupations of Middle and Southern Colonies. New York led the colonies in the fur trade. The Dutch early won the friendship of the Indians, especially of the Iroquois, and from a vast region the fur trade flowed to this colony. Although New York farms produced well. and her people built vessels, no business brought so much ready money to the colony as the fur trade. Pennsylvania, too, traded in furs, built ships, and manufactured many things, but her greatest profit lay in raising grain. She built mills and established a large trade in grain and flour with the other colonies, but par- ticularly with Europe. Her mills were the best in the colonies, and Virginia sometimes sent grain to Pennsyl- vania to be ground. Farming of a peculiar kind belonged to the southern colonies. In Maryland and Virginia tobacco, and in the Industry and Travel "5 Carolinas and Georgia rice and indigo, were the most profitable crops. The great plantations with their hun- dreds of acres and large numbers of slaves, were the planter's pride. His social standing and influence increased as the size of his plantation and the number of his slaves increased. So he gave little attention to manufacturing, shipbuilding, and trade, and, as a result, had to depend on the northern colonies and England for many things. 147. When the Great Ship Came to the Planter's Door. The southern planters, when possible, selected their homes on some river and near the sea. This made it easy to travel from plantation to plantation or from THE SOUTHERN PLANTER'S HOME The ship from London has tied up at the planter's wharf to load with tobacco colony to colony, and enabled the annual ship from Lon- don to land at the planter's own wharf. For weeks everybody talked of the coming of the ship, of news from friends, and of the fine clothes and furniture it would bring fresh from their old English homes. How all " hands " worked to get the tobacco and other products ready for the great vessel! What stir and excitement as the ship first came into view, sailing up the river ! What joy it brought to every one ! Good news from the old home ; letters, presents, and perhaps some long absent friend ! Then came the work and noise of unloading what the planter had bought, and of loading ii6 Colonial Life what he had to sell. While all this bustle was going on, the planter and his family were entertaining in true plantation style, the officers of the ship, and settling up accounts and giving orders for'the next year. 148. Smuggling and Piracy. We have seen how England tried by the Navigation Laws to keep other nations from trading with the colonies. But the people found ways of getting goods without paying the duties. At times cargoes were landed in some small bay or river where there were no officers, and the goods sold to the people or hauled to the larger towns. vSometimes the vessels unloaded at the wharves while the officers were absent. This smuggling was illegal, but such practices had long been carried on by English merchants when trading with other nations. Pirates as w^ell as smugglers were common in colonial times. Pirates w^ere not only sea robbers, but murderers. They armed themselves, and their vessels usually carried cannon like men-of-war. They captured merchant ves- sels, took the money, sold or destroyed the ships and cargoes, and often murdered the sailors. Pirates were so dangerous that trading vessels had to go armed, and many terrible battles were fought in self-defense. As late as 1700 piracy was common along the Atlan- tic coast. Governor Fletcher of New York even sold licenses to the pirates ! His successor. Governor Bello- mont, sent a bold seaman, Captain Kidd, to hunt them down. Kidd, however, himself turned pirate and became the "terror of the sea." But when he dared to return to New York, Bellomont caught him and succeeded in driv- ing pirates off the coast. The Carolinas suffered even more than New York from the visits of sea robbers. It was only after hard fighting that the southern colonies conquered Blackbeard and other pirates. 140. Means of Travel. In early colonial days the The G^-owth of French Poiver 1 1 7 most common mode of travel was by boat and river. The forests were so dense and settlements so far apart that it was easier and safer to sail or row from settle- ment to settlement or from colony to colony than to go by land. Later, travel on horseback between neighbors or villages near each other came into use, and later still regular roads between the great towns of the different colonies were established and used by travelers, carriers, and the stage-coaches. The postman on horseback made regular trips, mainly between the large towns, carrying whatever letters, papers, and bundles people could afford to pay for. In the northern and middle colonies routes of travel in- creased rapidly as trade grew, but in the southern col- onies travel was more difficult because towns were few and the planters' homes were far apart. The great planters tried to make up for the lack of taverns or inns by inviting travelers to stop with them. THE STRUGGLE FOR NORTH AMERICA THE GROWTH OF FRENCH POWER 150. A Decisive Indian Battle (1609). When we turned aside to study the work of Englishmen in America, the French had already settled Port Royal in Acadia, and Champlain (§ 19) had laid the foundations of New France at Quebec (1608). But in the same year that the "Half-Moon" sailed up the Hudson, Champlain took part in one of the most important Indian battles ever fought. He joined a war party of Algonquins who were invading the country of their deadly enemies, the Iroquois or Five Nations. On the shores of Lake Champlain the hostile tribes met and prepared for battle with savage yells. Sud- denly the ranks of the Algonquins opened and Cham- plain, clad in steel and armed with a weapon never Il8 The Struggle for North Afueriea before seen by the Iroquois, came forth. The warriors of the Five Nations looked astonished. Champlain fired and two chiefs fell. Other shots followed and "the FRENCH PRIEST PREACHING TO THE INDIANS boldest and fiercest warriors of North America" ran frightened through the woods, with the Algonquins in hot pursuit. The victory was complete, but from that day forward the Iroquois were the enemies of the French, and for over one hundred years kept them from moving down into New York (§ 98). 151. The Frenchman and the Indian. The hostility of the Iroquois compelled the French, moving westward to carry on the fur trade and to convert the Indians, to abandon the St. Lawrence route and move up the Ottawa River and across to Georgian Bay. On the shores of The Grozvth of French Pozver 119 the Great Lakes the French priest early established his mission and the French fur trader his post. This gave France a double hold upon the Indians. The French trader lived on more friendly terms with them than did the Englishmen. They went with the Indians deep into the forests in search of game and fur; paddled up and down rivers and lakes with them as boon compan- ions; shared their wigwams and camp-fires; joined in their sports and pastimes, and often married the dusky maidens of the forest. The English did none of these things, but instead the majority of them settled down on farms or in towns. 152. First French Expedition to the Mississippi (1673). As the French pushed westward, they heard rumors of a great river called the " Father of Waters." Frontenac, Governor of Canada, sent the missionary Marquette and his friend Joliet to find the river. They paddled slowly on in birch-bark canoes, from the Straits of Mackinaw into Green Bay and up the Fox River. Directed by the Indians, they carried their canoes over the "portage" to the banks of the Wisconsin. Down this picturesque stream they floated till they were on the broad bosom of the Missis- sippi (1673). (See map on page 120.) Borne on the current of the mighty stream, they drifted southward till, after many days, the mouth of the Arkansas was reached. Warned of the hostility of the Indians who lived lower down the river, the two explorers began the long, toilsome return. They entered the Illinois River, and finally reached the present site of Chicago. MARQUETTE A typical French missionary I20 The Struggle for NortJi America 153. La Salle, the French Fur Trader. The story of their adventures excited in Canada still greater inter- est in that vast and almost unknown region. In 1679 La Salle started to occupy and.hold the Mississippi Valley for the French king. (See map below.) Traveling from what is now Kingston by way of the Niagara River, Green Bay, the St. Joseph, the Kankakee, and the Illinois rivers, Ckamplain's Route, Ibis 10 jf.^.^.^.^.^.^^^ Marquette and Jolict's Route, i6;j ,.,.,_,_,_,., ^LaSalU's Route to Ft. Crevccoeur and return, ;6;9-i-l-«— I— I— I— 1— l-i— I GIL*' OF 3IKXIC0 LaSalles Route from Ft. St. Louis to the Gulf, FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AND POSTS he and his party reached Peoria Lake. Here they built a fort. While the great leader re- turned for supplies. Father Hennepin floated down to the Mississippi, and then slowly made his way up that stream to the Falls of St. Anthony, where now stand the " Twin Cities of the Northwest," St. Paul and Min- neapolis. But the hated Iroquois warriors burned La Salle's fort, and he gave up his attempt for the time. Nothing daunted, however, La Salle finally reached the Mississippi by way of the Chicago and Illinois rivers and journeyed to the Gulf of Mexico (1682). After the custom of that time, the party went through the ceremony of taking possession of the vast region drained by the Mississippi for the King of Preparatory Struggles \2\ France. La Salle named it Louisiana in honor of King Louis. How rich and splendid a region for a new French empire! The English settlements at this time occupied only a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast. 154. French Settlements in the Mississippi Valley. From the Gulf of Mexico and from the Gulf of St. Lawrence the French had two waterways to the interior of North America. Only one other remained, that by way of the Hudson and the Mohawk rivers. What use France made of these early advantages we shall see. In 171 8 New Orleans was founded, giving France control of the entrance to the Mississippi. Later a great fortress called Louisburg was built to give her control of the entrance to the St. Lawrence. (See map, page 120.) The Canadian French were also active. They settled Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi River, in 1695, and shortly afterward Detroit and Vincennes. Many other posts were established in the new region, and to-day we find, especially along the Mississippi, the Great Lakes and their tributaries, many French names. The French thus spread themselves over a vast region, hoping to hold it till they grew stronger. Their real object was to build up a great colonial empire in America. PREPARATORY STRUGGLES 155. Common Causes. The English and the French had been rivals in Europe for centuries, and now each nation was ambitious to control as much of the soil of America as possible. Possession of the soil would not only give room for the growth of colonies, but promised great wealth on account of the rich trade in furs and the more useful trade in fish. Their claims to Amer- ican territory, based on explorations and settlements, were in conflict at many points. Partly to settle these disputes, but at first chiefly because England and France fought at home, their children went to war in America. 122 The Struggle for North America 156. King William's and Queen Anne's Wars (J689- 1713)' We have already seen how the English people drove out their tyrannical king-, James II., and placed William of Orange upon the throne (§ 107). France at once took sides with James and a great war began between the two countries which lasted for twenty-five years. Peace was once made for a short time, but under Queen Anne, the successor of William upon the English throne, the bitter conflict was continued. The English colonists were far superior in numbers, but, except for the Five Nations, the Indians all took part with the French, The French also had an able soldier, Count Frontenac, the governor of Canada, to lead them. He planned at first to invade and capture New York, thus cutting the English colonies in two, and getting possession of their only great waterway to the interior. But the Five Nations attacked Canada, and the French then adopted the Indian plan of fighting by sending small parties of Canadians and Indians to burn outlying settlements and massacre their inhabitants. Great damage was thus done, and the whole New York and New England frontier was kept in constant terror. 157. Indian Massacres. Schenectady, New York, was one of the first places attacked. A fierce band of painted Indians, led by French officers, made its way upon snowshoes over the deep winter drifts toward the little town. They endured cold and hardship ; they forded the icy rivers, and at last hid in the woods near their unsuspecting prey. Night came on and the peo- ple of Schenectady were sleeping peacefully ; even the drowsy sentinels dozed at their posts. Suddenly upon the icy air rang out the shrill Indian war whoop, and from the borders of the wood rushed the savages, intent upon plunder and blood. There was little resistance. In a moment the town was in flames and its inhabitants Preparatory Struggles 123 were slaughtered or fleeing half-clad toward Albany. Before help came the French and Indians were well on their way back to Canada with their prisoners and plunder. Such were the dangers of frontier life in war INDIANS ON THEIR WAY BACK TO CANADA WITH THEIR PRISONERS time. Many other massacres of the same sort took place during this long conflict. The most famous were those at Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, and at Haverhill and Deerfield, Massachusetts. 158. New England and New York Cooperate (1690). The English did not submit tamely to such blows. The colonies saw that they must act together if they were to defend themselves successfully. Either New York or Massachusetts alone was helpless. So after the mas- sacre at Schenectady, a meeting between several of the exposed colonies was held at New York to agree upon joint action (1690). This conference was very impoi tant, as it was almost the first meeting of the kind. 159. English Expeditions and their Results. As a result of this meeting a great fleet under Sir William 124 The Struggle for North America Phips was sent to attack Acadia, and Port Royal, its chief town, was captured. Later attempts against Quebec and Montreal failed, and although Port Royal was for a time reoccupied by, the French, a second Eng- lish expedition reconquered Acadia. When peace was finally made by the treaty of Utrecht (17 13), not only was all Acadia given to England, but Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay Territory as well. Acadia was renamed Nova Scotia, and Port Royal was called Annapolis in honor of the queen. So in spite of their terrible losses the English colonies gained ground as a result of the long warfare. 160. King George's War (1744-1748). George I. and George II. were Germans, and did not understand the ways of Englishmen. They depended very much upon the advice of a great statesman, Robert Walpole, who avoided war just as long as possible. So the colo- nies had a long period of rest from war with France. But more than ever were they watching and fearing the advance of the French from the west and from the north. When war finally broke out again in Europe, New England sent a great expedition of one hundred vessels and several thousand troops against Louisburg, the key to the St. Lawrence. The fortress of Louisburg, located on Cape Breton Island, was made of heavy stone and had cost several million dollars. The French thought it could not be taken. But it fell (1745), and the event caused great rejoicing throughout the English colonies and in Great Britain. The disappointment was very great when it was given back to France by the treaty of peace (1748). THE FINAL STRUGGLE 161. Immediate Causes of the French and Indian War (1754). The preceding wars had nut removed any of the causes of trouble between the two sets of colonies, North America in 1750 The conflicting Spanish, French and English claims English I I Spanish dl French (£73 Fr^'i'.'i^Sp.'a CD Unexplored kt^-A SCALE OF Miles TJw Final Struggle 125 but had rather made their rivah-y more bitter. During this period, as we have seen, the English population was pushing northward and westward toward the headwaters of the principal rivers (§ 123). The French, in turn, were working southward from Canada and eastward from the Mississippi Valley, and had already planted more than sixty military posts between the mouths of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. It was only a question of time until rival parties of hunters or explorers would come into collision. 162. The Ohio Company ; Washington's First Public Charge. The organization of the Ohio Company has- tened the collision between the English and the French. A grant of five hundred thousand acres near the head of the Ohio was obtained by a company of Virginia planters for settlement and for trade in furs. They built a road into this region and made preparations to send out settlers, when news came to. Virginia that the French were already moving into the Ohio Valley. Governor Dinwiddle resolved to send young George Washington to the French with orders for them to leave (1753). It was a dangerous undertaking for a young man with a few guides to invade that wild country, filled with hostile Indians and French, who loved nothing better than to take an Englishman's scalp. But Wash- ington made the journey, delivered his message, visited the French commander, and saw him preparing to move farther south. He returned and reported that the French had refused to leave. Men were immediately sent to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio, but before the fort was finished the French floated down the Allegheny and compelled the English to surrender (1754). The French completed the work and named it Fort Duquesne. (See map, page 127.) Washington was already moving into the region with 126 The Struggle for North America a company of Virginia volunteers, while the French were marching a larger force southward to meet him. After a skirmish, Washington built Fort Necessity, which he was compelled to surrender to superior numbers. War had begun. Both parties were determined. There could be no agreement. Each received aid from the home country, and preparations for a great struggle were now begun in earnest. 163. Treaty with the Iroquois. For nearly one hun- dred and fifty years the Iroquois^ had been the enemies of the French. Again the English sought their aid. A meeting with the Indians was held at Albany in the summer of 1754. New England, the Middle Colonies, Maryland, and Virginia sent their representatives. The Iroquois came in slowly, for they were hesitating. They, too, saw the meaning of the coming struggle, and complained against the English. Hendricks, chief of the Mohawks, said: ".Look at the French. They are men; they are fortifying everywhere. But, we are ashamed to say it, you are like women." The English, however, gave the Indians more and costlier presents than ever before, and they departed with plerdges of lasting friendship. 164. The Albany Plan of Union (1754). For a num- ber of years leading men in America had been talking of a union of the colonies for mutual defense. Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, who had risen from a poor printer to a place of fame in both Europe and America, was heart and soul in favor of united action. He pre- pared a plan for bringing the English colonies into a league to enable them to act more quickly and with greater power. Franklin's plan provided : (/) That the chief officer of the united colonies should be a " President- General," appointed and paid by the king. {2) That 'In 1713 the Tuscaroras of North Carolina, a kindred tribe, joined the Five Nations. The Iroquois thus became the Six Nations. The Final Struggle 127 there should be a "Grand Council" elected by the colo- nial assemblies, with power to make treaties with the Indians, build forts, appoint military officers, raise troops, and levy taxes for these purposes. This plan the delegates at Albany unanimously rec- ommended to the colonies and to the king. But both parties rejected it — the colonies because it was too aristocratic and the king because it was too democratic. Although the colo- nies now faced war without any regular plan of helping each other, they were con- vinced that some sort of union was neces- sary. 165. Braddock's Defeat ; Other Expe- ditions of 1755. Gen- eral Braddock came over as commander- in-chief of the British, and held a congress of governors at Alex- andria, Virginia. Four campaigns were planned: (/) Braddock was to capture Fort Duquesne. {2') Sir William Johnson, whom the Iroquois had adopted, was to muster the Mohawks and the New York militia against Crown Point, (j) A force was to drive the French from Niagara. (^) Nova Scotia was to be subdued. FORT DUQUESNE AND ITS APPROACHES Shoiving Braddock's line of march, and the line 0/ French forts 128 The Struggle for NortJi America But it was easier to plan these expeditions than to carry them out. Although General Braddock was brave, he was proud and overbearing. He had never led an army in America, and yet he was seldom willing to listen to the advice of Franklin and Washington. With an army of over four- teen hundred regulars and militia, Braddock reached the Ohio in July. (See map, page 127.) He failed to send out sufficient scouts, and only ten miles from Fort Duquesne, marching in solid column, he came unex- pectedly upon the French and Indians, The foe were unseen and their fire was deadly. The British regulars fought as if on an open battlefield. They were soon falling fast. The Virginia militia took to the trees, and fought in true Indian fashion. Washington begged Braddock to permit the regulars to do the same, but he refused and, sword in hand, forced them to stand in line and take the enemy's fire. They grew desperate and began to run, but Washington and his Virginia troops covered the retreat and saved the panic-stricken forces from an Indian massacre. Braddock himself was mor- tally wounded, and, although it was only midsummer, his ruined army retreated to Philadelphia and went into winter quarters. All western Pennsylvania and northern Virginia were now open to the cruelties of Indian warfare. The other expeditions, except the one against Acadia, also failed. The Acadians, who were French, had refused to become English .subjects, and sympathized with the French, although France had given their country to England at the end of Queen Anne's war. As a punish- ment the English commander carried them from their homes and scattered them among the English colonies. Many of the exiles endured great hardships, and some never found their friends and relatives again. The Final Struggle 129 166. Two Years of Failure (1756-1757). Meanwhile the Seven Years' War had broken out in Europe. Aus- tria, France, and Russia united to break the rising power of Prussia, whose king was Frederick the Great. Eng- land took sides with Prussia, but was too corrupt in her government to be strong in war. Her generals bought their positions instead of earning them, by bravery on the battlefield. Hence the generals sent over to America accomplished little. Loudon drilled an army all one summer at Hali- fax to attack Louisburg ; but learning that the French had been reenforced, he abandoned the attack. Aber- crombie was another worthless commander. The colo- nists showed their contempt for him by calling him "Miss Nabbycrombie." The English generals planned expe- ditions, but the French won the victories. 167. Pitt and the Colonies Prepare to Win. Thus far France had been victorious in America and Europe. England was almost in despair when the English people turned out their worthless ministers and selected William Pitt to be the leader of the government. He opposed corruption in government, and believed in the people. Under his inspiring leadership both England and America put forth great efforts. More troops under able commanders were hurried to America, while the colonies, catching the enthusiasm, raised a larger number of militia than ever before. 10 WILLIAM PITT From a print engraved by W. Holl frotn a portrait painted by Richard Brompto/n, recently in the possession of Earl Stanhope. Reproduced by permission from the Emmett collection in the New York Public Library I30 TJie Struggle for North America i68. Surrenderor Louisburg (1758). Pitt sent a great fleet and army under Admiral Boscawen and Generals Amherst and Wolfe against Louisburg (§ 160). In six weeks the solid walls of this mighty fortress were shat- tered and the French garrison of five thousand soldiers surrendered. 169. Attack on Ticonderoga Fails. Another gen- eral, George Howe, was sent over to take charge of an expedition against Fort Ticonderoga, a French strong- hold which threatened to break the line of communi- cation between New England and New York. Troops came from both sections, amounting, with the regulars, to fifteen thousand, the largest army yet assembled in America. Everything promised success till General Howe was killed in a skirmish. Abercrombie was left in com- mand and advanced upon Ticon- deroga. Although he had many more troops than Montcalm, the French general, and could have won by a siege, he ordered a bayonet charge upon the French works. Six times he sent his brave troops to the impossible task while he watched the slaughter from a safe distance. Nearly two thousand men fell that day, the largest number killed in an American battle up to that time. 170. Fort Duquesne Be- comes Fort Pitt (1758). Mean- while stirring events had been taking place in the Ohio Valley. Ever since the defeat of Braddock, Washington had been dissatisfied with the LOUIS JOSEPH DE MONTCALM From a colored print, painted and engrai-i raised his brother's pJ./'Ci^'^'s THE MILITARY MOVEMENTS IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES, 1776-1778 X^ 'ubbl i , T/:e dotted lines show IVas/iing'ton's tine of march during the retreat from New York ana the cam- paign ending with the bat tie of /Prince- ton army to thirty thousand men. Washington had but eighteen thousand troops, mostly fresh from their farms and untrained for war. Nevertheless, he fought a battle Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 1 67 on Long Island with General Howe, but was defeated (August, 1776). Washington's position on Brooklyn Heights now seemed hopeless, but one night the Marble- head fishermen among his soldiers rowed his army safely over to New York, (See map, page 166.) Although Howe was thus outwitted a second time, he succeeded in driving Washington out of the city, but failed to get in his rear, as he tried to do. The Amer- icans checked the enemy in a fight at White Plains and took up a strong position near by. Washington sent Captain Nathan Hale to find out Howe's plans, but Hale was captured and sentenced to be hanged as a spy. As he vStood ready for the signal he said : " I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." General Howe turned back, stormed Fort Washington, and took possession of Fort Lee. Washington hurried across the Hudson into New Jersey to stand between the British and Philadelphia. 217. Washington's Retreat and Lee's Capture. Washington now ordered General Charles Lee, who was still on the east side of the Hudson with seven thousand troops, to join him. But Lee, a blustering adventurer who wanted to be commander-in-chief, refused, and Washington began "the retreat through the Jerseys" without him. Greatly outnumbered by the British, Wash- ington fell back rapidly from place to place till he reached Trenton, on the Delaware. Here his little army was forced to cross the river into Pennsylvania. (See map, page 166.) In the meantime General Lee and his troops crossed into northern New Jersey. The British captured him, but his soldiers reached Washington in safety. The loss of Lee discouraged the people still more because they believed he was a great general. The situation was dark and gloomy. Congress, alarmed at the advance of the 1 68 The Struggle for the Rights of Man British, removed from Philadelphia to Baltimore. Dis- couraged by the long retreat and the frequent defeats, thousands of the militia returned home. The people began to give up hope, and many took the oath to obey the king. They did not yet know Washington. 218. The Victory at Trenton (1776). Lord Corn- wallis, leading Howe's advance, had followed hard upon the heels of Washington to Trenton. The British could not cross the Delaware, for Washington had destroyed all the boats within reach, Cornwallis stationed his forces at different places along the river and then returned to New York to share in the Christmas / festivities. r'WHimi!!! WASHINGTON AND HIS TROOPS CROSSING THE DELAWARE Frotn (he painting by E. Leutze in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City Washington quickly saw his opportunity. It was Christmas night. The Hessian soldiers stationed in Trenton had been feasting and drinking all day, as was their custom. The weather was bitter cold, and snow and sleet were falling. "vSurely," thought the half-tipsy Hessian sentinels, "it is of no use to watch. There can be no danger such a night as this." Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 169 A HESSIAN SENTINEL Standing g-uard at his post But if they had listened they might have heard the tramp of marching feet and the rumble of wheels. Washington and his men had crossed the Delaware amid the floating ice, and were pressing for- ward to Trenton. Their feet left bloodstains on the snow and their ragged clothes could not keep out the cold. Two poor fellows were frozen to death. But the little army never faltered. It was the last chance for liberty. At daybreak the attack began. The sleepy Hessians were aroused from their beds, but it was too late. A few volleys, a wild charge, and all One thousand was over of the enemy surrendered with all their cannon and supplies. It was one of Washington's most famous victories. (See map, page 166.) 219. Robert Morris Helps Washington Win the Battle of Princeton. Although a victory had been won, the very soldiers who had won it were about to return to their homes. The time of their enlist- ment had ended, and what was worse, they had re- ceived no pay to send ROBERT MORRIS From a painting by Gilbert Stuart^ used throug/i kind permission of the owner y C F. M. Stark, Esq., of Win- chester, Massachusetts I70 TJic Struggle for tJie Rights of JSIaii home to their families. Washington was anxious to pay the soldiers, bitt there was no money. He wrote to Robert Morris, a wealthy patriot of Philadelphia. Morris went from door to door asking for money to pay Washington's men. He raised a large sum, and the army was ready to fight again. The British had believed the war was almost over, but Cornwallis now hastened back to recover lost ground. When he reached Trenton, Washington's army was guarding the south side of the Assanpink Creek so well that Cornwallis concluded to wait till morning before "bagging the old fox." That night the British could see the brightly burning campfires of the Americans and plainly hear them at work on their entrenchments. But in the morning the camp was empty. Washington, with the main body of his troops, had stolen around the British army toward Prince- ton, w^here he struck their reenforcements at sunrise (January 3, 1777). He led his men into the thickest of the fight and soon had the British on the run. The booming of cannon at Princeton was the first news Cornwallis had that the Americans had left their camp. (See map, page 171.) 220. Results of the Hol- iday Campaign, Washington drew off to the heights around Morristown for winter quar- ters. The British had only three towns left in New Jersey, and were annoyed all winter by the militia. The people had now regained confidence and were JEAN PAUL LAFAYETTE Front a painting by Samuel F. B. MorfC in the Mayor's room, Neiv York City Hall Cmnpaigns for Possession of the Middle States 1 7 1 determined to punish the British for stealing their horses and robbing and burning their homes. Washington's work had raised him and the American cause in the opinion of foreign nations. Lafayette, with Baron De Kalb and other officers, now came from France and gave their services. Pulaski and Kosciusko, brave Polish soldiers, had already joined the patriot army. One lesson learned was that Washington needed more authority. Congress, therefore, made him almost dicta- tor for six months, and gave him power to raise troops to serve during the war. 221. The Campaign for the Capital ; Battles of Bran- dywine and Germantown (1777). General Howe longed to enjoy the glory of enter- ing the "rebel capital," as the British called Philadelphia. Early in June he moved from his quarters in New Jersey, but Washing- ton suddenly blocked his line of march to Phil- adelphia. Howe could not get THE CAMPAIGNS AROUND PHILADELPHIA around him, and would not risk a battle. He finally decided to reach Philadelphia by sea, and sailed with eighteen thousand men to the head of Chesapeake Bay. (See map above.) Washington, with eleven thousand troops, met him at Chadds Ford on Brandy wine Creek- The Americans 1 72 TJie Struggle for the Rights of Man were beaten by a flank attack, thonj^h the enemy's loss was the greater. Washington gradually fell back and Howe occupied Philadelphia. While some of the British forces were absent, Wash- ington planned a bold night attack upon Germantown, near Philadelphia. But in a heavy fog one division of the Americans attacked another by mistake, and the British, who at first retreated, rallied and drove them back. Had Washington been victorious, independence might soon have been won, for even then the fate of another British army hung in the balance. But although Wash- ington had not defeated Howe, he had prevented him from aiding the new British army which was coming down from Canada. 222. Burgoyne's Invasion. George HI. and his min- isters could not give up the idea of breaking the power of the Americans by vSeizing the lakes and rivers which connect Canada and New York (§215). A new campaign had been planned consisting of three parts : /. A fine army under General Burgoyne was to move up Lake Champlain and down the Hudson. 2. A smaller body of Canadians and Indians under Colonel St. Leger was to go up the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario to Oswego, capture Fort Stanwix, near where Rome now is, and join Burgoyne on the Hudson. J. General Howe was to march up the Hudson, cap- ture the American forts, and join Burgoyne and St. Leger. But General Howe thought he could capture Phila- delphia first, and thus failed to perform his part. About the time Howe began his march toward Phila- delphia (June, 1777), General Burgoyne started from Canada with eight thousand splendidly equipped sol- diers and the finest train of artillery yet seen in Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 173 America. He captured the powerful fortress of Ticon- deroga. When George III. heard the news, he hurried to the queen, exclaiming: "I have beat them ! I have beat all the Americans !" Flushed by this triumph, Bur- goyne pressed on with his army to the head of Lake George, but in the next twenty days he made only twenty miles. General Schuyler, with his Americans, had been busy in that northern wilderness felling trees across the roads, obstructing the fords, and breaking down the bridges. 223. A Part Not on the Program ; The Battle of Bennington. By the time Burgoyne reached Fort Edward he was compelled to forage for food and for a fresh sup- ply of horses. The hardy sons of New Eng- land were answering the call to meet the invader, and were bringing to- gether at Bennington, Vermont, just the sup- plies needed by Bur- goyne. He sent one thousand Hessians to capture the stores and encourage the Tories of that region. But instead of the Tories the Hessians met the brave General Stark with one thousand mili- tia, and Seth Warner with five hundred more. They were only farmers and backwoodsmen, but their rifles 'llooncteroB BURGOYNE'S CAMPAIGN Showifig- St. Leber's route 174 The Struggle for the Rights of Man never missed their aim. After several hours of hard fighting, the Americans killed or captured almost the entire British force. The Americans were aroused, not only by this brilliant victory, but also by the stories of the inhuman deeds of Burgoyne's Indians. Reinforce- ments came to Schuyler in great numbers. Burgoyne felt discouraged, for he had lost a small army and ob- tained neither Tories, horses, nor food. 224. General Herkimer and the Relief of Fort Stan- wix. vSt. Leger, aided by the Indians and Tories under Sir John Johnson, reached Fort Stanwix. But that vet- eran soldier, General Herkimer, called together the rifle- men of Tryon County and met the Indians and Tories near Oriskany. Herkimer and his men were drawn into an ambush in the midst of a swamp, where was fought, hand to hand, one of the bloodiest battles of the war. EVOLUTION OF THE AMERICAN FLAG The one on the left is the Union Jack ,• in the center, the /lag used at the siege of Boston in /yyb : on the right, the flag adopted by Congress in 1777. ( See footnote below) Just as the enemy began to retreat, the men in the fort rushed out, defeated Sir John Johnson, and captured his camp. On their return to the fort they ran up the British flags and then hoisted above them the first American flag ever raised. ^ St. Leger continued the ' This first flag, a rude affair, was made out of a white shirt, a blue jacket, and stripes from a red petticoat. Congress had lately adopted the " stars and stripes " as our national flag. Before this, flags of several kinds had been used by the army. Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 175 siege, but on the approach of American reenforcement.s led by Arnold, he fled back to Canada. 225. Saratoga and the Surrender of Burgoyne (1777). The disasters at Bennington and Fort Stanwix, and the failure of Howe to move up the Hudson, placed General ARNOLD'S CHARGE AT BEMIS HEIGHTS Burgoyne in a dangerous position. The New England militia under Lincoln cut him off from Canada, and noth- ing was left for him but hard fighting. Just as victory for the Americans was in sight, Con- gress sent General Gates to take Schuyler's place. The Americans had occupied Bemis Heights, a short distance south of Saratoga, which had been well fortified by Kos- ciusko. Here and at Stillwater, on the Hudson, Bur- goyne was defeated in two desperate battles, by the hard fighting of Arnold and Morgan. Arnold's heroism in the early stages of the struggle stands in sharp con- trast to his later treachery. Gates unjustly received the credit for these victories of the Americans. Falling back to Saratoga, Burgoyne was soon completely surrounded, and, with no hope of aid from General Howe (§221) 176 The Struggle for the Rights of Man or Clinton, surrendered his entire army to General Gates (October 17, 1777). 226. Results of the Campaign ; The Turning Point in the War. The total loss to the British during this campaign was not far from ten thousand men, besides the enormous cost of such an expedition. The rapidity with which twenty thousand Americans responded to the call to meet the invasion was full of meaning. The country praised Gates for what it thought he had done, and blamed Washington for not capturing Howe. At the same time, England blamed Howe for not cap- turing Washington. But the greatest effect of this vic- tory was upon France. 227. Franklin's Work in France. Even before the war broke out, France took great interest in our quarrel with England. Shortly after the Declaration of Independ- ence, Benjamin Franklin had been sent to that country. He was already known in Europe '- by his scientific discoveries, and soon became very popu- lar in France because of his homely wisdom. The edu- cated people admired him for his learning, the fashionable court people for his quick wit BENJAMIN FRANKLIN ^ud good mauncrs, while the From the original portrait bv Joseph ° . , , . Stffrein Duplessis. ui the Museum of COmmOU peoulc praiSCd him htne Arts, Boston. 7 his portrait ^ '■ '■ was painted for the Abbe Verri,7vas for his simplc, dcmOCratic once owned b\ Jefferson, from him ^ passed to Mr. Joseph Coolidge, and wayS. WllCUeVer lie ap- from him it zvas purchased m iSjS by -^ ^ the Boston Athenceum pcarcd ou the strccts with his "old brown coat," which he had resolved to wear till independence was won, a crowd always gathered. His Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States i 'j'j portrait was hung in shop windows to attract attention, and " Franklin fashions" became the rage. At first the king of France would permit only money and war material to be sent secretly to America. After the surrender of Burgoyne, however, he believed that independence would be w^on, and was easily persuaded by Franklin to make a treaty (1778) by which he promised to send soldiers, ships, and money in return for our pledge not to make peace with England till she had acknowledged our independence. This meant war between France and England. Spain and Holland also made war on England. They had already been loaning us money to carry on the struggle for independence. 228. Change of Feeling in England. The news of Burgoyne's surrender and of the alliance between Amer- ica and France produced a powerful effect on England. Lord Chatham and Edmund Burke had already violently denounced the use of Indians by the English. Some of the Whigs now favored ending the war by granting independence, and even the king saw the need of trying conciliation. Parliament voted to repeal its oppressive laws and surrender all right to tax America; in short, to grant everything except independence itself. But it was too late. America had suffered too much and had won too many victories. Besides, she was now bound to France by a pledge of honor. 229. The Conway Cabal; Valley Forge (1777-1778). From the first, fault was found with Washington's cau- tious policy. He retreated too much, some said. Others thought that Gates was an abler general. General Con- way, who had been serving in France, was disappointed because Washington did not give him higher rank. Others were jealous of Washington. The discontented persons put their heads together to ruin his reputation with Congress and the people. They miserably failed, 13 178 The Struggle for the Rights of Man and Washington stood higher than before. This plot has been named the " Conway Cabal." While Howe was feast- ing in Philadelphia, and the people of the country were still rejoicing over "the brilliant work at Sara- toga, Washington and his ragged army were entering on the long hard winter at Valley Forge, twenty miles northwest of Philadelphia. On the bleak hillsides of that half-mountainous re- gion, poorly clad, poorly fed, and housed in log huts, the American army, con- stantly reduced by disease and death, suffered dreadfully. Washington wrote to Congress: "Two thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight men (are) unfit for duty because they are barefoot and otherwise naked. It is a much easier thing to (blame the army) in a comfortable room . . . than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and snow." 230. How Baron Steuben Helped Wash- ington. But thanks to the skill of a noble Prussian officer. Baron Steuben, there came forth from that winter of gloom and suffer- ing a new and well-trained army. From the first, Washington had had a hard task to drill his men, for they were mostly •i-^iSt^^.t:^^'^-' militia serving for a short time only and '^7^r^7/ A TRAINED CON* did not like the strict rules of military life. tinental ON GUARD AT VALLEY FORGE Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 179 They were the best marksmen in the world, as the British learned on many a battlefield, but they liked the Indian method of fight- ing, each man for himself. Washington finally suc- ceeded in enlisting many regiments to serve during the entire war. Such regi- ments were called "Conti- nentals." Steuben, fresh from the army of Frederick the Great, taught the Con- tinentals the fine maneu- vers of the Prussian soldiers and the skillful use of the bayonet. We shall see how well they learned their lesson. 231. British Leave Phil- adelphia; Battle of Mon- mouth (1778). The news that a French fleet was coming led General Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, to withdraw from Philadel- phia and hasten to New York. By rapid marches, Washington forced the British to give battle at Mon- mouth in New Jersey. (See map, page 171.) He planned the attack so well that only the cowardice, or treachery, of General Charles Lee (§217) prevented a deadly blow. Just as Lee was surrounding a wing of the British army with six thousand of Steuben's trained troops, he ordered a hasty retreat. Lafayette sent for Washington, who sternly ordered Lee to the rear. The troops formed again, charged the British with fixed bayonets, and drove them back. But under cover of night the enemy with- drew, leaving their wounded upon the battlefield. FRIEDRICH V.'ILHELM, BARON STEUBEN From a paintmg by Ralph Earle, owned by Mrs. F. B. Austin., New York City i8o The Struggle for the Rights of Man General Clinton took up a position in New York, and Washington occupied his old camp at White Plains. The campaign for the conquest of the Middle States had ended where it began, but with the tables turned. Then the British were chasing the Americans out of New York; now the Americans were chasing the British into New York. For the next tw^o years each commander watched the other, and. when possible sent reenforcements to armies in other portions of the country. WINNING OUR FIRST WESTERN BOUNDARY 232. Wyoming and Cherry Valley Massacres (1778). While Washington was watching Clinton in New York the war ^vent on in many other places. The Tories of western New York were burning to be revenged for being driven from their homes (§214). A combined force of Tories and Indians fell upon the defenseless inhabitants of the beautiful Wyoming Valley, in northeastern Pennsylvania, and burned, tortured, and mur- dered to their hearts' content. Most of the men of this region were serving under Washing- ton. The inhuman enemy was commanded by a Tory, Colonel John Butler. In the same year a similar massacre was com- mitted in Cherry Valley, New DANIEL BOONE Yoi'k, by thc Tories and Indi- Froin a portrait made in iSiq i ., ,, ^ -\ ^ • r ivhen Boone ivas Sj yrars old, aus uiidcr tlic Celebrated chici, painted by Chester Harding, _ i t-« j^ and no7i> in the />ossession of JOSCph Brailt. the Massachusetts Historical , ... Society, Boston, Massachusetts T. hcSC awful CVClltS Stirrcd the country, and the next year Washington sent General Sullivan with five thousand men to punish thc enemy. Winning Our First Western Boundary i8i Where Elmira now vStands he completely overthrew both Butler and Brant and then turned uf)on the Indians, laying waste their farms and homes. During the cold winter starvation and disease followed, and the power of the hostile portion of the Six Nations was completely broken. 233. Kentucky and Tennessee in the Revolution. In 1775 Daniel Boone, with hardy pioneers from North Carolina, had settled Boonesboro, Kentucky. When the news from Lexington and Concord crossed the moun- tains, it found a hearty answer from these bold fron- tiersmen. They organized a militia, sent a delegate to Congress, and named one of their towns Lexington. They were soon at war with the Indians who were help- ing the British. North Carolina fur- nished most of the early pioneers who settled Ten- nessee. James Robertson led the way to founding a settlement on the Watauga River, and later, with John Sevier, defeated the Chero- kee Indians at that point. 234. George Rogers Clark Makes the Missis- sippi River our Western Boundary. Partly to pro- tect these young settlements, but mainly to overthrow the power of the British in the " Northwest," George Rogers Clark, a young Virginia scout, planned and carried out one of the most important expeditions of the war. With the approval of Governor Patrick Henry he secretly GEORGE ROGERS CLARK From a painting on wood by John Wesley JarviSi now in the State Library at Ricn- niond, Virginia l82 The Struggle for the Rights of Man collected about one hundred and fifty men and a few families. They descended the Ohio from Pittsburg to the Falls of the Ohio. Here the families settled, but Clark and his men floated down to the Tennessee, and then marched across the country, took possession of the French towns in southern Illinois, made friends with the Span- iards at St. Louis, and prepared for their great task, the capture of Vincennes, on the Wabash, the most impor- tant British post in the Ohio Valley. The British general, Hamilton, at Detroit, marched THE GEORGE ROGERS CLARK EXPEDITION The result of this expedition was to inake the Mississippi River the western boundary at the close of the Revolutionary War five hundred men to the relief of Vincennes. Clark and his men made their way across country, often wading for miles up to their arms in water. He completely surprised the British general and frightened him into surrendering. The power of the British in the West Irregular Warfare on Land and Sea 183 was thus broken, and the entire country to the Mississippi River was in our poSvSes.sion when the war closed. IRREGULAR WARFARE ON UANDAND SEA 235. Plundering Expeditions; Stony Point and Paulus Hook (1779). The failure of their two great campaigns, and our treaty with France, made the Brit- ish desperate. Not able to accomplish great things, they turned their attention to robbing and burning towns in New England, New Jersey, and Virginia. Washington had already strongly fortified West Point, but to make the upper Hudson more secure, the Ameri- cans built forts on opposite sides of the river at Stony and Verplanck's points. Before the fort at Stony Point was finished, the British captured it. It must be recap- tured, and " Mad Anthony " Wayne was the man for the deed. Twelve hundred picked men, trained by Steuben, with empty guns and fixed bayonets, charged up the steep sides of Stony Point at midnight (July 15, 1779) and that powerful fortress was ours again. Paulus Hook, now a part of Jersey City, is a narrow neck extending out into the Hudson. The British had fortified this point strongly and sent frequent foraging expeditions among the Jersey farmers, Henry Lee, " Light Horse Harry," gallantly led a small force of chosen men and captured the garrison. 236. Arnold's Treason. Benedict Arnold had proved himself one of the best and bravest officers of the American army. He won the complete confidence of Washington, but Congress was too short-sighted to give him the position he wanted. Finally, Washington put him in command of Philadelphia. Here he lived very expensively and married a charming Tory lady. But charges of misconduct were brought against him, and Arnold was reprimanded. Eager for revenge, he requested and received the command of West Point, i84 Tlie Struggle for the Rights of Man the key to the Iliulson. lie then planned to betray the plaee into British hands. The plot failed only by the capture of Major Andrd, the British officer sent to arrange for the surrender. Arnold himself escaped, but Andre was hanged as a spy. Later Arnold was rewarded by being made a general in the English army, but his last days were full of bitterness and sorrow. 237. Weakness of the American Navy. The navy of Great Britain was the most powerful in the world. That America had no war vessels when the v^^ar began was a great disadvantage. England held ports like New York against large armies, and transported her troops to distant points without fighting a battle. If defeated in one place, she went by sea to another. If supplies were not to be had in America, they could be had in Europe. From the beginning of the war. Congress felt the need of a navy. In 1775 thirteen fast-sailing war vessels were ordered built, but before these were ready eight refitted merchant vessels sailed from Philadelphia to prey on British commerce in the West Indies. Congress issued to private persons " let- ters of marque and reprisal," which gave them the right to fit out ships, to attack the enemy's vessels, and to do whatever regular men-of-war might do. Such vessels were called privateers. Without these letters their crews would have been treated as pirates. The privateers did good work, and to some extent took the place of a navy. Captain John Barry distinguished himself for bravery, for which afterward (1794) he was made ranking commander in the navy. THE "RATTLESNAKE FLAG " First flag carried by privateers Irregular Warfare on Lafid and Sea 185 238. Paul Jones and His Great Sea Fight (1779). But the greatest American triumph on the sea came through the skill and cour- age of Paul Jones. During 1778, in his little ship, the " Ranger," he spread terror among the seaports of the British Isles themselves. Now he dashed in and burnt shipping; now he pounced upon some vessel carrying the English flag, and now was off to France out of harm's way. In 1779, by the aid of Franklin, Jones obtained a fleet of five vessels in France and sailed around the north of Scotland and down the eastern coast to Flamborough Head. Here his flagship, the "Bon Homme Richard,"i met an Eng- lish frigate, the "Serapis." They closed in deadly con- flict, which raged far into the night. Paul Jones lashed the two vessels together, and no escape was possible for either. Some of his heaviest guns exploded, and his main deck was covered with dead and dying. The British vessel had lost nearly half her m^en. She caught fire and her brave crew left their guns to battle with the flames. The "Bon Homme Richard" was not only on fire, but was filling with water. Still Jones fought on until the British captain surrendered. Thus, all at once, the "haughty mistress of the seas" had been r / JOHN PAUL JONES Fr07n a painting by Charles Wilson Peale in Independence Hall, Philadelphia 'The " Good Man Richard," so named as a compliment to Franklin, whose Poor Richard's Almanac was famous for its quaint sayings. 1 86 TJic Struggle for the Rights of Man humbled, and the American flag was raised in the esti- mation of the world. OVERRUNNING THE FAR SOUTH 239. A Change of Plan ; Georgia Overrun ; The French and Americans Defeated at Savannah. The British had all along believed that the far South con- tained so many Loyalists that an army was all that was needed to encourage them to rise. Accordingly it was determined to strike a blow in Georgia. In the fall of 1 778 British troops from Florida and New York defeated the Americans and captured Savannah and other towns in that colony. For the time, English authority was reestablished. (See map, page 1 89.) General Lincoln had been sent to command the patriot forces in the South and was soon joined by Count Pu- laski (§ 220). In the summer of 1779 Count d'Estaing's French fleet appeared off the coast, and joined with Lincoln in an attack on Savannah. After three weeks of regular siege, an assault upon the fort resulted in the loss of over one thousand French and Americans killed and wounded. Count Pulaski was among the killed. The French sailed away and Savannah was left in the pOvSsession of the English. 240. Capture of Charleston (1780) ; A New Kind of Fighting. These battles were only preparatory, for Generals Clinton and Cornwallis came with an army from New York for a great attack upon Charleston. They did not try to pass Fort Moultrie this time, but marched overland from Savannah. General Lincoln was forced to surrender Charleston, thus losing three thou- sand Continentals, a damaging blow. South Carolina as well as Georgia was now apparently lost, and hundreds took the oath of allegiance to George III. General Clin- ton left Cornwallis to suppress what opposition remained. But Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Williams now found Overrunning the Far South 187 a way of fighting which was even more puzzling to the British than the tactics of the minutemen. With only small bands under them, often less than a hundred, they kept the enemy's forces in the Carolinas in constant terror. Armed with home-made swords, mounted on the fleetest horses, hiding in dense swamps or mountain fastnesses, they seldom slept two nights in the same camp. They would destroy a Tory camp at night and by dawn be in some distant hiding-place ; again they would sweep around the main British army, cutting off MARION SURPRISING A BRITISH CAMP stragglers or charging pellmell into their camp, and be away before the British could recover from their sur- prise. In this way these bold warriors kept alive the spirit of resistance until Washington sent relief. 241. General Gates Defeated Near Camden (1780). Washington wished Greene to carry reenforcements to the South and take command there, but Congress sent Gates (§225). He hastened to Hillsboro, North Caro- lina, where General De Kalb was collecting the Amer- ican forces. By a series of blunders. Gates gave every 1 88 The Struggle for the Rights of Man advantage to Cornwallis, who quickly brought his forces together at Camden, South Carolina. Near here the two armies met. Gates and his militia fled at the first fire, but the noble De Kalb with his brave Maryland and Del- aware Continentals held their ground and forced back DE KALB AND THE MARYLAND AND DELAWARE CONTINENTALS AT CAMDEN the enemy by one of the bayonet charges which Steuben had introduced and drilled them upon during the terri- ble winter at Valley Forge. But overwhelmed, and with their inspiring leader mortally wounded, the Continen- tals also were at last driven from the field. The army of Gates was almost ruined, only a few of the Continen- tals remaining to aid Morgan in his defeat of Tarleton, This was probably the greatest defeat inflicted upon the Americans during the war. A second time the Carolinas seemed lost. WINNING BACK THE SOUTH 242, The Tide Turns at King's Mountain. Corn- wallis forthwith started for the conquest of the "Old North vState." He headed his anny for Charlotte, where the Mecklenburg County patriots made it so warm for him that he declared that he had run into a real "hornets' nest" (§212). Winjting Back the South ti59 CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH DURING THE REVOLUTION The territory covered by the campaigns of Greene, Marion, Rawdon, Gates, and Cornwallis. 2'lie dotted lines jyyS and 17S0 show the routes taken by British troops under Clinton from New York Cornwallis had sent Major Ferguson, with twelve hundred British troops, up into the mountains, near the border line of the Carolinas, to encourage the Tories. News of this expedition went far and wide, and soon the frontiersmen, clad in hunting shirts and coonskin caps, and armed with long rifles, were closing in upon 190 TJie Struggle for the Rights of Man Ferguson. He took a position on the top of King's Moun. tain and defied the backwoodsmen. Up three sides of the mountain swarmed one thousand picked riflemen. Ferguson's men charged with fixed bayonets, but each rifleman took to a tree or boulder, and bayonets could do nothing in the face of a deadly fire from three direc- tions. The British retreated, and the Americans, mov- ing from tree to tree, closed in around them. The entire force of the enemy surrendered. The frontiersmen had but twenty-eight men killed. The invasion of North Carolina was suddenly checked, but the backwoodsmen were not regular soldiers, and scattered as quickly as they had come together. 243. General Greene to the Rescue ; Battle of the Cowpens(i78i). Washington now had his way and sent General Greene to measure swords with Cornwallis. With him was " Light Horse Harry" Lee and his famous regiment of cavalry. But Daniel Mor- gan was already on the ground with the remnant of De Kalb's Continentals. Greene sent him with Colonel Washington, another bold cavalry officer, to encourage the backwoodsmen who had done such fine work at King's Mountain. Cornwallis or- dered his ablest officer, Tarle- ton, to beat Morgan, who took post at Cowpens, South Caro- lina. Morgan, however, by skillful generalship, not only defeated Tarleton but captured most of his army. NATHANAEL GREENE Prom a pain (i tiff by Charles iVtlson Feale^ otice owned by Airs. Wtlliain Brenton Greene, Jr., Princeton, Neiu Jersey, and now in Independence Hall, Philadelphia Wmning Back the South 191 Tarleton himself was wounded in a hand-to-hand sword contest with Colonel Washington. 244. The Long Retreat ; Battle of Guilford Court House (1781). Cornwallis was now furious. He was determined to strike a blow, but Morgan withdrew too quickly for him. Greene also, having too few troops to fight, began his famous retreat across North Carolina into Virginia. Cornwallis did all in his power to over- take the Americans; he destroyed his heavy baggage and made forced marches, but all in vain Heavy rains filled the rivers to overflowing. Greene carried his boats on wheels and crossed without delays, but Corn- wallis had to wait till the streams became passable. When the British had chased Greene into Virginia, Cornwallis declared in a proclamation to the people that he had conquered North Carolina. He spoke too soon. General Greene, as quickly as he could gather enough troops, crossed back into North Carolina and gave battle to the British near Guilford Court House. Cornwallis held the field, but lost almost a third of his fighting force. Greene was strong enough to fight again next day, but his opponent would not risk another battle. Instead of fighting, Cornwallis retreated to Wilmington, and then marched northward into Virginia. (See map, page 189.) 245. Greene Recovers South Carolina (1781). Greene immediately marched to the relief of South Carolina. At Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, he was attacked by Lord Rawdon. The Americans were thrown into con- fusion and the British won the field. But Lord Raw- don's force was crippled, and his communication with Charleston being cut, he beat a hasty retreat. While Greene was giving his main army a much needed rest, Lee, Marion, and Sumter captured all but one of the remaining posts outside Charleston, and even drove the British out of Augusta, Georgia. 192 TJic Struggle for the Rig/its of Man Early in the fall Greene again met the enemy at Eutaw Springs. The battle Avas, in effect, an American victory, for the next day the British retreated. The work of Greene was now practically done. He had accomplished what both Lincoln and Gates had failed to do, and proved himself a general second only to Washington. Charleston and Savannah alone now remained in English hands, while only a year before both Georgia and South Carolina seemed to be com- pletely conquered by them. 246. Washington's Strategy. Corn- wallis had marched into Virginia to join the traitor, Benedict Arnold, who was being watched by a small American force under Lafayette. When Lafay- ette was reenforccd by Wayne and Steuben, Cornwallis made for Yorktown, to be within reach of the British fleet. THE WAR IN VtRGIN'lA The dotted lines show Washington's route from Neiv York and the route taken by Cornwallis, which ended in the tatter' s defeat at Yorkto'vn Wmninsr Back the South 193 j/^ Washington had been planning to attack the British in New York with the aid of an army under Count Rocham- beau, which had been sent by the French king. But when he heard the news from Virginia, and learned that a powerful French fleet was coming to the Chesapeake, he quickly formed a new plan. After making Clinton think he intended to attack New York, he slipped away south- ward and reached Philadel- phia with his army before anybody knew where he was going. How happy were Con- gress and the people when they heard that he was has- tening to Yorktown! The citizens of Philadelphia dec- orated their houses with the stars and stripes, while cheering men crowded the streets and happy women filled the windows and threw flowers over the ragged Continentals and the finely dressed French soldiers. " Long live Washington ! He has gone to catch Cornwallis in his mouse trap ! " cried the people. 247. Yorktown the Crowning Victory (1781). From the head of Chesapeake Bay the French fleet carried the army to Yorktown. Escape by sea or land was now impossible for Cornwallis. For a month the French and Americans pressed the siege. (See map, page 195.) The cannon from the ships and from the army knocked Cornwallis's fortifications to pieces. Finally the outer works were carried by assault, and starvation or surren- der faced the British. Cornwallis accepted the latter, and on the 17th of October raised the white flag. 14 CHARLES, EARL CORNWALLIS From a drawing^ made by W. H. Broiun in ijgi. This portrait first appeared in '■'•The Senator,^' en- graved by IV. Grainger 194 The Struggle for the Rights of Maii, The American and French armies drew up in oppo- site lines more than a mile in length. At the head of one was Washington, while at the head of the other stood Count Rochambeau. The British soldiers marched between the lines with slow and solemn steps, their colors cased and drums beating the old British march, "The World Turned Upside Down." When opposite Washington, a British general lifted his hat and said that Cornwallis was not well enough to come in person CARKVING THE OUTER WORKS AT YORKTOWN and deliver his sword. General Lincoln, who had been compelled to give up his sword at Charleston, now, by Washington's orders, received the British sword, and led the defeated army to an open field where it laid down its arms. (See picture facing page 194.) Washington's courier reached Philadelphia at mid- night. "All is well and Cornwallis is taken !" shouted the old watchman. The Liberty Bell rang a glad alarm. Winning Back the Sotitk 195 J> Yoiktown s\ SIEGE OF YORKTOWN From an engraved chart made by a French engineer Soon the streets were filled with happy crowds shouting and shaking hands over the good news. 248. Results of York- town. A wave of rejoic- ing swept over America. The long day of doubt was gone and independ- ence was near. Paris was illuminated and in Eng- land the king's enemies gave proof of their joy over the results. The victory at Yorktown meant not only the independence of America but also the overthrow of the king's arbitrary power in England. When the news first arrived, Lord North threw up his hands, excitedly repeating, " O God ! It's all over ! " Only stubborn George III. was still for war, and threatened to give up his throne rather than grant independence to America. It was a bitter pill for the king when, after North's resignation, Parliament compelled him to call back to power those very Whigs who were friends of America (§191). 249. The Treaty of Peace (1783). Congress named Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay com- missioners to make a treaty with Great Britain. The treaty was arranged in Paris. France and Spain were both concerned, since they also had been at war with England. Spain now set up a claim to the country between the mountains and the Mississippi, but the settlers of Kentucky and Tennessee already held this region (§ 233). Jay and Adams thought France, too, I9<3 Tin- Struggle for the Rights of Man was looking out only for herself, so the American commissioners made a separate treaty with England. This treaty gave us independence. The Mississippi was agreed upon as our western lim.it, while the north- ern boundary line was about the same as now, as far west as the Lake of the Woods. Florida, which was given to Spain, formed our southern boundary. (See map facing this page.) 250. Washington Bids His Comrades Farewell. When the British army evacuated New York (Novem- ber 25, 1783) Washington took possession. He met his assembled generals for the last time. The parting of the men from the commander whom they had followed through the long, bitter struggle was deeply touching. Addressing them, Washington said : " With heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as pros- perous and happy as your former ones have been glo- rious and honorable. I cannot come to each of you to take my leave, but shall be obliged if each one of you will come and take me by the hand." In turn, he shook each officer affectionately by the hand and embraced him. Not a word was spoken. All then silently fol- lowed him to Whitehall Ferry. Having entered the waiting barge, he turned to the company, and, waving his hat, bade them a silent adieu. 251. Washington Resigns and Retires to Mount Vernon. Washington journeyed to Annapolis, where Congress was in session, to resign his office as com- mander-in-chief of the American army. The governor and other state officers of Maryland, with certain mili- tary officers and ladies and gentlemen of high stand- ing, were present by invitation. The galleries were crowded. As was customary, the members of Congress sat with their hats on, to show their sovereign authority. THE UNITED STATES at the Close of the REVOLUTIONARY WAR SCALE OF Miles LimffittuU Weet 80 from Sreenwiah Winning Back the South 197 The visitors all stood with uncovered heads during the ceremony. Washington arose and addressed the president of the Congress: "The great events on which my resigna- tion depended, having at length taken place, I have now the honor ... to surrender into their (Congress's) hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the indul- gence of retiring from the service of my country. Hav- ing now finished the work assigned me, I retire, . . , bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body. . . . I here offer my commission and take my leave of all the employments of public life." ^^_ «*. ^ From a photograph MOUNT VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON Refusing to accept any reward for his long years of hard service, Washington hastened to Mount Vernon, his stately home which still stands on the banks of the Potomac not far from the city of Washington, to enjoy once more with his family and friends the delights of the Christmas time. He was now indeed, as everybody felt, "The first, the last, the best, The Cincinnatus^ of the West." 'Cincinnatus was a great Roman general who, after he had won his victories, left the army and returned to his farm. tpS The Struggle for a Fcrvianent Union THE STRUGGLE FOR A PERMANENT UNION THE COUNTRY TRIES STATE SOVEREIGNTY 252. Formation of the Confederation (1776-1781). The Revolution was a time for deep thinking as well as for quick action. Men not only asked how to win inde- pendence, but how to make permanent the blessings obtained by the long struggle (i 765-1 783). Even before the Declaration, it was seen that the colonies acting singly never could win independence. On the day Congress appointed the committee to write a Declaration of Independence it appointed another to draw up Articles of Confederation. Although a kind of union already existed among the colonies, it was much easier to separate from England than to form a strong union. Congress hesitated to adopt the Articles of Con- federation, but debated them again and again, and did not pass them till 1777. Men had little time to think of anything but war. Besides, some feared even a weak government over the states. They were just now trying to escape from one tyrant, and had no wish to make another. All of the states agreed to the Articles of Confedera- tion except Maryland. She alone held out against them until 1 78 1, when the larger states, like Virginia, promised to put their western lands under the control of Congress. Most of the war, therefore, was carried on under the old Continental Congress, which governed simply by common consent. 253. Nature of the New Government, The most striking fact about the new government was its weak- ness. It had only such powers as the states grudgingly gave it. They were old and it was new. The people had not yet learned to fear the power of the states; it Working for a Stronger Government 199 was so near to them. They had not yet learned to love national power ; it seemed so far away. According to the Articles, Congress was a body to advise the states. If Washington needed more troops, Congress could only recommend the states to raise them. If the troops were not sent, Washington had to get on as best he could. If Congress wanted money, it could tax no one, but must recommend the legislatures to raise the amount. If they refused, Congress must either do with- out the money or borrow it. The small number of troops in the American army and the terrible sufferings at Valley Forge were not due to a lack of men, or to a want of food and clothing in the country, but to a lack of power in Congress. This is why men like Washington, Frank- lin, and particularly the generous Robert Morris, had to come forward with their private means to relieve the dis- tress of the army. The Confederation had no president to execute its laws; the governors of the states were the only real executive officers in America. Neither were there national courts to settle national disputes. Each state had but one vote in Congress, although it might have several delegates. This made Delaware and Rhode Island equal in authority to Pennsylvania and Virginia. Nine states had to vote for important measures before they became laws. If, for example, only ten states were represented at one time, and two states voted against a law, it was defeated. As was the custom in England, the American Congress sat behind closed doors, and the people could not criticise its debates. WORKING FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 254. How the Confederation Helped to Cure Itself. Although the government under the Confederation was very weak, the people had to be taught by bitter expe- rience before they would risk a stronger one. In the 200 The Striiggle for a Permanent Union following ways the Confederation aided in curing its own defects : /. By not being able to pay its debts. During the hard days of the war, Congress got but little money from the states. France and Holland loaned us large sums. But this was soon gone, and Congress issued " paper money," that is, gave its promise to pay at some future time what it owed, when it hoped to have plenty of gold and | 1 GcmXlTientai -CaTrttniOj lxd PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY CONGRESS DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR silver. But the people feared that neither Congress nor the states would ever be able to redeem this paper money. It fell in value till a man might have a trunk full and yet be poor. As the war drew to a close the old soldiers felt that Congress ought to give them at least back pay for their services. Washington pleaded their cause in vain. Some of them became so dissatisfied that they proposed to make Washington king. He, of course, was insulted by the offer. But matters grew worse, and the army, while at New- burg, talked of turning its arms against Congress, but Working for a Strojiger Government 201 Washington prevented an outbreak. The situation is well told in the words of young Alexander Hamilton; an officer on Washington's staff: "We begin Vv to hate the country for its neglect of us ; the country begins to hate us for our oppression (r^^ \ V of them. Congress have long been jealous ^^'"^ ^ ^ of us; we have lost all confidence in them." 2. By being unable to protect commerce. England closed her West India ports against 'if our merchants and placed a high duty on American articles sent to England, but Con- gress could not strike back by taxing English goods. The result was a great de- ^ shilling dine in shipbuilding and commerce after ^during"heRev- the war ended. oiunonary war Neither could Congress make laws to regulate the trade between the states. Many of the states taxed the goods brought in from neighboring states. New York taxed the farmers of Connecticut and New Jersey, while they in turn "boycotted" New York City. This condi- tion of business not only made people dissatisfied with I he Confederation, but also made them long for a stronger union. J. By being too weak to preserve order. Congress could riot even protect itself from insult. Near the close of the war several hundred unpaid soldiers marched into Philadelphia and threatened to use force against Con- gress. Congress, with no one to defend it, was driven •over to Princeton, New Jersey. On account of business distress in all parts of the ijountry many persons found it impossible to pay their taxes and debts. Many soldiers had spent years in war to the utter neglect of their families and trades. They were now poor, but debts and taxes had to be paid. So the sheriff often came and sold their property. 202 The Struggle for a Pcrinanent Union In Massachusetts several hundred people rose in rebellion, under the leadership of Daniel Shays, to break up the courts, and to compel the state to give them relief. During the winter of 1786-87 the state troops were called out under General Lincoln, and Shays and his men were dispersed or captured. Congress was too weak to do anything, and people were frightened into the belief that the Confederation was about to end in anarchy. Many prominent men who before had opposed a firmer government now demanded one. 255. What Washington Did for a Stronger Govern- ment. From the beginning a few men saw that the Confederation was doomed to fail. During the war Washington again and again urged the states to give Congress more power. Just before retiring to private life he sent a "Circular Letter" to the governors, declaring that it was the duty of every true patriot to insist "that there should be lodged some- where a supreme power to regulate and govern the gen- eral concerns of the confederated republic ; that whatever measures have a tendency to dissolve the union ought to be considered hostile to the liberty and independence of America." For the next three or four years Washington was constantly writing and speaking in favor of a firmer union. To his friend. Governor Harrison, he wrote (1784): "An extension of federal powers would make us one of the most wealthy, happy, and powerful nations (on) the globe. I predict the worst consequences from a half-starving, limping government, tottering at every step." To John Jay (1786) : " I do not conceive that we can exist long as a nation without a power which will pervade the whole Union. ... I am told that even respectable (persons) speak of a (monarchy) without horror." Working for a Stronger Government 203 256. Influence of Hamilton, Madison, and Others. By his pen Alexander Hamilton stood next to Washington in educating the people to accept a stronger national government. In 1780 he wrote a famous letter on the defects of the government and the remedy for them. He also published a series of papers to influence public opinion, and declared that we must have a vigorous govern- ment " if we mean to succeed in the contest and be happy hereafter." Among the foremost men in the battle for a better gov- ernment was also James Madison of Virginia. In Con- gress, in his own state legis- lature, and in private, he was untiring in his efforts till suc- cess crowned his labor. Many other men of great influence joined in the call for a new government, but the majority were slow to move in the matter. Two other influences were working in the same direction, namely, the beginning of a national land system and the Ordinance of 1787. 257. Beginning of a National Land System. We have seen how the pioneers in Kentucky and Tennessee, and the little army of George Rogers Clark, won the Mississippi as our western boundary (§§ 233-234). Ac- cording to their old charters, several states claimed the vast unsettled region thus gained. But after much dis- cussion they patriotically surrendered their claims to Congress on two conditions : ALEXANDER HAMILTON Frojn the portrait painted by John Trumbull, now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts 204 ^Z*^^' Struggle for a Permanent Union 1. That the land be "disposed of for the common benefit of the United States." 2. That this region be "formed into distinct repub- lican states." This was the first territory the United States owned, and in 1785 Congress opened up parts of it to settlers by- surveying and marking it off into sections, townships, and ranges. The possession of western lands by the Confederation helped to hold it together till stronger bonds of union could be forged. The sale of these lands seemed about the only means of paying the war debt. Connecticut kept a tract of land running along the southern shore of Lake Erie, called the "Western Re- serve." Virginia still retained Kentucky and made two reservations north of the Ohio^ — one between the Miami and Scioto rivers, to pay her Revolutionary soldiers, and another in what is now southern Indiana, called "Clark's Grant," as a reward for the men of Clark's expedition. 258. The Ordinance of the Northwest Territory (1787). Thomas Jefferson a slave holder, introduced into Congress a plan for the government of the territory just given over to the United States. According to this plan slavery was to be prohibited in this region after 1800. The vote in Congress defeated it, but it is proof of the breadth of Jefferson's mind and may be regarded as the forerunner of the Ordinance of 1787. The Northwest Territory included what is now Indiana, Illinois, Michi- gan, and Wisconsin. Tliis region was the gift of Virginia to the nation. Congress passed the Ordinance for its gov- ernment largely because old soldiers from New England wanted to settle here. It is a famous document because — J. It laid the foundation for the government of our territories. 2. It prohibited negro slavery in the Northwest Territory. Working for a Stronger Government 205 THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY Opened by act of Congress under the '■^Ordinance of lySj " J. It bestowed religious freedom on all the settlers in this region, ^. It provided that schools and "the means of educa- tion shall forever be encouraged." The making of this "ordinance" was one of the wisest and one of the last acts of the Congress of the Confeder- ation. It gave the whole country a common interest in the Northwest Territory. 2o6 The Struggle for a Permanent Union 259. Steps Leading to the Constitutional Conven^ tion ; Virginia and Maryland Meet (1786). Leading men in Virginia and Maryland thought it wiser to agree than to quarrel over the trade on Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac. Accordingly delegates met at Alexandria to arrange trade matters. They were in Washington's own town and honored him with a visit at Mount Ver- non, to gain his advice. They saw, however, that other states trading with Virginia and Maryland would be affected by any regulations they might make. Hence it was decided to invite all the states to send dele- gates to a great " trade convention " to be held at Annapolis. 260. The Annapolis Meeting (1786). Only five states sent delegates to the Annapolis meeting. Not a man came from New England. The leading men were Alexaiider Hamilton, James Madison, and John Dick- inson (§ 202). The convention did not do much, but it saw clearly that even if all the states should agree to rules for regulating trade, there was no central authority to enforce them. So they called for a great national convention to be held in Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. Some of the states and even Congress hesitated to favor such a meeting. Friends of Washington urged him not to become a delegate ; they were afraid this meeting too, would fail, and they did not wish the great name of Washington connected with a failure. But while people were hesitating, Shays' rebellion broke in all its fury upon Massachusetts and threatened to spread into other states (§ 254). Men saw that the crisis had come, and that they must choose between anarchy and a stronger central government. Congress now openly favored a convention, and all the states except Rhode Island sent delegates. The Constitutional Convention 207 THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 261. Leading Men of the Convention (1787). From May till September this convention sat behind closed doors in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. Fifty-five of the best men the states could send took part in the great task of framing our Constitution. They were well fitted for the work. Twenty-nine were college graduates ; three had been in the Stamp Act Congress ; more in the Congress of 1774; several were signers of the Declaration of Independence, and many others had won distinction in the struggle with England. Washington, the most trusted man in America, was made president of the convention. Franklin was its oldest member and Hamilton its youngest. Madison was afterward called the "Father of the Constitution," because of his great part in making and defending it. He was the -main author of the "Virginia Plan" of a constitution which the convention decided to make the basis of its work. Other noted men were John Dick- inson of Delaware, William Paterson of New Jersey, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert and Gouverneur Morris and James Wilson of Pennsylvania, the Pinck- neys and John Rutledge of South Carolina, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. Some very able Americans were not there. Jeffer- son was serving as Minister to France and John Adams as Minister to England, while John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee did not favor such a convention. 262. Difficulties in the Convention ; The "Connecti- cut Compromise." The convention soon resolved to make a new Constitution instead of amending the old one. This was a bold step, because the states had told them only to amend the Articles of Confederation. Hence, some of the delegates feared that the states 2o8 Tlie Struggle for a Permanent Union would reject their work, but the majority believed with Washington that " if to please the people, we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can we afterward defend our work ? " The small states preferred the old government be- cause it was proposed that the states should no longer have an equal vote in the new Congress, but should vote according to population. They, therefore, favored the "New Jersey Plan," which only revised the Articles in some points. Debates grew warm and feeling ran high, until the dele- gates from Connecticut proposed that each state have the same number of Senators, but that the number in the lower House vary according to population. This plan, known as the " Connecticut Compromise," was accepted by both parties, and the small states became ardent supporters of the new Constitution. It was de- cided that Representatives From a portrait painted by Tlwmas i i j r , i i Huks, after Ralt,li Bar.'e, now in sllOUld SCrVC f Or tWO yCarS aud bC Independence Halt. FliUadelphia i , t -i xi i i? j.i elected by the people of the states, while Senators should serve for six years, and be elected by the legislatures. (Constitution, Article I., Sees. 2, 3; Amendments, Article XVII.; §598.) 263. Conflicts Between the Free States and the Slave States. Another troublesome question before the convention was : Shall slaves as well as free men be counted in dividing the number of Representatives and the amount of direct taxes among the states? The slave states said yes for Representatives, but no foi taxes. The free states took exactly the opposite position. ROGER SHERMAN TJie Constitutional Convention 209 Both sides stood firm, and men feared that no Consti- tution could be made unless this dispute was settled. James Madison proposed that three-fifths of the slaves be counted in making up the number of Representa- tives and in dividing the direct taxes among the states. This compromise was accepted. The majority of the delegates wanted the new govern- ment to control commerce, but did not agree as to how far the control should go. Some of the states, south- ern as well as northern, were opposed to bringing slaves from Africa, but Georgia and South Carolina '/ declared that they needed / to import slaves. The farm- ' ing states said that Con- gress ought to pass trade '^ laws only by a two-thirds ^^ majority. It was finally agreed that the foreign slave trade might go on for twenty years and that Con- gress might pass trade laws by an ordinary majority, but should never place a ^ gouverneur morris T '■ From a drawing by Qiieneaey, after a tax on exports.' painting by Chretien. Printed by de Joky s '^ ' in Darien's Letters of Gouverneur Mor- 264. Making the Presi- ''"'' '^'^^". York, and used by special per- ^ *^ tnission of Charles Scribner s Sons dent. The convention de- cided that the new government should have a strong executive, with power to carry out the laws and manage the affairs of the nation, just as the governors did in the states. Many different ways of electing the President were proposed. A few wished him to serve for life, more were in favor of a single term of seven years, but they 1 Constitution, Article I., Sec. 2, 2 Constitution, Article I., Sec. o. 15 2IO The Struggle for a Permanent Union decided to elect him for four years by electors chosen as the states might decide. Each elector was to vote for two men. The one who received the highest number of votes became President ; the one having the next highest became Vice-President. 265. Establishing National Courts. If the new government needed an executive, it also needed a sys- tem of national courts and national judges. It was decided that the judges should be appointed to office by the President and should serve during good behavior. The national courts try cases between people of differ- ent states, between foreigners and citizens, and decide whether laws passed by the states or by Congress are according to the Constitution or not. (See Constitution, Article III.) 266. How Congress, the President, and the Judges Work Together. If a law is wanted, some Represent- ative or Senator may introduce a bill into Congress describing the law. This bill may be debated and changed, but if a majority vote to pass it, then it is sent to the other House, where it may be again debated. If this House also passes the bill, it goes to the President for his signature. If he signs it, then the " bill " becomes a "law." If he "vetoes" it, he must send it back to Congress with his reasons for not signing. If two-thirds of both Houses still vote for the bill, it becomes a law, and the President must carry it out just as he would any other law. (Constitution, Article I., Sec. 7.) If, however, any citizen feels that the law does him harm, he may bring the question before a national court and the judges will decide whether the law is " constitu- tional " or not ; that is, whether the law agrees with the Constitution. If it does, the law stands, but if it does 1 not, then the law is dead. 267. How the Constitution May be Amended. The 'Constitution. Article III.. Si-cs. i and z. The People Endorse the Constitution 2il framers of the Constitution were wise enough to see that as the country grew, and as people learned from experience, they might wish to change the Constitution. They provided that such changes might be made in two ways: /. Proposed amendments may be introduced into Congress as any other bill. If they pass both Houses by a two-thirds vote, then the amendments are sent by Congress to the state legislatures or to state conven- tions. If they are approved by three-fourths of the states, the changes become a part of the Constitution. 2. If two-thirds of the legislatures request it, Con- gress must call a national convention, which may propose amendments. Such amendments are then sent to the states and voted on as before. This method has never been used. (Constitution, Article V.) THE PEOPLE ENDORSE THE CONSTITUTION 268. Why Some People Opposed the Constitution. When the Constitution was finished a few members of the convention refused to sign it, but the great majority did so and sent it to Congress to be submitted to the different states for acceptance or rejection. The people did not know just what kind of government the convention had made. Some feared that so much power had been given to the nation that the power of the states would be broken. Others feared that the President would become a king. Some opposed the new Constitution because it had no " Bill of Rights " ; that is, no part which promised to protect the life, liberty, and property of the people. Others argued that it would be better to let well enough alone, fearing that under the new government "the rich would become richer and the poor poorer." 269. How the Constitution was Ratified. When the time came to elect delegates to conventions to accept or reject the Constitution there was great excitement and 212 The Struggle for a Permanent Union much discussion both for and against it. Many writers prepared arguments for the newspapers, and published pamphlets. A series of articles called The Federalist is still considered one of the greatest works ever published on the subject of government. It was written mainly by Hamilton and Madison, and was an explanation and defense of the Constitution. When the conventions met in the great states of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York, exciting contests occurred. With such men as Elbridge Gerry, Samuel Adams, John Hancock, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, George Mason, James Monroe, and George Clinton, either opposed to the new government or not enthusiastic in its support, the friends of the Constitution had no easy task before them. Several conventions of the smaller states ratified the Constitu- tion by unanimous vote, but in some of the larger states it was carried only by the promise to favor amend- ments. North Carolina and Rhode Island did not ratify until after the Constitution went into operation. In the first Congress following the adoption of the Constitution ten amendments, sometimes called the Bill of Rights, were added. (See Constitu- tion, Amendments I.-X.) 270. Rejoicing Over the Victory (1788). When nine states had ratified the Consti- tution, the people knew the victory was won, and the JAMES WILSON From the portrait painted by lames ' idependence Hall^. adelphia Peale. now in Independence Hall, Fhil- The People Endorse the Constitution 213 friends of the "New Roof," as the Constitution was called, showed their joy. Cannon boomed, bonfires blazed, and processions filled the streets. But nowhere were the people happier over the result than in Philadelphia. The good news that the " Old Dominion " had ratified the Constitu- tion made the people of Philadelphia re- solve to celebrate the Fourth of July in grand style. Salutes were fired at sunrise. The bells in the city rang their noisy wel- come as five thousand people gathered in celebrating the ratification of the con- ^. £ .-i J STITUTION IN new YORK CITY line tor the parade. The^-Shipof state" wasdrawnon floats through "Every trade, every the crowded streets business, every occupation of life was represented." When the procession ended, James Wilson, who had been one of the great defenders of the Constitution, delivered an oration. The rejoicing continued far into the night. This was a fitting celebration of the greatest event of the American Revolution by a city which had witnessed the meeting of the Congress of 1774, the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitutional Convention. While the people are rejoicing over the new Constitu- tion and are electing Washington to be their first Presi- dent, we may take a closer look at the condition of the country after its long period of agitation and revolution. €l)e ^crioti of l^ational oBrotDtf) THE RULE OF THE FEDERALIST PARTY OUR COUNTRY WHEN WASHINGTON BECAME PRESIDENT 271. Population and Its Distribution. While the Revolution was going on, the population of the United States increased over a million, and when Washington became President it numbered nearly three million nine hundred thousand. The state of New York now has twice as large a population as the whole country had then. The vast majority in 1790 still lived east of the Allegheny Mountains and near the sea. Philadelphia, then the largest American city, had but forty-two thou- sand people, while New York, the next in size, contained only thirty-three thousand. By the same census Boston had a population of eighteen thousand, Charleston six- teen thousand, and Baltimore thirteen thousand. 272. The West. In the main, the region from the Allegheny Mountains to the Mississippi River was covered by vast unbroken forests where wild animals and Indians yet lived. The prairies, those great tree- less plains, were covered with waving grass, and were most extensive in the region northwest of the Ohio. Their fertile soil was yet untouched, and only here and there were cabins and log forts, the outposts of the United States. This region was the "West" of that time. People were attracted to it by stories of its beauty, of the rich- ness of its soil, and of the romantic adventures which awaited the settler. But the means of travel and com- munication were so slow that Thomas Jefferson declared it would take a thousand years to fill up the region to C214) Our Country When Washington Became President 215 the Mississippi River. Increasing- numbers of pack- horses and emigrant wagons, however, were already following a common route from Philadel- phia over the moun- tains to Pittsburgh. Another road, com- ing from Virginia and Maryland, aided bls^-^r^j^^TT"!? in making Pittsburgh *^ the most thriving -^^^isS and bustling town west of the moun- .^,^°>*^ tninc; From thic; emigrants moving west for settlement point the pioneers, with their families and household goods, and often with their cattle, embarked on flatboats and floated down the beautiful Ohio River to find new homes in what was soon to be the state of Ohio. "^ 273. Industry and Commerce. The old Confedera- tion, as we saw, was unable to protect the commerce of this country from the unfair laws of other countries, and to prevent one state from injuring the trade of another. As a result, American trade, both domestic and foreign, was not at this time very flourishing. Little or no cotton was exported. But in spite of these unfavorable conditions. New England ship-owners loaded their vessels with furs and fish, or took on cargoes of grain and flour from the Mid- dle States, or hogsheads of tobacco from Maryland and Virginia, or rice and indigo from Carolina and Georgia, and sailed away for the ports of Europe. The one occupation still common to all sections was agriculture. On account of differences in soil and sea- sons, it paid least in New England, better in the Mid- dle States, and best in the South. The ways of farming 2l6 TJtc Rule of tJic Federalist Party and manufacturing were still much like those of colo- nial times (§ 144). But even now in manufacturing a great change was coming which was soon to increase the wealth and comfort of the nation and make it more independent of foreign countries. In 1790 Samuel Slater, an Englishman, started a "mill" at Paw- tucket, Rhode Island. This first "factory" had three card- ing machines and seventy- two spindles. Societies for encouraging American man- ufactures were springing up in the leading towns of the North and in the Middle States. In manufactures New England ranked first and the South last. 274. Means of Communication. Trade and travel between cities and towns or between colonies were not extensive, owing to poor roads and the slow means of transportation. The river and the ocean still furnished the main routes, and the people had to be content with the sailing vessel and the flatboat. But at this very time John Fitch was experimenting in the use of steam on the Delaware River, and in 1790 one of his boats made regular trips between Trenton and Philadelphia. Travel inland still depended on the saddle-horse and the stagecoach. Regular routes gradually grew up between the larger cities. One ran from Boston to New York and on to Philadelphia. The time required to make the whole distance varied from eight to ten days, SAMUEL SLATER From an engravinifbyj. W. Steele, after a drawing oy Lincobi found in George S. White's ^^Metnoirs" published in 183b Our Country WJicn Washington Became President 217 depending on the season and condition of the roads. A government courier from New York to the frontier posts on the Mississippi could hardly make the distance under two months. The farmers west of the mountains found it slow and expensive to trade in eastern markets. More and more they built huge barges and floated their products down the Ohio and the Mississippi to New Orleans. But the Spaniards there charged the settlers a heavy duty, although the latter demanded the right to trade free of charge. The Spanish officers sometimes seized both boat and cargo and left the angry owner to tramp his long way home, and tell the story of his ill- treatment to the other settlers. The pioneers were RAPID TRAVELING BY STAGECOACH TRANSPORTATION BY WATER BY MEANS OF THE FLATBOAT indignant, and threatened to raise an army to drive out the insolent Spaniards. But in 1795 Spain, by treaty. 2 1 8 The Rule of the Federalist Party granted to our western traders free use of the mouth of the Mississippi River, 275. Changes in Social Life. The Revolution pro- duced many changes in American customs and ways of living. The war drove from the country hundreds of Tories who were among the wealthiest and best edu- cated people (§ 214). Thousands of other families were broken up or reduced to poverty. Because of our friendship, with France, many French ideas and fashions became popular in the large towns, and to some extent took the place of the plain ways of colonial times. In the villages and on the farm, how- ever, people still lived in the .simple manner of the days before the Revolution. They still dwelt in log houses, raised their food on their own farms, and manufactured most of their clothing and furniture themselves. 276. Education and Culture. The twenty years' conflict with England and agitation over the Consti- tution made Americans do hard thinking on many important questions. They knew more about each other and their country than before the war. There were great leaders in the land who stirred the people's thoughts and feelings by their eloquent words or by their wise writings. Newspapers had increased in number, but the people still had to depend largely upon letters for their news. Although the Revolution educated the people in many ways, it interrupted schools, hindered students from going to college, made the country poorer, and so for a time checked the growth of education. Public schools outside the cities and towns hardly existed at this time, and even the best of them were not to be compared with those of our day. The schoolhouses, with their hard benches, poor light and heat, and their bare walls, would have seemed to us very uninviting, Our Country When Washington Became President 219 Schoolbooks were few. Yet mucli hard studying was done in spite of these conditions, for it was the time of severe and frequent use of the rod. One of the hopeful signs for the future of public schools was the action of the old Congress in declaring, in the Ordinance of 1787, that in the states to be made out of the Northwest Territory, schools should forever be encouraged (§ 258). 277. Religion and Morality. The different religious sects were not so jealous as in colonial days, because the Revolution had made them better friends. The majority of the people were in favor of freedom of worship. Although the people of Massachusetts and Connecticut were still taxed to support the ministers of the Congregational church, Virginia, where the English church had been long established by law, had already declared for entire religious equality (1786). The Con- stitution took away from Congress the power to estab- lish any form of religion, or to hinder freedom of wor- ship. (See Constitution, Amendments, Article I.) But there still remained a great lack of sympathy for the unfortunate and criminal classes. A large number of' crimes were punished by death in most of the states, and men were thrown into prison for not being able to pay their debts. The prisons themselves were so poorly kept that even able-bodied prisoners, to say nothing of the weak and the young, soon lost their health. With few exceptions lawbreakers were not punished for the purpose of reforming them, but, as in colonial days, as a warning to evil-doers (§ 142). There were no asylums or reformatories in that time. Insane persons and paupers had to be cared for at home or sent to the public jail. 278. Slavery. In nearly all the states negro slavery still existed. But the Revolution, with its teachings 220 7'he Rule of the Federalist Party about freedom and the rights of man, made many people think that if it was wrong for Englishmen to tax Amer- icans, it could hardly be right for Americans to buy and sell Africans. Certain states began to give freedom to their slaves. Massachusetts led the way in 1780 and was followed by the other New England states. Pennsyl- vania early provided for gradual emancipation, but New York and New Jersey did not abolish slavery for many years. In the South, too, men were found who thought slavery injurious. Among these were Washington, Jef- ferson, Henry, and Madison. Although the Ordinance of 1787 forbade slavery, the slaveholders in Congress voted for its passage (§ 258). The Quakers in the South, as well as in the North, were the strongest enemies of slavery. We have already seen that slavery took a firmer foot- hold in the South than in the North. This result was due chiefly to the fact that slave labor was more profit- able on the great plantations than on the small farms of the North. But another cause soon came to help favSten slavery on the states below Mason and Dixon's line. About 1 794 a Yankee living in Georgia, Eli Whit- ney, invented a cotton gin, a machine for separating the seed from the cotton. It was a great success and soon the fields of the South were white with cotton. The number of pounds of cotton sent to Europe soon rose from two hundred thousand to six million. Slaves were now so profitable that slaveholders wanted to buy more instead of freeing those they had. The North, too, COTTON GIN Origin of Political Parties 221 profited by this invention, since some of its mercliants were engaged in the African slave trade, and because New England towns began to set tip cotton mills. ORIGIN OF POLITICAL PARTIES 279. The First National Election. In nearly all the states, when the first national election occurred, men were not permitted to vote unless they owned property. Each state followed its own plan of choosing Congress- men and Presidential electors. There were no cam- paigns wdth speeches and torchlight processions. When the votes of the electors had been counted, it was found that they had all voted for Washington, who became President, and that John Adams had received the next highest number, which made him Vice-President. (Con- stitution, Article II., § i, I'T 3 and 5.) 280. Washington's Triumphal Journey and Inaugu- ration (1789). 1 On his journey from Mount Vernon to New York, Washington was made to feel that he was greatly beloved by all classes. Along the road, men, women, and children gathered to see their great leader and to give him their blessing. At Alexandria his neighbors feasted and toasted him. Philadelphia cele- brated his coming with decorations of cedar and laurel, liberty caps, and triumphal arches ; with ringing of bells, firing of cannon, and illumination of the buildings and streets of the city. But nowhere was Washington more deeply touched than at Trenton (§218). Over the bridge crossing the Assanpink the women had erected a triumphal arch resting on thirteen pillars. On the arch were these words, " The Defender of the Mothers will be the Pro- tector of the Daughters." Above all was a great dome bearing the words, "To Thee Alone." As Washington • For the " Gibbs-Channing " portrait of Washington by Stuart, see frontispiece. 222 The Rule of tJie Federalist Party passed under the arch, maidens came to meet him and to strew flowers at his feet. From shore to shore of New York Bay hundreds of boats carried crowds of singing, shouting people. For- eign and American ships and land batteries fired salutes, while Congressmen and officers of the state and city, with a great multitude of citizens, escorted Washington to his house. On April 30, 1789, on the balcony of Old Federal Hall, in New York City, he took the oath required by the Constitution ; and the people, crowding the streets or looking on from windows and housetops, cried : " Long live George Washington, President of the United States ! " (Constitution, Article II., § i, 1 8.) ^281. Starting the New Government. Congress had already met,i and Vice-President Adams was presiding over the Senate^ when Washington was inaugurated. Three distin- guished men were now called to com- pose Washington's cabinet : Thomas Jefferson as Secre- tary of State, Alex- ander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, and Gen- eral Henry Knox as Secretary of War. Edmund Randolph was made Attorney- General. These men were to advise the President on questions connected with their work, and they were I Constitution, Article I., Sec. 4. t «• , •J Constitution. Article I., Sec. \. t1 4 and S- THE INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON Origin of Political Parties 223 JOHN JAY selected for their ability alone; at least two of them did not always agree in politics with Washington. The machinery of the executive department was now in run- ning order. (Constitution, Article II., § 2, 1 2.) The third great depart- ment of government was set in motion when John Jay of New York was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. (Constitution, Article HI., § I.) •^282. Hamilton Establishes the National Credit. But something had to be done to provide money for the new government and to pay our honest debts. Secretary of the Treasury went bravely to his task. At this time (1790) the United States owed France, Holland, and Spain more than eleven million five hundred thousand dollars; and Americans about forty-two million dollars. In addition, the debts of the separate states were not far from twenty-one million five hundred thousand dollars (§ 254). To carry on the government and pay these debts Hamilton recommended and Congress passed several very important laws : /. A tax on foreign goods. This tariff on imports was increased from time to time. ' 2. The Funding Bill, providing a way of paying the debts. 3. The Assumption Bill (1790), arranging for the pay- ment of the war debt of the states by the national 1 Constitution. Article I., Spc. 8. H !• rp-L, _ ,,p... -y. (^ From a port?-ait painted by Asher B J. lie yuuilg Durand, • • - . tioiv ifi the possession of the New York Historical Society 224 The Rule of the Federalist Party government. Many Congressmen were opposed to the United States paying the debts of the states, and the law was passed only after an agreement by which certain Congressmen from Virginia voted for the bill provided certain northern Congressmen would vote to locate the national capital in Philadelphia for ten years (i 790-1 800) and forever after that on the Potomac. (§ 296.) 4. A law creating the United States Ba?ik{i ygi). This bank was to keep the government's funds, and was to help it in borrowing, collecting, and paying out money. THE FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA Fnm an old prlal The United States was to own a part of the bank, and thus enjoy a part of its profits. The opposition to such a bank was intense, and even Washington at first hesi- tated to sign the bill. 5. The Excise Law, providing for a tax on distilled liquors, was the last important financial measure pro- posed by Hamilton. It, too, met opposition, because many people did not wish our own products taxed by the national government. ' 283. The Results of Hamilton's Measures. Hamil- ton's measures produced the following results : /. They gave the people of America and of Europe more cotifidence in the new govermnent. Trade revived, 'Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8. Origin of Politic a c Parties 225 manufactures sprang up, and people brought out the money which they had hidden away, and invested it in business. Commerce with foreign countries grew, and business men came out strongly in defense of what Hamilton had done. < 2. The Rise of Political Parties. The supporters of Hamilton were called Federalists. They believed in a strong national government and in passing laws for the common good which were not forbidden by the Constitu- tion. But many persons took alarm at Hamilton's work because they feared that the national government, under the Federalists, would take away powers belonging to the states. These men gathered around Jefferson as a leader and were named by him Republicans, but were afterward called Democrats. J. Loose and Strict Construction. The Federalists were inclined to understand the Constitution in a "liberal " or "loose" way, holding that the nation could do many things which were not named in the Constitution. The Republicans held to " strict " reading of the Constitution, and to "states' rights," believing that the government had only those powers which were named in that docu- ment. They accused the Federalists of favoring a monarchy. ^. The Whisky Rebellion {1794). The pioneer farmers of western Pennsylvania found it easier and cheaper to make whisky out of their grain than to carry the grain across the mountains to eastern markets. They were, therefore, bitterly opposed to the excise law, refused to pay the tax, tarred and feathered the collectors, and at last two thousand of them gathered in arms on Brad- dock's Field (§ 165). Washington knew the time had come to test the strength of the new government. Would the people take up arms at his call to enforce the law against their t6 226 The Rule of the Feaeransi Party own countrymen? More than twelve thousand men sprang to arms at his command, i and started to put down the insurrection. Before the army reached Pitts- burgh, the whisky inen had dispersed and their leaders had fled. Some were caught and convicted of treason,^ but Washington pardoned i them, for the great lesson had been taught and the authority of the nation had been established. 284. Western Emigration and Indian Wars (1790- 1794). While the country was discussing Hamilton's measures, a steady stream of emigrants was moving into /r\ .^ the Northwest Territory. The red men bitterly resented this invasion of their hunting grounds, and, encouraged by ^ the British at Detroit, began f^ to burn, steal, and scalp when- ever opportunity offered. They even ambushed and de- feated a force of troops under General Harmar. Washington sent a larger army, with St. Clair as its commander. But two thousand warriors, led by the famous chief, Little Turtle, cut his army to pieces near the headwaters of the Wabash River. The frontier settlers demanded protection, and " Mad Anthony " Wayne was sent to break the power of the hostile tribes (§ 235). He built forts at important points, and completely defeated the Indians near Maumee Rap- ids (1794). After this victory the army marched west- ward and built Fort Wayne. Wayne, "the chief that never slept," filled the tribes with fear, and the Indian power was soon broken. The next year the Indians signed a treaty at Greenville. ' Constitution, Article H., Sec. 2. J Constitution. Article III., Sco 4 LEAVING NEW ENGLAND FOR THE WESTERN COUNTRY Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy 227 An interesting event, common at the close of great Indian wars, was the giving np of all the men, women, and children that had been captured by the Indians. From distant places in Virginia and Kentucky, as well ■^^^W^ From an oM print '^Ar^' FORT WASHINGTON, CINCINNATI, IN 1787 Built to protect the Northwestern settlers against the Indians as from settlements in the territory, came relatives and friends seeking the lost. Many joyous reunions took place, although some suffered disappointment. Some- times captives remained with the tribes, because no one had come to claim them, or because, having lived from childhood among the Indians, their friends did not know them. For fifteen years after this treaty peace reigned and settlers crowded into the Northwest Territory. r -BEGINNINGS OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY 285. The Nature of the Question. The new nation had now to turn its attention to foreign affairs. Two problems arose: /. What should the United States do if two nations friendly to her made war upon each other? Should she help the one she liked best or thought was in the right, or should she remain neutral and aid neither ? 228 The Rule of the Federalist Pay.y 2. What should the United States do if another nation injured her trade? Should she declare war, or strike back and injure the trade of the offending nation? These were important questions, and were made still more so by the fact that later Presidents would probably follow Washington's example. 286. TheProclamationof Neutrality (1793). During most of Washington's administration a terrible revolu- tion was raging in France. Her oppressed people arose in their fury, beheaded the king and queen, abolished all titles, and set up a republic. The kings of Europe took alarm and prepared for war. France declared war against England, and sent " Citizen " Genet as minister to Amer- ica to stir up sympathy and get help. Washington knew that aiding France meant war with England. He consulted his cabinet and issued a procla- mation to the people, declaring that America would not take sides in the conflict between France and England. This was Washington's famous Proclamation of Neutral- ity, and was the beginning of our wise policy of not interfering in the affairs of European nations. 287. The People Take Sides. The Proclamation of Neutrality made Genet angry and divided the people. Some Republicans accused Washington of favoring kings against the people. Was France not trying to do as we had done? they asked. Had she not sent men and money to America? Was not England our old enemy? Although the government would [not permit any one to help France, the Republicans were determined to show their sympathy. They toasted and feasted Genet, wore French colors, and called each other "citizen" instead of "Mr." Genet was so puffed up by this treat- ment that he called on the people to oppose the policy of Washington. But they resented this insult to the gov- ernment and Washington asked France to recall Genet.^ • Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy 229 v288. Jay's Treaty (1794). Ever since the close of the Revolutionary War England had refused to surrender Detroit, Niagara, Oswego, and other western posts, and her agents had encouraged the Indians to make war upon our settlers in the West. On the sea she captured our vessels because they carried food to France and traded with the French colonies. France had opened her West India trade to our ships and hundreds of them were making large profits in the new field. These unarmed merchant vessels fell an easy prey to Eng- lish men-of-war. Whether nations at war had a right to treat a neutral country in this way was not then a settled ques- tion, but Eng- land acted as if she were right. She even went so far as to seize our sailors for her atoning Hamilton for defending jay's treaty After bein^ strugk in' the forehead by a stojte, Hatnilton own ships on the salmly said to the crowd: '■'■If you use such striking ^ arguments, I must retire " ground that they were subjects of England. America claimed that " free ships make free goods" and that all men have a right to change their citizenship. Feeling rose so high that Washington, to avoid war, sent John Jay to England to make a treaty.' England agreed to surrender the western posts and to allow our vessels to trade with her West India Islands, but she refused to stop seizing neutral goods and impressing American seamen. The treaty was very unpopular, especially with the Republicans. In New York City 1 Constitution, Article II., Sec. 2. H 2. 230 The Rule of the Federalist Party Hamilton was stoned while lie was addressing a public meeting in defense of the treaty. But Washington and the Senate knew it was a choice between the treaty and war. The treaty, therefore, was ratified, with some changes. ' 289. Washington's Retirement and Farewell Ad- dress. President Washington had been unanimously reelected in 1792, but declined to be a candidate a third time. He had spent eight years in laying wisely the foundation of the domestic and foreign policy of the new nation. He was growing old, and felt that it was time to rest. Besides, the bitter party men of that day did not hesitate to attack him because he was supposed to be more friendly to England than to France. Washington, therefore, sent forth his celebrated fare- well address, a document full of patriotic wisdom. He said that union was the source of safety, prosperity, and liberty. " Citizens by birth or choice of a common coun- try, that country has a right to your affections Let me now warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of party spirit." Again Washington retired (1797) to Mount Vernon to spend his few remaining days. He died in 1 799, mourned by the entire American people. In France and even in England honor was paid to his memory. 290. The Election of John Adams (1796). When Washington refused to be a candidate for a third term the majority of the Federalists supported John Adams for President, while the Republicans favored Thomas Jefferson. This was the first Presidential election in which much campaigning was done. The people and the papers took sides. There were no great processions, but in papers, in pamphlets, and in private conversation both candi- dates were severely attacked and ably defended. 1 Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy 231 Adams was elected President, but Jefferson became Vice-President. (Constitution, Article II., § 1,^3,) 291. Trouble with France Again; The "X. Y. Z. Affair." The French Revolution soon ran its course. From beheading the royal fam- ily, the leaders went to behead- ing each other. The Republic gave place to the Directory, a government managed by five men. They declared Jay's treaty an insult to France, cap- tured American vessels, and drove our m.inister, General Pinckney, out of their country. President Adams denounced the conduct of France, called Congress in extra session, and sent John Marshall and El- bridge Gerry to join Pinckney in trying to treat with France. But the Directory sent agents to inform them that America could win the friendship of France only by paying a large bribe to each director. When Adams made his report to Congress he called these agents Mr. X., Mr. Y., and Mr. Z. Hence, the incident is called the "X. Y. Z. Affair." The conduct of France raised a storm of indignation in this country, and the thrilling words, " Millions for defense ; not one cent for tribute," became a rallying cry. France and her friends became unpopular in the United States, French flags were taken down, and French cus- toms were dropped (§ 287). The people praised Presi- dent Adams, and everybody sang the new and stirring song, "Hail Columbia." Congress increased the army. JOHN ADAMS From the portrait painted by John Trumbull, now in Memorial Ha 11^ Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1 Constitution. Article II., Sec. 3. 2^2 The Rule of the Federalist Party provided for a Secretary of the Navy, and ordered new war vessels built.* War seemed certain. The only fighting, however, was done at sea, and after several American victories France was ready to make peace (1800). THE DECLINE OF THE FEDERALISTS 292. The Alien and Sedition Laws (1798). The Federalist party took advantage of the great unpopu- larity of France and her friends. Most of the foreigners in America were Republicans, who sympathized with France and hated England and the Federalists. They were trying, so the Federalists said, to break down all orderly government, as had been done in France. Two acts aimed at foreigners were passed by Con- gress. The first increased the time necessary before a foreigner could become a citizen from five to fourteen years. The second gave the President power to order any foreigner whom he considered dangerous to the government to leave the country, A third act aimed to punish, by fine and imprisonment, any one who, by writing or speaking, tended to bring the government into contempt. Although these laws were not very strictly enforced, they seemed so dangerous to liberty and so resembled laws lately made in England, that the Republicans began to regain their popularity. The Alien and Sedition laws, as the last two were called, hastened the downfall of the Federalist party. The affection of the people for their state governments was yet so great that they were inclined to view every new use of power by the nation with jealousy. 293. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798- 1799). The most serious opposition to these laws came from Kentucky and Virginia. Their legislatures passed resolutions declaring : 1 Constitution, Article I.. Sec 8, HH i-'. '3. U- TJic Decline of the Federalists 233 /. That the Alien and Sedition acts are open viola- tions of the Constitution, 2. That the Constitution is merely an agreement or "compact" between the states as equal partners. J. That each state may decide whether a law is against the Con- stitution or not. Virginia said: "When Con- gress passes a law contrary to the Constitution, it is the duty of the states to interfere." Ken- tucky went fur- ther and declared that a state could THE OLD STATE HOUSE, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY Here the Kentucky Resolutions^ written by Jefferson, were passed "nullify" a law ; that is, could stop it from being carried out within the limits of the state. Madison wrote the Virginia and Jefferson the Ken- tucky resolutions. . 294. The Campaign of 1800 and the Defeat of the ^Federalists. The campaign of 1800 was a very bitter one. Adams and Jefferson were again the candidates. The Federalists were fighting to hold power; the Re- publicans, to gain it. The Federalists told the people that Jefferson and his party would ruin the country by undoing the great measures of Washington and Adams, and by introducing disorder and misrule into the gov- ernment. The Republicans asserted that the Federalists were rapidly carrying the government towards monarchy. 234 The Rule of the Federalist Party and were really afraid to trust the common people. To prove this they declared that President Adams was an ■ ' ,, aristocrat in feeling, and that the acts of his administration all pointed to a greater in- crease in the power of the national government than was permitted by the Constitution (§292). Then, too, Jefferson and his party talked about the high taxes and the heavy expenses of the Federalists. There was some truth in what they said, for in 1792 the government cost only about three million five hundred thousand dollars, but by 1800 the cost had grown to over ten million five hun- Many believed that Jefferson would be more democratic and less extravagant in managing the government. As the campaign went on, the war of words grew hotter. Besides unpopular laws, quarrels among the Federalists helped defeat President Adams. 295. The Results of the Election. The victory of the Republican party was complete. The Federalists never regained power. Under the old way of voting for President it was possible to have not only a President and Vice-President of opposite parties, but also for the two candidates of the same party to receive the same number of electoral votes. Just this happened. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, both Republicans, tied for the Presidency. The election then fell to the House of JOHN MARSHALL From a portrait painted by Chester A rpd th nil qp n rl rl nil r? re: Harding, now in the Boston Athe- ^^^^ inOUSaUQ QOiiarS nceum Jefferson s New Policy 235 Representatives, where a long and exciting contest was held. Jefferson was finally elected by the aid of the Fed- eralists. To avoid tie votes in the future the Constitu- tion was amended so that the electors are now required to vote for one man for President and for another for Vice-President. (Constitution, Amendment XII.) The Federalists were sorry to give over the govern- ment to the Republicans, and, in the last days of their rule. President Adams appointed John Marshall, a Fed- eralist, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.' Although the Republicans now came into power, this great judge continued in office for many years, and his decisions increased greatly the strength of the national govern- ment. 296. The Capital Removed to Washington (1800). Washington himself had selected a tract of land ten miles square on the Potomac as the future home of the national government. To this place, called "The Dis- trict of Columbia," came the officers with the records. What a change in passing from the city of Philadelphia to this new town in the midst of forests, where the streets were little better than roads cut through the woods! The government was not only to be in a new place, but also in the hands of a new party. ^ THE RULE OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY JEFFERSON'S NEW POLICY 297. Jefferson's Ideas of Government; Republican Simplicity. Great was the joy of the Republicans when they saw their chief inaugurated, and celebrations were held in many parts of the country. Although Jefferson and Adams had worked together during the Revolution, they were very different in their ideas and actions. While Adams belonged to democratic New England and was accustomed to the town meeting, he was rather ^Constitution, Article II., Sec. 2, ^ 2. 2 This area was later reduced to 60 sq. mi. exclusive of 10 sq. mi. of wate» surface. 3 Constitution. Article I., Sec. 8, H :?. 236 The Ride of tjie Republican Party aristocratic and believed that the "well born" should hold office and make the laws. He agreed with Wash- ington in thinking that the Presidency was a very digni- fied office, and should be vsurrounded with a great deal MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF THOMAS JEFFERSON From s pSotof^.-tpb of ceremony and show. Jefferson belonged to aristo- cratic Virginia; he was very democratic and had great faith in the common people. He wished the President to dress and act like a plain man with simple manners. In his inaugural address Jefferson declared "we are all Republicans; we are all Federalists," and that among the principles of our government are: "Equal and exact justice to all men — peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations — entangling alliances with none. The supremacy of the civil over the military authority; economy in the public expense — and the honest payment of our public debts." Jefferson ^ urged Congress to cut down the army and navy and reduce the number of civil officers.^ This was done and a large saving resulted. The money was used 1 Jefferson broke the beautiful custom', started by Washington, of appearing before Congress and of reading his message. Jefferson was a poor speaker but a good writer. 2 Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. Jefferson's New Policy 237 by Albert Gallatin, the wise Secretary of the Treasury, to reduce the national debt nearly one-half. Still more could have been paid if Congress had not repealed the excise and other taxes, and if Louisiana had not been purchased. However, a good example had been set for future Presidents. 298. The Purchase of Louisiana (1803). The great- est event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana. The vast unexplored region between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains had been given to Spain by France under the treaty of 1763. But France had again become its owner and word came to America that Napoleon, the ambitious ruler of France, intended to send an army to occupy Lou- isiana. Although Jefferson was a friend of France, he was at once alarmed by the news that a strong, instead of a weak, nation was to control the Mis- sissippi. He said, "There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans." Jefferson resolved to purchase that part of Louisiana if possible. But Napoleon, who was at war with England, needed money, and agreed with our minister to take fifteen THOMAS JEFFERSON From a painting by Rembrandt Peale, now in the possession of the New York Historical Society, New York City million dollars for the whole of Louisiana, about one million square miles.' By this master stroke Jefferson doubled the area of the United States, although he ' Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, II i. « Constitution, Article II., Sec. 2. If 2. 238 The Rule of the Republican Party violated his own doctrine of "strict construction" (§283). (See map facing this page.) 299. The Effects of the Purchase. This act of Jef- ferson's had many important results : /. War with France or Spain was avoided and the settlers west of the Allegheny Mountains were made happy by the opening of the natural outlet for their commerce which Spain had closed (§ 274). 2. The frontiersmen were prevented from joining in the plans of Aaron Burr, Burr had been driven out of his party, defeated for governor of New York by Hamilton's influence, and had then shot Hamilton in a duel (1804). He had become an outcast for this crime, and was accused of planning to establish a government of his own at New Orleans. Jefferson had him arrested and tried for treason, but he was found not guilty. J. Extreme Federalists, in spite of their previous teachings, took the "strict construction" view, and accused Jefferson of violating the Constitution in buy- ing Louisiana. 4. A ^reat field for western emigration was opened, and the necessity for knowing about the new region caused the government to send out its first exploring expedition. 300. Effects of Jefferson's Policy. The reforms made by the Republicans, the progress of trade and commerce, and the kindness of Jefferson toward his opponents made him popular. He was reelected in 1804 by a great majority. 301. First Exploration of the Great West (1804- 1806}; Lewis and Clark; Pike. An expedition under the leadership of Lewis and Clark left the log cabin town of St. Louis in the spring of 1 804. (See map, page 239.) The party worked its way up to the headwaters of the Missouri River, crossed over the Rocky Mountains, • Constitution, Article III., Sec. 3. Jefferson s New Policy 239 and floated down the Columbia River to the blue waters of the Pacific. The expedition returned the next year from its work, and the people of the East for the first time learned of the " vast illimitable West " with its won- derful resources. THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION The ar^-oivs indicate the directions of the journey and the return By this expedition Lewis and Clark gave the United States another claim to the splendid region called Ore- gon. That section of country had been discovered as early as 1792 by a Boston fur trader, who entered the mouth of a great river which he named the Columbia. The expedition of Lewis and Clark strengthened our rights to the Oregon country against the claims of Eng- land and Russia. In the meantime another explorer, Pike, pushed up the Missouri to the Osage. He followed this river for a time and then moved across Kansas into Colorado, where he measured a great mountain which now bears his name. Amid terrible hardships his little party crossed the mountains and struck the Rio Grande. Here they were seized by the Spaniards and held for a time as prisoners. These explorations opened the eyes of the nation to the great value of the Louisiana Purchase. Yet many 240 The Rule of the Republican Party people believed that the republic was now too large and its parts too distant to be long held together. Happily for the country a new means of binding its parts more firmly together was already at hand. 302. Robert Fulton and His Steamboat. We have already seen experiments with steam- boats on the Delaware (§ 274). Even more successful attempts were made on the Hudson. In 1807 Fulton's steamboat, the " Clermont," made its first trip from New York to Albany. When the trial day came, hun- dreds of people, some hopeful, but most doubting, gathered to witness the start. At the signal the " Clermont '•' moved from her place, but suddenly the machinery stopped. " I told you so," said one in the crowd. " It's a failure," cried another. While they were talking Fulton adjusted the machinery, and the "Cler- mont," to the surprise and joy of the multitude, steamed away up the Hudson. The dis- tance to Al- bany, one hundred and fifty miles, was made in thirty-two hours. The flatboat and the sailing vessel now had a dangerous rival. ROBERT FULTON After the pai7itiiifrby Benjamin West Till-; "CLKRMONT" STEAMING TO ALBANY A Struggle for Commercial Freedom . 241 A STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL FREEDOM 303. War with the Barbary States (1801-1805). For a long time the Mohammedan states in northern Africa had preyed on the commerce of Christian nations. Euro- pean countries had paid them tribute, and America at first followed their example. But, in 1801, Jefferson sent a fleet to the Mediterranean and made war upon these pirates. Hard fighting occurred, in which the American navy won much fame and gained valuable experience. American commerce was made safe in that part of the world, and a good example had been set for Europe. 304. How European Wars Aided American Com- merce. During the long wars between England and France the great English navy kept the ships of France from going to sea. French West India trade fell largely into our hands, and tariff duties from it rose in one year from fourteen million to twenty million dollars. This increase enabled Secretary Gallatin to pay still more of the national debt. But England and France were willing to do almost anything to harm each other. Without warning, Eng- land declared that goods carried from the French West Indies to the United States and thence to France were liable to capture. Within six months the British navy seized over one hundred American vessels and impressed nearly one thousand of our seamen. British war ves- sels watched American ports like birds of prey. A great cry was raised against England's conduct, but our navy had been cut down (§ 297) and it was the policy of Jef- ferson not to fight if he could avoid war. 305. British Orders and French Decrees (1806-1807). England's wealth was largely in her trade. Napoleon decided to strike her a deadly blow by shutting her com- merce out of all European ports under his control. Eng- land struck back by an order in council blockading these 242 The Rule of the Republican Party ports. Although Napoleon's navy had been destroyed by Lord Nelson in a great sea fight, he promptly issued his famous Berlin decree forbidding all trade with Great Britain. England replied with new orders in council declaring all neutral vessels trading with France or her friends subject to capture. Napoleon's Milan decree made all ships having any dealings with England sub- ject to capture. As a result of these acts England captured, in one year, nearly two hundred American vessels, and France as many as she could, while impressment Avent on un- checked. Public opinion in the United States became more warlike. 306. How the Crisis was Met. Both Jefferson and his Secretary of State, James Madison, believed peace to be the wisest policy for America. Three important measures were enacted to meet the emergency : /. Instead of building large warships, as the Feder- alists had done. Congress had one hundred and seventy- six gunboats constructed and distributed among the sea- ports. In time of peace these boats were to be laid up on shore. In time of war they were to be manned by the people and sent out to meet the enemy. They proved worthless. 2. Jefferson hoped to stop the injuries of the English by a treaty (1806). But Pinckney and Monroe made so poor a treaty that the President put it in his pocket instead of sending it to the Senate. England refused to stop impressing our seamen or to acknowledge that "neutral ships make neutral goods." J. A non-importation act forbade Americans to im- port British goods. Although our trade was worth sev- eral millions to England each year, so desperate was her struggle with Napoleon that she could not afford to notice our "boycott," as once she had done (§§ 188. 196). A Struggle for Commercial Freedom 243 307. Searching an American Frigate (1807). Eng- land answered America's peace measures by again seiz- ing neutral goods and searching for supposed British sailors. The height of insult was reached when the British frigate "Leopard" ordered the American frigate "Chesapeake" to submit to search. The American vessel, just starting on a long voyage, was not prepared to fight. Nevertheless, her commander refused the demand and the British opened fire. Three men fell dead and eighteen BRITISH OFFICERS SEARCHING AN AMERICAN VESSEL FOR SEAMEN were wounded. As the American flag was being hauled down a brave sailor touched off, with a live coal, the only American gun fired. British officers came on board and called the roll, while American sailors stood in ranks for inspection. Four sailors were seized, and the " Chesa- peake," humiliated and disgraced, sailed slowly back to Hampton Roads. The indignation of the American people knew no bounds. Public meetings were held in all the large cities to denounce the outrage. Thousands called for war, but Jefferson, still true to his policy of economy and peace, was satisfied to order English vessels to leave our coasts. 244 Tlic Rule of the Republican Party HOW THE FEDERALISTS RIDICULED THE EMBARGO 308. The Embargo (1807). To punish England still further, Congress, on the recommendation of the PrevSi- dent, passed the Embargo Act. This law forbade our vessels to sail for foreign ports. To many people this looked like punishing America for the acts of Great Britain. The farmer, the merchant, the ■^•'^^=^ manufacturer, and the laborer all suffered severely from the oper- ation of the Embargo. As a result an exten- sive smuggling trade sprang up with Canada, Florida, and the West From an old print ludicS, Finding it impossible to enforce the law. Congress repealed it. Jefferson was greatly disappointed at its failure. A Non- Intercourse Act was passed, but this also proved useless. 309. The New President and the Last Appeal for Peace. Jefferson, following the example of Washington, refused a third term, and wrote a "farewell address." James Madison had been Jefferson's Secretary of State (§261). He now became President and tried hard to fol- low in the footsteps of Jefferson by carrjdng out his policy of economy at home and peace abroad. Madison again made an effort to secure, by treaty, the repeal of the Orders in Council, but in vain. In 18 10 Congress passed a bill, practically repealing the Non- Intercourse Act, but promising that if either France or England would repeal their laws against our commerce, the United States would refuse to trade with the other. 310. Napoleon's Game. It took the people a long time to learn that European nations act for themselves alone. When the Embargo made it illegal for American A Struggle for Commercial Freedom 245 vessels to go abroad, Napoleon, although pretending friendship, ordered all our vessels in ports under his control to be seized. He was simply aiding in enforcing the Embargo, he said ! He also took advantage of the new bill, and informed America that France had repealed her decrees against neutral trade (18 10). Many Amer- ican merchant vessels sailed for European ports, where Napoleon promptly seized them and took their cargoes, amounting to ten million dollars. In spite of this out- rage the new President was unwilling to go to war. 311. Rise of the "War Fever" (1811). Matters were hastening to a crisis. Our minister to England came home, convinced that relief could come only through war. News of Indian outrages in the Indiana Territory revived the belief that England was again urging on the tribes (§ 284). Madison was at length so provoked by the renewed seizure of our goods and the impressment of seamen that he ordered the frigate "President" to sea to protect our trade. She fell in with , ^.1_. 1., the "Little Belt" and a fight followed, in which the English vessel, which was much smaller than the "President," was badly beaten. The people felt that this repaid the British for the "Chesapeake" insult. When Congress met, November, 181 1, the peace- loving Republicans found a war party m tneir midst, clay and calhoun urging madison to led by young and able men ^^^^^^^ ^'^^ from the West and South. Foremost among them were Henry Clay of Kentucky, just elected Speaker of the 246 The Rule of the Republican Party House of Representatives,! and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. These men soon had the majority on their side, and even President Madison, tired of fruitless efforts for peace, agreed that war must come. A declara- tion of war was voted by Congress, June 18, 1812. 312. Summary of the Causes of the War. The causes of the war had been working over a long period. From Revolutionary days, the bitter feeling against England had been kept alive. After the Constitution was formed the people took increasing pride in the nation, and felt more keenly than ever the overbearing conduct of the British government. England insulted our national pride in various ways: (/) By furnishing the Indians of the Northwest with arms, and encouraging them to attack the settlers. {2) By refusing to recognize that neutral ships made neu- tral goods, and, then, by seizing American cargoes. (j~) By searching American vessels to find British deserters, and by impressing American sailors. Six thousand American sailors were said to be serving on English warships. {4) By refusing to pay for the wrongs inflicted, 313. The Strength of the Two Nations. England had about two and a half times as many people as America. But since England had to come to America to fight, her greater population did not count for so much. The English people, however, were willing to pay heavier taxes than the Americans. England was far better prepared for war than we were. Her army was large and used to fighting the great Napoleon. But even greater strength rested in her navy — by far the largest in the world. 1 The Speaker is elected by the members and is the presiding oflficer of the House. He appoints the members of the various committees with tiie exception of the committef; on rules, from which the Speaker is excluded, its members, since igio, being appointed by the House. The salary of the Speaker is $12,000 a year. 8 Constitution. Article 1., Sec. 8. The Second War for Independence 247 Our regular army consisted of only a few thousand soldiers, and state militia was our main dependence. Our navy, too, was small indeed, and had only begun to establish a reputation. And, unfortunately, America was not unanimously in favor of war. The strongest opposition came from New England, because war would greatly injure her trade. Only the South and West were eager to fight. Fortunately, the English army was fully employed in fighting Napoleon during the first two years of the war. THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 314. The Battle of Tippecanoe (1811). The Indians and settlers in the Northwest could not wait for a decla- ration of war. Governor Harrison of Indiana Territory, 1::::;':, ''I'liii'i ■ FORT HARRISON, ON THE WABASH, l8l2 from a contemporary eograTin; fearing an Indian outbreak under Tecumseh, the great Shawnee chief, and his brother the " Prophet," sum- moned volunteers to join his regiment of regulars. He moved from Vincennes (§ 234) up the Wabash, built Fort Harrison, and then marched against the Prophet's town at the junction of the Tippecanoe and the Wabash rivers, Tecumseh was in the South and the Prophet was sur- prised at the unexpected visit. Harrison encamped his little army on rising ground and agreed to parley with the Indians on the next day. 248 TJic Rule of the Republican Party That night the Prophet and the "medicine" men stirred up their warriors to the fighting point, and before day dawned the Indians rushed into Harrison's camp, shoot- ing down his soldiers by the light of their own camp- fires. When daylight came, however, the soldiers put the Indians to flight by a bayonet charge. This victory made Harrison a frontier hero. On Tecumseh's return from the South he and his braves openly joined the British. 315. The Campaigns of 1812. It seemed easiest to strike England by overrunning her Canadian posses- sions. When the war opened three armies invaded Canada, one by way of Detroit, under General Hull ; another by way of Niagara, under Van Rensselaer, and a third by way of Lake Cham plain, under Dearborn. These forces were to combine and conquer all Canada before England could send a large army to America. The whole plan, from beginning to end, failed. Hull was hardly behind the walls of Fort Detroit before he surrendered his army to the English without firing a gun, and all of Michigan, and Fort Dearborn, now Chicago, fell into the hands of the Canadians and the Indians. The British also defeated and captured a portion of Van Rensselaer's forces as they charged up Oueenston Heights. General Dearborn failed to arouse the enthusiasm of New York and New England, and only reached the enemy's border. It was clear that Canada could not be conquered at a dash. 316. Victories on the Sea; The "Constitution" Cap- tures the "Guerriere." Little was expected from our navy. England laughed at the "fir-built things," and made sport of our "gridiron " flag. But a great surprise was in store for the world when the American frigate "Constitution" met the "Guerriere" off the Gulf of St. Lawrence (18 12). At the call of the fife and drum every The Second War for Independence 249 man on the American vessel ran to his post. The sailors climbed into the rigging, the gunners double-loaded their cannon, and the powder boys ran for supplies of ammunition. Muskets and pistols were placed near at hand, and sand was scattered over the deck. The " Guerriere " had already opened fire, but Captain Hull of the " Constitution " waited till within pistol shot of the enemy. Then he fired a whole broadside. A Brit- ish mast fell ! The ships now came close together and THE ENGAGEMENT OF THE "CONSTITUTION" AND "GUERRIERE" From a rare fi-int eyigraved by I. G. McRae, after the paititing by G. White the American sailors tried to tie them fast. Both crews prepared to "board" and fight it out hand to hand, but the ships drifted apart. The noise of the cannon, the constant crack of muskets, the loud commands of offi- cers, the shrieks of the wounded, the clouds of smoke, the powder-stained faces of the gunners, all joined to make an awful scene. As the two vessels parted, the remaining masts of the " Guerriere " fell. With great holes torn in her side she lay a helpless wreck, and soon "struck" her flag to the "Constitution." Captain Hull carried his prisoners to 250 The Rule of the Republican Party Boston and received a rousing reception from the people. Salutes were fired, swords voted, resolutions passed, and bonfires burned to testify the people's joy. Later the " Constitution " won a similar victory over the British frigate " Java," and was given the proud name of "Old Ironsides." The warship "United States" also won a great victory over the "Macedonian." Smaller American vessels were also victorious. The "Wasp" took the " Frolic," the " Hornet" the " Peacock," and the "Enterprise" beat the "Boxer." The "Essex," with Porter in command, sailed around Cape Horn and cap- tured more British merchant vessels in the Pacific Ocean than could be cared for. She was finally captured, how- ever, by two British men-of-war. 317. Effect of Our Naval Success. The brilliant work of the navy kept alive the hope of success in the war, and showed how unwise had been the policy of neglecting to build up a strong navy. Europe was simply amazed. Again and again the most powerful nations had built navies only to have them destroyed by England. When the war began England was looked upon by the whole world as the "mistress of the seas." The English people could not understand these repeated defeats. In Parlia- ment and in the press men tried to " explain them away." Some said the British ships were old and their masts rotten. Others declared that the American vessels were larger and carried more men and guns. But there were the victories ! Our first important naval defeat was the capture of the unfortunate "Chesapeake" by the "Shannon." Captain Lawrence met the enemy near Boston and gave battle before his crew was well trained. After he had been mortally wounded he cried out to his men, " Don't give up the ship!" And this dying command became the motto of the American navy. The Second War for Independence 251 Other American vessels were captured, but the ma- jority were finally blockaded in our ports by superior force. A few, however, escaped and continued to win victories to the end of the war. Besides our regular navy, hundreds of private vessels obtained letters of marque from the government,' and sailed away to pounce upon the enemy's merchant ships wherever found (§ 237). England's loss was greater from these privateers than from our regular navy. 318. Harrison's Campaign and Perry's Victory (1813). Hull's disaster at Detroit spread alarm through the West ; it meant Indian massacre. The people called loudly for General Harrison. He was ordered to recover Detroit, and in midwinter hastened to his task, with troops from Kentucky and other states. The British and Indians were already attacking frontier forts in Ohio and Indiana. General Winchester was surrounded by Colonel Proctor and his Indians on the river Raisin in southern Michigan, and forced to surrender his little army. In spite of Proctor's pledge, many of the pris- oners were massacred by the Indians. Kentucky was deeply aroused by news of the massacre, and hastened reenforcements. While Harrison was gathering troops and supplies, a young naval officer, Captain Perry, was busy building a fleet of war vessels on Lake Erie. The British were doing the same. In September, 181 3, the two fleets met near Put-in-Bay. Perry had nine vessels, three more than the English, but they were smaller and had fewer guns For three hours the battle raged. Perry's flag- ship, the " Lawrence," was badly shattered and her crew nearly all killed or wounded. Perry, with his flag bear- ing Lawrence's motto, was rowed through a storm of leaden hail to the " Niagara." He immediately gave the signal for close action and tore through the enemy's ' Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8. 252 The Ride of the Republican Party lines, pouring his broadsides right and left. After eight minutes the victory was won. With the smoke of battle still hovering over the "Lawrence," Perry wrote his Adnpti-d from tba painting bj W. H. Powdl PERRY AT THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE Leaving the helpless '■'■Lawrence" he was rowed to tfte '■^Niagara" famous dispatch to Harrison : " We have met the enemy and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The country hailed with joy the news of this victory. Proctor and Tecumseh meanwhile retreated to Can- ada, and Harrison pursued. More than half of his army was made up of Kentuckians whose war-cry was, " Remember the river Raisin." Perry's fleet carried the army across the Lake, and Harrison hastened to meet the enemy in battle on the Thames River. Tecumseh was slain and Proctor fled for his life from the fury of the Kentuckians. The ground lost by Hull was now more than recovered, and again the nation rejoiced. 319. Other Events in Canada (1813-1814) ; Lundy's Lane. Madison sent new generals to the Niagara and St. Lawrence frontiers, but they succeeded little better The Second War for hidependence 253 than the old ones. Canada, however, was again invaded and York (now Toronto) captured, but unfortunately- some of the soldiers burned the capitol. An attempt was made to capture Montreal, but the generals quar- reled, the troops were poorly supplied, and the expedi- tion was abandoned. Encouraged by these American failures, the British crossed the river and attacked Sack- ett's Harbor, but Jacob Brown, a militia officer, success- fully defended the place. The British also invaded and plundered the region from Niagara to Buffalo. Events on the Canadian frontier were a little more favorable in 18 14. Younger and more enthusiastic men did the work. Forces under the command of Generals Brown, Ripley, and Scott fought hard battles at Chip- pewa and Lundy's Lane, on the Niagara River, but by the end of the year the region was again abandoned. 320. McDonough's Victory (1814). The defeat of Napoleon enabled England in 18 14 to send thousands of her best troops to America, and great preparations were made to invade New York by Lake Champlain (§ 222). The American troops were at Plattsburg under General McComb. McDonough's fleet of fourteen vessels was guarding the lake. The British bore down upon him with sixteen vessels, one of which carried thirty-seven guns. Against great odds McDonough won a splendid victory, forcing every British ship to strike its flag. Even the English veterans were frightened at the result, and beat a hasty retreat to the border without striking a blow. 321. Washington Burned and Baltimore Attacked (1814). As soon as the war in Europe permitted, England also sent her fleets to blockade our ports. Various towns on the New England coast were captured and plundered. A large expedition under Admiral Cockburn and General Ross sailed up Chesapeake Bay and marched 254 The Rule of the Republican Party against the capital. Washington was unprotected and the officers, including the President, fled panic-stricken. A few thousand hastily gathered regulars and militia were brushed aside at Bladensburg, and the enemy entered the city (August, 1814). The Capitol, the White House, and the Department buildings were burned. The British then sailed away to attack Baltimore. Troops were landed to storm the works around the city as soon as the fleet had silenced Fort McHenry which guarded the harbor. But although the fleet bombarded the fort all night, morning saw the " star-spangled ban- ner" still floating over the works.^ The British troops reembarked, and the fleet sailed away to join the expedi- tion against the South. 322. Jackson and New Orleans. The most impor- tant British expedition of the war was sent against New Orleans. It appeared an easy task to gain a foothold on the lower Mississippi, and in November, 18 14, a great fleet and army sailed from Jamaica. The President ordered General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee to defend New Orleans. Jackson was already a hero in the Southwest. He had broken the power of the Creek Indians at the battle of Horseshoe Bend, on a branch of the Alabama, and a little later had stormed and captured Pensacola, Florida (18 14). He hastily gathered about six thousand riflemen from Kentucky, Tennessee, and the regions around, declared martial law, and awaited behind his breastworks the approach of General Pakenham and his ten thousand veterans. On January 8, 18 15, the British assault was made. It was over in twenty-five minutes. Pakenham was slain and twenty-six hundred of his men were killed and wounded 'While detained on one of the British ships, Francis S. Key, watch- ing with eager interest the bombardment of Fort McHenry, was inspired to write " The Star-Spangled Banner." Immediate Results of the War 255 by the unerring rifles of Jackson's backwoodsmen (§§ 124, 233, 242). The Americans lost eight killed and thir- teen wounded. Seldom , if ever, had a^ British army- met such a de- ^^ feat with so little cost to the victors. -^ Shortly after ^- the news of this victory reached Wash- ington, the country was rejoicing over the treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, Christmas Eve, 18 14.' The treaty said not a word about the causes of the war. Both nations wanted to stop fighting. IMMEDIATE RESULTS OF THE WAR 323. A Stronger National Sentiment. From Wash- ington to Madison many events had increased the people's love for the Union. In spite of the disasters of the war they were proud that our militia had defeated the Eng- lish veterans and that the deeds of the navy had raised the nation in the eyes of Europe. The common efforts called forth by the war created sympathy between all sections. Faith and confidence in the national govern- ment increased except, perhaps, in New England, but even this section furnished its share of men and money for the war. The great gain in national feeling will be seen in the facts which follow. JACKSON AT NEW ORLEANS DIRECTING THE DEFENSE AGAINST The BRITISH ASSAULT Notice the different styles of dress ivorn by the riflemen and the soldiers 1 Coastitution, Article II., Sec. 2. 256 The Rule of the Republican Party 324. Political Parties Change Places; The Hartford Convention. From the day of Jefferson's inauguration the Federalists, who were strongest in New England, opposed the measures of r the national government, especially the War of 181 2. During the war delegates from three New England states met at Hartford (1814) to protect their rights, so they said. But many believed their object was to break up the Union. The resolutions of this convention showed that the Federalists had deserted the teachings of Washington and Hamilton, and had taken up the earlier views of Jefferson and Madison, which were "strict construction and states' rights" (§§ 283, 293). Opposition to the War of 1 8 1 2 and the unpopularity of the Hartford Convention killed the Federalist party. In 1816 it had but thirty- four electoral votes, and in 1820 not one. In the meantime the other party was also changing its views. Jefferson and Madison could not always follow "strict construction." The war could be carried on only by taking strong national measures, and Republicans continued to favor such measures after the war had closed. 325. The United States Bank Rechartered (1816). Jefferson's party had bitterly opposed Hamilton's Bank (§ 282). But when the charter ran out (1811) his party lacked but one vote of recharter- ing it. During the war which followed, only state banks JAMES MADISON From the pain ting^ by Gilbert Stuart, now in the Art Gallery of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine The Signs of a Nczv National Life 257 were in existence, and the paper money which they issued soon decreased in value and business suffered, for no one could tell the exact value of the money in use. After the war, Madison recommended, and Congress voted, that the United States Bank be chartered again for twenty years. It was given all the power of Hamil- ton's old bank and more than three times as much capi- tal. As before, the central bank was to be in Philadel- phia, with branches in different cities. 326. The Protective Tariff of 1816, From the passing of the first tariff (1789), American manufactures had been gradually increasing. The Embargo and the War of 1 8 1 2 helped them still more by cutting off the supply of Euro- pean goods. As a greater need for home manufactures was thus created, and as shipbuilding and trading with Europe were made less profitable, Americans engaged in manufacturing more extensively than ever before. But as soon as peace came, foreign goods in large quantities were shipped to this country. American manufacturers immediately called on Congress to give them protection by taxing foreign goods brought into the country. Accordingly, in 18 16, the first tariff act whose main purpose was protection, was passed. This law found supporters and opponents in all sections. John C. Calhoun spoke and voted for it. The country was ambitious to be more independent commercially, especially of England. A NEW ERA THE SIGNS OF A NEW NATIONAL LIFE 327. Making New States. At the close of the Revo- lution a wave of emigration swept westward. Enough settlers soon moved from the Carolinas and Virginia into Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796) to turn these regions into states. Vermont had already been admitted 16 558 -i AVt^' l:ra (1791) as the fourteenth member of the Union. (See map facing page 259.) (Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3.) From New England, emigrants made their way along the Mohawk and through western New York into the region north of the Ohio, while others from New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia reached the same region by crossing the mountains to Pittsburgh or by floating down the branches of the Ohio to the main stream. The union of these two streams of settlers made the state of Ohio (1803). Louisiana, the first fruit of Jefferson's pur- chase, became a state in 1812. (See map facing page 238.) No sooner was the War of 181 2 over than people commenced to move westward along the old routes. But from the Carolinas, Tennessee, and Kentucky, set- tlers now crossed directly into the region north of the Ohio, or moved west or southwest into the unsettled territory east of the lower Mississippi. The result was that Indiana (18 16), Mississippi (18 17), Illinois (18 18), and Alabama (18 19) came into the Union in rapid succession. The new states had great influence in making the Union stronger. The old states had made the Union and looked upon it as their child, but the new states were made by the Union and looked upon it as their parent. The colors of the full-page map facing page 259 show the admission of states by periods — the deep pink the original Revolutionary states ; the lighter pink, the states made by the westward movement immediately following the Revolution — Vermont, New Hampshire, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio ; the lightest pink, the states growing out of the War of 1812, in which the wave of population built up Louisiana, Mississippi, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri. The other colors show the as yet unorganized territories. 328. The Purchase of Florida (1819). Florida, still in the hands of Spain, caused this country much trouble. Tilt- Signs of a Neiv National Life 259 as it harbored large numbers of runaway slaves, pirates, and robbers. These joined with the Seminole Indians to rob and murder the people of southern Georgia. On the approach of troops the Indians and their allies retreated into the impenetrable Florida swamps. Finally the government sent General Andrew Jackson to protect our citizens. He disliked Spain for permitting England to build forts in Florida during the War of 1812. Jackson invaded Florida and hanged two Englishmen and two Indian chiefs. At last, to save further trouble with Spain, Florida was purchased for five million dollars. (See map facing this page.) 329. The Missouri Compromise (1820). In the same year that Alabama was admitted and Florida bought, Missouri asked to be changed from a territory into a slave state. Her request was granted but not without a struggle which excited the whole country. We have already seen that slavery was gradually dying out in the North, but that the cotton gin gave it new life in the South. Seven of the original thirteen states became free, while six remained slave. As the Ordinance of 1787 declared all the Northwest Territory to be free (§ 258), the South felt that the new states below the Ohio River should be made into slave states. In no other way could the power of the two sections be made equal in the Senate. This equality would have been destroyed if Missouri had been admitted in the same year as Alabama. The North also opposed Missouri's admis- sion, because her territory lay mostly along the western border of a free state. (See map facing this page.) For two years Congress debated and quarreled over the ques- tion, and state legislatures and public meetings, North and South, passed resolutions opposing or favoring the admission of Missouri. Henry Clay feared that the Union might be broken 2C)0 A \ru- Iba lip, and influenced Congress to settle the quarrel by a compromise. The main points in the agreement were: (/) The admission of Maine as a free state. \2) The admission of Missouri as a slave state.' (j) The exten- sion of the southern line of }*Iissouri (36''3o') through the remainder of the Louisiura purchase, with the agree- ment that territory north of the line should forever rffi^ -^& ,fmr~"^' HENRY CI.AY ADDRESSING THE IIOrSE OF REPRESEXT A TIN KS remain free. (See map facing page 259.) The excite- ment soon died away, but the question of slavery was to come up again and again. 330. Origin of the Demand for Internal Improve- ments. The farther people ])ressed westward the greater grew the demands for easier and more rapid communi- cation between the old and the new parts of the countr\-. The settlers not ouIn- desired more frequent news from the old states, but depended on them ff)r many supplies. The merchants in the East wanted to trade with distant settlements. New ways of transportation were called for. 331. The Steamboat. E\en before the War of 181 2 was over steamboats were pulhng up and down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers (181 1), and, as ferrj'boats, made ' Constitution. Article IV.. Sc-c. 3. Sirniius M(.\ INC WEST AI.UNU the CUMHKKUANU HUAl) I/ie I'l-iTiniiinff of the deveiofyment of the West The Signs of a New National Life 261 regular trips between New York and the towns in New Jersey, and between Philadelphia and Camden. By the close of the war at least seven steambcats had been launched on the Ohio and the Mississippi. One had helped to win the victory at New Orleans by carrying ammunition to Jackson, and before the treaty of peace was a year old another had steamed from New Orleans to Louisville with a cargo of foreign goods. 332. The Wagon Road. But steamboats could not climb mountains, run through dense forests, nor cross wide prairies. These things wagons could do. In 1806 work was begun on a road to extend from Cumberland on the Potomac to Wheeling on the Ohio.' By 181 2 two hundred thousand dollars had been paid by the nation for work on this great highway. The ''Cumberland Road" averaged eighty feet in width, and was marked each quarter of a mile. It was a " turnpike" road, being paved with stone and covered with gravel. It climbed the rocky sides of mountains, and crossed chasms by immense walls of stonework. Along its winding way in the "moving seasons" could be seen long lines of emigrant wagons and packhorses making their slow way^toward the Ohio. (See illustration facing this page.) In 1820, through Clay's influence, a route was sur- veyed from the Ohio River through the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to the Mississippi opposite St. Louis. This was called the "National Road." In this way emigration was encouraged and the parts of the nation were brought into closer sympathy. 333. The Canal. When steamboats from New Orleans laden with European goods began to supply the Western settlers, Eastern merchants became alarmed and called on Congress to build canals between the East and the West. Congress refused, because the majority believed that the Constitution gave them no power to 'Constitution, Article I.. Sec. 8. U 7. 262 A New Era TRAVEL ON THE ERIE CANAL IN 1825 appropriate money for such improvements, and the work was left for states to undertake. New York acted promptly. The Erie Canal, from Buffalo through the center of the state to Albany, was planned, and work upon it was begun in 18 1 7, under the enthusiastic leader- ship of Governor De Witt Clinton. Many men thought it impossible to build the canal, and ridiculed it as "Clinton's Big Ditch." It was a great undertaking for that day. The canal crossed swamps, rivers, hills, and valleys, and was three hundred and sixty-three miles long, forty feet wide, and four feet deep. The depth was later increased to seven feet. In the autumn of 1825, when the waters of Lake Erie poured into the canal, the news was told to New York City by the firing of cannon placed five miles apart along the whole distance. Governor Clinton and other distinguished men with a " fleet " of canal boats began a triumphal voyage from Lake Erie to the Atlantic. Cele- brations marked their progress, and wherever an impor- tant road crossed the canal, the farmers and villagers for miles around gathered to witness this strange voyage. On November 4th, with the ringing of bells and the firing of cannon in the city and surrounded by a fleet, Governor Clinton emptied kegs of water from Lake Erie into the ocean, to signify that the Great Lakes and the Atlantic Ocean were forever united. The Signs of a New National Life 263 The effects of the canal were far-reaching. The cost of freight from Buffalo to Albany was reduced nearly ten- fold. As a result the canal became the great highway of commerce for goods from the East to the West, and in turn for products from the West sent to Eastern or Euro- pean markets. Not only was New York City thus made the commercial head of America, but all along the line of the canal arose flourishing cities which added to the wealth and population of the state. Both Baltimore and Philadelphia tried to improve their connections with the West, but they were hindered by the mountains. Several Western states also built canals. Before many of them were finished, however, a new means of travel and transportation was attracting atten- tion. 334. The Railroad. The first "railroad" in America did not give promise of soon carrying "palace cars." The first cars resembled huge wagons and ran on wooden rails or on wooden rails stripped with iron, and were drawn by horses. But necessity called for longer roads and greater speed. In 1827 Massachusetts planned a railroad from Boston to Albany to connect with the Erie Canal. THE FIRST TRAIN OVER THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD IN 1835 The very next year work was begun on the famous Baltimore and Ohio road, the first long railroad in America. A great ceremony took place. Charles Carroll of Carrollton, aged ninety-three, the last living signer of the Declaration of Independence, drove the first spade into the ground with these words: "I consider this 264 A A^civ Era among the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." George Stephenson, an English inventor, had already constructed his first locomotive engine, called " Puffing Billy " (1814). It was not a great success, but he kept at the work until an engine was produced (1825) which hauled passengers as well as freight. The year 1829 witnessed an unsuccessful experiment with an English- built engine near Honesdale, Pennsylvania. In 1830, however, the South Carolina Railroad successfully ran an American engine built by the West -Point Foundry Company. The next year an engine was built at York, Pennsylvania, for the Baltimore and Ohio road, which ran at the then rapid rate of fifteen miles an hour. THE BEGINNINGS OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE "335- Irving and Cooper. The stirring events follow- ing the making of our Constitution and the rapid growth of the country were bound, sooner or later, to find a place in song and story. It was a time to stir men to think, to feel, and to act. They must write also. Their writ- ings are another proof of a new national life. Some of the most prominent men in American letters were born and grew to manhood in this generation. Washington Irving ( 1 783-1 859), our first author to attract much attention abroad, was already making people smile by the quaint fun of his Knickerbockir s History, and winning praise for his inter- esting stories in the Sketch Book. He soon gave to the world the first and most charming account of the life of WASHINGTON IRVING bv After a portrait painted ( Jiarles Robert Leslie, now in tlie Art Gallery of Lenox Library, Xeiv York Citv The Bi'gin)tiugs of a Naticvial Literat7ire 265 Christopher CoUimbiis. At the same time James Feni- more Cooper (i 789-1 851) was rising to fame as a writer of American novels. Europe had said that our country had no material out of which to make a novel, but The Spy ( 1 82 1 ), with its story of bravery and self-sacrifice during the Amer- ican Revolution, disproved this statement. Other works soon followed, each weaving into a story some portion of American history. Irving and Cooper were the first distinguished men of letters to take Amer- ican subjects for their writings. 336. A Famous Group. Another important group of American writers were already beginning their work. William Cullen Bryant ( 1 794- 1 878) astonished people by writing Thaiiatopsis, at the age of seventeen. In 1821 he published a booklet of poems, containing among others that beautiful lesson of faith expressed in To a Waterfozvl. Ralph Waldo Emerson ( 1 803-1 882), our first important philosopher, began his work in this period. Nathaniel Hawthorne (i 804-1 864), another of America's great story-writers, attracted early notice through the Twice-Told Tales. In the year 1 807 were born two of our most beloved poets, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and John Green- leaf Whittier. Before his graduation (1825) Longfellow had written a number of poems, among them the sweet Hymn of the 'Moravian Nuns, in which he celebrates the patriotic gift of a banner to Pulaski by the " Nuns " of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (§§220, 239). Whittier, the "Quaker" poet, as a farmer's boy of eighteen, wrote the JAMES FENIMORE COOPER From a rare daguerreotype made by Mattheiv B. Brady 266 A Arw lira Exilts Dtparturc. Later he threw his whole energy into the anti-slavery cause, and became famed as the " poet of freedom." Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), like Longfellow, had written successful verses before he received his diploma (1829). In the very next year, by the stirring poem, Old Ironsides, he saved the ship " Constitution " from being broken up as useless (J^ 316), 337. Patriotic Literature. Besides these teachers of the beautiful in life, others were already writing songs to stir our national pride and teach a noble love of country. Hail Colioiihia (i^gS), Ad(f;fis and Liberty (1798), The Star- Spangled Banner (18 14), and The American Flag, are among the most important of these songs. In addition, numerous popular songs were written to celebrate the victories of the War of 181 2. With this patriotic literature may be named the great speeches of Clay and Webster which were made in Congress in defense of the Constitution or on great occasions when the people met to celebrate some famous event. These addresses were heard and read by thou- sands, and helped to strengthen the Union for its great day of trial. 338. History and Art. Akin to this work were the writings of our first historians. By 1830 the people were reading of the Revolution as told in the lives of its heroes, such as Washington, Franklin. Henry, Otis, and others, and George Bancroft was planning his great life- work, a History of the United States. American artists were painting great scenes from our history, such as the ''Signing of the Declaration of Independence," "Washington Crossing the Delaware," and "Perry's Victory on Lake Erie." The country was showing its pride in its own history by erecting monu- ments to commemorate great events. Foreign Relations 267 FOREIGN RELATIONS 339. Lafayette's Last Visit. In 1824 occurred the ceremony of laying the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill Monument, in which the aged Lafayette took part. Lafayette was then on his second and last visit to Amer- ica. He visited the old battlefields, greeted his few sur- viving comrades, and returned to his native land bearing a generous gift from Congress for his noble services, and the undying affection of the American people. 340. The Monroe Doctrine (1823). The Declaration of Independence, Washington's Proclamation of Neu- trality, and the War of 181 2 showed a growing feeling in this country in favor of "America for Americans," which meant that we were not to mix in European affairs or permit Europeans to meddle with ours. The American and French revolutions stirred the people of Mexico and South America to rebel against Spain. European rulers had formed what was called the "Holy Alliance" to keep down all revolutions, and it was expected that they would aid Spain in punishing her American rebels. In the meantime, Russia, which then owned Alaska, was pushing down the Pacific coast and threatening our claim to the Oregon region (§ 301). John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, saw the dan- ger to both North and South America and urged James Monroe, who was then serving his second term as President (i 821-1825), to protest against any interference by European governments in American affairs. This JAMES MONROE From the painting by Gilbert Stuart^ now in the possession of T. Jefferson Coolidge, Boston, Massachusetts 268 A AVtc' I-:r(i he did in liis celebrated message to Congress. December 3. 1823, declaring that: "The American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be con- sidered as subjects for future colonization by any Euro- pean powers. ... In the wars of the European pow- ers . . . we have never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy so to do. . . . But with the governments who have declared their independence, . . . and whose independence* we have . . . acknowledged, we could not view any interposition, for the purpose of oppressing them, ... in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly dispo- sition toward the United States." Before the War of 18 12 such a declaration would have amused Europe ; now it was taken seriously, and England had even asked us to join her in opposing the Holy Alli- ance. A new national spirit had arisen. OLD PARTIES WITH NEW NAMES BECOME MORE NATIONAL AND MORE DEMOCRATIC 341. The Era of Good Feeling. The bitter feelings of the early political campaigns were passing away. The Federalist party was dead, and the Republican party had grown more national in its views. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson renewed their friendship, thus setting a good example to their followers. The unpatriotic names of "French party" and " Engli.sh party" could be used no more. We had learned by sore experience that France and England cared little for our interests. Monroe was the last of the Revolutionary heroes who could be President. Early in his first term he journeyed through many states and received everywhere a most enthusiastic welcome, but particularly in New England, where the opposition to his party had been most bitter. Old Parties With Nnv Names 269 At Boston a great jubilee was held in his honor, and fifty thousand people bade him welcome. Federalists of the Hartford Convention and the aged John Adams joined in honoring the President. Monroe was a peacemaker and everywhere he went he pleaded for a united nation. Under his administration national brotherhood had a new birth, as was proved by his almost unanimous reelection in 1820. 342. Election of 1824. As the election of 1824 ap- proached, many candidates for the Presidency sprang up, but they were all members of the Republican party, Nev/ England presented John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State; the West, Henry Clay of Kentucky, Speaker of the House of Representatives; the South, Secretary of War William H. Crawford; the South- west, the hero of New Orleans, Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina was chosen Vice-President, but no one received a majority of votes for the Presidency, and the election for a second time went to the House of Representatives, where John Quincy Adams was chosen. Henry Clay's influence elected Adams. Some of Jackson's friends asserted that Adams had bribed Clay by promising him the position of Secretary of State. This was not true, but the slander followed Clay all his life. 343. Origin of the Whig and the Democratic Parties. No sooner was Adams elected than the people began to take sides. Those who believed in protection to American JOHN QUINCY ADAMS From the oriji^inal painting by John Singleton Copley^ m llie possession of Charles Francis Adams, Esq., Boston, and loaned to rlie Massachusetts Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass. Painted ifi i7qj when Mr Adams ivas U.S. Minister to 7 he Hague 270 A New Era industry, in a United States Bank to regulate the money of the country, and in Congress voting money for roads and canals, gathered around Adams and Clay, as lead- ers, and began to call themselves National Republi- cans. A little later they took the old Revolutionary name, Whig, and followed the inspiring leadership of Henry Clay in his struggle for the above measures which, taken together, came to be called the "American System." But people who still held to " strict construction," who still favored using state authority whenever possible, and believed in state banks and a low tariff, began to gather around An- drew Jackson, under the name of Dem- ocrats. Jack- son was their natural candi- THE LOG CABIN IN WHICH ANDREW JACKSON WAS BORN date because he had received more votes than even Adams in the election of 1824. The "plain people" liked him because he was one of them. He was a hardy frontiers- man, had lived in a log cabin, defeated the Indians, whipped the British, and was acquainted with poverty and toil. His rivals were men who had long held office. They were, therefore, well trained to manage public affairs, but many believed that they could not sympathize with the common people. Since the days of Washington the people had grown more democratic, especially in the newer states. The struggle with the Indian and the wilderness made Old Parties With New Names 271 everybody live in much the same way in the West, and few, from wealth or education, could assume airs of social superiority. In all these states, therefore, every man, whether he had property or not, could vote, and hold office if elected. Even the older states now gave more people the right to vote. As a result of this new demo- cratic feeling there arose the idea that one man has as much right to hold office as another, and that no man should retain the same office long. 344. A New Kind of Campaign (1825-1828). The moment Jackson was defeated his friends went to work to win the next election. They began a new sort of campaign by making it appear that the people were calling loudly for Jackson. "Jackson committees" were formed in various parts of the country to gain support for him by publishing argu- ments in his favor, and by get- ting up public meetings to endorse him for the Presidency. The custom of "pole-raising" was begun. General Jackson was nicknamed "Old Hickory," and his supporters raised " hickory poles." The support- ers of Adams sometimes raised "oak poles," but with less show and noise. As the campaign grew exciting, the people wanted to see General Jackson. Hence arose the practice of "showing the candidate to the people." 345. Jackson Again at New Orleans. The most important gathering of the people to see Jackson occurred on the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1828. ANDREW JACKSON From a painting by Thomas Sully which hangs in the rooms of the Historical Society of Pennsyl- vania at Philadelphia 272 A New Era The legislature of Louisiana had sent an invitation to General Jackson to join the country in celebrating his famous victory. From Tennessee to New Orleans his A COMMITTEE OF CITIZENS BIDS JACKSON WELCOME journey was a triumphal procession. A committee of citizens went up the Mississippi to Natchez to meet Jackson and. his party on their way down the river. Here the state of Mississippi gave her welcome. There were processions, dinners, and a ball. Then the boats dropped down the river to New Orleans. The river near the city was filled with a fleet of steamboats packed with people. The housetops and the river banks were crowded. Visitors from far away were there. Distinguished men, committees with greet- ings from different states, veterans who had stood with Jackson when the British charged, all were present. The ringing of bells, the firing of cannon, and waves of human huzzas were overwhelming. For four days the celebration went on. 346. Adams Defeated. The popularity of Jackson discouraged the friends of Adams. They urged the Old Parties With Netv Names 273 President to use his influence and authority to help his reelection. But he steadily refused to do any "election- eering." He firmly believed that the office of President is too high to be used to turn men out of office simply because they worked for Jackson. This was a noble example which many another President could have fol- lowed for the good of the country. But Jackson was triumphantly elected. He received more than twice as many electoral votes as Adams. 347. A New Kind of President (1829). Jackson's election showed that the old kind of President with his dignity and ceremony was gone, and that plainer and more democratic ways were to rule in government. Jackson felt that the people had put him in the Presi- dent's chair to look after their interests. They felt that his election had saved the country, somehow, from a great danger, and they came in great crowds to see him inaugurated, filling the streets and shouting for Jackson. They pushed into the White House, climbed upon the fine furniture, and, in the mad rush to see the new President, spilled the pails of drink brought for their refreshment. Some came for a more selfish purpose. The cam- paign "worker" came to look for his reward. In a short time old and tried men, who had served their country since Washington and Jefferson put them in office, were turned out without warning, and their places were given to men who had worked for Jackson's election. In one year he dismissed over seven hundred men, many more than all the other Presidents up to that time. 348. The "Spoils System." Jackson changed the rule of Washington and other Presidents, never to appoint or remove a man for party reasons. He honestly thought it right to reward his political friends, but in so doing he introduced into national politics the " spoils 19 274 -^ -^<^^^ ^'■^ system." The business of the government was injured. Men who could not get office before, now became party workers in order to be appointed postmasters, collectors, or to some other office. The ablest men in the nation, among them Clay, Webster, and Calhoun, opposed Jack- son's policy, but the people only supported him the more. 349. Nominating Conventions and Platforms. The campaign of 1832 is noted for giving rise to national "nominating conventions" and to party "platforms" or written statements of party views. After Washington retired, candidates had been nominated by members of Congress holding a "caucus." But this method was too undemocratic and died out after IMonroe's time. The Anti-Masonic party, which aimed to keep Free Masons out of office, held the first national nominating convention in 1831. The National Republicans soon after met in Baltimore and unanimously nominated Henry Clay for President. In a few months the young men of the party met, endorsed Clay's nomination, and made the first platform ever issued by a national con- vention. This platform declared in favor of "protection to American industry," a system of "internal improvvs- ments," and denounced the removal of men from office "for a mere difference of political opinion." Clay and his party were strong defenders of the United States Bank. The followers of Jackson also held a convention, endorsed him for President, and named Martin Van Buren for Vice-President. Jackson won an overwhelm- ing victory and at once attacked the United States Bank. 350. Jackson Destroys the Bank. There had long been a feeling, strongest in the new states, against corpo- rations like the United States Bank. Many feared that such great companies would injure the poor man. Jack- son sympathized with this feeling. Soon after his first Old Parties With New Names 275 election he concluded that the United States Bank was unconstitutional, and declared it ought not to be rechartered. Later he vetoed a bill for a new charter. After reelection Jackson declared that the people, by their votes, had authorized him to destroy the bank. He removed the government money from the bank (1833), and injured its reputation. In 1836 the charter ran out and the United States Bank was again dead (§ 325). .^ 351. Wildcat Banking, Speculation, and Panic 1[r832-i837). Meanwhile state banks were springing up everywhere. Certain of these were called "pet banks," because Jackson chose them to receive the government money. The national debt now being fully paid, Con- gress voted to distribute its surplus money among the different states. The public money was thus placed where persons could easily borrow it. This, with the "paper money" which the banks issued, made it easier to obtain money than ever before in the history of the country. It seemed that Jackson was making it easy for the common people to improve their condition. Persons eager to grow rich began to buy government lands, which, by law, were sold for one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre. If the lands were located near towns, along the routes of proposed railroads or canals, they quickly rose in value. The prices of other things began to rise. Everybody was borrowing — individuals, com- panies, and even states — to buy and sell and grow rich. But the crisis soon came. Jackson found that the government was being paid for its lands in the paper money of the state banks. What if these banks should fail and their money become worthless? Jackson acted quickly and issued his famous "Specie Circular" (1836), which ordered land officers to receive only gold and silver for government land. This order created a sudden 27^1 .1 New Era demand for gold and silver. There were noi gold and silver enough to meet the demand. People who had gone deeply in debt were ruined. Bank after bank failed, "pet banks" and all; business houses became bankrupt, factories closed their doors, railroad building stopped, and thousands of laborers were thrown out of work. The panic of 1837 was the greatest financial disaster which had yet fallen on America. 352. The Independent Treasury. The poor suffered great hardships during the winter following the panic. "Bread riots" occurred in New York City. Flour rose to eleven dollars per barrel, and corn to a dollar and fifteen cents per bushel. The people called loudly for help from the govern- ment, but for a time even the national government had not money enough to pay its officers. Meanwhile, Martin Van Buren, Jackson's chief sup- porter, had been elected President (1837-1 841). He called an extra session of Congress and recommended that the United States establish a treasury of its own for the safe keeping of its money, instead of turning it over to banks of any kind. But the people did not favor this plan because it gave them no immediate help. The Inde- pendent Treasury bill was not passed till 1840. BREAD RIOTS IN N'FW YORK CITY 07cl Parties With Nczv Name. 277 As the President opposed any plan for helping the people to escape from their own unwise acts, he naturally became unpopular. <^ 353- The Campaign of 1840. The distress caused by the panic and the unpopu- larity of Van Buren worked to the advantage of the Whig party. In 1837 the Ohio Whig convention nominated Gen- eral William Henry Harrison for the Presidency. In 1838 thousands upon thousands greeted him upon his famous battlefield of Tippecanoe (§ 3 1 4). Later the Whig national con- vention at Harrisburg (1840) ' made him its candidate, and this action was ratified ^ "'^^"^ ^'^^ '^"f ^/, ^ . , from a portrait painted bv Daniel shortly after by a national ^'^"''^'/'f'l ^^r -'^j:- ^'^>' ,^":7"hf"^ ■^ J presented by I an Buren to the Statt, convention of young Whigs. Library at Albany, New York A campaign more enthusiastic and more exciting than even the Jackson campaigns was thus opened. (See illustration facing page 278). Harrison was a popular hero. He had lived on the frontier in a log cabin whose " latchstring was always out." He had beaten the Indians, and had overwhelmed Proctor and Tecumseh on Canadian soil. He was now a plain farmer living in Ohio, and was the people's candidate. Van Buren, on the other hand, was called the " little aristocrat." It was said that he had always held office, and lived in a " palace," and rode in a fine carriage, while the laborer was without work and the business man was a bankrupt. Such demonstrations, processions, and barbecues had not yet been seen, nor had so many great orators ever 278 A New Era before been heard in a campaign. But the Democrats had no orators equal to Clay and Webster, and no cam- paign songs as stirring as those of the Whigs. The Whigs further aroused the patriotic sentiment of the country by holding meetings on battlefields. The largest was the Bunker Hill jubilee. More than one hundred thou- sand people, many of them from distant states, joined in the demonstration. A Van Buren paper sneer- ingly said that if General Harrison were given a log cabin and a barrel of cider he would gladly give up his wish to be President and remain in Ohio. The Whigs imme- diately adopted these two objects as party emblems, and from that time on the From a tainting bv Hoyt, now in the loo- pa^-^i•n nnrl tViP l^flrrel nf roonisoftlie Massdclmsetts Historical ^Og Caom aUQ inC DdrrCi OI Society, Boston, Massachusetts cidcr bcCamC pOWCrful argu- ments in favor of Harrison. The election gave the Whigs their first great victory. 354. What the Election of Harrison Meant. Among other things Harrison's election showed that the com- mon man was taking a deeper interest in politics than ever before and that the successful candidate for office must win his support. The Whigs themselves now talked much as Jackson did when he declared that the people had commanded him to destroy the bank. Henry Clay, in the Senate, speaking against the Independent Treasury bill, declared that " the nation wills the repeal of the measure, and the nation commands the repeal of the measure, and the WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON Tim aumkeninsr of the political forces oj the people Industrial and Social Development 279 nation decrees the repeal of the measure, and the repre- sentatives of nineteen states were sent here instructed to repeal it." But in spite of their victory, the Whigs failed to restore the bank or to carry their other measures. Har- rison died within a month after becoming President, and Tyler, who succeeded him, 'quarreled with the Whig leaders and vetoed their bills. 355. Dorr's Rebellion (1842); Anti-Rent Riots. Other events showed that the people were waking up to their real power. Rhode Island was still governed partly by her old charter, which prevented fully two-thirds of her men of proper age from voting because they were not landholders. The non-voters made a new constitu- tion and elected Thomas W. Dorr governor. The old voters objected to this action and elected their own governor. Both parties flew to arms, but on the approach of United States troops Dorr's men deserted him. Dorr was tried and condemned for treason, but was afterward pardoned. A new constitution gave the majority more rights, and public excitement quieted down. At the same time the farmers along the Hudson who were living on lands owned by the descendants of the patroonswere refusing to pay their "rent" (§ 128). From colonial times they had given the patroons each year a part of what they had raised. But now the '* anti-renters" resisted even the officers of the law sent to collect the rent. The trouble continued for several years, but was finally settled by allowing the tenant farmers to bu)'' out the rights of the proprietors. INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 356. Expansion in Area and Growth in Population. From Washington's election to 1850 the United States had a wonderful growth. During this time the area was multiplied more than three and a half times, and the ' Constitution, Article II., Sec. i, IT 6. 2 Article IV., Sec. 4 3 Mace, § 96. 28o A New Rra population nearly eight times. In 1860 more than thirty- one million people were living in thirty-two states and nine territories. Two states and one territory (Wash- ington) had been organized on the Pacific coast. ' American cities showed tremendous gains. New York was now the great commercial center, and had a ^"i ''jiiJ^"il.iiiii- FORT DEARBORN, CHICAGO, A -^ \ I I^nNTIER POST population of over eight hundred thousand, while Chi- cago, only a frontier post in 1830, was already giving proof, with its one hundred thousand inhabitants, of the great city it was destined to become. Ten cities had a population ranging from one hundred thousand to half a million. But only three of these were in the slave states, and two of them, Baltimore and St. Louis, drew much of their strength from the free states. The North had double the population of the South, although the two sections had not been far apart in the number of inhabitants in 1790. This difference was due partly to the fact that foreign immigrants had settled mainly in the North, where there was no slave labor, and where occupations were more numerous. 357, Character and Effect of the New European Immigration. From colonial times America had been the land of promise to the poor and oppressed of all nations, ' Constitution. Article IV., Sec, 3. Industrial and Social Development 281 but the great majority of the colonists, however, were English by birth or descent, and the people who settled the new states down to 1820 were nearly all from the older states. But from 1830 to i860 immigrants came mainly from Ireland and Germany. Repeated "potato famines" drove large numbers of Irish to America. The majority were Catholics, and in their ways of living and worship dif- fered much from most Americans at that time. Germans^ anxious to improve their condition, or oppressed by despotic governments, also came in increasing numbers. They, too, brought many strange customs. For the first time in our history immigrants began to settle in the eastern cities and towns instead of going west to take up farms. -Ji-^>-= ST. LOUIS IN 18 The arrival of so many thousand foreigners fright- ened people into believing that American institutions were in danger. Later we shall see the etfects of this fear upon politics. (§ 413). 358. A Long Wait for New States. After Missouri came into the Union (1821) many settlers stopped to 282 A New Era occupy the ricli prairie lands and build up the towns east of the Mississippi. Laborers, farmers, and mechanics were more content to remain in the older states, which were rapidly developing their resources by building steamboats, canals, railroads, and factories. The result was that fifteen years passed before other states were admitted. Arkansas (1836), the last slave state below the Missouri Compromise line, and Michigan (1837), a free state, were the next to enter the Union.' 359. Mormon Migration. Before other states were made a group of sturdy people started westward. Joseph Smith organized (1830) the Church of Latter-Day Saints, or Mormons, proclaiming that he had received revelations from God, and that an angel had revealed the hiding place of the plates from which he translated the Book of Mormon. From Palmyra, New York, the Mormons later moved to Ohio, thence to Missouri, and afterwards ( 1 839) to Nauvoo, 111. Their religious claims aroused the enmity of their neighbors. This led to harsh treatment and to the murder of their leader, Joseph Smith (1844). The Mormons, in search of religious freedom, began, under Brigham Young, a long, dangerous journey into the unsettled West. They toiled over a desert region until they reached the Rocky Mountains. Up the eastern slope they climbed, and over the summit, and on till they reached Great Salt Lake. Here (1847) they began the work of making homes. Hundreds of flourishing towns and villages attest their courage and industry. They were among the first to show the people of America the value of irrigation. 360. The Balance of Power Broken; The South Seeks Spanish Territory. The increase in the number of foreigners, the interest aroused by the Texan Revolution and the Mexican War (§390), and the discovery of gold in California (^397) gave rise to a new tide of emigration. 1 Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. Industrial and Social Development 283 As a result Florida and Texas came into the Union in 1845, and broke the balance of power existing between the free and the slave states, but the admission of Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848) restored it. This balance was again and forever destroyed by the admission of California (1850), Minnesota (1858), and Oregon (1859) (§ 389). * Southern leaders had already been looking around for new territory for slavery in Cuba and Central America. Efforts were made to buy Cuba ; when Spain refused to sell, secret expeditions were formed to take possession of it and also of parts of Central America, but they all failed. Our ministers to England, France, and Spain held a meeting (1854) and sent forth a declaration, called the Ostend Manifesto, which asserted that the United States ought to obtain Cuba by purchase if possible, but by force if necessary. 361. Growth in Morals and Religion. This period was also remarkable for an improvement in the manners and conduct of the people of all classes, and particularly for the rise of a kindlier feeling toward unfortunate people. The result was an increase in the number of asylums for homeless children, for the aged, and the insane. Prisons were kept cleaner and the prisoners were better cared for. Instead of being kept in idleness and receiving frequent and cruel whippings, they were put to labor, and taught useful trades. Then, too, the absurd and often unjust practice of putting men in prison for debt passed away (§ 277). Drunkenness was more common then than at present, and strong drink was used at all social gatherings. It was not thought improper for even ministers of the gospel to drink. To decrease this evil, the Washingtonian temperance movement sprang up. Drinkers pledged themselves to reform, and others promised to aid them Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 284 A New Era by their good example. Gradually public opinion came to look upon drinking as an evil. The great church organizations followed population to the westward, and the new communities were not long without a preacher. Among the scattered settlements of the frontier, religious gatherings called "camp-meet- ings " were often held. Families left their homes and journeyed to the place of meeting in wagons or on horse- back, carrying with them provisions and tents. Large -^^r^-v- U "-"-'' crowds gathered '^i*!*- j-/sivA,< -. to listen to the preaching which \ , ■.*^:'■J.:^Vl■ :'"^^>^W:^i^S^^^^'''^^L'~". went on day and ht. Frequently e speakers at f " K'^J^s-S^ -' ' ' ' inese meetinofs ^\^.:il[f^l.'V_f^#M"->^ ^, - ^ the: mm were men of na- tional reputation. Unfortunately in this period the churches, like other organizations, were badly disturbed by the ques- tion of slavery. Members of particular congregations did not dispute about slavery so much as did the minis- ters from the North and the South when they came together in national meetings. The dispute grew so bitter that between 1840 and 1S50 the Baptist and the Methodist churches, and later the Presbyterian, split into northern and southern branches. 362. Growth of the Means of Education. The com- ing of so many foreigners aroused the fear that they would do harm to American ideas and customs, and would finally change our ways of living by bringing in the strange manners and customs of European nations. But many of the older immigrants learned to read American FRONTIER CAMP MEETING Industrial and Social Development 285 books and newspapers, and were soon interested in the politics of the country. The children of the foreigners became Americans the more easily because by i860 the Northern states had well established public-school systems. The new states had also been encouraged to provide public schools by large grants of land made by Congress. Some wisely used the money for this purpose, but others wasted theirs in internal improvements. Unfortunately, the Southern states were behind in free public education. They had many academies, how- ever, where parents might pay for the education of their children. From 1850 to i860 the number of colleges established in the South grew rapidly, although this section was still behind the North in old and high-grade colleges. 363. Other Means of Education. Other influences helped the schools to make people more intelligent. The daily and weekly newspapers for the first time reached millions of readers. Monthly magazines, like Harpers , the Atlantic, and the Sonthern Literary Messenger, were carrying good literature into thousands of homes. The poets and prose writers born in the early part of the century were sending forth their best work (§335). James Russell Lowell in his Bigloiv Papers and other writings showed that another great author had appeared to rank with Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, and Holmes. Joined to these influences was the " Lyceum," or public lecture course, which brought the people face to face with speakers and orators whose earnestness and eloquence made people read and think on important questions. 364. Inventions and the Increase of Machinery. Thia was also a time of wonderful inventions and of their use in manufacture, transportation, and farming. Men on the farm and in the shop could do more work 286 A Neiv Era with machinery, and do it easier and cheaper, than ever before. This made their services more valuable and their products less expen- sive. Thus inventions in- creased the skill of the laborer and added greatly to the comfort of living. The more costly and the more complex the ma- chine, the greater the care and skill demanded in using it. Never before during any ten years had so many inven- tions and improvements been made as from 1840 to 1850. In the five years from 1855 to i860 more patents on inven- tions were taken out than for the previous fifty years. Since the slave did not use machinery skillfully, and the planter devoted his time mainly to raising cotton, rice, and tobacco, the North benefited most by these inventions. Prom a photograph CUTTING GRAIN WITH THE SICKLE "Wl^i^^^^^^feg',^ 'Z^^f^-' I;-' -;3^**>..-'..i Prom ft pbotggrapb FARMERS CRADLi... i::;. V.llLAi 365. The Harvester. In the early days when the farmer cut his grain with the sickle the work was slow and difficult. With this little instrument in one hand Industrial and Social Th'7'ctopmcnt 287 and a bunch of grain seized by the other he cut his slow way across the field. What a revolution in reaping when the cradle came into use ! Now with one vigorous swing the farmer could gather a whole sheaf ! But the king of the harvest had not yet come. Cyrus Hall McCormick of Virginia was the inventor of the grain harvester. For twenty years he worked at the problem. CT ^K-^f- "J ^3 ^^C^ . lift 1/ THE ORIGINAL MCCORMICK HARVESTER From a photograph In 1 83 1 he patented a harvester. But his own neighbors smiled and shook their heads, and the people of other states would not buy the new machine. Finally the inventor himself had to go to the farmers of the great prairie states of the northwest and urge them to try his harvester. In 185 1 this reaper excited widespread atten- tion at the World's Fair in London. After trials had been made in English fields the London papers declared that this machine was " worth to the farmers of England the whole cost of the exhibition." 366. The Threshing Machine. In the early days farmers "beat out" the grain by the use of a flail, or by ' Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, f S. 288 A A^cu> Era horses tramping over the bundles of grain arranged in a circle upon the hard earth or upon the barn floor. The grain was separated from the chaff by throwing it into the air in order that the wind might blow the chaff away. But this mode of separating and cleaning was too slow, and the " threshing machine " soon came. At first it was a revolving cylinder full of teeth and was turned by horses. The straw had still to be carried away by hand- rakes, and the grain and chaff were separated by a new machine, called the "winnowing mill," which consisted of a number of wooden fans fastened to a revolving cylinder, and a series of sieves through which the grain passed. This machine was turned by hand. Finally the '* separator" was invented by uniting both machines. It not only separated the grain from the chaff, but also carried away the straw. The farmer could now produce more grain at less expense than ever before. 367. Growth in the Coal and Iron Industry. Coal had been discovered on the Illinois and Wabash rivers before the Revo- lution, but anthracite or hard coal was not known until it was accidentally found in Pennsyl- vania (1783). In addition to its stores of hard and soft coal, this state was also found to be rich \i^\ in iron ore, and iron mines and ■—^^ mills were early in operation. In the period from 1830 to i860 Pennsylvania became the great center of the coal and iron industries. By 1848 ten canals and twenty-five railroads had been built to carry coal and iron away from the places where nature FLAILING GRAIN InduJtrial and Social Development 289 had hidden them. In our time thousands of carloads are carried every day in all directions from the mines. All this has made Pennsylvania the second state in the Union y' -^^ MAKING STEEL PLATES AT PITTSBURGH in population, and Pittsburgh, the center of the iron and coal trade of the United States. The iron and coal industry of the South was, as yet, little developed. 368. Progress in Manufacturing. It was a great step forward when, as a result of using machinery, manufac- turing came to be done in factories instead of in small shops and in private houses. (See § 273.) Instead of the old spinning wheel, which made but one thread at a time and which required one person to run it, came a new one which spun hundreds of threads at once and yet required the care of only one person. Instead of the hand loom, with a single shuttle which produced but a few yards of cloth each day, came the power loom with which one person could weave many yards in a few hours. The- result was a remarkable increase in the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods. At first machinery of all kinds was driven by water power. This made it necessary to locate factories along water courses. Still another step forward was taken 20 KJU ■I .Vrw hra HOWE'S FIRST SEWING MACHINE MODEL when steam began to be used in driving machinery. It not only meant greater power, but that almost all towns and cities could have mills and factories. 369. The Sewing Machine. The burden of woman's toil was soon made lighter. Already a number of men had tried their skill at inventing a sewing machine, with partial success. Only after years of toil and poverty did the successful inventor, Elias Howe, receive his first patent (1846). Soon several inventors had made sewing machines and a number of firms were manufacturing them. They are now being used not only in the home, but in all shops where the needle is employed. As the sewing machine came into the home, the spinning wheel and the hand loom were disappearing from the thickly settled districts. 370. Our First World's Fair. In the year 1853, for the first time in our history, the nations of the world joined the United States in a great exhibition of prod- ucts in the Crystal Palace, New York. The Americans were most pleased with that part of the fair which showed the in- ventions of the differ- ent countries, for it proved that the United States, although a very- new country, would soon be leading the rest of the world in making labor-saving machinery. This exhibition, like all "world's fairs," taught many useful lessons and A FULL-RIGGED SAILING VESSEL Industrial and Social Development 291 helped to encourage peace and commerce among the nations. 371. Growth of Railroads. Railroad building took on new life in this period. By 1842 one could travel by- railroad from Boston to Buffalo, but it was ten years later before Chicago had railroad connections with eastern cities. The year 1857 was an important one in the history of railroads, for in this year Chicago and St. Louis were con- nected, and the Baltimore and Ohio road reached the latter city. By 1 860 the larger cities were bound together by ties of iron over which was carried a constantly increasing :A.. THE OCEAN STEAMSHIP trade. Unfortunately only a few railroads ran north and south, a fact which hindered friendly intercourse where it was most needed. 372. Ocean Steamships. Meanwhile the steamboat had been grovv/'ing into the steamship. As early as 1819 a small vessel, the " Savannah," carrying both sails and steam, had crossed the Atlantic. Later steam machinery was improved and coal was tried as fuel, and in 1837 the " Sirius" and the " Great Western" both crossed the ocean without sails. England and America competed for superiority in steamships. Parliament gave aid to the " Cunard Line " and Congress to the " Collins Line." Each line of boats 292 A N'ria Era strove to shorten the time from New York to Liverpool. Now a Cunarder and now one of the Collins Line held the record. Year by year the trip to Europe became shorter, more comfortable, and less expensive, until the trip is now a holiday visit on board a floating palace. Thus 'it not only became easier for Americans to see Europe, and for foreign emigrants to reach this country, but an immense American commerce with all parts of the world was made possible. 373. Commodore Perry Visits Japan. In 1854 an event occurred which brought America, for the first time, into friendly relations with the far East. In that year Commodore Matthew C. Perry, w4th a fleet of war vessels, was sent on an expedition to Japan. Up to that time the Japanese had not admitted foreigners to their country, even for purposes of trade. But after the brave Perry and his gallant sailors had visited Japan, treaties' of friendship and commerce were made, and from that time the Japanese and Americans have been good friends, and Japan has rapidly adopted the ways and customs of the western world. 374. The Telegraph. From the sailboat to the steamboat and from the stagecoach to the railroad were mighty steps for- ward. Yet distant places were to be brought still nearer to- gether. The invention of the "magnetic telegraph" was chiefly due to vSamuel F. B. Morse, although he was aided by the skill of Alfred Vail, in whose father's shop the instrument was greatly improved (1837). SAMUEL F. B. MORSE Prom a photograph taken by Abra ham Eogardus, New York City ' Conslitiitiiin, Arti< If II., Sec. 2, Industrial and Social Development 293 On January 6, 1838, over three miles of wire, was sent the message : "A patient waiter is no loser," But neither the United States nor the nations of Europe would give Morse aid until after four years of extreme poverty he was voted (1843) thirty thousand dollars by Congress for a line from Wash- ington to Baltimore. This was completed in 1844, and was the first regular telegraph line in the world. Lines were built to connect the larger cities, and by 1 860 every state in the Union was using ^ the invention. The nations of Europe, led by Germany (1847), rapidly adopted the Morse system. 375. The Atlantic Cable. Experiments were already on foot to " send news under the water." As early as 1848 a "cable" connected New York and Jersey City. Commodore Maury, who had carefully studied the bottom of the Atlantic, suggested to Cyrus W. Field the idea of linking the Old and New Worlds by a submarine telegraph. By the aid of busi- ness men in this country and England, and by an appro- priation of money from Congress, the first cable began to ''uncoil" in August, 1857. After more than three hundred miles had been laid, it broke. This accident cost five hundred thousand dollars. Again the attempt was made and again the cable broke. But in 1858 Field succeeded in laying his cable beneath the ocean, and Queen Victoria and President Buchanan exchanged greetings. A month later, while New York City was giving the conqueror of the Atlantic CYRUS From a photograph by Elliott and Fry, London CYRUS W. FIELD 294 -^ New Era a great ovation, the cable again parted. But Field never faltered, and in 1866 his efforts were finally crowned with success. America and Europe were henceforth to dwell near each other. 376. Differences Between the North and South (1850- 1860). In both sections were farmers, merchants, manu- facturers, and mechanics, but in the Southern states the farmer or planter with slaves was still the man with the most wealth. He possessed the most influence in making the laws and in managing the government, and his family occupied the highest position in social life (§ 146). Not only were the planters the men of power in their own states, but they were also the most prominent Southern men in national politics. This was true in spite of the fact that the non-slaveholders were in a great majority in all the Southern states. While there were more farmers in the North than merchants, manufac- turers, or lawyers, the merchants and manufacturers were generally the most wealthy and the lawyers most successful in getting high office. With the rapid growth of all sorts of manufactures, the number of skilled mechanics in the North also increased very rapidly. As the Northern farms were smaller than the Southern plantations, there were more farmers than planters. The number of white people in the North was much greater than in the South. Although the South took pride in her cotton, tobacco, sugar, rice, and hemp, the products raised on Northern farms were worth more than all these put together. Although cotton was raised in the South, the North had more than three times as many cotton mills as the South. During the year i860 it is estimated that in manufactured products the North produced five times as much as the South and had nearly three times as many banks. ^etioh of Sectional Dispute anti W(it THE GROWTH OP SECTIONAL FEELING GROWING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE FREE AND THE SLAVE STATES 377. The Root of the Trouble. The first serious disputes over slavery arose in the Constitutional Con- vention, but they were settled by compromises (§ 263). No other collision occurred till the Missouri question alarmed the country (§ 329). These events, however, were only on the surface and were due to deeper causes. Because of differences in soil and climate and in their systems of labor the North and South, as we have seen, had been growing so dif- ferent in every way that they could no longer keep from discussing it in news- papers and in Congress. Whatever appeared to be helpful to one section now began to be looked upon as harmful to the other. Especially was this true of the tariff. 378. The South Attacks the Tariff. The planters had to import large quantities of manufactured goods from Europe and from the North (§146). For these they had to spend a large part of the sum received for their yearly shipments of raw cotton. Some North- ern men had opposed, while some Southern men had favored, the tariff of 18 16 (§ 326). But the South could not (295) ^1 IW.^^- Y^V From a photograph SOUTHERN INDUSTRY 296 TJic GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling take advantage of the tariff by building factories and making its own cotton goods. If the South had been able to establish manufactures of her own, she would have benefited in many ways. Her people would have 1 HERN IN1)LSTK\ Miii;iii .; jdfrics from southern coicon ' had many other profitable occupations besides farming. Her cities and towns would have grown larger and richer, and the planter would have received better prices for his cotton and for his other products. But the slave could not be taught to handle machinery skillfully, and the money required to build factories and buy costly machines was already invested in large landed estates and in negroes. Hence this section wms more injured than benefited by the imposing of duties on imported articles. Opposition by Southern Congressmen to an increase of the tariff in 1824, and their protests that the high tariff of 1828 was unconstitutional, showed that the Southern people were beginning to look at taxes upon imports as intended to favor other sections at the expense of the South. " We buy dear and sell cheap," they said. But in the North, and especially in New England, the tariff had constantly grown in favor, and in 182.S Daniel Webster, for many years the most powerful opponent of the tariff, became its defender because Massachusetts had become a manufacturing state. Differences Between the Free and Slave States 297 How was the South to fight the tariff alone ? The answer was found in the ** Kentucky and Virginia Resohi- tions" (§ 293). These resohitions had hinted at " nulli- fication" by the states as the remedy, if Congress passed an unconstitutional law. But the people, since the War of 1 8 1 2, had almost forgotten nullification. We shall now see how the enemies of the tariff revived this doctrine. 379. The Webster-Hayne Debate (1830). The fight against the tariff began in earnest when Vice-President Calhoun sent a long argument, called the ''South Carolina Exposition," to the legislature of that state, declaring that the Constitution is only an agreement between the states as equal partners, and that any state may nullify an unconstitutional act of Congress (1828). Senator Hayne, a distin- guished son of South Caro- lina, in a speech in the Senate, made a brilliant defense of the doctrine of nullification, and severely attacked New England. Men again thought the Union in danger, and Daniel Web- ster felt called on to reply. On the day set for the reply the Senate overflowed. There was not even stand- ing room on the floor or in the galleries. People had come from distant cities, ana grave benatOrS were p^om a daguerreotype taken in 1850 by lost in the crowd of ladies." ^■■^- ^''^"^^ of Boston How grand was the scene when Webster arose ! With his massive forehead towering above deep-set but H^.\^ DANIEL WEBSTER 298 Tlie Growth of Srctioiial Feeling powerful eyes ; with broad shoulders and a commanding voice, Webster stood forth, a striking figure. All paid closest attention, while he spoke for hours, linking his arguments into a chain that could not easily be broken. It is one of the great speeches in the English language, and "will live as long as the Union itself." Its closing words, " Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable," went ringing throughout the land, and have become the ruling sentiment of the American people. In this debate Webster won the proud title of "The Defender of the Constitution." 380. "The Federal Union: It Must be Preserved." The South Carolina leaders knew that Jackson, who was then President, was not a friend to high tariff duties. How it would help their cause if they could get "Old Hickory" to come out in favor of nulli- fication ! They invited Jackson to a dinner on Jefferson's birthday, where many speeches, filled with the nullifi- cation idea, were made. When the President arose to speak, he astonished Mr. Calhoun and his friends by offering as his toast: " The Federal Union : It must be preserved." Jackson, too, it seemed, was for the Union and against nullification. 381. South Carolina Nullifies the Tariff (1832). The tariff of 1832, though lower than that of 1828, did not satisfy South Carolina. She decided to try nullification. A state convention declared both tariffs unconstitutional and forbade the collection of duties in her ports. JOHN C. CALHOUN From a photograph by Matthew B. Bradvin the collect ion of the War Department, IVashingtoii, D. C. Differences Between the Free and Slave States 299 President Jackson was furious. He ordered General Scott and two war vessels to Charleston, and issued a proclamation declaring-: (/) That the Constitution did not form a league, but a government ; {2) that i unifica- tion was unconstitutional and revolutionary ; (j) that he would enforce the laws without fear or favor. President Jackson was highly praised throughout the North, even by the Whigs. Some of the Southern states which were opposed to the tariff did not favor nullifica- tion as a remedy, but Governor Hayne declared that if the tariff was collected by force of arms. South Carolina would secede from the Union. 382. Clay's Compromise Tariff (1833). President Jackson asked Congress to give him full authority to use the army and navy in collecting the tariff. A measure called the " Force Bill " was introduced for this purpose. Many friends of the Union, both North and South, feared an armed collision at Charleston. To avoid the use of force and to bring about a compromise, Henry Clay introduced a bill providing for a gradual reduc- tion of the tariff till its protective effect should be almost entirely destroyed. The "Force Bill" and the bill for the reduction of the tariff passed Congress at the same time. South Carolina was satisfied and repealed her ordi- nance of nullification. 383. Beginnings of the New Anti-Slavery Movement. After the invention of the cotton gin, opposition to slavery everywhere seemed to grow less, except among the HENRY CLAY From a daguerreotype owned by Garrett Brown, Jr., Chicago ?oo The GrcnvtJi of Sectional Feeling faithful Quakers, whose opposition, though earnest, was never violent. The very first leaders in a new anti-slavery move- ment were Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garri- son, whb published an anti-slavery paper in Baltimore. Garrison later started a paper in Boston called the Liber- ator ( 1 831), which was intended to arouse the people in favor of the immediate abolition of slavery. He was very outspoken, denounced the Constitution because it pro- tected slavery, and even called upon the North to break up the Union. Garrison and his friends formed abolition societies in New England and also in the Middle States in order to carr}'- on the agitation. In 1833 delegates from ten free states met at Philadelphia, and behind closed doors organ- ized the American Anti-Slavery Society. Abolition societies grew rapidly in number in the North, and sent the Liberator and other writings into the slave states. The Southern peo- ple were indignant, destroyed such papers wherever found, and called on the Government to keep them out of the mails. .//X V/;%S^fe;':o^ 5^;;^ The majority of people in the House, Boston, Massachusetts North at first OppOSed the aboli- tionists. Northern mobs broke up anti-slavery meetings, destroyed abolition printing presses, threatened to hang abolition leaders, and in 1837 a pro-slavery mob at Alton, Illinois, killed Elijah Lovejoy, the publisher of an anti- slavery paper. But such acts helped rather than harmed the anti-slavery movement. WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON Differences Between ty Pree and Slave States 301 384. What the South Thought. Most Southern peo- ple at this time believed that the white man and the negro could live together only as master and slave. They feared that the abolitionists and their papers would make the slave discontented with his lot and "^^ would influence him to rise in rebel- lion and murder the whites, as Nat Turner and his fellow slaves had done a few years before in Virginia (1831). Besides, the burning anti-slaverv documents at Charleston, 1, / SOUTH CAROLINA South thought that slavery was its own affair, and that, since the Consti- tution allowed states to have slavery, the abolitionists ought not to interfere. This feeling on the part of the Southern people increased as the anti-slavery movement grew stronger, and led them, as we shall see, to take extreme measures. 385. The Right of Petition Denied (1836-1844). In order to keep down excitement, the opponents of the abolitionists, in the North as' well as in the South, not only tried to prevent speaking or writing against slavery, but also demanded that Congress pass a rule to receive no petitions from the people on the slavery question. Congress did so. This action only added fuel to the fire. Before, only a few hundred people had petitioned Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Colum- bia or prohibit its going into the territories. Now, 302 The Growth of Sectional Feeling thousands of men and women put their names to peti- tions against slavery, some even demanding its imme- diate abolition. Great debates arose in Congress on the right of peti- tion.' John Quincy Adams, then a Congressman, was its foremost defender. Only a few Northern members even stood by him at first. The House threatened to expel him for presenting petitions hostile to slavery. But he kept steadily on and finally compelled Congress to repeal (1844) the "gag" law, as the rule against anti-slavery peti- tions was called. Even the opponents of Adams admired his courage and devotion to duty. Only two years later, after reelec- tion, the whole House rose to receive him, and two mem- bers escorted him to his old seat. Here he was stricken with fatal illness in 1848. His last words were : " Thank the officers of the House. This is the last of earth. I am content." Thus the " Old Man Eloquent " died as he had lived, never turning aside from what he considered the path of duty. Senator Holmes of South Carolina, a slaveholder, in pronouncing his eulogy in the Senate, called him "the patriot father and the patriot sage." 386. An Anti-Slavery Party. The slavery question was now discussed in newspapers, in Congress, in the pulpit, and on the platform. Since the Whig and Demo- cratic parties refused to take sides, anti-slavery men formed a new party and nominated James G. Birney for the Presidency in 1840. He received over seven thou- sand votes. In the next campaign the anti-slavery men met at Buffalo, New York, christened themselves the Liberty party, and renominated Birney. At this election (1844) his popular vote was over sixty-two thousand, a considerable gain in four years. This growth was largely caused by the excitement over a new movement on the part of slavery. ' Amendments. Article I. The Struggle for More Slave Territory 303 THE STRUGGLE FOR MORE SLAVE TERRITORY 387. Texas Becomes a Republic. After the pur- chase of Lotiisiana, both Spain and the United States claimed Texas. Unfortunately the United States gave up her claim when Florida was purchased, and Texas finally became a part of the Republic of Mexico after that country had won her freedom from Spain. When American citizens began to emigrate to Texas, our THE "LON^sTAR" FLAG OF govcmment offcrcd to purchase the THE TEXAS REPUBLIC country. Although Mexico refused the offer, she granted large tracts of land to these settlers. In a few years the Americans, many of them slaveholders, were in a majority in Texas. About this time Mexico abolished slavery, and, as the American settlers gave no heed to the law, she forbade any more of them entering her territory. The Mexican government and the Americans in Texas, there- fore, did not get on well together. Finally the Texans rebelled against Santa Anna, the President of Mexico, declared their inde- pendence, and set up a republic. The people of the United States, fjoiu a photograph by Matthew b. ^ ^ ' Brady 1)1 the collection of the War especially those of the South, depart me?it, Washington, D. c. sympathized deeply with their countrymen in Texas, and sent them arms and ammunition, men and money. The Mexicans brutally massacred a small band of Tex- ans, who had resisted a siege heroically, in an old fort at SAM HOUSTON 304 The GrowtJc of Sictional l''c cling San Antonio called the "Alamo." But this event only aroused the Texans, and, under Samuel Houston, they overthrew several times their number of Mexicans com- manded by Santa Anna, at San Jacinto (April 21, 1836). Mexico gave up the struggle, and the United States and sev- eral European nations soon recog- nized Texas as an independent republic. 388. The Candidates of 1844 and the Texas Question. Texas wanted to enter the Union, and the South was determined to have her admitted in order to increase the number of slave states. But Mexico plainly told the United States that the moment Texas was annexed she would declare war. The anti-slavery people and 'ir^^ind''sla^L^"^/'& nien opposed to war with Mexico mond, \ irgniui dcclarcd agaiust annexation. But John Tyler, who became President after the death of Harri- son (1841), was determined to bring Texas into the Union. The Democrats in 1844 nominated for the Presidency James K. Polk of Tennessee, a friend of annexation, while Henry Clay, who was opposed to immediate annexation, was again the Whig candidate. The Anti- Slavery, or Liberty party, nominated James G. Birney. The Democratic platform aroused the enthusiasm of the South by demanding the " reannexation of Texas," and strongly appealed to the North by calling for the " reoc- cupation of Oregon." It vSaid " reannexation " because tlK- United States had once claimed Texas (j^ 387). 389. Oregon ; Annexation of Texas. Both England and the United States had claimed Oregon (§301), but The Struggle for More Slave Territory 305 had agreed (18 18) to occupy the ter- ritory jointly until the dispute was settled. (See map facing page 306.) The United States had no idea of giving up Oregon, and settlers were already entering that country. In 1843 Marcus Whit- man, a returning missionary, gave aid to an emi- grant train of two hundred wagons, and by 1846 sever- al thousand hardy American settlers had given the United States a firm foothold on the Columbia. The campaign grew more excit- ing as the Demo- crats began to demand "All of ,, THE TEXAS BOUNDARY DISPUTE wregon or none, Sliowmg the places covered in the campaigns of the and that the United ^"^"'^'^'^ '^"'' "^ ''"^ States must have as its boundary " fifty-four-forty or fight." Anti-slavery Whigs did not like Clay because he was not strongly opposed to annexation, and enough of 3o6 The Growth of Siclional Feeling them voted for Birney to enable Polk to carry New York and win the election. President Tyler declared that the people had approved annexation, and on the last day of his term he signed the "joint resolution " of Congress admit- ting Texas into the Union (1845). Thus the " reannexation of Texas" was accomplished. Would the " reoccupation of Oregon " be brought about as easily? England refused to accept 54° 40' as the boundary line, because this would shut out Canada from the Pacific. The matter was fortunately com- promised by an agreement ( 1 846) to extend to the ocean the line of 49°, which already separated a part of Canada from the United States. The line of 49° had been established by the treaty of 1 8 1 8, and confirmed by the Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842.' For the first time the United States held undisputed possession on the Pacific. But south of Oregon, between the Rocky Mountains and the sea, lay a vast unprotected and almost unoccupied country belonging to Mexico. Whose shall it be? 390. Taylor Ordered to the Rio Grande ; War with Mexico Begins (1846). We made a treaty with Eng- land and war on Mexico at about the same time. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as her western line, while Mexico declared it was the Nueces River. (See map, page 305.) The country between the two rivers was. therefore, in dispute. President Polk, without hesitation, sided with Texas, and ordered Zachary Taylor with his 'I'l JAMES K. POLK From apliotograpli by Matlhew B. Dradv in the collection of the War Department^ Washington^ D. C. Conslitutioii. Arliclc II., Sec- ■^' The Struggle for More Slave Territory 307 little army to take post on the Rio Grande. Mexico looked upon this as an act of war, and her forces, in April, 1846, killed or captured every man of an American scouting party in the disputed region. As soon as this news reached Washington, President Polk sent his famous message to Congress, declaring: "Mexico has invaded our territory and shed American blood on American soil." Congress declared war (May 13, 1846), provided for raising fifty thousand volunteers, and voted money for supplies. Although the Whigs were against the war, they generally voted for means to carry it on. Not only did Northern anti-slavery senti- ment oppose the war, but a few men in the South, including John C. Calhoun, believed it would work more harm than good. The war, however, became popular in the South and West. 391. Taylor's Victories and Popularity. The Mexicans, with superior numbers, met General Taylor's little army at Palo Alto (May 8, 1846) and were badly beaten. (See map, page 305.) The next day Tay- lor attacked the enemy well posted at Resaca de la Palma. Again the Mexicans were beaten, and were forced to recross the Rio Grande. Taylor From afiw^lrlp^r^i^ossession rested and gathered reenforce- fe^i^J^^'Ht^'J^^^jUel^^ mentS. Soon afterward he Armory, Boston, Massachusetis marched westward and attacked the vStrongly fortified town of Monterey, containing a large force. After the walls had been beaten down, the streets were barricaded by the Mexicans, and had to be stormed one by one. ZACHARY TAYLOR 308 The Gro'vth of Sectional Feeling The strongly built houses were also like so many small forts, and had to be taken separately. From roofs, from windows, from behind all sorts of protection, the Ameri- cans were fired onby the Mexicans, now grown desperate. It took four days to force them to surrender (September 24th) '(See map, page 305.) Taylor passed on to Saltillo and thence to Buena Vista. General Santa Anna knew that a part of Taylor's army had been sent to join General Scott, and thought the time had come to regain by one blow all that Mexico had lost. Accordingly he advanced to the attack with a huge army. But the Americans were strongly posted and beat back charge after charge. At the end of the day's fighting, Taylor had added another to his unbroken list of victories (February 23, 1847). His work was now done, and " Old Rough and Ready " returned to the United States a military hero. Long before Taylor won Buena Vista the people began to talk of him for President. Although he was only an honest-minded soldier, and cared nothing for political parties, the people and the Whig politicians The Struggle for More S/ave Territory 309 made him a candidate. Again the great Whig states- men, Clay and Webster, were put aside for a successful general (§ 353). 392. The Conquest of California and New Mexico (1846). Before war with Mexico had been declared, an American fleet had been sent to the Pacific coast, and John C. Fremont, the "pathfinder," who was exploring routes to Oregon, had been ordered to look after Amer- ican interests in California. Acting together, these forces captured the leading towns (1846). In the mean- time, Colonel Stephen Kearny had been ordered to seize what is now New Mexico. Starting with his little army of eighteen hundred inen froin Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, he made his way over the mountains of Colorado to the Rio Grande, which he followed down to Santa Fe. He took possession of the place without a struggle, and declared that New Mexico was a part of the United States. Thus the whole of the region south of Oregon easily fell into the hands of the Americans. (See map, page 311.) 393. General Scott in the Mexican Capital (1847). While these events were taking place, an army sup- ported by Commodore Perry's fleet was gathering under the Commander-in-Chief, General Winfield Scott (§ 319), for a blow at the heart of Mexico. Among the officers who served under Scott, and who afterward became famous, were Grant, Lee, Johnston, Thomas, Longstreet, and Jackson. The fortified city of Vera Cruz was first captured, after a nine days' bombardment (March, 1847), and General Scott then began his march for the Mexi- can capital, two hundred miles away. This was a bold undertaking. The road led over rough mountain passes, defended by frowning fortifica- tions bristling with cannon. But nothing could check the Americans. They stormed the steep heights of Cerro 3IO The GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling Gordo, routed the Mexican army, and after a brief rest descended into the valley of Mexico. Behind the defenses of the City of Mexico Santa Anna had collected an army of over thirty thousand men for a last d,esperate stand for their capital against the hated invader. The Americans began the assault August 19th, and before the day was done they had won Contreras, San Antonio, and Churubusco, and had beaten back Santa Anna. (See map, page 305). At this point the generals agreed to discuss terms of peace. But Santa Anna slyly used the time to make his remaining forts stronger. When Scott learned of this treachery he moved to the attack and captured Molino del Rey at the foot of the heights on which the strong castle of Chapultepec is situated. A few days later the Americans climbed the heights, and by the aid of ladders got inside the castle before it could be blown up. On the next day the victorious army marched into the City of Mexico (September 14, 1847). Santa Anna had fled, and Mexico was helpless. SHALL THE NEW TERRITORY BE SLAVE OR FREE? 394. The Wilmot Proviso and the Treaty of Peace. It was easier to win the war than to settle questions it raised. From the beginning, opposition to the war had increased, because many people believed that its main purpose was to force territory from Mexico. The seizure of California and New Mexico seemed to point that way. Besides, President Polk very early asked permission of Congress to spend two million dollars in making a treaty of peace, although Mexico owed American citizens sev- eral million dollars. The anti-slavery men took alarm, and David Wilmot, a Pennsylvania Democrat, offered in Congress a proviso that in all territory obtained from Mexico, slavery should be forever prohibited. The proviso did not become a law. Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free? 311 The President then had his own way, especially since our troops were in possession of the desired territory. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) not only estab- lished the Rio Grande instead of the Nueces as a bound- ary, but also gave us New Mexico and Upper California. ■^ San i)ieg, 1/fi XICO TERRITORY GAINED BY THE TREATY OF PEACE, i This imperial domain cost the United States but eight- een million dollars. Mexico received fifteen million dol- lars, and the rest was paid to American citizens holding claims against Mexico, A dispute, however, arose over the boundary line of the new territory running from the Rio Grande to the Gila River. But the United States satisfied Mexico by buying a strip of land since known as the Gadsden Purchase (1853). (See map above.) 395. The Campaign of 1848 and the Free Soil Party. The defeat of the Wilmot Proviso did not put an end to the agitation over slavery. The old parties had both anti- slavery and pro-slavery men in them, and in their national nominating conventions they voted down all references ' Constitution. Article II.. Sec. 2. 312 TJie Groivth of Sectional Feeling to slavery. They went further. The Whigs, whose majority was in the North, nominated for President a Southern man and a slaveholder, General Zachary Tay- lor ; while the Democrats, whose majority was in the South, nominated a Northern man and a non-slave- holder. Senator Lewis Cass. Anti-slavery men declared that the old parties were afraid of the slavery question, and that a new party ought to be formed to oppose the extension of slavery into the territories. Amid great enthusiasm such a party was formed at Buffalo (1848) and named the "Free Soil" party. Many Northern Whigs and anti-slavery Demo- crats, together with the Liberty party men, united in this convention. It nominated Martin Van Buren for President and Charles Francis Adams for Vice-President. The platform asserted the following principles : (/) That history shows " it was once the settled policy of the nation to discourage and not encourage slavery " ; {2) that " we propose no interference by Congress with slavery within the limits of any state " ; (j) that Congress should pro- hibit the extension of slavery into all free territory ; (./; that "there must be no more compromises with slavery" ; (5) that "we inscribe on our own banner: Free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men." The Whigs won the election and once more we had a soldier President. Taylor, the Whig slaveholder, received strong sup- port in the South where the Democrats were usually strongest ; while Cass, the Democrat and non-slave- holder, did well in the North where the Whigs were usually strongest. Taylor carried New Vork because several thousand Democrats, called " Barnburners," voted for Van Buren instead of Cass. This election showed that even the two old parties were beginning to break up on the slavery question. SJiall the Neiv Territory be Slave or Free? 313 396. Disputing Over California. The election of 1 848 did not settle the question of slavery in the territories, and neither could Congress settle it in the next two years. Some wanted to exclude slavery from the new territory, others.to extend the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific, while still others proposed to leave the question to the people of the territories. This last plan was favored by many slaveholders, but to their aston- ishment, President Taylor had a plan of his own. He proposed to admit California directly as a state without her first becoming a territory. California was already knocking for admission with a free constitution in her hand. How did it come about that while Congress was disputing, California decided the question of slavery for herself? 397. The Discovery of Gold. Early in 1848 a me- chanic digging a mill-race along the American River, about one hundred miles northeast of San Francisco, suddenly saw yellow particles in the sand. Gathering specimens, he carried them to the owner of the mill, a Mr. Sutter, who decided that they were gold. As the news spread, great excitement arose and the "gold fever " raged. .Everybody wanted to dig gold. The old slow ways of earning a living in California were given up. Men found no attraction in lumbering, milling, herding, clerking, or farming. Even the soldiers de- serted their posts of duty. Vessels coming into Cali- fornia ports lost their crews before they could unload their cargoes. Within four months four thousand people were on the Sacramento, living in rude huts or tents, and digging gold with all sorts of instruments from a knife to a pick. 398. The "Forty-niners." As the news of the dis- covery (jf gold spread over the country the rush to the gold fields was such as America had never seen. 3H The Gnnct/i of Sectional Feeling Siliil Many crossed the mountains, some went around Cape Horn, while others reached California by way of Panama. By the fall of 1849 California had a hardy population of "x^ about one hundred thousand who needed an orderly govern- ment as badly as they wanted gold. The slave states, so deeply interested in ' " California's fate, had sent but few emigrants, and a constitution prohibiting slavery was adopted by an overwhelm- ing majority. 399. Henry Clay as Peace- maker Again. The vSouth was disappointed over California, and, under the lead of Calhoun, her Congressmen sent an address to the Southern people calling on them to unite in maintaining their rights. Southern leaders now began to assert that Congress had no power to interfere with slavery in any of the terri- tories, and some threatened secession. The Northern people meanwhile were daily growing more and more opposed to slavery. Some demanded the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. One legislature after another declared that Congress had the right to prohibit slavery in the territories, and extreme abolitionists even demanded that the North escape blame for slavery by dissolving the Union. Henry Clay had retired from the Senate, an aged and broken man, to seek rest at Ashland, his plantation in Kentucky. He had said farewell to public life. But when the m.utterings of the political storm reached A CALIFORNIA MINING CAMP OF '49 Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free? 315 Kentucky, her legislature gave its unanimous vote for his return to the Senate. He resolved to give his last days to healing the nation's wounds. Clay proposed (January, 1850): (/) That California be admitted into the Union as a free state ; {2) that the territories of Utah and New Mexico be organized without reference to slavery; (j) that the slave trade be abolished in the District of Columbia ; {4) that a new and more stringent law for the return of runaway slaves be passed; (5) that the dispute between Texas and New Mexico be settled by paying Texas to give up her claim to portions of New Mexico. 400. Great Debates in the Senate (1850) ; Clay and Calhoun. Never before had there been such an assem- bly of ability and oratory in Congress. Clay, Webster, and Calhoun were all there, with Thomas H. Benton and JEFFERSON DAVIS IN THE COMPROMISE DEBATES IN CONGRESS Jefferson Davis from the South, and Stephen A. Doug- las, William H. Seward, and Salmon P. Chase from the North. On February 5th Henry Clay arose to address a Senate filled to overflowing with visitors, some of whom ."^ Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 2, 1[ 3. 3i6 The GrowtJi of Sectional Feeling had come hundreds of miles to hear the silver-tongued ora- tor make his last appeal for the Union, He asserted that disunion meant war, and pleaded for a compromise which might once more make a harmonious country. For two days his eloquence swayed the audience. When he closed, the people gathered around him to show their admiration. Next came the great champion of states' rights, John C. Calhoun. He was too ill to speak, and a friend read his address. What a strange scene it was ! " There he sat, motionless like a statue, with the hand of death upon him ; — listening to his own words from another's mouth," and anxiously watching their effect on the faces of the WEBSTEK ADDRESSING THE SENATE ON THE 7TH OK MARCH great audience. He declared that the Union was in danger because the South was alarmed at the North's hostility to slavery. He wanted: (/) An equal division of the territories between the two sections; {2) better laws for the return of fugitive slaves, and ( j ) the stop- ping of all anti-slavery agitation; and declared, "If you of the North will not do this, then let our Southern states separate and depart in peace " ($5 379). Shall tJie New Territory he Slave or Free? 317 401. Webster's Seventh of March Speech ; The New Leaders. Men wondered why Webster had not yet spoken. On the 7th of March he delivered his famous speech, " For the Union and the Constitution." Webster sincerely loved the Union, for he knew its value. But in denouncing agitators both North and South, he placed most of the blame on the anti-slavery men. They were disappointed, for the great orator who had battled against Hayne and opposed all compromise with Carolina in 1833 now seemed to be deserting their cause. Anti-slavery men looked for new champions and found them in two men who had just come into the Senate: William H. Seward -v, of New York and Salmon P. Chase of Ohio. Seward's speech against Clay's measures excited widespread interest. He declared his opposition to all compromises with slavery and favored the immediate admission of California.' But he startled the country by asserting that not only the Constitution but "a higher law than the Constitution " makes the territories free. By this Seward meant the moral law. The speech of Chase followed, opposing the compromise, arguing in favor of the Wilmot Proviso, and denying the right of Con- gress to pass a fugitive slave law. The South, too, found a new leader. Jefferson Davis stepped into the place of the dying Calhoun, and, like MILLARD FILLMORE From a portrait fainted by John ll'i'stev Jarvis, now in the Council Chamber of the New York City Hall 1 Constitution. Article IV., Sec. 3. 3i8 The GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling Seward and Chase, was much more outspoken than the older statesmen. While the debates were still under way, Taylor suddenly died, and Millard Fillmore, who strongly favored the compromise, became President. , 402. The Compromise of 1850. A committee of thirteen Senators reported in favor of Clay's measures, but a majority of Congress was opposed to them taken together. Taken separately, however, the following became laws : /. The admission of California as a free state. 2. The organization of New Mexico and Utah into territories without mention of slavery. J. The payment of ten million dollars to Texas for disputed land claimed by New Mexico. /J.. A new fugitive slave law, denying the negro the right of trial by jury, commanding all people to aid in returning an escaped slave if their services were de- manded by the officers, and fining and imprisoning any one helping the fugitive or hindering his arrest. 5. The abolition of buying and selling slaves in the District of Columbia. 403. The Effects of the Compromise. The country was glad when the compromise measures passed. The majority of the people hoped, with Clay, that harmony and good feeling would return, as had happened after the Missouri Compromise. To encourage this end and to condemn further agitation, " Union meetings " were held, in which both Whigs and Democrats took part. But the fugitive slave law was in the way. The anti- slavery people hated the law, and many who favored its enforcement did not like it. A slaveholder could not understand why any one should oppose the return of fugitive slaves, since they legally belonged to persons in the South. But many fugitives had escaped years before and were now living happily in their own homes. • Constitution. Article IV., Sec. 2, U 3. J Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, H i" PA C I F I iT^^^^s / o / ^ / "^ . L, r r. «'•'/ 2 W ►^ U, CO £ O 2 Shall tJic New Territory be Slave or Free ? 319 Negroes held meetings and begged the people of the North to have the law repealed. In Boston a slave named Shadrach was taken from the officers by a mob and sent to Canada. The " Jerry rescue," in Syracuse, attracted widespread attention. In other places excite- ment was aroused by the capture of fugitives. In the border free states there was great activity among a class of men known as "negro hunters," who searched for the runaway slave in order to get the reward offered for his capture. Although very few "rescues" were attempted in these states, the work of the "Under- ground Railroad" in- creased, and its branches spread in many directions. The number of slaves who tried to escape rapidly in- creased, especially in the border slave states. 404. The "Under- ground Railroad." The " Underground Railroad " was a name applied to those routes along which slaves were accustomed to find help in reaching Canada or some safe place in the North. Travel from one "station" to another was carried on with the utmost secrecy, for every man who lifted his hand to help the fugitive was breaking the law, and was liable to be sent to prison. This was a strange condi- tion of things — hundreds of good people violating the laws of the United States in order to keep from violat- ing their consciences ! The Southerners, firmly believing slavery to be right, felt that the anti-slavery men were doing them great harm in encouraging and helping negroes to escape. A RESCUE MOB 320 The Growth of Sectional Feeling HARRIET BEECHER STOWE From a photograph by Sarony, New York 405. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). Harriet Beecher Stowe was deeply moved by the return of vSo many negro fugitives under the new law, and wrote Uncle Tom's Cabin to make plain to the North what slavery was as she under- stood it. The book laid hold on the minds and hearts of the people as no anti-slavery orator had ever done. Everybody who could buy or borrow it read Uncle Toms Cabin. Thousands of copies were sold immediately. Rufus Choate said : " That book will make two millions of abo- litionists." The slave- holders declared that it pictured only the worst side of slavery and thus gave false impressions. Mrs. Stowe was severely criticised, and William Lloyd Garrison wrote to her: "All the defenders of slavery have let me alone and are abusing you." 406. Why the \A/'higs Were - Defeated in 1852. Both the old / parties came out strongly in their platforms in favor of the compromise of 1850. The Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott, and the Democrats, Franklin Pierce of New ^;°'l % 'Rffcfii^fro,,, Hampshire. were carried by Pierce and but four by Scott. Not since the days of Monroe had there been such a victory. How can it be explained ? FRANKLIN PIERCE made Twenty-seven states ^^^/t^'l^^^ctl^l^ :>:^ 'III Neio York /^ublic Library Drifting Rapidly Apart 321 The two greatest Whig statesmen, Clay and Web- ster, died during this campaign. There were no more Whigs like them. The people were tired of the ques- tion of slavery and felt that the compromise would be safer in Pierce's hands than in Scott's. Besides, many Democrats who had followed Van Buren in 1848 were now welcomed back to their old party. The result was that Hale, the Free Soil candidate, received but half as many votes as were cast by that party in 1848. Men began to speak of a second "era of good feeling," and President Pierce, in his inaugural, pledged his efforts to preserve harmony. DRIFTING RAPIDLY APART 407. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854). Although the people wanted to rest from discussions about slavery, they were suddenly aroused from the growing quiet by the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The Compromise of 1850 had left the question of slavery in New Mexico and Utah to be settled by the people of those territories. Why not apply this plan of "popular sovereignty" to the territory north of 36° 30', between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains ? Senator Stephen A, Douglas answered this question by bringing in a bill making this region into two terri- tories, Kansas and Nebraska, in which the people were to settle the question of slavery for themselves. The compromise line of 1820 would thus be abolished. Fierce debates followed in Congress, and a storm of indignation broke out all over the North. The anti- slavery men declared that if this old compromise could be swept away, nothing would be sacred enough to stand between slavery and free territory. Public meetings denounced Douglas and the Kansas-Nebraska act, and even many Democratic papers opposed it, but all in vain. (See map facing page 322.) 322 TJic GrotviJi of Sectional Feeling 408. The Race for Kansas. No sooner was the Kan sas-Nebraska bill passed than a race for the possession of Kansas began. Slaveholders from near-by states were the first to rush into the territory. But Eli Thayer of Massachusetts organized a company, "The Emigrant Aid Society," for the purpose of sending anti-slavery men to Kansas. He knew that the North had more emigrants to send than the South, and that in the end they could ■ 1 'VO Ik m: -^wi EMIGRANTS ON THEIR WAY TO KANSAS make Kansas a free state. In the summer of 1854 the first emigrants started on their long journey. All along the route people gathered to see the strange company, whose numbers increased on the way. The pro-slavery men had already settled Atchison. The free-state men located at Lawrence. Before the year closed each party had settled several places, the pro-slavery men along the Missouri River and the free-state men south of the Kansas River. The excitement in Kansas constantly increased, and each party resolved to win. By the aid of voters from border states the pro-slavery men elected their delegate to Congress, and, in 1855, elected nearly all the members Drifting Rapidly Apar* 323 of the territorial legislature. This legislature passed laws establishing slavery, and punishing with death any- one who helped a slave to escape. Victory seemed to be on the side of the pro-slavery men. 409. Two Governments in Kansas. The free-state men, however, were resolved not to obey a legislature elected by citizens of anothet state. Their leader, Dr. Charles Robinson, had helped make California a free state, and they decided to follow her example by making a constitution and applying at once for admission into the Union as a state (§ 396). The free-state men accordingly drew up the " Topeka Constitution," which was easily ratified because the pro- slavery men refused to vote upon it. A governor, a legis- lature, and United States Senators were elected by the anti-slavery men the next year. Thus Kansas had two rival and hostile governments, each demanding that Con- gress and the President should recognize and support it and reject the other. It was found to be no easy task to apply the principle of "popular sovereignty" to the settlement of the slavery question. 410. Civil War in Kansas ; The Assault on Sumner. "Bleeding Kansas" was an expression frequently used in newspapers and by public speakers. All free-state men in Kansas were called Abolitionists and "Black Republicans," while the supporters of slavery were named " Border Ruffians." Pro-slavery men from Missouri attacked Lawrence and burned some of its buildings. A few days later, John Brown, with a party of free-state men, killed several pro- slavery men. A pitched battle was threatened, but tem- porary order was restored by the energetic action of Colonel E. V. Sumner, commanding the national troops in Kansas. He dispersed Brown's band and sent the Missourians home. 324 The GrowtJi of Sectional Feeling The rest of the country was now thoroughly aroused. Senator Charles Sumner delivered a powerful speech in the Senate on the "Crime against Kansas," in which he spoke harshly of Senator Butler of South Carolina. Congressman Brooks, a relative of Butler's, assaulted Sumner at his desk with a heavy cane, and left him bleeding on the floor of thfe Senate. The North, particu- larly New England, felt outraged. Wise and temperate action was made almost impossible by such events. 411. The Lecompton Constitution. During all this time the free-state men in Kansas had increased faster than their opponents. In 1857 they carried even the ter- ritorial election. But before the pro-slavery men went out of power they met at Lecompton and made a state constitution establishing slavery. This was submitted to the people not to be accepted or rejected, but in such a way that they had to accept it either with or without slavery. The free-state settlers refused to vote, but when they came into power the entire Lecompton constitution was submitted by them to a popular vote and rejected by a large majority. President Buchanan, nevertheless, recommended that Congress accept this constitution, but Senator Douglas and many Northern Democrats refused tjo do so because such action would violate the principle of " popular sovereignty." So Kansas had to wait until 1 86 1 before she could become a state. 412. Immediate Consequences of the Conflict in Kansas. By 1856 certain great results of the contest for Kansas were clearly seen. /. A deeper feeling of hatred and suspicion had grown up between the two sections. The South began to believe that the North was resolved to destroy slavery in the states, as well as to keep it out of the territories. The North believed that the South was determined to push it into all the territories. Drifting Rapidly Apart 325 2. Various Northern states had passed personal lib- erty laws which greatly hindered the execution of the fugitive slave law, by giving the fugitive, when arrested, the right of trial by jury and the help of a lawyer. J. The Whig party was broken up. No great leaders arose to take the place of Clay and Webster. The South- ern Whigs could trust the party no longer on the slavery question, and a majority of them went over to the Dem- ocrats. The majority of Whigs in the North followed Seward, Greeley, and others into the ranks of the new anti-slavery party. /}.. The Republican party was organized. Three sets of men united under the name Republicans: (/) The Northern Whigs, who made up the majority of the new party. {2) The Free Soilers, who came to it because it adopted their battle-cry of " No more slave territory" (§395). (j) Democrats who were opposed to slavery in Kansas. The Repub- lican party was purely sectional and the Democratic party was rapidly becoming so. 413. The First Republican Campaign (1856). The Demo- crats put forward James Buch- anan and John C. Breckinridge as their standard-bearers; the Republicans, holding their first national convention in Philadel- phia, selected John C. Fremont and William L. Dayton as can- didates. A remnant of the Whigs nominated Millard Fillmore, who had already been selected by another new party called the American or JAMES BUCHANAN From a photograph by Matthew B. Brady in the collection of the War Department., Washington., D. C. 326 TJie GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling "Knownothing" party. This was a secret organization which tried to draw the attention of the country away from slavery by pointing out the dangers of foreign immigration. "America for Americans " was their ral- lying cry (§357). They were called " Knownothings" because when a member was asked about their plans he always replied, " I know nothing about them." But the people would not be drawn away from Kansas and slavery, and gave most of their votes to Buchanan, and the next largest number to Fremont. Although beaten, the Republicans celebrated as if they had won a victory, for all the free states but four had voted for Fremont. The Democrats carried all the slave states except ISIaryland, which went for Fillmore. The nation was now divided politically into a North and a South. 414. The Dred Scott Decision and Its Results (1857). President Iluchanan, in his inaugural address, promised the people that the slavery question would soon be settled, but the Dred Scott case which he had in mind only drove the two sections farther apart. Dred Scott was a slave who sued for his freedom because his master had taken him from Missouri into Illinois and later into what is now Minnesota. The case finally reached the Supreme Court of the United States. The court decided three very much disputed questions : (/) That the slave was not included, either in the Declara- tion of Independence or in the Constitution, and was not, therefore, a citizen of the United States ; {2) that a slave- holder had a right to hold slaves in a territory, and that neither Congress nor the people of the territory had a right to interfere ; (j) that, therefore, the Missouri Com- promise was unconstitutional. The South received this decision with delight and the North with indignation. It looked as if slavery was to go everywhere, not only into the territories, but into the I Amendments, Article XIII.. Article XIV. Drifting Rapidly Apart 327 free states also. The court had decided every point in favor of the South, and had not only destroyed the Missouri Compromise, but Douglas' favorite doctrine of "popular sovereignty." The Democratic party at the North staggered under this blow. 415. Lincoln's "House Divided Against Itself" Speech (1858). Now occurred a series of events which completely divided the Democratic party. In 1858 a United. States Senator was to be elected in Illinois. The Democrats of that state were more than ever resolved to reelect Douglas, since he had boldly opposed President Buchanan in regard to the Lecompton Constitution for Kansas. The Repub- licans in state con- vention declared that Abraham Lin- coln was their first and only choice. Fromaphotograpk At this convention the log cabin birthplace of Abraham Lincoln Lincoln delivered a speech that fixed upon him the eyes of the whole nation. He declared that "a house. divided against itself cannot stand"; that this country must become all slave or all free. These were startling opinions, but they showed that Abraham Lincoln was a true political prophet. Senator Douglas furiously attacked Lincoln's views before a great audience in Chicago. Lincoln was pres- ent, and the next evening made answer. Other speeches were made, each speaker feeling that he must answer the arguments of the other. 416. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates and Their Effect. Lincoln challenged Douglas to debate the questions of 328 The Growth of Sectional Feeling the day before the people of Illinois. Douglas accepted, and during that summer seven "joint debates" were held in different towns. From miles and miles around the people came on foot, on horseback, in wagons, and on trains to hear the burning questions discussed by the two ablest debaters in Illinois. LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATE AT FREEPORT What a difference in the two men as they appeared on the platform ! Douglas was short and squarely built. He spoke rapidly and powerfully, and carried his hearers by storm. He loved a hand-to-hand fight, and was the greatest off-hand debater in America. Lincoln was tall, slender, and awkward. He spoke slowly and calmly. His language was always simple, and often quaint and humorous. His plain, unpretending manner won its way to the hearts of the people. He was the one man Douglas feared. Lincoln arranged his arguments and put his questions on slavery so that Douglas by his answers was compelled either to please the people of Illinois and displease the people of the South, or to please the South and displease his own neighbors. Drifting Rapidly Apart 329 STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS From a photograph by As a result of the debate Douglas lost the support of the South, but won the senatorship. Lincoln, at the end of the campaign, was a man of national reputation, and invitations to speak in the cities of the East came to him. He had made himself a candidate for the Presidency. 417. John Brown at Harper's Ferry (1859). In October, 1859, the country was startled by the news that John Brown, whom we have already met in Kansas, with about twenty others, had captured the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, arrested white citi- zens, and freed some negro slaves. But the negroes did not rise and join him as he had hoped. Before he could Matthew B Brady inUe col •T lection of the War Depart- escape to the mountains he and his '"^«^' ^vashingto7i, d. c. men were captured, after a desperate resistance, by Colonel Robert E. Lee. He was tried, condemned, and hanged. Brown believed he was specially intended by Provi- dence to bring freedom to the slaves. Many Northern people condemned his conduct, but others regarded him as a martyr. The South was aroused by the awful fear of a slave rebellion, and >^ by the unfounded be- lief that Brown's raid JOHN BROWN'S FOKT was plauucd and sup- ported by the people of the North. The feeling between the two sections had now reached the danger point. 'Coiiilitution. Article I., Seo. «, K 17. 330 TJic Growth of Scctiojurl Feeling 418. The Charleston Convention Sphts the Demo- cratic Party (i860). The Democratic nnlional conven- tion met at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, i!0w in the Westmore- land Club, Richmond, Virginia 334 Tlie Growth of Sectional Feeling chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-President. The Constitution of the United States, changed so as to make the states supreme, was taken as the Consti- tution of the Southern Confederacy, and the " Stars and Bars" adopted as their common flag. 422, Buchanan's Hard Posi- tion. President Buchanan's term was about to end and a new party to come into power. The whole nation wondered whether Buchanan would check the secession move- ment by using the army and navy. He said, in his message to Congress, that no state had a constitutional ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS xi^ht to seccdc, but that hc had no From a photograph bv Matthew . . B. Brady in the cdllection of COUStltutlOUal ri2;ht tO COmpcl a the War Department, Wash- '^ ^ . ington, D. c. statc to comc back into the Union. This meant that vSecession was wrong, but could not be prevented. The Southern men in Buchanan's cabinet had great influence over him. As soon as they resigned their seats Northern men were put in their places, and the President took a stronger stand, sending an unarmed vessel loaded with supplies and soldiers to relieve Major Anderson, who held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The North applauded and the South denounced this act. The vessel was fired on by the Confederate batteries, and returned without relieving Anderson and his brave men. 423. Efforts at Conciliation. Neither side wanted war. The seceding states desired to set up and carry on an independent government without war. The North wanted these states to come back into tlie Union without war. Great efforts were put forth to induce them to return. Secession and Conciliation 335 The most important attempt in Congress was called the Crittenden Compromise. The most important attempt out of Congress was the work of the Peace Convention. 424. The Crittenden Compromise. This plan was so named because its author was Senator Crittenden of Ken- tucky, a follower of Henry Clay. The main articles of his compromise were : (/) That all United States ter- ritory north of 36° 30' should be free, while all south of that line should be slave ; {2) that when the terri- tories came to be admitted as states they might decide for themselves whether they were to be free or slave ; and (j) that the Constitution should never be amended to give Congress the power to abolish or interfere with slavery in any state whose laws then permitted it. These points were considered by a committee of thirteen Senators. But though the Republicans did not believe in interfering with slavery in the states, they refused to agree to open the territories to slavery, and the Crittenden Compromise, to the sorrow of many people in both sections, ended in failure. Congress, how- ever, proposed that the Constitution be changed so that it could never be amended to abolish slavery in the states. Only Ohio and Maryland — one free and one slave state — ratified this amendment. 425. The Peace Convention. Virginia had led in the formation of the Union, and she was not now willing to see it destroyed without an effort to save it. By the invitation of her legislature, delegates from twenty- one states met in Washington to settle the difficulties between the sections, but none of the seceded states sent delegates, and the plan of conciliation voted by the con- vention was rejected by Congress. 426. Lincoln Prepares for Inauguration (1861), Dur- ing this exciting period Lincoln was at home anxiously v/atching the course of events, thoughtfully preparing 336 Tlie Groivtli of Sectional Feeling his inaugural address, and wisely advising Union men. On his long journey to Washington he spoke to thou- sands who were eager to see and hear the man whose burden was greater than that which had yet fallen on any President. The Confederacy was being rapidly organized, and its Congress had already authorized Davis to obtain posses- sion of Forts Sumter and Pickens at once, " either by nego- tiation or force." Other states were expected to secede. The whole country was full of excitement, especially the city of Washington, where people were divdded in their sympathies. General Scott brought troops to the capital to preserve order. Rumors of a plot to assassi- nate Lincoln led him, by the advice of friends, to travel in secret from Philadelphia to Washington. 427. Lincoln's Inaugural Address. The inaugural address was one of the most important ever written by a President of the United States. From it, friend and foe alike learned his views: (/) That the supreme aim of Lincoln would be to preserve the Union; (2) that "The union of the states is perpetual. No state can lawfully get out of the Union"; (j) that he had "no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it exists"; {4) that he would faithfully execute the laws of the Union in all the states, and that he would "hold, occupy, and pos- sess the property and places belonging to the govern- ment." He concluded : " In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. We are not enemies but friends." This address greatly pleased the North, because it made saving the L^nion instead of opposing slavery the great question. Douglas and his thousands of followers The Beginnings of the War 337 enthusiastically supported Lincoln in his resolution to preserve the Union. 428. Lincoln Forms His Cabinet and Waits. Like his inaugural, Lincoln's cabinet was planned with a view to unite Union men. William H. Seward, the Secretary of State, represented the Eastern Repub- licans ; he had been a Whig and was Lincoln's strongest rival for the Presidency (§401). Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treas- ury, who represented the Free Soil Democrats, had also been a prominent candidate. With but one exception, the other members of the cabinet were border state men. Neither Lincoln nor Davis wanted to strike the first blow. Thus far the open acts of seces- sion and of seizing national property put the South at a disadvantage, although no battle had been fought. But the time for deeds was at hand. WILLIAM H. SEWARD Prom a photograph by Matthew B. Brady in the collection of the War Department, Washing- ton, D. C. THE WAR FOR THE UNION THE BEGINNINGS OF THE WAR 429. The Attack on Fort Sumter. Early in March Lin- coln learned that Major Anderson, for want of food, could hold out but a few weeks longer. A fleet with soldiers and supplies was sent to his relief, but it arrived too late. By order of Jefferson Davis, the nineteen batteries in Charleston Harbor opened fire on Fort Sumter and its little band of one hundred and twenty-eight men. The people of the city in large numbers witnessed the 338 The War for the Union opening spectacle of the war. To them the scene was inspiring. Little did they know then what war meant The garrison bravely defended its flag all day. By noon next day the fort was on fire and the walls were broken in many places. Smoke and cinders almost choked the men. Some lay upon the ground and cov- ered their heads with wet cloths. Others crept to the portholes for a breath of fresh air. Explosion followed explosion, and yet the men would not surrender. Now and then they fired a gun to show that they were " hold- ing the fort." On Sunday afternoon (April 14th), Major Anderson, without the loss of a man, with his torn flag flying and drums beating, gave up the fort to General Beauregard, ,4 ^,1 -If."-' ¥\ iW^ 'ii-i-"^ '■ '^1 *s «2j* - iJ>' 4 ^- K^/^ r. From a war-time pbotofrapb THE INTERIOR OF FORT SUMTER AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT the Confederate commander, Charleston was wild with excitement and there was rejoicing all over the Con- federacy. 430. Lincoln's Call to Arms and the Rising of the North. ( )n Sunday evening Douglas made a long visit at the White House. On Monday Lincoln sent forth his call for seventy-five thousand men, and Dougkis informed his followers that he stood by the President in The Beginnings of the War 339 his efforts to "preserve the Union, maintain the govern- ment, and defend the Federal capital." Public meetings were held in city, town, and country. The pulpit, the platform, and the press called on men to defend the Union. Flags were flung to the breeze, and ^5:5 "'- y^ '^V. ' ^ ^O- THE WAR SPIRIT IN THE NORTH the fife and drum joined in kindling the war spirit. On every hand resounded the tramp of volunteers. From farm and field, store a,nd shop, factory and foundry, school and college, from every w^alk in life, came sons and fathers to answer with their lives. The foreign immi- grant and the native-born American marched side by side. A mighty wave of patriotism swept over the North, In ten weeks, more than three hundred thousand men were under arms. 431. Other States Secede; Border States Cling to the Union. The surrender of Fort Sumter and Lincoln's call to arms aroused the war feeling of the Confederacy to a high pitch. Everywhere, as in the North, nothing but wai ; war! was heard, and soon volunteers by the thousands were marching to the strains of " Dixie." The Southern people now felt sure that Lincoln and the abolitionists were coming down to invade their homes 340 The War for the Union THE WAR SPIRIT IN THE SOUTH and free their slaves. Accordingly Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia left the Union. The withdrawal of Virginia was of immense advantage to the seceded states, for it gave them a base of operations near Washington, Rich- mond, for a capital city, ^"and Robert E. Lee, their greatest soldier. These ad- ^_^ vantages were partly offset / by the fact that forty-five counties of Virginia west -' of the mountains refused to join the Confederacy, and were later admitted into the Union as West Virginia(i 863).' "East Ten- nessee" also threatened to set up as a state, and more than thirty thousand of her sons joined the Union army. (See map facing this page.) The border slave states, Delaware, Maryland, Ken- tucky, and Missouri, remained in the Union. Although the governors of some of them refused to heed Lincoln's call, these states furnished their share of boys in blue. Many of their citizens, however, went to fight for the Confederacy. 432. The Strength of the Two Sections. In the great struggle about to begin the North had many advantages. She had a population of twenty-two million, while the South had but nine million. Be- sides, four Southern states did not join the Confederacy. (See map facing this page.) In wealth and in resources we have already seen that the North was far superior (§§ 356-376). The Union / THE "STARS AND BARS" The adopted flafr of the Con- federacy ' Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. TJie Beginnings of the War 341 troops could thus be better fed, better clothed, and better armed than the Confederates. Then, too, the North controlled the navy and owned dockyards for building and repairing warships, while the South had neither. Yet the conflict was not altogether unequal, for the Confederates were fighting on their own soil, and were nerved by the thought of defending their homes. They knew every stream, hill, and road over which the armies moved, and often learned of the movement of the Union forces before it was made. The plantation life of the vSouth, too, made her men more used to firearms than the men of the North who lived in cities. It is not surprising, therefore, that the struggle was much longer and harder than many people believed it would be. 433- Washington in Dan- ger. The North was now alarmed for the safety of Wash- ington, and two days after Lincoln's call, the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment was marching to the defense of the national capital. It was com- pelled to fight its way through a mob in the streets of Balti- more, killing some of the rioters and losing some of its own number. Pennsylvania volun- teers were also promptly on their way to Washington, but being unarmed, they went around Baltimore. Other troops hastening to the point of danger were compelled to go by way of Annapolis. Not until the last of April did ten thousand troops make Washington secure. 434. Military Situation in the East At the opening of the war, General Winfield vScott (^ 393) had command A SOUTHERN SOLDIKR 342 TJie War for the Union of all the Union forces, while Oencral Beauregard com- manded the Confederates gathered at Manassas. In addition to the troops at Washington under General Irvin McDowell, other Union troops under General Patterson were watching the region around Harper's Ferry and Winchester, where General Joseph E. Johnston was collecting a Confederate army. Western Virginia was protected by young General George B. McClellan with troops gathered mainly from Ohio. Since Richmond had been selected as the new Confed- erate capital, the Union army at Washington had the twofold duty of protecting the nation's capital and of attacking the capital of the Confederacy. A similar prob- lem faced the Southern forces. Washington and Rich- mond, therefore, became two main points of attack and defense dur- ing the war. 435. Bull Run and Its Les- sons. When General McDowell's forces grew to about forty thou- sand men, the cry of " On to ^^ Richmond!" arose from press Sl'^<\ ^'''^^ people, and in the middle of July the Union forces moved in the direction of the Confederates. The Confederate army which, unknown to the Union generals, had been reenforced by Johnston's troops, was found thirty miles from Washington, beyond a small stream called Bull Run, and near the railroad station of Manassas Junction. The attack began on the morning of the 2ist, and in a short time the Union troops were driving the Confederates before them. (See map, page 356.) THOMAS JONATHAN ("STONE- WALL") JACKSON From a war-time f/iotofrrapli, taken on the field by Mat then' B. Brady, in the collection of the War Department, IVashingtony D. C. The Beginnings of the War 343 Only Jackson's men seemed able to stand the Union attack. " Look at Jackson's brigade! " cried General Bee, a Confederate officer, to his retreating troops. "It stands like a stone wall ! " They rallied and renewed the battle. In the after- noon the Confederates struck McDowell's line in both flank and rear. It wavered and broke, and soon the whole Union army was running madly away toward Washing- ton. The city, too, was panic-stricken with the fear of falling into Con- federate hands. But Beauregard's army had suffered too severely to pursue far. The North was astonished, and began to learn that it takes time and hard work to train an army. To the South the victory of Bull Run brought joy, but in the end it was of little benefit, for many Southerners believed that the war was over, and others that the North could not fight. The thinking men in both sections, however, now saw that the war was to be longer than they had believed. Congress voted to raise half a million men and half a billion dollars to carry on the contest. 436. McClellan Drills the Army of the Potomac. The meaning of a battle is not always measured by its size. The success of General McClellan at Rich Mountain and Beverly saved "West Virginia" to the Union, and made him the military favorite of the North. After the dis- aster at Bull Run he was given command of the Army GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN From a ivar-litne photograph in the his- torical collection of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, Cadet Armory, Boston, Massachusetts 344 The War for the Union of the Potomac. For months he drilled and organized the "green" troops that kept pouring into Washington, and thus fitted the Army of the Potomac for the hard work which lay before it. FOREIGN NATIONS AND THE BLOCKADE OF SOUTHERN PORTS 437. Foreign Feeling About the War. Each section counted 3n sympathy from Europe, especially from Eng- land. The South knew that thousands of Englishmen earned their daily bread by working in cotton mills, and believed that, rather than suffer injury to her cotton industry, England would recognize the independence of the Confederacy. But the South was disappointed because English mechanics and factory hands were willing to suffer rather than aid slavery. The North, in turn, remem- bered that England had led the way in abolishing slavery, and therefore felt that Englishmen should heartily support the Union cause. She, too, was disappointed, for although England did not recognize the independence of the Confederacy, she formed an agreement with France, imme- diately after the attack on Fort Sumter, to recognize the "war rights" of the Confederate States and to act as neu- trals in the contest. This hasty action angered the North. Many Englishmen believed at that time that the success of the Confederacy would be of great benefit to England. Russia was more cautious and was generally favorable to Northern interests, but the Emperor of France wished for the downfall of the Union. A NORTHERN INFANTRYMAN Foreign Nations and the Southern Blockade 345 438. Southern Ports Blockaded. President Lincoln saw that if the ports of the seceding states could be shut up so tight that the r-^ four and a half mil- v , ^'^ ^)