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Department of ]JuOftc dOaritics aiif) (Coirection CEUISE SCHOOL-SHIP "MERCURY" TROPICAL ATLANTIC OCEAN. J 1870-1871. ^L,^^^ ^ ^ ^ KEW YOEK: THE KEW YORK PRINTING- COMPANY, Nos. 81, 83, AND 85 Centre Street. 1871. \ REPORT Department of Public Chaeities and Correction, ) Corner of Third avenue and Eleventh street^ V Kew YorKj September I25 1871. ) Hon. A. Oakey Hall, Mayor : Sir— The Commissioners of Public Charities and Correction respect- fully submit a report of the practice-cruiso of the school-ship Mercury, from her anchorage ground at Hart's Island to Sierra Leone, and from thence via St. Thomas to this port, during the winter of 1870-71. But, before narrating the history of the cruise, it is proper to state more specifically than in the annual report the reasons which induced the Commissioners to establish a nautical school, and to describe the character of the boys who are assigned to it. With the increase of the population of the city there had been a greatly increased number of boys committed to the care of the Commissioners by the magistrates, for slight misdemeanors and vagrancy. Others, and in large numbers, had been committed by their parents as incorrigible, or because of evil associates, who were leading them to ruin. These boys were at first sent to the Industrial Schools on Hart's Island, but the number in- creased so rapidly that the Commissioners w^ere embarrassed as to the disposition which should be made of them. They could not without a long probationship be recommended as ap- prentices, because of tlieir wayward and reckless character, nor could they be discharged without the probability that they would again become vagrants, or fall into their former wicked associations. Under these circumstances it was deemed expedient to establish a nautical school, as well for the purpose of relieving the department of a con- stantly increasing number of unruly boys, as of providing for them a sure and honest means of livelihood suited to their adventurous spirit. Wlieii the school was establisliecl it was contemplated from considera- tions of economy to teach them the rudiments of seamanship while the ship was at anchor in the harbor, and by occasional trips of short duration at sea, during the summer months ; and this method was fur- ther commended by the consideration that the boys w^ould be under the direct and constant supervision of the Commissioners. But the experience of a few months demonstrated that the oiily effec- tual mode of instruction is the continuous handling of a sliip at sea, and that the manifold duties of a thorough seaman can oidy be learned by actual service. The cruise, of which the following papers constitute the report, was made in pursuance of these convictions and for the purpose of qualify- ing the boys for immediate entrance on their return into the service of the navy or mercantile marine. In this respect the result of the cruise was highly satisfactory, for of the crew of two hundred and fifty-eight boys over one hundred were, in the opinion of the captain, capable on the return of the ship of discharging the duties of ordinary sea- men. It is proposed to apply to Congress at its next session for authority to be vested in the Secretary of the Navy to discriminate in enlistments in favor of boys who have been educated in school-ships. The exploration of the ocean has become an object of deep interest to governments as well as to men of science. The United States Coast Survey, under the wise direction of Professor Baclie, and now of Pro- fessor Pierce, has for many years been diligently engaged in adding to the limited information possessed of deep-sea soundings, temperatures, and currents, and more recently the British Government, under the su- pervision of Dr. Carpenter, has solved several problems of scientific importance, added largely to the stock of general knowledge, and made discoveries which will be of practical benefit to commerce and naviga- tion. With the hope that the cruise of the Mercury might be made to con- tribute something of value to science. Captain Giraud w^as directed to obtain a series of soundings on the line of or near the Equator, from the coast of Africa to the mouth of the Amazon, to observe the set of the surface currents, and the temperature of the water at various depths. The following is a copy of his letter of instructions : Department of Public Charities and Correction, ) New York, December 13, 1870. f Sir — You will proceed to sea, in command of the Mercury, on the 16th instant, by way of Montauk Point, and cruise between the latitudes 10° north and 5° south of the equator, and of longitude from 5° east to 45° west of Greenwich, until the 10th of March, when you will return to your anchorage at Hart's Island, unless on your approach to the coast you shall deem it prudent, from stress of weather, to enter at Sandy Hook. You will keep at sea as much as possible, going into port only to obtain water and provisions or for repairs. As often as may be prac- ticable, you will forward to this office detailed reports of the health of the officers and crew, and the progress made By the boys in seamanship and in their studies at school. The routine duties of the ship, as laid down in the rules for the edu- cation of the boys in seamanship, will be strictly adhered to. You will, as often as may be practicable, take soundings of the bed of the Atlantic, on or near the line of the Equator, from the coast of Africa to the mouth of the Amazon. You will also frequently observe and record the temperature of the ocean at the surface and at twenty, fifty, one hundred, and two hun- dred fathoms, and obtain specimens of water at those depths, which you will cause to be evaporated on board, and the solid matter ana- lyzed, or you will bring the specimens home in bottles provided for the purpose. You will also obtain sea-plants from as great depths as may be prac- ticable, together with animalculse and other minute forms of animal life, which you will preserve or cause accurate drawings thereof to be made, for wliicli purpose you will be furnished with a microscope of large powers. An accurate knowledge of the set and velocity of currents is of great importance to commerce. You will be pleased to note and care- fully determine the direction of all currents with which you may fall in. A favorable opportunity will be afforded to note with approximate accuracy their rate and direction when you are engaged in taking your deep-sea soundings from an open boat. It is desirable that the misplaced reliance of many navigators on dead-reckoning may be demonstrated, and to this end you will fre- quently, when you have determined your position by astronomical observation, throw your registering log and let it remain in the water for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, or until you have taken another observation, when you will compare the progress you have made by dead reckoning with your actual progress, as determined by observation. While the chief object of the cruise of the Mercury will be to per- fect the boys under your command in seamanship, the Commissioners indulge the hope that, by the careful observation of yourself and officers, the interests of commerce may be promoted, and the cause of science advanced. Yery respectfully, ISAAC BELL, President, To Caj^tain Piekee Giraud, Coininanding ScJiool-sJiip Mercitry. The ship sailed from Hart's Island on the 20th December, 1870, and, after stopping at Madeira and the Canary Islands, arrived at Sierra Leone on the 14th of February. On the 21st of February she left Sierra Leone, and on the 22d Cap- tain Giraud connnenced his deep-sea soundings, which he continued in nearly a straight line to the Island of Barbadoes, a distance of about 2,800 miles. His soundings range from 500 fathoms to 3,100 fathoms, or 3J- miles, from which depths he brought up in most instances speci- mens of bottom. The current observations will be of value in the navigation of the South Atlantic, and the ascertained temperatures of the water at from 200 to 500 fatlioms are confirmatory of the theory that a cold current from the Poles underlies the surface-waters of the tropi- cal seas. The daily meteorological observations, the direction and velocity of currents, and the temperatures of the oc^an at various depths, are set forth in his report, which is herewith annexed. These papers, together with the specimens obtained from the bed of the ocean and of sea- w^ater, were placed in the hands of Professor Henry Draper of the Kew York University for examination. Professor Draper's report, which is herewith submitted, contains precise tabulated statements of the meteorological observations of the voyage, of the direction and velocities of the currents, and of the temperatures at the several depths obtained, together with an analysis of the specimens of water from various depths. The report also con- tains a diagram of the bed of the Atlantic, i'rom Sierra Leone to Barbadoes, as established by the soundings, and is replete with interest- ing disquisitions on all the questions of deep-sea explorations. The specimens of animal life which were obtained from the bottom were forwarded for examination by Professor Draper to Dr. Carpenter. He reports that they are the ordinary forms of deep-sea foraminifera. With the specimens Professor Draper also sent a table of the tempera- tures, and in respect to them Dr. Carpenter remarks, " that they are of great interest, and especially those at one hundred and two hundred fathoms. They show,'' he continues, " how thin is the surface stratum affected by the gulf -stream, or by direct solar radiation. The sudden drop," he remarks, *^ in the temperature at two hundred fathoms, between 17° 46' west longitude, and 19° 36' west longitude, and the continuation of this reduction with the increased westing as far as 50° 38' is a very curious phenomenon, and I cannot help connecting it with some great oceanic movement, especially as at 68° 47' west longitude, and at 83° the higher temperatures reappear. I trust that hereafter much atten- tion will be given to this point." Tlio conclusion at which Professor Draper has arrived, from a care- ful examination of the results obtained, is that there exists, all over the bottom of the Atlantic and Caribbean Sea, a stratum of cold water, and that the ci'uise of the Mercury must be considered as offering con- firmatory proof of the correctness of Dr. Carpenter's theory, drawn from the cruises of the Englisli exploring vessels, that there is a general movement of the lower w^aters of the Atlantic towards the Equator, and a corresponding flow of the surface-waters towards the Poles. The object of the cruise was, as has been stated, to perfect the boys in seamanship. The scientific explorations were incidental and subsi- diary, but enough has been accomplished to encourage the hope that the practice voyages of the Mercury may be made to contribute to the stock of knowledge, and help to explain the mysteries of the Great Deep. The experiment of the school-ship, as a Reformatory, has thus far been satisfactory. There is reason to believe that it is the most effec- tive mode to reclaim erring boys, whose errors, caused by the love of adventure, by evil associations, or ungovernable tempers, are fast hn- pelling them to ruin. Brought under the inflexible discipline of a ship in actual service, they are taught in a few months the duties of a profession, wdiich directs and gratifies their love of adventure, and pro- vides for them the means of an honest and useful livelihood. Eespectf ully submitted. Isaac Bell, 1 ^> . . Owen W. Brennan, (^o^J^i^^^^ners Jas. B. Nicholson,' V ,f ^^^^^^ , Alex. Feear, | <^f^r^t^e8(lnd James BowEN, J (Correction. int/i the res(>ccts of Professor HENRY DRAPER, M. D. University of the City of Nnv York. REPORT oinmififiioner^ of ;)ubl^ lluiritij^ am! H^orrfctiou CITY OF NEW YORK, ON THE CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL FACTS COLLECTED FROM THE DEEP SEA RESEARCHES MADE DURING THE VOYAGE OF THE NAUTICAL SCHOOL-SHIP "MERCURY," UNDERTAKEN BY THEIR ORDER IN THE TROPICAL ATLANTIC AND CARIBBEAN SEA, 1870-71. By henry DEAPEE, M.D., Professor of Analytical Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New York. 11 REPORT. GontenU — Introduction — Outline op voyage — Its three stages— General air tem- perature—Barometric TABLE — Pressure increases on nearing America — Tables OF sea currents— Collection of samples op water, and necessary precau- tions—Effects of pressure on gaseous and saline ingredients- Determination OP specific gravity of samples collected, with table — Thermometric observa- tions, with description of registering thermometer — Tables op air tempera- tures, AND OP water at VARIOUS DEPTHS — DISCUSSION OF SOUNDINGS — CrOSS- section of Atlantic— Suggestions of effect of Amazon and Orinoco — Tempera- ture AND specific GRAVITY OP WATER INCREASE TOWARD WeST — PrOOF THAT A STRATUM OF COLD WATER EXISTS AT THE BOTTOM OP THE TROPICAL ATLANTIC— EXAM- INATION OF DISSOLVED GASES, OF ORGANIC MATERIAL— SPECTRUM ANALYSIS OF SOLID RESIDUES — Organic remains. The Commissioners of Public Charities and Correction, having sub- mitted to me for examination certain documents and specimens con- nected with the voyage of the nautical school-ship Mercury, I have the honor to make thereupon the following report ; Much attention has recently been given to deep-sea researches, in consequence of the investigations made by the United States Govern- ment on its coast, and by Dr. Carpenter, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, and Pro- fessor Wyville Thomson, in the North Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. IN^ot only have many of the facts so ascertained been corroborated by this voyage of the Mercury, but the Commissioners, by authori- zing it, have also added much that is new and interesting to our knowledge of the physical condition of the deep sea. The voyage of the , Mercury may be divided into three stages : 1st, from K'ew York, by way of the Madeira and Canary Islands, to Sierra Leone ; 2d, from Sierra Leone, tlu'ough the tropical Atlantic, to Barbadoes ; 3d, from Barbadoes, through the Caribbean Sea, to the north of Cuba, and thence, along the coast of the United States, back to New York. The chief scientific interest of this voyage is connected with its second and part of its third stage. 12 The sliip left Kew York on December 20, 1870. Slie reached Funchal (Miideira Islands) on January 17, 1871 ; Las Palmas, in the Canaries, on January 2-i, and Sierra Leone on February 14. On the 21st of that montli she sailed for Barbadoes, and reached that island on the morn- ing of March 17. She sailed from Barbadoes on Marcli 2'4j and ar- rived in New York on April 21. It is necessary to give these particulars, with a view of indicating that tlie voyage was made in the winter season of the year, the season of the lowest air temperatures. The mean temperature of the air at 8 P.M., while at Funchal, was 70|-°, the maximum being 70° aud the min- imum 6S°. "While at Las Palmas it was 63°, the maximum being ()Q° and the minimum 57°. While at Sierra Leone it was 83°, the maximum being 85°, the minimum 79°. In the passage across the Atlantic, from Sierra Leone to Barbadoes, the mean temperature was 7S|-° ; the max- ima were on leaving the African and on approaching the American coast. For nearly a fortnight, during the mid-passage, the variations were included between 76° and 79°. In this report the degrees of temperature are according to Fahren- heit's scale. Though the thermometer was observed regularly, three times each day, at midnight, at noon, and at 8 p.m., I have adopted the latter only, since it is recognized by meteorologists that the tempera- ture at 8 P.M. very closely approaches the mean for the entire day. As regards the barometer, the following table v^ill show its height, as determined by three observations each day during the passage from Sierra Leone to Barbadoes : 13 Table I. Barometric Ohservations from Sierra Leone to Bai'ladoes. DATE. MIDNIGHT. NOON. 8 P.M. Feb 21 29.64 29.70 29.76 29.70 29.68 29.74 29.76 29.74 29.68 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.72 29.80 29.78 29.78 29.79 29.76 29.77 29.74 29.78 29.82 29.80 29.78 29.66 29.68 29.70 29.68 29.68 29.74 29.76 29.68 29.66 29.68 29.70 29.74 29.73 29.78 29.78 29.76 29.79 29.76 29.73 29.76 29.76 29.81 29.80 29.78 29 60 Feb 22 29 70 Feb. 23 29 74 Feb 24 29 66 Feb. 25 29 70 Feb. 26 20 74 Feb. 27 29 76 Feb. 28 29 64 Marcli 1 . 29 66 March 2 Marcli 3 29.68 29 70 March 4 29 72 29.74 29 78 March 6 March 7 29 78 March 8 29 76 March 9 . . .... 29 78 March 10 29 76 March 11 29 73 March 12 29 76 March 13 29 76 March 14 29 82 March 15 29 74 March IG 29 80 Mean of all the observations '. . . 29.745 29.733 29.730 From this it will be seen how small the barometric variations were. Examining, for instance, those of 8 p.m., the minimum was only J/-Q-inch below, and the maximum y|-Q-inch above tlie mean. It may also be remarked that, in a general manner, the pressure of tlie air increased on Hearing the American coast. On leaving the African coast the atmosphere was liazj, as is usual in that region. On March 5 the north-east trade winds wxre struck, and they accompanied the ship to Barbadoes. Previously to reaching them her mean daily progress had been only 57 miles ; after that time it was 187 miles. The ocean currents, as reported on the days when other important observations were made, are shown by the following table : 14 Table II. Direction and Velocity of Currents hetioeen Sierra Leone and Barhadoes. Date. Direction, Velocity. 1 Date. Direction. Velocity. Feb. 23 S.W. y knot. 1 March 4 S. K knot. " 25 S. S.W. X knot. '' 10 S.W. K knot. '* 26 S. by W. }4 knot. " 11 S.W. by W. % knot. " 27 S }4 knot. " 13 W. S.W. % knot. " 28 S. by W. }4 knot. •' 14 W. S.W. i| knot. March 3 S. S.W. % knot. '' 15 W. y^ knot. Table III. Direction and Velocity of Currents in the West India Seas. Date. Direction. Velocity. Date. Direction. Velocity. April 4 W. W. W. by N. W. by ]^. y knot. }4 knot. y knot. 3>| knot. April 8 W. N.W. W. S.W. N. N. W. y knot. }i knot. " 5..".".".'"'.'.'. '' 9 "6 " 11 % knot. " 13 Jl" knot. During the second stage of her voyage the ship's track was over a par- allel included substantially between the eleventh and thirteenth degrees of north latitude. She obtained soundings at various depths, from 290 to 3,100 fathoms, and on eleven occasions specimens from the bottom. In the third stage of her voyage, while in the West Indian seas, three other bottom-specimens were secured. The apparatus used was Brooks' detaching apparatus, with two thirty-two pound shot. The sounding- line was cotton cord, one-seventh of an inch in diameter. All the soundings were made from a boat. On March 6, the maximum depth of 3,100 fathoms in the Atlantic was reached, but on reeling in, the line unfortunately parted, and 2,200 fathoms were lost. This is one of the deepest accurate soundings ever made. Samples of water from the surface, and also from deptlis varying from two hundred to five hundred fathoms, as shown in Table lY., 15 were procured. The temperature of the sea, both at the surface and at those depths, was ascertained. The samples of water were collected in the usual apparatus, a metal cylinder, presently to be more particu- larly described, having at its bottom and top valves opening upwards. By this contrivance as water obtained from a great depth is drawn toward the surface, it and its included gases have liberty to expand, the excess escaping through the upper valve. If such provision were not made, the cylinder, no matter how strong it might be, would unavoida- bly be burst open. It should be borne in mind that the compressil)ility of water is about ^^^^q for each atmosphere of pressure it sustains, and at depths such as were here reached the pressure was about 1,250 , pounds per square inch, or more than eighty atmospheres. There are certain precautions which must be attended to in the use of this collecting cylinder. These more particularly refer to securing the perfect action of its valves. It is intended that these valves should remain open during the entire period of the descent of the cylinder in the sea, and remain closed during its ascent, except in so far as the upper one may be opened by the interior pressure to allow the excess of included water and its dissolved gases to escape. Obviously, how- ever, these conditions may be interfered with by a variety of accidental causes, such as the adhesion of the valves by verdigris or other im- purity, or by the cylinder assuming an inclined instead of a vertical position. The constitution of the water as it exists at great depths is not cor- rectly represented by the samples thus obtained. A considerable por- tion of the gases dissolved therein may escape, as j iist stated, under the relief of pressure as the cylinder is drawn toward the surface, and hence examinations of such samples, as regards their gaseous ingredients, are liable to be deceptive. The low temperature and great pressure of these deep strata, moreover, increase the solvent power of the water over gases, and this power is diminished as the cylinder is brought into the warmer strata above, and into the open air. Even the saline ingre- dients will suffer disturbance when they are held in solution by gases that will thus escape. For instance, this is the case with carbonate of lime. 'No method has hitherto been practised which furnishes a means 16 of obtaining samples of sea-water from great depths with their true constitution undistui-bed, though obviously an apparatus might be de- vised which would accomplish that purpose. As thus procured the specimens of water were preserved in well- corked glass bottles with sealing-wax on the cork, until submitted to me for examination. These samples are fifty in number, divisible into two groups, surface and deep ones, from each locality. In quantity they vary from four to sixteen ounces. I have determined the specific gravities of these specimens and most of them are inserted in Table lY. To insure correct results sevei-al precautions must be taken. The difference of density between water collected at the surface and that from great depths is so small that a slight variation in temperature is sufticient to mask it completely. Hence it is only in laboratories, Avhei-e means can be used to provide against temperature variations and where balances of precision can be employed, that accurate results can be obtained. It will, therefore, be imderstood that in the experiments upon which the following table has been constructed such precautions have been carefully attended to. It may be remarked that on board ship, where, on account of the motion, balances cannot be applied, the hydrometer maist be resorted to, but any conclusions drawn from its indications should be accepted with much reserve. It is difiicult to read its scale wutli exactness, and it is almost impossible under such circumstances to secure the proper tem- perature conditions. In some of the more interesting instances the variation of a single degree in the temperature would lead to a conclusion in direct opposition to the true one. 17 Table IY. Kcijic Gravity of Samples of Sea-icater at 75' DATE. LATITUDE. LONGITUDE. DEPTH. SPECIFIC GKAVITY. Feb. 25 9° 14' 9° 14' 10° 04' 10° 04' 10° 42' 10° 42' 11° 35' 11° 35' 11° 39' 11° 39' 11° 35' 11° 35' 11° 06' 11° 06' 12° 38' 12° 38' 13° 02' 13° 02' 13° 06' 13° 06' 13° 08' 13° 08' 12° 55' 12° 55' 17° 13' 17° 13' 17° 08' 17° 08' 17° 09' 17° 09' 17° 27' 17° 27' 17° 27' 18° 11' 18° 11' 19° 12' 19° 12' 20° 17' 20° 17' 20° 48' 20° 48' 23° 19' , 23° 19' 23° 19' 17° 09' 17° 09' 17° 33' 17° 33' 17° 46' 17° 46' 18° 20' 18° 20' 18° 33' 18° 33' 19° 35' 19° 35' 21° 55' 21° 55' 42° 31' 42° 31' 44° 51' 44° 51' 50° 38' 50° 38' 53° 48' 53° 48' 56° 46' 56° 46' 67° 29' 67° 29' 68° 48' 68° 48' 71° 47' 71° 47' 74° 33' 74° 33' 74° 33' 76° 00' 76° 00' 77° 54' 77° 54' 80° 35' 80° 35' 83° 02' 83° 02' 84° 17' 84° 17' 84° 17' Surface 1026 72 Feb. 25 200 fathoms Surface 1026 68 Feb 26 1026 42 Feb 26 200 fathoms Surface 1026 50 Feb. 27 1026 72 Feb. 27 200 fathoms Surface 1026 66 March 1 1026 53 March 1 200 fathoms Surface 1026 53 March 2 1026 80 March 2 200 fathoms Surface ... 1026 80 March 3 1026 76 March 3 200 fathoms Surface 1027 00 March 4 1026 92 March 4 200 fathoms Surface 1026 77 March 10 1027 28 March 10 200 fathoms Surface 1027 32 March 11 1027 10 March 11 200 fathoms. . . . Surface 1027 28 March 12 1026 58 March 12 200 fathoms Surface , 1026 81 March 13 1026 72 March 13 420 fathoms 1026 88 March 15 1026 53 March 15 100 fathoms S\irface 1027 03 April 4 1026 83 April 4 400 fathoms Surface 1026 87 April 5 1026 78 April 5 200 fathoms Surface 1026 83 April 6 1026 87 April 6 (9) 1026 79 April 7 Surface . . . 1026 88 April 7 300 fathoms 400 fathoms Surface 1027 03 April 7 April 8 1027.16 1026 88 April 8 200 fathoms Surface 1026 83 April 9 1027 04 April 9 200 fathoms Surface 1026 96 April 10 1027 56 AprH 10 100 fathoms Surface 1027 48 April 11 1027 08 April 11 200 fathoms Surface 1027 04 AprU 13 1027 16 AprU 13 100 fathoms 200 fathoms 1027 20 April 13 1027 16 Tlie temperatures under the sea-surface were obtained by a self- registering thermometer of the form known as Six's construction. It had no provision to protect it from variations of pressure. Compensa- 2 18 tion for tliese variations must be determined in tlie case of each indi- vidual instrument, for the amount of this error will vary with the varying thickness of the glass, its form, and its power of resisting com- pression. In the experiments made by Dr. Miller on self-registering thermometers for deep sea sounding, published in the report of the Meteorological Committee of the lloyal Society for 18G9, it is show^n that certain nnprotected thermometers submitted to a pressure of two and one half tons per square inch in a hydraulic press, though made wdth bulbs of nnusual thickness, would indicate temperatures from 6j\° to 8j\° too higli, and in other experiments when the pressure was raised to three tons on tlie inch the error was ll-J-°. In these instances, however, a part of the rise, perhaps as mnch as 1-^-°, was due to the heat disengaged from the water itself in the act of compression. In most of the sul)joined observations, the depth not exceeding 200 fathoms, the pi-essure upon the ther- mometer was one quai'ter of a ton per square inch. In the apparatus used on board the Mercury, the thermometer was inclosed in the water-collecting cylinder. It was, as in Six's form, alcoholic, the reservoir consisting of a tube about five inches long and one-third of an inch in diameter, made of pretty substantial glass, and, though the influence of pressure upon it has not yet been determined ex- perimentally, tliere is reason to suppose that at the depths in. question the en'or would not exceed one or two degrees. No index error was found on comparing this instrument with a standard Kew. The wnter-collecting cylinder consisted of a copper tube thirteen inches long and one and three quar- ters in diameter, weiglited witli a hollow cone of lead at its lower extremity. The valves above and below were one inch in diameter. In w^hat may be called the front of the cylinder there were inserted SECTION OF WATER-COL- strips of platc glass, through which the indications LECTING CYLINDER AND THERMOMETER. of the thermometer might be read without removing 19 it from the cylinder. The glass was protected from injnry bj brass rods. In the above figure cm is the copper cylinder, he the two valves, dd the handle for connection to the sounding line, e the Six's ther- mometer, ff^Q weight at the bottom. Table Y. Air Temperatures between Sierra Leone and the Flmida Capes Temperature of Air at Temperature of Air at Date. Date. IMidnight. Noon. 8 p.m. Midnig-ht. Noon. 8 p.m. Feb. 21.... 79° 84° 81° Mar. 14. . . . 78 81° 81° " 22.... 79° 84° 83° " 15.... 74° 79° 77° " 23.... 80° 83° 79° " 16.... 79° 85° 85° " 24.... 78° 81° 79° " 24.... 86° 87° 85° " 25.... 78° 84° 80° " 25 79° 82° 82° " 26.... 77° 82° 76° " 26.... 80° 86° 84° " 27.... 74° 82° 77° " 27. . . . 81° 86° 83° " 28.... 74° 78° 79° April 3.!!! 82° 84° 84° Mar. 1.... 75° 80° 78° " 4.... 80° 83° 82° " 2.... 73° 80° 78° " 5.... 80° ■ 81° 83° " 3.... 74° 80° 76° " 6.... 81° 84° 87° " 4.... 75° 77° 77° " 7.... 84° 84° 81° " 5.... 74° 80° 76° " 8.... 82° 82° 86° " 6 ... 74° 79° 76° " 9.... 83° 84° 88° " 7.... 74° 79° 79° " 10.... 84° 84° 80° " 8.... 73° 78° 77° " 11.... 82° 84° 82° " 9.... 74° 78° 76° " 12.... 82° 85° 84° " 10.... 75° 80° 77° " 13.... 80° 84° 84° " 11.... 76° 81° 81° " 14.... 80° 86° 78° " 12.... 76° 81° 80° " 15.... 80° 86° 78° " 13.... 78° 84° 81° It will be remarked that in the foregoing table the temperatm^es are given for midnight, noon, and 8 p.m. But as the soundings were usually taken at other hours, more commonly at 3 p.m., I give in the following table the temperatures observed at those hours, both at the surface and at the depths specified. 20 Table YI. Temperature of the Air, of the Sea-surface, and of the water at various deptlis. Date. Hour. Latitude Lon^- tude. Temperature op Air. Water Sur- face. Water at various Depths. Feb. u 23 25 2 P.M. 3 P.M. 3 P.M. 3 P.M. 3 P.M. 8° 50' 9° 15' 10° 05' 10° 42' 11° 24' 11° 26' 11° 39' 11° 35' 11° 06' 11° 32' 12° 38' 13° 03' 13° 06' 13° 08' 12° 55' 17° 13' 17° 13' 17° 08' 17° 09' 17° 09' 17° 27' 17° 27' 18° 11' 19° 12, 20° 48' 23° 19' 23° 19' 15° 47' 17° 12' 17° 35' 17° 46' 18° 09' 18° 20' 18° 33' 19° 33' 21° 55' 29° 13' 42° 31' 44° 51' 50° 38' 53° 48' 56° 46' 67° 29' 67° 29' 68° 48' 71° 47' 71° 47' 74° 33' 74° 33' 76° 77° 54' 83° 01' 84° 17' 84° 17' 79° 78° 76° 78° 77° 80° 82° 77° 76° 76° 83° 84° 80° 80° 81° 80° 80° 84° 82° 82° 82° 82° 85° 84° 84° 84° 84° 78° 79° 74° 77° 76° 77° 77° 76° 77° 75° 76° 76° 75° 79° 80° 84° 84° 84° 84° 84° 84° 84° 85° 85° 85° 86° 86° 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. '266 'fath.' 200 fath. 200 fath. 400 fath. 100 fath. 100 fath. 400 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 500 fath. 300 fath. 400 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 200 fath. 100 fath. 200 fath. 54° 58° u 26 60° u 27 , 28 60° 53° March 1 53° 2 53° (( 3 3 P.M. 3 P.M. 3 P.M. 2 P.M. 2 P.M. 11 A.M. 2 P.M. 2 P.M. 53° K 4 52° U 6 10 "56°* u 11 51° (( u 13 14 51° 47° u 15 62° April 4 70° 4 3 P.M. 3 P.M. 48° (( 5 59° u 6 62° u 6 4 P.M. 48° u 7 54° 7 8 4 P.M. 3 P.M. 4i P.M. 4 P.M. 50° 62° (( 9 62° (( 11 62° u 13 72° (( 13 5 P.M. 62° For a proper appreciation of the conclusions to be drawn from these tables, it is necessary to point out the facts indicated by the soundings of the ship. For the sake of brevity I restrict these remarks to the second stage of the voyage. Parting from the African coast, the bed of the ocean sinks very rapidly. A couple of degrees west of the longitude of Cape Yerde the soundings are 2,900 fathoms. From that point the mean depth across the ocean may be estimated at about 2,400 fathoms, but from this there are two striking departures — first a depression, the depth of which is 3,100 fathoms, and second an eleva- tion, at which the soundings are only 1,900 — the general result of this being a wide and deep trough on the African side, and a narrower and shallower trough on the Amer- ican. It may be that this peculiar- ity is a result of the river distribu- tion on the two continents respect- ively, there being, with the excep- tion of the Senegal and Gambia, no important streams on the African side, whilst on the American there are many, and among them, preem- inently, the Orinoco and the Ama- zon, these vast rivers carrying their detritus far out to sea, and helping to produce the configuration of the ocean-bottom in question. How- ever this may be, it is doubtless through these deep troughs that much of the cold water of the ]S"orth Polar current finds its way. In accordance with this, we per- ceive, on examining the tempera- ture of the water, after the African verge of the greater or eastern sea trough is reached, that there is a difference in temperature between the surface and that at a depth of 22 I \ 1 1 i Ul \ \ (}> '^ I ! i 1 k 1 h ! *<) / : /( j i o , •^ ^ / 1 I i 1 ^ -•■ 1 1 ; / 5 / / h 1 1 IS 1^ K \ I 1 ai UJ / o Q 1 < . 1 GQ / a: .' < / OQ e 1 Uj" Q ^ k •s ^ Q) < ^ 2 ^ < < 3: '^ : 1^ 1 k ts o o o « '. n c C 3 c C <; 2 Q <»• c s t£ i^ eo CV 23 not more than two liundrecl fathoms, exceednig twenty-five degrees in many cases. This decline of temperature inci'eases as the depth increases, one observation giving an additional fall of four de- grees at an additional depth of 200 fathoms. It is not, however, in- tended to affirm that the mass of cold water is restricted to these deep troughs, since even in the West India seas, at similar depths, low tem- peratures are observed, and this, though the heat of the surface-water has become very much higher. In those seas, while the surface tempe- rature was 84°, the thermometer, at depths of 400 and 500 fathoms, marked 48°, and these, it must be remembered, were the indications of an uncompensated insfruraeut, which was bearing a pressure of at least half a ton on each square inch of its surface, and hence registering deo^rees that were hi^'her than the truth. This accords with the ob- servation of Mr. Barrett, that in the deepest part of the sea, near Jamaica, there exists a temperature not far above that of the freezing point of fresh water. The foregoing diagram represents the temperatures of the air, those of the surface of the water and at different depths, usually, however, at 200 fathoms, from Sierra Leone to Barbadoes, and from Barbadoes to Havana. The solid line represents the temperatures of the air, the dotted line that of the surface of the water, the broken line that of the water at 200 fathoms Here and there, as will be easily recognized, isolated observations at 100, 300, 400, and 500 fathoms have been in- troduced. The vertical lines indicate longitudes, the degrees of tem- perature are seen at the side. This diagram shows that the air line, after its oscillations near the African coast are over, exhibits a general rise to Barbadoes and thence to Havana. There is, however, a marked departure from the gradual character of this rise at a distance of about two-thirds of the way across. The surface temperatures are for the most part lower than the air temperatures, until the West India seas are reached, when they become higher. They do not exhibit that sudden rise observed in the air temperatures at 45° west longitude. The line of deep-water tem- peratures is, of course, lower than that of the surface all the way across, and exhibits the same contour in a general manner as the surface-line, rising as it comes into the Caribbean Sea. 24 From Table TV. it appears that the specific gravit}- of the water be- comes greater as the location is further west. This conclusion I found to be confirmed by an examination of the solid residue left after evap- oration to dryness of different samples. I need not quote many of these confirmatory experiments. It will be understood that the cus- tomary care was taken in ascertaining the weight of these solid residues to avoid hygrometric complication and the escape of their more volatile ingredients. As an example, it may be mentioned that surface water taken near the African coast on March 1, gave 39.600 grammes of solid residue in 1,000 grammes of water, and another sample of surface-water taken on April 10, in the Caribbean Sea, gave 40.520 grammes in 1,000 grammes. It is probable that the concentration here remarked was due to the drying effect of the north-east trade wind. The specific gravity of the surface-water is of course affected by the rate at which evaporation is taking place, a concentration ensuing as evaporation goes on, and the density becoming greater. There is, therefore, a tendency in such concentrated waters to leave the surface and pass downward, until they reach a region in wdiich the density cor- responds to their own. These considerations have led some persons to suppose that this descent w^ould be continued to very great depths, and that this movement must sensibly affect the general motion taking place in the w^aters of the sea. If, however, we compare the density of the surface-waters in the tropical Atlantic as I have represented them in the foregoing tables, with the density of surface-water in higher lati- tudes, where both the air and water are much colder, and wdiere evapo- ration is much less active, as shown, for instance, in latitudes between 50° and 60° north in the cruises of Dr. Carpenter, we see how small the difference is. When w^e remember, also, how slight a variation of temperature, as has been already said, completely masks these differen- ces arising from concenti-ation, we may safely conclude that the cause of disturbance may be overlooked. 25 In the adjoining diagram the ver- tical lines represent longitudes, the horizontal lines speciiic gravities, the solid line specific gravities of the surf ace- water, the dotted specific gravity of water at two hundred fathoms. On comparing the two latter lines together, we see that they almost coincide ; and again, on com- paring this diagram with that of the temperatures and also with the cross section of the Atlantic basin, a curious resemblance will be readily detected, viz., that they all exhibit an elevation about the meridian of 45° west longitude, as though the contour of the bottom was not with- out influence on the physical state of the water above it. The general conclusion which may be drawn from these results as to temperatures and specific gravities is, that there exists all over the bot- om of the tropical Atlantic and Car- ibbean Sea a stratum of cold water, — cold, since its temperature is be- low 50°. This is the conclusion to which Dr. Carpenter has come, as respects the Atlantic in higher north latitudes ; and in this important par- ticular the cruise of the Mercury must be considered as offering con- firmatory proofs of the correctness of the deductions drawn from the cruises of the Lightning and Por- cupine. There are reasons for supposing that, so far from this water being LlJ i5 >^ f U3 ^' k k \\ \ . 5^ 1 i ) tA \ I CD o i CQ < ca ^ i' ^ / < < 1 ^ i •AiiAvya 3Ui03ds 26 stagnant, its whole mass lias a motion toward tlie Equator, wliilst the surface-waters in their turn have a general movement in the opposite direction. As the samples of water had already been kept for some months before they came into my possession, though the}^ had been confined, as has been said, in bottles closed by corks covered w^ith sealing-wax, their gaseous ingredients must have undergone much change, I have already pointed out the disturbance that necessarily ensues in these gaseous ingredients as they are being draw^n to the surface, and another disturbance occurs when they are brought more fully in contact with the air on being poured into the bottles. Interchange by diffusion then rapidly takes place, tending to make their proportions approach those of surface-water. For these reasons I did not consider it necessary to make an analj^sis of the gases afforded by these specimens. Dr. Car- penter, from his experiments, concluded that when freshly-drawn water is tested, the proportion of carbonic acid increases as the stratum of water is from deeper sources. I made some examinations of the organic matter contained in these waters, both by incinerating the solid residue and by the permanganate test. It has been customary to divide such organic ingredients into two groups, the decomposed and decomposable, in investigations respecting the sustenance of animal life at great ocean depths. To estimate the relative proportion of these groups, a sample of the water is divided into two parts — one is acidified, and then to both an excess of a standard solution of permanganate of potassa is added. After three hours, iodide of potassium and starch are introduced to check further reac- tion, and the excess of permanganate in each sample is then estimated by a standard solution of hyposulphite of soda. From the portion to which free acid was added the decomposed and easily-decomposable organic matter can be estimated, and from the other the decomposed alone. I resorted to this method of examination in several instances, but was discouraged from prosecuting it, for such reasons as have already been stated in the foregoing case of the gaseous constituents. It needed no special j)roof that organic matter was present in every one of these samples, for the clearest of them contained shreddy and floccu- lent material, some of them quantities of sea-weed in various stages of decomposition. With these vegetable substances were the remains of minute marine animals. As bearing upon this subject, I found, on incinerating the solid residue of a sample of water taken from two hun- dred fathoms, that the organic and volatile material was not less than eleven per cent, of the whole. Though the quantity of organic substance diminished as the stratum under examination was deeper, there still re- mained a visible amount in the water of four hundred or five hundred fathoms. It is probable, therefore, that even at the bottom of the ocean such organic substance may exist, not only in solution affording nutri- ment to animals inhabiting those dark abysses, as Professor Wyville Thompson has suggested, but also in the solid state. Plants of course cannot grow there, on account of the absence of light. In order to determine whether any hitherto-unknown element existed in these w^aters, I subjected the solid residue to examination with the spectroscope, volatilizing the substances by the aid of a voltaic current and induction coil. A careful examination did not reveal the presence of any spectral lines, other than those belonging to the well-knowu elementary substances in sea-water. The specimens of the bottom, obtained by attaching to the sounding- line quills or wooden tubes, I have transmitted to Dr. Carpenter, who has kindly consented to 'examine them. In a letter dated August 10, 1871, recently received, he says : "As far as I can see, they consistof the ordinary Atlantic mud, chalk in process of formation, with the ordinary types of deep-sea foraminifera." The chemical composition of this mud, according to Mr. Forbes, as taken from soundings at 1,443 fathoms in the North Atlantic, is : Carbonate of lime 50.12 Alumina (soluble in acids) 1.33 Sesquioxide of iron (soluble in acids) 2.17 Silica (in a soluble condition) 5.04 Fine insoluble gritty sand (rock debris) 26.77 Water ' . 2.90 Organic matter 4. 19 Chloride of sodium and other soluble salts 7.48 100.00 All of which is respectfully submitted. »=___ HENRY DRAPER, M.D. 28 SCITOOL-SHIP MeRCUEY, ) New York, April 29, 1871. j Sir — I would respectfully submit to your Honorable Board the fol- lowing report of all reliable deep-sea soundings made from this ship during her late practice cruise, together with a description of the man- ner in which they were made. The soundings were taken within the parallels of eleven and thirteen north latitude, from the coast of Africa, in the vicinity of Sierra Leone, to the Island of Barbadoes, W. I., through the Caribbean Sea to the west end of Cuba. The instrument used was a detaching apparatus, invented by the late Lieur tenant J. M. Brooke, U. S. ]^., and supplied to this ship through the kindness of Commodore James Alden, Chief of the Bureau of Navi- gation, Navy Department, AVashington. I found it worked admirably, never failing to bring up specimens of the bottom, except when coming in contact with rocky bottom. The quills inserted in the cell or holder, as seen in the accompanying sketch of the apparatus, preserve tha specimens in better condition for microscopic examination than the ordinary " arming" of soap or tall(~>w would bring up. Two spherical shot, weighing thirty-two pounds each, were used at every cast as a sinker, the sounding-line made of cotton, one-seventh of an inch in diameter, capable of sustaining one hundred and sixty poimds in the air ; the cord carefully waxed to overcome, as much as possible, the resistance of the line from friction of the water. x\ll soundings were made from a boat, as repeated trials satisfied me that no reliance could be placed on those made from the ship, on account of the difficulty of keeping the vessel in position and the line " up and down." A boat, fitted expressly for the purpose, with a reel holding four thousand fathoms, working on friction rollers, the line passing over the bow through a leader, thus enabling the boat, with the aid of oars, to be kept in position and the line perpendicular on the shot, thus determining to a certainty when the sinker reached the bottom. Temperature and specimens of sea-water at various depths were obtained by a self -registering metallic thermometer carefully adjusted ; all specimens secured have been carefully preserved, and now await your order. All soundings were made under my immediate super- vision, and the position of the ship at the time of sounding carefully noted, for which I respectfully refer you to the accompanying table. Yery respectfully, your obedient servant, P. GIRAUD, Captain. Isaac Bell, Esq., President, etc. ^ o ^ Ski:t< II OF ]{ii()()iv]:8 ])i:i:i» SivvSoiNDiNCi 4U>l.-i«'liiii<4 appnraliiK. USED ON BOARD 29 « r^- =0 s s o ^ 8 r^'" f- V 00 s ^ •S •c* f Cn, O •S 't< s o f^ ??^ "S !k s 'w ^ s o ^ a, l5" I 5^ ^ 15 11 =^ -< s o -^ a ^ 1 •: 5^ e 'S s s =? 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