Class _Z_L Book I Copyright N°._ C0JMRIGHT DEPOSHV COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL A Study of the Agencies of Rural Progress and of the Social Relationship of the School to the Country Community BY MABEL CARNEY DIRECTOR OF THE COUNTRY SCHOOL DEPARTMENT IN THE ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL UNIVERSITY, NORMAL; FORMERLY COUNTRY TRAINING TEACHER OF THE WESTERN ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MACOMB CHICAGO ROW. PETERSON AND COMPANY Good Books For Teachers Methods of Teaching — Charters $1.25 Principles of Teaching — Harvey 1.25 Reading in Public Schools — Briggs & Coffman 1.25 School Management — Salisbury 1.00 The Theory of Teaching — Salisbury 1.25 The Educational Meaning of Manual Arts and Indus- tries — Row 1.25 The Personality of the Teacher — McKenny 1.00 The Psychology of Conduct — Schroeder 1.25 Copyright, 1912 ROW, PETERSON AND COMPANY ©CLA328457 To the spirit of the little country school that gave it being, and to the country teachers of Illinois whose loyalty and earnest effort have been a chief inspira- tion in its undertaking. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/countrylifecount01carn PREFACE This book is for farmers and country teachers, written not about them, but to them. It takes form as the direct outgrowth and personal need of eight years' work in country teaching and the training of country teachers. Many of its pages were written within the walls of a country schoolroom, and prac- tically all of its suggestions have been tried with success in average country communities. The fundamental line of thought here maintained unfolds as follows : First, that the chief relief for the present undesirable condi- tions of country life is to be realized through the cooperative endeavor of farmers and the upbuilding of local country communities. Second, that the country school of all rural social institu- tions makes the best and most available center for upbuilding the rural community, and bears at present the greatest respon- sibility for socializing country life. Third, that to realize this social service of the country school country teachers must become local community leaders. And fourth, that to fulfill this office of leadership efficiently country teachers must be afforded special training through state normal schools and other institutions of learning. The discussion thus presented views the country school as an immediate agency for rural progress, and to this end seeks especially to stimulate and assist country teachers to local leadership. In realizing this purpose a twofold task has pre- sented itself. It has been necessary, in the first place, to reveal the social-service responsibility of the country school; and second, to lay down a practical line of action, or program of v VI PREFACE work, showing concretely how this responsibility may be dis- charged by the individual teacher. In furthering the latter end it has been necessary to include, also, considerable definite information concerning the various agencies of farm life with which the country teacher must cooperate in seeking to upbuild the rural community. This information covers only what all country teachers who aspire to community leadership and service must possess, and what every progressive farmer should know. It is this body of data and discussion which will make the book, it is believed, one of direct value for farmers as well as for country teachers. It has been the hope throughout this attempt to present a new vision of country teaching. If this has been done, and if the country teachers who read this book are stimulated to renewed action and encouragement for their many difficult tasks, the effort lying behind its realization will be fully compensated. Normal, Illinois, September, 1912. M. C. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To insure accuracy and practicability in the treatment of the various phases of country life discussed in this book, different chapters have been read and criticized by specialists in the lines to which they refer. Special acknowledgment for this generous service is here gratefully extended to : Mrs. H. M. Dunlap, president of the Department of Household Science of the Illinois Farmers' Institute, for reading the chapter on the farm home; to Dr. Warren H. Wilson and Miss Anna B. Taft, Superintendent and Assistant Superintendent of the Department of Church and Country Life of the Presbyterian Board of Home Mis- sions, for reading the chapter on the country church ; to Sec- retary Albert E. Roberts of the International Committee of the Young Men's Christian Association, for reading the section on this organization; to Mr. Oliver Wilson, Master of the National Grange and editor of the Xational Grange Monthly, for reading the chapter on the Grange; to Farmers' Institute Specialist John Hamilton of the United States Department of Agriculture, for reading the chapter on farmers' institutes ; to Mr. Arthur J. Bill, editor of the Farmers' Voice, Bloomington, Illinois, for reading the section relating to the agricultural press and for the use of numerous photographs ; to Mr. A. X. Johnson, State Highway Engineer of Illinois, for reading the chapter on roads; to Dr. Ernest Burnham, director of the Rural School Department of the Michigan State Normal School at Kalamazoo, for reading the chapter on the train- ing of country teachers; to County Superintendents O. J. Kern and George W. Brown, of Winnebago and Edgar Coun- ties in Illinois, for reading the chapter on supervision; and vii viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS to Miss Lillian K. Sabine of the Illinois State Normal Uni- versity, for a careful literary editing of the entire manuscript. To these and to the many state superintendents, county superintendents, country teachers, and rural life workers, who have courteously and kindly assisted me throughout the inves- tigations spent upon this study, I offer my sincere appreciation. Special mention should be made also of the assistance of Presi- dent Kenyon L. Butterfield of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture, whose thought and suggestion, as expressed in books, lectures, and personal conference, has been a funda- mental guide in fostering any elements of worth that may exist in the conclusions here presented. But more than to all others, gratitude is due to Dr. Frederick G. Bonser of Teachers College, Columbia University, formerly of the Western Illinois State Normal School, who has not only read practically the entire manuscript of the book and given invaluable advice as to its organization and expression, but has inspired and encouraged the undertaking throughout its accom- plishment. CONTENTS CHAPTER I The Farm Problem and Its Solution PAGE The problem stated I Its significance 3 Cause : isolation in country life 4 Solution of the farm problem 7 Country community building 9 Cooperation the keynote in the solution of the farm problem 10 Agencies for the upbuilding of the country community. . 12 Chief functions and needs of rural social institutions. . 12 Overlapping of agencies in function and effort 14 Federation of community agencies 16 Platform for the improvement of country life 16 CHAPTER II The Farm Home The farm home as an agency for country life progress. . 18 Present conditions in farm homes 19 The improvement of farm home life 24 The decrease of household labor 25 Vocational education for country women 29 The participation of farm women in community affairs ... 30 The spiritualizing of farm home life 31 The farm home as the center of rural interests 33 ix x CONTENTS CHAPTER III The Country Church PAGE The country church as an agency for rural progress. ... 39 The present status of country churches : Digest of country church information from the replies gathered by the Country Life Commission 40 What Is Being Done for Progress Church federation 47 Special training for country ministers 51 The Department of Church and Country Life of the Pres- byterian Board of Home Missions 53 County work of the Young Men's Christian Association. . 57 What Might Be Done for Progress General lines of progress 60 Possibilities for progress in the individual local church; story of the DuPage Presbyterian Church in Will County, Illinois 62 The country teacher's attitude and relation to the church question 6j The coming unity among churches 69 CHAPTER IV The Grange The Grange as an agency for country life progress 72 Origin and purpose of the Grange y2 History 75 Organization 76 Work and influence 78 The subordinate Grange at work; Magnolia Grange, Putnam County, Illinois 81 CONTENTS x i PAGE Words of warning to the Grange 85 Farmers' clubs 85 Cooperation between the Grange and the country school . . 88 CHAPTER V Farmers' Institutes and the Agricultural Press Farmers' institutes as an agency for country life progress 90 Origin and history of farmers' institutes 90 Organization of farmers' institutes 93 Present status and progress 96 The agricultural press as a rural socializing agency 100 Farmers' institutes and the country school 102 CHAPTER VI Roads and the Road Problem Roads as an agency for country life progress 108 The road problem a national issue 108 The road system of France as a type of efficient high- way organization no Organization of the American highway system 113 Some defects of the American highway system 114 Suggestions for an improved highway system 117 Some progressive road movements and reforms: legis- lative improvements 1 18 State aid and increased revenue 119 Developments in road science 119 Increased road sentiment and cooperation 122 Road beautifying 125 Road education 126 The country school and the road problem 129 Roads of the future I 3 I xii CONTENTS CHAPTER VII The Country School as an Agency in the Solution of the Farm Problem PAGE Function of the country school defined 133 The school as a center for the building of the country com- munity 134 Advantages of the country school for rural institutional leadership 136 Leadership of the school largely a temporary function. . 138 Needs of the country school 139 The one-teacher country school system and its defects. . 140 The country school system of the future 145 Consolidation the fundamental need of country schools. 148 CHAPTER VIII Consolidated Country Schools Definition and types 149 Possibilities of consolidation; The John Swaney Consoli- dated School of Putnam County, Illinois 150 History and status of the consolidation movement 159 Advantages of consolidation 170 Difficulties involved 171 Some phases of the question of transportation 171 The cost of consolidated schools. 174 The consolidated country school compared with other types of rural high schools 176 The need of a county system of districting for consoli- dation 181 The consolidated school as a community center and in the future development of country life 184 CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER IX The Leadership of the Country Teacher PAGE Scarcity of rural leaders and its effect 188 Opportunity and advantages of the country teacher for community leadership 189 Requirements for leadership on the part of country teachers 190 True leadership explained 192 Difficulties of country teaching. 193 Tribute to country teachers 195 Examples of country teacher leadership 196 Country life creed 203 CHAPTER X The Country Teacher's Problem and Its Attack The problem stated 205 The method of its attack 206 I. Improving the Physical Environment of the Country School The Defects of country school buildings 206 Heating and ventilation 210 Lighting 214 Interior finish and decoration. . . 216 Seating 219 Sanitation and care 221 The grounds — Beginning yard improvement 224 xiv CONTENTS PAGE What to plant 225 Walks and fences 227 Summer houses, arbors, and arches 228 Outbuildings 228 II. Socializing the Country School and Making It an Institution of Community Service Personal leadership of the teacher ; visiting among people 229 Social activities of the children ; boys' and girls' clubs 230 Making the school a center for the community; school- house meetings 232 Developing cooperation between the home and school; parents' clubs 234 Other agencies for the socialization of the country school ; newspapers; exhibits; educational excursions 235 A country life club the best social organization for the country school 237 Cooperation of the school with other community institu- tions and agencies «... 238 III. Vitalizing and Enriching the Country School Course of Study The redirection of old subject-matter 240 The introduction of new courses 242 Elementary rural sociology in the country school. ....... 245 IV. Improving the Administration of the School and Teaching the Necessity of a Change of System, or Consolida- tion, FOR COUNTRY SCHOOLS The beginning, of a consolidation campaign 248 General educational campaigns 249 Township or community organization 249 Outspoken consolidation campaigns 250 CONTENTS xv CHAPTER XI The Training of Country Teachers The need for properly prepared country teachers 252 Necessity for the special training of country teachers . . . 252 Kind of special training needed by county teachers 254 Special training now offered for country teachers: in high schools 255 In county normal schools 256 In state normal schools 258 The new spirit of country teachers 273 A suggestive outline for country school departments in state normal schools 275 Trained teachers not the only need for solving the country school problem 280 CHAPTER XII Country School Supervision Importance of country school supervision 281 Difficulties 281 Systems of rural supervision employed in the United States 886 Methods of selecting county superintendents 287 Qualifications required of county superintendents 288 Increasing the efficiency of the county superintendency. . 289 The proper method of selecting county superintendents. 294 Leadership of the county superintendent 295 Inspiration and help for county superintendents 296 The chief need 298 The duty of teachers to county superintendents 300 Some other legislative measures needed for country schools 300 xvi CONTENTS CHAPTER XIII The Country Life Movement PAGE Character of the Country Life Movement 302 Some Developments of the Country Life Movement Work of the State College of Agriculture 303 Influence of machinery 305 Business organization 306 Agricultural legislation 306 The Country Life Movement in the South 307 The Country Life Movement in the East 309 The Country Life Movement in the West 309 The Country Life Movement in the Middle West 310 The International Institute of Agriculture 312 The Country Life Commission and its work 312 Needs of the Country Life Movement Concreteness 313 Federation of rural forces 316 Leadership 321 Idealism 323 Concluding summary 326 APPENDIX PAGE I. Outline of a course in country school teaching for country teachers 329 II. Outline of a course in rural sociology for country teachers 336 III. A country teacher's schoolhouse plan 340 IV. Furnishings and equipment for country schools. . 346 V. Educational helps and sources for country teachers 350 VI. A workable country school program 358 VII. Seatwork in country schools and some principles underlying it 360 VIII. Pictures that portray farm life 363 IX. Some country life literature 365 X. Country school music and farm life songs 368 XL A minimum list of manual training tools for coun- try schools 372 XII. A minimum equipment for the teaching of do- mestic science in country schools 373 XIII. A selected list of twenty-five books for the use of country teachers 374 XIV. Suggested problems of country school teaching for the attack of individual country teachers .... 376 directory of rural progress 384 bibliography ...... 388 index 399 XVil LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Country life in America 3 Corn is king 4 Mud-stuck days are still a reality 5 An abandoned country church 8 Friends' Church, Clear Creek Community, Putnam County, Illinois. 11 Diagram of a country community center 15 An ideal farm home 20 An inferior farm home 24 Office in a farm home 27 Home Makers' School, University of Illinois, Urbana 30 Domestic science in the country school, Macon County, Illinois 36 Church and manse, Rock Creek Community, Menard County, Illinois 4 1 Play in the Rock Creek Community 44 Federated church, Proctor, Vermont 49 Exhibit of the Presbyterian Department of Church and Country Life 55 County work of the Young Men's Christian Association 58 The DuPage Presbyterian Church, Will County, Illinois 63 Lecture course audience at the DuPage Church 66 Oliver H. Kelley, founder of the Grange 73 Centerville Grange picnic, Winnebago County, Illinois 75 Farmers' club, Logan County, Illinois 79 Magnolia Grange fair, Putnam County, Illinois 82 Harvesting picnic, farmers' clubs of DeKalb County, Illinois. 86 Midsummer farmers' institute, Illinois College of Agriculture, Urbana 92 Interurban exhibit cars from the Illinois College of Agriculture. ... 95 Household Science Department at the National Corn Exposition, Columbus, Ohio, 191 1 9$ The Grout encampment for farm boys 99 Boys' corn class, farmers' institute, Mercer County, Illinois 104 The road problem I0 9 A French highway 112 Avenue of Trees. Hobbema. . ll S xix xx LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE An automobile ravaging a road 120 Marking the route of the Iowa River-to-River Dragged Road 124 A noble sentinel 126 A properly dragged earth road 128 The road of the future 132 The country school as a community center. 135 An average country school 137 An ancient landmark of learning , 139 Harlem Consolidated School, Winnebago County, Illinois 141 Domestic science in the Harlem Consolidated School 144 An expensive establishment 145 School float, Harlem Consolidated School 147 The John Swaney Consolidated School, Putnam County, Illinois.. 149 Barn and janitor's house at the John Swaney School 150 Teachers' Cottage, John Swaney School 151 Stock judging class, John Swaney School 152 Horticultural class pruning trees, John Swaney School 153 Baseball field, John Swaney School 154 Girls' Chorus, John Swaney School 155 Domestic science kitchen and chemical laboratory in the John Swaney School 157 Mr. and Mrs. John Swaney 159 Track team, John Swaney School 160 Map of Indiana showing extent of consolidation 161 Consolidated School, Lewiston, Minnesota 164 Consolidated School, Enumclaw, Washington 167 The old and the new in Louisiana 169 Consolidated school wagon 173 Township High School, Princeton, Illinois 177 Map of Olmsted County, Minnesota, showing proposed consolidated districts 183 School garden, John Swaney School 185 On the campus, John Swaney School 186 A country school prepared for community leadership 191 When first we go to school 193 Procuring the necessary kindling 195 Cedar Oak School, the scene of Miss Mary's endeavors 197 Closing day picnic in District 23 201 An old type of country school building 207 A new type of country school building 211 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxi PAGE Library room, Peru School, Macon County, Illinois 217 Cultivating minds and spirits through flower gardens 224 A monarch of the prairie 226 A disgrace to the community 228 Girls' club ready for the Thanksgiving minuet 231 Chorus cast, Peru School, Macon County, Illinois 233 Play festival, Harlem Consolidated School, Winnebago County, Illinois 235 Agricultural College excursion, Edgar County, Illinois 237 Practical Arithmetic 239 A sand-table farm 243 Country school gardening in Massachusetts 245 The Harvest — Training school children of the Western Illinois State Normal School 247 Play-day masque, Illinois State Normal University 251 Teachers' Training School, Dunn County Wisconsin 255 Dramatization of Hiawatha, Rural Observation School, Kalamazoo, Michigan 259 Country teachers at the Illinois State Normal University 263 Country Training School of the Western Illinois State Normal School before improvement 267 Country Training School of the Western Illinois State Normal School after improvement 271 First annual meeting of the Country Teachers' Association of Illinois, Macomb, July, 1908 2^^ Full of difficulties for the county superintendent 283 Manual training in Whatcom County, Washington 286 County Superintendent Jessie Field, Page County, Iowa 291 Complimentary float to Superintendent O. J. Kern of Winnebago County, Illinois 293 School directors' convention, Goodhue County, Minnesota 297 A subject for school legislation 299 Conference of Rural Social Workers, College of Agriculture. Amherst, Massachusetts 303 The cotton harvester 305 Dr. Seaman A. Knapp 308 Rural Life Conference, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 311 National Corn Exposition, Columbus, Ohio, February, 191 1 315 Country community exhibit displayed at the Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress, July, 1912 Z l 7 xxii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS The poetry of country life 321 The end of day 325 A country teacher's schoolhouse plan: Front elevation 341 Rear elevation 341 Right side elevation 342 First floor plan 343 Basement plan .■ 345 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL CHAPTER I THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION The Problem Stated. There is an American farm prob- lem. The whole nation is astir with it; its significance is commonly acknowledged; and remedies for its solution are proposed on every hand. In the interpretation of this prob- lem, however, opinions differ. The farm problem of America is not, as is sometimes asserted, the task of increasing the fertility of the soil, of improving staple crops, or even of conserving our food, for- ests, and other natural resources. It is not the problem of in- creasing the skill and business efficiency of the modern farmer ; nor, as he himself sometimes thinks, of adding to his store of worldly goods. Neither is it the problem of making country life easy and comfortable, though this, in degree, is highly desirable. All these are constituent parts of the real issue; they have their bearing and relationship, but they are not the problem itself. The most serious condition of present country life is the silent but startling migration of the rural population to towns and cities. To the ambitious country boy the city has always proved alluring. It seems to offer a larger field of social activity and conquest. That this conquest is for the few, he has usually failed to realize, and has mercilessly, though often 1 2 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL successfully, thrown himself into the thickest of the fray, forgetful and unconscious of the many neglected opportunities in the home community. This inflowing current of fresh blood and vigorous strength toward our great commercial centers has had, and still has, its place in our national develop- ment. In New England and other over-populated and unpro- ductive agricultural sections it has even proved desirable. But it has gone too far. Rural migration no longer means only the occasional shifting of a few brilliant sons to the city, as formerly. It now implies the uprooting and withdrawal of whole families whose members, for the most part, represent the highest idealism and ambition of the country community. As a result, leadership has been extracted from rural localities, agriculture has declined, and country life has lost prestige both socially and economically. Fortunately we are now in the period of a new awakening, when the tide of interest begins to ebb from the rush and strife of the city, and to turn, with relief and satisfaction, back to the country. The problem of keeping the youth of the present genera- tion upon the farms and of preparing them for country life in its fullest and richest sense is an issue of fundamental concern in our national welfare. By this it is not implied that all children born upon the farm should stay there. Few fallacies could be more wasteful and destructive of human efficiency than this. In this age of specialists country children naturally inclined to enter the so-called "trades and profes- sions" should have the opportunity. Yet, at the same time, adequate care must be given to those who remain upon the land if we are to maintain an efficient class of citizens in our rural communities and desirable averages in our national life. The farm problem, then, in its most fundamental aspects, is the problem of maintaining a standard people upon our farms. Or, as more choicely put by Professor Liberty Hyde THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION s o Bailey, it is the problem "of developing and maintaining on our farms a civilization in full harmony with the best American ideals." When this end is attained, all other issues of agri- culture and country life, questions of education, "of better business, better farming, and better living," will obviously find adjustment as a matter of consequence. 1 Country Life in America Its Significance. That the farm is the corner-stone of our national prosperity is a trite but true estimate. Since the days of Cain, farming has been the foundational industry of static society. It matters little, all worthy politicians to the contrary, whether we choose a Republican or a Democrat for the next president, but whether we have enough rain to mature the corn, wheat, and cotton crops spread in vast acres over our bountiful land is a matter of universal concern — one that affects not only the wealthiest banker and the shrewdest broker but the most ragged newsboy as well. "Corn is king," and a monarch who never resigns his golden scepter. 1 For this interpretation of the rural problem and much of the general thought of this chapter readers will observe an indebtedness I gladly and gratefully acknowledge to President Kenyon L. Butter- field of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture, author of Chapters in Rural Progress and of The Country Church and the Rural Problem, 4 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The true significance of the prosperity of country life is appreciated, however, only when we reflect that one-third of our entire population gain a living directly from the soil, and that indirectly all depend upon it for the sustenance of life. Whatever affects the country is therefore of national concern, not only because of the material dependence of society upon farmers but because of the social, educational, and moral influence of so large a percentage of the general population. "Corn is King" In this connection the hypothesis that rural welfare is signifi- cant and desirable only because of its contribution to urban prosperity demands thorough condemnation. Farm life must become adequate for its own sake, and the sake of those who live it, not for the purpose of sending the city more or better recruits or for any similar reason. The city has long pros- pered at the expense of the country. We must now build up a country life that shall be satisfactory from its own viewpoint. When this is done it will be found that the city has benefited also, and that there is no clash between urban and rural wel- fare in their best realizations. Cause: Isolation in Country Life. In the last analysis the cause of most of the difficulties of country life can be traced to its openness and isolation. In this respect country life in America contrasts strongly with that of Europe. American farms average about one hundred forty-five acres, and homes are often a mile or more apart; separated in many sec- THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION 5 tions by a despondent stretch of mud and mire. In Europe, on the other hand, land holdings are small, and rural homes practically constitute scattered but continuous villages con- nected by good hard roads, centuries old. In America, espe- cially during the winter and early spring, bad roads alone make hermits of many farm families. The snow-bound days pictured by Whittier in his charming idyl are no longer fre- Mud-stuck Days are Still a Reality quent occurrences, but less poetic, mud-stuck days are still a reality. Another factor of this isolation not to be disregarded is the fact that the farm home is almost complete in itself. Farmers produce their own food supply and can exist for days wholly cut off from their fellow-men. In case of severe storms or impassable roads, this state of existence may be continued 6 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL for weeks, especially by women, and some families, unfor- tunately, are willing to tolerate a semi-exclusive mode of life even when circumstances become more favorable. Physical isolation and the economic independence of the farm home are thus two fundamental causes of social isolation which, in turn, results in conditions making the farm situation, as a whole, problematic. The effects of social isolation in country life are manifested in various ways. The well-known conservative attitude of farmers on all new undertakings is the most noticeable of these. When not carried too far, this tendency is commendable as an attribute of sane level-headedness, but unfortunately it often runs to extreme lengths in a tenacious hold upon outgrown ideas. Conservatism among farmers is well illustrated by the hesi- tancy with which suggestions for the improvement of the coun- try school are often received. A change in the program, text- books, or furniture, unless tactfully brought about, sometimes excites the opposition of the whole community. That such conditions exist, however, is not surprising. All the natural forces of country life — seed-time and harvest, seasonal change, and the annual cycle — tend toward quiet and routine, and so impress themselves upon the sub-consciousness of a people governed by them that their control cannot fail to influence character. On the other hand, isolation encourages the farmer toward a habit of deep and independent thought and has pro- duced some of our most gifted thinkers. A second result of the social isolation of the farm is mani- fested in an intense radicalism that occasionally sweeps through farm circles. No better illustration of this para- doxical outgrowth can be cited than the early interest mani- fested in the Grange some forty years ago. This organiza- tion was first taken up as a financial craze, and enthusiastic farmers, cutting loose from all moorings of precedent and caution, expected to sail forth on a wave of prosperity THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION 7 founded upon implement houses, sugar mills, and whole- sale combines. The tendency toward neighborhood strife is a third accom- paniment of rural isolation. Scarcely a farm telephone sys- tem in the country has been installed without provoking local friction. Rural jealousy and the strong inclination toward indiscreet gossip are accountable for many of the unhappy relations existing in some communities. In more barbarous and primitive settlements this tendency is easily recognized, as in the long-standing feuds of mountain regions. Another outgrowth of these conditions is the existing, though much exaggerated, provincialism of farmers. Since the instal- lation of telephones, the rural delivery of mail, and improved methods of transportation have so revolutionized country life, this tendency is fast disappearing. Conditions that once mer- ited the appellations of "back-woods," "hayseed," and "coun- try," have vanished along with the moss-back farmer in blue overalls and slouch hat. That provincialism does still exist, however, is true. And nowhere is it felt more keenly than in the religious attitude of some farm communities. The feel- ing often manifested toward the teaching of such common scientific theories as evolution is an indication of this pro- verbial "narrow-mindedness." A fifth and most far-reaching effect of the social isolation of country life is the lack of organization among farmers, with an accompanying scarcity of leaders. This is the chief cause of the failure of farm life in so far as it has failed. There is little organized procedure in the country. Rural progress for the most part is accidental development rather than con- stant, purposeful, and steady growth. More attention will be given to the seriousness of this condition later. Solution of the Farm Problem. The solution of the farm problem — that is, the holding of a standard class of people upon the land — will be accomplished only when country life is 8 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL made adequately and permanently satisfying. Partial satisfac- tion, even financial prosperity, does not suffice. The wealth- iest agricultural states show even greater rural depletion dur- ing the last decade than poorer sections. In Illinois, which ranks first in farm values, rural population decreased in sixty- eight counties between 1900 and 1910. In Iowa, the total rural population decreased seven per cent during the same period. A significant aspect of this shifting of farm- ers is the rapid growth of tenantry and landlordism. For- ty per cent of the farms in the United States are now oper- ated by tenants. De- serted churches, poor schools, broken com- munities, and ofttimes poor farming, all de- clare the evils of this system. But it is not possible to discuss so large an issue here. Suffice it to say that no satisfying rural civilization throughout the history of agriculture has ever been constructed upon a system of tenantry and landlordism. The cornerstone of every successful rural social order is that land shall be tilled by those who own and cherish it. It is therefore apparent at the outset that solving the farm problem means holding land owners in An Abandoned Country Church Located in a tenant community in Illinois. Tnere are twenty-one other deserted country churches in the same county. Average value of land, $250 per acre THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION 9 the country. To do this it is necessary to make country life as satisfying as that of the town or city. That this can be done is exemplified in many country neighborhoods, but nowhere better than in the Clear Creek community in Putnam County, Illinois, which will be cited here for purposes of illustration. Country Community Building. In this community there is no dissatisfaction, no moving to town, and practically no rural problem, as herein defined. The people of the Clear Creek neighborhood, with but two or three exceptions, are all land owners, each man owning only what land he can per- sonally operate, usually from eighty to one hundred sixty acres. All are economically prosperous because scientific farming is the rule. The homes of the community, though by no means magnificent, are comfortable and attractive, and, like the farms, carefully planned and scientifically managed. But the distinguishing feature of this neighborhood, the mag- net that draws and holds contentedly about it some of the most capable men and women in the state, is a well-defined and roundly-developed community center consisting, of a consoli- dated school, a Grange, and a church. This school with its beautiful wooded grounds of twenty- four acres, its commodious, well equipped building, its well trained teaching force, and its excellent course of study worked out in terms of country life and affording instruction through an accredited high school, has attracted the attention of edu- cators and country life workers throughout the United States. A fuller account of its equipment and work is given in Chapter VIII. All that need be said here is that the John Swaney Consolidated School, to quote a committee of the National Education Association, "is probably the most ideal country school in the United States." Within a few rods of the school building stands the Grange hall, where twice a month for the past forty years Clear Creek people have met for social and educational purposes and have IO COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL discussed questions of agriculture and country life. 1 To the dominating influence of the Grange more than to any other single force is due the progress that marks this community. Grange influence has "developed leadership, has sustained a high idealism of personal integrity and social responsibility, and above all, has fostered the spirit of cooperation through which this idealism has been worked out and made tangible for community benefit. But the highest expression of personal and social idealism in the Clear Creek neighborhood is found in the little plain "meeting-house." This church of early Quaker establishment is a true community institution, demanding neither creeds nor doctrines and preaching religion in terms of country life. All who seek fellowship with God through magnifying the God- ship of men and cherishing "the worth of the native earth" are welcomed to its membership. From this and similarly successful instances it is evident that country life can be made satisfying, but that permanent rural satisfaction comes only through the harmonious upbuild- ing of the country community. Good schools, churches, effi- cient labor, social advantages, and all the attractions that draw farmers to the town or city are the result of community effort. The city, it is commonly agreed, has outstripped the country. In the last analysis this predominance is due chiefly to the greater degree of social-consciousness, or community-minded- ness, among city dwellers. Farmers as a class are intensely individualistic. As a consequence their communities are usually poorly developed and sustain fewer and weaker social institutions than are found in cities. Here lies the crux of the whole rural situation. Hence the significance of the com- munity idea in country life. Cooperation the Keynote in the Solution of the Farm Problem. Community building requires cooperation. If 1 For a fuller account of this Grange see Chapter IV. THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION II the community idea expresses the dominating need for the reconstruction of country life, cooperation, as most students of rural social life concede, then becomes the keynote in the solution of the farm problem. Efficient social institutions and the other satisfactions of modern life which draw country Friends' Church, Clear Creek Community, Putnam County, Illinois This church with a consolidated school and a Grange constitutes a strong community center people to towns are the results of cooperative effort. To bring these satisfactions to the country, farmers must put aside small differences, overcome their excessive individualism, and con- sistently work together for the highest good of the com- munity. Cooperation as used here implies four fundamental social 12 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL forces 1 which must become operative in the construction of every community. These are (a) education, (b) socialization, (c) organization, and (d) idealism. Agencies for the Upbuilding of the Country Community. As mediums of cooperation for setting these forces in mo- tion appropriate agencies are available in the country com- munity. These agencies may be roughly classified into two types : rural social institutions, and material means of rural socialization. Chief among the institutions serving this end are (a) the home, (b) the state, (c) the church, (d) the farm organization, and (e) the school. Among the material means of rural socialization may be cited telephones, mail de- livery, electric car lines, and especially roads, which have a tremendous influence upon rural progress and happiness. The reconstruction of the country community must therefore begin with the redirection and regeneration of these institutions upon which community welfare depends. Chief Functions and Needs of Rural Social Institutions. The initial step in the regeneration of rural social institutions is to determine their chief functions and needs. In this attempt the following brief statement, based largely upon President Butterfield's analysis, is offered: Home and family. The home as the fundamental institu- tion of society is always of first importance. Its primary func- tion is to provide proper nurture for the young. A secondary function of the home, now too rapidly disappearing, is its share in the education of children. These functions are better fulfilled by the country home than by the town or city home, though much improvement is still possible in both. The chief needs of the country home from the community point of view are: (i) vocational education on the part of women, affording training in home making; (2) the participation of women in 1 See Butterfield's The Country Church and the Rural Problem, Chapter II. THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION 13 community activities and outside affairs; and (3) the decrease of household labor so that some of the time and strength of women may be devoted to community work/ A fuller discussion of this theme is given in the succeeding chapter. State and government. The chief function of the state in upbuilding the local country community is to insure legisla- tive protection by making and enforcing appropriate laws, and to render industrial aid and class service, as in the main- tenance of state boards of agriculture, highway departments, and agricultural extension work. The most pressing needs in this line as revealed within the immediate farm locality are for more just and equitable legislation and an increased feeling of civic responsibility on the part of farmers. In this con- nection it should be acknowledged that for the injustice that obtains in this field farmers have themselves chiefly to blame. Only when countrymen make proper and effective use of the ballot will rural interests receive due legislative attention. Church. "The church," according to President Butterfield, "touches the highest point in the redirection of rural life," its function being "to perpetuate religious idealism in personal, family, and community life." A primary need of the church for realizing this large responsibility is to gain the com- munity attitude. By this is meant service and a feeling of responsibility for all in the community rather than for a select following of members. Other important needs of the country church are the application of the principle of federation and an interpretation of religion in terms of agriculture. Further ref- erence will be made to these points in a later chapter. Voluntary farm organisation. Under this heading are in- cluded farmers' institutes, granges, farmers' clubs, business cooperations, and all other organizations initiated by farmers. The chief common function of these voluntary associations is to conserve class power. Organizations of this type are good or bad, according as their motives lead to the selfish or the I 4 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL altruistic conservation of class power. A fundamental need of most voluntary farm organizations is for the community atti- tude. Both the farmers' institute and the Grange illustrate this need. The farmers' institute does not generally appre- ciate the significance of the social side of farm life, while the Grange usually seeks to serve merely its own membership rather than all who live in the community. A second special need bearing upon the success of voluntary farm organiza- tions is for increased publicity and attention. The farmers' institute reaches but one farmer out of twenty-five, while thou- sands of country people have never heard of the Grange. School. The primary function of the school is education. But since "all difficulties," according to the Country Life Com- mission, "resolve themselves in the end into a question of education," it follows as a logical corollary that the school may serve as a chief immediate agency for upbuilding the country community and making country life satisfying. The peculiar advantages and needs of the school for institutional leadership to this end will constitute the basis of a later chapter. (See Chapter VII.) It should be clear at this point, however, that the school can inaugurate progress through other institutions and along various lines. Through a proper atti- tude and efficient teaching the school can induce farmers' insti- tute attendance, can help establish granges and farmers' clubs, start campaigns for road improvement, impress the necessity of a scientific agriculture, and even promote a broader and more effective religion. It can, in brief, educate, socialize, organize, and idealize, thus setting in motion the four fundamental social forces of the rural community. Overlapping of Agencies in Function and Effort. From the preceding analysis it is apparent that no one institution expresses a particular or single social force, but that all over- lap in function and effort and participate more or less fully in the processes of educating, socializing, organizing, and mr/ety tests OF GRJI/VS, FORAGE CROPS FOOT CROPS /sr YEA ff- CORN Zm » -GRAIN 3*o » -CLOVER A VlA /srYEAR- GRAIN 2nd » -CLOVER 3 so » -CORN B V?A IsrYEAR- CLOVER 2m » -CORN 3*o » - GRAIN c AjV a . VlAr T&i*MIXEO FOREST PL01 b^V 79MSV //,«/ PUBL/C X0/1D Diagram of a Country Community Center Including school, church, town hall, and industrial plant. Reproduced here from Circular 84, Office of Experiment Stations 16 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL idealizing. This duplication and overlapping necessitates a working harmony among the different social agencies of the country community. To promote this spirit of harmony the federative idea must be applied. Federation of Community Agencies. By federation is meant the cooperation and concerted action of rural social agencies for community progress. Such cooperation on the part of rural institutions and forces is desirable not only because of their functional overlapping but because of the unity and magnitude of the rural problem. As already shown, the farm problem is one of many aspects dealing with the whole life of a social group and consequently requiring varied viewpoints. No one institution can do all. The church, the school, the home, the farmers' organization — each has a special task which no other agency can perform equally well. For this reason the work-share of each institution should be care- fully defined and individual programs of action developed. This necessitates the getting-together, or federation, of com- munity agencies and country life workers. Every division of territory, including not only the local community and the township, but the county, the state, and even the nation, per- haps, may well inaugurate the federative idea and hold occa- sional conferences on country life in which the viewpoints of the school, church, Grange, farmers' institute, business organ- ization, road association, and all other rural agencies are repre- sented. The great need is for workers and institutions which see the whole problem, and in this way only can a complete vision be gained. This book is chiefly an attempt to inculcate the federative idea into the country school and to show country teachers their relation to other fields. Further reference to the development of the federation movement is made in the last chapter. Platform. To summarize briefly and forecast the trend THE FARM PROBLEM AND ITS SOLUTION 17 and contribution of this volume, the following platform for the improvement of country life is offered : The fundamental problem of country life is the problem of keeping a standard people upon our farms. The solution of this problem is to be realized through making country life adequately and permanently satisfying. Country life can be made adequately satisfying only through the upbuilding of the country community. To solve the farm problem attention must therefore be directed to community building. The chief agencies for community building are the home, the state, the church, the farm organization, and the school. Of these, the school, because it is the agency of education, and because the whole farm problem is largely a matter of education, is best fitted for immediate institutional leadership, and most capable of initiating rural social progress. The school, in other zvords, makes the best and most generally available center for the upbuilding of the country community, In realizing this opportunity the school is confronted by several vital needs. The chief of these are a reorganization of the rural educational system upon the principle of consoli- dation, and, above all, well and specially trained teachers. A most direct attack upon the country life problem may therefore be made through the preparation of teachers for country school service. Succeeding chapters will deal, first, with the most impor- tant social institutions and agencies of the local rural com- munity, and, later, with some particular social aspects and needs of the country school. CHAPTER II THE FARM HOME The Farm Home as an Agency for Country Life Progress. Though the school, as just stated, may be the most influential agency working toward the upbuilding of farm life, the home, as the foundational institution of society, is evidently the most fundamental/ Even in the city, where the complexity of life has robbed it of many of its primal func- tions, the home is still preeminent. In the country this is especially true. The farm home is the center of all interests; it is the heart of the whole farm. Vocationally, this is neces- sarily so. Though much has gone from it in recent years, the farm home is still more complete in an industrial sense than any other institution of our modern social order. For many of the actual necessities of life it is practically self- sustaining. But this industrial self -sufficiency of the farm home has submerged its social limitations. It has perpetu- ated influences both good and bad, making farmers as a class not only independent and self-reliant but often conservative and narrow. Above all, it has fostered, in many cases, an unfortunate type of isolated, unsocial existence, resulting in unfavorable conditions which it will require years of earnest effort to alleviate. But socially, also, though less apparent, the farm home is the focus of interest. All social movements in any way re- lated to the welfare of country living must be rooted in the home. Its problems are all-inclusive. The school, the church, the Grange, and the farmers' institute, to gain life and perma- 13 THE FARM HOME 19 nency, must establish vital connections with it and consider its particular problems. The home, in other words, absorbs the efforts of all other socializing agencies and redirects these efforts into the lives of those for whom it is maintained. The influence of home life upon children is especially significant in this connection. The tendencies and ideals of thought and action acquired in the home during early childhood never quite forsake an individual. "There can be found no better nursery for the ideal of social progress," says Mrs. Ellen H. Richards, "than the home life of the farm." The question to be considered here, then, is the determination of the efficiency of the farm home as an agency for social progress. Are the majority of farm homes as good nurseries for such progress as they may become? If not, what can be done to make them so? Present Conditions in Farm Homes. For the purpose of this discussion farm homes may be divided into three classes : average, ideal, and inferior. Average farm homes. Undoubtedly, taken as a class, no homes contribute more to the vigor and wholesomeness of our national life than our farm homes. Nevertheless it is well for farmers, and all others, to recognize that vast improve- ment can be made in the present order of country living, and that the majority of farm homes will bear much further study. This study must begin on the physical side. Only through cor- recting the inconveniences of the farmhouse, using labor saving machinery, and instituting a better system of household management, can the country housewife further the higher interests of her family, and promote that idealism which char- acterizes true home-making. The majority of farmhouses are poorly planned. The whole general plan of the house in many cases is faulty, and the furniture is poorly selected and arranged. The kitchen, being the workshop of the house, should receive special attention 20 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL in planning, but in most farmhouses it is particularly incon- venient. Often one large room, that might better be made into two, serves the purposes of both dining-room and kitchen. Fre- quently there is no sink or other provision for running water. Usually all the cooking, even in summer, is done over a big, hot range. The living-room and the bedrooms also might often be made far more labor-saving. The heavy car- An Ideal Farm Home pets, curtains, and draperies with which these rooms are usually furnished in country houses are not only unsanitary but labor-producing. Frequently the lack of sufficient light and air throughout the house breeds moths, pests, and dis- ease, and adds to the work of the housekeeper. All these inconveniences add hours of drudgery to the work of country women and consume time that might otherwise be spent in enjoying some of the richer and more permanent experiences of life. THE FARM HOME 21 Sanitation demands far more attention also. The most harmful of the unsanitary practices perpetuated upon the farm surround the house where conditions for healthful living should be most favorable. Kitchen waste is often allowed to stand near the door in ill-smelling receptacles; back yards are poorly kept; and flies infest the house, polluting food in a most dangerous way. Dust-catching furnishings are still too common and the disease-breeding properties of dust too little heeded. Sanitary bathrooms with modern conveniences are not yet found in the majority of farmhouses, and conse- quently standards of personal cleanliness are lowered. In many homes a tightly barricaded parlor is guardedly cher- ished at the sacrifice of a bathroom, and it is evident that the question of relative values, as well as that of money, becomes a factor in the reconstruction of farmhouses. Out- side sanitary neglect of the whole farm further complicates the problem of household sanitation in the country. Barns are frequently too close to the house and their improper care is conducive to the breeding of flies. Outdoor toilets are at best repulsive things, and general neglect makes them one of the most serious sanitary problems of the farm. Wells, unless rigidly guarded, are often found to be absorbing the impurities of underground drainage, while swampy land, open rain barrels, and standing pools that are never kerosened, form excellent incubators for mosquitoes. The too-common practice of feeding carcasses to hogs and of leaving dead animals unburied is another most revolting and unnecessary infringement upon the laws of public sanitation and health. But of all neglect about the farm home none is more inex- cusable than poor ventilation. It would seem that in the country, where God's whole out-of-doors calls to man, no blessing could be so persistently rejected as are air and sun- shine in many rural households. Among farmers, in this case as in several others, reform is entering through the barn 22 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL door, and after dairy cows and horses are well provided for, attention will be shifted to the house and its inmates, and eventually some one will remember the country school. 1 Social, educational, and cultural conditions, which for con- venience will be grouped here under the general term spiritual- ising influences, have also improved greatly in farm homes during the last decade, but are even yet far from what might be enjoyed. There are still too many homes where the local newspaper represents the chief literary contact with the world; where neighborhood gossip, petty if not malicious, is the chief topic of conversation; and where the questionable party or dance and the Saturday trip to town represent the usual social diversions. In too many farm homes, even in this day of rich and varied opportunity, money is the god of life and drudgery its constant companion. Ideal farm homes. The country home shown here as a type of the ideal farm home happens to be located in Illinois, but its counterpart may be seen in any good agricultural section. Architecturally this house is well planned and con- veniently arranged. This is owing to the fact that the farmer and his wife planned it themselves, basing their demands upon personal experience and the laws of science. The new build- ing material, concrete, which is probably destined to cause many reforms in farm construction during the next few years, has been used for the walls of the house. Particular care has been taken to keep the exterior appearance simple and in harmony with its natural setting and the purpose for which a farmhouse is designed. The general plan of the house shows the highest degree of thoughtfulness and care. 1 Professor E. H. King of the State Agricultural College, Madison, Wisconsin, has issued a little book treating this vital question of ven- tilation for dwelling-houses, barns, and schoolhouses, which should be placed in every country school library, and might be read with profit by every member of the farmer's family. For publishers and cost see bibliography of this book, Section 4. THE FARM HOME 23 Not only matters of convenience but those of art and beauty, as applied through interior finish and decoration, have received special consideration. Telephones, gas lights, and running water, city conveniences that have come to the country and come to stay, add the finishing touches to this beautiful country home. The same thought and study manifested in the planning of this house can be traced in the arrangement of the grounds and the general management of the whole farm. The yard is large, but simply planted and well kept. Fields, barns, barn-lots, and farm buildings all show the expedient control of science, while mowed roads and trimmed hedges suggest an innate love of respectability and order in the make- up of the farmer. The point of emphasis in the study of this particular home, however, is the fact that the farmer and his wife are self-educated, having lived their youth before the days of special training, and that all this richness and fulness of life are maintained on a quarter section of land. True, the land is very productive, but much of its fertility is owing to scientific control. The possibilities of applied science in Amer- ican agriculture are scarcely realized yet even in dreams. Inferior farm homes. Standing in sharp contrast to farm homes of the average and ideal types are the inferior homes. These are to be found here and there in every com- munity, no matter how progressive, and their number is very much larger than commonly thought. Such homes are not often found among land-owners, but rather among the more shiftless class of tenants and in the overflow of humanity on the outskirts of cities and large towns. They are to the country what tenements are to the city, and their lot is appeal- ingly pitiful since land values have gone so high. Their pres- ence suggests "the country slum" sometimes mentioned in recent literature, and the hopeless despondency and fatalism of country life is nowhere more apparent than within their 24 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL walls. Though not, in most cases, a product of rural forces alone, nor particularly characteristic of country life, the responsibility for the care of these homes is upon rural social institutions and rests most heavily upon the school. Among farmers little personal charity is tolerated, but it is time, nevertheless, for more decided action for the betterment of this element of the rural population. The whole problem of An Inferior Farm Home A rented farm, the owner living in a city forty miles away. $250 per acre Land valued at such improvement, however, is based largely upon the adjust- ment of the farm labor problem, which cannot be further discussed here. The Improvement of Farm Home Life. The immediate need for the improvement of farm home life is for the better control and decrease of household labor. This in turn calls for the better planning and reconstruction of farmhouses and THE FARM HOME 25 the vocational education of country women. In this way only can the time and energy of farmers' wives be conserved for participation in community affairs and the spiritualization of home life. Household drudgery is unquestionably the chief cause of any lack of idealism and social-mindedness among country women. Four important needs for the improvement of farm home life suggested here, then, are as follows : 1. The decrease of household labor as effected through the remodeling of farmhouses, the use of labor-saving ma- chinery, and the practice of an improved system of household management. 2. The vocational education of farm women, preparing for home-making in its fullest sense. 3. The participation of country women in community affairs. 4. The spiritualizing and idealizing of farm home life. The Decrease of Household Labor. The necessity of re- ducing drudgery in the farm home cannot be too strongly emphasized. No other single issue has more bearing upon rural depletion and the general farm problem. The difficulty here, however, is not so much a matter of decreasing the quantity of labor, since this cannot be done beyond a certain limit, as of securing increased returns from the amount of energy expended. In this connection the remodeling of farm- houses requires much attention. This subject cannot be treated in detail in a book of this character. 1 But from common observation it is evident that farmhouses can often be so rearranged and refurnished that the saving of time and drudg- ery thus made possible will bring about a revolution in the character of the home life. The possibilities of farmhouse architecture to this end are well revealed in the following quo- 1 The remodeling of an old-fashioned farm house has been well worked out by a farmer's wife and described in a little book, The Healthful Farmhouse, which is listed in the bibliography of this book, Section 4. 26 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL tations from an address by Dean L. H. Bailey, given before the students of Cornell Agricultural College in 19 10. What a farm residence should be. By way of concrete suggestions, I will throw my statements into classified paragraphs. These sugges- tions apply to common farmhouses, rather than to the estates of country gentlemen. (a) The farm residence should fit the farm country. The house should be broad and low rather than narrow and tall. We need a type of farm architecture that seems to grow out of farming condi- tions. That is, the structure must look like a farmhouse rather than like a townhouse. (b) The house should be very simple in its general plan and con- struction. This is true of all houses, but particularly of country houses. The farmhouse should be condensed, whether it is large or small. The beauty of a building lies not in its external ornamentation, but in its proportions, its fitness to conditions, and in the materials of which it is constructed. (c) The ordinary farmhouse should have a very simple roof scheme, with as few valleys and peaks and flashings as possible. The beauty of the house should lie in its dignified and simple sky lines rather than in its complex and broken features. (d) The house should be planned to save steps to the utmost. The kitchen, dining-room, woodshed, and cellar should all be within easy reach of one another. So far as possible, the rooms that are daily used together or between which there is very much travel, particularly on the part of the housewife, should be on the same floor, with no steps up and down. We should so plan a house that the woman may be able to save much of her energy for other activities than merely those of housekeeping. (e) The house should be so planned and made that it can be easily cleaned. This means an absence of all elaborate spindle work, filigree, and also of heavy and upholstered hangings in the furnishings. Now that we are appreciating the relation of dust to health, we must take a new attitude toward the construction and the furnishing of residences. (f) The house should be constructed or remodeled with the idea of applying power to some of the household work, as to the laundry, pumping, eventually to the cleaning of the rooms, and to other labor. We have been applying power to the work of the farm and the barn, but we have not adapted it to any great extent to the work of the house itself, THE FARM HOME 27 (g) Every modern house should have water running into it and out of it. Within twenty-five years every good farm residence, and even many tenant houses, will be as well provided with water supply facili- ties as are city houses. Office in a Farm Home When fanning is regarded and managed as a business industry, offices will be common in farmhouses (h) The ordinary farmhouse must be planned in such a way that the members of the family can do the housework. I am sure that in many cases it is possible to reduce the work of keeping house by at least one-quarter or even one-third if the house plan is carefully studied with this idea in mind. 28 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL (i) You all know that most of the unexpected visitors to a farm- house go to the back door or side door. This means that the back of the house is to be as highly developed in some respects as the front. Perhaps it will mean in the end that there really is no "back" to the house at all, and that the establishment shall "face" all ways and have no unkept back yard. (j) The house must be provided with ample storage space. Gro- ceries are often bought in quantity. The winter's supplies are "put down" in the cellar. Ordinarily, the larger part of this storage is in the cellar or the attic. This necessitates many steps. It is a question whether a good deal of this material would not better be stored on the first floor with a place specially designed for it, like an enlarged closet. (k) The first floor and the cellar are the centers of the family activ- ity. The members of the family spend much of their time out of doors. This means that the first floor should not be approached by high steps from the outside, and also that washrooms and other service rooms should be on this floor and easy of access, and preferably near the farm-side entrance. (1) When additions are placed on an old house, care should be taken to have them match the style of the original. If left to the whim of the ordinary carpenter, additions to residences are not likely to present a suitable appearance. The use of labor-saving machinery in farmhouses is now so fully discussed on every hand that extended comment here is unnecessary. But the opportunity thus afforded of refer- ring to some sources of information on this point will be improved. A recent bulletin of the Department of Agricul- ture, entitled Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home, and another, entitled Possibilities of the Country Home, written by Mrs. Eugene Davenport, of Urbana, Illinois, from whom it may be procured, should be in the possession of every farm housewife. Both contain helpful advice concerning the best and latest farmhouse appliances. Of all literature yet issued upon the farm home, however, none is more valuable than the series of bulletins for farmers' wives put out by the Cornell College of Agriculture at Ithaca, New York. The only THE FARM HOME 29 regret concerning this splendid series is that they are restricted in distribution to the' state of New York. A more efficient system of household management is another important factor in decreasing the labor of farm homes. In the last analysis this reform is largely a matter of relative values and of scientific training. It takes a clear vision, capable of seeing beyond the four walls of the kitchen, to determine what things are most worth while, what things can be half done, and what things can be left undone ; but such an appre- ciation of relative values is positively necessary to progress and to the happiness of farm women. A chief difficulty of the farm home, likely suggested before now by those most familiar with the real situation, is the present scarcity of domestic help. No panacea for this trial has as yet been found, but in this connection the suggestion of the Commission on Country Life is worthy of attention. This looks to the establishment of cooperative community plants to which many domestic labors, especially those of canning, laundering, and possibly baking, may be relegated. The fact that hundreds of cooperative creameries are already estab- lished and satisfactorily disposing of the milk question seems to indicate large possibilities in the future development of this idea. Vocational Education for Country Women. This is essen- tial as the basis of all progress within the farm home. Coun- try women must know more of the science of the great task to which they devote their lives before much can be expected in the way of progress, even as the men must know more of the science of agriculture before marked developments can be realized in the cultivation of the soil. This knowledge should include not only house sanitation, decoration, cookery, and house management, but child-study, physiology, and some sociology and economics. The mother who knows only how 30 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL to feed her children is but partially prepared for her duties, and it is desirable that colleges of household arts come to realize this still more fully than at present. For country women, farmers' institutes and the "short courses" of agri- cultural colleges now offer some opportunity in this field of special education. But even these advantages are not always sufficiently appreciated. Inducing farm women to avail them- selves of these opportunities is a significant field of influence for the capable country teacher. £%*V s fc5 Home Makers' School, University of Illinois, Urbana The Participation of Farm Women in Community Affairs. Farm home life can never be sufficiently broadening until country women take a larger part in community affairs. If the home, as has been said, is to become a nursery for inculcating ideals of social progress, it must be directed by women who themselves possess these ideals. Such social par- ticipation will prove beneficial not only to children in the home but to country women themselves. Furthermore, it is essential to community welfare. The point of view of women is needed upon every question of community improvement and especially upon matters of educational and social relationship. The growing custom of putting women upon school boards THE FARM HOME 31 should be encouraged in both country and city, and women everywhere should realize their responsibility in this direc- tion sufficiently to master the feeling of reticence which often withholds them from such service. Professor Bailey in his recent book, The Country Life Movement, speaks as follows of woman's contribution to community progress: "On the women depend to a greater degree than we realize the nature and extent of the movement for a better country life, wholly aside from their personal influence as members of families. Farming is a co-partnership business. It follows, then, that if the farming business is to contribute to the redirection of country life, the woman has responsibilities as well as the man." The Spiritualizing of Farm Home Life. The spiritualized life of any home is the only true measure of its worth. All things should be made to contribute to this end. Immaculate housekeeping and household slavery are now understood not to be real home-making. The paramount problem in home im- provement is ever this question of its spiritualization. When houses are more convenient and relative values in housekeep- ing better understood, the spiritualization of farm home life will follow naturally. A further general solution to this problem may be formulated by saying that it is to be solved through the development of a greater appreciation of prac- tical possibilities. By this is meant embracing present possi- bilities as they may be met with better management and more wisely directed energy, not developing possibilities that require a large outlay of time, and money, and strength. This can be partially accomplished : 1. By acquiring increased scientific knowledge of home- making, as has been shown above. Only in this way can women appreciate the dignity, difficulty, and significance of what may otherwise seem a monotonous task. 2. By overcoming the existing tendency toward fatalism. 32 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL A peculiar fatalistic attitude of mind affects all farm people. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards in her article on the farm home in the Cyclopedia of Agriculture traces the cause of this tend- ency to the control of nature. But whatever the source may be, that such an influence does exist is plainly evident, par- ticularly in the more barren farm homes. For this fatalism must be substituted what some one has termed "the courage of science." This and the spiritualization of the common- place seem to afford the only immediate relief. 3. Through a better system of household management. This remedy has been briefly discussed above. Without fur- ther elaboration it may be re-stated that farmers' wives can do little spiritualizing until they have found some method of reducing the drain upon their time and strength, and, as a variable factor in this direction, household management should receive due attention. 4. Through enlarged opportunities for social, educational, and cultural improvement. These include all influences that broaden and sweeten life. Light, cheer, music, literature, pic- tures, conversation, and recreation, can all be made to con- tribute to this end. The necessity for better lighting facilities for the farm home needs special emphasis in this connection. Children naturally love light and beauty, and mothers would do well to remember that with the average boy a brightly lighted home will stand the competition of street lights in the nearest town far better than a dark and cheerless one. In this day of inexpensive production, every home, especially where there are children, should possess a musical instru- ment. Nothing is more restful than music, and even the simple little tunes played by the schoolgirl add harmony to the daily routine. Art, also, should be made to contribute more to the spiritualizing influence of the farm home. Good copies of the masterpieces of art are now so inexpensive that there THE FARM HOME 33 is no excuse for the gaudy calendars and enlarged photo- graphs so often found in the living-rooms of country houses. 1 Literature is perhaps the most spiritualizing influence of the average farm home, but much of the reading done in the country is of a desultory character. Too little attention is given to the upbuilding of systematically planned libraries. Books are often indiscriminately purchased from agents or at bargain counters and are carelessly thrown about the house until lost or worn out. A good library, one that means any- thing to its owner, is the product of years of development, and the fact that additions must be made slowly is in no sense a matter for discouragement. Outside the home, spiritualizing stimulation may be found in all the social, educational, and cultural influences of the school, the church, the Grange, and other social agencies designed to promote the common welfare. These are dis- cussed in later chapters. Travel, also, should be mentioned in this connection because of the cultivation of world interests it engenders. The Farm Home as the Center of Rural Interests. That the home is the center of all interests is usually acknowledged by workers in other social institutions, at least in theory. Grange workers, farmers' institute directors, country teachers, and ministers will all declare that they are making the home the center of their efforts. Yet in practice these good people seem to lose connection and often fail to attain the desired end. This is especially evident in the case of the church and the school. Our country churches do not have more than a fraction of the influence over farm homes of the present gen- eration that they might exert, and rural schools are failing mis- erably in their lack of adaptation to the vocational and home needs of country children. 1 For a list of pictures suitable for farm home decoration see the appendix of this book, Section 8. 34 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The work of the Grange and the press for farm homes. Probably no agency has done more in its established field for the home than the Grange. A good grange revolutionizes the home life of a community. Probably none does less at pres- ent, except for the savoring grace of its former influence, than the church. The rural press is another agency that is failing to realize its opportunities in this line. Every farm paper, it is true, keeps up a semblance of home interests in a column or so devoted to "making housework easy" or to petty correspondence, but little is done to reach the heart of the farm housewife's problems, and it is time for the scientific and appreciative development of such interests through agri- cultural papers. Farmers' institutes and the improvement of country homes. Of all agencies now working toward the betterment of coun- try life, none have greater opportunity for improving home conditions than the farmers' institute and the country school. Yet in neither case are these agencies doing a tithe of what they might do. If they were, farm home conditions would be better than they are at present. Still, the farmers' institute as an organization is doing much for the country homes of America. Through its women's sections, women's institutes, and housekeepers' conferences it is conducting a home-educational campaign heretofore un- known in the history of agriculture. Only two or three sug- gestions for the enlargement of its activities along this line can be made here, but institute workers would soon see dozens if they but centered their attention upon this phase of their problem. In the first place, the farmers' institute, though fundamen- tally concerned with questions of agricultural science, might well give more time to the problems of the home. What atten- tion the institute does give to home improvement is chiefly sci- entific information on cookery and dietetics. This is well- THE FARM HOME 35 directed effort but it is not sufficient in either quantity or content. Longer sessions and more systematic instruction in household science, and in other subjects also, might be provided through short courses or movable schools, as described in the chapter on farmers' institutes. In addition to this, the institute should develop new phases of home study, especially those phases relating to child-study and to the community relations of farm women. As another effort at rural home improvement, the farmers' institute might in some way establish model farmhouses, or even model farms, for demonstration purposes. An under- taking of this character need not necessarily be expensive. The institute need not own the land. In every rural com- munity can be found some ambitious young farmer who has married and settled down on a piece of land which he expects to make a permanent home. If such a young couple had scientific advice and counsel from agricultural special- ists and extension workers, they would in most cases accept it gladly and profit by it. Visiting agents might be employed by the county or state organization of farmers' institutes to conduct this work. For the farmer, instruction in the care of stock, soil, and general farm management, would be neces- sary ; for the wife, instruction in house management, cookery, and the rearing of children. Reading would naturally play an important part in such a system, but its chief basis should be personal visits and advice from the specialists employed. In this way the farm and the farm home selected might easily be converted into a demonstration of local possibility. One experiment of this character in every three or four townships would be sufficiently local to attract the attention of all the farmers of a community. Improving the farm home through the country school. While it is hoped that what is said here, and in succeeding chapters, is sufficiently related to the real conditions of the 36 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL country to prove of value to farmers and all others connected with country life, the chief concern of these pages, as sug- gested in the preface, is to assist country teachers by establish- ing a little more clearly the relation of the school to various other rural agencies. The connection between the school and the home is commonly acknowledged. So, too, is the responsi- bility of the homes of a community for the character of the Domestic Science in the Country School, Macon County, Illinois school maintained. The reciprocal responsibility of the school for the homes that support it is also acknowledged, but only remotely felt, and not yet realized. That the school, even the little ungraded district school, with all its limitations, can improve existing home conditions, however, in both a material and a spiritual way, is occasionally demonstrated by country teachers and is made the basis of this discussion. Naturally the influence of the school here as elsewhere must originate through the personal influence and energy of the teacher. THE FARM HOME 37 Three ways are suggested by which the country teacher, work- ing through the agency of the school, may help to improve the farm home. First, through suggestion, sympathy, and personal influence, the teacher may incidentally impart a great deal of knowl- edge to the farm women of the community. To carry this information into any home is a delicate undertaking. It must be done by one who has worked her 1 way into the very lives of the people, and whose training, position, and understand- ing are a preparation for the task. Such a leader must not only sympathize with the difficulties of farm life, but must possess a great charitable affection for the humanity with which she works. The opportunity of the country teacher for leadership in rural progress is considered at some length in a later chapter. It must suffice to say here that no individual in rural life can come so close to the hearts of the people as a good teacher. Her affection and devotion to the community and its faith in her make possible the greatest conceivable degree of personal, local leadership. As a second attempt at cooperation with the home, the teacher may introduce an elementary course in household science into the school curriculum. Few country teachers are at present adequately prepared to do this work, but even untrained teachers can accomplish a great deal in the way of stimulating thought and centering attention upon the problems of the home. Such a course need not begin in the conven- tional "domestic science" way. If we are to wait for the materials and preparation for which this method calls little will be done for a long time. In one school a teacher who had no materials, and but little training, worked out a suc- cessful course through her own initiative, founded wholly 1 Intimate experience has so ingrained the realism of country school conditions upon my point of view that I have disregarded the con- ventionalities of literary form, and shall refer to the country teacher throughout this discussion by the use of the feminine pronoun. 38 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL upon the needs of her particular community. A description of this course is given on page 244. A third effort for the development of an improved rural home life may be instituted by the country teacher through conducting some elementary extension work among house- wives and mothers. This may be done by organizing a little club among the women and older girls of the community. A home culture club, or a civic improvement association, or even a school parents' association, makes a good instrument through which to work. Such matters as those suggested in the course just mentioned may be considered as topics for discussion in this club. A reading course, also, may be made effective for this extension work. Some books for this pur- pose are listed in the bibliography of this book, and sources from which bulletins and valuable information may be gained are included in the rural progress directory. All this implies that the teacher as well as the mother must have a deep insight into the lives of those for whom she works and a genuine faith in the possible fulness and rich- ness of country life. Without this ideal little can be accom- plished. Every worker for rural progress must possess this vision of the future, though no one needs to see it more clearly or to cling to it more tenaciously than the country mother. The home is indeed the heart of the farm but the mother is the heart of the home. To no class of women in our national life is due more gratitude and consideration. They, more than all others, have sacrificed for the heritage we now possess. Into the farms of America men and women have put their lives; and others for generations to come will con- tinue the effort. That this life shall be relieved of much of its former drudgery and spiritualized through the social and industrial advancement of man is now the chief concern of the country school and of all other agencies working toward rural betterment, CHAPTER III THE COUNTRY CHURCH The Country Church as an Agency for Rural Progress. The country church question is in many respects the most baffling of rural problems. Small membership, poor attend- ance, inadequate financial support, and sectarian strife, all seem to indicate a lack of religion among farmers. Those most inti- mately acquainted with farm life, however, realize that this impression is false. Farmers as a class are especially in- clined toward religious thought. Their isolation, close con- tact with nature, and even the monotony of their work, pro- mote reflection and a spiritual attitude. The boy who trudges all day behind a plow ponders many things, and more hymns are sung over the hot ranges of farm kitchens than in the choirs of great cathedrals. Perhaps one of the first needs in the redirection of the church is a new definition of religion. Certainly a broader and more comprehensive interpretation of the term would at least prove helpful. Those who measure the strength of the church as a socializ- ing force in country life only by the number of existing churches and the percentage of church members make a grave mistake. The church as an agency of influence is much greater than this. Even unchurched communities are reli- gious, and the church in a broad sense is the social repre- sentative of all the religious and moral tendencies of every community, not only those expressed and avowed, but the unexpressed as well. 39 40 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL This interpretation is necessary to a true appreciation of the influence of the church as a rural social factor. In this connection it is well to remember, also, that the present loss of prestige on the part of the country church is neither funda- mental nor permanent, but only the inevitable result of its delay in adapting itself to recent social and industrial changes. The church has ever been one of the most conservative of institutions, and the status of the country church today is but an example of the condition any institution assumes when outstripped in progress by other institutions. The present is a period of marked transition in rural life from which the church and all other forces will emerge with renewed vitality. The country church, therefore, notwithstanding its present dor- mant state, is, and will ever continue to be, one of the chief socializing agencies of farm life. The Country Life Commis- sion, whose estimate of the present rural situation is undoubt- edly authoritative, emphasizes the social responsibility of the church very strongly, considering it "fundamentally a neces- sary institution in country life" and maintaining that it must be a leader in the attempt to idealize this life. The Present Status of Country Churches. Digest of country church information from the replies gathered by the Country Life Commission. Country church conditions vary in different localities quite as much as home conditions, and any attempt to generalize concerning them is equally hazardous. Moreover, few statistics are available for this purpose and but little could be gained from such a study if they were. Here and there in exceptional communities are found pros- perous country churches almost ideal in every way. In hun- dreds of rural localities, however, especially outside of New England, where the church problem is rather one of over- churching than of under-churching, there are no local churches, and church attendance in the nearest town, owing to road conditions and other causes, is irregular and infrequent. In THE COUNTRY CHURCH 41 other instances church buildings are old and dilapidated, con- gregations small, pastors underpaid, and all local church his- tory is but a pitiful story of the struggle for existence. Sun- day schools, upon the whole, are in better condition, but they too are invariably handicapped and at best render only inade- quate returns for the effort put into them. "Ten thousand church buildings," says a recent editorial in the Outlook, "are now out of use and repair in the United States, as an indication Church and Manse, Rock Creek Community, Menard County, Illinois This church is the center of a satisfying country neighborhood six miles from any town of changing belief and conditions, and ten thousand more ought to be out of use." Among the chief causes of this distress, as diagnosed by those who have made the most careful analysis of country church conditions, are overlooking and overlapping. By over- looking is meant neglect and the absence of church influence; by overlapping, the multiplication and existence of more sepa- 42 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL rate denominational churches than a community can support The one means too little church opportunity; the other too much. Unchurched localities are frequent in many sections, especially in the West and Middle West, and their condition is serious. But even the apparent paganism of such communi- ties is desirable to the friction and strife occasioned by over- churching or overlapping. The two factors of rural church decadence just cited, how- ever, though fundamental, do not reach the heart of the pres- ent situation. In this effort a consideration of the following statistics on ministerial salaries gathered by Reverend Edgar Blake of New Hampshire is suggested. These statistics are based upon the salary lists of the four leading denominations in New Hampshire. In this state two hundred nine churches do not raise over $500 each for this purpose, and of these one hundred fifty-eight raise less than $500; one hundred twelve raise less than $400; sixty-five raise less than $300; twenty- five less than $200; and a few less than $100. And in general, forty-one per cent of the four leading denominations in New Hampshire do not raise an amount for ministers' salaries equal to the wages of common labor. A special investigation of this question made throughout the Methodist denomination in 1910 shows that outside a hundred of the largest cities the average salary of Methodist ministers is but $573 a year. From these and numerous similar facts it is evident that the country church problem is an economic problem. The country church question and other phases of country life have not yet been sufficiently investigated to make general- izations possible. A momentous beginning has been made in this direction, however, through the work of the Commission on Country Life. A digest of the church information gath- ered from the 125,000 replies received by this commission has been compiled, and is reproduced here through the kindness of Professor Kenyon L. Butterfield, President of the Massa- THE COUNTRY CHURCH 43 chusetts College of Agriculture, and member of the Commis- sion, under whose instruction it was prepared. This digest furnishes the most reliable information concerning the present status of country churches that has thus far been deduced. What proportion of the whole population of the community do the churches hold and iniluence? Replies vary from i% to 100%. In the South, more than 66% of the whites, often 80% to 90%, are influenced. In the West, the average often runs under 50% ; sometimes very low. On the whole, from 50% to 60%. There seems to be a falling off in the East, perhaps more in active membership than in church influence. Are they gaining or losing? More are gaining than are losing. In the East, the losers and the stationaries are more numerous than the gainers. In the South, there is a decided gain. Nearly 33% are neither gaining nor losing in the East and Central West. There is some evidence that village churches are gaining, but that isolated country churches are losing. Where they fail, what are the reasons? The most frequent reasons are indifference, lack of earnestness and missionary zeal, inadequate preparation or inefficiency on the part of the pastor. Apathy, in- difference, commercialism, growing irreligion, or antipathy to the church on the part of those sought. But a large percentage speak of bad roads, sparse and poor population; lack of men and churches to cover the ground; irregular service; with fatigue, hard conditions of life, incessant toil, and insufficient clothes for church going. The churches often are in the towns ; in the West the country church is often an annex or appendage and all its energy is exhausted in a struggle to exist. Sectarian quarrels sometimes hinder; the attitude of the church on the amusements of the young, nurses antipathy in places; in the West, baseball, excursions, and Saturday night dances; in the East, the Sunday newspaper, the trolley, and the city amuse- ments, take many away. There is some foreign opposition where there is a mixture of races and not a church for each. As yet, there is little racial commingling in religious matters. The church often has no interesting message for the people; it does not get into their lives. Bigotry and worn out dogma do not draw men. The laymen are not enthusiastic in 95% of churches ; even church members do not train their children in church attendance, and they often exercise very little authority over them in religious matters. 44 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The floating tenant population and the foreign element, who care little for a strict Sabbath, tend to break down religious influence. The adverse influence of the renter in supporting the church, or any moral or religious community organization, is noted several times. Is the multiplication of churches, because of denominational divisions, a factor? In more than 66% of cases, perhaps, it is a factor. Some do not understand ; several think it does not touch the problem ; a few Play in the Rock Creek Community Scene from a Fourth-of-July celebration inaugurated by the church. The push ball for this game was made by the boys think it the biggest mistake in villages and small towns, especially in the West. Does it aid or hinder church work? It aids in a fair minority of cases. Competition stimulates ; there are too few churches to cover the ground (South and West) ; there must be at least a Catholic and a Protestant church, and one for each foreign tongue. It hinders in the major number; sometimes by sectarian prejudice, often by dividing the financial support. The South and far West re- THE COUNTRY CHURCH 45 port less hindrance than would be supposed. A few cases of federated or "union" churches are mentioned. What proportion of churches might be wisely eliminated by consolida- tion or federation ? The usual reply is 33% or 50%. A small minority- feel that 90% might be eliminated. The feeling that there is a growing harmony among denominations is manifest. What changes in church methods are required to meet present con- ditions? This is frequently answered by, "Can't say," or, "We want to know." Liberality; harmony; union; less doctrinal preaching; more talks on right living; emphasis on things of this life; sympathy with rural life; teach love of rural things; respect for law; Christian brotherhood to the children; the institutional church; men's and women's clubs; personal work — visitation; a church open week days; live pastors ; cooperation with schools, farmers' organizations and fra- ternal orders, are common suggestions. In the South, an educated ministry is the vital need. Sectarianism runs high, but it is not the fundamental weakness. Many think no revolutionary change is necessary; preach the Gospel of the Scriptures with earnestness ; renew missionary zeal ; consider the church an organ for community spirit; let the ministers be "coun- try" men of Christian spirit, and the church will revive. In general, the testimony impresses one with the idea that the needs of the country in this respect are not very different from those of the city. What are the churches doing for the community life — its educational, industrial, social, and recreational development? Almost nothing for the industrial ; a good deal for the social (in fact, all that is done, often) through organizations previously mentioned; frequently a good deal for the recreational and a little for the educational, chiefly by lecture courses and reading clubs. Very often nothing at all is done except in a social way. Many answer, "All they can do." What more could and should they do in these lines? Churches might provide attractive music and lecture courses ; become a center of social life open for community enterprises and gatherings of various sorts ; might organize educational classes and recreations after the Y. M. C. A. fashion; might teach cooking, hygiene and right living, and industrial economics for the whole community. More attention should be paid to the poor, to the outsider, to the young people, to the for- eigner and stranger. Some suggest churches with gymnasiums, bath- rooms, and rest-rooms. Several want pastors who live in the country. 4 6 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Many feel that the church can do no more, nor is it organized to do anything along these lines. How far are they responsible for the tendency away from the farm? Not at all, unless negatively, by not making country life attractive. To what degree, and how, do they actually influence the morals of the community ? They have a wide influence in the large majority of cases, often indefinable, sometimes weak. The precept and example of pastors and people are usually good. They stand for the best things. The best people belong to the church. They stand firmly against flagrant vice, sin, and lawlessness. The church is often the only organized moral force in the community. Pulpit preaching and Sabbath school teaching are strong forces for righteousness and morality in most communities. A few think the church has little influence in any way. Are the country clergymen properly trained for their work? In the majority of cases they are not. Presbyterians, Lutherans, Catholics, and Congregationalists are said to be men of good conventional edu- cation everywhere. // not, in what respect lacking? Deplorable ignorance in all respects in the South. Elsewhere, broad culture, knowledge of men and affairs, sometimes Biblical knowledge, and general education ; often tact, com- mon sense, agricultural knowledge; sympathy with farm life, energy, zeal, personal power as leaders, financial ability ; gumption ; occasion- ally they are morally unsound. Many complain that the country clergyman is a young man getting the experience necessary to hold a city church, or an old man who has been "shelved." "The country is not my home" for most of them, say some. There is evidence that the frontier missionary is better fitted for his work than almost any other man in the service. Other testimonies are : "They need more sociology, economics, political science, in place of denominational theology." "There are no men trained for country service." "They consider the country church a stepping stone, the sooner passed, the better." "I think 50% of the men who serve country churches have no sympathy with farmers or farm conditions, . . . and no sense of the trials that belong to farm life." "They need a thorough knowledge of the farm needs under present economic, industrial, and social conditions." What is the average compensation? In the South, from $50 to $800 per year; average about $500; very many have four to six churches at $50 to $150 per year each. THE COUNTRY CHURCH 47 In the East and far West, the compensation is from $500 to $1200 (a very few mention $1500) ; the average is about $800 to $1000. For the rest, the compensation runs from $400 to $1000; $600 to $800 on the whole. The manse is usually furnished in addition. Is this adequate ? Very few find it adequate to raise and educate a family on, and leave anything for a library. A good many think it is inadequate for the work to be done, but sufficient for the work that is done. Many communities want a minister "his entire time." In what way can there be improvements in these respects? Elim- inate, consolidate, federate, pay more and thus draw better men; revolutionize the finances, adopt the tithing system, or introduce sys- tematic giving; run the church by a business man on a business basis. Let the seminaries train men for country charges. Have country parsonages ; make the church more of a community agency, and more money and better men will come. There is a feeling that the well- equipped man will be paid adequately, but at present the good men go to the city; they have no sympathy with rural life. Some believe that cooperation of church and grange and school would help the situation. A few think that the whole denomination should aid in supporting the weak churches. Very many have nothing to offer. Ministers say they have been long engaged on this problem. Is the community fully able, -financially, to support adequate church work without outside aid? The community is able in 90% of cases. Sometimes the church membership is not. The tenancy problem enters here, and of course the number of churches, necessary or unnecessary. Many country churches receive aid from a central board. In a pioneer community and among the poorer districts of the South, some outside aid seems to be necessary. Several object that the money spent for bad spirits and tobacco in almost any community would lavishly support a pastor. What Is Being Done for Progress Church Federation. From the foregoing discussion it is evident that a plan designed to overcome the two evils of overlooking and overlapping, providing at the same time for financial difficulties, would be at least a partial salvation for country churches. Though not generally familiar to country laymen, such a plan known as church federation is now under way and well developed in some sections, especially in New 48 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL England, where it originated. By federation is meant simply the cooperation and working, together of churches for the com- mon good. In many respects it is a movement among churches analogous to that of consolidation among schools. Federation does not necessarily mean the renunciation of denominational principles on the part of those who constitute the new union. It means only the subordination of creed and doctrine, and the emphasis of common Christianity in an effort to elevate mankind by improving the social and spir- itual conditions of a local community. It means, in the con- crete, that instead of attempting to half maintain four or five unpaid ministers and struggling churches in one parish, the available funds and energy shall be consolidated and directed toward the decent support of one or two ministers and churches. Federation means, briefly, increased salaries for ministers, larger congregations and Sunday schools, bet- ter church buildings, increased social, religious, and civic consciousness, and a more Christ-like spirit of harmony and unity. Its fundamental element is the one needed in all rural progress, namely, cooperation. The report of the Country Life Commission contains the following statement concerning it : "This movement for federation is one of the most promis- ing in the whole religious field, because it does not attempt to break down denominational influence or standards of thought. It puts emphasis not on the church itself, but on the work to be done by the church for all men — churched and unchurched. ... It hardly seems necessary to urge that the spirit of cooperation among churches, the diminution of sectarian strife, the attempt to reach the entire community, must become the guiding principles everywhere if the rural church is long to retain its hold." Local church federation has been practiced unconsciously in the United States since the colonization of the country, but it is only recently that the federation movement has assumed THE COUNTRY CHURCH 49 significant proportions and become a state and national move- ment. To Maine belongs the credit of first instituting a state- wide movement for this purpose. This organization, known as the Interdenominational Commission of Maine, originated in the letter of a Methodist delegate, Reverend C. S. Cum- mings, to a Congregational Conference held in 1890, but was Federated Church, Proctor, Vermont In this church twelve different denominations worship peacefully not officially organized until the succeeding year. Every state in New England is now organized for church federation. The movement has spread as far west as Arizona, enrolling in all eighteen states. Of this number, Vermont, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island are most effectively organized. The New England states, through their mutual ties of similar indus- trial, social, and religious experience, have recently gone a 5° COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL step farther and organized a New England Country Church Association. Unique among the federated churches of New England, owing to the number of denominations included, is the Union Church at Proctor, Vermont. Here twelve denominations are united. Something of the significance of the spirit behind this movement may be appreciated by noting the variety of doctrine represented in this fellowship, which begins with Unitarians at one extreme and runs through the scale to Catholics at the other, including also Baptists, Free Baptists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Universalists, Christians, Con- gregationalists, Methodists, members of the Reformed Church of Hungary, and Friends. As a result of this union, the civic and religious spirit of the town has been greatly heightened, the finances of the church are in such admirable shape that a $35,000 marble building has been erected, and a capable minister has been employed and paid a worthy salary. To interpret this tendency toward union among churches properly, the reader should understand that these local mani- festations are but part of a great national movement in the same direction. This national movement is now centered in a body of appointed delegates representing thirty-two of the evangelical denominations of the United States and about eighteen million laymen, known as the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America. Biennial meetings of this Council have been held since 1908. Reports of these meetings are published in pamphlet form and may be obtained with other literature, as advised in the rural progress directory of this book. The development of the Federal Council of Churches is regarded by leading theologists and others who have most carefully measured its meaning "as the most Christian meas- ure ever taken in America." This organization now serves as a clearing house for church information and as a great cen- tral force for religious harmony and concentrated effort. THE COUNTRY CHURCH 5 1 Special Training for Country Ministers. In a series of lectures recently delivered before the students of Hartford Theological Seminary, President Kenyon L. Butterfield said: "I hold that the problem of the country church is the most important aspect of the rural problem. It touches the high- est point in the redirection of rural life. It sounds the deepest note in harmonizing the factors of a permanent rural civiliza- tion. It speaks the most eloquent word in the struggle to main- tain the status of the farming class." If this is true, and it seems to be the consensus of opinion among rural sociologists, it means that the country church must ultimately stand forth as the leading institution of rural life. The advantages of the country school for assuming immediate 'responsibility in a campaign for rural progress are advocated later in this book (Chapter VII), but this leadership is acknowledged a somewhat transitory function of the school, and it is clear that eventually the church must "sound the deepest note in a permanent rural civilization." The fulfilment of this opportunity on the part of the church, however, will require a redirected, energized rural ministry. The country minister must become a leader. For this leadership he has already some advantages not possessed by the teacher. For one thing, he is associated chiefly with adults and is usually less migratory than the present country teacher. He is thus in a position to be the key, not only to the country church problem, but to the whole rural situation. But such leadership on the part of the country minister neces- sitates not only scholarship but peculiar sympathy and insight into the experiences and problems of farm life, both of which are too often lacking. For many reasons, chiefly economic, for which they are by no means wholly accountable, country clergy, like country teachers, are too likely to be either the "back numbers" or the youths of their profession. The necessity of special training for country ministers is but 52 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL very recently coming to be recognized. This training when given will be analogous to that provided for country teachers, though perhaps less intensive and detailed. But the same argument holds for both — namely, that any leader or public servant, to be efficient, must understand the daily life of those for whom he works. And, since life is expended chiefly in the occupation whereby we live, it follows that country teachers and preachers must know agriculture and the social and eco- nomic conditions of farm life. This is positively fundamental. Both religion and education in the country must run into the affairs of everyday life. The Independent for August 26, 1909, summarizes the type of man and training needed in rural parishes pretty well in these words: "The minister of a country church ought to know more of what Jesus knew and of what Burbank knows ; that is, a good deal about the flowers of the field and about farmers' crops ; and he ought to know the science of agriculture right up to date. On a Sunday if it comes to a pinch between having his parishioners' hay get wet and his church get empty, why should he not put his manuscript in his pocket, take a hay fork in his hand and help his poorest parishioner secure his crop? This, at least, should be his comprehension of righteousness and duty." For much of the present neglect in this matter of special training for rural pastors the theological seminaries are undoubtedly accountable, just as state normal schools are accountable for the lack of special training among country teachers. Nowhere is the work of theological schools defi- nitely organized and planned to meet the specific needs of stu- dents who expect to enter the rural field. Indeed, the nucleus of the whole situation is that practically no students do pur- posefully and consistently plan to undertake rural work and make it a serious life study. The country parish is invariably regarded as a stepping-stone, the sooner passed the better. What the country needs most in the way of church improve- THE COUNTRY CHURCH 53 ment is a profession of country clergy who will study the prob- lems of rural life as carefully as city clergy now study those of urban life. But farmers must understand that such a profession, like the country teaching profession, can never arise until matters of economic support, which lie within their power, are satisfactorily adjusted through the principle of federation or in some other way. What special assistance is available for country ministers at present comes for the most part through country church conferences. Even this aid is still rare, but new instances are arising every month. Among the most significant of these conferences yet convened have been those held annually since 1908 under the direction of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture at Amherst. Here for the past three years d Conference of Agricultural Educators and Rural Social Workers has been called, preceding which a two weeks' course of lectures especially designed for country ministers is offered. This course is a part of the regular summer school of the agricultural college, and relates almost wholly to agriculture, and the social and economic aspects of farm life. The Department of Church and Country Life of the Pres- byterian Board of Home Missions. By far the most active and constructive agency for country church betterment that has yet developed is the Department of Church and Country Life of the Presbyterian Board of Home Missions. This department, under the scientific direction of Dr. Warren H. Wilson, has become practically a national clearing house for country church information and suggestion, not only for country churches of the Presbyterian denomination but for all others, and especially for rural social workers throughout the United States. Through the help of Miss Anna B. Taft, assistant superintendent of the department, the following com- prehensive outline of its work is possible here. The central thought of this department about which its 54 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL various forms of activity are correlated is an institutional pro- gram of action for the country church. This program consti- tutes the most thorough analysis of the present country church situation yet made. It has been worked out by Dr. Wilson and successful ministers from local rural fields who are coop- erating with the department, and indicates the general line of action and procedure which, through experience and actual test, has proved most direct and effective in solving the prob- lems of the country church. This platform, briefly sum- marized, advocates: The church as a center for the building of the community. The federation and cooperation of all the churches in the community in order to make the people one. The consolidation of rural schools for the education of young men and women for life in the country. The promotion of scientific agriculture in order to conserve the soil for our children. The production of an abundance for the consumer, and the keeping of the farmer's income abreast of the rising price of land. The leadership of the church in social recreation for the moral development of the youth and the workingmen of the community. Better living conditions in the interests of the future and the cherishing of the history of the community in memory of past days. Such ministry to the community that pauperism shall be excluded and the burden of poverty lifted. The preaching of the gospel of Jesus Christ all the time and in every community. Underlying this program of action is an important field of investigation and research. This work is carried on through rural sociological surveys. By means of these surveys all the conditioning factors of church welfare in a local rural com- THE COUNTRY CHURCH 55 munity are ascertained and made available for reference and guidance. Information relating to family life, household com- fort, methods of farming, schools, business, and other needs and conditions of the community life, are covered in this Exhibit of the Presbyterian Department of Church and Country Life Made at the Fourth National Corn Exposition, Columbus, Ohio, 1911 investigation, which includes not church members only but the total population of the whole community. These surveys are urged by the department as a necessary part of the work of every country minister. The inestimable value of such effort as a guide to action and policy is obvious. Local surveys of 56 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL this type, now obtainable in print, have been made in Illinois, Missouri, and Pennsylvania. Another activity of the Presbyterian Department is its pub- licity work. This is carried on through the press, through numerous church conferences, and through exhibits. The leaf- lets put out by the department from time to time constitute some of the best current literature on the country church ques- tion, and every country teacher and rural life worker would do well to request copies from the office in New York. Aside from this leaflet literature, many articles for the religious and general press, and monthly articles to over two hundred agri- cultural papers, are prepared and published by the officers of the department. The country church conferences just men- tioned are of two types, the extended "congress," two or three days in duration, and the "one-day country life institute." A sociological survey of all or some part of the territory involved precedes each congress and the results of this survey are shown graphically in an exhibit. But the most significant effort of the Presbyterian Depart- ment of Church and Country Life is its training of ministers for rural service. Special summer schools are organized for this purpose. These are held sometimes in theological colleges, though more generally in agricultural colleges. But wher- ever their location, an admirable blending of theology, rural sociology, and agriculture is always insured. The courses thus offered are in substance graduate courses for country minis- ters and are planned with the view of preparing leaders for the extension of the work and policy of the department. These leaders, or "country life organizers," in returning to their local fields, practice the country church program advo- cated by the department in their own churches, and, through addresses and local organizations otherwise cooperate with the national office for the promotion of better country church conditions. Over a hundred such organizers are now at work THE COUNTRY CHURCH 57 scattered throughout the various states. The value of this in- oculation is self-evident. Even from this brief account it is clearly apparent that most excellent service for country church progress is being rendered by the Presbyterian denomination through its Depart- ment of Church and Country Life. So efficient, in fact, is this service that it is to be hoped other denominations will soon institute similar departments for the benefit of their country churches. 1 County Work of the Young Men's Christian Association. Another movement doing effective work for the progress of the country church and the improvement of rural religious conditions has been instituted through the County Depart- ment of the Young Men's Christian Association. Of this agency and its work in rural communities, the Country Life Commission says: "There should be a large extension of the work of the Young Men's Christian Association into the rural communities. There is apparently no other way to grip the hearts and lives of the boys and young men of the aver- age country neighborhood. This association must regard itself as an ally of the church, with a special function and a special field." The general organization of the work which is here so highly commended embodies national, state, county, and local units. The responsibility rests chiefly upon the secretaries of these various units, who in most cases are men of special training and keen insight. The central office is located in New York, at 124 East Twenty-eighth Street, with Mr. Albert E. Roberts as International Secretary. Each organized state then has its central state office and state secretary to super- vise the local, city, village, and township associations. This whole organization is based upon the principle that what is 1 The Methodist Church has just established such a department at its last general conference (1912). 58 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL done for men and communities is likely to weaken them, but what they do for themselves is sure to strengthen. In har- mony with this doctrine the chief function and golden rule of the County Work of the Young Men's Association has become "the discovery, enlistment, training, and direction of volunteer leaders/' Herein lies the secret of the success of this movement, which in this way reaches down to the very heart of the rural social problem, fixing its attention upon 1 i!% a » ,iUI* M County Work of the Young Men's Christian Association some guiltless Cromwell and developing his latent abilities into powers of leadership and direction for the benefit of his community. The significance of work of this character cannot be too strongly emphasized. What farmers need today is not imported leadership, but the inspiration and direction that will develop their own talent in this line. Fifty-three counties in twenty-three different states and Canadian provinces have been organized under the County Department of the Young Men's Christian Association, and THE COUNTRY CHURCH 59 about 25,000 young men and boys are enrolled in its six hun- dred local organizations. Among the states best organized are New York, Michigan, Iowa, Ohio, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Minnesota. This department seeks to quicken not only the religious but the social consciousness of its mem- bership, and like other far-seeing agencies is working toward the cooperation and federation of all rural forces. The peculiarity of its influence in overriding denominational bar- riers and furthering the progress of church federation is especially worthy of notice. Sociologically, this is one of the most significant aspects of the movement. Leaders vary in degree of efficiency, but upon the whole the work of the County Department is splendidly adapted to meet the needs of country boys and to fit the demands of each particular group. In general, where properly organized, it is four-fold, and the boys understand that they must support equally well religious, social, educational, and physical activi- ties. Meetings of local associations are held usually once a week, and at each meeting at least twenty minutes of Bible study is required. The physical, social, and educational work, consisting of athletic meets, play festivals, summer camps, com- petitive games, educational excursions, debates, contests, sup- pers, socials, and similar activities, makes a strong appeal to the average boy and suggests a happy solution of the problem of recreation for country boys, which, in turn, will go a long way toward solving the much discussed problem of rural mi- gration. A little magazine, Rural Manhood, especially devoted to county work and the interests of the farm, is now issued monthly by the Young Men's Christian Association from the central office in New York. The standards of this maga- zine are excellent, and it has come to fill a much-felt need. Another undertaking of Young Men's Christian Association 6o COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL management is the promotion of special summer schools at three different points, particularly at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, for the training of leaders and secretaries. A similar work for country girls, now being instituted through the energies of the Young Women's Christian Asso- ciation, but as yet somewhat less fully developed, must be passed over here for lack of space. In principle of organiza- tion and method, however, this work is practically analogous to that of the Young Men's Christian Association. What Might Be Done for Progress It is scarcely the province here to point out what may be done for progress in the trying situations that confront the country church today. The seriousness of this problem is now engrossing the attention of some of the best minds in the nation. Yet some things are so evident in the light of the information which has just been presented that any observer might sug- gest a few lines of advance. In general, it may be said that what is needed is more of the good work now in opera- tion. The country church needs more federation and coopera- tion, more money, more of the spirit of the Young Men's Christian Association, better educated ministers, and more well-directed leadership. A great incongruity exists between the amount of this kind of work done and the amount to be done. Those who know the actual situation well realize that the lines of progress pictured in this chapter are not universal They are, in truth, only the scattered threads of a movement toward progress that locally is just becoming conscious and purposive. General Lines of Progress. The great opportunity of theo- logical schools for extending their courses and conducting con- ferences to meet the needs not only of students preparing to enter the rural field, but of clergy already at work in it, has been indicated. A similar opportunity on the part of THE COUNTRY CHURCH 6l agricultural colleges to respond by adapting and offering courses in agriculture for the special benefit of the rural ministry has also been suggested. But the work should go even further than this. Each state, through some of its edu- cational institutions or voluntary organizations, should hold annual rural progress conferences, similar to those now under- taken in Massachusetts and Illinois (see pages 309 and 318) in which the various rural social forces of the state are repre- sented, with the church receiving its share of attention. Probably the most urgent need in the way of organization for country church progress, however, is for the establish- ment of state federations, or other state-wide interdenomina- tional associations, for country churches. An active, well- directed state federation of churches in every state in the Union would work wonders for Christian unity and helpful- ness. These organizations should serve not only as clearing houses for information, but as central advisory boards and sources of local inspiration and stimulation, as already illus- trated in New England. To supplement and assist these state federations each denomination might well establish a special national department for the consideration of the country church problem as has already been done through the Presbyterian Department of Church and Country Life. The opportunity of the rural press, especially of the older and more influential agricultural journals, for putting the country church issue before the farming population is another self-evident advantage for assistance as yet but slightly improved. Reforms of this proportion, however, though sure to come eventually, are somewhat remote, and in the meantime nothing can do more in furthering the interests of the country church as a social institution than the farmers' own organizations, the Grange and the farmers' institute. Neither of these agencies, and especially the Grange, which is forbidden to become involved in religious controversy, can afford to touch this 62 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL question in a narrow, sectarian way, but both might well con- sider it from a large, sociological viewpoint. If the church, as is so often declared, is to become the leading social insti- tution of the rural community, certainly such discussion is not only legitimate but necessary. Possibilities for Progress in the Individual Local Church : Story of the DuPage Presbyterian Church in Will County, Illinois. The best place to begin with reform in the church, as elsewhere, is at home in the individual local church. More can be done here than is commonly realized. The chief need is for well-directed leadership. This gives the country pastor the coveted opportunity for service which he seeks so eagerly but so often overlooks. If the church is weak and needs to cooperate with another, as it probably does, action need not be delayed until some superior authority recommends union. ''The truest and best beginning of any enterprise of church federation," says Reverend George Frederick Wells, of the Federal Council of Churches, "must be in the individual com- munity." In many places people have never considered the possibility of forming a union church, simply through lack of thought and information. If a community is narrow-minded and petty, and uninformed on opportunities for progress, whose fault is it more than the minister's? Aside from federation, the work of the country pastor must look to the upbuilding of an institutional or social- service church. Institutionalism should not be overdone in the country because habits of cooperation, rather than those of individualism, need to be established among farmers. Care must be exercised at all times, therefore, to keep the whole church unified, no matter how many clubs, leagues, societies, and organizations cluster under its roof. When this is done, the more activity developed the better. One of the most ideal local country churches in the United States is the DuPage Presbyterian Church, near Plainfield, Illinois. This THE COUNTRY CHURCH 63 church is a true country church, being located out on the open prairie six miles from any town. Reverend Matthew B. McNutt, the efficient minister who is chiefly responsible for the unusual developments that have occurred here during his twelve years of residence in the community, is a leader among men and has already found a national reputation thrust upon him because of the helpful suggestion of his service. The The DuPage Presbyterian Church, Will County, Illinois personal account of his work as quoted here from a leaflet issued by the Young People's Missionary Movement of the United States and Canada will be a revelation to many. I resolved first of all, when I went to DuPage, that I would get next to the boys and girls ; that I would make that old church a great center of attraction. Notice I did not say the great center. I do not believe in the church attempting to do everything or trying to do things that might better be left to other institutions. But I would 64 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL make it a great center of attraction; a hub of joys, of happy memories and associations for that entire community. I determined, with God's help, to make it an indispensable institution to every man, woman, and child within its reach. I set to work, first, and organized an old-fashioned singing school. It might have been anything else just as well — a class in scientific farming, animal husbandry, domestic science, or nature study. I chose the singing school because I had some knowledge of music. The idea is to have something that will afford a point of contact between the leader and the people, and also to get everybody inter- ested in doing something. The singing-school met one night in the week, in the church. There was some good musical talent among the young folks and this new enterprise proved to be a great hit. Out of it grew a good strong chorus choir, a male quartet, a ladies' quartet, an orchestra, and some good soloists. Besides, it improved the singing in the church and Sunday-school a hundred per cent. Next we started what we called a gospel chorus. We got some live new song books and went singing around from home to home. At first some of the people were a little shy of the gospel chorus, but soon they were vying with each other to see who could secure these singers. The chorus went to the homes of the aged who were too feeble to come to the meeting-house. It sang for the sick. It sang in the homes of those who never heard any other music. An athletic association already existed. We encouraged the boys in their field-day sports. Two or three baseball teams were organized. We played successfully many of the surrounding towns including Chicago. We never challenged the Cubs but we did challenge a team from the Fullerton Avenue Presbyterian Church, Chicago, and beat them on our grounds one Fourth of July, 20 to o. The church building was not suited for social gatherings, so a series of sociables was planned at the different homes. These were not the money-making kind; they were sociables indeed. The older people often attended and engaged in the play with the young folks. Refresh- ments were served free. At these gatherings special attention was given to strangers and to the backward boys and girls, and a few of us always had upon our hearts those who were not of the fold of Christ. They grew to be a sociable lot of folks, I tell you! They became well acquainted. And such fellowships ! Such friendships ! Such companionships ! And all centering around the church. The women of the parish had long had a missionary society. One of THE COUNTRY CHURCH 65 the mothers said to me one day, "Pastor, don't you think it would be a good thing if we had some kind of a little social circle for our girls? They are just aching for something to do." I said, "Yes, let us have it." She invited them to her home one afternoon and nine responded. They had a delightful time and they called themselves "The Girls' Mission Band," deciding to meet thereafter once a month. In these little gatherings were combined devotional, social, and educa- tional work, and club features. After the program they would sew and make garments for the poor in the city. A meal is always served at these meetings by the hostess. The "Band" grew and so did the girls. When they became women they changed the name of the Band to "The Young Women's Missionary Society," which now has nearly forty members. As the young women marry, they are transferred to the Women's Society. A similar work was begun for the young men. It is simply the young men's class in the Sunday-school organized, and is called "The Young Men's Bible Class." It has upwards of fifty members. This class meets every Sunday morning with the Sunday-school for Bible study and is taught by the pastor. Besides, it meets the first Tuesday of each month for fellowship, fun, business, devotions, and for literary and social purposes. Much has to be combined in one meeting, because it is difficult for people to get together very often in the country. This class, and the Young Women's Class have become the strong right arm of the church. We are now selecting our teachers and officers for the Sunday-school and church from them. The young men conduct a lecture course, not for pecuniary profit, but for the sole and only purpose of furnishing wholesome entertain- ment for the community. We have had some hundred-dollar attrac- tions. The entire community patronize this lecture course without exception and regardless of creed. The Catholics and the German Lutherans attend. People from the surrounding towns are frequently seen in the audiences, driving sometimes ten miles or more. Another enterprise which the young men's Bible class has introduced and supported is a bureau of publicity. The boys invested in a small printing press. They, with the assistance of the pastor, do all the church printing and issue a local church paper. This class has developed some very good speakers and singers. Under its auspices open-air gospel and song services are held in a grove in the summer time and in the public schoolhouses in winter. These meetings have been a great blessing to the young men as well 66 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL as to those to whom they minister. In the pastor's absence on Sunday his Bible class has frequently taken charge of the service, three or four of them giving short gospel talks. Our Sunday-school is well organized and graded and has three hundred members including the Cradle Roll and the Home Department. This church has learned the value of inspirational meetings. Two principal ones are held each year. One takes place on New-year's eve, when the whole community, old and young, gather at the church as one family to watch the old year die and to welcome in the new. This is 1 1 i-^ -8 ^ " • ' "'■ ' x«» «h^ "icj?^^ P-, » , ,.- --.^j|? Lecture Course Audience at the DuPage Church no common "watch service." The evening is planned to overflow with good and interesting things. The other great inspirational meeting is held at the close of the church year. It is an all-day meeting, and the whole countryside turn out to help round up the year's work. The ladies serve a banquet at noon, free of charge. There is always good music on these occasions and two or three good participants from outside supplement the home talent. These big meetings are a great uplift to the country people. They promote friendship and good fellowship, and the dead-level gait always receives a severe jolt. THE COUNTRY CHURCH 67 Other inspirational meetings are held for particular organizations in the church. The Young Men's Bible Class held one not long since, attended by one hundred young men. Eventually this church outgrew the old building, and it rose up and erected a new one, costing, including furnishings, $10,000 in money and the equivalent of another thousand in hauling which the farmers did gratis. Practically all the money was subscribed before a shovel- ful of earth was moved for the foundation. No offering was taken at the dedication for building purposes or for furnishings. Every person in the community was given opportunity to help build the new church. And all responded heartily. The Catholics and German Lutherans contributed to the building fund and helped to haul the materials. The new structure is Gothic in design and is built of brick. The interior is finished in red oak. A handsome fresco in water-colors adorns the walls, with panels of burlap below the surbase molding. This with the beautiful art glass windows gives the interior a most- pleasing and homelike appearance. The floors are covered with cork carpet. The main auditorium has a bowl-shaped floor and seats three hundred people. The assembly-room of the Sunday-school apartment, which is separated from the auditorium by accordion doors, has an additional one hundred and fifty sittings. There are fourteen rooms in all, including a number of classrooms, choir and cloak rooms, toilet, pastor's study, vestibule, kitchen, dining-hall, cistern, and furnace and fuel rooms. The building is heated with hot air furnaces and lighted with gas. A system of water-works supplies water wherever needed about the building. A library has been started which already has a thousand volumes. It is purposed to put in a line of reference books. A number of study courses are being planned in scientific agriculture, civil government, sociology, nature study, and domestic science. There have been no evangelistic services in this church by profes- sional evangelists for ten years. Formerly, this was a favorite method. But there is not another ten year period in the history of the church that shows as many accessions as the last decade. The Country Teacher's Attitude and Relation to the Church Question. The attitude of the country teacher toward church interests may be expressed from two points of view. As a member of the community she must participate in the local church interests of the immediate neighborhood; 68 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL as a leader and student of rural social conditions she must give thought and study to the country church problem as a whole. Ordinarily the first of these requirements is well ful- filled by country teachers. It is rather as to her attitude as a student of rural social progress that the average country teacher needs enlightenment on church matters. Here the difficulty has been not only a lack of consciousness, but a lack of information and assistance. In the few words devoted to the consideration of this aspect of the problem no greater service can be rendered than that of suggesting connections through which this information may be obtained. Much good thought on this subject may be gathered from current period- ical literature. Some of the best of these articles selected with the needs of country teachers particularly in mind are listed among the church references in the bibliography of this book. Those who hope to effect some definite local reform, however, will need further information. It will be necessary in the first place to know something of the latest development in rural church federation. To keep in contact with this movement address a letter to the secretary of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, as directed in the rural progress directory of this book, request- ing a copy of the report of the last conference and stating that special information is desired upon country church federa- tion. As a general clearing house for information upon coun- try church progress and for numerous leaflets, address Dr. Warren H. Wilson, Superintendent of the Presbyterian De- partment of Church and Country Life, at 156 Fifth Avenue, New York. Country teachers living in states now organized for church federation should by all means keep in contact with the devel- opment of the movement in their own state, and those living in states not yet organized should inform themselves con- cerning the federative idea so as to hasten the approach THE COUNTRY CHURCH 69 of better harmony and saner cooperation among the various denominations. Officers of these state federations and of other country church organizations may be found in the rural progress directory of this book or may be obtained from the Federal Council of Churches. Because of its pedagogical suggestion and efficient leadership, if for no other reason, every country teacher should study the work of the County Department of the Young Men's Christian Association. Com- munication with this field of activity is easily possible. A let- ter to Secretary A. E. Roberts of the International Commit- tee, at 124 East Twenty-eighth Street, New York, will bring a copy of the county work register, from which the address of every state and county secretary may be obtained. Corre- spondence with these officers will bring leaflets, bulletins, and other information which may be further supplemented by subscribing for Rural Manhood, the official publication of the Association. Another reference of the utmost importance for country teachers is the official Report of the Country Life Commission. Those who do not already possess a copy of this document should immediately send ten cents to the Government Print- ing Office at Washington and secure one. The full significance of the work of this Commission is not yet half realized among farmers. It means nothing less than a revolution in future country life, and has already ushered in the dawn of a rural renascence. Special attention is given to rural religious con- ditions in this report, and the few pages devoted to the con- sideration of the country church constitute the best summary of its status and social influence yet published. The Coming Unity Among Churches. It is the general impression that farmers as a class are extremely sectarian. That this is frequently true in individual instances must be confessed; but, upon the whole, farmers are more liberal- minded in matters of religion than is commonly realized. jo COUNTRY tIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL True, the old farmer was conservative in all things. His environment made him so. But the new farmer is a man of marked spirituality and generous charity. These new farmers and the non-church farmers, many of them, are people who are ready for a new type of religion ; who have outgrown all petty creeds, and are only waiting to welcome the religion of common humanity. Just what this religion of the future shall be, the creeds or articles of belief it shall possess or not possess, cannot now be determined ; but those who believe in its ultimate triumph and in the responsibility of the country church for fostering its spirit will be glad to read in conclusion the following sentences from a sermon on "The Coming Unity," by the Reverend Charles F. Aked, for- merly of New York: "I conceive the church of the future as taking from all the churches, absorbing the best for which all the churches have always stood, losing nothing that has been worth retain- ing, and doing in her sphere in America what America does in her own. As America has not lost in producing in the American that which is best in the Englishman or the German or the Hollander, so the church will not willingly lose the Episcopalian's reverence for order, the Presbyterian's demand for accuracy, the fire and fervor of the Methodist, or the con- tribution of the Congregationalist and Baptist to civil and religious liberty. And the product will be not an Episcopalian Baptist, or a Presbyterian Methodist, but a Christian, without adjectives and without limitations, heir of all the churches in the foremost files of time. "... And since I have said these things, I may as well go on to tell you a dream of mine. It is only a dream, and perhaps no sufficient number of persons are dreaming the same thing at the same time to afford any hope that it will materialize. 'The dreams that nations dream come true and shape the world anew,' but perhaps the dream of an individual THE COUNTRY CHURCH 71 counts for nothing. Yet, though it is only a vision, I will cherish it. For I have dared to dream of some great temple of the Living God wherein shall gather for worship all good men and good women who desire only to worship in spirit and in truth. It shall not be Protestant or Catholic. It shall not even be Aryan or Semite. It shall be built, if you like, by a Christian and endowed by a Jew. It shall learn from the prophets of every name whom God has sent to every age and people. It shall hold fellowship with all who have purely lived and bravely died. It shall unite all who love for the sake of all who suffer. In this temple of my dreams many shall come from the East and from the West and sit down with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ; and the children of the Kingdom, howsoever called, shall in no wise be shut out." CHAPTER IV THE GRANGE The Grange as an Agency for Country Life Progress. The Grange is an organization among farmers for social and educational advancement. Its official title is Patrons of Hus- bandry. Though thousands of farmers know nothing of the Grange, other thousands fully appreciate its advantages, and it stands preeminent today as the representative of American agricultural interests. For this reason all country teachers and farmers should know of its purpose and work. Origin and Purpose. The Grange was conceived and founded by Oliver H. Kelley, a native of Boston, who set- tled in Minnesota in the later forties. Mr. Kelley wrote extensively for the agricultural press of his day, and through his writing and general initiative earned a reputation as a leader of agricultural thought. In 1866 he was selected by the national government to make a tour of inspection through the devastated South for the purpose of gaining a knowledge of the conditions and resources of that section. What he saw convinced him that agricultural cooperation was the medium through which peace and harmony would ultimately be restored. Soon after his return he interested six others in the new idea, and the "seven founders of the order" then per- fected and completed the plans of the Grange. Its original purpose was twofold: To advance the cause of education among farmers, and to cultivate a spirit of peace and brother- hood between the North and the South. The second of these needs has passed, but the first is innate in social life and is 72 THE GRANGE 73 the rock upon which the Grange continues to exist. In the very beginning the new order assumed national proportions, for in 1867 the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry was organized, and has ever since continued to hold annual sessions. The best conception of the purpose of the Grange can be gained through a study of its Declaration of Purposes, which was adopted early in the history of the order, and is still in force : United by the strong and faithful tie of Agriculture, we mutually resolve to labor for the good of our order, our country, and mankind. We heartily endorse the motto : "In essentials, unity ; in non-essen- tials, liberty; in all things, charity." We shall endeavor to advance our cause by laboring to accomplish the following objects: To develop a better and higher manhood and womanhood among ourselves. To enhance the comforts and attractions of our homes, and strengthen our attachments to our pursuits. To fos- ter mutual understanding and cooperation. We propose meeting together, talking together, working together, buying together, selling together, and, in general, acting to- gether for our mutual protection and ad- vancement, as occasion may require. We shall avoid litigation, as much as possible, by arbitration in the Grange. We shall con- stantly strive- to secure entire harmony, good will, and vital brotherhood among ourselves, and to make our order per- petual. We shall earnestly endeavor to suppress personal, local, sectional, and national prejudices, all unhealthy rivalry, all selfish ambition. Faithful adherence to these principles will insure our mental, moral, social, and material advancement. For our business interests we desire to bring producers and consumers, farmers and manufacturers, into the most direct and friendly relations possible. Hence we must Oliver H. Kelley Founder of the Grange 74 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL dispense with a surplus of middlemen, not that we are unfriendly to them, but we do not need them. Their surplus and their exactions diminish our profits. We wage no aggressive warfare against any other interests what- ever. On the contrary, all our acts and all our efforts, so far as busi- ness is concerned, are not only for the benefit of the producer and con- sumer, but also for all other interests that tend to bring these two parties into speedy and economical contact. Hence we hold that transportation companies of every kind are necessary to our success, that their interests are intimately connected with our interests. We are opposed to such spirit and management of any corporation or enterprise as tends to oppress the people, and rob them of their just profits. We are not enemies of capital, but we oppose the tyranny of monopolies. We long to see the antagonism between capital and labor removed by common consent, and by an enlightened statesmanship worthy of the nineteenth century. We are opposed to excessive salaries, high rates of interest, and exorbitant profits in trade. We shall advance the cause of education among ourselves and for our children, by all just means within our power. We especially ad- vocate for our agricultural and industrial colleges that practical agri- culture, domestic science, and all the arts which adorn the home be taught in their courses of study. We emphatically and sincerely assert the oft-repeated truth taught in our organic law, that the Grange — national, state, or subordinate — is not a political party organization. No Grange, if true to its obliga- tions, can discuss political or religious questions, or call political con- ventions, or nominate candidates, or even discuss their merits at its meetings. We always bear in mind that no one, by becoming a Patron of Husbandry, gives up that inalienable right and duty which belongs to every American citizen, to take a proper interest in the politics of his country. On the contrary, it is his duty to do all he can in his own party to put down bribery, corruption, and trickery; to see that none but competent, faithful, and honest men, who will unflinchingly stand by our industrial interests, are nominated for all positions of trust; and to have carried out the principle which should always characterize every Patron, that the office should seek the man and not the man the office. Last, but not least, we proclaim it among our purposes to inculcate THE GRANGE 75 a proper appreciation of the abilities and sphere of woman, as is indi- cated by admitting her to membership and position in our order. History. The first grange in the world was organized April 1 6, 1868, at Fredonia, in Chautauqua County, New York. It is still alive and thriving. From the little group of early pioneers in New York, the new order spread in all * ;%» ^~% «... * -*-4 ■"•»■*■ ■■» IWMlllIt ■ Centerville Grange Picnic, Winnebago County, Illinois directions. Its early growth was so phenomenal as to be almost fatal. In the year 1873, over 27,000 granges had been established in twenty-eight different states, and the member- ship was over half a million. This high tide of early prosper- ity, however, was due to a misconception of true Grange principles on the part of many who joined. Thousands sought j6 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL financial betterment under the protection of the order, and enrolled for what "there was in it," expecting it to serve the ends of a great farmers' trust. Still others hoped to make it a ladder of political ambition. Needless to say, these mer- cenary and personally ambitious advocates were soon bitterly disillusioned, and through their experience arose the disfavor and contempt under which the organization has suffered, and with which it is sometimes still regarded by those who recall the reaction of its early history. Hundreds of the local granges organized at this time soon failed, and because of these failures many farmers today are under the impression that "the Grange is dead." But the Grange is not dead and has never been. Even while the foolish financial experi- ments in the West were succumbing daily, the organization was steadily and honestly gaining a foothold in the East, espe- cially in the New England and Middle Atlantic states, which has never been endangered. During the last twenty years, a new and firmer growth has repaired all the old losses. The increase in member- ship during the decade following 1890 was about seventy-five per cent, while that of the year 1908 was ten per cent. Twenty- eight states were represented at the National Grange of 1910, and the order is now established in thirty-five states, and enrolls a total membership of over one million. In New York alone, the state reports record 690 subordinate and forty-five county granges, enrolling about 82,000 members. Those who imagine the Grange is dead need but to investigate a few statistics relating to its present status to become con- vinced of their error. Organization. The unit of organization in the Patrons of Husbandry is the local or subordinate grange. A subordi- nate grange is supposed to include one township, or to cover the area within a five or six mile radius of its location, but the amount of territory involved is variable, depending wholly THE GRANGE 77 upon local conditions. Every subordinate grange meets at least twice a month. The subordinate granges of a county, or other given district, often organize themselves into a larger unit, known as the Pomona Grange. The Pomona Grange must meet at least quarterly. Its meetings are usually occa- sions of much enthusiasm and are often converted into social rallies and campaigns for increased membership and the good of the order. The State Grange, as the name indicates, is the state representative of the order. It holds annual meetings to which each subordinate grange sends delegates. The National Grange is the authoritative head of the organization. It convenes once a year, in a session lasting usually about ten days, to consider matters of national importance. State mas- ters and their wives, or husbands, are delegates to this con- vention. A special feature of the order, now coming into prominence, is the juvenile grange, a subdivision organized for the benefit of children. Boys and girls are allowed to join the subordinate grange when fourteen years of age, but it has seemed advisable to interest them in the movement even younger, and the plans now developing for such work are full of promise. The head official of a grange, whether local, county, state, or national, is the master, who exercises all the duties of a presi- dent. Twelve other officers are required to handle the work of the ritual, of whom the lecturer is the most important. It is often said, and with truth, that the success of a grange depends upon the lecturer. In fact, the work and responsi- bility of the organization may be considered in two phases: the financial and business side, for which the master is respon- sible, and the social and educational side, for which the lec- turer must provide. The lecturer makes the programs, plans the socials and special meetings, introduces most of the new ideas of growth, and in every way exercises more influence upon the order than any other individual. The ritual is a 78 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL beautiful and impressive ceremony permeated throughout by an exalted religious spirit and a strong love of nature. It provides seven degrees, the first four being conferred in the subordinate grange, the fifth in the Pomona, the sixth in the State, and the last in the National Grange. The secrecy of the order is slightly objectionable to some, but the little secrecy involved relates to nothing more than passwords and a few fraternal signs which need be feared by none. A minor point of grange custom, that should be mentioned for its marked influence upon members, is the recess or social hour. Nothing about the organization contributes more to its popu- larity and power than this visiting period. All prosperous granges own their own halls, many of which have a dining- room and kitchen. Work and Influence. But more important, by far, than the history and plan of Grange organization is its work and influence for the social and educational advancement of farm life. "To enumerate the achievements of the Grange," says Kenyon L. Butterfield, in his Chapters in Rural Progress, "would be to recall the progress of agriculture during the last third of a century." The Grange as an organization is capable of speaking authoritatively for farm interests. This it has done for the last twenty-five years, touching upon questions of both national and international significance. The national Department of Agriculture, state agricultural colleges and experiment stations, farmers' institutes, pure food laws, the rural delivery of mail, the Interstate Commerce Commission, the denatured alcohol bill, and the postal savings bank, are some of the measures that trace their origin and development to Grange influence. Among the present-day issues favored by the last National Grange in 1912 were a parcels post, woman suffrage, stringent forest reserve laws, the improve- ment of waterways, and federal aid for road building. Thus, the Grange exerts legislative influence, but it is in no sense THE GRANGE 79 a political party. Any political ambitions ever nourished within the order have invariably proved fatal, and a question is now shunned the moment it becomes a political issue. This policy is necessarily restricting, but experience has shown its Farmers' Club, Logan County, Illinois Such a farmers' club may be easily converted into a subordinate Grange wisdom. National Grange opinion is now crystallized in the publication of a paper, the National Grange Monthly, which not only advocates movements of progress but summarizes the work done by the order throughout the country. In a financial and business way, the Grange still does some things, though the stores, factories, wholesale houses, and financial schemes of its early progenitors are now efforts of the past. In several states, especially in New York and New Hampshire, strong insurance companies now operate under Grange control, while in Kansas, provision for cyclone 80 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL insurance meets a frequently felt need. Pennsylvania has recently undertaken a Grange banking system which has stead- ily grown in favor and has resulted thus far in the estab- lishment of fourteen national banks. Cooperative buying is practiced quite extensively in Michigan and Maine, though cooperative selling has so far proved unsuccessful. In Wis- consin and other dairy states, Grange creameries and cheese factories are not uncommon, while telephone lines belonging to the order are to be found in almost every state where the society is organized. But the educational and social work of the Grange is the chief source of its life and existence, and is of far greater importance than any other effort undertaken by it. Wherever the Grange is well established, it revolutionizes the life of a community. The very nature of the gatherings, with their discussions and recesses, all permeated with the spirit of fra- ternity, banishes isolation and its evil effects. In the educa- tional work of the order agriculture is particularly empha- sized. But Grange education is not limited to matters of agri- culture alone. It covers all fields of mental activity, and science, history, literature, and the fine arts are given due prominence on Grange programs. The organization virtually becomes a school, and many members acknowledge it as the source of their greatest educational opportunity. Ability to write, to think clearly, and to stand up and express thought accurately, soon becomes well developed in experienced "gran- gers." In the broader fields of educational advancement, the Grange has also done much. Agricultural education, the con- solidation of schools, and all other movements of vital educa- tional significance have always had its hearty support. Most state granges now support standing educational committees which study the educational conditions of the state and report annually to the order. But no discussion of the work and influence of the Grange, THE GRANGE 8 1 however inadequate, is complete without some consideration of what it has done for women. Of all fraternal orders the Grange, so far as known, was the first to recognize women fully. Other orders have their allied organizations for women, but it remained for the Grange to cast aside all shackles of prejudice and first admit them to full member- ship. This movement was a great forward step, especially at the time of its adoption in 1867, and the credit of its incor- poration is due to the leading woman spirit among the early founders, Miss Caroline Hall. All the offices of the Grange, as previously stated, are open to women, and four can be held by them only. The lecturers are usually women, which places much of the responsibility of the order upon women. The office of state lecturer in Michigan has been filled for years by women, who have revolutionized the educational work of the organization during their service. For several years Minnesota has elected a woman for state master. Among other early provisions that have had great effect upon Grange women is the system of representation established. Every del- egate to both the state and the national Grange is a dual dele- gate, a man and his wife, or a woman and her husband, and the influence of the traveling this necessitates is apparent among the women of Grange circles everywhere. The Na- tional Grange has repeatedly and unanimously indorsed woman suffrage. Women serve on Grange committees, freely pro- claim their opinions on Grange floors, and in all things and at all times have the full support and championship of the order in matters relating to their welfare. The Subordinate Grange at Work: Magnolia Grange, Putnam County, Illinois. Perhaps the best understanding of Grange work and influence can be gained through the study of a typical subordinate grange. Magnolia Grange, in Putnam County, Illinois, is a fair type of the hundreds of subordinate granges now at work over the country. This 82 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL grange is one of the few survivors of those organized during the high tide of Grange prosperity in 1873. The people of the Magnolia community are chiefly enter- prising Friends, or Quakers, who emigrated to Illinois in the early pioneer days from Ohio and Pennsylvania. With them they brought not only a true appreciation of the value of edu- cation, but a proper conception of the social basis upon which all education rests. They had known the congenial social farm life across the Alleghanies, and they determined to trans- jjjftjjt aB ,. h li 'm Wf08g t!jBSfa& imB lE^BH ■KaGNOU* P^PfH PJMK «Pw 5Br %»' ' Jr- " "'''■'W:';r ':;■'■'' , Magnolia Grange Fair, Putnam County, Illinois Fairs of this type become great forces for the redirection of country life plant the same spirit to the prairies of the West. This they have done through the development of three agencies, the church, the school, and the Grange, of which the Grange, in their opinion, has been the most influential. Meetings of the organization are held on alternate Satur- day afternoons in the Grange hall, a comfortable, convenient building provided for the purpose, and located on one of the scenic spots in the township. This building is simply and artistically furnished with chairs, rugs, reading tables, pic- THE GRANGE 83 tures, cases for books and museum collections, and an organ. It is further provided with a dining-room and kitchen whose ranges, cooking utensils, dishes, and silverware, make possible the famous "Grange dinners" so popular throughout the countryside. The programs of the meetings are prepared and printed a year in advance, each member appearing for at least one number during the year. Papers, debates, musical num- bers, and the ritualistic work form a chief part of these pro- grams, but their most helpful feature is the open discussion of questions to which time is allotted at every meeting. This question-box is very simple in its management, the written questions being read by the lecturer and addressed to particu- lar individuals for answer. Others who desire may partici- pate in the discussion, but each speaker is required to stand on his feet and speak directly to his hearers. This practice has contributed more to the educational growth of the members and developed more self-reliance among the men and women of the community than any other single force in their lives. The written work, also, has been especially educative in its requirements, particularly among the women and younger members of the organization. Among the topics treated on recent programs are the following, which show the range and character of the work done : opportunities in farming, system on the farm, food and food adulterants, decoration in the farm home, woman's coming greatness, the hurry habit, prac- tical philanthrophy, and the farmer's civic duties. The social and recreative side of Grange influence is also well exemplified here. Receptions, special programs, lec- tures, big dinners, candy-pulls, picnics, and evening gatherings are common occurrences. These not only inculcate interest and life in the mature members of the order, but prove attractive to the young people, whose youth and fresh inter- ests are the greatest source of strength in any healthy grange. The chief business venture undertaken by the Magnolia 84 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Grange at present is the annual "Grange Fair." This fair supplants the usual county fair. Special buildings and sheds have been built on the grounds for its convenience. Among these is a large floral hall where fruit, vegetable, and grain exhibits are made each year. Sewing, canned fruit, bread, cake, and other special household products are also given due attention. Nor are the children neglected. School exhibits always form an important part of this display, and special prizes are awarded for individual pieces of educational work. Perhaps the most popular entries are those relating to live stock and the management of horses. Prizes are given for rapid hitching and unhitching, for good horsemanship and riding, and for all other activities connected with the control of horses. This brings in hundreds of young people who thus learn to dignify the simple, homely tasks of the farm, and who, through weeks and months of preparation, center their interest and attention upon farm topics. Fairs of this type become valuable agencies for the proper redirection of country life. The influence of the Magnolia Grange throughout the forty years since its establishment cannot be computed. The Clear Creek neighborhood, as the community is locally called, is always known and remembered by all who come in contact with it for its unusual progressiveness and sincere social spirit. The silent force of Grange influence, so long at work here, has recently taken material form in the erection of the John Swaney Consolidated School, described in Chapter VIII. This school, with its beautiful large building, its laboratories, library, assembly hall, experiment plots, and campus of twenty- four acres, originated in the Grange. Mr. John Swaney, whose name it bears, and who donated the land on which it stands, has been a most active member of the order for over thirty-five years, and it is beyond question that without the Grange there could have been no John Swaney School. THE GRANGE 85 Words of Warning to the Grange. But, with all its splendid progress and healthy growth, the Grange, like all other institutions, may make mistakes. Two errors of present policy have been recently pointed out by President Kenyon L. Butterfield of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture. One of these is the old danger of allowing anti-agriculturists, or those not interested in farming, to join. This practice is said to be steadily growing in eastern states and to be under- mining the unity and harmony of the order. The other danger named by President Butterfield, and a more general one, is that of allowing the local grange to become a small clique or self-centered group in the neighborhood, rather than a true community institution, working for the common welfare of both members and non-members. These words of warning from the leading rural sociologist of the nation, who is also a member of the Grange, certainly merit the consideration and reflection of every Grange worker who has the welfare of the order and the best development of farm life at heart. Farmers' Clubs. Farmers' clubs have been organized in many sections of the country and have been found to fulfill well the demand for social and educational cooperation among farmers. Their efficiency for this purpose, however, seldom compares with that of a prosperous grange. All that the club can possibly do, the subordinate grange does, and more. For while farmers' clubs may become agencies of pleasant social relationship and great educational advancement, they are generally limited to local influence, and the broader rela- tionships represented in the Grange by the state and national divisions have no parallel in their organization. In a dormant or prejudiced community, however, it is frequently very much easier to start a club than to establish a grange. Later, with the help of a deputy or the state master, after the members are sufficiently prepared to see the advantages of Grange or- ganization, such a club may be converted into a subordinate 86 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL grange. The late Superintendent Frank Hall, of the Illinois State Farmers' Institute, once said that the establishment of at least one farmers' club in every township of Illinois would make inconceivable changes in the conditions of farm life over the state; but it is safe to assert that the establishment of a subordinate grange in each township would show even greater results, as all who understand the full breadth and possibilities of grange organization can appreciate. Harvesting Picnic, Farmers' Clubs of De Kalb County, Illinois One of the best examples of what is possible in the way of farmers' club development is to be found in the work of Mr. H. H. Parke, a local farmer and institute director of DeKalb County, Illinois. In writing of his efforts, Mr. Parke says: During the fall and winter of 1910 in DeKalb County, seven Town- ship Farmers' Clubs, with a total membership of over six hundred THE GRANGE 87 farmers, merchants and bankers, were organized. These are directly associated with the County Farmers' Institute by a director from each club, thus forming a much stronger and more effective organization. Each member becomes an integral part of the County Farmers' Insti- tute and is cemented to it by a membership fee of $1.00. The ultimate object is to establish a farmers' club in each township in the county. The purpose of these clubs is to promote the work of the Farmers' Institute, to more rapidly disseminate agricultural information, and to establish community centers for the discussion of community problems. Each club aims to hold about one meeting a month. In all twenty-six meetings have been held within the last five months. The attendance of each meeting has varied from one hundred to five hundred en- thusiastic people. The programs cater to the interests of a rural or- ganization. Annually each club holds an election and banquet with a suitable program for the occasion. These clubs, less than a year old, are already harvesting results. They are reaping the rewards of organized effort. Renewed interests and more intelligent direction of farm operations are marked in the vicinities of the clubs. One finds fewer weeds in the fence corners, cleaner lawns, more neatly dressed families, more pride in every way; a better social spirit exists ; distances between farms have been blotted out by a more neighborly feeling. Social, moral and educational standards have been raised. More cooperative undertakings have arisen among the club members. In two or three instances the standard of political officials has been raised. One club officer has interested the boys in his township in growing corn by offering $25.00 for the best acre of corn. Another club member, one of our earnest and most tactful workers, planned a farmers' picnic with the apparent purpose of getting his ten- acre field of wheat harvested. This picnic was advertised far and wide, in local and in state papers. Each picnicker was permitted to bring his choice of weapons for attacking the wheat. It was a gala day. The white-haired pioneer brought his sickle; the middle-aged man the self- rake reaper and the Marsh harvester, and the young man the self binder, the masterpiece of modern invention. The inspiration of the meeting cannot be over-estimated. One of the strongest forces at work in the clubs is the spirit of organization that pervades the atmosphere. Minor and more local organizations, social and educational in nature, are springing into ex- istence. Each one forms a center for the exchange of ideas. They are 88 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL stepping stones to community building, and every possible assistance and encouragement should be given them. Cooperation between the Grange and the Country School. Since this book is prepared primarily for the benefit of country teachers, it is appropriate to conclude this chapter by empha- sizing the teacher's opportunity for awakening a greater appreciation of the advantages of social and educational coop- eration among farmers. Of all individuals in the country community, none, as set forth later, are more naturally expected or better placed to assume the responsibility of lead- ership than the teacher. It therefore devolves upon country teachers to acquaint themselves with the work and purposes of the great socializing agencies now playing an important part in the development of American farm life, and to impart this information as thoroughly as they impart the subject-matter of arithmetic or history. Of these agencies, none is more important than the Grange, and country teachers, being of late years admitted to membership, should join the Grange when opportunity affords, and do what they can toward the establishment of new local orders. Relationship with the officials of the Grange may be estab- lished by writing for a sample copy of the National Grange Monthly, which is published in Westfield, Massachusetts. From this publication can be obtained the name of the National Grange master, who may then be addressed for a copy of the proceedings of the last National Grange. The national mas- ter at the present time (1912) is Mr. Oliver Wilson, of Peoria, Illinois, but as the office is elective, a more permanent medium of connection through the national paper is suggested. Every volume of annual proceedings contains the name and address of each state master, who may then be asked for further infor- mation, and whose fidelity to the order will always make him eager to cooperate in the organization of new granges. Assist- ance can thus be directly obtained from the state master, or THE GRANGE 89 from a deputy to whom he will refer, and the proper manage- ment of the undertaking is assured. Teachers need not trouble themselves with the details of organization. Organ- izers especially trained and fitted for this will be sent by the state master. It is rather the teacher's task to prepare the way, and arouse a desire for such organization. All state granges publish literature which may be procured and dis- tributed to create a Grange sentiment. CHAPTER V FARMERS' INSTITUTES AND THE AGRICUL- TURAL PRESS Farmers' Institutes as an Agency for Country Life Progress. Crop rotation, nitrogen producing bacteria, and the fertilization of soils are today household expressions in every farm home. Their utterance would have conveyed but little meaning, however, to the average farmer of forty years ago. This means that great strides have been made in the popular dissemination of agricultural knowledge during the last few decades. It means that the mass of American farmers have developed from imitating tillers of the soil into independent, responsible agriculturists. In this evolution no agency has been more effective than the farmers' institute. Origin and History of Farmers' Institutes. It is not the purpose here to give a detailed history of the farmers' insti- tute but rather to emphasize a few facts necessary to its bet- ter understanding as an agency of progress in the expansion of farm life. Typical farmers' institutes as we know them today are a product of the last twenty-five years. Unlike the Grange, the early beginnings of the institute movement developed so gradually and obscurely that its origin is hard to trace. Its first impetus seems to have come from numerous farmers' clubs and agricultural societies organized through the East early in the history of the country. The one point of especial interest concerning its origin is the fact that it sprang directly from the felt needs and demands of the people. In 1785 there was organized in Philadelphia an agricultural 90 FARMERS' INSTITUTES 91 society known as the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture. This was probably the first organization of its kind in this country, though New York claims to have maintained more than a dozen similar societies over a century ago, and authentic records prove the existence of a thriving farmers' club in Rockingham, New Hampshire, as early as 1814. In Maine, also, local agricultural interests were organ- ized early, and by 1833 farmers' clubs were common. One of the most interesting of these early societies, known as the Farmers' Club of Sandy Spring, was organized at Brook Grove, Maryland, in 1844. This club is remarkable in that from the date of its origin to the present time it has met regularly with only six omissions and has kept full records covering the transactions of these years. Massachusetts was naturally among the earliest states to further the development of the farmers' institute idea. The first action in this direction was brought about here through the efforts of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, which was organized in 1792. Official atten- tion was not given to the work here, however, until 1852, when the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, in the first year of its establishment, appointed a committee to con- sider the promotion of agricultural interests in the state by means of public lectures. At the next meeting of the board, in 1853, Dr. Hitchcock, of Amherst College, who had been favorably impressed with the idea of institutes among teachers, read a paper on farmers' institutes in which he advocated similar organizations for farmers and outlined a suggestive course of lectures. This was probably the first time that the term institute had been applied to a gathering of farmers. Notwithstanding the practicability of this suggestion, the matter was legally neglected by the state until 1879, when laws requiring the convention of such agricultural gatherings were finally enacted. 92 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The history of the movement in Ohio is also significant, not only because of its early development but because the present institute system, extending the work to all the coun- ties of a state, matured here. An early pioneer of agricultural education, Dr. N. S. Townsend, who later became dean of the State Agricultural College, seems to have conceived the idea of farmers' institutes about 1845, even earlier than Dr. Hitch- cock, of Massachusetts. According to his own account the plan was suggested to him through medical clinics. Since Midsummer Farmers' Institute, Illinois College of Agriculture, Urbana there were then but eighty-four miles of railroad in Ohio, and the present system of institutes was wholly impractical, Dr. Townsend labored for years with unflagging zeal for the promulgation of his idea through farmers' clubs and agricul- tural societies. It was chiefly through his efforts that these organizations and others of a similar nature developed so rap- idly and effectively in Ohio, and eventually came to mold the character of the permanent state system of farmers' insti- tutes by making the county the unit of organization. It must not be inferred from the accounts given here that FARMERS' INSTITUTES 93 Massachusetts and Ohio were alone in the development of the farmers' institute. Similar pioneer growths had been planted simultaneously in all the eastern, and many of the northern states. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Con- necticut, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, in the East, and Michi- gan, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, farther west, were all active early in the history of the movement and contributed much that was original and effective in its un- folding. New Hampshire, in the early seventies, conducted "public meetings" that did not differ materially from the meetings now generally known as farmers' institutes. In Con- necticut, a notable event connected with the development of the work was a four weeks' agricultural convention held at New Haven, in 1869, under the auspices of Yale University. Michigan, in 1861, passed a law whereby the State Board of Agriculture might provide winter courses of lectures for others than students of the State Agricultural College. Thus the Michigan Agricultural College was probably the first edu- cational institution in this country to receive legal authority for carrying instruction to farmers. In Illinois the first institute of which authentic records appear was held in 1869, under the auspices of the Illinois Industrial University at Champaign, the institution which later became the State University and Agricultural College. This was one of the earliest large agricultural gatherings in the Middle West. "Thus was inaugurated," says Dr. L. D. Morse, then secretary of the Missouri Agricultural Society, "a new and most important movement in western agricultural education." Organization of Farmers' Institutes. Unlike the Grange, the farmers' institute is not an elaborate scheme carefully designed and worked out by a good organizer. It is the outgrowth of many minds. The Grange may be said to have begun nationally and worked down, while the farmers' insti- 94 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL tute began locally and worked up. Its democratic and diverse origin through the development of farmers' clubs, agricultural societies, and other local organizations accounts for the inter- esting fact that no two states have institutes managed in just the same way. The different types of management may be roughly classified, however, under two general heads : (i) those under government control; (2) those under the con- trol of the state agricultural college or experiment station. Governmental control is of four general kinds. It may place the institutes under the direction of the State Depart- ment of Agriculture, as in Pennsylvania and New York ; or in the hands of an independent state officer, as in Wisconsin; or it may direct them under county organization, as in Illi- nois and Iowa ; or through the agency of agricultural societies, as in Ohio. The states of the Union are almost evenly divided under these two general types of administration. In the older eastern states where the work originated chiefly before the day of agricultural colleges governmental control prevails; but in the West and Middle West college control is more common. In 1903, the importance which farmers' institute work had assumed was recognized by the national government in the appointment of a Farmers' Institute Specialist in the United States Department of Agriculture. This official gives all his time to the study and promotion of farmers' institutes through- out the country and acts not only as a general organizer and adviser for the several states but collects statistics, pub- lishes bulletins, and studies agricultural education in foreign countries. The creation of this office placed farmers' insti- tutes on a national basis corresponding to the national divi- sion of Grange organization. Each state is centrally organ- ized and is supervised by a trained officer, generally desig- nated as the director or superintendent of farmers' institutes. The state organization is usually subdivided into county insti- FARMERS' INSTITUTES 95 tutes which correspond to the Pomona Grange, though in some states, as in Illinois, an intervening unit based on the state congressional districts is employed. Village institutes and district farmers' clubs represent the local unit of the system, and are therefore analogous to the subordinate grange. State institute meetings or "round-up" institutes are held annually Interurban Exhibit Cars from the Illinois College of Agriculture in most states. County institutes also convene usually but once a year. Meetings of the local organizations are held at least yearly and often quarterly, or even more frequently. A special feature of unusual interest in farmers' institute administration is the American Association of Farmers' Insti- tute Workers. This body, as the name suggests, is an asso- ciation of institute lecturers, instructors, and officers, organ- ized for the purpose of exchanging ideas and advancing the general welfare of institute work. It meets annually and its q6 COUNTRY LIFE AXD THE COUNTRY SCHOOL proceedings are published in the form of bulletins by the United States Department of Agriculture. Present Status and Progress. Farmers' institutes now exist in practically even- state and territory of the United States and throughout Canada. The annual attendance at farmers' institutes in the United States now numbers over two millions, and nearly a half million dollars is appropriated yearly by the several states for conducting the work. In 19 10 over five thousand regular institute meetings were held throughout the country. The following table prepared by Farmers' Institute Specialist John Hamilton, from the sta- tistical reports for 1910, gives an idea of the present signifi- cance of the organization in some of the leading institute states : Institutes State Held Sessions Cost Attendance Illinois 163 792 $44,468.23 231,732 Indiana 354 1218 20.785.00 203.910 Iowa 83 564 14,764.25 117,550 Kansas 247 782 25.366.66 10,044 Michigan 403 1 136 ; 76c v; 149. 602 "; York 309 1 170 27,500.00 149.450 Y 324 1620 21.250.00 421,040 Pennsylvania 202 1061 20,000.00 161,696 While it is not the purpose of this treatment to attempt a detailed study of all that the farmers' institute is doing, slight mention of some of its chief characteristic features and inno- vations in the different states will give a more appreciative understanding of the organization as an agency of progress in the betterment of farm life. Normal institutes. Among the most effective of these fea- tures are the "normal institutes," which are now convened in many states at the beginning of the institute season for the benefit of state instructors and lecturers. These meetings are held under the auspices of state agricultural colleges and FARMERS' INSTITUTES 97 experiment stations and frequently continue for several weeks. They were first inaugurated in New York at Cornell Univer- sity in 1899. Several state agricultural colleges, particularly the Massachusetts College of Agriculture at Amherst, and Cornell College of Agriculture at Ithaca, New York, have gone farther and now offer special training courses for farmers' institute instructors. Institutes for women. Separate institutes for women and special provisions for the development of household science are now a characteristic feature of institute organization in the more progressive states. Minnesota and Wisconsin early initiated separate meetings for women, and Michigan a little later developed the "women's section." Wholly separate insti- tutes for women are now held in Indiana and in Ontario. Illinois leads all other states at present, however, in the development of women's interests through the farmers' insti- tute. Here the question of holding separate institutes for women has never been presented. The Illinois Association of Household Science, which represents the home interests of the state, is closely affiliated with the farmers' institute and has placed local organizations in every county. Institute work for young people. Every movement that expects to gain a firm foothold among any people must look to the education of the children. This truth has lately been recognized by both the Grange and the farmers' institute, and boys' and girls' institutes have been planned in several states. In New York one period at every session of each institute, known as the "children's hour," is devoted to the interests of young people. In corn-growing states, corn- judging con- tests have been introduced, which are being made educative rather than competitive affairs. Nebraska seems to lead in the organization of institutes for farm children. Here the work has been established in over thirty counties and a state appropriation is allowed for its support. The girls work 9 8 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL with bread and sewing, the boys with corn, and about ten thousand young people have been enlisted in the movement. Several counties in Illinois, particularly Sangamon, Piatt, and Winnebago counties, have such clubs for school children. Another interesting effort for reaching young people through farmers' institutes is the "Grout Farm Encampment." This unique and practical idea is the work of Mr. A. P. Grout, of Winchester, Illinois. The encampment is held annually on Mr. Grout's farm for all the boys of Scott county who can Household Science Department at the National Corn Exposition, Columbus, Ohio, 191 1 attend. Lodging is provided in large tents and meals and instruction are furnished free. The outing continues for a week and is attended every year by from fifty to one hundred boys, who gladly embrace its opportunity for education and recreation. Demonstration work and exhibit trains. Demonstration work has been a familiar idea among farmers' institute in- structors for many years, but it is recently being enlarged to include several new lines of work. Illustrative material in the shape of living animals, specimens, charts, and lantern FARMERS' INSTITUTES 99 slides, and excursions to farms, factories, and particu- lar sites are now quite common. Field demonstrations in which the instructor conducts classes out of doors are famil- iar also. In Michigan, Kansas, Virginia, Washington, and elsewhere special institute trains have been employed for pur- poses of demonstration. These cars are fitted up with ex- hibits of fruit, cereals, and grain, and run through the different sections of the state. Large audiences attend the lectures of the specialists who accompany them. The Grout Encampment for Farm Boys Movable schools. Thus far farmers' institutes have not attempted to give regular systematic instruction. "Right here," says Institute Specialist John Hamilton, "is where the present system seems to fail." To meet this deficiency a new device, the movable school of agriculture, has been intro- duced. These schools are common throughout Europe and differ but little from the familiar "short courses" frequently offered in this country. The method of their management is IOo COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL very simple. The state director or superintendent arranges in advance at the different institute centers for the formation of classes numbering from ten to fifteen persons who have a common interest in a certain topic, and agree to attend faith- fully upon a course of lectures and to participate in such practical work as the course prescribes. Trained specialists then visit these classes and offer instruction after the man- ner of a regular school for one, two, or three weeks. Thus the instructors, rather than the schools, are the movable fea- ture. In Iowa, work of this character has been conducted for some time through the initiative of the State Agricultural College at Ames. Pennsylvania also has attempted the mov- able school idea with marked success. Summer institutes and agricultural chautauquas. Although winter is the season most commonly employed for the con- vention of farmers' institutes and other farm gatherings, sum- mer work has been found profitable and convenient in sev- eral states. In Indiana eight summer institutes were recently held for farmers' wives and children. Illinois has lately adopted the practice of holding an annual "Midsummer Farm- ers' Institute" at the State College of Agriculture to show the crop experiments in operation at this season. Minnesota, in 1906, conducted a farmers' summer school one week in duration, at which the attendance was over four hundred and where from ten to twelve hours' instruction was offered each day. Kansas accomplished the same end through an agricultural chautauqua held in 1907, which continued through ten sessions with an attendance of over two thousand. Sev- eral states, among others New York and Ohio, have success- fully inaugurated farmers' institute traveling libraries as another means of promoting farm interests and extending agricultural education. The Agricultural Press as a Rural Socializing Agency. But the farmers' institute with its many papers, discussions, FARMERS' INSTITUTES 101 and bulletins would lose more than half its effect if it were not for the agricultural press, and in any treatment of the forces now at work in the socialization of farm life, due con- sideration must be taken of this most important agency. Rural life literature is of two kinds, the purely agricultural, or that relating to soils, crops, stock, and the science of farming, and the social, or that relating to rural institutions, and to the farmer's community relationships. Most rural literature is purely agricultural. It is only very recently that the social and institutional side of farm life has begun to receive attention. Bulletins, especially those issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, are for the most part technically agricultural. These bulletins meet a most urgent need, but there is also a field for social farm litera- ture that might well be cultivated. Literature of this charac- ter, designed to make farmers see some of their larger social relationships as individuals in the community life, would di- rect attention into most productive channels. The additional gratuitous distribution of such bulletins by the United States Department of Agriculture would be probably the most direct method at present of impressing upon farmers the latent possibilities of the home, church, school, and farm organiza- tion, in the social regeneration of country life. Newspapers deserve special mention in any consideration of the agricultural press, because of their influence and gen- eral circulation. Not every farmer reads bulletins, books, or even farm journals, but scarcely a farm home can be found anywhere which is not visited at least once a week by the local newspaper. This makes the daily and weekly news sheet a most convenient instrument for the distribution of ideas of rural progress, and places the editors of even small country papers in the position of leaders. The tardiness of agricultural journals in responding to the social evolution of country life is somewhat surprising. 102 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Careful observation and a somewhat extended investigation have revealed practically no agricultural journals devoting adequate space to the school, church, farmers' organization, and other social phases of farm living. Agricultural editors, for the most part, do not as yet seem to appreciate the full significance and need of current literature of this type. In this connection it is a pleasure to cite the splendid leadership of Mr. Arthur J. Bill, agricultural editor of the Illinois Farm- ers' Institute for many years, whose ideal of rural journalism as a formative force in agriculture, embracing all interests of the country community, is at present attaining realization through the Farmers' Voice, of Bloomington, Illinois. The chief need of the rural press at the present writing is for a thoroughly reliable, first class magazine, devoted to the progress and development of the social side of country life. Such a periodical would be of immeasurable service to those now engaged in the upbuilding of various rural insti- tutions and would tend to correlate effort and preserve a balance in the work being done. A magazine of this type, to fulfill its mission in the best way, should represent both gen- eral and local work and should stand consistently for the complete, fully rounded development of the country community in all its aspects. The phrase "Country Community Building" might well serve as a name for such a prospective publication. This, at least, should be its ideal. Farmers' Institutes and the Country School. It is the special purpose of these pages to impress the cooperation of the country school with all rural forces in a federation for progress. Such cooperation on the part of the school and the farmers' institute is especially desirable. The first stages of this working harmony must come through the personal influence of the teacher. Unless she assumes the right atti- tude toward other institutions and agencies, the children under her charge are not likely to appreciate them. When the county FARMERS' INSTITUTES 103 or local institute meeting is advertised, the teacher should discuss the program with the children of the school, urge the older ones to attend and to influence their parents to attend where this is necessary, and in every way encourage co- operative effort between the two institutions. In view of the fact that not one farmer in twenty-five yet attends institutes, the desirability of this training for the young is apparent. The output of the farmers' institute press may be made a second means through which much quiet work can be done toward this end. Newspaper reports, magazine articles, and especially the bulletins and annual state institute reports are useful for this purpose. These state reports contain so many valuable agricultural articles that they should be found on the shelves of every country school. They may be obtained without cost by addressing the director or superintendent of the state farmers' institute. Useful bulletins are obtainable in the same way. A third most effective means of gaining this desired co- operation is afforded through joint farmers' and teachers' institutes. In some states the custom of dismissing the coun- try schools and of allowing teachers and older pupils to at- tend the annual county farmers' institute is generally prac- ticed. Such a policy is productive of the most gratifying results and is one of the most effective methods yet derived for bringing about educational reforms. In Ohio, Illinois, and New York, farmers' institute travel- ing libraries afford an excellent opportunity for cooperation between the school and the institute. These libraries are shipped in strong boxes and loaned to any country school in the state requesting them for a period of several weeks. Kan- sas, Delaware, and Illinois have found schoolhouse meetings in local country districts of great value in furthering the inter- ests of both the school and the institute. These meetings are of various types but always deal largely with agricultural topics 104 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL and are thus a potent influence for the introduction of agricul- ture into the common schools. Men, women, and children all turn out to these gatherings and find points of common interest. Another interesting development in farmers' institute and school cooperation occurred in DeKalb County, Illinois, in the winter of 1907, when the Northern Illinois State Normal School, through the suggestion of the late Superintendent Frank Hall, opened its doors to the local county institute and Boys' Corn Class, Farmers' Institute, Mercer County, Illinois supplied several of the institute instructors. This undertaking is now a well established practice in Illinois. Since normal schools are the training schools for future teachers, and since teachers can control the attitude of coming farmers more effectively than any others, it is evident that there is much truth in Superintendent Hall's statement that "no movement of greater significance ever appeared on the institute horizon." If indica- tive of the great federation of rural social forces, as it seems to be, this movement is probably all that is implied by this statement. In conclusion, it is well to emphasize the responsibility of the farmers' institute in bringing about a general cooperation FARMERS' INSTITUTES 105 of social forces for better country living. The farmers' insti- tute has not accomplished its full purpose when it has shown how to raise better corn and prevent the impoverishment of soils. These are worthy ends, but they are not sufficient. They represent but one phase of its mission. The institute, as all other farm organizations, must go further than this. It must show how to rear better farmers, men and women more intelligently prepared to control all the affairs of life — social, political, industrial, and educational. Certainly no agency in American farm life today has a more favorable opportunity for rendering such service than the farmers' institute. Per- haps, too, with the exception of the country school, none is doing more for the best development of farmers. The par- ticular point to be emphasized here, however, is that the farmers' institute must concern itself with not only the finan- cial and industrial welfare of the farmer, as it has evinced a strong tendency to do in the past, but with his social wel- fare also. To obtain immediate results it is necessary that this respon- sibility of the farmers' institute be shared by the country school and the country teacher. This does not mean that the teacher should assume the duties of an institute official. It means only that she should use her own particular opportuni- ties for awakening dormant communities to a greater appre- ciation of what the farmers' institute stands for as a social- izing agency in American farm life. Some means of bringing this about have been suggested, but it must be understood that these are only suggestive. The earnest teacher who desires to do anything effective in furthering institute and school cooperation and the general local federation of rural social forces, must gain a broad general conception of each of these agencies through reading and through personal con- tact and communication with people interested in their development. 106 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The bulletins issued by the United States Department of Agriculture under the direction of Farmers' Institute Special- ist John Hamilton are invaluable to country teachers and may be obtained for the asking. Among these bulletins are the annual proceedings of the Association of Farmers' Institute Workers, a history of the development of the institute move- ment in the different states, and a series of illustrated lec- tures. These lectures cover a variety of subjects and are especially useful for evening meetings in schoolhouses. A list of their titles is appended to this chapter. Each one is accompanied by three or four dozen lantern slides. The proceedings of the Association of Farmers' Institute Workers contain a list of the names and addresses of institute officials in the several states, and any country teacher can thus get the address of her state director from whom state reports and other literature may then be obtained. In this simple way country teachers can easily establish connections with the most progressive and thoughtful institute workers in the country. Farmers' Institute Illustrated Lectures Farmers' Institute Lecture No. i. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on the Care of Milk. By R. A. Pearson. Pp. 12. 1904. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 2, revised. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Potato Diseases and Their Treatment. By F. C. Stewart and H. J. Eustace. Pp. 30. 1907. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 3, revised. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Acid Soils. By H. J. Wheeler. Pp. 28. 1907. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 4. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Profitable Cattle Feeding. By F. B. Mumford. Pp. 21. 1905. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 5. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Silage and Silo Construction for the South. By Andrew M. Soule. Pp. 31. 1905. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 6. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Essentials of Successful Field Experimentation. By C. E. Thorne. Pp. 24. 1905. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 7. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Roads and Road Building. By the Office of Public Roads. Pp. 16. 1907. FARMERS' INSTITUTES 107 Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 8. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Farm Architecture. By E. T. Wilson. Pp. 20. 1907. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 9. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Tobacco Growing. By J. N. Harper. Pp. 15. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 10. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on the Production and Marketing of Eggs and Fowls. By James Dryden. Pp. 20. Farmers' Institute Lecture No. 11. Syllabus of Illustrated Lecture on Wheat Culture. By. J. I. Schulte. Pp. 22. CHAPTER VI ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM Roads an Agency for Country Life Progress. We are just now mounting the crest of a great movement back to the country. In all this stir of activity nothing has more bearing upon the real Country Life Movement than the kind of roads one travels. All rural advancement depends upon highways. What merits it to build an attractive home at the end of an impassable barrier of gummy loam? Or of what avail is it to strive for a prosperous church, a centralized school, or an enthusiastic grange, when an able-bodied team can scarcely pull an empty vehicle down the main thoroughfare? Roads throughout all time have been the symbol of growth and expansion. They are truly said to limit the progress of a people and determine their thought. In the open country espe- cially they become the arteries of life. The very absorption with which the road is scanned from every farm window proves its significance in the life of the country. The road prob- lem, in truth, lies next the heart of the whole rural situa- tion, and is underlaid only by the more fundamental issue of proper education. "The two great forces for the advance- ment of civilization," once said Charles Sumner, "are the schoolmaster and good roads." The Road Problem a National Issue. The road question has heretofore been regarded as a farm question only, and it is little wonder, considering the magnitude of the problem, that farmers have grown weary of the task imposed upon them. So marked has been the recent change of opinion in 108 ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 109 this regard, however, that it no longer requires much argu- ment to declare the improvement of public roads a problem of state and national concern. The high cost of living just now so disturbing to the national peace finds much of its origin in bad road conditions. The annual "mud-tax" in the United States — that is, the financial loss due to transporting The Road Problem crops over bad roads — is estimated at $250,000,000. Accord- ing to Director L. W. Page, of the United States Office of Public Roads, it costs a farmer 1.6 cents more to haul a bushel of wheat 9.4 miles to a neighboring railroad station than it does to transport it from New York to Liverpool, a distance of 3,100 miles. Add to this, much of the railroad congestion as due to stoppage of traffic at farm sources, IIO COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL and the road question cannot escape a fair share of responsi- bility for the high-cost-of-living dilemma. But notwithstanding this direct influence of road conditions upon city dwellers, the chief effect of transportation facilities is felt most immediately by farmers. It is farmers who must face the road in all kinds of weather, endure its trying incon- veniences, and dwell with it from one year's end to another. Every phase of farm living is colored by the condition of the highways. Not only the economic, but the social, educational, and even the spiritual and moral status of rural life is largely dependent upon roads. And herein lies the greatest proof of the contention that road improvement is, and will always be, a matter of national concern. No class whether in city or country can live to itself alone, any more than the individual ; the standard of life in the most isolated district eventually permeates the whole nation, raising or lowering its level according to the original quality. In other words, we are now so interwoven as a population that no entirely separate country and city problems exist. What we have understood heretofore as class issues were but rural and urban phases of common national problems. This is especially true of the road problem. But while the national and universal significance of road improvement is now commonly acknowledged, it is not yet acted upon in a legislative and administrative way, as will appear throughout this discussion. The Road System of France as a Type of Efficient High- way Organization. Before attempting to point out the defects of our present American road system, it will be well to outline a good and thoroughly established system as an example of what a road system should embody. For this purpose almost any European road system would answer, but that of France is selected. The roads of France are the best in the world. This enviable rank is made possible ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM HI only through a marked degree of attention — financial, scien- tific, and administrative. France maintains 350,000 miles of stone road, enough highway to encircle the whole world four- teen times, in a state of almost perfect repair. The original cost of these roads has been estimated at $1,660,000,000, while the annual cost of maintenance is $40,600,000. In this last sum, so startlingly large to Americans, lies much of the secret of French highway efficiency. The whole concern in road maintenance is the care of the crust. In this, three things are necessary : perfect drainage, constant cleaning, and imme- diate and proper repair. Stone roads must be kept clean because dust makes mud, mud holds moisture, and moisture breaks the crust. To this end the chief highways of France are swept almost daily, and it is no exaggeration to say that "French roads are maintained by the broom." So perfect is this system of repair that the average thickness of French national roads is but five and one-eighth inches as contrasted with the former American idea of from twelve to eighteen inches. It is to a remarkable system of road administration and supervision, however, that we must finally turn for the under- lying cause of the perfection of French roads. The follow- ing account of the organization of the French road system is quoted from Director L. W. Page, of the United States Office of Public Roads : The striking feature of the French road system is the skilled super- vision provided in every grade of road work and in every unit of the administrative organization. The basis of the system is the School of Roads and Bridges, one of the finest technical schools in the world, maintained at the expense of the national government. From the graduates of this school are chosen the highway engineers who are entrusted with the building and maintenance of the roads. The course of study lasts three years and the instruction is free. At the head of the administrative organization is an Inspector- General of bridges and highways, under whom are Chief Engineers in H2 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL charge of the road work of single departments and communes. Single arrondissements are under the direction of ordinary engineers and under-engineers, the latter being equivalent in rank to non-com- missioned officers in the army. The sub-divisions are under the direction of principal conductors and ordinary conductors. Next in line come the foremen of construction gangs, the clerk employed at headquarters, and finally the cantonniers or patrolmen, each having from four to seven kilometers of highway under his immediate super- A French Highway France maintains enough highway to encircle the world fourteen times in a state of almost perfect repair vision. This great administrative machine, working in complete har- mony with definite lines of responsibility clearly established, accom- plishes results with military precision and regularity. In this army of workers not the least important unit is the cantonnier, or patrolman, who has charge of a single section of the road. He keeps the ditches open, carefully fills holes and ruts with broken stone, removes dust and deposits of sand and earth after heavy rains, trims the trees and bushes, and when ordinary work is impossible breaks stone and transports it to points where it is likely to be needed. He ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 113 brings all matters requiring attention to the notice of his chief. Each cantonnier carries a little book in which the chief cantonnier notes his instructions and checks up the work accomplished. The con- ductors go over the line at regular intervals and direct the chief can- tonnier, and all reports are transmitted to the central authorities, so that at any time the exact condition of every foot of road throughout France may be ascertained. Every year the conductors prepare esti- mates of necessary expenses for the next year, under three heads, namely, maintenance, heavy repairs, and new work, and the parlia- mentary appropriations are based upon these careful calculations. Organization of the American Highway System. The American road system since 1893 has been centered in a special national bureau under the direction of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. This bureau when first organized was known as the Office of Road Inquiry and was given an appro- priation of $10,000. Since this time minor changes have been made, appropriations have been increased, and the name has been changed to the Office of Public Roads. From the very first this bureau has proved its efficiency, and to this division of our highway system, at least, Americans can point with pride and satisfaction. The work of this office, which is wholly of an investigative and educational character, is given over to three subdivisions of the department. These are, first, the Division of Tests, or laboratory, in which road- building materials from any locality are tested free; second, the Highway Division, which performs the technical engineer- ing work of the office; and third, the Division of Road Man- agement, which concerns itself with statistical work and the preparation and distribution of bulletins. Just at this point, however, in passing on to the state unit, our public road system begins to break down. Road adminis- tration has been placed on a sound and practical basis in but half of the states of the union. Even among these the variety of management existing indicates the lack of scientific certainty in determining the best organization. In some in- II 4 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL stances, as in New York and Massachusetts, the State High- way Department possesses official authority and ample rev- enue to enforce its bidding. In others, as in Illinois, the work of the state department is only educational, investi- gative, and advisory. In a full half of the states, it should be remembered, there is no trace of centralized or state control of roads. But if state highway organization reveals variety and un- certainty, how much worse do matters appear when atten- tion is turned to the local units. In the South, this unit of organization for roads, as for other governmental affairs, is usually the county. In the North, it is the township. In all, there is thus presented the motley confusion of states with centralized road organization, of others with none; of some with county organization, but none for state or township; of others with state and township control, but none for the county; and of still others with township, but neither state nor county systems. Some Defects of the American Highway System. The evils of this heterogeneousness of the present highway sys- tem are most evident in the local community. Here the sins of untrained officials, political influence, and unscientific con- struction are plainly revealed. According to State Highway Engineer A. N. Johnson nearly seven millions of dollars are spent annually in Illinois by men who know nothing of road building. As an illustration of this unscientific procedure let the reader recall how many times he has known roads to be worked at the wrong time of year or has seen local officials attempting to mend a stone road by shoveling loose material upon its surface, thereby accomplishing the very thing France annually spends millions to prevent. Let him consider, too, that the chief underlying evil in all this local waste in road management, as in much other inefficiency , is partisan politics. Only the most casual comparison of our so-called road ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 115 system with that of the French is required to reveal its glaring defects. The most evident of these deficiencies may be sum- marized as follows : 1. Our system is poorly organized, incomplete, and lacks unity. This has been indicated by the brief account of its organization given above. 2. It enforces the wrong policy of support, entailing a Avenue of Trees. Hobbema local rather than a state and national system. This plan is not only inefficient but rankly unjust and deserves the con- demnation which farmers have heaped upon it in their demands for state and federal aid. 3. It fails to provide adequate revenue for the construc- tion and maintenance of respectable highways. In 1910 the total mileage of roads in the United States was 2,151,500 Ii6 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL miles. During the same year the total expenditures for road improvement were about $90,000,000. In view of the fact that the only thoroughly dependable and efficient type of road is the hard surfaced one, which costs at least from two to three thousand dollars a mile, it is plain that little can be done with an annual average of but forty-five dollars to the mile. 4. Through political contamination it permits the employ- ment of untrained officials. These, it is true, are restricted to the local field, but this is exactly where they can do the most harm. The folly of this is self-evident. 5. It allows roads to be poorly built with little or no ap- plication of engineering science, wasting annually fabulous sums in this way. 6. It makes practically no provision for the maintenance of completed roads. So seemingly disheartening and dis- couraging is the rapidity with which hard-surfaced roads go to pieces under this lax method that the stupid neglect to which newly made roads are subjected has been declared by some "the worst enemy of the good roads movement." 7. It provides no accurate survey or classification of roads. The determination of local conditions and the collection of data constitute the foundation of every scientific undertak- ing, but for roads, as for other phases of agriculture, scarcely a beginning has been made in this direction. 8. The system as a whole is supported by insufficient legislation. Herein lies the source of its other defects. But back of this and of every other deficiency named, lies the great original defect of insufficient attention on the part of the people as a whole. This, in the last analysis, is the most serious need of all, and for its correction nothing but the stimulating influence of education will avail. Reference will be made to this point in a later connection. ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 117 Suggestions for an Improved Highway System. Plans for an improved highway system are numerous. The ideal American system, however, should not be patterned closely after the systems of Europe. This is now considered a serious error by many students of road administration. Our situation with vast stretches of open country and little build- ing material presents exceedingly difficult and individual con- ditions for which a distinctly American method must be devised. But the one respect in which we may safely imitate European models is that of equal efficiency. To this end an improved system would call for the fur- ther strengthening and development of the present Office of Public Roads, so that its already efficient service might be still further increased. In conjunction with this office, yet distinct from it, the establishment of a National Highway Commission would seem wise. This commission should be an advisory council designed chiefly to arbitrate in road mat- ters between states, and to secure the working coordination of the state highway departments. The best organization within the state seems to be that of vesting the general con- trol of road affairs in the hands of a state highway commis- sion which shall be either an appointive or elective office, preferably an appointive one. The responsible head of actual road construction^ within the state, however, should be a thoroughly trained and efficient state highway engineer, em- ployed by the state highway commission. This office should be wholly removed from political favoritism. In each county, working under the supervision and direction of the state high- way engineer should be a county engineer. This office, also, should be wholly removed from politics, the occupants being employed by a county highway commission especially elected for this purpose. Under the jurisdiction of the county engi- neer should be a group of supervisors or overseers, varying Ii8 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL in number with the amount and difficulty of the highway work in the county. These men should be in direct authority over the gangs of workmen but should be assisted by fore- men whom they select. This plan is but roughly suggestive, but it is apparent that when some such continuity of pur- pose exists, good roads will come as a natural consequence, and not before. Some Progressive Road Movements and Reforms : Legis- lative Improvements. Numerous reforms are now forth- coming designed to overcome one or more of the defects just set forth. Chief among these are the legislative provisions for the improvement of the system. The gradual expansion of the national Office of Public Roads through increased funds and the employment of more officials has been one of the most effective movements for progress. Legislative enactment for the improvement of state supervision has also been especially marked in recent road history. Twenty-five states now possess official highway commissions, whereas less than twenty years ago no states availed themselves of this opportunity. In county and local organization, reform is further advancing. Missouri, long famed for her bad roads, but now redeeming this reputation through the bestowal upon humanity of D. Ward King and his famous road drag, is recently proving, the effi- ciency of a well directed county system. The control of county road administration in Missouri is optionally placed in the hands of the county court, which acts also as a county highway com- mission and is authorized to employ a trained engineer to direct the highway work of the county. This engineer di- vides the county into road districts, determining the size, shape, and number of such districts upon the basis of economy and convenience, rather than by township or other political unit. Each district is then placed under the immediate super- vision of district overseers, who direct the laborers employed in the actual work of construction and maintenance. These ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM H9 overseers are also appointed, not politically elected, and prop- erty road tax is due the state in cash. State Aid and Increased Revenue. Significant reform is coming also in the increase of funds appropriated for road building, and in the manner through which these sums are raised. The wasteful plan of allowing local tax to be worked out upon the roads is rapidly being corrected. Federal aid, though not yet forthcoming, is enthusiastically sought and seemingly near at hand. The most progressive reform in a financial way has been the increased provision for state aid. Thirty-two states now furnish more or less financial aid to local communities desiring to build roads. In other states free material prepared in the state penal institutions is fur- nished in addition or in lieu of financial aid. Among the states that led in state aid in 19 10 were New York, appro- priating two and one-half million dollars ; Massachusetts, one million, and Pennsylvania, one million. In Massachusetts the state pays the whole expense of all roads built. Developments in Road Science. Nowhere throughout the entire field of road administration has greater progress been made than in the development of road science. Because of the overbalancing percentage of earth roads in this country (ninety-five per cent) great effort has been expended upon this phase of the problem. Location, drainage, and dragging have been especially emphasized in this connection. Road surfacing is another line of endeavor in which great progress has been made. Nothing has so taxed the thought of modern highway engineers as the search for a surfacing that will stand the ravages of automobiles. In this connection it is interesting to note the paradoxical influence of the auto- mobile which through the demand of motorists for better highways builds up roads even while tearing them down. No phase of highway progress shows a greater develop- ment of applied road science than the experimental work of 120 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL the national Office of Public Roads in designing various types of highway construction to meet local conditions. Aside from the dragged earth roads the following types have been developed. The sand-clay road is adapted to any region affording both sand and clay. Of all the miserable surfaces over which a team can struggle, sand is probably the worst, with clay a close second. But fortunately these two dreaded soils An Automobile Ravaging a Road present opposite characteristics. The essence of economy in handling such roads therefore is to mix the two substances until the bad qualities of one have neutralized those of the other. This is done by putting sand upon a clay road and clay upon a sandy one. The larger, coarser, and more angu- lar the sand grains, the more firmly they wedge and cement together and the more successful the undertaking. When well dragged and properly shaped such roads become sur- prisingly good highways. ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM I2 i In large areas of the South, especially along the Mississippi river, sedimentary clays are very common. Upon investiga- tion the clinkering point of many of these clays has been found sufficiently low to suggest that the simple burning of their surface by open wood fires would serve to harden them. To accomplish this the road bed is first plowed deeply and furrowed into large transverse furrows connected by a longi- tudinal one acting as a flue. Wood is then placed in the furrows, partially covered, and fired, baking the lumps of clay among it as it burns. When cooled sufficiently, this burnt-clay road, as it is called, is immediately rolled and dragged into shape with a decided crown to turn rainfall. In other regions of the country where sand abounds but no clay is to be found, some other method of dampening the sand and increasing its rigidity must be devised than the application of clay. To meet this demand oils have been applied with fair success, producing what is known as the oiled road. Such roads are most common in sections of Cali- fornia where the presence of oil wells within reasonable distance makes this treatment especially practicable. In the Middle West, where, owing to the absence of good building material and the value of farm lands, the road prob- lem is more acute than in any other section, beds of gravel are often found which make the construction of gravel roads possible. In the building of gravel roads three particular errors are common. First, the gravel is merely dumped upon the roadway and not screened and applied in layers after the manner of macadam as it should be. Second, the wrong kind of gravel is used. Sharp, angular gravel is the only kind that will hold its place well, the rounded river gravel, most common in the Middle West, being altogether too smooth to remain in position. Third, the maintenance and repair of the road, when not wholly neglected, is ordinarily accomplished by throwing loose material upon the surface 122 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL without any attempt at making it cement. These ordinary practices, familiar sights along almost any graveled road, explain its early decay. The height of rural highway perfection is the macadam road. This type of road building, gets its name from its originator, MacAdam, a Scotch road scientist who about 1812 designed the road bearing his name. The initial step in the building of a macadam road is the preparation of the road bed. This is of the utmost importance and involves several processes within itself. The first of these is grading. After this the road bed is rolled with a steam roller to make it firm and smooth and to produce a crown. The first layer of crushed stone is then applied and rolled. This layer con- sists of stone about two and one-half inches in diameter. The upper course or layer of stone, consisting of fragments from one-half to one and one-quarter inches in diameter, is then put on. After this, water is sprinkled over the completed surface to aid in the process of cementing, and the heavy roller is worked long and faithfully. Macadam roads as built in the United States are generally from twelve to fifteen feet wide, and from four to six inches thick, though recent prac- tice is to make the stone surface as thin as possible yet with sufficient body to endure the traffic imposed upon it. The cost of macadam road varies from two to five thousand dollars per mile, depending upon the availability of material. The maintenance and care of macadam roads is a science of itself. The three cardinal requisites of good maintenance have been declared : proper sub-drainage, prompt and efficient repair, and the keeping of the surface free from mud and dust. All of these, it must be confessed, are often dis- regarded under the American system of road administration. Increased Road Sentiment and Cooperation. Probably the most encouraging sign of the times pointing toward the advent of better roads is the increased road sentiment and co- ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 123 operation now seen not only among road officials and farm- ers, but throughout the whole population. But notwithstand- ing the great number of organizations for road improve- ment, all that has thus far been accomplished is but a begin- ning. Those who are earnestly conscious of the national need in this direction will still find plenty to do. All reform is said to begin at home and this is especially true of road bet- terment. It is the work of the small organization in the local community which finally proves effective. Among the hundreds of local road organizations throughout the country may be cited the Galva Road Improvement Association, of Henry County, Illinois. This organization has adopted the cash system of road work, instituted a road-dragging cam- paign, and united the entire community, both town and coun- try, in an effective movement for highway improvement. Among the most spectacular road feats ever performed is the recent dragging of the Iowa River-to-River Road, extend- ing from Davenport to Council Bluffs, a distance of three hundred eighty miles. This interesting thoroughfare, pass- ing through twelve counties and connecting scores of towns, is the result of a newspaper agitation aroused by the Des Moines Capital. The significant factor in the making of this highway was the cooperation developed. "It has taken two months," says a reporter, "to build the road, but it took four months to build the organization that built the road." While the desire for road improvement is chiefly measur- able in local terms, there is a proper place for the many state and national organizations now covering this field. Among these should be mentioned first the numerous state good roads associations. Voluntary organizations of this type exist in practically all the states, and in most cases are carrying on effective campaigns. In some instances states confronted by similar highway difficulties have formed sectional road asso- ciations as the Southern Appalachian Good Roads Associa- I2 4 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL tion, which has been organized for the definite purpose of providing ways and means for the construction of five hun- dred miles of improved roads in the southern Appalachian mountain region. Of the national road leagues now in force the first to form was the National Good Roads Association, organized in 1900. The chief purpose of this organization is to educate the public to the necessity of good roads. To this end it holds Marking the Route of the Iowa River-to-River Dragged Road This road extends across the state of Iowa, a distance of 380 miles large annual conventions and works chiefly through lectures and the press. State highway departments realizing the simi- larity of their problems have also formed a special organiza- tion known as the American Highway League, which is de- signed primarily "to encourage highway improvement and provide effective cooperation between state road departments and other state and federal departments interested in roads." Among the latest national highway organizations is the Amer- ican Association for Highway Improvement, organized in the ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM "5 fall of 1 9 10. This association intends to serve as a national head for all road organizations and has undertaken as its Herculean task "the correlation and harmonizing of the ef- forts of all existing organizations working for road improve- ment." It serves also as a general clearing house for high- way information, and may be reached through the address given in the rural progress directory of this book. Surmount- ing all local, state, and national effort at road organization stands the Permanent International Association of Road Con- gresses. This association holds biennial international road congresses, the first of which convened in Paris in 1908, and the second in Brussels in 1910. These congresses indicate the significance with which the problem of road improvement is viewed by the nations of the world, and prove sources of untold worth for the exchange of national engineering discoveries and the development of road science. Road Beautifying. When people become truly inter- ested in a project they evince a desire to adorn it. It is therefore encouraging to see a beginning toward road beau- tifying. Certainly nothing adds more to either the aesthetic or material value of land than an attractive highway. In older countries this has long been appreciated, and the charm of English lanes and European drives is greatly famed. In our new land the fearful toil necessary to subjugate the con- tinent and acquire the primal comforts of life largely excuses the neglect with which this phase of road improvement has been treated. It does not, however, in any degree, excuse the wanton ruin and indifference with which trees are still muti- lated, weeds disregarded, and rubbish dumped along our public thoroughfares. Tree planting and the mowing of weeds should be the first steps for the beautifying of our American highways. Trees are often supposed to injure roads, but the contrary is usually 126 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL the case. Macadam roads especially are benefited by them, as they conserve moisture and prevent dust. Even earth roads are improved by trees, provided they are not planted too closely. Planting alternately, on opposite sides, placing a tree every twenty-five feet along the roadway, is the distance recommended for tree setting by the Office of Public Roads. In Germany, fruit trees are planted along roads, and a large highway rev- enue comes from this source. Aside from this adornment enthusiasts of this phase of road im- provement look forward to the time when every important road shall bear a name, farmhouses along it being named or num- bered, and all confusing crossings being marked with well-kept guide signs. Certainly this would add much to the convenience of farm living and should be welcomed by those who expect to spend their days upon the land. Road Education. Of all movements for road progress, however, none is so significant as road education, since the road question, like other problems, is chiefly a matter of public enlightenment. Much is being done in this direction, but that more is needed is clearly apparent from the present conditions of our highways. At the head of highway propa- ganda stands the federal Office of Public Roads. The pri- mary purpose of this bureau is educational and in this direc- tion no division of our national Department of Agriculture A Noble Sentinel ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 127 is rendering greater service. 1 This office not only serves the general purpose of a national clearing house for highway information, but carries on scientific research and experi- mentation, and disseminates the vast amount of information thus gained to the general public in the form of bulletins. The fact that these bulletins cost little or nothing and their scien- tific reliability and ofttimes attractive literary style, make them valuable road texts for popular use. As a second method of arousing road sentiment, object-lesson roads are constructed by the department. Still another means of public education employed by the federal road department is a printed lecture upon the subject of roads and road building illustrated with stereopticon slides. This lecture may be obtained free for use in any community through the Office of Public Roads at Washington, or of Farmers' Institute Specialist John Hamilton. Next to the federal office the most effective agencies for road instruction are the various state highway departments. The educational work carried on by these offices is quite sim- ilar to that of the national office. Lectures, correspondence, bulletins, and annual reports all help to serve the desired end, while much actual surveying, supervision, and engineering assistance of every kind is afforded for county and local officials. Among the many other agencies now in the field of highway enlightenment should be mentioned the meetings, reports, and general propaganda work of road organizations, both large and local. Another agency deserving special notice for the daily increase of good road sentiment is the newspaper. It would be difficult, indeed, to measure the influence of the 1 For a full explanation of the services of the Office of Public Roads, and an excellent practical discussion of the road problem, see Roads, Paths and Bridges, by L. W. Page, published by the Sturgis & Walton Co., New York. Price 85 cents postpaid. 128 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL general press in this direction. Special road magazines, also, as Southern Good Roads (Lexington, North Carolina) and Good Roads (150 Nassau Street, New York) are contributing a full share to the growth of such sentiment. But the farm journals of the country are upon the whole scarcely giving as much attention to roads and the other social forces of farm life as they might. Of recent years the farmers' institute, the Grange, and other farm organizations are increasing, their efforts for road education and accomplishing much. Even A Properly Dragged Earth Road This road, having been properly dragged for over ten years, is now almost as hard and firm as stone railroad companies are joining the reform movement, and "good roads trains," carrying expert lecturers and improved machinery, have been run by several lines. The special courses in road instruction offered in state agricultural col- leges are another important factor in this new development. Not only the extended courses designed for the thorough training of expert engineers, but the "short courses" planned for practical farmers and petty road officers are significant in this direction. ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 29 The Country School and the Road Problem. Responsi- bility of the country school for the awakening of a good roads sentiment. But with all this activity the social and economic value of good roads is not yet sufficiently appreciated. Pri- marily the road issue, though a national problem, is in the hands of farmers, and the real farmer out in the field and his wife in the kitchen are the very people who are not being reached as they should be and must be. For this reason the educational agencies now existing in the immediate farm community must be utilized to preach the doctrine of good roads. This brings the problem to the door of the country school. By this it is not meant that the little country school should attempt to give technical instruction in road building. This would be thoroughly ridiculous. It is meant, however, that the country school should do its part in instituting a good roads sentiment among the children and people of its community. And this is by no means ridiculous. Just how this instruction shall be given will depend upon the individual teacher and the conditions under which she works. Sometimes it may be done quite incidentally, largely through general conversation with the children and older boys. Such means supplemented by a stock of government bulletins, procured from the Office of Public Roads, after the manner set forth in the appendix of this book (Section 5), which can-be placed in the hands of the boys for reading and comment, may prove effective. Frequently the subject can be related to the general work of the school. This is quite the best way. Drainage is related to geography and also to roads. Therefore why not introduce the two strangers, geog- raphy and roads, through their common relative? The laws of nature study or science, also, as shown in freezing, con- traction, and expansion will be found to embody many prin- ciples that can be admirably illustrated by the road before the schoolhouse. And what could furnish a better subject 130 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL for themes and written composition than the improvement of roads? When a more systematic and connected study is possible, it may be given in the country life course suggested on page 245. Such a course was once worked out and presented in a country school; therefore it can be done again, or some- thing similar to it. In giving this work the important thing is to stimulate the doing of things. Active expression in the school where this became a reality was provided for in the fact that the larger boys of the school cut the weeds of the roadway bordering the school yard and their own homes, and dragged their allotted section of highway. These same boys and girls in the study of the various types of roads performed several simple experiments, as the mixing of sands and clays and the puddling of fresh earth into a state of plasticity, an experiment which illustrates the principle of road drag- ging. They also constructed a miniature macadam road while studying that type, to illustrate some of the principles in- volved. Short newspaper articles on the road question were written meantime and contributed to the local papers. In Missouri the teaching of some elementary road study in the schools is now required by law and a special text, Ravenel's Road Primer (A. C. McClurg and Company, Chi- cago) has been prepared for use in this connection. Country teachers who feel incompetent to organize the work sug- gested here upon their own initiative will do well to use this text, which is simply written and well adapted to its pur- pose. Every country school library should possess a copy of this primer. But in road education as in all lines of social service the country school must reach not only children but adults, too. This can be done through debates, papers, and discussions in local community meetings held at the schoolhouse as described in Chapter X, and through the interest stimulated ROADS AND THE ROAD PROBLEM 131 by the teacher's personal leadership and suggestion. The co- operation of the teacher and school with the local farmers' institute and road organization will be sure to prove fruitful also. In neighborhoods where no local organizations exist, the school, through the interest it creates, may become the prime factor in starting such an association and inducing farmers to drag their sections of road systematically and scientifically. All this implies, to be sure, that the country teacher should know something of roads and road improvements, and it is not impossible to acquire this knowledge immediately notwith- standing all difficulties. Some of the essential things country teachers should know about roads and impress upon chil- dren are included in this chapter. By considering the points here presented and reading the government bulletins and other starred references in the bibliography on roads, also by attending road meetings when possible, and talking to local road officers and farmers, the earnest teacher will find that she has become quite a road propagandist before she knows it. Influence of roads upon the welfare of country schools. In this undertaking, as in all other attempts at making the school a community center, teachers and others interested must hold to the long view of rural progress. They must see involved in this road movement the new destiny of the country school, which is determined by road improvement more largely than by any other one factor. They must see standing at the end of the undrained stretch of mire the little ungraded, inefficient country school, but standing at the end of the smooth serviceable highway the country school of the future, graded, consolidated, pleasant to look upon, and thoroughly efficient — a farm school of the new day, capable of answering all the requirements laid upon it. Roads of the Future. This new life means new demands upon the roads of the future. It means in the first place a 132 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL road which will be serviceable at all times and in all seasons, and for this there is but one solution — hard surfaced roads. True, they will be expensive, but they must come. The new road must be beautiful, also, with green sward and stately trees, for beauty ministers to as real a need as utility. To these qualities of serviceableness and beauty the road of the future must add permanence. It must meet all the requirements now being placed upon it. It must especially be beyond the rav- The Road of the Future Macadamized, and serviceable at all seasons of the year ages of the automobile, for the automobile is here to stay and to become the general servant of all the people. The farmer, who but yesterday stood by the side of the road holding, his horses' heads and heaping vengeance upon the motorist, rides today in an automobile himself and enjoys its convenience as much as others. Presently he will send his children in one over thoroughly serviceable roads to the farm school of the future. Then will the new country life be full upon us. CHAPTER VII THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY IN THE SOLUTION OF THE FARM PROBLEM 1 Function of the Country School Defined. Some of the possibilities of the farm home, the country church, the Grange, the farmers' institute, and of roads, as agencies for country life progress, have been set forth in preceding pages. It now remains to consider in more detail the office of the country school and the significance of the rural educational system to this end. As a preliminary step in this treatment it will first be necessary to define the function of the country school. The permanent, primary function of the school in all society is to educate. From the elementary school, which deals chiefly with children, to the university or special school for adults, this responsibility holds, and must ever be acknowledged the first duty of the school. But within recent years a broadened interpretation and definition of education has grown up, until the school has taken over many of the duties of the home, the church, and other social institutions. In the congested dis- tricts of cities the school often becomes practically the whole guardian of unfortunate children, not only educating, but feeding, clothing, and doctoring them as well. These manifold tasks are put upon the school because of all social institutions it is most adaptable and most capable of serving numerous and varied ends. Thus it has come about that any neglected or 1 It was my first intention to divide this book at this point into two parts, but upon further reflection it seemed better not to do so. The chief difficulty of the country school is just this separation from com- munity life which I should thereby emphasize. — The author. 133 134 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL unprovided condition of society is usually relegated to the school for correction. In considering the undesirable aspects of the present rural situation it is therefore not unwarranted to maintain, as is being done throughout this book, that a special function of the country school, imposed by present rural conditions, is that it shall become an initiator of various phases of rural progress and a center for the building of the community. Expressing this twofold task of the school — that is, its educational and its social responsibility — as one, the complete function of the country school may be summarized in the phrase, the country school as a center for redirected educa- tion and community building. The School as a Center for the Building of the Country Community. In communities where they are well estab- lished, the church, the Grange, the farmers' institute, and other social organizations and institutions have unquestionably a profound influence upon rural welfare. But there are still many sections even in our richest agricultural states, in which little or no attention is given to any of these agencies. Country churches are rare, the Grange is little known to the general rural public, and but four per cent of the farmers of the United States take any active part in the farmers' institute. The chief reason for this is that farmers do not appreciate the value of strong social institutions and well-developed commu- nities. This resolves the whole question into a matter of the enlightenment or education of country people, and makes the school, the institution of society assigned to control educa- tion, a chief means of attack upon the rural situation. It is through the country school and its influence that farmers, both present and future, may most directly come to appre- ciate the true significance of country life and the' possibili- ties of all organizations and agencies working toward its betterment. By this it is not implied that the school can do all, or that THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY 135 it shall assume the work of other institutions. The church can reach a higher, pinnacle of spiritual power than the school — the farmers' institute, the farmers' club, and the business and professional organization, each has its special task which the school can neither cover nor gainsay. The fundamental con- tention here, and the only contention, is that the school is generally the best and most available agency in the local coun- The Country School as a Community Center try community for introducing various phases of rural im- provement and for instituting immediate progress. By reason of its peculiarly effective position the school, as shown in ear- lier chapters, can react upon home life, further church prog- ress, teach the necessity of road improvement, and cooperate in the introduction and development of the Grange, farmers' institute, and other farm organizations. In other words, the school is the best and most available center for the upbuilding I 3 6 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL of the country community and may become the most imme- diate and effective local agency in the solution of the farm problem. Hence the importance of the rural educational sys- tem and the necessity of giving it serious attention in any attempt at bettering the unfavorable conditions of country life. This interpretation of the function of the country school as one of social leadership and community service implies that it must reach not only children but adults. No argument is needed to establish the desirability of this service, and the method through which it may be realized is suggested in the concluding paragraphs of former chapters and in the illustra- tions of country teacher leadership cited in chapter nine. It should be clearly understood, however, that the social interpretation of the function of the country school made here does not necessarily imply, and should by no means tolerate, a neglect of its educational responsibility. The first duty of every school, as formerly stated, is to educate. But to edu- cate properly is to cause a change in conduct, and the hypothe- sis that the country school shall so govern its instruction as to cause a change in social attitude and community condi- tions and relationships in no way clashes with its original pur- pose. In fact, it may be made to further educational ends as will appear in the record of concrete instances later (page 230). Advantages of the Country School for Rural Institu- tional Leadership. The advantages of the school for serving as a community center and as a temporary leader among rural social institutions may be briefly summarized as follows : 1. The school is the chief agency of education and, as formerly pointed out, the whole rural problem is a problem of education. 2. It is a democratic community institution, representing the whole community. In this respect the school stands alone, THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY 137 and in sharp contrast with all other rural institutions; since the church usually means just the church members; the Grange, its own patrons, and even the farmers' institute but its own following. With the school, on the other hand, every individual in the neighborhood has a vital connection, owing to the taxes it necessitates, if for no other reason. 3. It exists everywhere. Every country community has a school, though the Grange, farmers' institute, and even the An Average Country School Untold possibilities for community service lie dormant in such schools as this church, may be lacking. This general availability, together with its peculiar educational function and democratic nature, gives the school a tremendous leverage upon rural conditions. 4. Its financial support is legally assured. This is more significant than at first appears. Because of this provision the school as an institution is relieved from the humiliating penury that often characterizes the country church. 5. The school as a specialized agent of the state is an insti- tution of authority. It compels attention, support, and attend- 138 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL ance. Here again the school excels the church and all other social institutions except the state. 6. It can fulfill a wide range of demands; not only educa- tional, but spiritual, social, and professional as well. 7. It can innovate progress along all lines and through various other rural social institutions, as has been set forth in the early chapters of this discussion. 8. It is most immediate in the effect of its work and leader- ship because closest to the heart of the general public. 9. It is most nearly ready to lead because country teachers of all rural social workers are most easily and quickly trained for rural leadership. This point is of vital significance in the interpretation of the function of the country school as made here and will be given further consideration in a later chapter. Leadership of the School Largely a Temporary Function. But with all these advantages for institutional and community leadership, the school must recognize its limitations and give place to other institutions when once these are established and awakened, realizing that its chief mission has been ful- filled through the stimulation of other agencies. This is a very significant conception which all who would work toward the best development of country life, however enthusiastic over the leadership of the school, or church, or other single institution, should ponder well. Any argument among social institutions of which shall be first and which last is altogether futile. There is more than enough work for all, and the only safe criterion for the school, as for other institutions, is to fix attention on the ultimate and common good and direct its action accordingly, leading or following as occasion demands. When the time comes for the school to follow, it must accept the change of rank and fulfill its obligations as efficiently as before ; though it may be said that the large and varied office of education will always be sufficiently important to dignify any institution. In the present transitory period, THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY 139 however, the place of the school in country community life is undoubtedly that of institutional leadership, and for this office it must shortly procure the necessary degree of efficiency. Needs of the Country School. The needs of the school for realizing the twofold function just defined are many. The following enumeration is not complete, but covers the most urgent deficiencies : 1. Educational redirection. By this is meant the imparting of instruction to country children in terms of rural experience. 2. Physical improvement. 3. Social redirec- tion . The school must gain the com- munity attitude and become a community or social center. 4. Trained teach- ers. 5. Better super- vision. 6. Better legisla- tion. 7. A change of system, or consolida- tion. An Ancient Landmark of Learning The strong' country school of forty years ago now presents but a poor shadow of its former glory 8. Increased cooperation on the part of people and di- rectors. 9. Sufficient revenue. The first seven of these needs will receive detailed discus- sion in succeeding chapters. The last two are implied through- out as the basis of all other improvement, but may be en- forced by a word of comment here. A sufficient revenue, which implies cooperation on the part of people and directors, I 4 o COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL since money is the medium through which public interest is made tangible, is absolutely fundamental to country school improvement. Good teaching, modern buildings, and ample equipment, all cost money — more money than country people are often willing to provide. Two aspects of this issue are significant. In the first place it is evident upon a little inves- tigation that farmers as a rule usually raise but a small frac- tion of the amount they might legally levy for school mainte- nance and improvement. Country school penury is proverbial. This is quite as true in wealthy sections as in poor agricul- tural regions. In Illinois, for example, it is unusual to find a country district levying the maximum legal rate, though scores of towns and cities in the state are taxing themselves to this limit and thinking nothing of it. The inequality that exists here is shown in the fact that for the United States as a whole an average of about thirty-three dollars is expended annually for the education of each city child, while for each country child but thirteen dollars is used. LTntil this injustice is remedied the question of revenue will remain a fundamental need of the country school. A second aspect of the money question as related to rural education is that what money is raised by farmers for school purposes fails to realize adequate returns. The underlying reason for this rests in the inefri- ciency of the present country school system as will appear in the following paragraphs. The One-Teacher Country School System and Its De- fects. The one-teacher school system, as frequently main- tained, has served humanity long and well. In New England alone, it has turned out enough poets, statesmen, writers, and scientists to recommend any system of education, to say noth- ing of its power in the later pioneer days of the West. Let us not minimize the good work of the little red schoolhouse. It has dear associations for us all ; it has had untold influence on the American republic. But it has served its day. It THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY I 4 I belongs, not to the present with its many urgent demands for varied and special training, but to the past. As a system, it is typical of a primitive social order in which each individual was a jack-of-all-trades, fitted to do all things passably well, and no one thing especially so. It has no place in a highly com- plicated social life like that of today, in which competition is the keynote of the age, and where each individual must spe- Harlem Consolidated School, Winnebago County, Illinois Consolidation offers the only adequate solution of the country school problem cialize more or less and make himself capable of rendering good service in at least one line. Two significant facts should be noted by those who extol the present country school. In the first place, it is well to remember that in the history of education the one-teacher system was developed first, and that the graded system came later as an outgrowth and improvement. This in itself is some I 4 2 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL proof of the increased efficiency of the latter. Another point that should be forcibly impressed upon the minds of those who recall the ungraded rural system in its prime, and pic- ture the country school of today as enrolling from fifty to ninety half-grown and adult young men and women, and mak- ing its influence felt throughout the whole community, is the fact that the strong country school of forty years ago has gradually decayed and now presents but a poor shadow of its former glory. What the unobserving, unthinking farmer of today recalls as the country school of his boyhood, no longer exists. The wide-awake scholarly young man he remembers as the country teacher has long ago attained his desired ambition in the law or the ministry, and has been replaced by an inex- perienced, untrained slip of a girl from city high school or neighboring community. The comfortable, convenient building he remembers is now aged and dilapidated, while the troop of hearty boys and girls his imagination sees have turned city- ward in search of a more extended training than the old system can maintain, and left but a handful of unfortunate stragglers. There was a time, it is true, when the country school was the center of attraction; when spelling-bees, liter- ary societies, singing schools, and debating clubs made it the life of the neighborhood. The school system was then fitted to the social needs of the generation. But owing to industrial changes, educational specialization, city migration, and many other causes, this time has gone by. Such rural school pros- perity can be again attained only through the upbuilding and adaptation of the whole educational system. The old country school of the past has gone, never to return. By this it is not implied that there are now no well- conducted schools under the old system. Here and there are still communities where the highest possible efficiency of the system is realized. Such instances, however, are the exception rather than the rule, and in their prosperity but prove the THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY H3 limitations of the ungraded system. Suppose a school to be blessed with a capable, earnest teacher and a liberal board of directors, housed in a modern, sanitary building, and composed of a fair number of children — suppose, in brief, that every- thing possible has been done to add to the work and worth of the school; yet, even under the most favorable conditions, three incurable defects still remain: 1. The school having from six to eight grades, each grade with at least four daily recitations, demands more work than one teacher can possibly do well in the meager time allotted, to say nothing of the strength, scholarship, and ability required for such a task. 2. The small number of children enrolled very frequently makes an uninteresting school, and never fails, even in larger schools, to necessitate the formation of some classes of one, two, or three children. Such conditions are abnormal and anti-social. The stray children of these classes consequently lose interest, dawdle, and often drop out of school altogether, through the simple lack of companionable associates. 3. The third defect, the fact that the system provides no high school course and still costs as much per capita as a graded system providing the best of secondary schools, is perhaps its worst feature. Country people in order to secure the advantages of a high school for their children do one of two things, both detrimental to farm life. In the first place, they usually send the boy or girl under consideration away from the home into the care of an urban high school whose interests, courses, and tendencies are naturally so arranged as to lead the country child directly away from the farm to the town or city. In this way, hundreds of the most capable young people are drained from the country every year. The farmer, in the meantime, proceeds to support two schools, one in the home district and one in town, thus yielding him- self to as double and unequal a system of taxation as any 144 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL ever devised. Sometimes, as an alternative for this, the whole family moves to town "to educate the children." Whoever has seen the piteous spectacle of idle farmers discontentedly loafing away their time while the children are being educated — and who has not? — needs no comment on this state of • Domestic Science in the Harlem Consolidated School Redirected teaching- can here become a reality affairs. And here, too, the country suffers again. We shall never solve the farm problem as long as the most energetic and ambitious leaders of country life are being forced into cities to provide educational advantages for their children. The defects of the present rural educational system just cited are the permanent ones for which no remedy can be THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY 145 provided without a fundamental change of system. As for- merly stated, they exist even under the most favorable condi- tions. But unfortunately, conditions are not always, in fact, not ordinarily, favorable. Usually, country schools are more inefficient and present far more defects than those just por- trayed. Physically, they are often eyesores on the land- scape. Socially and educationally, they are equal failures. Chil- dren's clubs, parent conferences, and community meetings are usually all unknown. Who cares to go to a dingy, dilapidated build- ing to spend an afternoon or eve- ning? And how much redirected teaching is likely to be done by a teacher who is compelled to hear from twenty to twenty-five recita- tions in one day? Still another defect of the one-teacher system lies in the fact that though teach- ing, like all other professions, is now characterized by the highest specialization, one teacher is ex- pected to handle equally well all ages of children from six to twenty. These several defects are serious and numerous enough, it would seem, to condemn any educational system. The Country School System of the Future. The coun- try school system of the future must remedy the weaknesses of the existing system just emphasized. This means, briefly, that it must be a system typical of our present complex social life. In other words, it must be a several-teacher or graded system, which will make possible a division of labor among An Expensive Estab- lishment Teacher and pupils. Cost per capita $125 a year 146 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL teachers, permitting some degree of specialization, and there- fore better professional service. By referring to the country school system of the future as a graded system it is not meant that it shall be a rigid, over- organized machine, imitating the errors of large city schools. Present inefficiency is to be preferred to this. The end desired is a division of labor among teachers, not overdone grading and the copying of urban models. But the one does not neces- sarily imply the other. And this the country school system of the future, as here conceived, will clearly verify. To procure such a system, it is only necessary for farmers to adjust themselves to their environment, eliminate distance by transportation, gather their children into larger groups, collect scattered funds, and combine the heroic but fruitless and ineffective effort now wasted on the old, outgrown sys- tem. Why advantages so easily gained by the simple act of increasing the size of the district are so slowly grasped will probably long remain a mystery in the record of education. Perhaps the very simplicity of the undertaking baffles interest and faith in its efficiency. However this may be, it is clearly evident that such a sys- tem, so maintained, will provide, among other things, a com- fortable, sanitary, attractive school home where country chil- dren may enjoy all the conveniences ordinarily ascribed to city life; a building which, at least, can be what few country schools are now — clean, well-lighted, well-heated, and properly ventilated. A school of this kind, moreover, owing to its size, dignity, and attractiveness, can exert a social influence impossible to the little one-room school set off by itself in comparative isolation. The consolidated school may become an influential neighborhood center for lectures, talks, concerts, literary programs, and similar gatherings. The nature of the system also provides the one-in-a-class child companionable associates, increases the general interest and enthusiasm of THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY 147 the school through increased numbers, and through the min- gling of the children, soon overcomes the social bans and barriers of the small neighborhood, in the broader interests of the larger community. Educationally, the graded system makes possible for the children of farmers all the advantages now enjoyed by the most favored city children. No other method of providing School Float, Harlem Consolidated School The consolidated school can exert a social influence impossible to the little one- room school the country boy and girl equal opportunity has ever been devised. Three or four teachers doing, the work formerly attempted by one can naturally do greater justice both to themselves and to the children under their charge. Redirected 148 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL teaching and a vitalized course of study can then become a reality. This, and the ultimate fulfilment of such a course through a good high school, makes the graded or consolidated system the only adequate solution of the country school problem'. Consolidation the Fundamental Need of Country Schools. The country school, let it be repeated, is the most direct and immediate point of attack upon the unfavorable conditions of country life. Increasing its efficiency is necessarily the first step toward progress. But no adequate degree of efficiency is possible under the existing one-teacher system. The imme- diate need for our country schools is for an army of far- seeing, heroic teachers who will go forth to impress upon farmers and others the inefficiency of the outgrown system. But the fundamental need is deeper than this. And upon it educational redirection, service as a community center, effi- cient teaching, the holding of trained teachers, and all else, depend. The fundamental need of country schools is a change of system, or consolidation. CHAPTER VIII CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS Definition and Types. By the consolidation of country schools is meant the union of two or more of them. Four classifications of consolidated schools may be made: I. The The John Swaney Consolidated School, McNabb, Putnam County, Illinois complete or township type, embracing all the schools of a whole township. 2. The partial type, including but a frac- tional part of a township. 3. The village or town type, located 149 i5o COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL in a town or village. 4. The country type, by which is meant the consolidated school located in the open country. Of these four kinds of consolidated schools, the last or country type is most desirable from both the social and pedagogical points of view, as will appear throughout this discussion. Possibilities of Consolidation: The John Swaney Con- solidated School of Putnam County, Illinois. As a concrete Barn and Janitor's House, John Swaney School study, illustrating the splendid possibilities of the consolidated school, and explaining the insistent commendation of consoli- dation made throughout this book, the John Swaney Consoli- dated School of Putnam County, Illinois, is selected. This school, which State Superintendent F. G. Blair of Illinois describes as "a school so perfect that I would gladly take my boys out of the Springfield schools and place them in it, if possible," was selected for special report in 1909 by the Com- CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 151 mittee on Industrial Education in Rural Schools of the Na- tional Education Association, "as affording the best example of public sentiment, private liberality, and wise organization combined, that the committee was able to find in any consoli- dated district in the United States." One of the most satisfying characteristics of the John Swaney School, to those who believe in the fulness of country life, is its location in an open country community one and one-half miles from the nearest village and ten miles from even a fair-sized town. In April, 1908, the writer pre- pared an article for an educational journal concerning the history, work, and spirit of this school, founded upon her personal acquaintance as a teacher in the com- munity. Much of the fol- lowing account is taken from this article. The early settlers of the Clear Creek c o m - munity of Putnam County were chiefly Quakers, who brought with them to the prairies of the West wholesome religious views and an enduring faith in education. The first building erected in these pioneer days was probably the "meeting house," but near it simultaneously grew the com- munity schools. Early in the history of these first schools two strong literary societies sprang up, and flourished without a break for over a quarter of a century. The influence of these "literaries" can scarcely be imagined — nor their aspirations, either. Shakespearean plays were several times attempted and staged on country school platforms ! Through good teaching, s ■■^m Teachers' Cottage, John Swaney School 152 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL literary societies, debating clubs, and all, these early schools grew stronger day by day. Eighty and ninety pupils were enrolled in the winter, and before long the community had earned and gained a reputation among school men for big salaries, scholarship, and efficiency. This high tide of prosperity in rural education had lasted some years when a change was discovered. Young men and women no more capable than those of "Quaker Lane" were going beyond the common branches and were acquiring an academy or high school education which seemed to fit them better for the work of the world. This, these Quaker parents saw, and, seeing, determined to give their own children. But the country school of the community was a busy place. The teacher was already an overburdened man and had no time to supply this deficiency. So the only alternative was accepted: the boys and girls zv ere sent azvay to school. Some families moved to town to provide this oppor- tunity and rented their farms in the meantime to foreigners, who took far less interest in educational matters and soon changed the character of the once powerful school. The "liter- aries" died ; the dramatic club failed ; the debating societies sickened and passed away. The enrollment, standing at eighty, fell to twenty and less. It was at this point that the Clear Creek community awoke and began to realize that the cher- ished educational system of the past was failing; that it was Stock Judging Class, John Swaney School CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 53 failing to provide what was due to every child under its control — namely, an educational "square deal." There is a Grange of long standing and great influence in this community. Topics of interest have been considered here twice a month for over forty years, and here the school ques- tion was studied and discussed. The members of this Grange finally concluded that consolidation was the only solution of their problem. But such a conclusion on their part did not mean immediate success. All voters in the community were not convinced Grange members. Some were ignorant for- eigners, afraid of a little tax ; some were mercenary land owners, more afraid of a little tax. In the spring of 1905 the contest was well on. Five districts were con- sidered in the scheme, but an unforeseen diffi- culty, the question of lo- cation, arose. Farmers' institutes, Grange meet- ings, mass meetings, and private discussions, were centered on the subject, but to no avail. The discord among the five districts was too great, and the attempt failed. Before the first failure was assured, however, plans were developing for the second efTort. This time only three adjoining districts were considered. Petitions were quietly circulated and signed, and one night the astonished leaders of the undertaking dis- covered that they had the majority of the legal voters of each district. These petitions were then presented, according to law, to the township trustees, who, seeing that the papers bore Horticultural Class Pruning Trees, John Swaney School 154 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL the required majority of signatures, were supposed to grant the prayer of the petition. But this they refused to do. When such a predicament occurs, the school law of Illinois provides that the question be weighed and decided by the county superin- tendent. To the county superintendent the petitions were then carried. After careful and deliberate consideration, in a most exhaustive legal treatise on the subject, and at some peril to his political prospects, the superintendent, to his ever-enduring honor as a man and protector of children, revoked the decision of the trustees and granted the prayer of the petition. Baseball Field, John Swaney School A year later the building was dedicated. Although not an especially wealthy community, liberal donations in money, about $2,000 in all, were made. Besides this, Mr. and Mrs. John Swaney, or, as they are affectionately known to the chil- dren whose lives they have enriched, "Uncle John and Aunt Sade," gave outright twenty-four acres of beautiful wooded land for a campus. Growing on this campus are three hun- dred noble trees, and through it winds a stream with all the opportunity for study and pleasure that water affords. CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 155 Crowning the campus, here in the heart and quiet of all this natural beauty, stands the building. It was originally planned at a cost of $12,000 but with the equipment installed this sum soon reached approximately $15,000. It is a brick structure containing four good schoolrooms, two laboratories, a library, offices, a shop for manual training, a kitchen for domestic science, a basement playroom, a furnace room, cloak- rooms, indoor toilets, and a large assembly room. It has its own water system and is supplied with light by gasoline gas Girls' Chords, John Swaney School generated from a reservoir buried in the ground outside the building. One of the things such a school system as this in the coun- try necessitates is the conveyance of children. The highways of the Clear Creek community are common earth roads, and transportation, it was declared, could never be managed. But the horses, wagons, and boys of Putnam County have proved the contrary. Two wagons are used. They are especially man- ufactured for the purpose and are provided with long side seats and curtains. In winter, heaters and warm robes are 156 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL provided. Contracts for driving are made for the year at $40 per month. The greatest distance any child has to ride is about four and one-half miles. The wagons start about 7 40 or 8 o'clock. They have been running since September 3, 1906, without interruption or delay, and this in spite of mud, doubt, fear, and injunctions. Truly, "civilization is advancing in Illinois (and elsewhere) in spite of the mud." Perhaps the most unique feature of this whole plan is "Clear Creek Cottage," the home of the teachers. When the old school buildings were abandoned, one was in very good condition. It stands on the campus about forty rods from the new building. Boarding places for the five teachers employed were hard to find, and this building was remodeled into a seven-room cottage, a housekeeper employed, and the problem of board and lodging thus peacefully and happily solved. In another corner of the campus stands a cottage for the janitor, who is kept in steady employment during both summer and winter. But all these things might stand here in hollow mockery without good teaching. This the people of the John Swaney School realize, and have prevented. The principal, who has been well trained in both normal school and university, is paid a salary of $1,000 a year. The other four teachers are equally well trained and proportionately well compensated for their particular work. The course of study in this school is no "mere imitation of city school courses." It presents a well-balanced adjustment of both cultural and practical education and reflects the life of the community at every turn. Agriculture and domestic science are taught in the grades and are strongly emphasized in the high school, where they supplant some of the isolated formal science commonly found in secondary courses. Six acres of the campus are used by the high school as an experi- ment plot, and an excellent school garden is made each year Domestic Science Kitchen and Chemical Laboratory in the John Swaney School 158 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL by children of the intermediate and grammar grades. Sewing, manual training, construction, nature study, music, drawing, and physical training further enrich the course. The high school is fully accredited at the state university, and a large percentage of the young people graduating enter the College of Agriculture, returning in time to the home neighborhood, which they consider "the best place in. the world to live." Close cooperation with the homes is maintained throughout the school work. Two leading farmers in the community give instruction in corn judging ; and horses, cattle, sheep, and other animals and products are brought in frequently by the stu- dents from their homes for class study. The social influence of such a school is one of its best features. The two strong literary societies organized include every pupil in the school, from the primary children to high- school seniors. These societies meet fortnightly and afford practice in parliamentary usage, and various forms of literary participation. One or more good plays are presented each year. Musical organizations add greatly to the pleasure and profit of the school. Athletics, also, receive due attention and are greatly favored through the agency of a special athletic association. The campus is well adapted to sports. Basket- ball, baseball, and tennis all flourish. But this social spirit is not confined to the children alone. Parents' conferences, musicales, entertainments, and community gatherings of every description are held in the auditorium, and an annual lecture course of the highest quality is provided. As indicated in the realizations of the school, there is everywhere the heartiest and most generous devotion on the part of the school patrons. There is no farm problem and no moving to town here. Land has risen rapidly in value, and the few farms rented in the district are sought by the very highest class of renters because of the unusual educational advantages attainable. All that the people of the John Swaney neighborhood have done, however, CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 159 is no marvel. It is merely an example of what might be done, in a modified form, in any rural community. History and Status of the Consolidation Movement. Early Beginnings and Present Development. To Massachu- setts belongs the distinction of first legalizing transportation and of thus originating a measure which has done more in its later development to further the educational welfare of coun- try children than any other single act in the history of modern education. This bill was passed in 1869, and the first consoli- dated rural school in the United States was organized soon after by Superintendent William L. Eaton at Con- cord, Massachusetts. Since this time the idea has grown in favor and has spread westward until it is no longer a question of experimentation. Prac- tically the whole of Mas- sachusetts is now consoli- dated, and three-fourths of the states of the Union have adopted the plan more or less fully. Field Agent George W. Knorr, of the United States Department of Agriculture, who has observed and studied more consolidated schools than any one else in the country, considers consolidation "no longer a debatable question," and indeed the establishment of over 2,000 schools of this type and the daily transportation of a total of 57,000 children in various parts of the country seem to verify this statement. Ohio followed Massachusetts and next attracted particular attention through the centralization of its rural schools. Here Mr. and Mrs. John Swaney "Uncle John and Aunt Sade" gave twenty- four acres of land for the campus of the Swaney School l6o COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL the movement began in 1892. About 350 consolidated schools have since been established, an increase of sixty-five having been made in a single year. In Ashtabula County, where the first centralized school was organized, there are now twenty- one. The most rapid and remarkable progress thus far made in the history of consolidation, however, has occurred within the last decade, in the state of Indiana, where 1,600 small dis- trict schools have been abandoned and supplanted by about 600 consolidated schools. But the movement is not sectional, by any means. In the year 191 1 Iowa reported a total of 60 consolidated schools ; Illi- nois, 13; Minnesota, 130; Kansas, 75 ; Washington, 120 ; Idaho, 20 ; O k 1 a - homa, 86; Virginia, 100; and Louisiana, 250. In all, about thirty states have recently made special legal provision for the transportation of children, and over one million dol- lars is now expended an- nually for this purpose. Consolidation in Indiana. Special attention is due to the state of Indiana in any treatment of country school consolida- tion because of its present leadership in this movement. The gratifying and remarkable progress made here within the last decade is a worthy object lesson to all other states. Being located in the very heart of the great corn belt, Indiana has had the same difficulties to overcome in the way of mud and physical handicaps that are met in any section. Its present lead- ership seems due to but two chief causes : far-seeing educational leaders and expedient school legislation. Among the legal provisions furthering the consolidation of schools in Indiana Track Team, John Swaney School CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 161 are three of vital effect : i. The township is the unit of school organization. The management of all township educational interests is in the hands of one man, the township school director, who is elected by the people. This trustee employs teachers, buys sup- plies, directs the construction and improvement o f buildings, and per- forms all other services commonly rendered by local boards of directors. This concentration will be readily seen to lead to the union of schools. 2. The township trustee may legally close any school having an average daily attendance of fif- teen or fewer, and must abandon and consolidate all schools having an average daily at- tendance of not more than twelve. In the year 1907, according ' to the statement of Su- perintendent Cot- ton, this law re- U6DU>- THC CIRCLES IN ORDER OF SIZE SYMB0U2E AN C* PZNOmjRE OF $1,000% AND Ss.oca&t FOR CONVEYANCE OF PUPILS. W Map of Indiana Showing the Extent of Consolidation Indiana leads all other states in consolidation. Here about 600 consolidated schools have been estab- lished and about 20,000 school children are trans- ported daily 162 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL suited in the abandonment of about one thousand weak district schools. 3. A law permitting the use of public funds for the transportation of children, without which the system is prac- tically impossible, is also on the statutes. Consolidation is common in Indiana in eighty-two out of a total of ninety-two counties. Among the counties that lead in this respect are Delaware, Montgomery, LaGrange, Tippe- canoe, Johnson, Hamilton, Wayne, Henry, Elkhart, Clinton, and Davies counties. The movement in Delaware County began in 1898 and has steadily grown until over half the entire county is now consolidated. Fifty-nine schools have been abandoned, seventy-nine wagons are used in the county, and 1,464 children are transported. Six of the fourteen consoli- dated schools of the county maintain good four-year high- school courses. Liberty township is wholly centralized in one school at the small village of Selma. A good four-year high-school course is offered in this school, nine teachers are employed, and 345 children are enrolled, 216 of whom are transported. Thirteen wagons are used in the transportation of the children, drivers being hired at an average daily cost of $1.85. Another of the best instances of school consolidation in Indiana is the Center Grove Consolidated School of White River Township in Johnson County. This school is one of the largest, most expensive, and most elaborate consolidated schools in the United States. It is, moreover, a true country school, being located on a six-acre plot of ground two miles from any town. The building, which was erected at a total cost of about $35,000, was dedicated September 3, 1908. The following table, quoted from the Indiana State Report for 1910, gives a good summary of the present status of con- solidation in Indiana: CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 163 Statistics on Consolidation in Indiana. (Reported Dec. 31, 1909.) A. 1. Total number of schools abandoned prior to the opening of schools September, 1909 1,402 2. Number of schools transported to other district schools.... 471 3. Number of schools transported to town or city schools 591 4. Number of consolidated graded schools made up of two district schools 222 5. Number of consolidated graded schools made up of three district schools 94 6. Number of consolidated graded schools made up of four district schools 43 7. Number of consolidated graded schools made up of more than four district schools 42 B. 1. Number of consolidated schools doing one year high school work 53 2. Number doing two years' high school work 126 3. Number doing three years' high school work 218 4. Number doing four years' high school work 419 C 1. Number of children transported 19,293 2. Number of wagons used in transporting children 1,241 3. Cost per wagon per day, average $1.86 4. Total cost all wagons per day $2,316.44 5. Number of pupils transported by school wagons or pri- vate conveyances 18,767 6. Number of pupils transported by interurban cars 470 7. Number of pupils transported by steam cars 56 D. Number of consolidated schools employing — Grade High School. School. Two teachers 292 93 Three teachers 107 81 Four teachers 130 66 1 64 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Five teachers 59 41 Six teachers 35 26 Seven teachers 29 24 Eight teachers 20 11 Nine teachers 15 13 Ten teachers 4 3 More than ten teachers 17 5 Minnesota. Notwithstanding severe winters and heavy snows, many northern states have tested consolidation and Consolidated School, Lewiston, Minnesota A nine-acre farm and a system of extension work are two helpful features of this school found it feasible. In Minnesota a law providing for the union of schools was enacted in 1903. Since this time over 130 consolidated schools have been established. The most notable example of consolidation in Minnesota is found near the village of Lewiston, in Winona County. The Lewiston Consolidated School comprises four districts and is housed in a modern, commodious building, efficiently equipped in every way. The total enrollment is one hundred CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 165 seventy-five, with a high-school enrollment of forty. Nine teachers are employed. The school term is nine months in length, and the annual expense of maintenance in 1910 was $8,740, of which $3,600, according to the laws of Minnesota, was furnished by state aid. A distinctive feature making the Lewiston school a notable example of consolidation is its nine- acre school farm. A second development of marked signifi- cance in this school is its extension work. This takes the form of agricultural lectures, corn contests, farmers' institutes, and a special four months' course in agriculture and manual train- ing, offered during the winter, which was attended in 1910 by fourteen pupils. The efficiency of such effort for young men and women who are compelled to leave school prematurely is self-evident, and points the way to a large field of service for the consolidated schools of the future. Iowa. In Iowa, likewise, the people are quietly proceeding to attain the advantages of consolidation for their children. Here the movement has affected twenty-five counties and re- sulted in the establishment of sixty union schools. Among the most pretentious of these is the school at Marathon, in Buena Vista County. The territory of this school is com- posed of what was formerly the independent district of Mara- thon and five rural districts. The present building was erected in 1903, at a cost of $20,000. Two hundred seventy-six chil- dren were enrolled in 1910, of whom one hundred fifty- two were transported. Six hacks are used, and over $2,000 is expended annually for transportation. Eight teachers are em- ployed, and a good four-year high-school course is maintained. Kansas. In passing westward in an investigation of con- solidation, some attention should be given to Kansas. Here conditions, both physical and social, are unusually favorable for the development of consolidation. State Superintendent E. T. Fairchild has great faith in this future promise and is doing much to fulfill it. Throughout his service as chief state 1 66 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL school officer he has conducted an aggressive campaign for consolidation, and there are now seventy-five union schools in the state. Owing to the favorable road conditions, many of these schools are first established by moving two or three old buildings together and deferring the erection of a new building until the people of the district are thoroughly satisfied that the plan is good and practical. Such measures are not to be recom- mended permanently, but show well the adaptability of the idea. Consolidation does not necessarily mean the erection of elabo- rate and costly buildings as anti-consolidationists usually imply, though in most sections of the country there is no reason why the children of farmers should not enjoy a school equipment equal to any. Good schools of this kind can be housed, how- ever, in buildings costing all the way from three to thirty thou- sand dollars, and can be maintained in districts composed of from two small districts to an entire township. The real point of efficiency in the consolidated school is not that it is housed in a better building, attended by more children, and taught by better teachers than the small school, but that it is fundamentally different. Its great gain lies in the fact that it is a graded system, insuring a division of labor among teachers. Idaho and Washington. It is commonly asserted that con- solidation does not fit the sparsely settled sections of the far West. To a certain extent this is true, but the splendid reali- zations of some communities in Idaho, Washington, and other western states show the necessity of qualifying this statement. Among the best known consolidated schools of this section is that at Twin Falls, Idaho. This school is an example of com- plete village consolidation. Its territory comprises one con- gressional township and six additional square miles. About seven hundred children are enrolled, one hundred of whom are in the high school. The routes vary from two to six miles, and fifteen wagons are used for the transportation of about CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 167 three hundred children. A school farm of four acres is main- tained, and every effort is made to adapt the course of study to the needs of the pupils. The state of Washington, notwithstanding its youth, has outstripped many of the more conservative eastern states, and now (191 2) practices consolidation in thirty-one of its thirty- eight counties, showing in all a record of 120 consolidated Consolidated School, Enumclaw, Washington This school has grounds of eleven acres. Cost of building, $75,000 districts. In King County, which leads in the movement, twelve consolidated schools have been established. Of these the most pretentious is the consolidated school at Enumclaw. The territory of the Enumclaw consolidated district consists of the town of Enumclaw and two adjoining country districts. The grounds contain eleven acres of land. A modern three- story brick building has been erected and equipped at a cost of $75,000. The first floor of this building contains the gym- nasium, engine room, household science and manual training rooms, and the laboratories. The second floor has eight beau- tiful classrooms for the grades, while the third floor is devoted l6& COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL to the high school. The large sum expended for this build- ing and the care with which it has been planned and con- structed give the Enumclaw district the distinction of sup- porting probably the most magnificent consolidated school in the world. Consolidation in Washington, however, because of the vast- ness of county units and the consequent weakness of rural school supervision, is frequently undertaken only for purposes of supervision, and does not always imply a physical union of isolated schools as understood elsewhere. Under this plan the various schools of the consolidated district remain in their original location for the accommodation of the children of the lower grades, and an enlarged building is erected in the center of the district for pupils of the high school and gram- mar grades. A well-trained teacher is then employed to serve in the double capacity of high-school principal and super- intendent for the outlying districts. The majority of these consolidated high schools or "central schools" are located in towns, and many, as cited above, are of expensive and elabo- rate equipment. Louisiana and the South. A great wave of educational progress is now sweeping over the South, and a considerable part of this movement takes form through the consolidation of country schools. Readers who think of this section in terms of its former indifference will be surprised to learn that there are now (1912) over two hundred fifty consolidated country schools in the state of Louisiana alone, and that Florida annu- ally expends over $25,000 for transportation, while Georgia and North Carolina have both made surprising progress in this line. "Scarcely a week passes," says State Superintendent J. Y. Joyner of North Carolina, "in which the state super- intendent does not receive invitations to speak to interested communities on the subject of consolidation." Consolidation in the South is, generally speaking, much less expensive than The Old and the New in Louisiana Consolidation did it all. There are now 250 consolidated schools in Louisiana, which ranks first among southern states in this respect lyo COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL in the states formerly quoted, but it is none the less effective and creditable, and nowhere more striking in its advantages. First among southern states in the matter of consolidation stands Louisiana. Here the movement began in 1902 and in the single year 1910 effected the closing of over sixty schools. The state superintendent's report for 1910 contains the follow- ing interesting data upon this subject: Total number of consolidated schools 208 Number of consolidations effected in 1910 61 Number of wagons used 210 Total number of children transported 4,088 Total average expenditure per month for transportation $7,272 Average cost per month per child transported $2.19 Average number of children transported by each wagon used.. 17 Average original cost of wagons $136 Among the parishes, or counties, that lead in consolidation in Louisiana are Avoyelles, Calcasieu, DeSoto, and Natchi- toches, which now have ten consolidated schools each, and Tangipahoa, which has twelve. As an example of these schools may be cited the Grand Prairie School of St. Landry parish. This school is located in the country ten miles from any railway. "Three years ago," says State Superintendent T. H. Harris, "it was taught in a dilapidated one-room build- - ing by one teacher. It is now a state approved high school with eight trained teachers and two hundred sixty pupils. Consolidation did it all." Advantages of Consolidation. The superiority of the rural graded school system is so obvious and has been so fully considered in the preceding chapter that it need not be exhaustively treated here. It is well, however, to re-state the three chief, fundamental advantages of the consolidated school — advantages which are wholly impossible of attainment under the present one-teacher system. 1. The consolidated school is the only known method of CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 171 providing a true country school with home high-school privi- leges for farm children. 2. It is the only way of insuring an enrollment large enough to provide the social and cultural contact with com- panionable associates necessary to the best development of every child. 3. It is the only method of securing and holding trained teachers for country schools and of making possible a division of labor whereby these teachers may have sufficient time to do good work and choose the grades or special subjects for which they are best fitted. A bulletin on The Consolidation of Country Schools, issued by the University of Illinois, at Urbana, contains an excellent detailed summary of the advantages of consolidation. An effective list of general conclusions given in the same source will be found of great value in meeting the objections of unbelievers. Difficulties Involved. The chief difficulties involved in the consolidation of schools may be briefly summarized under six headings: (1) roads, (2) cost, (3) undesirable drivers, (4) inadequate legislation, (5) conservatism and prejudice, (6) the competition of other types of schools. The first three and the last of these points will be discussed in following sec- tions. The remaining difficulties, conservatism and inade- quate legislation, can be overcome only through the enlighten- ment and education of the general rural public upon this ques- tion. Hence the need for state-wide consolidation campaigns similar to those recently inaugurated in Kansas and Indiana. Such agitation has a direct effect upon conservatism, and since farmers largely control state legislatures, shows, in the end, an indirect bearing upon legislation. Some Phases of the Question of Transportation. The problem of roads and transportation is the chief difficulty to be overcome in most efforts toward consolidation. It is often 172 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL declared by those who have not made a thorough study of con- ditions that "transportation is an impossibility with us." Per- haps it is, but if so, the difficulty is probably in the lack of determined faith and will power on the part of the community rather than in the texture of the mud. After all, the problem merely resolves itself into the question of whether mud shall triumph or whether civilization shall advance in spite of the mud. Those who fear the difficulties of transportation should reflect that thousands of children are now being hauled over the mud roads of Ohio and Indiana, where conditions are typical of those in any of our great agricultural sections. "As to our roads," writes a local resident of Ashtabula County, Ohio, "I would say that we probably have as deplorable clay roads as any county in the state. During a part of the year they are as bad as roads can be and still be roads." Among the many false impressions that prevail with farmers and others relative to the public transportation of school chil- dren are the following: 1. It is argued that the cost is exorbitant. But such is not the case, as statistics prove. In Ashtabula County, Ohio, the roads are not hard, and the average daily cost of running each wagon is but $1.64, while in Trumbell County it averages only $1.52. In Indiana the average daily expense of each wagon over the entire state in 1908 was $2.07 and in 19 10, $1.86. The wagons used are manufactured expressly for the purpose, at a cost of from $80 to $175, and accommodate about twenty children. 2. The problem of procuring competent and reliable drivers is often cited as an insurmountable difficulty. This is largely an imaginary fear. Not laborers, but labor, is the present world-need, and when the position of hack driving is once established in a community there are soon several candidates from whom to select, just as in the case of mail carriers. Drivers in Indiana and Ohio are paid from $30 to $45 a CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 173 month. They are hired by contract, are required by law to be worthy, respectable citizens, and are placed under bond during their terms of service and made responsible for the con- duct of the children while in the wagon. Smoking, profane language, and other misconduct need not be tolerated any more in a driver than in a teacher. Dismissal should immediately follow such action. 3. Some imagine that the daily drive to school will con- sume hours of time. This, also, is wholly unnecessary. If the routes are too long, more wagons may be em- ployed. The routes of con- solidated schools now es- tablished in the United States average four miles, and need seldom be longer than six. In the consoli- dated school at Buffalo Center, Iowa, where the routes are of usual length, drivers begin to collect the children from 7:15 a. m. to 8:15 a. m. } and return them to their homes from 4 145 p. m. to 5 145 p. m. Consolidated schools may close early in the afternoon and thus mitigate this difficulty in part. Moreover, it should be remembered that as things are at pres- ent, children trudging through mud and snow frequently do not get home until dark in the winter time. 4. The ventilation and the moral tone of the wagons are often other fears. But it should always be remembered that wagons, schools, and anything else can be rightly managed when the people demand proper management. There is no reason whatever why a wagon should not be properly ventil- Consolidated School Wagon Delphi Wagon Works, Delphi, Indiana 174 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL ated, or even heated, if desired. Small stoves are sometimes used for this purpose, though carriage heaters and lap-robes are usually sufficient. 5. Some complain that children are forced to wait at cross- roads or elsewhere for the wagons in stormy weather. The only remedy here is to stop the practice and run enough wagons to collect the children from their homes. What the unthinking, fearful farmer or observer cannot see is that all such conditions as those answered above need not be tolerated. Transportation is therefore used as the final argument balking the whole movement for consolidation. The same people cannot see the transportation now in operation in every state in the Union, where farm boys and girls are cover- ing hundreds of miles daily in their efforts to get high-school privileges from urban high schools. As a last resort for the solution of the difficulties of transportation, if there is no other way at present, why not consolidate, conduct a good school while in session, and discontinue it during the worst weather ? But in spite of all difficulties, the future of this question of transportation is full of promise. It is now no wild prophecy to herald the advent of the day when all main-traveled roads shall be hard roads, and when automobiles and electric cars shall be the common vehicles of transportation for the country, school children of America. Then we shall have a system of transportation sufficiently rapid, convenient, and efficient to settle the last vestige of doubt relating to the question of con- veyance. And this day of rapid transportation, as set forth in an earlier chapter, will bring not only the solution of this problem but of many others now engaging the serious atten- tion of farmers. The Cost of Consolidated Schools. Cost is another argu- ment always advanced against consolidation. Concerning this point there is much misinformation. Good consolidated CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 175 schools will cost money — more money than is now being expended upon country schools. Let this be distinctly under- stood ; and let there be no hedging about it. Let there rather be great gratitude that it is so, for farmers are now spending altogether too little upon their schools, as they themselves know full well. The truth, however, is that owing to our poor rural school system, much money is wasted in spite of this attempted economy. When cost is measured on the per capita basis, which is the only accurate method of comparison, con- solidation is found to be cheaper than the present system of administration. Interesting facts have recently come to light regarding this point, through the exhaustive study of Mr. George W. Knorr, of the Department of Agriculture. (See bibliography, section 6.) In schools having an average daily attendance of less than nine pupils, in Hardin County, Iowa, it was found, for example, that the annual per capita cost for each child in 1908 was $40.78. In Olmsted County, Minne- sota, the cost per pupil in schools of the same type was $56.50. First grade country schools, that is, schools of the highest standard, in the same county averaged $32.85 per pupil annu- ally. In the John Swaney Consolidated School in Illinois, on the other hand, the annual cost per pupil was but $27.16, and in forty-five typical consolidated schools in various states the annual average cost per pupil was $33.83, a sum less than that of the nine-pupil schools of Iowa and Minnesota. From this it is evident that after the initial expense of providing new buildings has been met, the consolidated school furnishes a much higher grade of educational opportunity to more children, and at less expense than the one-teacher school. The matter of tuition, also, has some bearing upon this question of cost. No leakage of the present rural educational system is more thoughtlessly overlooked than this. Farmers annually pay out thousands of dollars in tuition to city high schools that might far better be conserved at home in a con- 176 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL solidated school. Strangely enough, those who expend the most money for this purpose are often the first to object to the expense of consolidating. What they fail to see is that the good consolidated school, with a complete high-school course, not only keeps this money at home, but, through the attendance and tuition of non-resident pupils, usually brings in an additional sum. In the John Swaney Consolidated School, there are enough tuition pupils enrolled to aggre- gate yearly over one thousand dollars to the school. More- over, a good school, it must be remembered, adds to the prop- erty values of a community, as does a railroad, an electric car line, or any other improvement. Still another factor fre- quently overlooked in weighing this matter of school better- ment is the increased attraction of a community possessing good school privileges for the best class of farmers and renters. The Consolidated Country School Compared with Other Types of Rural High Schools. The advantages of a secondary education for country children, which the consoli- dated school has been shown to provide so admirably, are con- sidered by some to be equally well afforded by the township high school. But the experience of Illinois, where schools of this type have been legalized since 1872, and where eighty- three are now established, has not shown this to be true. In the first place, the township high school, being under the con- trol of the entire population of a township, is almost invariably voted into the largest city and located in an urban environ- ment. The course of study, therefore, tends toward city conditions and usually makes no provisions for agriculture and other subject-matter especially related to farm life. Some of the better schools of this type do provide such courses, it is true, but being thus removed from actual contact with the soil, this work is likely to be more formal than genuine. Grant, however, that the course of study can be sufficiently CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 177 balanced and made to answer the mutual needs of both city and country children — which is altogether feasible — and the township school still fails to solve the problem of the coun- try school, because it is removed from the country. It allows a break between the elementary and secondary school which is always felt in the undue proportion of those who drop out at this time., This break can never be comfortably tolerated nor corrected so long as rural high schools are located in cities Township High School, Princeton, Illinois A good type of school for many purposes, but not one affording an adequate solution of the country school problem and large towns, several miles from the farm homes that support them. What we need, and must have, to solve the problem of rural education, is not an urban school whose influences lead young people of the farms directly away from the land, but a country school — a country school, improved, modernized, and adapted to the needs of present country life. Aside from this grave charge of leading young people away from farm life, it must be conceded also that the township 178 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL high school, providing only for the older children of advanced rank, is both unduly expensive and selfish. The money ex- pended in the construction of a high-school building designed to accommodate only a small proportion of the rural school population of a township, may far better be used to build a consolidated school which provides equal educational advan- tages for all children, from the kindergarten through the secondary school. Various other types of schools have been devised for solv- ing the problem of rural secondary education. In most instances the aim has been to make these schools strongly agricultural in tendency. Minnesota offers special state aid to city high schools for introducing agriculture into their courses of study. Such schools are commonly known as agri- cultural high schools, and are considered by many an adequate solution of the problem of rural secondary education. The truth, however, is that they fail as grievously as the township high school. The schools chosen for this purpose must neces- sarily be city schools, for the simple reason that in states adopting this method there are no rural high schools. This makes the work foreign to the environment of the schools and isolates it from that fundamental social and economic contact with actual farm life which characterizes the genuine coun- try school. Concede, however, the possibility of making such schools pedagogically right, and the fact still remains that they, too, are not the home school of the country child, but are remotely located in towns and cities and cut off from his life. Thus both the township high school and the agricultural high school fail to solve either the elementary or the secondary phase of the problem of rural education. Mississippi has adopted a system of county agricultural high schools, providing one special high school emphasizing agri- culture, in each county. Such a system may render good serv- ice within its limitations, but obviously can never suffice as CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 179 a system of public education for all country children, since not one farm child in fifty will ever be affected by it. Georgia supports a system of congressional-district agricultural schools to which the same objection applies even more strongly, since they are farther removed from the homes of farm children and are also strongly vocational in character. In Wisconsin and Michigan, county agricultural schools have lately been estab- lished. These are excellent schools of their type and are ren- dering exceptional service, but they also are too frankly voca- tional and too remote in distance to furnish education adapted to the varying ambitions of all farm children. Massachusetts, and other eastern states, where the problems of livelihood press closely upon a congested population, are beginning to establish vocational agricultural schools. The most suggestive of these is the Smith Agricultural School, at Northampton, Massachusetts. This school constitutes an unusual experi- ment station in agricultural education, but its primal purpose of training consistently for- agriculture as a vocation is not to be imitated in a public-school system educating free American children toward a free choice of life work. Herein lies a most significant educational distinction tempting to special per- sonal comment on a vexed question. A great demand is being made today by farmers and others connected with country life for instruction in agriculture. Such training, it is contended, will hold boys on the farm and make farmers of them. Personally, I am as much inter- ested in the making of farmers and in holding the right kind of farmers upon the land as anyone. But to this argument I take exception. Let us have farmers who are farmers from choice, not from force. As a teacher in country schools, I do not teach agriculture either to make or unmake farmers. I teach it for two simple reasons : first, because it is the basic experience of my young people, the experience through whose terminology they interpret everything else; and second, be- l8o COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL cause it is a great racial heritage of science and information which every child should know, just as he should know his- tory. If a boy born on a farm wants to be a doctor, very well and good; let him be one. If his classmate desires to be a farmer, very well, indeed ; let him be one — by all means. But give the two boys a reasonable elementary education expressed in terms of their daily lives, and leave them perfectly free and capable of weighing various lines of work and choosing the one which most appeals to them. In short, let us make agri- culture and farm-life experience the starting point of ele- mentary rural education, not its ultimate goal. For the complete and satisfying solution of the problem of rural education and for the general reconstruction and redirec- tion of country life, the consolidated country school is the best agency thus far devised. Some of its points of advantage for this twofold purpose may be summarized as follows : 1. It is a democratic public school directly in the hands of the people who support it. 2. It is at the door of farmhouses, and is wholly available ; even more available, when public transportation is provided, than the present one-teacher school. 3. Every child in the farm community is reached by it. All children attend; not a favored few. This is not true of the types of schools cited above. 4. It is a school of reasonable cost. 5. It accommodates and provides for all grades, includ- ing the high school. It is unselfish; the township high school and others proposed, are selfish because at best they neglect the younger children. 6. It preserves a balanced course of study. While edu- cating in terms of farm-life experience, it does not force chil- dren prematurely into any vocation, yet prepares them for all. This is the only legitimate course for a public school system designed to educate all children. CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 181 7. The consolidated country school, as already shown in the account of the John Swaney School and as will be fur- ther set forth in concluding paragraphs, forms the best social and educational center for the community thus far developed. The Need of a County System of Districting for Con- solidation. Great waste occurs in the present hit-and-miss method through which consolidation is advancing. If consoli- dated schools continue to spring up here and there like mush- rooms, as they have done and are now doing, it is apparent that the final outcome will show them poorly distributed and unsystematized. There will be instances where more schools are established in a given section than are really needed and others where isolated and unrelated corners of territory are cut off and left out of consideration altogether. This, in fact, is what has already happened in many cases. The splendid effort of the John Swaney School illustrates this point, in that the building stands near the geographic center of the township and yet accommodates but three small districts. This lack of large planning is not only unfortunate in spacial relations, but is unduly expensive. To ascertain the extent of this financial loss and general inconvenience, the Department of Agriculture recently asked Mr. George W. Knorr to make a special investigation of the consolidated schools of the United States. The report of this study is now available in a free bulletin entitled Consolidated Rural School and Organisation of a County System, which is one of the most valuable pieces of literature thus far printed on consolidation. To overcome the errors of the present unsystematized method of consolidating schools, Mr. Knorr advocates the organization of a county system for con- solidation. Under this plan each county of every state where consolidation is advancing would be carefully divided and planned into various consolidated school districts. These dis- tricts are not to be co-extensive with townships, but are to be iSz COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL determined by more vital factors than formal boundary lines. Re-districting of this type does not mean that a whole county is to be consolidated at once or at any one time. The idea is only to project a harmonized and correlated plan toward which to work. The objection that neighborhoods will not follow such a plan is to be overcome by a wise and thorough consider- ation of all centrifugal and centripetal local social tendencies before the proposed districts are mapped out. Four chief factors are considered in forming these county systems of consolidated districts, namely: (i) population, (2) land values and tax unit areas, (3) topography, and (4) roads. It will be seen that in insuring the right proportion or control of each of these factors, the idea is productive of great good. It is further recommended by Mr. Knorr, and by all others who adequately understand the problems of country life education, that the consolidated schools thus provided shall be located in the open country or occasionally in small rural villages. When the center of the district falls near a large town or a city, the location of the consolidated school is planned a few miles outside its boundaries. The following map showing the application of this idea to Olmsted County, Minnesota, and the accompanying explana- tion are reproduced here from Mr. Knorr's bulletin. Olm- sted County is a typical Middle Western county. The gain accruing to it from this re-districting would hold in every county where consolidation is at all feasible. The most apparent general advantages of the county sys- tem of districting for consolidation briefly enumerated are : 1. It prevents waste from overlapping and neglect from overlooking. 2. It equalizes burdens of cost and taxation, and insures the adequate financial support of each school established. 3. It prevents the establishment of small, inferior con- solidated schools. CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS I8 3 4. It assists in determining the best and most economical transportation routes and favors the best control of topo- graphical conditions. Map of Olmsted County, Minnesota, Showing Proposed Consolidated Districts The heavy lines are the boundaries of the proposed consolidated districts. The light lines are township lines. The location of the proposed consolidated school buildings is shown by the conventional symbol, and to assist in comparisons the locations of the present dis- trict, graded, and high schools are also indicated. The numbers before "G." and "H. S." denote probable enrollment in grades and high school, respectively, in the proposed consolidated schools. Under this project, the present 142 graded and district schools would be replaced by 21 strong, well-attended consolidated schools. It will be noted that for Districts XII and XX, Rochester and Stewartsville, respectively, consolidated schools at a distance from town are sug- gested for the rural pupils. With the exception of these two schools all others in the county are replaced by consolidated schools. The Roman numerals auolv to the number of the orooosed districts. 184 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 5. It equalizes population to a large degree and prevents the injury of the schools established by any temporary shift- ing of the population. 6. It overcomes the petty jealousies fostered by adhering to small district boundary lines, and makes it easier to dissolve small districts in states where the one-room school district still obtains. 7. It avoids contention and strife over the question of locating the new school. 8. It defines the boundaries of country communities and fosters the growth of community feeling. 9. It furthers the progress of consolidation and hastens the establishment of complete consolidated country schools which shall become great country life institutions serving as con- structive forces and social centers for the communities they define. In view of these and other advantages of the county system of districting for consolidation, it is greatly to be hoped that many states will soon pass legislation furthering its prac- tice. This has already been done in Minnesota, where an optional law for this purpose is now in force. The Consolidated School as a Community Center, and in the Future Development of Country Life. The great adaptability of the good consolidated country school for com- munity service and rural life regeneration cannot be too strongly emphasized. Wherever it has been established, in practically every instance of the two thousand cases now on record, this attribute has been illustrated. One of our greatest country life leaders has expressed a fear that the consolidated school will break down community feeling through the re- moval of local district schools. But this is exactly what it does not do. The consolidated school builds up the country community as no other institution of rural life has yet done. It even defines community boundaries and establishes a com- CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 185 munity sense where none has existed before. It overcomes petty jealousies, swallows small differences, and enlarges and intensifies the community idea into something significant and tangible. It brings neighbors on opposite sides of the hill together, introduces those who live on different roads, forces the civil meeting of families that "haven't spoken since the war," and in every way furthers the progress of the brother- hood of man among farmers. School Garden, John Swaney School The country school of the future will have gardens, hills, fields, and orchards, where work is done with both hands and head All this the consolidated school accomplishes through its marvelous possibilities for every form of education and en- lightenment. Not children only, but adults as well, are reached by it. Its future development in the days of hard roads, elec- tric car lines and automobiles can scarcely be appreciated at the present time. Six million country children, it is esti- mated, will eventually come under its influence. But though good today, the consolidated school of the future, which shall arise to meet the needs of these children, will be better still. 1 86 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL In the first place, it will have worked out its salvation in terms of the life about it and will be neither an ungraded group, like many of the one-teacher schools of the present, nor a lock-step machine like the average city school. It will be beautifully housed and charmingly located in the very heart of God's out-of-doors. Its music will be the song of birds, the murmur of trees, and the laughter and shout of happy child- hood. It will have gar- dens, hills, fields, and or- chards, where work is done with both hands and head. It will be a center of community pride and effort for those beyond school as well as for chil- dren. To it will turn the old man and the kinder- garten child. Tired moth-* ers will visit it and learn how to prevent their wear- iness. Discouraged farm- ers will call upon it and absorb the courage of its new science. Young peo- ple will come to it because it reflects life's best in- spiration and hope. Its instruction will be given in terms of daily living and present activity. Life will be its text and how to live it fully, deeply, and richly will be its theme. The spirit of this instruction will go out through all the country- side and find expression in better homes, redirected churches, strong, true-principled farm organizations, hard roads, and greater crop yields ; in "better business, better farming, better On the Campus, John Swaney School CONSOLIDATED COUNTRY SCHOOLS 187 living," and in a happier people and a more satisfying country life. Much has been said and written of the consolidated school. Much still remains to be said before the general public will awaken to its possibilities. In conclusion, let it be repeated that the consolidated country school in its complete and fully adapted form is the best solution of the country school prob- lem yet devised. Personally, I do not wish to dogmatize upon any phase of country life, or anything else, but upon this point I stand firm. Years of struggle as a country teacher have thoroughly convinced me of this truth, and I challenge anyone, be he farmer or educator, to assume the full responsi- bilities of a country school without becoming persuaded. The country teacher of today has a great mission to discharge in converting farmers to this view and in furthering the prog- ress of the consolidation movement. This responsibility is considered at some length in Chapter X and is too self- evident to need further argument. With all its weaknesses the country school, even as it is today, stands preeminent as an influence for rural community improvement. It is the door through which all forms of advancement may most quickly enter. To contribute a share in this field of progress by enlightening others and revealing the necessity of an improved consolidated school system is therefore incumbent upon every country teacher. CHAPTER IX THE LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER This book has thus far been devoted largely to pointing out the possibilities of country life. The cooperative country community, attractive home, spiritualized church, active farm organization, and redirected school are all largely ideals, how- ever, and are still pretty much in the realm of the future. It will therefore be the purpose throughout the remainder of this discussion to show how these ideals may be realized. In this attempt the doctrine of the leadership of the country teacher is advanced. Scarcity of Rural Leaders and Its Effect. Before en- larging upon this general thesis let us first pick up a thread from Chapter I where it was stated that a chief character- istic of country life is its isolation, or openness, and that one of the effects of this openness is a scarcity of leaders. In this respect the rural community is essentially different from the town or city. The city is composed of men and women of all professions and occupations. This affords many leaders of diverse and varying points of view. There are lawyers, teachers, business men, ministers, and editors, all eager and capable of leadership and able to render good public service of this kind. The country community, on the other hand, is composed almost entirely of people of one pursuit. This nat- urally develops a common point of view and causes farmers to fail to appreciate many opportunities not directly related to their own line of work and thought. Most of the slow growth and retardation of country life 188 LEADERSHIP OR THE COUNTRY TEACHER 189 can be traced to this want of good active leaders. It is not because farmers are intellectually inferior in any sense or even because desire is lacking that progressive movements mature so slowly in the country. Country people often neglect to begin a measure that they well know will add to the con- venience and welfare of their lives. The consolidation of schools is a typical instance. Many communities appreciate the advantage of such a change but fail to act simply be- cause there is "nobody to start it." One of the worst fea- tures of the local jealousy so often found in a farm neigh- borhood lies in the fact that capable men who might develop the power of good leadership refrain from action through fear of incurrring the displeasure of public opinion. Opportunity and Advantages of the Country Teacher for Community Leadership. Right here lies the country teacher's opportunity. For, in the first place, the position of the teacher as a director of children requires that she be at least something of a leader; the more developed her powers of leadership, the greater her influence both within and without the schoolroom. Moreover, people turn to the school as a cen- ter of authority, and look to the teacher, without jealousy or criticism, as one who has the right to lead. She is in close and varied contact with them and on the same level. She also embodies a new point of view with often a larger per- spective than any one else, and is sensitive to community needs and conditions. Furthermore, the teacher is the director of the one community institution in the neighborhood, the only all-inclusive community institution society affords, and in many instances in the open country, where granges, farmers' clubs, and even churches are sometimes wanting, the only social- service institution of any kind. She is also the guardian of the educational interests of the community and may easily enlarge her office to include adult instruction and thus intro- duce ideas of progress relating to all phases of farm living, 190 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL social, economic, and scientific. The fact that she usually comes from outside the neighborhood and has no pecuniary interests to promote also adds to her power. To these advan- tages may be added the further argument that country teachers of all rural social workers are most easily trained for leader- ship. This is true because as a group they already possess the proper attitude and are at present better able than others to obtain special training for rural leadership. Requirements for Leadership on the Part of Country Teachers. Hence no one person, or group of persons, can control the local rural situation and guide the trend of thought as can the country teacher, if she is adequately prepared and knows how to attack her problem. Her influence can be more direct and effective than that of any distant agricultural col- lege, experiment station, or commission. Ability to so cope with conditions, of necessity demands that she be either trained or self-educated to understand and appreciate the larger social movements underlying rural progress. She must realize the power of her own position, the influence of the school for which she is responsible, and the place of the home, the church, roads, farm organizations, and various rural agencies in bringing about a fuller and richer country life. She must understand and be interested in the problems of the farm, especially in the ultimate farm problem as set forth in the first chapter of this discussion, must realize the neces- sity of its proper solution, and appreciate something of its broad significance in the permanent and national welfare. To this understanding of farmers and farm conditions the country teacher who aspires to leadership must add a definite ideal of the possibilities and satisfaction of country com- munity life. She must hold a clear vision of what the local neighborhood, with all its limitations, may become. Having thus established a goal, she must then be able to imbue others with this idealism and enlist their cooperation toward LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER 191 its realization. This means that she must formulate a pro- gram of work for community building, employing all the latent talent of the neighborhood, and that she must have some idea of how to execute this program. In this idea of execu- tion she must understand true leadership, not as aggressive- ness, but as a matter of suggestion and persuasion. She must realize that the best leader, like the best teacher, is the indi- vidual who develops the highest initiative and self-reliance in A Country School Prepared for Community Leadership his followers, and most quickly makes his own direction un- necessary. This implies in turn that the teacher shall know something of the larger movements of recent rural progress and of the function and development of other rural social institutions. It is for this reason that chapters relating to the farm home, the Grange, the country church, and the farmers' institute are included in this book, which has been written chiefly to assist country teachers toward this office of local leadership. 192 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Knowing all this, it then becomes the function of the coun- try teacher to enlighten others. Her problem is that of ac- cepting conditions as they now exist, of assuming control of a weak, neglected, and socially deficient school, and of bring- ing the children under her charge, and others of the com- munity, to appreciate the beauty and richness possible to country life. She thus becomes a leader of the people, the connecting link between them and their opportunities. Such a view dignifies and elevates rural teaching not only to the country teacher herself, but to all others, and when generally accepted will remove the bar sinister still too frequently laid upon this phase of the pedagogical profession. True Leadership Explained. By this leadership of the country teacher I do not mean something exalted, indefinite, and impossible. I mean only an increase and expansion of the good work now going on in scores of communities at the present time. I mean a movement quiet, humble, unassum- ing, and of small beginnings. I mean a leadership that first occupies itself with its legitimate task of teaching a good school, for no teacher can gain or hold the confidence of any community who is not first of all a good teacher. I mean a leadership, as I have tried to indicate throughout, that begins by leading dirt, double desks, and unsightly stoves out of the schoolroom and by leading soap and water, ventilation, and better teaching into it. I mean also a type of leadership that learns from others, is never unwilling to take the smallest suggestion from the simplest soul, and that leads for the service and comfort it may give rather than for commenda- tion before the eyes of men. Such leadership zvill be what has been termed true leadership because it will be a work of quiet, social direction, which sincerely seeks to stimulate and develop the ability of others rather than to exploit its own good parts. At this point I wish to call attention to the fact that the LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER 193 criticism sometimes directed against this doctrine of country- teacher leadership is due chiefly to a wrong idea of leadership. Difficulties of Country Teaching. It will be argued by many that country teachers are incapable of such leadership, however humble, and that the case is hopeless, just because those available for the rural teaching force are so un- trained and short-sighted. It is undoubtedly true that few teachers, either rural or urban, fully appreciate the possibilities of their position. It is also true that country teachers are especially deficient in this ability. But at the same time it may be asked if these inexperienced young, teachers are wisely di- rected, or ever taught to see the larger relation- ships and meaning of country life. Here per- haps is a query which county superintendents, institute instructors, and normal school faculties may well ponder. Before censuring country teachers, the critic should con- sider the vast difficulty of their position and undertaking. The very limitations of the system under which they are forced to work, as shown in Chapter VII, are so numerous that an efficient degree of success is practically unattainable. The hard physical conditions, long muddy walks, cold lunches, heavy janitor work, poor ventilation, and other unsanitary con- ditions, are in themselves enough to tax the strength of any individual, to say nothing of the nervous strain and worry When First We Go to School 194 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL occasioned in the management of twenty-five or thirty daily recitations and the general direction of an ungraded school. There is almost no virtue or ability not listed in the category of a good country teacher's accomplishments. She must pos- sess a fair degree of all-round scholarship; be something of an artist, carpenter, cook, musician, and gardener; know just what ails a smoky stove, a rattling window, or a dull boy; be able to bandage wounds, pull teeth, start fires, drive a frac- tious horse, conduct a Sunday school, or fish lost boots from the muddy depths of the public highway. And all this for the royal sum of forty or fifty dollars a month ! Professional isolation is another matter to be reckoned among the country teacher's troubles, and one more influen- tial and serious than first thought may suggest. The loneli- ness of meeting only the immature minds and interests of childhood, day after day, and of having no avenue of inti- mate adult discussion and professional inspiration shows in the great hunger of country teachers for pedagogical assist- ance and social diversion. But perhaps the most disheartening feature of rural school work, the factor worse than mud, iso- lation, low salaries, and smoky stoves, is the common attitude of other teachers toward this phase of teaching. In this connection it is consoling to reflect that when the full signifi- cance of rural prosperity is better understood, and the sterling spirit of the earnest country teacher more fully appreciated, this unhappy condition must soon disappear. The point to be emphasized in this discussion of the country teacher and her place, however, is that she may, and should, become a local leader. If the school is to function as the temporary institutional leader of the country community the teacher must necessarily assume this responsibility of local leadership. Her position as one controlling education makes it possible for her to do this effectively. It thus becomes her LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER 195 privilege to serve as a medium between the people of the community and their opportunities, her immediate function being to study the prob- lematic social situations of farm life, and to bring enlightenment to others. This makes the country teacher zvho appreciates and realises her advan- tage the chief immediate factor in the solution of the farm problem. Tribute to Country Teachers. At this point I wish to pay deserved tribute to country teach- ers everywhere, and espe- cially to express a few words of gratitude to those with whom I have worked, and whose loyalty and effort are making possible the partial realization of new hopes for country schools and country life. It is true, as frequently main- tained, that country teachers are young and inexperienced and poorly prepared for their work. But it is also true that as a group they are filled with a great sincerity. In the recent rural regeneration their problems are more vital and of larger pro- portion than ever before. But, like country children, they have had unfair treatment educationally, especially from our state normal schools. With proper sympathy and understand- ing and direction, a new spirit descends upon country teachers, notwithstanding their youth and lack of training, and through this spirit they accomplish great things. The vision has been the thing lacking, the vision of the possibilities of the country Procuring the Necessary Kindling 196 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL school and of how to realize these possibilities. It thus be- comes the duty of the state, through its normal schools, to uphold this vision to the end that it may itself have life more abundantly. Examples of Country Teacher Leadership. As a worker with country teachers, and for them, I have proved to my own satisfaction that when these possibilities are revealed in a constructive way, results are forthcoming in spite of nu- merous handicaps. For the benefit and conviction of those who are not quite willing to concede their faith so wholly, I am inserting here some extracts from the personal narratives of teachers whose stories I have requested for this purpose. The first of these is the record of a girl who has had no educational advantages beyond the eighth grade except frag- ments of two summer terms in a state normal school. This girl writes educational and country life articles for the local papers, participates in the programs of farmers' institutes, does what she can for church improvement, and in every possible way seeks to upbuild the country community in which she works. Moreover, so great is her vision of the possibilities of country life that she prefers country teaching to all other. The second story is that of a girl who confronted the hardest of all rural problems, a backward sectarian neighborhood. These people formerly insisted upon clinging to all their old ways. This teacher of leadership and vision has been among them two years, and they now see things differently. Neither of these girls has wished her identity revealed but they are both real country teachers and their stories are true. How Miss Mary Improved Her Country School During the year 1909-10 many strange stories were afloat concern- ing the condition of affairs in a certain district known as Cedar Oak. For two years or more the school had been run with a loose hand. About this time Miss Mary decided to apply for the school. As she came fairly well recommended, the directors hired her for nine months LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER 197 at forty-five dollars per month. Miss Mary had taken a course in country school economy and felt that here was a chance to put into practice some of the ideas thus received. During several visits to the school and community she found things Cedar Oak School, the Scene of Miss Mary's Endeavors fully as bad as they had been pictured to her. The building itself showed decided neglect. The walls that once were white were covered with dirt and grime. Shelves and desks were dirty and disfigured by penciled pictures and knife cuts. One door was nearly kicked to pieces. The yard was rough and uneven. The stove-wood was scattered about the yard and the outbuildings faced each other. Truly there was work to be done. For several weeks she busied herself with preparations for the coming term. Finding no record whatever of the classification of the pupils, she procured the daily register, learned the names and ages of the children, and grouped them into classes according to their ages. Much of this, of course, had to be changed, but for the time it served the pur- pose. Besides this she prepared her material for seat work and supple- mentary lessons. Bulletins, pictures, and pamphlets were also arranged and classified. Three days before school began she moved into her new home. Here 198 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL she found that others besides herself had been busy. The grass had been mowed, the yard cleaned, and several wagon loads of dirt hauled and used to level the ground in front of the building. A coal shed had been built somewhat to the side and rear of the schoolhouse and all of the wood stacked inside. A long platform extended across the front of the building, which greatly improved its appearance. The outbuildings had been moved farther apart and turned to face in opposite directions. Later in the year the yard was again cleaned, and ferns, bushes, and flowers were planted. There were twenty-four giant oak trees on this ground; so there was no need of placing others there. With a little tact and patience Miss Mary and her pupils finally made it one of the most beautiful lawns in the county. The interior of the building was by no means neglected. At the teacher's suggestion the walls had been papered, the woodwork painted, the wainscoting varnished, the floor scrubbed and windows washed. Then Miss Mary herself took a brush in hand and varnished every seat and desk as well as the organ, book cases, chairs, and map cases. After these matters of cleanliness and repair had been attended to, those of lighting and ventilation were taken up. The seats which had previously faced three uncurtained south windows were arranged in rows, according to size, and turned to face the north. Then she ordered six dark paper window shades, which she placed twelve inches below the top of the frame, thereby forming a narrow transom above each shade. As winter approached the heating system required attention. When Miss Mary rearranged the seats, she forgot to leave a place for the stove; consequently another arrangement had to be made. Some one had read that the Waterbury jacketed stove was a very good thing for a one-room country school ; so the directors began to inquire about it. By Thanksgiving day the new furnace was in its place in the north- west corner of the room. The new system provided a constant supply of fresh air as well as a means of removing the foul air and was much superior to the old way. After satisfactorily disposing of these questions of physical comfort and convenience, the decoration of the room was next in order. Miss Mary placed a few well-chosen but inexpensive Perry pictures upon the walls, dainty white curtains at the windows, rugs of Napier matting upon the floor, and transoms, or "stained-glass windows," of card board and colored tissue paper over doors and windows. During the year several articles were added to the school equipment, among which LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER 199 were kindergarten chairs, a sand-table, a window seat, window shades, a stove, some matting, and sixty square feet of slated blackboard cloth. So much for the problem of physical environment. Now Miss Mary also believed that the teacher should be a promi- nent factor in the social life of the community and that the school should be a center of community interests. Therefore her plans for community building included parents' and pupils' organizations, enter- tainments, and social gatherings. For these reasons she organized a mothers' club and instituted regular directors' meetings. Both had for their purposes the mutual benefit and encouragement of teacher and patrons. The mothers' club met one afternoon of each month and discussed educational topics, articles from school magazines, sometimes introducing material relating to the home or home-making, and again discussing the care of poultry or gardens. Once a month the directors held their regular meeting in the school house, examined the records, condition of building and furnishings, and wrote the necessary school money order. Several times Miss Mary succeeded in getting them to spend half a day in the schoolroom while the classes were in session. In this way she secured their heartiest good will and cooperation. Afternoon and evening entertainments formed another phase of Miss Mary's country community building. The first social event of the term was the patrons' picnic, given at the beginning of the school year, for the purpose of becoming acquainted with the parents and establishing friendly relations between the home and school. This affair was well attended and proved successful. A basket dinner was served, and two addresses were delivered. The first speaker was a United Presbyterian minister and the second was the county superintendent. Another affair of importance was the country school exhibit held in November. Miss Mary invited the cooperation of two other teachers in preparing this exhibition. A speaker* from the Western Illinois State Normal School was engaged to address the audience. After this came the Christmas and spring entertainments and follow- ing them one of the most important occasions of the entire term, the field day contests between Miss Mary's and an adjoining district school. The program indoors consisted of contests in singing, speaking, reading, and story-telling, while the field sports were contests in running, jump- ing, pole vaulting, discus throwing, and bicycle riding. There were other social events during the term which, though of minor importance, had each a place in Miss Mary's plan for community building. 200 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Something must now be said in regard to the educational progress during Miss Mary's brief stay. On one occasion a number of the older students with their teacher drove a distance of six miles to attend an evening session of the farmers' institute in a nearby town. Another time they visited the county superintendent's office and examined speci- mens of school work from the various schools of the county. A third excursion was that to the Western Illinois State Normal School. School was closed for a day while Miss Mary and seven of her pupils visited the normal school. To the children this educational excursion meant a revelation of wonders. The great school, with its splendid equipment and beautiful classrooms, will not soon fade from their memory. Miss Mary introduced manual training into her school, and her class of boys, working once or twice a week from 12 130 until 1 o'clock, made many useful articles, such as a sand-table, a window seat, and weaving looms. The girls' sewing class also met once a week, and they too fin- ished some very neat and attractive pieces of work. Miss Mary per- suaded the directors to expend a small sum of money for library books. Fifteen dollars was thus obtained and spent for the pupils' reading circle books and the World Today magazine. By disposing of a set of Mary J. Holmes' novels she was enabled to purchase a set of supple- mentary readers also. Besides all this, Miss Mary found time to slip in a few drawing and painting lessons. Music was not neglected, and many happy hours were spent in song. When Miss Mary, at the beginning of her term, stood before her school of noisy, giggling, mischievous children, she knew that a mighty undertaking lay before her. Many times she felt her courage ebbing away. But she had caught a spirit of enthusiasm for her work, and at such times this force sustained and comforted her. The Regeneration of District 23 I shall never forget how the schoolhouse looked the day I began my duties as teacher in District 23. It was clean but very bare. The cen- ter of the room was occupied by the stove. An old organ covered with dust and somewhat "wheezy" stood in one corner. Nothing about the room suggested cheer but some old sash curtains at the windows. It took all of the fall term to get the school organized and properly graded. The middle of the winter term I had a box social. With the proceeds I bought some pictures. These were suitable for all grades. I also gave the seats, organ, and my desk and chair a coat of jap-a-lac. In the spring I had a Mother's Day. There were mothers present LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER 201 who had never been in the school while it was in session. Later the children and I made a garden and it was necessary to have a fence to keep our neighbors' chickens and sheep out. The fence we made our- selves of sticks, wire and brush. It was a standing joke in the neigh- borhood. Nevertheless it answered its purpose. School closed with a picnic, one hundred and nine being present. *MmjI»'- X. ''Win TriB" Jit 111 ^H mm ■ -- m Closing Day Picnic in District 23 After school was closed I went to Normal to attend the first summer term. Here I took the special courses offered for country teachers and returned home rilled with plans and inspirations for the coming school year. About the middle of August, before school began, we had an ice cream social at the home of one of the patrons. The evening was spent in playing games, singing, and instrumental music. The sum cleared was over eight dollars. With this I bought new sash curtains, brass rods, new dark green window shades, mosquito netting for the win- dows, some toweling, a looking glass, comb case and combs, washbasin, soap and soap dish. The curtains and towels were hemmed by the girls. Everything was ready for the first day. The schoolroom had been thoroughly cleaned and the stove had been blacked; so when our new green shades and sash curtains were hung at the windows, the pictures put up, and mosquito netting tacked on the windows, the schoolroom 202 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL looked cozy and cheerful. We held our first mothers' meeting of this year on the third Friday in September. Seven of the district were present. They watched the classes the fore part of the afternoon, and after recess school matters and the home 'training of the children were discussed. Then refreshments, consisting of tea and cake, were served. We next held a dime social at the home of the president of the board. The school gave a program, and simple refreshments were served. These were furnished by the district; so the money taken in was clear, amounting to ten dollars. This was handed over to the board as a little financial help for the future, and as an excuse to watchful tax payers for increased generosity upon the part of the board. Our next event was a Corn Day, held October 14. Two directors, the elevator man, and nine mothers were present. We gave a corn pro- gram and corn exhibit. The schoolroom was decorated by the children. It was the first celebration of its kind held in the district. Did the people enjoy it? Indeed they did. It was something that interested the entire community. Corn is the staple product of this community as of most others in Illinois, and one way to get the parents to cooperate with the school is through this great connecting link. We then had two weeks' vacation. During this time improvements were commenced on the schoolhouse. The foundation was raised, a new porch was built, the cistern was cleaned and re-covered, and the roof shingled. At the end of two weeks I entered my school and found it just as the carpenters had left it. It was expected that I should clean the schoolroom. But, for the education of the district and for the welfare of future country teachers, this I refused to do; so school was closed until it was done. The children and I cleaned the yard, and with the new pipe fence in front it presented a neat, home-like appearance. The next problem that confronted us was the stove. It didn't take long for the directors to decide what was needed in this line, and in November a Smith Heating Plant was installed. Three of the larger boys and myself stayed while the stove was put up and arranged the seats according to the size of the children. We continued our mothers' meetings, and two of the directors actu- ally visited the school and seemed to be interested in the work and anxious for the school to progress. In December we had another box supper, and gave the Family Album, getting every one in the district to take part. We cleared fif- teen dollars. This money aided in getting me a new desk and chair. LEADERSHIP OF THE COUNTRY TEACHER 203 We needed a walk from the porch to the gate. Boards did not answer the purpose, so the boys and I made a brick walk, which proved more substantial and helped to keep the porch and room clean. Our school work for the year was completed, and we planned a picnic. But the weather interfered and it was not as successful as that of the year before. Throughout the district the people are interested in the school. They are anxious for continued progress ; so I have made a few plans for next year. These are : To make the course of study conform more closely to the needs of the children; to organize boys' and girls' clubs to hold the interest of the young people, and especially to furnish whole- some recreation; and to have a Country Life Club, including everybody in the community. Through this I hope to awaken a greater local interest in country life and to advance the social, educational, and spiritual welfare of every individual in the district. Country Life Creed. In concluding this chapter whose basic theme may be much questioned, I shall risk repetition for the sake of understanding and offer the following sum- mary of my personal faith concerning the function of the country teacher in the present rural situation: / believe that the great underlying problem of country life is the problem of keeping a standard people upon our farms. To solve this problem I believe it is necessary to make country life fully satisfying. This satisfaction, I believe farmers will bring to themselves through learning to cooperate in the upbuilding of a complete community life. Great agencies are already established and more or less ade- quately functioning as instruments of cooperation and com- munity building. Chief among these are the home, the coun- try church, the farmers' organization, and the country school. Of these I believe the school to be temporarily first in lead- ership and influence because cooperation is a question of edu- cation, and education is the special responsibility of the school. I believe that in communities where homes are defective, churches closed, and farmers' organizations wanting, the 204 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL school may become the agency of progress toward all im- provement, even teaching the service of other institutions and leading to their establishment and regeneration. I believe that the school can do yet more; that it can also teach the necessity of its own redirection and upbuilding. But back of this program of action stands the country teacher. For her I believe in a type of training that shall sup- ply the information, the special adaptability, and, above all, the vision, to make this end attainable. In her and in her ability to justify the responsibility thus placed upon her, I also believe. Therefore, my conclusion of beliefs in the leadership of the country teacher and in the teacher's office as a chief immediate factor in the solution of the farm problem. CHAPTER X THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM AND ITS ATTACK The Problem Stated. In the preceding chapter, the re- sponsibility of the country teacher's position has been empha- sized. The present chapter will attempt to show country teachers how to attack their problem. The efforts here de- scribed have all been tried with success, most of them in a single country school. That there is a problem, and a very serious one, confronting every country teacher would seem evident. Yet, many coun- try teachers do not realize the unity and magnitude of this problem and therefore fail to make any organized attack upon the difficulties of their situation. To run a few strag- gling children through the dry mechanics of a daily program seems to some the total fulfillment of duty. From such there is little to hope. But from the larger class of earnest workers who would bring the joys of life to the minds and hearts of neglected country children, there is everything to hope. These fully realize their problem but can find no solution that fully solves, no path that leads clear through the tangle of dis- couraging difficulties with which their work is beset. To teachers of this class the problem of the country teacher is very real. Though differently stated by each individual, in the end it would all mean the same thing — the task of making the school the strongest possible influence in enriching the lives of those for whom it is maintained. In this connection it should be remembered that the school, though designed 205 206 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL primarily for the education of the young, is responsible for the whole community and may become, as formerly pointed out, a chief immediate factor working toward rural betterment. The problem of the country teacher, therefore, is the prob- lem of accepting conditions as they now exist, physically, edu- cationally, and socially, and of converting the country school from decay and inactivity into a living, vital force for rural progress. In other words, it is the problem of making the country school a center for redirected education and com- munity building. The Method of Its Attack. Since this must necessarily be a rather long treatment, not only illustrating a course of action but including much detailed information, it may be well to outline briefly the four large points of attack to be de- veloped. The country teacher's problem as it now exists may be most directly controlled : 1. Through spiritualizing and improving the physical en- vironment of the school. 2. Through socializing the school and making it an insti- tution of community service. 3. Through vitalizing and enriching the course of study. 4. Through improving the administration of the school and teaching the necessity of a change of system, or consoli- dation. No one of these phases can be individually considered and worked out to the exclusion of the others. All must be con- stantly kept in mind and simultaneously furthered. I. Improving the Physical Environment of the Country School The Building: Defects of Country School Buildings. There are many defects in the ordinary, one-room school building. Most such buildings, or at least their styles of architecture, have come down to us from a day when school- THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 207 rooms were made for passive listening and not for active work. In the first place, the average country school build- ing is far too small. The activities that must now take place within a schoolroom require reasonable space. A country schoolroom, especially where there is no second room pro- vided, needs to be large, covering at least seven hundred square feet of floor space. It is not unusual, moreover, to An Old Type of Country School Building There are many defects in the ordinary one-room school building find school buildings with no hall or cloak room of any description. Such buildings confess at once that they were planned by a set of indifferent or penurious directors, who cared more for a few cents in the hand than the convenience and need of future generations. For the sake of country teachers and children who may still have to live for years in one-room schools, I wish to emphasize the necessity of a second room. A school of only one room should never be built. There is more need of an 2o8 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL additional room, even a small one, than any one except a teacher can quite realize. A room of this description tends to revolutionize teaching and may answer a score of pur- poses. It is convenient, not only as a workshop, storeroom, classroom, laboratory, lunch and playroom, and primary- room, but as a place where individual children, or small groups of children may withdraw and work on oral reading, science lessons, and other work requiring space and freedom. The practical possibilities of an additional room far out- weigh the small expense incurred in its construction. If so desired, the basement may be enlarged, and a workroom, preferably about twenty feet square, can be obtained at very little expense. A basement room, however, is not quite so satisfactory as one above, owing to the danger of poor drain- age, dust, and dampness. A workroom upstairs, fully ex- posed to fresh air and sunshine, with a basement large enough to contain the furnace, fuel, water-tank, janitor supplies, school stores, and possibly the toilets and a playroom, will be found much better and more sanitary. A fourth defect of the old-fashioned country school is the arrangement of windows on both sides of the room. This allows light to enter from opposite directions, and results in cross-lighting. More will be said later of the management of light in such rooms. Most serious of all defects, however, is the matter of ven- tilation. This subject, so vitally affecting the health of all concerned, cannot be too strongly emphasized. No provision whatever is made for the removal of foul air in thousands of country schoolrooms today. To those who have studied this question its neglect seems nothing short of criminal. The interior finish of the average rural school is also largely a matter of accident and usually reveals the fact most candidly. For the conditions that prevail in thousands of buildings, there is positively no excuse, not even that of econ- THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 209 omy, since attractive paper and paint cost no more than the ludicrous and dingy combinations often displayed. The same indifference regarding the laws of harmony and good taste manifested within the schoolroom is usually reflected by the exterior appearance of the building. A little, barn-like struc- ture, with a snub-nosed, lean-to attachment, may have been considered artistic once, but it certainly does not fulfill mod- ern requirements of architectural fitness. While many school officers execute their duties faithfully and deserve strong words of commendation for their sincere efforts and gratuitous service, there are others, who, through indifference or ignorance, still persist in perpetuating incon- venient and inartistic schoolhouses upon the children of the present and future. For the poor planning of a new school- house there is now no excuse. Directors needing assistance on these matters should consult the teacher and county superin- tendent who, through their experience, should be able to give many valuable suggestions concerning the needs and purposes of a school building, and who can at least furnish sources from which information on school architecture may be ob- tained. Nearly every state now makes special effort to spread this information, and a letter to the state superintendent's office or to the nearest normal school will usually bring the desired assistance. Assistant Superintendent U. J. Hoffman of Illinois has prepared a pamphlet entitled The One-Room and Village Schools in Illinois which may be had for the ask- ing and which contains several good plans with specifications and costs. The Missouri State Normal School at Kirksville has built a model rural school building and publishes a circu- lar describing it. Cornell College of Agriculture has built an excellent model upon its campus, of which it will furnish de- scriptive literature upon request. Plans and explanations of a school building conforming to the ideas here set forth are given in the appendix of this book. (Section 3.) 2io COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The following information on various phases of school- room architecture covers only the most essential principles, but is given here with the conviction that its dissemination prop- erly belongs to the country teacher's problem. Her explana- tion of these facts is often, the only means of enforcing their significance, and she thus again becomes the medium of en- lightenment and progress. Heating and Ventilation. The necessity of pure air is still a subject but little understood, even in the country where fresh air and sunshine abound. The dangerous effects of the use of vitiated air cannot be too strongly impressed upon chil- dren, teachers, or parents. Children compelled to live in a vitiated atmosphere become not only irritable and nervous, or inactive, but are made susceptible to colds and disease and ultimately suffer from a general lowering of bodily strength and vigor. Mentally, poor ventilation defeats the whole pur- pose of the school, as it has been scientifically demonstrated that children inhaling impure air cannot be intellectually active. Notwithstanding all this, the most extreme and intolerable conditions prevail during the cold weather in many country schoolrooms. The ordinary stove, making no provision what- ever for the circulation and purification of air, is heated red hot, the children are allowed to gather close around it, win- dows and doors are tightly barricaded, and in a short time the air, used over and over again by the unsuspecting in- mates, becomes so vitiated that it can be actually felt, smelled, and tasted by one entering the room from outside. Although the problem of ventilation in a schoolroom wholly unprovided with any mechanical means for the exchange of air is undoubt- edly difficult and baffling, it is nevertheless true that the worst cases of neglect are due to the ignorance and indifference of teachers. When things have gone so far that the children become languid and sleepy, it is time for action. Open the THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 211 windows to their very limit. Let the children march, run, play leap-frog, or do almost anything requiring bodily exertion, while the room is thoroughly flushed with pure air. Repeat this performance at least once during every session. Here are a few facts concerning ventilation that every teacher should know and religiously impress upon the chil- dren, parents, and directors of her community. Only in this way will the subject receive adequate attention. A New Type of Country School Building This beautiful building stands on the campus of Cornell College of Agriculture. Cost about $2,000. Its special feature is a workroom. Send to the College at Ithaca, New York, for descriptive circular 1. Each child should have 30 cubic feet of pure air per minute, or about 2,000 cubic feet per hour. This means that an average schoolroom whose dimensions are, say 20x30x12 feet, will properly supply twenty children for. only twelve minutes ; and that the air in such a room should be completely changed at least five times in a single hour. 2. An ordinary open stove heats only the immediate sec- 212 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL tion of the room and makes no provision whatever for the exchange and distribution of air. 3. A good ventilating system is one that answers the fol- lowing requirements: (a) removes foul air and introduces pure; (b) distributes the fresh air equally well to all parts of the room; (c) maintains an equality of temperature; (d) supplies necessary moisture; and (e) avoids drafts. 4. A system of efficient ventilation can be, and should be, provided for every country school. In view of what has been said, the following means are recommended for the ventilation of country schools : 1. In the first place, the teacher can flush the room with pure air and then resort to the well known device of insert- ing a board under the lower window sash. In a room known to be defective in this respect, one window at least, on the leeward side of the building, should always be kept open while the children are in the room. When lowered from the top, it will usually injure no one. This method, of course, is but an inadequate makeshift. 2. The stove may be jacketed. This, if properly done, will insure correct conditions. A sheet iron screen standing around the stove, however, is not a jacket and should not be mis- taken for one. The screen is absolutely useless so far as ventilation is concerned, and serves only as a protection from the more intense rays of heat. A true jacket is an air- tight covering, enclosing the stove, extending clear to the floor and open only at the top. It draws pure air from outside through a duct, opening into a hole in the floor under the stove. Fresh cold air thus passes in around the stove, is heated, and rises to the ceiling, eventually working its way down to the ' children. The opening of doors and windows, or a register in the side wall near the floor, is often depended upon to remove impure air, but fails to do so, owing to the greater pressure of the colder air on the outside. The THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 213 impure air cannot be drawn out unless a draft is created, and this requires heat. The following plan, recommended by Mr. U. J. Hoffman of the Illinois Department of Educa- tion, is an excellent method of jacketing a stove. At the corner of the house cut a hole in the foundation wall and another through the floor where the stove is to stand. Connect these openings with a galvanized iron pipe, and surround the stove with a galvanized iron jacket about eight inches from the sides of the stove. The jacket should reach, and be fastened to the floor, and be extended to a height of five feet There should be a door in the jacket through which fuel may be placed in the stove and through which the ash box can be removed. There should be another door at the bottom of the jacket. It should not be on hinges, but should be so attached that it may be raised or lowered. It should be twelve inches wide and eighteen inches high. The hole in the floor should be 12 by 16 inches, and pro- vided with the ordinary hot air register, thus making it possible to regulate the amount of air admitted or to shut it off altogether. When the room is to be heated quickly the register should shut out the outside air. By opening the sliding door in the jacket the air within the room is admitted to the furnace. When the room is sufficiently warm and the children are present the register should be opened and the sliding door closed. In order that fresh air may flow into the room through the furnace it will be necessary to provide that an equal amount of foul air escape from the room. This can be done by attaching a ten-inch galvanized pipe to the jacket and extending it from within six inches of the floor upward through the roof. This will take air off the floor outside the furnace. It should be provided with a damper so that it may be closed when on very windy days the air might come down this pipe. The expense should not exceed $20.00. This home-made room furnace can be depended upon to heat and ventilate the room as effectually as a high-priced patented one. Any tinner can make it. 3. The recent awakening to the seriousness of this ques- tion of ventilation has resulted in the manufacture of several good mechanical ventilating systems. Among the best known of these are the Smith System of Heating and Ventilation, put out by the Manuel-Smith Heating Company, of Minneapo- lis, and the Waterman-Waterbury System, also of Minneapo- 214 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL lis. 1 Those heaters operate upon the same principle as the properly jacketed stove, except that they are capable of dis- charging both smoke and foul air from a single chimney through the use of a patented device, called a mixer. Either make can be purchased and placed on the floor by a com- petent agent for from ninety to one hundred twenty-five dollars — a small sum, indeed, compared with the benefit derived. 4. A furnace, however, provides by far the most satis- factory system of heating and ventilating, being not only much cleaner and more sightly but saving valuable floor space. Small furnaces are now on the market at reasonable cost, and nothing else should ever be installed in a new building. But with furnaces as with other systems of heating, proper attention must be given to ventilation. A double chimney is a necessity. If desired a screened fireplace may be built in the ventilating, flue, serving" not only as an air register but upon occasions as a genial companion, and during early fall and late spring as a fuel saver. With every heating plant care should be exercised to see that moisture is assured. Furnaces and manufactured sys- tems usually have water-pans. If overlooked these should be demanded at the time of installation, and the teacher should then see that they are kept filled. When stoves are used, a small tea-kettle or an open pan may be provided as a substitute. Dry air is extremely disagreeable and injuri- ous to the health of the children. Lighting. The eyes are as delicate as the lungs and require as much care. Every teacher should have a letter chart, which may be procured free from almost any physi- 1 All recommendations of manufactured articles made in this chapter and elsewhere throughout tin's book are expressions of independent per- sonal opinion and investigation, based wholly upon fitness and adapta- tion to country school needs. THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 2I ^ cian or oculist, and should make simple tests upon the chil- dren for nearsightedness, farsightedness, and other common ailments, especially with those children who complain of head- aches and show signs of trouble. When weaknesses are dis- covered, the teacher should make every possible effort to impress upon parents the necessity of wearing glasses or of making other proper medical provision for relief. Nothing is more dangerous than delay in such cases. Troubles that might be remedied if given early attention are often neglected until past all permanent cure. lief ore considering the lighting of country schools, it is well to know the following general principles: i. The light should come largely from above and be dif- fused evenly from the ceiling, throughout the room. 2. No part of the room should be insufficiently lighted. 3. There should be no glare of light reflected from below, as from window sills, desks, or floors. 4. There should be no cross-lights. 5. Light should be admitted only from the left side, though small windows in the back are not especially harmful. 6. The window space should equal at least one-sixth of the floor space. Some authorities say one-fourth. As is well known, the chief misery of country schools in this respect is the defect of cross-lighting, resulting from the old-fashioned notion of placing windows on both sides of the building. This condition is one of the most serious defects of old-time construction and should be speedily rem- edied in every building where it exists, by putting all the windows on the left side. In the meantime, it may be some- what controlled by the use of heavy blinds that can be ad- justed so as to shield the lower half of the window, while exposing the upper half. Such an arrangement is now made easy and practicable by the manufacture of a pulley device known as the Johnson Window Shade Adjuster. These ad- 216 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL justers are listed with price and place of manufacture among other country school equipment in the appendix of this book. (Section 4.) The old-time shutter is not, as some suppose, an adequate blind for the protection of the eyes. It is not only clumsy and certain to screen the whole window when only a partial shadow is desired, but admits the light in bars and streaks, giving a checker-board effect most harmful to the eye. The Venetian blind, a shade made of wooden slats running hori- zontally on strong tape, is regarded by some as desirable, but is very likely to prove an admirable dust-trap, and, like the shutter, has the same objectionable feature of admitting light in bars of sunshine and shadow. The color of the walls has much to do with the problem of lighting, and this should be borne in mind when selecting paper or tinting. The common practice of choosing dark paper because it will better hide dust or smoke is atrocious. The walls should always be comparatively light, and the ceiling very light. Evening light is an important point of schoolroom effi- ciency in the country where the building should frequently be used for community gatherings. Gasoline fixtures are often recommended for this purpose, but their expense and danger argue against them somewhat. Alcohol lamps and good oil lamps are now manufactured which are thoroughly safe and give a light almost equal to that of gasoline. Some of these are recommended in the appendix. (Section 4.) Interior Finish and Decoration. A whole school is often reformed in matters of conduct by a few rolls of paper and a little paint. Any child finds it easier to be clean of body and of mind in a clean, attractive room than in one where half the plaster is gone and the paper hangs in festoons of dusty cobwebs. All this is now so generally accepted as truth that it is hard to account for existing conditions. The general neglect and unpleasing, often ludicrous, combina- THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 217 tions of color displayed in many country schools, however, are too familiar to need comment. A general color scheme should be planned and carried out in decorating the walls of any room. It is first necessary to decide whether the scheme shall be warm or cool. The Library Room, Peru School, Macon County, Illinois An ordinary country school entrance converted into a reading-room warm colors include the shades and tints of red, brown, and yellow, while the cool colors include the shades and tints of blue, gray, and green. Since country schools are in session chiefly during inclement weather, a warm scheme is perhaps best for them. Plain, patternless paper, or wall tint, should be selected, as it makes a more restful surface for the eyes. 2i8 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL A shade not too dark should be used for the walls, and very light tints, usually cream, for the ceiling. The wood- work, if old, may be painted a darker shade of the same color. Green paper is less satisfactory than brown because more likely to fade and to contain chemical coloring mat- ter injurious to the lungs. In case the building is ceiled, the walls and ceiling may be painted in three shades of the same color, but the color chosen must be light and cheerful New buildings, however, should never be papered, but tinted. What decorators call water-color is the most economical and best finish and the most easily applied. It can be used suc- cessfully over rough plaster. Woodwork in a new building should be finished in the natural wood. When a room is once well finished, the whole effect must not be ruined by careless and untidy wall decorations or by over-decorating. Frames for schoolroom pictures should be simple and plain and should correspond with the general ef- fect of 'the pictures. Pictures should be hung neither in a dark corner nor in a glare of light, nor so high that the children get no benefit of them. A list of good pictures relating especially to country life is given in the appendix of this book. (Section 8.) The work of the children also de- serves a display on the walls, but it should not be carelessly stuck around anywhere, to collect dust and flutter to the floor upon the least provocation from the wind. The most satisfac- tory and convenient plan for displaying such material is to cover a section of the wall space with cork carpet, burlap, or denim, and firmly tack each piece of work upon this surface. Thin pine board or building paper may be first nailed under the burlap or denim to make a body for holding the tacks. Movable bulletin boards may be constructed on separate frames in the same way. But a room may be well decorated and still prove unpleas- jng in effect unless the little touches that add so much to THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 219 its homelike influence are carefully given. Simple glass vases are cheap, and a cluster of well arranged flowers will often brighten a whole day. The children should be shown how to pick flowers, and the teacher can easily illustrate the difference in effect between a motley, short-stemmed, breath- less bunch, and a free, artistic spray arranged with some thought of harmony in color and proportion. Such things may seem trivial, perhaps, to one who has not observed their effect upon children, but details make up the whole in school- room decoration as truly as elsewhere. At any rate, it is evident that a fresh green fern, a vase of poppies, or a bowl of violets, must be somewhat more spiritualizing than the battered dinner pails and basins of dirty water that some- times adorn the interior of country schoolrooms. Seating. The old-fashioned double desk with its "jack- knife carved initial" and fond memory of seatmates may be romantic, but it is certainly very unsanitary and inconve- nient. Through its use there is an utter neglect of adjust- ment in the seating of children. How serious this neglect may become is shown by the numerous cases of round shoul- ders and poor physiques found even among country boys and girls. Nowhere in fact is the question of bodily com- fort so much disregarded as in country school seating. Large overgrown boys are frequently cramped into seats about half large enough for them, while tender six-year-olds are sub- merged in a pile of old lumber over which they can barely peer out at the big world. Frequently, too, the seats are arranged supposedly to grade from rear to front, but really to descend by jogs and jumps most uncomfortable to those who sit on the connecting lines. The chief defects of common school seats are: 1. Improper adjustment in height, causing children to swing their feet in space. This often causes injury to the spinal column. 220 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 2. A slant in exactly the wrong direction along the back, allowing no freedom of movement for the hips, or pelvic girdle, when writing. 3. Improper adjustment to the arms, the desks being usually either too high or too low. 4. A lack of any provision for holding books closer to the eyes while reading. Although no seats now on the market correct all the deficiencies here pointed out, the best for general use are the single adjustable desks and chairs which can be fitted to individual children. A few turns of the wrench, and every child can be placed in a seat fitted to him with his feet firmly touching the floor. Such an investment may cost more in the beginning but will be found to yield paying returns in straight backs, square shoulders, and general bodily comfort and health. For the purchasing address and cost of these seats see the appendix of this book. (Section 4.) When good seats have been procured, they must be properly placed on the floor. The proper method is not to put the large seats in the rear and the small ones in front, but to arrange the various sizes in different rows and to lap each seat not more than three nor less than two inches under its desk. For the little children, a low primary table and a dozen small chairs solve the seating problem most excellently. Such a table can be made by the older boys or purchased from any school supply house, and the chairs can be obtained from the same source for about sixty cents each. The great convenience of these chairs can scarcely be overestimated. They are use- ful not only around the table for the younger children but as recitation seats for the whole school, thus making way with the awkward long benches over which everyone is inclined to stumble. Their light weight makes them easily movable, and their size and color greatly endear them to the hearts of six-year-olds. THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 2 2I Sanitation and Care. Cleanliness is said to be next to godliness, and in the schoolroom it is certainly next ahead. There are two difficult phases of the problem of school sani- tation. One of these, ventilation, has been considered at some length ; the other, the control of dust, is also quite a task in a room filled with active children. However, it can and should be solved. Dust, even chalk dust, need not be tolerated. The school- room, where children from different families are brought so closely and constantly together, should be the cleanest of all places. Yet people who regularly scrub their own floors once or twice a week think nothing of allowing children to sit day after day in a room that has not felt a drop of purifying water for months. It is, indeed, the actual truth that hun- dreds of schools are scrubbed only once or twice a year! Such practices are wholly inexcusable. The care of a room, as of most things, needs only to be managed through a little systematic planning and attention. The first step for a teacher to take upon entering a dirty and repulsive building is to have a plain, face-to-face talk with the directors concerning the necessity of clean paper and a little paint. Whether she gains her point or not, the building must be thoroughly cleaned, whoever does it. When once well cleaned, the work of keeping it respectable is not severe, if regularly and constantly attended to. Where the teacher must do her own janitor work, it will pay her to employ one of the strongest and most reliable of the older girls to assist. A country boy is usually a misfit when put at housework, and no boy will give the little touches necessary to order and cleanliness. Brooms, mops, pails, cloths, soap, and cleaning materials must be well provided, and in a businesslike manner, just as in a home. When well kept up, the work, though hard, will absorb the interest and prove attractive. One of the chief sources of dust in a schoolroom is the 222 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL blackboard. But with proper care its annoyance may De greatly reduced. Boards in country schools are often poor things at best, and a coat of chalk dust adds nothing to their efficiency. They should be washed every day and the trays well cleaned. This will be found a light task if regularly done, and will simplify the care of the whole room. The erasers should be cleaned whenever dust-filled, at least two or three times a day. The task is only a minute's exercise for some of the small boys, who are always glad to help. Children should be taught the danger to the lungs of float- ing dust particles and should not be allowed to dust an eraser inside the room, or to bring in mud, or in any way add to the dust supply. Dustless crayon is best to use, as it not only makes less dust, but writes better. Paper boards, which are a very good substitute for slate, dustless crayon, and noiseless erasers made entirely of felt, can now be obtained from any reliable school supply house. The addresses of a few of these houses and of some manufacturing companies producing these articles may all be found in the list of country school equip- ment recommended in the appendix. The old, rough floor with its great cracks, presents another matter for consideration. Perhaps the best covering for a schoolroom floor would be cork carpet or linoleum, but both are too expensive to be practical. A few square feet of bright colored linoleum for the hall floor will not cost much, how- ever, and will add greatly to the attractiveness of the entrance. For the old floor, nothing better can be recommended than the application of a couple of coats of good floor paint. The cracks should first be filled with crack-filler and putty, so that they will no longer serve as dust catchers. A well painted floor can be mopped in a few minutes and should be so treated at least once in two weeks. A rug across the front of the room will be found nerve-soothing and may be both sanitary and attractive. Children should be emphatically taught to clean THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 223 their shoes and remove their overshoes before entering the building. Such a lesson will add possibly more to the comfort of humanity than some things in arithmetic and grammar. When tactfully managed, the children are glad to cooperate with the teacher in securing and keeping a school beautiful. Another source of infection aside from dust and bad air is the public drinking cup. Drinking water should not be kept in the building if there is a well on the grounds, as there always should be. When water must be kept inside, a special tank with a faucet and a tightly fitted cover should be pro- vided. Individual drinking cups are necessary and can be easily and cheaply supplied. All cups should be scoured fre- quently and aired in the sunshine. Children should be allowed and encouraged to drink quantities of water, but care must be taken to have it pure and clean. This means that the well must be carefully cleaned and watched. The contents of many wells would shock the whole community if brought to view. The drainage of the well is a matter of vital importance. Dirty water constantly dripping back into the drinking supply is repulsive, to say the least. A tile drain can be easily laid and is the best provision for this purpose. The directors or large boys can put in such a drain with but little expense. The Improvement of the Grounds. Just why trees, flowers, and shrubs will not grow on school grounds is truly something of an agricultural mystery. When land that raises eighty bushels of corn to the acre on one side of the fence refuses to nourish a bed of tulips or a few shrubs on the other side, we must, of force, conclude that something else, or the lack of something else, enters into the balance against the school yard. How rarely, in even the richest of our agri- cultural states, are country school grounds made an influence of beauty for the children and people of the surrounding community. But before much is done by way of improvement, we must succeed in establishing a new ideal among country 224 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Cultivating Minds and Spirits Through Flower Gardens teachers. This ideal is nothing more nor less than the belief that the school should be, in all 'things, a power for beauty and good; and that it should, in the matter of outdoor art, be so maintained as to set an example of local pos- sibilities to every home. True, there is certainly enough for one teacher to do in a country school without seeking to become a landscape gardener. But this is by no means the end desired. True, too, the first duty of the school is cultivating minds, not flower gardens. But the sensible teacher will not lose her perspective and shift her attention from the children to the plants. The sensible teacher will cultivate not flower gardens, but minds and spirits through Howler gardens. Beginning Yard Improvement. The first act on the part of an untrained teacher ambitious to do something for yard improvement should be to make a simple landscape plan of the school grounds. This should be done early in the year, during, the first month of school preferably, for it will then be done, and furthermore much of the work in planting needs to be started in the early fall. Many suggestions and aids are now at hand for teachers who work faithfully on such an undertaking. Several state departments issue literature upon this subject. Here are four simple directions that can be effectively followed by any person: i. Use common, familiar things. 2. Plant in masses, avoiding straight lines. 3. Leave open spaces. 4. Select things adapted to the climate. Use the plant life of the local neighborhood as much as possible. Do THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 225 this not only because it is beautiful and abundant but be- cause it should be the mission of the school to reveal this common, everyday beauty of field, forest, and stream. How often the mutilation of trees, the neglect of yards, and the vision of unsightly dumping grounds show a lack of such ap- preciation! Plant, by all means, as Nature does, in irregular masses, leaving open spaces for the eye to rest upon. What to Plant: Trees. If the grounds are treeless, trees should receive first attention. Set them not in mathematical rows with the stiff military precision formerly so much ad- mired, but irregularly and naturally, as they grow in their native woods. If shade is needed immediately, the soft wood trees, especially those of the maple family, as box-elder and soft-maple, will grow more rapidly than others, though in a permanent plan they are not good, as they split easily in storms. Elms, oaks, lindens, hard maples, and evergreens are much the best varieties to choose, not only for beauty but for strength, vigor, and permanency. Evergreens are especially good as bird attractors, and the interest of the birds should always be considered in this matter of tree planting. For screens around outbuildings or for windbreaks, nothing can surpass a clump of evergreens. The best varieties are the firs and spruces. The method of transplanting trees is too technical to be considered here, but the necessity of transplant- ing early must be borne in mind. The first warm days, just when the sap begins to stir, and long before the leaves appear, is the best time. Shrubs. Shrubs may be made a most important factor in beautifying a yard. They are not only captivating and showy in effect but rapid in growth and prompt in blooming. Favor the wild ones. Crab-apple, sumach, red-bud, dogwood, and wild plum are all to be had for the taking. Among cultivated shrubs, lilac, flowering almond, flowering quince, snow-ball, and roses, especially the ramblers, are always popular. For 226 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL big strong color effects in the rear grounds or fence corners nothing is better than the golden spirea. Shrubs of the ber- ried variety are especially attractive in winter when most plant life is bare and cheerless. Send to Mr. Fred Haxton, owner of the Ottawa Gardens, 4717 Winthrop Avenue, Chi- cago, for free booklets entitled "Twelve Best Shrubs" and "Twelve Best Perennials." Vines. In the selection of vines, it is well again to take suggestions from the wild woods. What in the way of vines can be prettier than the deep- eyed woodbine in early fall or the fragrant wild grape in the spring ? Among the tame vines there are the morning- glory, hyacinth bean, wis- taria, moon-flower, Ma- deira vine, Boston ivy, and a multitude of others. Nothing is more orna- mental than beautiful vines. For arches, trel- lises, and quick growing screens, they are unsur- passed, and it is aston- ishing that we should so often allow the ugly spots and cran- nies of our homes to stare us in the face day after day when a few seeds thrust into the ground might transform them into scenes of grace and beauty. Flowers. Of flowers there is no end, but not all are equally useful and appropriate for schoolyard cultivation. Among A Monarch of the Prairie THE COUNTRY TEACHKU'S PROBLEM 227 those best adapted to this purpose should he mentioned (lie peony, which can he used most effectively and which has recently become very popular will) landscape gardeners. IMant perennials chiefly, as they have the advantage of requiring less attention and work than annuals and biennials. Tulips, asters, dahlias, chrysanthemums, crocuses, sweet peas, and nasturtiums can he cultivated on any school ground without an unwarranted expenditure of effort. Violets, bluebells, wild pansies, and many other ot our wild llowers deserve con- sideration also. Children delight in flowers and should have plenty of them. HoUSS plants. Mouse plants the year round in a country school arc almost an impossibility owing to the cold weather and the difficulty of keeping up fires, hut some things can he had in the fall and spring, herns are always pleasing, and in the fall a potted chrysanthemum adds much to the at- tractiveness of the room. In the Spring, early window gar- dens and indoor vines, as smilax, Wandering Jew, and Ma- deira vines may he used most effectively, while Chinese lilies, jonquils, hyacinths, and narcissus will grow from bulbs in a vase of water and prove a delighl to all. Walks and Fences. The need of walks about the country school is not often fully realized. Concrete walks are not only more lasting and satisfactory than lumber hul in Hie long run are fully as cheap. Many farmers now experiment with the composition of concrete for home purposes and can often he induced to use their skill for the henefit of the school. A fence is a necessary protection for every schoolyard and need not he broken, used for kindling, or otherwise muti- lated. Heavy woven wire makes an admirahle fence:, though the virtues of a harrier to stray animals and of a hitching rack can he combined in a fence made of two-hy-six planks firmly bolted in place and neatly painted. In one' country school where such a fence was constructed, the children 228 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL painted it themselves and managed to do a pretty fair job, too. In fact, surprising changes can be wrought by children when they once undertake a campaign for beauty. Summer Houses, Arbors, and Arches, A well-roofed sum- mer house would often prove a blessing as a playroom for younger children in warm, rainy weather. Such a building may be made by the older boys with a few oak or cedar posts and some shingles. Vines planted and trained over it will then make not only a thing of service but of beauty. Arches, arbors, lily-pools, and wigwams, made of poles and wire netting, over- grown with vines, are all suggestive to one interested in the improvement of grounds. Landscape education is largely, and for the country teacher almost wholly, a matter of suggestion. Watch such magazines as Country Life in America for new ideas and helpful sugges- tions. The Outbuildings. Of all the barbarous features of our country schools, none can compare with the usual outbuilding. In some cases, double buildings are still found, even though there may be a prohibitive state law to the contrary. Among school officers and teachers it is almost a unanimous de- cision that no other one in- fluence is more suggestive of immorality and vicious- ness than the isolated out- building. In truth, the most civilizing influence that could possibly be procured for the aver- age country school would be indoor toilets. But much can be A Disgrace to the Community THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 229 done that is not done even now. In the first place, the build- ings can be kept clean, and with the necessary boards and doors in place. They can be cared for in a sanitary way, and the vaults can be cleaned and disinfected with lump copperas or lime when necessary. The interior can be painted, thus cover- ing up the inscriptions within, and a board screen can be placed before the entrance, over which vines may be trained. Children can be required to refrain from congregating in them and spending time in idle gossip, as they often do. They can also learn that the walls are not to be used as blackboards for un- sightly writing and sketches. All this is emphasized here be- cause it belongs to the country teacher's problem, and because it is certainly time for a campaign of morality regarding this matter of outbuildings. II. Socializing the Country School and Making It an Institution of Community Service Something has been said in foregoing chapters concerning the apathetic social relations of the average country school to its community. These conditions are too familiar to need lengthy comment. It is rather the purpose here to point out to the country teacher some ways of handling one of the most difficult and delicate phases of her larger problem. Personal Leadership of the Teacher; Visiting Among People. The leadership of the country teacher has been dis- cussed in an earlier chapter. The most natural beginning in this effort is likely to come through the customary evening visits in the homes. All-night visits are familiar to every country teacher, but the idea of making these visits an oppor- tunity for progress is not so familiar. By the wise teacher, however, the opportunity is fully appreciated. The farmer is at leisure in the evening, has just had a good supper, and is in a receptive frame of mind. Topics of conversation can very 230 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL easily be directed to school matters. Some of the great social movements now stirring rural life, as the Grange, the farmers' institute, and the agricultural college, may also be discussed in this way as ordinary matters of conversation and thus brought to people who possibly know but little of their work and influ- ence. The benefits of consolidated schools can be gently urged through interesting accounts and descriptions of such schools as the John Swaney School, described in this book. How much better is conversation of this character than the silly and malicious gossip frequently heard. State and na- tional bulletins, where not already well known, may be intro- duced during these visits, too. The opportunity is one of no little moment. Social Activities of the Children ; Boys' and Girls' Clubs. Children, like adults, are social beings and love to congregate and work together. If this instinctive tendency is not recog- nized by the teacher and made to work in harmony with the best interests of the school, it will very likely work in the opposite direction and cause no little trouble through cliques, factions, and petty quarrels. Girls' clubs and boys' clubs are now quite common in country schools. Where the county superintendent dignifies this work by making it a county movement, the task becomes easy. But even where the assist- ance of the county superintendent is lacking much can be done. Here is the story of how a girls' club developed in one school : The teacher knew the value of organization among children and during one recess period incidentally mentioned the subject to a few of the girls. That was enough. The children did the rest. That very- day a meeting of all the girls in the seventh and eighth grades was called. The matter was thoroughly discussed, and it was decided, upon the suggestion of the teacher, to invite all the young women of the neighborhood who were living at home but not attending school to join. This was done and not only those of the school district and immediate locality, but others, three and four miles distant, improved the oppor- tunity and enrolled. In this way the number increased from eleven to THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 231 twenty-one. At the first meeting the club was named, and was known henceforth as the Girls' Culture Club, the word culture being inserted because the primary purpose of the organization was to cultivate girls. The teacher was the guide, but a very companionable one, and through her sympathy soon grew to be the confidante of the girls in a way that made possible many things otherwise unattainable. The per- sonal growth and improvement of each girl was carefully watched and guarded. Among the considerations that received immediate and con- stant attention were the incorrect expressions in English. Matters of physical defect were also corrected. How many country boys and girls are allowed to grow into stooped, ungraceful figures just through the want of a little attention at the right time ! This close sympathy on the part of the teacher opened even more delicate problems and queries of young girlhood for. discussion. Many of the questions of life, relat- * kteMf.ftt Girls' Club Ready for the Thanksgiving Minuet ing to morality, sex, social relationship, health, and even religion, sub- jects often sadly neglected, were considered as experience and inquiry presented them for solution. Definite lines of education were pursued also. A chorus was formed, and some very delightful and happy hours were spent around the school piano, which the girls helped to buy. Several musical programs were given by the club through the year, among others a Christmas cantata, a folk-song program, and a spring concert. The teacher had had little musical training, but several of the girls had talent, and with their assistance surprising results were obtained; for music, like all other things, is largely a matter of enthusiasm. Through the influence of the club, the girls also became more deeply interested in literature, especially in general reading, and finally presented a few little plays. Local and educational excursions, too, were made by the club to points of interest. 232 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL All the immediate manufacturing plants were visited in the course of two years. But this little club did not stop here. Sixty miles awa> was a large city where Shakespearean drama and good music could sometimes be heard, and hither the members journeyed one bright spring day, to see something of the life of a real city and to attend a musical concert and a good drama. Good, fresh, wholesome entertainment is much needed in the country. If young people had more of this at home there would be less discon- tent on the farm, and less moving to town. Such entertainment these girls provided for themselves in an interesting and refined form. Be- sides little social gatherings held in their homes and at school, they had several girlish frolics at the schoolhouse, always, of course, under the chaperonage of the teacher. Corn clubs for boys organized upon a county basis are now common throughout the corn-growing states. The largest and most unusual development of the boys' agricultural club idea, however, has grown up in the South under the direction of the late Dr. S. A. Knapp, of the Department of Agri- culture. In this movement 46,000 boys are enrolled. Corn growing is the medium of organization. Each boy cultivates one acre according to printed contract, one condition being that he shall do the work himself. Written reports and accounts are required. With the favorable climatic conditions of the South, marvelous results have been obtained through these clubs. One boy, Jerry Moore, of South Carolina, in 1910 harvested 228 bushels and three pecks of shelled corn from his single acre, thus making the champion corn record of the world. But far more significant than world championships is the splendid manhood toward which these clubs and others of a similar purpose are leading the farm boys of today. Making the Schoolhouse a Center for the Community; Schoolhouse Meetings. Schoolhouses in the country are used as much for public meetings as elsewhere, but not half the good is thus gained that might be derived. If all the tax- payers in the community felt at home within the little school- house and made it a habit to come out to it occasionally, there THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 233 would be less complaint about the expense of its maintenance. This whole argument of the place and relationship of the school in rural life savors of the idea that it should be made an educational dispensary for the community which supports it In no way can it do this more effectively than through evening gatherings. These meetings may be classified under three purposes : those for entertainment, those for money- making, and those for community instruction and inspiration. Gatherings for entertainment are seriously needed in the country, where hard physical labor is plentiful and recreation scarce. Musical programs prepared by the children, little plays by the young people of the neighborhood, and even schoolhouse parties of a wholesome and refined type may all furnish. such relaxation. School gath- erings for money-getting are unfortunately a neces- sity in most rural commu- nities — unfortunately so, because the financial sup- port of a school should properly be maintained by the people of the commu- nity. For a district to force a teacher to bear the additional burden of supplying money for the necessary maintenance of the school is not only unjust but reveals the greed and closeness of the district. Moreover, since the school is a public institution, its social and educational advantages should be free to all. The old- fashioned box social, or basket-supper, is the most common means of financial gain. When well managed in a good neigh- borhood, the box-supper is respectable, but too often it attracts Chorus Cast, Peru School, Macon County, Illinois An audience of one thousand people at tended this country school chorus 234 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL undesirable visitors from some neighboring town or locality and has a smirching influence upon those present, especially the children. An ice-cream social, oyster supper, pay entertain- ment, school sale, or some other arrangement by which young children are not led to consider the question of pairing off, or to hear the questionable remarks of some coarse auctioneer, is much better. Evening meetings at the schoolhouse purposely designed for community inspiration and instruction are among the most worthy and influential of school gatherings. Many sources of aid lie close at hand, but are never suspected. Local min- isters, physicians, lawyers, editors, business men, the county superintendent, and neighboring teachers will usually all respond when invited to give a talk upon some educational topic related to their profession. No community is so starved but that some such effort is possible. But this is not the end. The farmers and their wives should eventually come to take an active part in. these meetings. A round-table discussion or a question box on some farm topic is a good beginning. Short papers, debates, or discussions of such subjects as the road problem, the consolidated school, the silo, improvements of corn, bread making, the farm home, the country church, and a hundred others, will provoke needed thinking and expres- sion. When the school has reached this point, the community will have developed its own leaders and may soon form a farmers' club or local grange to carry the good work further, as described in an earlier chapter. (See page 88.) Developing Cooperation Between the Home and the School; Parents' Clubs. The much-desired interest and cooperation of parents with the school is perhaps easier gained and held through the formality of an organization. For this purpose, a parents' association conducted on much the same lines as the girls' and boys' club is a useful agency. Not that a teacher is supposed to go into a community and set all the THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 235 women "club crazy." This is a city evil that we need not imitate in the country. But such an organization as the one suggested has its place among parents everywhere, and espe- cially in the country, where mothers are busy and often need change and recreation. Meetings should be held about once a month, and the chief initiative should be exercised not by the teacher but by the parents. Topics of school and child wel- fare should constitute the program. Play Festival, Harlem Consolidated School, Winnebago County, Illinois Other Agencies for the Socialization of the Country School: Newspapers; Exhibits; Educational Excursions. The wide-awake teacher will not stop with suggestions given her by others, but will constantly adapt and seize every oppor- tunity that presents itself. Every community affords its own individual agencies for awakening a broader and better coun- 236 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL try life. Those given here are simply suggestive. But a means practically always at the disposal of the ambitious teacher is the local newspaper. If the teacher is an original thinker and can occasionally write a few statements concern- ing local conditions, it will be best, but quoted articles on coun- try life subjects from books and periodicals are effective when given particular comment. Local school items prepared by the children prove interesting at home and furnish a good aim for written school work. Besides this, the bulletins of the state university or of the state department of education, relating to the improvement of farm life, should reach every family through the efforts of the local school. Well prepared exhibits of the children's work are also help- ful. These stimulate pride and increased effort in both chil- dren and parents, but care should be exercised to see that they do not become mere displays and their occasion an attempt to show off. Traveling art exhibits may be had, too. The Horace K. Turner Company, of Boston, Massachusetts, and the A. W. Elson Picture Company, also of Boston, now make special arrangements with schools by which mounted exhibits of pictures are sent out for study. A letter of inquiry to either company will bring all the details of agreement necessary to procure such an exhibit for a week. Three or four country schools together will find it quite possible to get one of these exhibits. Educational excursions, including both local and distant railway excursions, constitute another means of school social- ization. It is surprising how little is known by children, par- ticularly by country children, concerning matters outside their immediate environment. Foundries, flour mills, elevators, machine shops, potteries, brick yards, schools, court rooms, and churches, are all accessible and educationally more profit- able than the amount of ordinary school work neglected for their inspection. Of course rigid supervision must be exer- THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 237 cised over children during these visits and it is usually safest to take only the larger ones, but with due care there is prac- tically no danger. Railway excursions to neighboring cities or points of interest are often possible, and county educational excursions to the state university or college of agriculture are now quite common. The visions and larger appreciation given to country children in this way can scarcely be estimated. Although the latter undertaking is best managed by either Agricultural College Excursion, Edgar County, Illinois the county superintendent or the farmers' institute, an ener- getic teacher can play some part through suggestion and co- operation in bringing it to pass. A Country Life Club the Best Social Organization for the Country School. It is not implied here that the various methods given above for socializing country schools should all be undertaken in one school. The old adage concerning "too many irons in the fire" applies in this situation as elsewhere. 238 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Each teacher should start the one, two, or three organizations that seem best adapted to her school, and carry these to suc- cess. In general, the best organization to develop is a Country Life Club. This club should be composed of all persons in the district and should meet fortnightly or monthly at the schoolhouse. Its machinery should be simple, its officers few, and the programs, for the most part, should consist of discus- sions of country life topics by the members. The advantages of the country life club over other social organizations are self-evident. In the first place, it unites the whole community, both old and young, in one organization. This, as already shown in earlier chapters, is of the utmost importance. In the second place, such a club, from its name, may legiti- mately consider any or all phases of country life. This makes it possible for the teacher to use a single organization in intro- ducing discussion and reform on any question of school or community welfare. For these reasons it is safe to say that an active country life club in every district school would prac- tically solve "the rural problem." 1 Cooperation of the School with Other Community Institu- tions and Agencies. Another significant method of socializing the country school in addition to what may be done within the institution itself as already set forth, is through its cooperation with other community agencies. In every effort at progress the various institutions of the rural community should cooper- ate. This is not only more effective but is essential to peace and happiness. Some ways through which the teacher may help to induce such cooperation between the school and the home, church, Grange, farmers' institute, and road organiza- tion are discussed in the conclusions of chapters two, three, four, five, and six of this book. 1 For a bulletin giving details and method of procedure in organizing clubs of this type address the Country School _ Department of the Illinois State Normal University at Normal, Illinois. THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 239 III. Vitalizing and Enriching the Country School Course of Study There is now a rather general impression that this whole task of regenerating the country school can be settled by the introduction of a little formal "agriculture." In the staid bookish way in which this is frequently done nothing could be farther from the real issue. What is needed, in fact, is not so much new courses in the country school curriculum as a new point of view and a new approach upon old courses. Take the subject of beginning reading, for example. Here are the little six-year-olds steeped in farm experiences. They know all about horses, cows, calves, colts, and other farm things. They have followed their father in the field and their mother in the garden. They know real life. Why, then, blot out all these valuable experiences on the very threshold of the schoolroom by forcing from them such perjurious declarations as "I see the ball," "I see an apple," and "I like my book"? This redirection of the country school is a matter of fundamental educa- tional philosophy, not of making farmers or of holding country children upon the land, as is often argued. The latter is de- sirable to a certain degree, and it is also true that while "it is not desirable to try to make farmers, it seems advisable to stop unmaking them." But neither the making nor the unmak- ing of farmers touches the quick of the country school problem educationally. To make this point a little clearer, Practical Arithmetic 240 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL consider the teaching of agriculture in country schools. The common reason advanced for "introducing" this work is that it will "keep the boys on the farm." But educationally, agriculture should need no introduction. In its broad sense as daily farm-life experience it should be the backbone of every- thing in the whole school course, the common stock from which other studies spring. Arithmetic, reading, geography, and all other subjects, though not limited by it, should origi- nate from it and maintain direct connection with it. Agricul- ture should be taught, in other words, because it is the basic experience of country children, and all real teaching builds upon past experience, leading, in the familiar phrase, "from the known to the unknown." Thus nothing else can be prop- erly taught in the country school except through agriculture, that is, through the native home-life, or farm experience, of the children. The Redirection of Old Subject-Matter. The fuller meaning of some of these general statements can be best explained perhaps by a suggestive account of how one coun- try teacher met actual conditions and attempted to vitalize the work of an average rural school. To prevent community antagonism and for pedagogical rea- sons she began with the conventional branches of the curricu- lum, first carefully culling the traditional dead matter from each subject and attempting to impart a country school twist to what remained. This twist consisted chiefly in a new method of approach and a new application. The arithmetic retained its mathematical sequence, but became the arithmetic of the farm, not that of Wall Street. The time often spent on partial payments, compound interest, and cube root was used for the solution of original problems suggested by the corn crop, the feeding and shipping of cattle, the draining and fertilizing of fields, gardening, fruit raising, and farm sales. THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 241 Through problems of this type, 1 percentage, interest, book- keeping, and even bank discount, came to have a new mean- ing. Down the road from the schoolhouse a farmer was build- ing a sheep fold. This proved an excellent opportunity for introducing lumber measure and getting some first-hand expe- rience concerning it. Similar opportunities were discovered on every side, and will be revealed to any teacher who once gets the new point of view. The country community teems with them. In the same school the beginning work in first grade read- ing was based upon a miniature sand-table farm, whose plan- ning and construction enabled the children to talk and read in terms of their farm home experience. The fields and lots of this play farm were first fenced in ; the house, barn, and vari- ous buildings then constructed of paper ; and finally the fam- ily — miniature dolls, dressed for their respective parts, and the stock — paper creatures cut free-hand or from catalogs and farm journals — all moved in. Each child took care to have his own home pets represented among the common herds, and the whole undertaking became the source of clear and absorbing reading lessons on both blackboard and chart. Geography, too, felt the quickening influence of this new interpretation. Local weather conditions, landscape features, soil, wind, drainage, and the question of roads and transporta- tion were soon seen to have the closest relationship to this subject which had formerly been regarded as confined between the covers of the text. Literature and composition profited by the same treatment. The larger boys, fresh from the stern realities of corn-husking, did not notice the drudgery of learn- ing correct letter forms when writing to the Department of 1 For sets of such problems see Elementary Agriculture by Hatch and Haselwood, published by Row, Peterson and Co., Chicago, at 50 cents, and The Corn Lady by Jessie Field, published by A. Flanagan Co., Chicago. Price 60 cents. 242 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Agriculture for desired bulletins, fully realizing, as one boy put it, that "a fellow has to get a letter up in shape if he's going to send it off:" Class debates and papers on road- dragging, burning corn-stalks, moving to town, chores, the raising of a corn crop, and the right kind of country school, did not seem to be particularly hard or foreign, either. In the reading lessons the good times of Whittier's Snowbound and the story of "that boy in Wordsworth's Michael who left home," as well as numerous nature poems, all made a direct appeal to these boys and girls who saw their counterpart in actual life every day. Even in drawing the interest was enhanced and the common things of farm life were newly revealed when the teacher took the classes out of doors to observe the remarkable color masses of the distant woods and young grain, or asked each member of the class to study the sunset before tomorrow, as it would be the subject for the next painting lesson. Music, too, was a new delight when some of the songs were about "the lark that sings at Heaven's gate," or "the violets that budded today," or the farmer who raises wheat for bread, "so that all the hungry with it may be fed." The Introduction of New Courses. But this revised teaching of old courses, while fundamental in the redirection of the country school, is not adequate. Industrial develop- ment in the rural community has far outgrown the limited school curriculum, and to bridge this chasm new courses are needed, especially agriculture, home science, and manual train- ing. In outlining these courses in the school whose story is partially narrated here it was necessary to make a study of the life, industry, and homes of the people ; to see what they needed, and then incorporate these things into the course of study. The teacher referred to in this tale, like many others, had had no special preparation in either agriculture or house- THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 243 hold science, but, being inspired with a new vision of country school service, she determined to do what she could. Some points of the first work in agriculture illustrate the development of this idea. The course was begun early in the spring by a brief study of soils. This was followed by the. study of seedlings and plants and the necessity for crop rotation and soil fertilization. By this time corn was being planted, and this called forth a discussion of plowing, the preparation of the seed bed, and the influence and care of farm machinery. Soon the corn was through the ground, but no sooner had it appeared than the cut-worm came also. Here was a subject in which the whole community felt the keenest if A Sand-table Farm interest. The cut- worm, therefore, became the special object of study in the agriculture class for several days. Bulletins were procured, and enough of the life history of the insect was worked out to suggest the best time of attack in its control. In the meanwhile, corn had been grown in the school gar- den, which was now used as a testing plot for trying out the various cut-worm remedies recommended in books and bulletins on agriculture. In this testing plot the whole com- 244 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL munity became interested. Church-goers stopped on Sunday to investigate it, and farmers of the neighborhood paid it fre- quent visits, even coming inside the schoolhouse in their working clothes, upon several occasions, to listen to the reci- tations of the class in agriculture. Following this the feeding and care of dairy cows was discussed. A Babcock test was procured, and the milk of the various cows kept for dairy pur- poses in the neighborhood was tested, with the result that about one-half were found to be poor investments, while sev- eral were not paying for their keep. The domestic science course in the same school illustrates the close connection between the needs of the community and the school, even better, perhaps, than the work in agriculture just described. In her nightly visits in the neighborhood, the teacher found that children slept in rooms with a lamp turned low all night, and with windows closed or but slightly raised. She noticed that some of the homes were crudely decorated with gaudy wall paper, tissue-paper flowers, and cheap lace curtains and carpets. She observed, too, that several of the girls were unattractively dressed, and this only because their garments were poorly fitted and unbecomingly made. Having observed these things, she set to work to make a course of study for her particular children, dealing with these particular conditions. This course included, among other things, some discussion of the more common principles of diet, the proper way of serving a plain home meal, the necessity and benefit of plenty of fresh air, and the planning, selection, cutting, and fitting of simple school dresses. Later, the planning, construction, decoration, and furnish- ing of a modern country home was developed. In working out this phase of the course, the girls did much reading, talked with contractors, investigated lighting and plumbing systems, visited furniture stores, and were shown through a modern, THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 245 well-planned house in the town near by. The ideal thus estab- lished served as a good standard for later work. The improve- ment and remodeling of existing homes in the community was then taken up. Each member of the class made a plan of her house as it was and a second plan showing how labor- saving improvements and changes might be made. Remodeled furnishing, sanitation, and decoration were considered in detail. Throughout this work, in spite of early fears, the heartiest support was given from the mothers of the neighbor- hood, and its practical influence soon became noticeable in various homes. Elementary Rural Sociology in the Country School. The teacher of this school had another idea along the line of a vitalized course of study. This referred to the study of elementary rural sociol- ogy, or country life con- ditions, in the country school. She knew of uni- versities and colleges of agriculture where students were given an opportunity to consider some of the social and economic prob- lems confronting Ameri- can farmers today. Then came the idea of bringing these matters before the older boys and girls of her country school, the majority of whom would remain in the home neighborhood and have these very prob- lems to solve. Groping desperately for organization and con- venient reference material, she eventually worked out a sim- plified course based upon the experience of the children that might be given in any country school. Such a course will be Country School Gardening in Massachusetts 246 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL found an excellent means for developing a higher idealism of country life. 1 The suggestions of this narration are but faint glimmer- ings of the light that is soon to fall upon rural education. The country school of the future will reflect the life of the farm and the needs of the open country, both educational and social. It will teach farmers and farm children to live and to live fully and richly. In procedure, it will no longer put the cart before the horse, but will turn things squarely about and make agriculture, manual arts, and home science, which are now regarded as accessories, the very fundamentals of the curriculum. To these, and to the great question of living well, it will relate all else. Arithmetic, reading, language, and other conventional subjects will then be seen to grow out of, and spring naturally from this common source of basic need and experience, and will be understood not as ends in themselves but as tools to a higher end. And in this day, it may be added, there will be less dissatisfaction with country life, less moving to town, and a new understanding of what is meant by a country school. IV. Improving the Administration of the School and Teaching the Necessity of a Change of System, or. Consolidation, for Country Schools To some readers the emphasis placed here upon the sys- tematic education of country communities toward consolidation as a fourth point of attack in the solution of the country teach- er's, problem may seem unwarranted. But the awkward, out- grown machinery of school organization under which country teachers are now forced to expend their effort simply must give way to a more thorough and efficient system before anything permanently effective can be done for country schools. By 1 For an outline of this course address the Country School Depart- ment of the Illinois State Normal University at Normal. THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 247 this it is not assumed that a graded rural system, when once installed, will run itself without further effort. The consoli- dated school will require just as much money and just as much attention and cooperation, to insure success, as any school. It is maintained only that the graded system does away with the hopeless defects of the one-teacher school and The Harvest — Training School — Children of the Western Illinois State Normal School provides a foundation upon which it is possible to build with some adequate degree of success. And by the graded system is meant here, let it be understood, a graded country school ; not an imitation of the average city system of mechanical formality. For these reasons the deliberate, purposeful instruc- tion of a community toward this end is a service worthy the integrity and energy of every country teacher. 248 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The Beginning of a Consolidation Campaign. 1 No stere- otyped method for such a campaign can be given. It is but the intention here to offer some suggestions that may be useful to wide-awake teachers who have mettle enough to enter the arena in this just and righteous cause against the unfair treat- ment of country children. What works well in one commu- nity, or in the hands of one teacher, may fail utterly with others. Each teacher must study local conditions carefully and apply the specific measures recommended by a careful judgment. Everything tending toward an educational awaken- ing furthers the interest in consolidation, for to realize the latent possibilities of farm life and rural education is to become a thorough convert to the efficiency of the consoli- dated school. Visiting in the homes offers the first and most direct oppor- tunity for the stimulation of an interest in this matter of consolidation. Make the first discussions merely a matter of enlightenment, not of aggressive argument. Describe con- solidated schools as a new departure, of which you have recently been reading. Give vivid descriptions of such schools as the John Swaney School of Illinois, and some of the best types in Indiana and elsewhere. Carry with you books, pic- tures, and literature descriptive of these schools. Write to your state department of education or to the state agricultural college for consolidation bulletins. These will be sent to any address in large numbers if an explanation and an offer to pay express accompanies the request. Other bulletins are listed in the bibliography of this book. Leave a marked bulle- tin or two of this character with each family and it will usually be read. In this way general information on the subject can be brought into each home with little effort and without heated antagonism. 1 A special bulletin upon this subject may be_ procured from the Illinois State Normal University at Normal, Illinois. THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 249 General Educational Campaigns. Follow this house-to- house canvass by a series of educational meetings and dis- cussions at the schoolhouse or elsewhere, revealing the defi- ciencies of the present system, and showing something of the educational ideal to be attained. Talks on manual training, agriculture, domestic science, and all other topics relating to the improvement of the local school, can be quietly made to emphasize the great necessity for a change of system. Get- ting such lectures for the little isolated schoolhouse is some- thing of a problem, but an earnest teacher will not despair for this reason. Call first upon the energy of your county super- intendent. After this try to enlist the aid of some ambi- tious young educator in a neighboring school or town. If formerly connected, through summer schools, or in some other way, with a state or county normal school — and every teacher should have such connections — write to normal school instruct- ors for aid. As a last resort, gather up your courage, arrange your thoughts connectedly, and face your little audience on the home ground yourself. There should be nothing startling in this suggestion to one who teaches every day. In the golden age of rural school prosperity there will probably be some agency whose especial duty it is to conduct campaigns of this sort. Country school extension is a new term, but a very practical idea. Some normal schools are in fact even now beginning to organize such work. Township or Community Organization. Teachers who expect to succeed in an effort of this kind must manifest eternal vigilance and keep their eyes open for every opportu- nity that presents itself. The chief point to be gained in a campaign for the consolidation of schools is a feeling of co- operation and a broader and closer community relationship. For this purpose some educational organization, as a country life club or a parent-teacher club in the township or territory to be considered, is very helpful. Township exhibits, rallies, or 250 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL entertainments, in which the children of individual schools par- ticipate, have also been handled for this purpose with marked success. Outspoken Consolidation Campaigns. By this time a definite outspoken consolidation campaign may be under- taken. One of the most profitable things that can be done now is to have a good lecture on consolidated schools illustrated with a stereopticon. A letter of inquiry to the nearest state nor- mal school in any state will suggest sources of assistance for this purpose. Interesting mass meetings, question boxes, dis- cussions, and debates on the subject have also been held in the winter evenings at some schoolhouses, with the desired effect. The object is simply to get the whole community vitally alive to the benefits and necessity of a change in the present order of things. A small committee of the leading enthusiastic citi- zens, who will take upon themselves the responsibility of plan- ning meetings, scattering literature, and the general campaign- ing, has often rendered good service in this connection. A chart of statistical data worked out on a piece of oilcloth and hung upon the walls of the schoolroom, where all present at meetings may see it and draw their own conclusions, is valu- able also. Data for this chart covering the school census, length of term, teachers' salaries, total cost, cost per capita, assessed valuation of property, amount certified, tax rate, and any other information whose consideration adds to the weight of the argument for consolidating, may be obtained from the county clerk's office. Make also a map of the territory under consideration after a similar fashion, on which houses, existing schools, and the central school may be located, and possible transportation routes traced. All teachers, especially country teachers, should be familiar with the chief points of school law in their respective states. In some states, this change to consolidation is a comparatively easy and simple process. In others, it is difficult and compli- THE COUNTRY TEACHER'S PROBLEM 251 cated. The state of Illinois, for example, is in this latter class. Practically no legislative provisions have so far been made here bearing upon the consolidation of rural schools. The time now seems close at hand, however, when some definite action may be accomplished. In the meantime let country Play-day Masque, Illinois State Normal University teachers, farmers, educators, and agriculturists, here and in other states so handicapped, continue a never-ceasing, ham- mering campaign until the thousands of country children affected by the present limited educational opportunity are freed from this greatest injustice of our school system. CHAPTER XI THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS The Need for Properly Prepared Country Teachers. The whole rural problem, as pointed out in former chapters, is practically the problem of the country school. (See pp. 14, 17, I 35-) Farming will hold its own against the call of town and city only when country life becomes as satisfying as that of the town. And this is clearly a question of school control, since the idealism and ability necessary to make country life satisfying are but matters of training for which the dis- trict school, as the local agency of rural education, should stand chiefly responsible. When country schools become effective centers of learning, instructing both children and adults in terms of country life and pointing the way to com- munity prosperity and welfare, moving to town will decrease among farmers, and "the rural problem" will be near solution. The greatest single need for the improvement of country life at the present time, therefore, is for a corps of properly prepared country teachers who will enter our existing country schools and, through vitalized teaching and tactful social lead- ership, convert them into living centers for the instruction of both children and adults and the complete upbuilding of coun- try community life. Necessity for the Special Training of Country Teachers. Notwithstanding the necessity for properly prepared country teachers, but little specific attention has thus far been given to the question of their training. Out of a total of almost two hundred state normal schools in the United States, less than 252 THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 253 a dozen are making special effort to meet the new demands now being laid upon country teachers. Prominent in this small group may be cited the normal schools at Kalamazoo, Michigan; Cheney, Washington; Kirksville, Missouri; La- Crosse, Wisconsin; Lewiston, Idaho; and at Macomb and Normal, Illinois, all of which now have special departments for this purpose. A chief cause for this neglect on the part of normal schools has been the belief in normal school circles that no special training is necessary for country teaching. It is even com- monly argued that a good teacher will teach any school well and there should be no differentiation. To this view leaders of country life take strong exception. The general normal school training supposed to answer all requirements for country teachers is conceded to be very helpful, but it is usually planned with reference to the needs and conditions of city teachers and city schools. It takes little account, even when meaning to do so, of the baffling conditions of the country school. It neglects not only the peculiar problems of country school organization, management, and teaching, but especially those of rural community welfare and social relationship. The well-trained country teacher needs a deep appreciative insight into the problems of country life, and an exalted faith in its innate beauty and final triumph, which she cannot get from this general training. When kindergartners, primary, and secondary teachers, and various teachers in different subjects, are offered special training, what argument can hold against the special training of country teachers? Certainly not a lack of need either on the part of the rural teaching force or on the part of society for efficient country life leaders. At least three basic reasons may be offered in advocating the special training of country teachers: 1. The peculiarities of the ungraded school system afford numerous characteristic difficulties in the way of management, administration, and 254 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL teaching. Consider, for example, the difference in making a program for a one-class graded school and a five-to-eight- class country school. 2. The adaptation of subject-matter to the experience of country children requires special attention. Arithmetic is arithmetic everywhere, but its best teaching demands the use of the local environment, which on the part of the country teacher calls for a careful pedagogical study of the rural community. 3. The sociological conditions of the country differ from those of the city and demand special study on the part of teachers who are to work in rural locali- ties. This is an invariable argument and one of particular significance. Kind of Special Training Needed by Country Teachers. Perhaps there would be less antagonism to this general thesis if those who oppose it had more carefully thought out the kind of training to be offered for country teachers. This preparation should consist of both general and special instruc- tion. By general training is meant here all the scholarship and professional study necessary for any teacher. In these lines, in an ideal situation, the country teacher, who has all ages of children to instruct, should, if anything, be even better versed than the grade teacher. Special training for country teachers should be of two kinds : First, that of a rural pedagogical type, relating to the special problems of country school management and instruction, espe- cially to those problems imposed by the peculiar conditions of the present ungraded country school system. This training should include much agriculture and household science, reveal- ing to the prospective country teacher how these subjects form the backbone of the redirected country school. But agricul- ture alone does not afford, as some seem to think, all that is needed in the way of special preparation for country teaching. Second, that of a sociological nature, preparing for rural leadership. This training should give teachers an insight into THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 255 country life in its broadest social aspects and relationships. It should impress upon them the place of the school as a socializ- ing agency in present farm life, the unlimited opportunity of the well-prepared country teacher, and the necessity of changes in the rural educational system. Above all else, it Teachers' Training School, Dunn County, Wisconsin should inspire them with a high ideal of the possibilities and beauty of the country and should give them courage and faith to work steadfastly towards this ideal. It should, in other words, fill them with a new vision of country life and country teaching. Special Training Now Offered for Country Teachers: In High Schools. Special preparation for country teachers 256 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL is now being offered through three agencies : the state-aided high school, the county normal school or training class, and the state normal school. The states of Vermont, New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Indiana, Kansas, and Nebraska furnish aid to high schools offering pedagogical training. "In Kansas," says State Super- intendent E. T. Fairchild, "this course is one of the most popular educational movements ever inaugurated. During the first year of the operation of this law, seven hundred seniors took the normal training course, and this year (1910) more than twelve hundred seniors are taking the training course. Additional appropriations were made at the recent sessions of the legislature — enough to add forty more high schools to the list of those conducting normal training courses. We have every expectation, therefore, that in a very short time from fifteen hundred to two thousand high school graduates who have devoted the last year of their course in large part to the consideration of educational problems will be available annu- ally for our rural schools." Minnesota also has worked out a good development of rural training in high schools. Here state aid to the amount of $750 a year is granted to each high school maintaining a peda- gogical department. About eighty schools have availed them- selves of this privilege. These departments offer one year of work and are usually in charge of capable supervisors. Every effort is being made to adapt them to country school needs, and when this adaptation is assured it is evident that the high school affords a most available and immediate agency for the partial preparation of country teachers. The county normal school and the state normal school, however, as institutions designed primarily for the training of teachers, are s.till more effective for this purpose. In County Normal Schools. The county training school system, as organized in Wisconsin and Michigan, is in many THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 257 ways the best plan thus far developed for the preparation of country teachers. The state normal school possesses many ad- vantages in the way of larger social and professional relation- ships impossible to the smaller school, but these are partly offset by the unity and tangibility of conditions represented in the county institution. The chief advantage of this system to the state, however, lies in the large number of teachers thus annu- ally turned out. The following paragraphs from a bulletin on The Training of Rural School Teachers, written by Superin- tendent H. S. Youker, and issued by the Wisconsin State Department of Education, summarize well the chief features of this plan: When a county wishes to establish a training school, the County Board must vote to establish the school. This application must receive the approval of the state superintendent, and the school is conducted under his supervision. The governing body of the school is a com- mittee consisting of the County Superintendent and two members appointed by the County Board. In most cases these schools have a building and equipment of their own. The building is provided by the county. The expense of main- tenance is borne by the state and the county, the state bearing two- thirds of the expense and the county one-third. A diploma from a training school, after one year of successful teach- ing by the graduate, has the force of a third grade county certificate for three years. The work in the training school is accredited at the state normal schools, the amount of credit depending on the prepara- tion of the student before entering the training school. The course of study in the training school is now two years in length. Training school pupils have the privilege of observation and practice teaching in the city schools. Reports from the different training schools show that the amount of this practice teaching varies from five to twenty weeks. The Wisconsin training schools are reaching the country people as no other institution can. The salaries paid to the training school fac- ulties are sufficient to draw into the service of training country teachers the very best talent in Wisconsin. The teachers they furnish to the country schools have the training and the sympathy which enables them 258 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL to make education for country boys and girls more nearly hit the mark. May the plan be extended until everywhere in Wisconsin the boy and the girl on the farm have as good educational advantages as any children in the land. Country Teacher Training in State Normal Schools. But neither the good work nor the extension of county normal schools will ever excuse the state normal school from its proper share of responsibility in the training of country teach- ers. A broader outlook is the greatest need of the country teacher, and this the state institution, with its larger social and cultural contact, is better able to give than the county training school. This is said by no means in a spirit of belittling the good work cited above, but only to emphasize the duty of the state institution. As rural education develops and consolidated schools become generally established, there will be a constantly increasing demand for better country teachers. Such thorough and complete training as will then be commonly demanded can be offered only in large, well-equipped institutions ; and state normal schools, instead of being relieved from this duty, will be forced to give it serious and thoughtful attention, and will gladly comply with demands. Indiana. To the Indiana State Normal School at Terre Haute belongs the credit for making the first special effort for the training of country teachers. Since 1902 a country school has been maintained here as a part of the regular practice school. This school is a true country school, located in a rural district, six miles from the normal school, with which it is connected by electric car line. All members of the senior class of the normal school are required to teach in it for at least one week. Whether or not this is the best policy is a problem yet to be worked out by those responsible for the suc- cess of the undertaking. But the mere fact that a country school has been placed in the training department of such an institution has tended to dignify rural teaching in the eyes THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 259 of all who have come in contact with the normal school and has forced upon them some appreciation of rural conditions. Missouri. The Missouri State Normal School at Kirksville, through the influence of its president, John R. Kirk, has also conducted an ungraded school since 1907. A building has been erected for this purpose on the normal school campus, and the children, who come chiefly from two different rural dis- tricts, are transported to the city in hacks. This building, Dramatization of Hiawatha, Rural Observation School, Kalamazoo, Michigan which is constructed in harmony with all the principles of con- venience and beauty, is an unusual example of rural school architecture and has been quite extensively copied over the state. But to some, its location in town, removed from a nat- ural country environment, seems likely to destroy its funda- mental characteristics as a country school. This danger is men- tioned here, not in any spirit of criticism, but only because of its serious bearing upon the general question of rural education. In all effort toward progress it must be remembered that we 260 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL want country schools for country children. We have long tried the alternative of urban schools, especially in the case of the township and city high school, and have found them a misfit. What we must have for the farm is a farm school — that is, one whose environment, interests, and social influence, are all in vital sympathy with country life. Such a school is not likely to be maintained in a large city, though a small village or agricultural trading center may be essentially rural in its influence. The disadvantages of location in the case of the Kirksville school, however, are said, by its management, to be more than offset by its increased convenience for purposes of observation and practice among the normal school students. The whole plan is here developing rapidly now under the direction of educators thoroughly in sympathy with country school needs and view points. A special Department of Rural Education has just been established, which enrolls three hundred students, and is at present the most generously supported of any similar normal school department in the United States. A valuable bulletin, setting forth the organiza- tion and service of this department in greater detail, is listed in the bibliography of this book, and may be procured upon request. Michigan. To Michigan belongs the credit of developing the most effective and unified state plan thus far worked out for the preparation of country teachers. Here county train- ing classes have long been authorized, and since 1897 each of the state normal schools has been required by law to offer special rural courses. The normal school at Kalamazoo has done more along this line of special training for those who are to teach in the country than any other in Michigan. A Rural School Department is here maintained and two courses are offered, an elementary and an advanced, each two years in length. The first of these is planned for graduates of the common school and the second for those who have finished THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 261 the tenth grade. Teachers who have completed the work of the county training classes, which provide a one-year course, may take the advanced course in a year. This affiliation of the state normal schools with the county institutions encour- ages those who have gained the limited and elementary prepa- ration of the training classes to continue work in the regular normal school. A typical rural school under the direction of the department is provided for purposes of observation, though no actual teaching is done by students of the course at present. Among the most distinctive features of the plan as here developed are a Rural Sociology Seminar, or country- teacher club, enrolling all students of the department as mem- bers, and an annual series of "rural progress lectures." Washington. All state normal schools in Washington, espe- cially the one at Cheney, have at present fully developed and heartily supported rural school departments. Here the progres- siveness of the people, the friendliness of a legislature that has still the people's welfare at heart, and the general spirit of growth and prosperity, have all tended to create the most favor- able conditions for this work that can be found anywhere. In the school at Cheney, as in Michigan, two courses are offered for country teachers, an elementary and a secondary course, but the entrance requirements of these courses are higher than those of Michigan. Each is two years in length, the first accepting students of tenth grade rank and granting an ele- mentary diploma, or certificate, upon completion, and the second accepting students of eleventh year rank and granting a secondary diploma, or certificate. These certificates are given by the state without examination, permitting recipients to teach two and three years, respectively. This recognition of the work and the generous salaries offered to country teach- ers attract a large number of young people, both men and women, into these courses. Since the inception of the Rural School Department in the 262 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Normal School at Cheney, county superintendents working in conjunction with it have established what are- known as county observation schools. These schools are intended to approximate ideal country school conditions so far as possible, but no special assistance is given them by the superintendent, except to insure the employment of, good teachers and to encourage the directors to make all reasonable improvements. The normal school, however, renders them some special serv- ice through an intermittent system of supervision and advisory correspondence, and through furnishing speakers for com- munity meetings. This work has not yet developed fully, but the idea is a fundamental one and well worthy of imitation. Another notable phase of the country school movement at Cheney has been the introduction in the summer school of a special course of six weeks' duration for the benefit of newly-elected and inexperienced county superintendents. This meager course, so far as investigation has revealed, is the only instance of a direct attempt for the special training of county superintendents yet made in the United States. Illinois. In September, 191 1, the Illinois State Normal Uni- versity at Normal established a special Country School Depart- ment. Strong emphasis is placed in this institution upon leader- ship and the sociological aspects of rural teaching. The keynote of the effort expended by the department here in fact is well summarized in the phrase : the country school as a center for redirected education and community building. Three courses are offered : a one-year course for students having two years of high school preparation, an elementary two-year course for graduates of the eighth grade, and an advanced two-year course for juniors and seniors of regular normal school rank. The chief criterion in all work of the department is a special adaptation to the needs of country schools. The complete program of studies offered in the elementary two-year course, THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 263 which will further illustrate the character of this work, is as follows, the year being divided into three terms : Nature Study- United States History Composition and Grammar Primary Construction Physical Training Arithmetic Method Problems of Country Life Geography Method Literature and Reading Principles of Teaching FIRST YEAR Arithmetic Orthography Composition and Grammar Household Science Physical Training SECOND YEAR Physiology and Rural Sanitation Civics and History of Illinois Household Art Country School Method Country School Organization Geography Agriculture Drawing Physical Training Agriculture and Natun Study Literature Method Reading Method, (6 weeks) History Method, (6 weeks) Country Teachers at the Illinois State Normal University The organization of the Country School Department here is threefold and is designed to require eventually the services of three special instructors. These phases may be defined as follows : 264 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 1. The special resident courses relating exclusively to coun- try schools and country life; namely, the courses in country school organization and management, country school method and observation, rural sociology, and agricultural economics. 1 To these should be added the Country Life Club, an organiza- tion maintained among the students of the department for the discussion of rural problems. 2. The work of the Country Training School, including both observation and practice teaching. Though as yet only in initial stages, this work is regarded as the basis of the whole department, and is being developed largely after the practical manner of the Country Training School of the Western Illinois State Normal School at Macomb, which is described in succeeding paragraphs. 3. The extension work as organized under a special Divi- sion of Cooperative Country School Extension. The most unique feature of this scheme of organization is the extension work. This opportunity for assistance is extended to any country teacher in Illinois who will agree to meet certain requirements. Blanks designed for the purpose are first filled out by those enrolling in this work and are filed with the department. These contain information about the teachers and their schools and communities, and con- stitute a meager survey of the school locality. One specific problem of country school or community improvement is then selected by each cooperating teacher who agrees to organize a campaign for its advancement and to attempt to carry it through to a solution. A written report with photographs and diagrams showing results and the method of procedure in attacking this problem is then rendered by each cooperator before May 1. Some of these reports are published as bulle- tins by the department, and others are used in special country 1 For outlines of two of these courses, see appendix, Sections 1 and 2. THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 265 school exhibits. Satisfactory work accomplished in this man- ner is given regular credit counting toward graduation. In return for this exertion the department performs recip- rocal services for cooperating teachers. Speakers from the normal school are sent out into local country schools to give talks on various phases of school and community improve- ment. A portable stereopticon, which can be used without electricity at any country schoolhouse, forms a part of the equipment for this purpose. The traveling expenses of these speakers are paid by the communities requesting their services, thus insuring the self-support of the plan. Bulletins relating to various phases of country school and country life work are published from time to time for free distribution. A chief source for much of the material used in these bulletins is found in the work and development of the Country Training School. Other materials are furnished through the work of country teachers out in the schools of the state and especially from the undertakings of those cooperating with the depart- ment. The ultimate intention is to issue these bulletins monthly. A further assistance of the department is its service as a general bureau of information on country school and country life matters, to which rural teachers and directors may turn for information and help. Still another method of advancing the extension idea as worked out at Normal is the preparation of exhibits which may be taken or sent out to country com- munity gatherings and teachers' institutes. A limited number of books on rural themes is also loaned by the department to cooperating teachers. As a final means of country school propaganda, the department assists in promoting annual coun- try school conferences, which convene at the normal school each year during the summer term and which are proving most effective stimulants for rural educational progress. Among the earlier pioneers that took up the training of 266 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL country teachers before the Country Life Movement became popularized was the Western Illinois State Normal School at Macomb. Country school work at the Macomb Normal School was introduced through the efforts of its late principal, Alfred Bayliss, formerly state superintendent of Illinois for eight years and a man thoroughly familiar with the needs of coun- try schools and desirous of serving them. To Mr. Ba)diss more than to any other is due the credit for the realizations that have since unfolded from this initial step. Until recently, Illinois provided neither funds nor legislation conducive to this effort, and this work, as developed at Macomb, therefore serves as a good illustration of what is possible on the part of an earnest state normal school even under unfavorable cir- cumstances. Since 1907 a special one-year course has been offered at Macomb for prospective country teachers. Admis- sion to this course is limited to the holders of second grade certificates and to graduates of the eighth grade recommended by county superintendents. The most serious criticism of this plan, as at present inaugurated, is its brevity. However, as Mr. Bayliss has said in referring to this point, "Until the time arrives when boards of directors will refuse to employ very young and quite unprepared teachers, such a course as this will doubtless be necessary if the normal school is to meet the requirements of all sorts and conditions of schools." A chief feature of the Country School Department at Macomb heretofore has been a Country Training School, located in a true farm environment about two miles from the normal school. The teacher put in charge of this school was an actual country teacher, selected from the rank and file of country teachers, though an eager student of country school progress and rural social conditions. Under such practical leadership, and the scientific direction of the head of the Department of Education in the normal school, this experiment in the three years of its continuation reached per- Country Training School of the Western Illinois State Normal School — Before Improvement 2 68 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL haps the fullest development of the country training school idea thus far worked out. The guiding motive throughout the undertaking was that of actual possibility. To insure this practicability three pre- cautions were taken. The school selected was a typical country school, with the natural environment and all the difficulties of the ordinary country school ; the teacher was a real coun- try teacher, transferred from another country school of the state; and the normal school gave no financial support to the undertaking, except to pay the salary of the teacher. Con- cisely summarized, the purposes underlying the establishment of the Country Training School at Macomb may be stated thus: i. To remake a typically needy school as a demonstration of possibility. 2. To show how a country school may be made a social center for its community, and an energizing force for country life progress. 3. To furnish a training or practice school for country teachers, where they might actually try out the theory given them in a country, rather than a graded, school. 4. To serve as an experiment station in rural education and provide an opportunity for working out a country school curriculum. 5. To furnish an opportunity for the departments of the normal school to study the needs of country schools at first hand. 6. To stimulate and develop state-wide interest in the solu- tion of the country school problem and in all educational and social movements affecting its solution. The school selected as the scene of this endeavor was an ordinary box-car building with one room and a small hall protruding in front. The paper was old and dingy; the blackboards cracked and useless ; the plaster missing in spots ; THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 269 the window panes broken and paper-patched; the seats old and double, and elaborately decorated with "the jack-knife's carved initial." The stove, red and un jacketed, stood in the middle of the room. The chimney above was braced by a wooden support from the floor. There was an old organ, but no library. The teacher's first work was sweeping cobwebs, scrubbing floors, and polishing the stove. The yard was large and roomy and well shaded, but marred in front by the presence of the usual dilapidated coal house. The outbuild- ings were mere shells, disgracefully open and scant of boards. The children as a whole were typically average, too. There had been no evident attempt at grading, and there was but small appreciation of the value of daily school work and less of the school as a functional source of growth in community life. In attacking these conditions the work of the school was organized under five heads : 1. The problem of the physical environment, or the im- provement of buildings and grounds. 2. The problem of the social environment — that is, of making the school a center of community service and a source of growth for social and intellectual betterment. 3. The problem of instruction and of the development of a curriculum adapted to the actual life needs of country chil- dren. 4. The problem of administration, making possible through improved organization and management the solution of the other problems named. 5. The problem of the training of teachers for country schools, providing an opportunity for both observation and participant teaching. In the campaign of improvement immediately started, atten- tion was first directed to the physical environment of the school. It was soon decided to build two new outbuildings, 2jo COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL to move and turn the school building, construct a basement, and put in a furnace. The interior was then remodeled and redecorated, a bay window and window seat being added to close the end of the building left open by the removal of the hall. New seats, a clock, a bookcase, work benches, primary chairs and tables, curtains, hall linoleum, rugs, pictures, and a piano and a telephone were later added to the influence of the room. In the meantime the yard came in for a share of metamorphosis. Trees were set out, shrubs, vines, and flowers planted, a strawberry bed started, and a garden and a corn plot laid out. After some necessary grading, the lawn was well seeded and a lawn mower provided with which to keep it trimmed. A new fence and cement walks, the pride and achievement of the directors, were built. To these improve- ments was added a mail box, which with the telephone, fur- nished connection with the outside world and removed the isolation in which most country schools exist. The first stirrings of the social awakening which soon began were manifested in the unity engendered by this campaign for physical improvement. Early in the history of the undertak- ing, the people of the neighborhood had responded to a "sing" and had agreed to donate labor for the excavation of the base- ment. This was the first act of community cooperation that had occurred in years. But others followed in quick succes- sion. A parents' association was formed ; a girls' club sprang into being and developed with surprising enthusiasm; com- munity gatherings became popular; exhibits were held; local and even railway excursions became a reality; and school- house parties and athletic activities added much to the solution of the neighborhood recreation question, binding the young people of the district not only to the school but to the com- munity, and its life. Practically all the suggestions offered under the discussion of the social phase of the country teach- er's problem in the preceding chapter were developed and THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 271 Country Training School of the Western Illinois State Normal School — After Improvement tested here, and the specific accounts there given refer for the most part to this school. The social transformation thus effected was declared marvelous by many who witnessed it. And, in truth, the loyalty and devotion of the people to their little country school was good to see, but there was no marvel 2J2 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL about it, other than that of a teacher who had had proper training for country teaching. But more significant than either physical or social meta- morphosis was the educational reform wrought. It was the ideal of the teacher and of others interested in the project to make this school serve somewhat as an experiment station in rural elementary education. Not mere routine teaching but the development of a real country school course of study fitted to the needs of the local community was conceived to be the function of the school. In this redirection old subjects were first culled of their chaff and then vitalized by being taught in terms of daily life. Later, new courses, especially in agriculture, household science, and manual training, were introduced. Pedagogically, the teaching of the school was unusual in being constructive and experimental. The courses in agriculture, home science, and elementary rural sociology, described in chapter ten, for example, which were products of the work here, were locally adapted and constructive, not- withstanding their many faults. Other illustrations of this constructiveness were evidenced in the picture study experi- ment recorded in the appendix of this book, in a music appre- ciation course based not upon note reading and formal mechan- ics, but upon rhythm, spirit, and the love of music, and in the various ideas of community service formerly mentioned. To train teachers for country schools was, however, the avowed purpose of this school, and all the effort just nar- rated was undertaken especially that it might serve as a means to this end, and as a program, of action and suggestion for other country teachers. The school was extensively used for observation, and some participant or practice teaching was conducted. Only students of regular senior and junior rank were granted the latter privilege. Teaching in the country school was wholly elective on the part of students, and the significant fact here was its popularity, notwithstanding the THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 273 two-mile walk thus imposed, and frequent prophecies to the effect that "normal school students wouldn't look at a country training school unless you drove them to it, anyway." Among country teachers, county superintendents, normal school presidents, and all who came in contact with it, this little country school helped to stimulate a new idealism of country teaching. The further enlargement of this idealism will be told in some detail in connection with the Country Teachers' Association of Illinois, through which it has been preserved and propagate'd. The New Spirit of Country Teachers. Notwithstanding legislative neglect and various other inconsiderations a new spirit has come upon rural education, and there is every- where a clear promise of the "new race of country teachers" which Professor Bailey of the Country Life Commission prophesies shall rise up among us. This change has been engendered by a new vision of country school service, and wherever such a vision is carried there is manifest the new spirit of the country school. A special agency through which this spirit has been devel- oped in Illinois for the last five years is the Country Teachers' Association of Illinois. This state-wide association is com- posed entirely of country teachers and others who have the welfare of the country school at heart and who wish to attract attention to its vexed problems. It was organized at the West- ern Illinois State Normal School in Macomb during the sum- mer of 1907. The charter membership numbered eighty. Since that time about two thousand country teachers, county superintendents, local school officers, and farmers, attracted by its doctrines, have enrolled. The Country Teachers' Association of Illinois stands in gen- eral for all phases of country life progress. Its purposes as set forth in the preamble of the constitution are : "To elevate the character and advance the interests of country teaching 274 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL and country teachers, to increase the efficiency of country schools, and to make life large and lovely for the country child." Believing that the country school is the most direct and immediately influential of rural socializing agencies, this organization proposes to build up farm life in Illinois, by first increasing the efficiency of country schools and the rural teaching force. To further its initial purpose it seeks the realization of three immediate ends: I. It hopes to create a greater and more effective and practical interest among the normal schools of the state for the training of country teach- ers. 2. It strives to dignify country school teaching and make it a recognized phase of the teaching profession. 3. It pro- poses ultimately to effect a federation of all the rural forces of the state, and especially encourages the united harmony and effort of the school, home, farmers' institute, Grange, country church, and road associations. To this end annual Country School Conferences are held, through which country teachers and others are gaining a new understanding of country teaching. The third of these confer- ences, convening at the Illinois State Normal University at Normal in 1910, proved an eventful meeting. A special triumph of this conference was an evening address by Professor L. H. Bailey, chairman of the Country Life Commission. But the most significant developments of the convention were con- centrated in the last session through an able address upon the subject of rural federation, by President Kenyon L. But- terfield of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture. Having formerly conceived the mission of the country teacher as one of broad social leadership, and having gradually educated its following to this conception through its literature and con- ferences, the Country Teachers' Association became an excel- lent medium for the promulgation of the federation idea. Enthusiasm increased in the general discussion following this address until it was decided to call a special meeting during THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 275 the ensuing year for the organization of a comprehensive, state-wide federation for country life. This was done in February, 191 1, and the Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress, which is further discussed in the last chapter of this book, came into being. From the germ of little beginnings has thus grown a movement designed to enlist all the forces of a great state in one of the greatest causes of the present age. A Suggestive Outline for Country School Departments in State Normal Schools. In concluding this discussion of the responsibility of the normal school for the country school, I shall outline what seems to me an immediately practical attempt for any state normal school which desires to serve the farmers that help to support it. In every instance it will be necessary to solve this problem, as all others, in terms of local conditions. Nevertheless, since there will naturally be much groping about in this work for the next few years, a few constructive suggestions are permissible here. There should be in the first place a special department of the normal school devoted to country school interests ; other- wise the work is sure to be slighted. Moreover, the present attitude toward country teaching demands this formal recog- nition. The course offered through this department had best be two years in length, the standard for entrance being as high as possible. In states where defective legislation allows wholly untrained young people to be certificated and to teach, how- ever, it will probably be necessary to accept students of ninth grade rank. But even for these much can be done, and done without necessarily "lowering the standard of scholarship" in the normal school. Contiguous with this course should be offered another, also of two years' duration, for graduates of the tenth grade. As the standard of the department rises, it should be possible to discard the more elementary course and supplant it by the advanced one, as has been done at Kalamazoo, Michigan. 2?6 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL Eventually there should be introduced, also, a special advanced course of regular normal school rank for the preparation of teachers for high-salaried country schools, consolidated schools, normal departments in high schools, and other spe- cial phases of rural education. The basic elements of these courses should be agriculture, nature study, and home science, since these subjects must con- stitute the backbone of the redirected country school curricu- lum. These and other subject-matter courses should be taught by specialists of the normal school. Three special courses relating to the immediate problems of country teaching should be included in this curriculum, namely, country school admin- istration, country school method, and rural sociology. The first of these should deal with the physical improvement, organization, management, and social relationships of the country school. The second course should give a glimpse of child-study and of the principles of teaching dependent upon it, and should especially emphasize and illustrate the country school approach necessary in good country school teaching. In connection with this course much observation and, for stronger students, a little practice teaching should be offered, and offered under actual country school conditions. The course in rural sociology should follow these, giving a better understanding of farm life and a clearer vision of its possi- bilities. Suggestive outlines for the first and third of these courses are included in the appendix of this book. (Sections I and 2.) Serving the country school department here recommended should be three special workers: a general head or director, a country school training or critic teacher, and an extension worker. These instructors should be able to exchange places at times, each doing the work of another temporarily, so that all may retain a comprehensive view of the whole country school problem. The director should be an individual of THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 277 country school experience and sympathy, the best of training, and inspiring personality. He should have general oversight of the entire work of the department and should cooperate with other departments and instructors in adapting the whole country school training course to the immediate needs and limitations of the prospective country teachers enrolled. First Annual Meeting of the Country Teachers' Association of Illinois, Macomb, July, 1908 A one-teacher country training school should by all means be maintained as an integral part of every normal country school department. A special characteristic of such a school should be its constructiveness and practicability. Without these it can never win the approval and cooperation of working country teachers. Another much-needed development of the country training school idea is the establishment of consoli- 278 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL dated training schools. The consolidated country school is with us not only to stay but to increase a thousandfold, and if it is to be properly directed we must have teachers trained to handle its problems. In working out these consolidated training schools, the first step should by no means be omitted — that is, their creation from non-consolidated territory. This is the first step for country teachers in the field, and one for which they need much direction. State universities and colleges of agriculture are now ren- dering good service to their respective states through organ- ized extension work. Thousands of dollars are appropriated annually for this purpose. If farmers, mechanics, and engi- neers are to be given this great service, why not afford oppor- tunities equally efficient to the hundreds of struggling teachers who might thus be enabled to do more, both for themselves and for those under their charge? Investigation, however, reveals practically no normal schools in the country under- taking organized, systematic extension work. 1 In rural dis- tricts work of this kind is badly needed and is in great demand. Country school extension may be a new term, but who shall say it is not justified? In harmony with this suggestion the extension division of every normal country school department should be well organ- ized and supported. The extension worker should be a sin- cere and attractive speaker, thoroughly familiar with all phases of rural progress. A portable lantern, numerous slides, and perhaps a good phonograph, should constitute a part of his equipment. To these should be added charts, pictures, books, bulletins, and plans, specifications, and models of country school buildings and furnishings. Every country teacher and school director in the territory under the jurisdiction of the 1 The Western Illinois State Normal School at Macomb is now developing a good system of extension work. THE TRAINING OF COUNTRY TEACHERS 279 normal school should feel affiliated with its rural department. In realizing this end the assistance of the extension worker will be found a chief factor. A formal organization or asso- ciation among working country teachers will also further this feeling of cooperation and tend to increase the efficiency and service of the extension division. As one phase of its endeavor this organization may well stimulate the constructive attack of individual local problems among working country teachers somewhat after the manner of the Country School Department of the Illinois State Normal University. Adequate plans should be devised by the director and other officers of this department for meeting the needs of farmers and country teachers as they arise. The rooms and office of the department should be sufficiently large to display a per- manent exhibit of country school buildings, grounds, and equipment, and of books, bulletins, and educational helps, for the students of the department and for visiting directors and teachers. The office should also become a bureau of infor- mation to which teachers and directors may write for assist- ance. Under the direction of the extension department and through this bureau of information, monthly bulletins relat- ing to country school problems should be issued to all rural teachers in the territory of the normal school. Wisely planned and carefully executed consolidation campaigns should be undertaken by the department in conjunction with the teachers and people of various communities. Still another significant relationship of the efficient normal country school department should be its responsibility to county superintendents. For these much neglected and over- worked servants of education, frequent conferences of en- couragement and suggestion should be provided, and special summer courses should be offered. In cooperation with county superintendents one or more county observation schools may also be developed in each county. Meanwhile, to 2 8o COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL crystallize all this effort, annual country school conferences and exhibits should be held under the auspices of the normal school as a summary of the work of the department for each year. The great need of special normal school departments for the training of country teachers is rapidly growing to a demand which must soon be met. No one appreciates this better than normal school presidents, by whom the issue has been frequently discussed. A serious detriment to the best development of such departments at present, however, is the scarcity of well-trained men and women to act as directors for them, and the absence of institutions where proper train- ing of this type may be acquired. Meanwhile attention must be concentrated on the larger and more immediate issue of providing special training for local country teachers. Trained Teachers Not the Only Need for Solving the Country School Problem. In conclusion, let one additional thought be emphasized. The crucial need for country schools is specially and well-trained teachers. But even trained teachers are human and can adequately perform but a small part of the work required by a daily program registering from six to eight grades. They alone can never solve the country school problem. In fact, the problem cannot be adequately solved until the fundamental need, the change from the one- teacher to the consolidated system, has been attained. With this change, and in no other way, will come the final adjust- ment of difficulties. But the very process of this conversion is a matter of education which must be wrought largely through the leadership of efficient teachers. Thus the issue returns to the original contention, herein set forth, and pro- claims the necessity and advent of "a new race of country teachers,'' who shall rise up and function as the most imme- diate factor in the solution of the American farm problem. CHAPTER XII COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION Importance of Country School Supervision. No phase of country school improvement is more urgent and significant than that of supervision. This, at least, is the consensus of opinion among educators and all others qualified to analyze the question. Consolidation, in its best form, has been advocated through- out this book as the only adequate solution of the country school problem. But before consolidation becomes general, we must have virile educational leaders to reveal its advan- tages to farmers and others ; and rural supervisors, or county superintendents, may fulfill this office most effectively. This they can do even better in some ways than country teachers, because better placed and usually better prepared for leader- ship than teachers. The good country teacher must become a local community leader, but the efficient county superintend- ent by the very nature of his position is not only a leader of the people, but a leader of leaders. Thus it is evident that supervision might easily be made the immediate point of attack upon the whole problem of country school improve- ment and rural life progress. Difficulties. But instead of being so considered and built up as a profession, country school supervision has been shame- fully neglected, until the whole system is beset with prac- tically insurmountable difficulties. These difficulties, like those of the country teacher, are literally too numerous to name. The following classification is probably not complete, but it will reveal at least enough encumbrances to show something 281 282 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL of the seriousness of the existing situation. Among these handicaps to efficient supervision are : i. Difficulties arising from the status of the rural teaching force. Three aspects of this trouble should be considered, namely: (a) that country teachers are largely untrained and transient; (b) that each supervisor has far too many teachers to direct; and (c) that these numerous untrained workers are not even centrally located where they can be visited fre- quently, but are scattered over great tracts of open country connected usually by earth roads which are as often impassable as passable. Only those who have been engaged in the work of super- vision can appreciate the amount of time necessary for its proper execution, even when teachers are partially trained, but when wholly untrained teachers are to be considered, as is practically the case in most rural counties, the problem becomes far more complicated. It must be reflected, too, that the rural supervisor is not dealing with just a few cases, to each of whom he may devote a large share of time, but with two or three hundred perhaps. In Wisconsin, which may be selected as a typical state, each county superintendent on the average supervises the work of 136 teachers and 4,250 chil- dren, covering an average territory of 700 square miles. In Illinois, the average number to each supervisor is 113 teachers and 8,000 children, with a territory of 555 square miles. Add to this the fact that this large body of insufficiently trained workers is transient, and that for economic reasons and others, the great majority of country teachers migrate annually, thus necessitating constant instability and readjustment, and some- thing of the seriousness of the rural supervisor's predicament begins to be realized. 2. Difficulties arising from the limitations and defects of the country school system. These include all the difficulties of COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 283 country school teaching that have been set forth in earlier chapters, and that are met with on every hand in the actual experiences of the schoolroom. The perplexities of the coun- try teacher are generally acknowledged, but the county super- intendent in assisting his teachers must face all their diffi- culties and still others beside. When making his annual, or semi-annual, calls, and at any other hour of the day or year, Full of Difficulties for the County Superintendent the rural supervisor must be prepared to consider all the ac- cumulated troubles of his teachers and to meet not only ques- tions of teaching method and school management, but fre- quently boarding-place dilemmas and issues of neighborhood feud. 3. Difficulties arising from ignorance and neglect on the part of school officers and patrons. These in many com- munities demand much attention. The average school officer, 284 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL though a well-meaning individual, seldom knows much of legal routine, and is almost certain, either through inability or negli- gence, to become involved in complications taxing the time and attention of the supervisor. Only superintendents know how difficult it is to collect accurately the little data and few reports required of directors. But even worse than this is the common inertia and unprogressiveness, not only of school officers but of people generally, against which county super- intendents must struggle unceasingly and from which fre- quently arise prejudice, antagonism, and a misunderstanding of all educational reform. 4. Difficulties arising from the present general system of rural supervision. These are the most severe and discour- aging of all. Moreover, they are the most inexcusable, be- cause the most unnecessary. These difficulties may be grouped under three heads : political hindrances, insufficient financial compensation, and too much work. In this three-fold sum- mary of annoyance is expressed the very heart and source of the rural supervisor's distress. Herein also lies the explana- tion of the fact that after fifty or more years of such work, we still have no profession of country school supervision. Of all hindrances of the rural supervisory system, none is more productive of evil than its connection with politics. More will be said later of this and of the question of financial compensation. Suffice it to state here that politics frequently puts inefficient men into the system, and at best inconveniences good superintendents. Nothing, however, could be more discouraging than the multitudinous duties of the county superintendent. In most states, legislatures for the past twenty years have constantly increased the duties of county superintendents without pro- portionately increasing their salaries or providing sufficient assistance. It has been carefully estimated by one who knows, that the work expected of the average county superintendent, COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 285 if well executed, would keep at least five capable men em- ployed! And yet it is only under the greatest pressure that an assistant is provided, and then usually but one is supplied. It should be remembered, too, that even before the county superintendent can get out in the field to attack his problems, at least two large reductions must be made from his avail- able time and energy. The first of these is the deduction necessary for the clerical work of his office. This consumes weeks that are needed for actual supervision and educational leadership. So great, in fact, is this drain that the average rural supervisor can seldom spend more than three or four months of the year actively engaged in the real work for which he is employed. Some day farmers will appreciate perhaps that it is poor economy to make janitors of teachers and clerks of superintendents, but as yet even this small percent- age of time must be again reduced by subtracting the hours consumed in driving from one school to another. In one large county of Illinois, exclusive of railroad and interurban travel, the county superintendent finds it necessary to drive 762 miles in visiting each of his schools once. This means that when traveling twenty-five miles a day, an average he can by no means always maintain over earth roads, he must spend at least thirty days a year in merely reaching the scenes where his professional work is to begin. 5. Difficulties arising through the lack of special training on the part of county superintendents. To all these numerous difficulties of rural supervision must finally be added those arising through the lack of special training on the part of superintendents. These are so buried among the more obvious hindrances of the system that they are seldom considered, but when the latter are sufficiently cleared away to make room for professional considerations, superintendents them- selves are the first to see and acknowledge the necessity of such preparation. Clearly no one could need the advantages 286 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL accruing from special training more than the rural super- visor, who has to meet not only all the special problems of pedagogy, psychology, and child nature that confront any supervisor, but many others besides. Yet the only special training now possible for county superintendents is that ac- quired in the grim school of experience. No normal school or educational institution in the United States, so far as the writer has been able to determine, yet provides a department for work of this type. Some institutions are beginning to appreciate the new demand in this direction, however, and within a few years the county superintendents may probably obtain as expert instruction as is now available for city super- intendents. Systems of Rural Supervision Employed in the United States. Three different systems of country school super- vision are employed throughout the United States. These may be designated as the town- ship system, the large dis- trict system, and the county system. The New England States, with their cus- tomary emphasis upon the town, or township, as a political unit, naturally originated the township system which is univer- sally employed through- out this section except in Vermont. Ohio, also, employs this plan. Under this system provision is made for the union of several townships which desire to avail themselves of the privilege of supervision. The township school au- Manual Training in Whatcom County, Washington . An example of the efficient leadership of County Superintendent Mary Carpenter of Bellingham COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 287 thorities assume the initiative in entering a union and employ their superintendents wholly upon considerations of profes- sional ability, just as teachers and city superintendents are pre- sumably selected. Those employed need not be natives of the township, and may retain their positions indefinitely. The system thus scores the tremendous advantage of being free from political bias and makes possible the development of a regular profession of supervisors who can give the small towns and country schools of the state the same expert attention as that secured by large cities. The large district system of supervision is practiced in New York, Louisiana, Virginia, and Nevada. In each of these states the supervisory districts are not co-extensive with counties, being sometimes larger and sometimes smaller. Louisiana, retaining the influence of its early church organ- ization, is divided into parishes, and hence has parish super- intendents. New York and Virginia are divided into nu- merous districts practically equivalent but not coincident with their counties, while the state of Nevada has recently abol- ished the office of the county supervisor and divided its territory into five large districts, supervised by five deputy state superintendents. The county system of supervision, employing the county as a- unit of school organization, prevails most generally in the United States, being followed in .thirty-nine states and two territories. In these states the county educational officer is known either as the county superintendent or county com- missioner, but will be referred to throughout the remainder of this discussion as the county superintendent. The county system of supervision will also be the system in mind in making deductions and generalizations. Methods of Selecting County Superintendents. The dif- ferent methods of selecting county superintendents are even more numerous than the systems of districting, and in their 288 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL variation clearly indicate a general dissatisfaction and de- sire for improvement. In all, there are six ways, two of which are appointive and four elective. Selection by appointment prevails in Delaware, Vermont, New Jersey, and Virginia. In the two states first named appointments are made by the governor and state superintendent; in the last two by the state board of education. Selection by election prevails most generally. In the great majority of instances, twenty-seven states and two territories, county superintendents are elected by direct vote of the people. At least they are supposed to be so chosen if party favor and political machines can be dis- regarded. Two states, Indiana and Pennsylvania, elect their county superintendents by the vote of school directors. In Pennsylvania this is done triennially, at the time of the annual directors' meeting. In Indiana the school system provides for the election of but one school official, or school trustee, in each township, and these trustees assembled in county convention, elect the county superintendent for a term of four years. Three states — Louisiana, North Carolina, and Maryland — provide small county boards of education whose chief duty is the selection of an efficient county superin- tendent, and one state, Tennessee, trusts the county court to choose its school supervisors. Qualifications Required of County Superintendents. Only twenty-three states require educational qualifications for county superintendents, and in these the requirements are low, being usually but the possession of a first-grade certifi- cate. Thirteen states demand no special qualification what- ever for this office. Veterinaries and road-makers must meet certain stipulations, but the county superintendency, possibly the most important office in the educational system, may be filled utterly regardless of special fitness ! To be sure, public opinion always dictates a certain standard of efficiency even in states making no legal requirements, but exceptions are COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 289 possible, and not a few exist. Moreover, legislation should certainly keep better pace with the best interests of education. Of the states demanding special qualifications for county superintendents, New Jersey, which requires a state certifi- cate, and North Dakota, which requires superintendents in counties of the first class to hold a state certificate or to be graduates of a reputable normal school or higher institution of learning, may be cited as examples of the rapid advance now being made annually in the improvement of rural school supervision. Indiana requires that superintendents shall hold a thirty-six months' state license, a life license, or a profes- sional license. In Wisconsin, rural supervisors are required among other qualifications to hold a special county super- intendent's certificate. This seems to be the only instance in any state where special supervisory ability is required. Other states stipulating especially high qualifications ' for county superintendents are Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Delaware. Increasing the Efficiency of the County Superintendency. Improving the system. At least two large tasks must be accomplished before any adequate solution of the problem of country school supervision can be realized. The first of these is the improvement of the system. The initial step in this attempt must be some scheme for decreasing the amount of work now expected of the county superintendent. A be- ginning in this direction has been made in many counties by the employment of clerks and assistants, which is good in so far as it goes, but deficient in that not enough assistants are furnished. Few counties allow more than one when a half dozen could be well occupied. Several counties in the more densely populated sections of the eastern states, however — notably Baltimore County, Maryland — have developed a sug- gestive scheme bearing upon this point, by which special supervisors, as of manual training, music, and primary work, 290 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL are employed for the benefit of all rural, suburban, and vil- lage schools. A still better solution for western and southern states, where the unit. of county organization, though incon- veniently large, cannot be advisably disregarded, would be to section the counties into supervisory districts under the direc- tion of assistant superintendents who are responsible to the county superintendent. Such a plan embodies all the advan- tages of small district supervision and still conforms to the present political organization. When the amount of work required of county superintend- ents is reduced, another improvement of the system may be realized through the possibility of demanding higher qualifica- tions and better work. Business men realize the necessity of reducing quantity when quality is desired, and the same principle applies with equal force to the work of the county superintendent. It is utterly useless to attempt to exact expert supervision even of well trained men, while they are as deeply buried under multitudinous duties as is the average county superintendent at present. And it is to be hoped that legislators will soon see the folly of such exaction and strike at the heart of the present difficulty, not by uselessly multi- plying duties that cannot be adequately discharged, but by taking legal steps for the remodeling of the system. Establishing a profession of county superintendents. The second step necessary to the acquirement of an efficient sys- tem of rural supervision is the establishment of a profession of county superintendents. This, only, will enable efficient men and women to stay in the work permanently, and to acquire special training for it. But before this desired "sta- bility of status" can be insured, two underlying factors must be adjusted. First, the present scale of salaries must be increased; and second, the office of the county superin- tendency must be divorced from politics. The salaries of county superintendents in the United States COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 291 vary from less than $100 to $5,000, the latter, of course, being exceptional and found only in the counties containing great cities. The highest regular salaries- for this service are paid in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, where the annual compen- sation for county superintendents runs from two to three thou- sand dollars. The majority of states are better represented by Illinois, where the average salary is $1,500 for county super- intendents, or by Wisconsin, where the average compensation County Superintendent Jessie Field, Page County, Iowa The automobile shown was won by Page County for its display of school work at the National Corn Exposition in 1909 is but $970, from which traveling and campaign expenses must be deducted. The inadequacy of the aggregate sum spent for rural supervision in most states is well illustrated again by Wisconsin, in which the largest city, Milwaukee, with an en- rollment of 39,000 elementary school children, expends 292 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL annually about $130,000 for school supervision, while the state at large, exclusive of the cities having city superintend- ents, expends only $71,000 for a school population of 320,000. Here, as in other instances, it is evident that the money ques- tion is at the heart of the difficulty. Of this farmers must soon become conscious and. realize that adjustment lies largely in their hands. The removal of political influence. But even more detri- mental than economic considerations is the uncertain tenure of office occasioned among county superintendents by political selection. The zvhole plan of subjecting educational matters and the welfare of children to political upheavals is entirely wrong. What difference does party adherence make in a man's efficiency for judging a good reading lesson, assisting a teacher, or organizing a school? Usually, too, the county superintendent must be not only a member of the predominant political party but a resident of the county, which still further decreases the efficiency of the present system by limiting the number of available candidates. When people desire medical or legal assistance, they are not restricted to the talent within their own town or county. Why, then, should such restric- tion be considered in seeking educational direction and select- ing school supervisors? Why should not the county superin- tendent, like the city superintendent, be chosen upon the basis of his efficiency without regard to either his place of residence or his political affiliation? Many argue that efficient superintendents are elected not- withstanding the evils of politics. This is quite true. In states demanding no qualifications, good men are commonly elected, as has been admitted, through the strength of public opinion. But public opinion is a poor guarantee of efficiency, especially when deflected by partisan politics and ignored in political trades. Moreover, the average voter too often votes his party ticket without further consideration. For these COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 293 reasons, it is safe to say that the political plan of electing county superintendents is alzvays a detriment. At best only three arguments can be discovered in its favor, and these can be met equally well under another plan. In the first place, it is claimed that election by popular vote is Complimentary Float to Superintendent O. J. Kern of Winnebago County, Illinois democratic. But the principle of representative government, upon which our republic is founded, is likewise democratic, and the employment of county superintendents by a qualified educational board elected by the people would meet this re- quirement equally well. Again, it is argued that the political campaign necessitated by popular election is a good thing, in 294 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL that it brings the county superintendent into close contact with the people and their needs. This undoubtedly is true, but the same insight can be obtained from conducting educational campaigns, which are certainly much needed and a far more legitimate expression of an educational leader's endeavor. Finally, it is sometimes argued that the present method, having been practiced in some states for the past two generations, is now enshrined in our political heritage and should there- fore be retained. But this argument is too futile, and alto- gether too unreasonable, to demand attack. Thus the election of school supervisors by popular vote is undesirable in every way. When the county superintendent is a politician, it not only entails all the evils of political machines and party trades, but makes political, rather than educational, ability the criterion of success. When he is not a politician it demands time and energy that should be expended in the inter- ests of the schools. Acceptable as this system may be in theory, its actual application in practice is undesirable, as all know who have come in contact with its workings. For this reason educators everywhere, and even the majority of county superintendents themselves, are beginning to demand that the office be removed as far as possible from political favoritism. The Proper Method of Selecting County Superintendents. One of the best systems of reorganization for this purpose is that of placing the employment of rural supervisors in the hands of a county board of education elected by the people, as is now done in North Carolina. This board should consist of from five to nine members, possessing certain stipulated requirements educationally. Such a plan in general meets with almost universal favor because in the first place it is democratic, allowing the people through the principle of repre- sentative government to select their own superintendents, but with fewer political difficulties and less friction and waste COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 295 than at present. In the second place, it harmonizes with the political organization of all states where the county is the unit of state administration. And in the third place, it lends per- manency to the office of the county superintendency by remov- ing it from direct political uncertainty and making possible the development of a well-trained profession of rural school supervisors. In application this system should further provide clerical help and plenty of assistants, to be employed also by the county board, but upon the recommendation of the county superin- tendent. Each county might then be subdivided into districts which could be directly and closely supervised by these assist- ants, thus insuring the close supervision practiced in New England and preserving meanwhile the county unit. The tenure of office should be at least four years, though a still better plan would be continuous employment during compe- tency and faithful service. Every school in the county should also be connected with the superintendent's office by telephone, so as to expedite communication. Under such provisions farmers might reasonably demand competent school supervi- sion, % necessity they can scarcely hope to attain under present conditions. Leadership of the County Superintendent. How badly this reform is needed can be appreciated only by considering the opportunity and responsibility of the county superin- tendency. Of all educational offices, none, as has been shown, entails greater burdens, and none, it is safe to say, bears greater responsibility. Of the many responsibilities incum- bent upon the county superintendent, two stand out especially as primary functions of his office. These are first, his respon- sibility for the proper supervision of his schools and teachers, and second, his responsibility for the educational leadership and status of his county. No one could do more under favorable conditions for all 296 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL phases of rural progress than the county superintendent, since he is not only a leader but a leader of leaders. Even under present limitations no one can do more, as many superin- tendents are admirably demonstrating through their educa- tional campaigns. In Missouri such educational campaigns are legally required of county superintendents. In other states, where no requirements are enforced, many superintendents by giving less attention to the clerkship of their office and more to educational leadership, have done a great deal, notwith- standing their countless duties. One of the best known ex- amples of these instances where efficient men have made a small office big is Superintendent O. J. Kern's work in Winne- bago County, Illinois, which is described in his book, Among Country Schools. Another interesting record of what train- ing, personality, and general efficiency on the part of the superintendent can do for a county is shown in the leadership of County Superintendent Jessie Field, of Clarinda, Page County, Iowa. Numerous other instances of the good work of county superintendents might be cited here as well as numerous instances of their poor work. But notwithstanding the just cause for criticism and complaint against some, it must be acknowledged remarkable, considering the difficulties of the system, that the present good service is rendered. And in all criticism of county superintendents it must be remembered that not the men but the system is chiefly at fault. Inspiration and Help for County Superintendents. In- creased salaries. In the meantime, inspiration and help for county superintendents is already at hand, and much of it is easily available for those who care to use it. Not the least needed and tangible of this assistance is the recent increase in the scale of salaries in many states. This question of salary- is considered by some the most vital point in the improve- ment of rural supervision, though it is evident that the finan- cial phase will eventually adjust itself when the work once COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 297 becomes a permanent profession demanding higher qualifica- tions and better preparation. One matter of financial con- sideration calls for special attention. This is the lack of pro- vision in many states for meeting the traveling expenses of county superintendents. Four states at least — Minnesota, Wis- consin, California, and New Jersey — have seen the injustice of this situation and now authorize counties to meet the expense of their superintendents. Assistance from state departments of education. The chief general sources of assistance for county superintendents are the School Directors' Convention, Goodhue County, Minnesota state departments of education. All state superintendents assist their county superintendents, at least personally, and in many states this aid is definite and well organized. Some- times, as in Wisconsin, Missouri, Louisiana, and North Caro- lina, it is provided through the employment of state rural school inspectors. In Wisconsin, where this office was first created, the inspector is appointed by the state superintendent and serves during efficiency and good conduct. His duties include school inspection, at least to an extent sufficient to make him familiar 298 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL with conditions throughout the state; the collection and dis- tribution of information relating to rural schools ; and the conducting of educational campaigns and frequent confer- ences with county superintendents, teachers, and school pa- trons. He is thus in a position to make his influence widely felt and to act as a general counselor and assistant for county superintendents. Again, as in Illinois, the assistant state superintendent is considered the head of a special department for country schools and performs practically the same duties as the state rural school inspector. In other states, particularly in In- diana and Wisconsin, the state superintendent keeps in con- tact with his county superintendents and even with his rural teachers by issuing bulletins for each. Perhaps the most help- ful form of cooperation on the part of state and county super- intendents is that effected through state conferences and asso- ciations for county superintendents. Minnesota, Oregon, Mis- souri, Illinois, Washington, and North Carolina hold annual conventions of this type, and report great progress from them. In Illinois yearly conferences of county superintendents are held under the direction of the state superintendent at the various normal schools. The benefit of these conferences as mediums for the interchange of ideas is self-evident. The Chief Need. In conclusion, the effect of the growth of the consolidated country school system upon rural super- vision should be noted. Something of the meaning of this movement to country children, teachers and farmers has been shown in former chapters. Its influence upon the county superintendency is equally beneficial. To county superin- tendents the consolidated school system will mean in brief the disappearance of all the difficulties of supervision due to the inconveniences of the ungraded system, discussed in the earlier part of this chapter; fewer and better teachers to COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 299 supervise ; fewer school officers to instruct ; less isolation to combat and fewer miles to travel ; and a more enlightened patronage with better school spirit. All of which is con- ducive to better supervision and to progress of every kind. In further summary of this theme, let it be repeated that what the country needs in the way of school supervision is a profession of county superintendents. But such a pro- fession can never arise while the system is saturated and con- trolled by political influence. This, to be sure, is not the only A Subject for School Legislation reform needed, but certainly so long as "political affiliation, political availability, place of residence, and party political dominance, considerations which," as Professor Ellwood P. Cubberly, of Stanford University, says, "have no more to do with a man's ability to be an educational leader than the church he belongs to, the age of his wife, the name of his baby, or the size of the shoes he wears" — so long as these determine the selection of county superintendents, little prog- ress can be expected. Partisan control is the curse of country 300 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL school supervision, and for its correction there is but one cure : Take the office of the county superintendent out of politics — there is no other way. The Duty of Teachers to County Superintendents. What has been said in this chapter against the present system of rural supervision should by no means be interpreted as a criti- cism of county superintendents, or as a suggestion for disloyalty on the part of country teachers. In the experience of the author no servants in the educational field are upon the whole more earnest in their professional attitude or more courageous in standing for the best welfare of children than are county superintendents. Teachers should consider the peculiar handi- caps under which the county superintendent is placed, remem- bering, that his difficulties are even greater than their own, and should at all times give him their most loyal support and co- operation in furthering the educational welfare of the county. In this way only can unity and progress be maintained through- out the schools of the state. Some Other Legislative Measures Needed for Country Schools. Supervision is by no means the only rural educational reform needing legislative attention. Numerous other issues might receive attention here but for lack of space. No phase of education, in fact, demands more attention than legislation, since it may be considered the basis of all prog- ress. But in the country, at least, no phase is so much neglected, as is commonly illustrated by the disregard of statutes for compulsory education. A new awakening is com- ing in this matter, however, even among farmers, and the future promises well. Two measures of general agitation in this connection are consolidation and the township unit. By the township unit is meant the effort to discard the local small district and organ- ize all the schools of a township under one board. This plan wherever tried has been found less expensive, more con- COUNTRY SCHOOL SUPERVISION 301 venient, and conducive to consolidation. More laws have been passed on consolidation in the last ten years than upon any other school question. Most of this has related to transporta- tion. There are still several states, however — among others, Illinois — where no legislation for transportation is yet pro- vided and where an effective, determined campaign is needed on this question. Minnesota and Oklahoma have gone fur- ther and set a splendid example for the encouragement of consolidation by giving state aid to districts which unite. A few other desirable measures may be only glanced at here. Indiana is raising the standard of teaching by requiring both country and town teachers to be high school graduates and to have at least twelve weeks of professional training. Wisconsin and Minnesota now offer one hundred fifty dol- lars of state aid annually to all country schools meeting first class requirements ; and Wisconsin further provides for the condemnation of poor schoolhouses. Several states, notably Oregon and Minnesota, have lately passed effective legisla- tion insuring compulsory attendance on the part of country children. Another of the best measures in recent school legis- lation is that providing for county school board or directors' conventions. Pennsylvania, Washington, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Minnesota are among the states which have availed themselves of this immeasurable benefit. In most states the law also provides mileage and a compensation of two dollars per day for attendance at these meetings. In all these and countless other unnamed reforms is heralded the coming of a better day for children of the farm. CHAPTER XIII THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT Character of the Movement. The Country Life Move- ment is essentially a movement from the ground up. It is not in any sense an "uplift" and is never so regarded by those who are a native part of it. Long before the appoint- ment of the Federal Commission on Country Life this move- ment had its beginnings in the needs and reflections of the men and women of the farm. Its first stirrings were occa- sioned largely by the necessity for economic betterment arising from land waste and depletion. This need soon awakened a desire for agricultural science, and little else has been heeded by farmers until lately. Recent rural developments, however, place strong emphasis upon the social phase of country life. Not the early command, "better farming," not the later dual injunction, "better farming and better business," but the fully completed mandate, "better farming, better business, and bet- ter living," is now its slogan. So strong is this human empha- sis within the last few years that practically every agricultural meeting that convenes, whatever its initial purpose, soon finds itself astray upon rural social questions; and every agency for country life betterment at last recognizes this phase as one of paramount importance. In no development of our national life is there now more widespread, general interest than in the Country Life Move- ment. The city office clerk dreams of a small farm as an ark of financial safety ; the member of the urban chamber of com- merce sees untold possibilities for both country and city in the 302 THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 303 upbuilding of the soil ; while the farmer himself stands a little straighter and views the world even more independently than before. From Maine to Florida, and from Florida to Wash- ington, the line of greatest interest and attention follows the demand for an improved agriculture and better country life. But while of great sweep and generality, this interest is suffi- ciently localized to be practical. West, South, East, and Conference of Rural Social Workers, College of Agriculture, Amherst, Massachusetts Middle West — each section has its problems which it is solv- ing in terms of its own viewpoints and conditions. There is little imitation and no loss of individuality. This proves the sincerity of the movement and the wisdom of its direction. Some Developments of the Country Life Movement Work of the State College of Agriculture. — The chief agency in this reaction of interest back to the land has been the state college of agriculture. The profound influence of 304 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL the agricultural college not only upon farm welfare but upon the whole philosophy of national education is quite beyond measure. Of the many organizations now existent within this field of rural service two stand out especially. The Grad- uate School of Agriculture 1 is a short course convening every other summer at one of the best state colleges of agriculture, which calls together the presidents and leaders of these insti- tutions for the exchange of professional thought. Though seemingly far removed from actual farmers, this school and the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Sta- tions, which meets annually for the dissemination and en- couragement of advanced agricultural science, in stimulating the fountain source of applied agriculture, in the end very directly affect the man behind the plow, as does everything connected with the state college of agriculture. The social side of farm life has been a second thought with colleges of agriculture but is now beginning to hold their attention. In this line the Massachusetts State College of Agriculture at Amherst, under the direction of President Ken- yon L. Butterfield, is a recognized leader. During the past few years this college has developed what is known as "The Amherst Movement." The special feature of this movement is a five weeks' Summer School of Agriculture and Country Life, closing annually with a Conference of Agricultural Edu- cators and Rural Social Workers. Instruction in technical agriculture is offered at this session, but a large proportion of the work relates to the sociological phases of country life. Courses in agricultural economics, country church welfare, agricultural cooperation, rural sociology, rural school prob- lems, and rural literature are offered. At the summer school of 1910 thirteen states were represented by the student body. 1 All organizations mentioned in this chapter are listed in the rural progress directory of this book, with the addresses of officials from whom further information may be obtained. THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 305 Influence of Machinery. Machinery has been another large factor in the development of the Country Life Move- ment. The influence of invention upon modern agriculture is a matter beyond the comprehension of the younger gen- eration of farmers for lack of contrast. The great staple crops, corn and wheat, are now almost thoroughly subjugated to the control of steam and steel. Cotton alone has remained The Cotton Harvester. unconquered throughout the years of invention since Whitney first devised his rude gin. But the closing decade of the new century has just witnessed an invention which promises to bring the final triumph in the conquest of the great white crop. This sensitive mechanism, so delicate in adjustment as to pass over a ripening field, gathering the fiber and leaving the green bolls unharmed, is the product of twenty years of 306 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL courage and endeavor on the part of Mr. Angus Campbell, a machinist of Chicago. Though not yet in common use, no words can prophesy the revolution which this machine, if fully successful, is destined to inaugurate in the cotton grow- ing regions of the South. No single human contribution could do more for the development of this section. For the cotton harvester, like the wheat "combine," would mean not only eco- nomic gain and the reduction of field labor, but better schools, better homes, a happier people, and the basis of a new rural civilization. A fuller story of this remarkable invention is told in the World's Work for December, 1910. Business Organization. The high cost of living, which has lately provoked so much alarm and discussion, is generally attributed to the inadequacy of crop production. But farmers, economists, and all others who study the matter carefully are coming to agree that this international phenomena is due chiefly to an inefficient system of distribution rather than to inadequate production. For this reason the middleman ques- tion has become an issue of national consideration, and many of the leading developments of the Country Life Movement have come about through the desire of farmers for better business methods. Two great national organizations, the Farmers' Union and the American Society of Equity, have been founded upon this need. As a study in local business cooperation, the Hood River, Fruit Growers' Association of Oregon shows something of future possibilities. This organi- zation provides for the picking, sorting, packing, and dis- posal of fruit, and is said by students of agricultural economics to afford one of the best examples of business cooperation to be found among American farmers. Agricultural Legislation. The need for proper and ex- peditious agricultural legislation is another of the large prob- lems blocking the road to rural progress. In Denmark, where the farmers are also the chief lawmakers, we have a worthy THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 307 example of the service such provision can render not only rural but national interests. 1 American farmers have long been conscious of this problem, however, and are doing much to correct it. Every agricultural convention that meets sets forth its legislative desires in unmistakable terms. Much of this demand is still unanswered, but here and there con- crete political action worthy of note is made by farmers and agricultural legislators. An interesting example of this out- growth is the Farmers' Legislative Club of Illinois. This is an organization formed within the state legislature for the legal advancement of agricultural interests. Its membership consists of about seventy members, many of whom are actual farmers. The efforts of this club are openly centered in fur- thering legislative measures for the benefit of agriculture, and its action thus far has proved highly conducive to the state's best welfare. The Country Life Movement in the South. In no section of the United States is the Country Life Movement charged with greater significance and earnestness than in the South. This is but proper and natural since nine-tenths of the south- ern population live under rural conditions. Probably the best known and most fundamental of these efforts is the soil renovation work of the late Dr. Seaman A. Knapp of the United States Department of Agriculture. Recognizing the dependence of all rural well-being upon the conservation of soil fertility, Dr. Knapp, through his Farmers' Cooperative Demonstration Work, has instituted an agricultural reform destined to make the South a crop producing region of un- dreamed wealth. This work is wholly educational in charac- ter and practical in operation. Under its plan government workers induce local farmers to till a single acre or more of their own land according to official directions. This acre then 1 See an article by F. C. Howe, entitled "A Commonwealth Ruled by Farmers," in the Outlook 94:441-50. 308 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL becomes a demonstration farm and the farmer a cooperator. Seed is furnished him, and his name is published in the local papers. While the crop grows a field agent of the govern- ment inspects it each month. Upon the occasion of his visits neighbors are called in to hear what the inspector has to say. When the crop is harvested a full report of the yield and method is made in the county paper. By this time the original cooperating farmer has become a local leader, speaker, and man of note, who' cannot return to his old ways; and others are convinced. This splendid work has now been in opera- tion eight years. In the year 1909 it required the services of 430 agents, operated 60,000 demonstration plots, and en- rolled 75,000 farmers. In the same year the estimated gain to southern agriculture was $4,000,000. In addition to this, 46,000 boys are enrolled in a special school phase of the work, formerly referred to. (See page 232.) Another leading rural move- ment of the South is the an- nual Rural Life Conference held since 1908 at the Uni- versity of Virginia. These gatherings call forth the best talent of the South, and their influence is already measur- able in a new courage and better living in many southern communities. The most difficult factor conditioning southern agriculture is the large negro population. Two rural move- ments looking to the betterment of this class may be mentioned § Dr. Seaman A. Knapp Originator of the Southern Farmers' Cooperative Demonstration Work THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 309 here. One of these, the Anna T. Jeanes Foundation, embodies a plan for the improvement of negro rural schools. A second effort toward the same end dealing with adult negro farmers is another of Dr. S. A. Knapp's successful experiments known as. the Farmers' Improvement Society of Texas. This organiza- tion is conducted along lines similar to the demonstration work formerly described and has as its aim the teaching of scientific farming and better business methods to this needy class of soil-tillers. The Country Life Movement in the East. The East, more especially the New England States, is another section awakening to a renewed interest in things agricultural. The notable feature of rural life progress here is its social em- phasis. In no other part of the country are farmers so con- scious of the benefits of social and economic cooperation as in New England. This readiness to cooperate, although un- doubtedly due to the pressing demands of the cities, reveals a high stage of agricultural advancement. The scientific leadership of the Massachusetts College of Agriculture in the analysis and direction of this social growth has been referred to. Another development which shows the predominance of this viewpoint is the New England Conference for Rural Progress. This conference has convened annually since 1906, during which time seventy different farm life organizations have been voted into it. From this it is evident that New England farmers have come to appreciate the benefits of con- certed action. By way of explanation it may be said, how- ever, that no small proportion of this unusual social leader- ship is due to the insight and vision of President Kenyon L. Butterfield, who stands in the foremost rank of rural sociolo- gists and for whose possession New England is to be heartily congratulated. The Country Life Movement in the West. In the Far West, characteristically epitomizing the native spirit of mar- 3io COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL velous attainment, is the International Dry Farming Con- gress, looking particularly to the introduction of scientific methods of agriculture in the semi-arid sections of the United States and other countries. The chief interest of this con- gress thus far through the five years of its existence has been centered almost entirely upon agricultural science. But social issues are now being entered upon its programs, and it is fast becoming the nucleus of a complete country life move- ment for this section. The International Congress of Farm Women, held under the auspices of the Dry Farming Congress in 191 1, was a worthy recognition of the place and responsi- bility of women in country life development. The Country Life Movement in the Middle West. Through all this general interest in country life, there has not as yet grown up a voluntary federated organization of full national scope. This is due probably to the fact already pointed out, that the Country Life Movement is chiefly of local impetus. Its growth has been nourished in the soil and has not yet had sufficient time to bear fruit in national terms. This proper rooting is most fortunate, and great care should be exercised by those responsible for the development of the movement to prevent its injury by political exploitation or other blight. But in the absence and need of a central na- tional organization for agriculture, it is inevitable that some organization of lesser rank should be used as a gathering point. This responsibility has been temporarily thrust upon the National Corn Association, an organization instituted by corn growers and relating originally to the Middle West. The recent remarkable and varied development of this organiza- tion is for this reason peculiarly significant. The Fourth Annual National Corn Exposition lately held under the auspices of the National Corn Association in Co- lumbus, Ohio (February, 191 1), was much more than a corn show or an agricultural exposition. It was, in brief, THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 3" a great national country life convention attacking the prob- lem of rural welfare from every side. In its management several notes of progress were struck. One of these was the reduction of exploitational and entertainment features. Another was the emphasis on the educational side of the exhibits, as illustrated in the showing of the most advanced scientific work of thirty-seven state experiment stations. A third was the strong sociological tendency of the meeting, Rural Life Conference, University of Virginia, Charlottesville which culminated during the last week in a national Rural Life Conference, in which every phase of rural community life was discussed, and for which the leading rural sociologists and economists of the country were convened. Upon the whole, this last annual meeting of the Corn Association was prob- ably the most magnificent celebration ever conducted in honor of agriculture. But especially significant was its reflection of the need and demand of rural life workers for some demo- cratic organization of national scope to serve as a unifying 312 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL center for their complete interests, social and economic, as well as technically agricultural. The request from this vol- untary organization asking Professor L. H. Bailey, ex-chair- man of the Country Life Commission, to appoint a new informal Committee on Country Life, which in the absence of official action might serve as a national center for country life interests, is unprecedented in the history of agriculture. International Institute of Agriculture. Crowning all this local, state, and national effort for country life improvement is an organization of international scope, which though as yet comparatively unknown, embodies notable possibilities. This is the International Institute of Agriculture, founded at Rome, in 1905, chiefly through the energy of an American, Mr. David Lubin, of Sacramento, California, and the enlisted cooperation of the King of Italy. Forty-eight nations orig- inally subscribed to this venture, and King Victor Emman- uel has since erected a beautiful building for the special use and permanent headquarters of its delegates. The large aim of the International Institute of Agriculture is to serve as a coordinating bureau of agricultural information among the world powers. A chief immediate purpose is to furnish in- formation concerning the supply of agricultural products as a means of realizing a better equity of distribution and prices. Another purpose is to foster the development of rural eco- nomic cooperation, and still a third aim is to direct the flood of immigration in the channel of its need as farm labor. The realization of these and various other undertakings is attempted largely through the study, collection, and publica- tion of statistical information. Mere mention of this insti- tute can be made here, but it is evident that immeasurable opportunity for good lies in its proper development. The Country Life Commission and Its Work. But by far the most influential of all recent movements for the redirection of American farm life has been the Federal THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 313 Commission on Country Life. Not only was the chairman- ship of this body wisely bestowed, but the whole personnel of the committee could scarcely have been improved. In its membership every section of the country was represented, and various opinions and viewpoints were carefully balanced. The combination thus effected could not, and did not, fail to pro- duce an analysis of inestimable value to the whole American people, and absolutely vital to the welfare of farmers. No attempt need be made here to inculcate the conclusions of this commission. The official report prepared in clear, readable style is easily obtainable (see bibliography, page 389), and every one connected with country life should by all means procure a copy. Farmers, country teachers, and country min- isters, especially, will find it a guide and incentive to action. For this and and for the great good that has come of their labor, the farm men and women of the United States owe a special debt of gratitude to these men of the commission. That a service so vital to the well-being of half the national population should be hampered for a few paltry dollars, how- ever, or "read, ordered to lie on the table, and be printed," is a bit of political intrigue for which all who know the facts are righteously indignant. Needs of the Country Life Movement With all this expenditure of energy for rural welfare, there are certain needs of the Country Life Movement as a whole which must be regarded for its ultimate success. Four of these needs are: (a) concreteness ; (b) federation; (c) lead- ership; (d) and idealism. Concreteness. Any movement that proves permanent must become a part of the daily life of the people. This is especially true of those developments that pertain to the farm. Unless this movement for rural improvement reaches down and fastens its roots in the soil by helping to upbuild 3 X 4 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL the life of the local neighborhood, it is therefore doomed to failure. Perhaps the best expression of this primal obligation is that conveyed by the phrase, ' 'country community building." The necessity for the regeneration of local country com- munities has been emphasized in considering the solution of the farm problem in Chapter I, but no reference other than a glance at actual conditions is necessary for conviction. All over the United States today, notwithstanding the popularity of the Country Life Movement, farmers are still moving to town by scores. When asked for an explanation the reply is unvaried: To obtain the advantages of the town which are not found in the country. The necessity of instituting definite concrete effort within the local rural community which shall bring these desired advantages to the very door of the farm is thus clearly apparent. In this way only can the tide of city migration be stemmed and the American farm problem solved. At this point let the reader consider for a moment the latent opportunities of the average fertile farm region for com- plete and highly developed living. Picture near the center of this territory a large and thoroughly equipped consolidated country school, furnishing a redirected education with a high school course. Include ten acres of land and the education of adults. Add an extra room or two or a separate building, in which books, bulletins, crop reports, and agricultural data of every description may be collected and made available for the use of farmers and their wives. Employ an agricultural secretary, 1 or "farm doctor," to consult with farmers upon the difficulties of their work. Or, better yet, employ as school principal a man of such maturity, training, and experience that he may act as a general educational and agricultural leader for the entire community. Add a prosperous country church, 1 De Kalb County, Illinois, now employs such an agricultural secretary who spends his entire time in advising with farmers about their work. THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 315 redirected so as to preach religion in terms of country life and genuine enough to unite all the people of the community in spiritual aspiration. Then introduce a true-principled grange or farmers' club for social, educational, and economic co- operation, and construct, nearby perhaps, a cooperative labor- plant performing the functions of creamery, laundry, cannery, and other burdensome labors of the home. Intersect the whole township in the meantime with well constructed, well maintained, and attractively improved highways leading back National Corn Exposition, Columbus, Ohio, February, 191 1 to comfortable, modern homes, and scientifically tilled farms — and where might men dwell more happily? Underlying the success of all such efforts at local commu- nity building are a few general principles which may be stated here by way of summary. 1. Natural centers must be employed, though it may be necessary to define the community. This natural center may be a school district, a village, a "neighborhood," or some nat- ural geographic land division. In level prairie states the whole township may well be included. 2. Local farmer leaders must be enlisted and entrusted with the chief initiative and responsibility. These lay leaders 316 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL may be stimulated by local professional leaders — that is, cler- gymen, teachers, and others — but not controlled by them. The chief mission of the professional leader, as later pointed out, is to awaken and encourage leadership on the part of farmers. 3. Every individual within the community must hold the community ideal. More is said on this vital theme in suc- ceeding paragraphs under the heading of idealism. 4. After establishing this "community ideal" — that is, a picture of what the community may become and of the attrac- tions it may possess — definite, concrete tasks must be selected in working toward it. Upon these the cooperative effort of the whole population must then be concentrated. For example, if good roads are needed, the whole community, every man, woman, and child in the population, should participate in a local good roads campaign. 5. The function of each local institution, as of the church, school, family, and others must be defined, and definite indi- vidual programs of work developed for their guidance. 6. Local forces must be federated, as shown later, to evolve these institutional programs of work and gain strength for the tasks of improvement undertaken. The Federation of Rural Forces. In any undertaking involving so many persons, so many organizations, and so much enthusiasm as the Country Life Movement, there is dan- ger of waste from the overlapping and duplication of effort. To prevent this a united agreement and division of labor among the various institutions concerned is advisable. This union, or working harmony, or "federation of rural social forces," as it has been called, is further to be desired because the rural problem in its complete form is so large and of so many phases that no one institution is capable of handling it alone. The advantage of a unified attack in which all points of view are represented is plainly apparent. An initial step in securing this federation of country life THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 317 forces will be a careful division among rural social institu- tions of the labor necessary for progress. This will necessi- tate a series of broad conferences and the formulation of defi- nite programs of work for the various institutions involved. The country church, the school, the family, and the voluntary Country Community Exhibit Displayed at the second annual Country Life Conference of the Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress, July, 1912 farm organization, for example, must each work out a line of action for its guidance, based on the scientific principles of social progress and modified by the presence and rights of other institutions. By far the most scientific work in rural federation thus far developed is that inaugurated in different places through the 318 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL influence and thought of President Kenyon L. Butterfield of Massachusetts. Of these personal endeavors of President Butterfield's, the Rhode Island League for Rural Progress came first. This was organized in 1906 and is still in opera- tion. It enrolls all the rural social institutions of the state and holds annual progress conferences through which the responsibility and work-share of each organization is deter- mined. As the climax of the federative idea in New England stands the New England Conference for Rural Progress, which is mentioned in another connection earlier in this chapter. Outside New England, where rural social consciousness is most acute, the federative idea has had little organized appli- cation. A notable exception to this statement is found, how- ever, in the Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress. In origin and method of organization this movement is unique. Federation in Illinois has been a growth from small begin- nings, having resulted largely through the activities of the Country Teachers' Association of Illinois. The organization of the Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress involves three chief features — namely, an Advisory Council, a state Country Life Commission, and an Executive Committee. The Advisory Council is composed of "the heads of, or of duly elected delegates from the various state organizations enrolled." This body selects the members of the Country Life Commission, affording the only instance thus far in rural development where the people of a state have, as it were, provided for the appointment of their own commis- sion without official suggestion and direction. The chief service of this state commission lies in conducting inves- tigations of farm life, and that of the council in acting as a judiciary to determine the policy of the federation. There is thus provided a body to ascertain the truth in regard to rural conditions, another to consider these facts and recom- THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 319 mend what the federation can do to relieve undesirable aspects, and a third to carry out these recommendations. The ambition cherished among the rural progress workers of Illinois is to make this movement sufficiently scientific and practical to insure the best success, and to serve as a sug- gestive method of procedure for other states. To this end a carefully considered platform of things advocated was adopted at the time of organization, together with the motto, "Country Community Building/' which summarizes in a sin- gle phrase the fundamental purpose of the federation and gives the keynote of its work. Not large generalities and exuberant enthusiasm, but the accomplishment of definite, concrete tasks in the local country community, is the check which the Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress pro- poses to put upon city migration and the Illinois tenancy problem. Through the platform of principles referred to, this organization advocates the following measures : 1. Local country community building. 2. The federation of all the rural forces of Illinois in one big united effort for the betterment of country life. j. The development of institutional programs of action for all rural social agencies. This means a program of work for the school, another for the church, another for the farmers' institute, and so forth. 4. The stimulation of farmer leadership in the country community. 5. The increase and improvement of professional leader- ship among country teachers, ministers, and all others who serve the rural community in offices of educational direction. 6. The perpetuation among all the people of country com- munities of a definite community ideal, and the concentrated effort of the whole community in concrete tasks looking toward the realization of this ideal. 7. The recognition of the country school as the imme- 320 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL diate initiator of progress in the average rural community of Illinois. 8. The study and investigation of country life facts and conditions. p. The holding of annual country life conferences. 10. The protection of this federation and of all country life from every form of exploitation. The first of the annual Country Life Conferences provided for in this platform was held at Normal, Illinois, July 13, 14, 15, 191 1. This conference, like other features of the Illinois Federation, consistently emphasized the upbuilding of the local farm community. The entire program, with the excep- tion of two numbers, was in the hands of Illinoisians, and the meeting was in every sense a getting-together conference. A special feature was a Country Community Exhibit, showing graphically the work of various local, state, and national organizations and institutions of country life. The little formal federation so far accomplished in this redirected movement toward the farm has been of local or state types. But in a complete organization of country life the federation of state agencies is not adequate. The forces of agriculture have national aspects, and these, also, should be organized and federated. To facilitate this there is need of a national bureau which may serve as a clearing-house for rural social work, and of annual or biennial national confer- ences in which the functions and correlation of rural institu- tions may be worked out. In the opinion of President Butter- field, Dean Bailey, Sir Horace Plunkett, and other students of our rural social situation, this Federal Bureau of Country Life should be designed to meet all the needs of farm life, the social and economic, as well as the technically agricultural, which are now so well handled by the Department of Agricul- ture. One effort of the bureau should be the collection of accu- rate facts and local data pertaining to farm life. Without this THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 321 information, nothing scientific can be done in the way of improvement ; in fact, much of the failure of past rural under- takings can be traced to the propensity to rely upon hearsay and prejudice in the absence of definite data. A second effort should then be the publicity and extension work necessary to get these facts before the public ; and a third line of work should relate to the federation and guidance of the national interests and aspects of agriculture, as formerly suggested. The Poetry of Country Life Every life has its prose and poetry. In this country life is no exception But whatever its plan, it is clear that such a bureau would further farm life development at great strides and that through its establishment organized campaigns for rural progress of unrealized proportions and influence would be possible. Leadership. As pointed out by the Country Life Commis- sion, all this work in rural redirection will demand much lead- ership. In no field are leaders more needed. For some time to come there will be a task for every individual who aspires 322 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL to it, especially since such aspiration in the rural commu- nity is pretty sure to be accompanied by peculiar trials and tribulations. Rural leadership may be considered as of two kinds — local and large. By large leadership is meant the particular direc- tion of affairs in state and national government that shall work for better equity and justice toward farmers. The con- tention here is not for agricultural class privileges. Special privilege of many kinds is already proving dangerous to our national democracy, and farmers must, and do, for the most part, fully recognize this truth. The facts of the case, how- ever, are that the inherent rights of land owners, for one reason and another, have been much over-ridden. There is need for agricultural statesmen of insight and vision, who will see the necessity of remedying these discrepancies of the law, and, in response to this vision, will serve not only the forces of agriculture but all national forces. But great as is this need for what has been termed large leadership in agriculture, opportunities for local effort are even more significant and plentiful. Local leadership within the farm community is of two types — lay and professional. By professional leaders in this connection are meant those who serve the country community in offices of educational direction, as teachers and ministers. The men and women now in this field carry a tremendous responsibility just at this juncture of national development. Into their hands for the next decade is entrusted the perpetuation of influences which shall send young people of the farms cityward or hold them countryward. This type of local rural leadership is thus a great resource for the conservation of country life. But professional leadership, in the last analysis, is but a means to an end, and this proper end is the development of lay, or farmer, leadership. The country teacher, to illustrate, should become a leader, but if this leadership ends with itself THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 323 it will be a detriment, rather than a benefit, to the community, because it will have taught the people dependence, whereas independence and initiative are the results desired. What the true-visioned teacher, or other professional leader does, is to submerge his own individuality and through suggestion and stimulation, foster the latent possibilities of the men, women, and young people of the farm community, and send them to the front as guides and directors. This is true leadership and the only kind implied here by the use of the term. Idealism. To be permanent, the movement for country life improvement must establish a satisfying type of life upon the land ; that is, a life economically, socially, and spiritually com- fortable. It is sometimes assumed that economic satisfaction alone will prove sufficient; but this hypothesis has been com- pletely disproved by the experience of the Middle West. In this section the bounties of nature practically insure economic success, and yet rural exodus and unrest, due chiefly to social dissatisfaction, are as serious here as elsewhere. To be satis- factory life in the open country must be attractive. And to be attractive it must be not only economically and socially suc- cessful but spiritualized and idealized. Every life has its prose and poetry. In this country life is no exception. But the boy who stumbles sleepily from a warm bed into a zero atmosphere to feed hogs, and the girl who washes innumerable milk pans every day in the week, are not so likely to see the poetry as to feel the deadening prose of wearing drudgery. This idealization of country life, though largely a matter of emotional attitude, is, after all, but a process of education. It thus becomes the duty of the school, however small or isolated, to do its proper share in revealing this side of farm life and establishing its reality. For without this spiritualization there can be no ultimate solu- tion of the farm problem. Young people who do not idealize the life of the land will not aid in establishing a permanent 324 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL civilization upon it. Nothing is more fundamental or more vital to rural welfare than an enlarged vision of the possibili- ties of country life. The first great task in any campaign for rural progress, whether of local or national proportions, is to establish a clearly-defined and practical ideal of what is possible. Fortunately for the school, attention is lately becoming focused upon this phase of its responsibility, and several methods of imparting this idealism are apparent. The most immediate and successful of these is through the redirection of the old subject-matter of the curriculum; that is, through teaching in terms of the daily experience of farm children. Another is through the introduction of new subject-matter and new courses, as agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. Still another unimproved opportunity for realizing this end through the agency of the country school lies in the teaching of masterpieces of poetry, music, and art, that deal with the idealized side of life in the country. An illustration or two will make this suggestion more concrete. In the fields of art, consider Breton's The Song of the Lark. Here is a portrayal of life near the beauties of the soil that should speak directly to the boy and girl of the farm. But alas ! How often are American country children like the French peasant girl of this picture — blind to the color of the life about them and deaf to its warbled lyrics, until inspired with a new understanding by a good teacher. Poetry and music offer assistance equally helpful and even more tangible for fostering this idealism of farm life. Pic- tures, poems, and songs, that portray the idealistic side of country life and have been found helpful through actual test in revealing its attractions, are given in the appendix of this book. (Sections 8, 9, 10.) These are not merely nature selec- tions. Nature appreciation is desirable for all children, but for country children a special appreciation of farm life in all its THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 325 charms and vicissitudes is equally desirable. It is to this latter idealism that these selections contribute. But the country school in ministering to this highest need of agriculture must first absorb a new idealism on its own part. This it must do through the leadership of individuals directing it, for institutions, like stone, are vitalized only through the visions of men. Thus the great call is ever for The End of Day teachers — teachers of the Heart and Soul — who work for the joy of serving and in their service shall redirect the country school toward the aspiration and spirit of Dean Bailey's little poem: THE COUNTRY SCHOOL I teach The earth and soil To them that toil, The hill and fen To common men That live just here; 326 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL The plants that grow, The winds that blow, The streams that run In rain and sun Throughout the year ; The shop and mart, The craft and art, The men today, The part they play In humble sphere; And then I lead Through wood and mead, Through mold and sod, Out unto God — With love and cheer, I teach! — L. H. Bailey. Concluding Summary. As a final summary of the discus- sion of this book, let it be briefly repeated that underneath this stir of activity for rural progress lies a very fundamental problem of American national life. This problem, stated in simplest terms, is that of holding a standard people upon our farms. But this cannot be done unless country life is attract- ive and satisfying, an end to be attained only through the upbuilding of the local country community. Country commu- nity building, however, requires leadership and cooperation, both of which are matters of education. The whole issue therefore reverts to the question of proper education, and in its local aspects becomes a problem for the country school. But the country school itself is at present inefficient and must undergo a redirection before it can effectively meet the new responsibility being laid upon it. This redirection calls insist- ently for a modernized system of administration, or consolida- tion, but, more than all else, it calls for a new race of teachers, THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT 327 who, serving in offices of local leadership, shall not only remake the school but vitalize and stimulate the whole com- munity life. This in turn demands the attention of state normal schools and other educational institutions, a part of whose duty is the preparation of such workers for rural communities. In the meantime, while this new race of country teachers is arising, even before it arises, others must advance from among the rank and file now serving, who shall see the vision and lead the way. Having caught the gleam and experienced its transforming power, these young Merlins also shall join the ranks of the new race. The country school and the coun- try teacher as regenerating forces for the new rural order — this is the meaning of the vision whose radiance works this change, and whose interpretation has been the purpose and contribution of these pages toward a happier and more satis- fying country life. APPENDIX OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN COUNTRY SCHOOL TEACHING FOR COUNTRY TEACHERS Many normal schools, high schools, and other educational institutions are beginning to turn their attention to the preparation of country teachers. Since this work is new, there is everywhere a great demand for courses for this purpose. The course given below is by no means ideal, but is offered here as the product of six years' work in the special training of country teachers, for the assistance of those who may be confronting the problem from less experience. This book is the direct outgrowth of this course and should for this reason be found a useful text in its development. When so used, it should not be taken in straight sequence, however, but in the following indicated order. If this order is adopted the text of the book will be found to cover practically the entire work of the course. The sequence of the book was not made that of the course, because it was the intention to emphasize the sociological setting of the country school more strongly than would otherwise have been possible. PART ONE OF COURSE 1. Improving the physical environment of the school. Chapter X, pages 206 to 229; Appendix, Sections 3 and 4. 2. Socializing the school. Chapter X, pages 229 to 238. 3. ■ Vitalizing and enriching the course of study. Chapter X, pages 239 to 246; Appendix, Sections 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. 4. Organization and management. Appendix, Sections 6 and 7. 5. Consolidation and teaching the necessity of a change of system. Chapter VIII; and Chapter X, pages 246 to 251. 6. Leadership of the country teacher. Chapter IX; Appendix, Sec- tions 13 and 14. 329 330 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL PART TWO OF COURSE I and II. Farm Problem. Chapter I. III. Agencies for the solution of the farm problem. i. Socialising institutions. A. Home. Chapter II. B. Church. Chapter III. C. State and government. Chapter I, page 13. D. Voluntary farm organisations. a. Grange. Chapter IV. b. Farmers' clubs. Chapter IV, pages 85 to 90. c. Farmers' institutes. Chapter V. d. Business organisations. Chapter XIII, page 306. E. School. Chapter VII and Chapter IX; Chapter VIII, page 175; Chapter XI; Appendix, Sections 1 and 2; Chapter XII. 2. Material means for the solution of the farm problem. A. The agricultural press. Chapter V. B. Roads. Chapter VI. IV. The Country Life Movement. Chapter XIII and Chapter IX. THE COUNTRY SCHOOL AND THE RURAL COMMUNITY A Course in the Problems and Management of Country Schools and the Study of Rural Social Agencies. Offered in the Country School Department of the Illinois State Normal University at Normal, Illinois. Introduction. The present rural situation in Illinois and elsewhere. General discussion of country school and community conditions based on the first-hand information and experience of the class. The country teacher as an innovator of rural progress. Part I. The Country Teacher's Problem and Its Attack The problem stated. Its attack through: 1. Improving the physical environment of the school. A. The building. Characteristic defects ; their correction and improvement. a. Ventilation and heating. Necessity of; requirements of a good ventilating system; stoves as ventilators. Relief measures for the ventilation of country schools: jacketed stoves; mechanical systems ; furnace ventilation. b. Lighting. Eye-strain and neglect among country children ; its symptoms. Teacher's responsibility for care of the eyes. General principles of school room lighting. Defects in the lighting of country schools; their correction. APPENDIX 331 c. Interior finish and decoration. Importance of, and effect upon children. Typical conditions of neglect and their cause. Choice of color schemes for country schools. Best wall finishes; woodwork; wall decoration, pictures, and bulletin boards. d. Seating and furnishing. Country school seats ; defects ; cor- rectives. Musical instruments, library cases, work tables, work benches, cupboards, and other needed furniture. e. Plumbing, sanitation, and care. The mechanism and cost of plumbing for rural schools. Indoor toilets; their advan- tages. Sanitation of the country school room; control of dust. Janitor work of the country school. f. General rural school architecture. A study of the plans, building materials, and cost of model country school buildings. B. Country school grounds. Suggestive landscape plans; general principles of planting; what to plant and how. Care and construction of well, walks, and fences. Outbuildings; their care, sanitation, and moral influence. Summer houses, arbors, and arches. 2. Socialising the country school and making it a community center. A. A brief analysis of existing social conditions in the average rural community, with a study of their causes. B. Ways and methods of making the country school a community center and of developing a cooperative social spirit in the rural community through its agency. a. Through the teacher's personal influence in the community. Visiting among patrons; conversation and literature intro- duced by the teacher. b. By developing the social activities of the children. Boys' and girls' clubs ; their values ; organization ; and work. Illus- trative examples studied. c. By making the school house a meeting place for the com- munity. Need of recreation among farmers. School house meetings: for entertainment; for earning money; and for community instruction and inspiration. The development and management of a Country Life Club or other commu- nity organization centering about the school. d. By developing a close cooperation between the home and the school. Parents' associations; their need; organization and management. Topics for discussion; available helps. 332 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL e. By utilizing all materials and agencies at hand for awakening an active interest in the welfare of the school and com- munity. The use of the local press. Exhibits ; of children's work, art exhibits, industrial and agricultural exhibits. Edu- cational excursions; local excursions; railway excursions. 3. Vitalising and enriching the course of study. A. The social efficiency aim of education. Factors determining the educative process. B. The consideration of a country school course of study dictated by the social-efficiency aim of education and conditioned by the experience of country children. a. Study values. The relative value of the different subjects in the country school curriculum. Formal and content studies. School subjects classified as the outgrowth of human in- stincts. Three- fold division of the subject-matter of the curriculum. b. The re-organization of the country school curriculum. The revision and redirection of old subjects; the introduction and selection of material for the new subjects. Humanistic studies. Literature, language, reading, gram- mar, history, music, and art in the country school; their relation to rural interests. Scientific studies. Arithmetic, geography, nature study, physiology and agriculture. Agriculture as the basis of the reorganized rural curriculum. Principles underlying the organization and introduction of agricultural courses for country schools. Sources of information and assistance for the teacher. Industrial art. Definition, content, and right to an exist- ence in the country school curriculum. Manual training and household science for country schools. The significance of the industrial organization of the elementary school cur- riculum; its effect upon old subject-matter. c. Elementary rural sociology for country children. The need of such a course; its organization, introduction, and teaching; available helps. 4. Better organization and management. A. Organization and management of the one-teacher country school. a. The daily program; principles underlying its' arrangement; study of suggestive model programs. APPENDIX 333 b. Seat-work, principles underlying its selection and teaching. c. Spirit and discipline. The school as a social group. Proper and improper punishment. Spirit desired ; how to secure it. Playground discipline. Indoor and outdoor games ; play days. d. The country school system of Illinois. Officers involved; their duties and powers. School revenue; legal rate; inadequacy of average levy in country districts; rural and urban school funds compared; state aid for poor districts. 5, Consolidation and teaching the necessity of a change of system. The ungraded versus the graded, or consolidated, system for country schools. a. The present small district system. Its disadvantages ; its his- tory and development; its lack of adjustment to present social and economic conditions. b. The larger district or consolidated system. Definition and types of consolidation ; ideal possibilities of the system. History and status of the consolidation movement. Advan- tages of consolidation; difficulties involved; some phases of the question of transportation ; cost of consolidated schools ; the consolidated school compared with other types of rural high schools ; need of a country system of districting for consolidation ; the consolidated school as a community center. c. Consolidation campaigns. Method of procedure; helps and literature available ; a study of the school law and legal steps necessary to consolidate in Illinois. 6. The local leadership of the country teacher. Proper interpretation of the doctrine of country teacher leadership ; true leadership explained ; scarcity of rural leaders and its effect; opportunity and advantages of the country teacher for community leadership ; requirements on the part of country teachers for leadership. The necessity of under- standing country life conditions and of cooperating with various rural social agencies. Part II. Country Life and the Rural Community I. THE AMERICAN FARM PROBLEM. The problem stated; its significance; cause; rural isolation and its effect. II. SOLUTION OF THE FARM PROBLEM. The necessity of making country life permanently satisfying; 334 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL country community building as a means to this end; possibilities of the ideal country community; cooperation the keynote in community building ; agencies of community building ; chief functions of agencies defined; necessity for the federation of community forces. III. AGENCIES FOR THE SOLUTION OF THE FARM PROBLEM. I. Socialising institutions. A. The Home. The farm home as an agency for rural progress. Present conditions in farm homes. The improvement of farm home life. The home as a center of all interests. B. The Country Church. The church as an agency for rural progress. The present status of country churches. Recent awakening ; movements for prog- ress. Relation of the country teacher to the church problem. C. The State and Government. Function. Needed legislation; cause for legislative neglect of agricultural interests; remedy. Duties of farmers as legis- lators, voters, and citizens. D. The Voluntary Farm Organizations. a. The Grange. Its purpose, history, organization, and influence. Detailed study of a typical subordinate grange. Grange mem- bership for country teachers. The organization of local granges through the school. b. Farmers' clubs. Their purpose, benefit, and management. The study of typical local clubs. The relative efficiency of farmers' clubs and subordinate granges. Organizing a farmers' club through the school. c. Farmers' institutes. The history, organization, and influence of farmers' institutes in the United States. The present status of farmers 5 institutes. Progress movements ; study of sug- gestive types of work. Cooperation between the country school and the farmers' institute. d. Business organizations. Local organizations for buying and selling. Elevator and telephone companies, creameries, etc. The middle-man system ; its dangers ; results and checks. E. The Country School. a. The school as an agency in the solution of the farm prob- lem. Complete function of the country school defined ; the country school as a community center and initiator of rural progress ; its advantages to this end. APPENDIX 335 b. Needs of the country school. i. Consolidation re-stated as the chief fundamental need. 2. Increased financial support and cooperation on the part of patrons. Some statistics of rural school expenditure; value received; the economic waste of the ungraded system. 3. Trained teachers. Class of teachers available for rural service ; cause. The present training of country teachers ; in state normal schools ; in county normal schools ; in special-aided high schools. Future developments and provi- sions for the training of country teachers. Country school conferences and other gatherings for the inspiration and help of country teachers. 4. Better supervision. Difficulties of rural supervision ; system of rural supervision employed in the U. S. ; in- creasing the efficiency of the county superintendency ; the necessity for its removal from political influence; the opportunity and responsibility of county superintendents. The duty of teachers to county superintendents. 5. Improved legislation. The need of better legislation for country schools and of enforcing what now exists. The study of some special, recent, legal provisions for country school betterment. Material instruments and means for the solution of the farm problem. A. For the communication of thought : a. Libraries ; school and grange libraries. b. Telephones ; their influence upon farm life. c. Rural delivery of mail ; its effect upon country living. d. The agricultural press ; its influence ; types of rural life literature; a list of books, bulletins, and periodicals for farm- home and country-school libraries. B. For personal communication and transportation: a. Roads. The road problem. Our present road system; its organization and defects. Some road progress movements and reforms. The country school and the road problem. b. Rural electric lines ; their increase and effect upon country life; their use for the transportation of rural school children. c. Automobiles, and the revolution they are destined to bring about in rural life; use for the transportation of children to consolidated schools ; bearing upon the road problem. $$6 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL IV. THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT. i. Various phases and recent developments of the movement, as illus- trated by current meetings and organizations. 2. The Country Life Commission and its influence. General study and summary of its report. 3. Needs of the Country Life Movement. A. Concreteness. Local country community building. Meaning ; necessity of ; examples ; principles underlying. B. The federation of rural social forces. Meaning, history, and advantages of the federative idea. Developments of rural federation. C. Leadership. Kinds of rural leadership ; need of rural leaders, both local and large ; lay and professional rural leadership, the office of each. The institutional leadership of the country school in the local rural community. D. Idealism. Need for a new rural idealism ; the school's part in establishing a higher idealism in country life; how accomplished. II OUTLINE OF A COURSE IN RURAL SOCIOLOGY FOR COUNTRY TEACHERS Offered in the Country School Department of the Illinois State Normal University at Normal, Illinois The following course attempts only to give immature country teachers a somewhat better understanding of country life, not to cover the field of rural sociology in any scientific way. It is offered here only as a suggestion for the development of similar better courses. References for assignments may be selected from the bibliography of this book. A special term paper upon any topic related to rural social life is required of each student. Part of this course closely parallels Part II of the preceding course, and is therefore not re-stated in detail. Readers familiar with the literature of country life will observe my obligation to President K. L. Butterfield's course in his Chapters in Rural Progress, APPENDIX 337 I. PRESENT RURAL SOCIAL CONDITIONS A detailed study of the Report of the Country Life Commission. Covering also the following topics : i. Social characteristics of farm life. A. Farm life contrasted with city life in : Congestion versus isolation; transportation and communication', specialization in vocation ; organization and leadership ; social consciousness ; adaptability ; satisfaction and attractiveness. B. Rural isolation and its effects. a. Upon community life: conservatism; radicalism; provincialism; neighborhood strife; lack of organization and cooperation; scarcity of leaders. b. Upon family life : unity, interdependence, and self-sufficiency of the farm family. c. Upon individual life : the independence and individuality of farmers ; habits ; temperamental tendencies ; morals ; ideals. C. The unrest and movement of the farm population. a. The movement westward — history, causes, effects. b. The movement cityward — general aspects, causes ; industrial changes ; true meaning of rural depletion ; the necessity of a balance of population. c. Present-day city migration — industrial, social, and psychological causes. d. Results of the migration of rural population. Effect upon coun- try ; effect upon cities; general industrial and social results, both good and bad. 2. Current agricultural problems. A. Commensurate financial returns upon capital invested. The high price of land ; causes and resulting demands. Farm in- comes as compared with the incomes of other vocations. Neces- sity and methods of maintaining commensurate farm in- comes; various determinant factors. B. Economic measures for maximum crop production. The conservation of soil fertility ; the use of machinery ; seed selec- tion ; cooperative labor ; specialization in farming, necessity and results. C. Tenant farming. Causes; results, national and local; large versus small farms. D. Agricultural labor. Scarcity of house and field labor. Causes — social, economic, and 338 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL industrial. Remedies : use of machinery ; cooperative labor plants ; increased attractiveness of farm life for laborers and all others. Immigration and its effect upon the rural labor problem and farm life in general. E. Agricultural business cooperation. Need; ideals governing; suggestive European developments in Ire- land and in Denmark; special difficulties of cooperation among American farmers ; instances of success. F. Exploitation of agriculture. Speculative holding of lands ; monopolistic control of streams ; wastage of forests ; restraint of trade; soil depletion. G. Agricultural legislation. Some needed measures ; need for agricultural statesmen ; farmers as citizens, voters, and legislators. H. Agricultural education. a. History of the movement ; development of Land Grant Colleges of Agriculture and of experiment stations. b. Kinds : in elementary schools, secondary schools, and colleges ; agricultural extension for adult farmers ; research and dis- semination work in agriculture. c. Needs of agricultural education : extension ; social emphasis ; central national bureau. I. Rural morality. Fact versus impression regarding rural morality; causes of immorality; correctives. J. Health. Special rural diseases ; facts concerning and extent. Sanitary con- ditions and neglect in country communities ; measures for im- provement. K. Rural recreation. Need of recreation in the country. Recreation for the young; recreation for adults. Rural aspects and developments of the recent play movement. II. THE FUNDAMENTAL FARM PROBLEM. i. The problem stated. 2. Its significance. 3. Cause; isolation and its effects upon country life (see above). 4. Phases of the problem: (a) the scientific, or natural resource, aspect; (b) the technical, or productive, aspect; (c) the business, or ad- ministrative, aspect; (d) the economic, or industrial, aspect; (e) the social, or community, aspect. APPENDIX 339 III. SOLUTION OF THE FARM PROBLEM. Cooperation the keynote in its solution. Fundamental sociological correctives involved in cooperation: (a) Education, (b) Social- ization, (c) Organisation, (d) Idealization. Community building as a factor in the solution of the farm problem, (a) The ideal country community, (b) Study of various local communities approximating this ideal, (c) Principles of local community building. IV. AGENCIES OF RURAL SOCIALIZATION AND COMMUNITY BUILDING. A Study of the Possibilities and Realizations of Country-Life Institutions and Organizations. Institutions. A. The farm home and family. The home as a socializing agency ; its functions defined ; present conditions in farm homes ; improvement ; the farm home as a center of interests ; the farm family as a social unit. B. Government. Function ; needs, state and national ; the larger use of local govern- ment in rural districts. C. The country church. As a socialization agency ; function stated ; present status ; pro- gressive developments ; relation of the church problem to country school welfare. D. The farmers' organization; its function. a. The Grange : its origin, history, organization, work, and in- fluence; cooperation with country school. b. Farmers' clubs : method of organization, influence and coopera- tion with school. c. Farmers' institutes : origin, history and organization ; present status and progress; cooperation with school. d. Farmers' economic organizations : The Farmers' Union, Ameri- can Society of Equity, and others ; their social influence. E. The school. a. The state college of agriculture. Its service to the local rural community; its development of leaders. b. The country school. Definition of its place and function in country life; (See Chapter VII this book). Fundamental needs : consolidation ; increased revenue ; trained teachers ; better supervision; improved legislation. (Develop fully as outlined in the preceding course, page 335.) 340 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 2. Material instruments and means of rural socialisation. A. The rural press ; influence ; service ; need of social emphasis. B. Rural libraries ; permanent and traveling libraries ; the rural library as a community center. C. Means of communication. a. Roads : the road problem as a national issue ; road improve- ment ; the responsibility of the country school for road progress. b. Rural electric lines and automobiles ; their present and future influence. c. Telephones and mail delivery. V. THE FEDERATION OF RURAL AGENCIES AND FORCES. Federation defined; its necessity; history of the movement; special study of the Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress ; need of a national Bureau of Country Life, and of state and national campaigns for rural progress. VI. THE COUNTRY LIFE MOVEMENT. Its character; recent developments; needs — concreteness, federation, leadership, idealism. Ill A COUNTRY TEACHER'S SCHOOLHOUSE PLAN Schoolhouses are usually planned by architects, directors, and other people who never live in them. This perhaps accounts for their usual inconvenience. Of all people, country teachers should best appreciate the demands of a good country school building. Yet they are seldom heard from upon this subject. The following plan, designed by the author, therefore claims at least the dis- tinction of coming from an actual country teacher and of being the outgrowth of direct experience. The General Plan. The main part of this building is 32' x 40'. The front projection is 18' x 20'. Room dimensions are indicated on the drawings. All ceilings above are 12 feet high. The base- ment extends 4 feet below the ground, Basement ceilings are 8 feet high. Either wood or cement-plaster on expanded metal lath may be used in construction, but the latter is recommended because warmer and more attractive. The exterior, as planned, gives a bungalow effect, having broad low eaves. The walls of the exterior if built of cement-plaster may be gray with brown trimmings or green with darker green trimmings. The shingles should be Front Elevation Rear Elevation 342 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL stained a dark green and the chimney built of native stone where- ever possible. If the building is constructed of lumber, tan and brown effects or a plain white exterior may be chosen. If the large basement is not desired, a small basement may be con- structed under the hall. When this is done a playroom of fair qualifications may be made in the attic of the building. Interior Finish and Furnishings. The wall finish as planned is patent plaster trowelled smooth and tinted or painted. The best color scheme is soft tan walls and cream ceiling, or gray Right Side Elevation green walls and pale yellow ceiling. The woodwork should be finished natural, and dressed with a soft dull stain that will endure water. The floor may be matched hard pine oiled, or soft pine painted. Schoolroom and workroom should be finished alike and connected by large rolling doors so that they may be thrown together for community meetings. Glass-topped swinging doors will permit the teacher to view both rooms at once. Slate black- boards four feet wide and two feet from the floor extend across the front and right walls of the schoolroom and along the front y u - fr\ 3 q O l r/«5T fLOCM PLAT* First Floor Plan 344 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL and left walls of the workroom. A ventilating- flue and a fireplace with a mantel of slight projection are placed in the center of the rear wall of the schoolroom, and a window seat eighteen inches wide, with a hinged section forming the cover of a large store-box, extends around the window alcove. A portable bulletin board made of burlap over a fitted frame hangs on the rear wall of the schoolroom. A 300 gallon pressure tank stored in the basement and filled by means of a hand pump makes possible the indoor toilets and distribution of water throughout the building. Such a system can be purchased from the Kewanee Water Supply Company of Kewanee, Illinois, or from the Leader Iron Manufacturing Com- pany of Decatur, Illinois, for about $250 or $300. A hot-air furnace heating all parts of the building adequately can be installed for from $100 to $175. The scheme of ventilation as here planned provides for the removal of foul air and furnishes only fresh heated air directly from outside. Among the furnishings suggested for this building are Napier matting rugs. These save nerve-wear in the schoolroom and are easily cleaned. Chairs will be found more convenient as reci- tation seats than the common long benches. In the workroom a sink, kitchen equipment, and primary and laboratory tables, should be placed. Each of these has its place in the administration of the school. The equipment for the play-room may be home-made and put in by the children. Among the furnishings for the hall should be a sanitary drinking fountain, a covered box for over- shoes, and a telephone, which with a mailbox at the gate will facilitate outside communication. Linoleum will make an excellent and attractive floor covering for the hall. SPECIAL POINTS OF RECOMMENDATION 1. Most country schools are too small. This one is sufficiently large for work and comfort. 2. It possesses a workroom, conveniently located on the first floor, for agricultural study, laboratory and kindergarten work, and domestic science. This one feature alone is enough to revo- lutionize country teaching. 3. It affords cloak rooms for both boys and girls, and has clean, sanitary, indoor toilets on the first floor, surrounded by dead air chambers. No one thing will do as much for the morals of f I IL | PRESSURE TANK 1 JANITORS ~~7* W 1 1^1 3SZ f /, Road Improvement in Governor's Messages, 5 cents ; *34, Social, Commercial, and Economic Phases of the Road Subject, 5 cents; 36, List of Na- tional, State, and Local Road Associations, 5 cents. PART II. THE COUNTRY SCHOOL /. School Buildings and Grounds ^Circular descriptive of the rural school building of Cornell College of Agriculture. Address the College, Ithaca, N. Y. Photograph, plan, and specifications of excellent building costing $1,800. Send for; free. Heating and Ventilation of Small Schoolhouses. Bulletin No. 15. Issued by the State Department of Public Instruction, St. Paul, Minn. Contains especially a form for reports on rural school heatinar and ventilating. BIBLIOGRAPHY 395 ^Indiana Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1908. F. A. Cotton, Chapter VIII. Postage 44 cents. Excellent refer- ence treating all phases of country school architecture; well illus- trated. *Model Rural School of the Missouri State Normal School at Kirks- ville. A bulletin published by the Normal School. Contains dia- grams, photographs, and full description of plans. *New Type of Rural Schoolhouse. Craftsman, 20:212-15, May, 1911. Good description of the Cornell rural schoolhouse. Well illustrated. *The One-room and Village Schools in Illinois. By U. J. Hoffman and W. S. Booth. A bulletin issued by the State Department of Education, Springfield, 111. Contains plans and cost of the model rural school building recommended by the Illinois State Depart- ment of Education. Annual Flowering Plants. Farmers' Bulletin No. 195 ; free. Sec- retary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. Farmers' Bulletin No. 134; free. Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 77. Social Aspects *Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Clubs. Farmers' Bulletin No. 385. Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Tells of various clubs and of the movement in general. Illustrated. Boys' Demonstration Work : the Corn Clubs. Bulletin. Superin- tendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Paper, 5 cents. Official report of the work of Dr. Seaman A. Knapp's southern boys' corn clubs. *Field Day and Play Picnic for Country Children. Pamphlet by Myron T. Scudder. Charities Publication Committee, 105 East 22nd Street, ' New York. 10 cents. See also Outlook, 92:1031-8. Contains an account of a play picnic and valuable helps for conducting others, *Socializing the Country School. School News, October and November, 1908. Concrete narrative of what one country teacher did in this direction. 777. Curriculum *Common Schools and Farming. In Bailey's The Training of Farmers, PP- 137-66. See book list above. Excellent ; shows necessity of teaching in terms of the daily experience of children and projects prophetic ideal of country teaching. 396 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL *Davenport, E. — The Next Step in Agricultural Education. Bulletin published by the University of Illinois, Urbana. An argument for a balanced education of liberal and vocational training for farm children. ♦Geography in Rural Schools. Richard E. Dodge, Journal of Geogra- phy, 8:202-6, May, 1910. Shows well how to teach geography in relation to farm life. ♦Industrial and Social Work in the Elementary School. Frederick G. Bonser and others. A series of four bulletins issued by the Western Illinois State Normal School, Macomb. An excellent concrete ex- ample of how to relate school work to daily life. Illustrated. Industrial Education for Rural Communities. Report of Special Com- mittee of the National Educational Association. Annual proceed- ings for 1908. Gives detailed accounts of industrial work done in various consolidated and rural schools and contains general sugges- tions on rural industrial work. IV. Country Teachers — Training and Leadership ♦Country School Department of the Illinois State Normal University. A bulletin. Address the institution at Normal, Illinois. ♦Rural School Department of the Kirksville Normal School. A bul- letin. Address the institution at Kirksville, Mo. County Training Schools. Biennial report of the State Superintendent of Wisconsin. 1906-08; 58-85. ♦Educational Engineers. Booker T. Washington. Outlook, 95 1266-7, June 4, 1910. Excellent article revealing the country teacher's opportunity for leadership. ♦Michigan's Preparation of Teachers for Rural Schools. Ernest Burn- ham. Elementary School Teacher, 9:138-45, November, 1908. ♦State Normal Schools and the Rural School Problem. H. N. Loomis. Educational Review, 39:484-99, May, 1910. Exhaustive article showing effort of normal schools in this field. Training of Teachers for Rural Schools. A. E. Bennett. Bulletin. Address writer at Fayette, Iowa. Address before the Iowa State Teachers' Association advocating country teacher training in high schools. Teachers for the Country School ; kind wanted ; how to secure them. L. J. Alleman. National Educational Association Proceedings. 1910 :28o-2. Special preparation of teachers for rural schools. N. E. A., 1910; 575-88. BIBLIOGRAPHY 397 V. Supervision and Legislation *Country Schools for Country Children. World's Work, 24:102-8. An account of the good supervisory work of County Superintendent Jessie Field of Page County, Iowa. *County Supervision. National Education Association Proceedings 1908: 252-71. Discussions by state superintendents. ^Illinois Educational Commission Reports. State Department of Edu- cation, Springfield, 111. 1909. Several bulletins containing ex- haustive studies of school legislation. Rural School Board Conventions. C. P. Cary, National Education Association Proceedings, 1907. *Toddling into Farming. F. G. Moorhead. World Today, 19:1032-7, September, 1910. Describes work of County Superintendent O. H. Benson, Clarion, Wright County, Iowa. VI. Consolidation Catalog of the John Swaney School. Address the principal, McNabb, Illinois. Contains history of the school and its course of study. Illustrated. *Centralizated Schools in Ohio. Extension bulletin. -February, 1909. Published by the University of Ohio, Columbus. Free. Consolidation of Schools. R. J. Aley. National Educational Associa- tion Proceedings, 1910 : 276-7. *Consolidated Rural Schools and Organization of a County System. Geo. W. Knorr. Bulletin 232. Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Free. Best study of consolidation so far made. Advocates county systems for consolidating. Full of valuable data on cost, etc. *Consolidation of Country Schools. Bulletin issued by the University of Illinois, Urbana. Free'. The report of a special committee sent to investigate consolidated schools in Ohio. Contains good sum- maries of the question. Community Work in the Rural High School. J. D. Crosby. Year- book. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1910 : 177-88. *Indiana Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1908. F. A. Cotton. Chapter V. Valuable reference ; well illustrated. Speaks of several schools in detail. *Hays, Willet M. — Education for Country Life. Circular 84, Office of Experiment Stations, Washington, D. C. Shows possibilities of the consolidated school as a community center. 398 COUNTRY LIFE AND THE COUNTRY SCHOOL *How Denmark Has Taught Itself Prosperity and Happiness. Booker T. Washington. World's Work, 22:14486-94. June, 1911. Tells of the rural high schools, or folk schools, that have made Denmark over. *New Kind of Country School. O. J. Kern. World's Work, 16: 10720-22, September, 1908. Good brief account of the John Swaney Consolidated School of Putnam County, Illinois. *State Bulletins on Consolidation. The following states publish espe- cially good bulletins on consolidation (191 1). To obtain, address state superintendents at various state capitals : Minnesota, Kansas, Louisiana, Washington, North Carolina, Iowa, Massachusetts, and Oklahoma. Study of Fifteen Consolidated Rural Schools, their Organization, Cost, Efficiency, and Affiliated Interests. George W. Knorr, South- ern Education Board, Washington, D. C. The Township High School in Illinois. A bulletin by Horace A. Hollister. Published by the University of Illinois, Urbana. Good account of the work of township high schools. Illustrated. Consolidation and Transportation — Supreme Court Decisions. E. C Elliott. Bulletin. U. S. Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. INDEX Agencies, country community, 12 ; overlapping of, 14. Agricultural college, influence of, 303. Agriculture in schools, purpose of, 179 ; course in, 243. Aked, Charles F., quoted, 70. American Association of Farmers' Institute Workers, 95. American Highway League, 124. Amherst Movement, 304. Automobile, effect upon road building, 119 ; for conveyance of school children, 132, 174. Bailey, Liberty Hyde, quoted 3, 26, 31, 273, 365 ; referred to, 274, 312, 320 ; poem on country school, 325. Bayliss, Alfred, 266. Bill, A. J., 102. Blair, F. G., quoted, 150. Blake, Edgar, quoted, 42. Books, selected list of, for country teachers, 374. Butterfield, Kenyon L., indebtedness to, 3 note and 42 ; referred to, 12 note ; quoted on the church, 13 ; on the Grange, 78 ; warning to Grange, 85 ; referred to, 274, 309 ; influence for rural federation, 317 ; reference, 320, 336. Campbell, Angus, 306. Carpenter, Mary, 286. Church, country, 39-71, abandoned, 8 ; function of, 13 ; as rural progress agency, 39 ; present status, 40 ; digest of replies from Country Life Commission, 43 ; federation of, 47 ; federated church at Proctor, Vermont, 50 ; Federal Council of Churches, 50 ; Presbyterian Department of Church and Country Life, 53-57 ; Methodist, note 57 ; possibilities and needs, general, 60 ; local possibilities, 62 ; DuPage Church, 62-67 ; country teacher's relation to, 67 ; coming unity, 69. Clear Creek Community, description of, 9-10. Clubs, household science, 38 ; farmers', 85-88 ; boys' and girls', 230 ; parents', 234 ; country life, 237. Community building, significance of, 9-10 ; women's share in, 30 ; as a factor in rural migration, 314 ; principles of, 315. Community center, country, description of Clear Creek, 9 ; diagram of, 15 : country school as, 134, 232 ; consolidated school as, 184 ; ideal center described, 314. Conference of Agricultural Educators and Rural Social Workers, in Mass., 53, 304. Conservatism, rural, 6. Consolidation, 149-187 ; the future system, 145 ; fundamental need of country schools, 148 : definition and types, 149 ; possibilities, 150-158 ; John Swaney School, 150 ; history and status, 159-170 ; in Indiana, 160-64 ; in Minnesota, 164 ; in Iowa, 165 ; in Kansas, 165 ; in Idaho and Washington, 166 ; in Louisiana and the South, 168 ; advantages, 170, 180 ; difficulties involved, 171 ; transportation, 171-74 ; cost of, 174-76 ; compared with other rural high schools, 176 ; advantages as agency for reconstruction of country life, 180 ; county system for, 181-84 ; as a community center, 184-87 ; future type of, 186 ; duty of teachers in advancing movement, 187 ; how to conduct campaigns for, 246-51 ; legislation for, 300. 399 400 INDEX Cooperation, rural, importance of, 10 ; forces involved in, 12 ; see organization. Country life, significance of its prosperity, 4 ; women's part in, 30 ; consolidated school as agency for reconstruction of, 180; creed for, 203 ; greatest single need for, 252 ; prose and poetry of, 321, 323. Country Life Commission, suggestions on household labor, 29 ; on the church, 40 ; digest from, 43-47 ; quoted on church federation, 48 ; quoted on Y. M. C. A. work, 57 ; report of, 69, 389 ; its work, 312 ; 321. Country Life Movement, 302-327 ; women's part in, 31 ; influence of roads on, 108 ; character of, 302 ; some developments of, 303-313 ; relation of agricultural colleges to, 303 ; influence of machinery upon, 305 ; relation of business organization to, 306 ; legislation contributing to, 306 ; the movement in the South, 307 ; in the East, 309 ; in the West, 309 ; in the Middle West, 310 ; International Institute of Agriculture, 312 ; Country Life Commission and its work, 312 ; needs of the movement, 313-27 ; concreteness, 313 ; federation of rural forces, 316 ; leadership, 321 ; idealism, 323. Country Teachers" Association of Illinois, 273. Country Training School of the Macomb, 111., normal school, 266-73. County boards of education, 288. County normal schools, 256. County superintendents, normal school help for, 279 ; see also supervision. County system, for roads, 118 ; for consolidated schools, 181-84. Courses for the training of country teachers, outlines of, 329-340. Creed, for country life, 203. Cubberly, Elwood P., quoted, 299. Cummings, C. S., 49. DeKalb County, Illinois, farmers' clubs in, 85 ; agricultural secretary in, 314. Digest of country church information, 43. Domestic science, minimum equipment for teaching in country schools, 373. See household science. Dry Farming Congress, 310. DuPage Church, Plainfield, Illinois, account of, 63-67. Eaton, William L., 159. Education, vocational, for farm women, 29 ; agricultural, 179. Educational helps and sources for country teachers, 350-58. Entertainments, school, references, 354. Enumclaw consolidated school, 167. Exhibits, educational, as social force, 236 ; country life exhibit, 320 ; list of, for geography, 351. Exhibit trains, agricultural, 98 ; for roads, 128. Extension work, for homes, 38 ; through farmers' institutes, 98 ; for country teachers, 264 ; in state normal schools, 278. Fairchild, E. T., 165 ; quoted, 256. Fairs, Grange, 82, 84. Farmers' clubs, 85-87, compared with granges, 85 ; of DeKalb County, Illinois, account of, 86-87. Farmers' Cooperative Demonstration Work, 307. Farmers' institutes, 90-107 ; work for farm homes, 34 ; as a rural progress agency, 90 ; origin and history, 90 ; organization, 93-95 ; present status and progress, 96-100 ; normal institutes, 96 ; institutes for women, 97 ; for young people, 97 ; exhibit trains, 98 ; movable schools, 99 ; summer institutes, 100 ; cooperation with school, 102-107 ; list of illustrated lectures, 106. Farm problem, 1-17 ; statement of, 2 ; significance of, 3 ; cause, 4 ; solution, 7. Farmers' Voice, 102. Farms, average size of American, 4 ; compared with European, 4. Federal Bureau of Country Life, need of, 320. Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, 50, INDEX 401 Federation, of community agencies, 16 ; of churches, 47-50, 69 ; of rural forces, 316. Feuds, rural, cause of, 7. Field, Jessie, 296. Furnishings and equipment for country schools, 346-350. France, highway system of, 110. Geography exhibits, list of, 351. Good Roads, 128. Government, function of, 13. Government publications, explanation of, 357. Grange, 72-89; 6, 14; work for farm homes, 34; as socializing agency, 72; origin and purpose, 72 ; declaration of purposes, 73 ; history, 75 ; present status, 76 ; organization, 76 ; Pomona grange, 77 ; officers, 77 ; secrecy, 78 ; work and influence, 78 ; official organ, 79 ; business undertakings, 79 ; educational and social work, 80 ; work for women, 81 ; Magnolia grange, account of, 81-84 ; words of warning to, 85 ; compared with farmers' clubs, 85 ; cooperation with school, 88. Grout farm encampment, 98, 99. Hall, Caroline, 81. Hall, Frank, quoted, 86; 104. Hamilton, John, quoted, 99. High schools, rural, types of, 176-179. Highways, see roads. Hitchcock, Dr., of Amherst, Mass., 91. Hoffman, TJ. J., quoted, 213. Home, farm, 18-38 ; functions and needs of, 12 ; as progress agency, 18 ; conditions, 19 ; average, 19 ; ideal, 22 ; inferior, 23 ; improvement of, 24 ; spiritualizing of, 31 ; as center of interests, 33 ; cooperation with school, 35, 234. House, farm, planning, 19 ; sanitation and ventilation, 21 ; L. H. Bailey, ideas on, 26. Household science, 37 ; necessity of, for farm women, 29 ; course in, 244 ; see also domestic science. Idealism, rural, in Clear Creek Community, 10 ; significance of, 323 ; school's part in stimulating, 323-325. Illinois, country churches in, 41, 63 ; Grange in, 81 ; farmers' institute in, 96 ; college of agriculture, 93 ; school revenue in, 140 ; consolidation in, 160 ; township high schools in, 176 ; legislation for consolidation in, 251, 301 ; country-teacher training in, 262-75. Illinois Federation for Country Life Progress, origin, 275 ; account of, 318-20. Indiana, farmers' institute in, 96 ; consolidation in, 160 ; country-teacher training in, 258 ; school directors' conventions in, 301. Institutions, rural, functions and needs, 12. International Association of Road Congresses, 125. International Congress of Farm Women, 310. International Harvester Co., 384. Iowa, rural population, 8 ; farmers' institute in, 96 ; dragged road, 123 ; consolidation in, 165 ; Page County schools, 296. Isolation, 4 ; effects of, 6-7 ; of teachers, 194. Johnson, A. N., 114. Joyner, J. Y., 168. Kansas, consolidation in, 165 ; country-teacher training in, 256. Kelley, Oliver H., 72 ; photograph, 73. Kern, O. J., 296. King, D. Ward, 118. Knapp, Dr. S. A., corn clubs, 232 ; 307. Knorr, George W., quoted, 159, 175, 181. 4 02 INDEX Labor, agricultural, 24 ; household, 25. Landlordism, increase of, 8. Leadership, country-teacher, for home improvement, 37 ; advantages of teacher for, 189 ; requirements for, 190 ; explanation of true leadership, 192 ; examples of country-teacher leadership, 197-203 ; teacher's leadership as social force, 229. Leadership, rural, extraction of, 2 ; scarcity of, 7, 188 ; kinds, 322 ; function of each kind, 322. Lectures, illustrated, 106. Legislation, need of rural, 13 ; advocated and attained by the Grange. 78 ; needed for country schools, 300 ; agricultural, 306 ; Farmers' Legislative Club in Illinois, 307. Lewiston Consolidated school, 164. Libraries, in the home, 33 ; school libraries, where to get lists for, 356. Lighting, of homes, 32 ; of schoolhouses, 214-16. Literature idealizing country life, list of, 365. Louisiana, consolidation in, 168. . Lubin, David, 312. MacAdam, 122. Macadam road, construction, 122 ; in future, 132. Machinery, household, 28 ; farm, 305. Magazine articles, where to buy, 388. Magnolia Grange, account of, 81. Management, household, 29. Manual Training, in Whatcom County, Washington, 286 ; principles under- lying and list of tools, 372. Massachusetts, farmers' institutes in, 91 ; roads in, 119 ; consolidation in, 159 ; agricultural schools in, 179. Massachusetts College of Agriculture, country church conferences at, 53 ; social work of, 304. McNutt, Matthew B., quoted, 63. Michigan, Grange in, 81; farmers' institute in, 93 ; 96 ; women's institutes in, 97 ; exhibit trains, 99 ; county agricultural schools in, 179 ; county normal schools in, 256 ; training of country teachers in, 260 ; Kalamazoo normal school, 261 ; Hesperia movement, 385. Migration, rural, 1. Minister, country, salaries, 42 ; training of, 51-53 ; leadership of, 51. Minnesota, Y. M. C. A. in, 59 ; Grange in, 81 ; special aid for country schools, 301 ; consolidation in, 164 ; agricultural high schools in, 178 ; Olmsted county map, 183 ; country-teacher training in high schools of, 256 ; directors' meetings in, 301. Missouri, road system of, 118 ; road instruction in, 130 ; country-teacher training in, 259 ; rural supervision in, 296. Moore, Jerry, 232. Morse, Dr. L. D., quoted, 93. Music and farm-life songs, for country schools, list of, 368-71. National Corn Association, 310. National Good Roads Association, 124. National Grange Monthly, 79 ; 88. New England Conference for Rural Progress, 309. Normal schools, state farmers' institutes in, 104 ; country school departments in, 253 ; country-teacher training in, 258 ; outline for rural departments in, 275. Office of Public Roads explained, 113 ; service of, 127 note. Ohio, farmers' institutes in, 92 ; consolidation in, 159 ; transportation in, 172. Organization, rural, lack of, 7. Organizations, farm, function of, 13 ; needs of, 14 ; for business, 306. Outbuildings, school, 228. INDEX 403 Page, Logan Waller, quoted, 111 ; book by, 127 note. Parke, H. H., quoted, 86. Patrons of Husbandry, see Grange. Pictures, for farm home, 33 note ; for school, 363. Plans for a country school building, 340-46. Platform for country life improvement, 16-17. Play, references on, 353. Plunkett, Sir Horace, 320. Politics, in highway work, 114 ; in rural supervision, 284, 292. Population, rural, proportion of, 4 ; decrease in, 8. Presbyterian Department of Church and Country Life, 53 ; platform of, 54 ; surveys of, 55 ; conferences and exhibits, 56 ; summer schools, 56. Press, rural, influence for home improvement, 34 ; discussion of, 100-102 ; newspaper as agency for school improvement, 235. Principles of country community building, 315. Problem, country teacher's, stated, 206 ; method of attack, 206. Program for country schools, 358-60. Provincialism, rural, 7. Radicalism, rural, 6. Ravenel's Road Primer, 130, 393. Recreation, rural, through the church, 44 ; through the school, 232, 233. Religion, rural, 7, 39, 70. Renting, increase of, 8. Revenue, for roads, 119 ; for country schools, 140, 175. Richards. Mrs. Ellen H., 19, 32. Roads, 108-132 ; as a rural progress agency, 5, 108 ; a national issue, 108 ; French road system described, 110 ; organization of American system, 113 ; defects of American system, 114-16 ; suggestions for an improved system, 117 ; road movements and reforms, 118-128 ; legislative improve- ments, 118 ; state and federal aid, 119 ; developments in road science, 119 ; kinds of roads defined, 120-22 ; organizations for, 122-25 ; beautify- ing, 125 ; road education, 126-28 ; country school and the road problem. 129-131 ; courses in road instruction, 130 ; roads of the future, 132. Roberts, Albert E., 57. Rock Creek Church, 41. Rural Life Conference in Virginia, 308. Rural Manhood, 59. Rural problem, see farm problem. Rural school inspectors, 297. Sanitation, of farm homes, 21 ; of schools, 221. School, country, functions of, 14, 133 ; as means of improving homes, 35 ; relation to church, 67 ; cooperation with Grange, 88 ; cooperation with farmers' institutes, 102 ; relation to road problem, 129 ; as agency in solution of farm problem, 133-148 ; consolidated schools, 149-87 ; as a community center, 134 ; first duty, 136 ; advantages for leadership, 136-38 ; leadership, temporary, 138 ; needs of, 139 ; defects of one-teacher system, 140-145 ; revenue, 139 ; decay of, 142 ; future system of, 145 ; fundamental need, 148 ; improving physical environment, 206-229 ; socializing, 229-238 ; redirecting course, 239-246 ; improving administration of, 246-251. School administration, improvement of, 246 ; model country school program, 358 ; seat work discussed, 360. School buildings, defects of. 206 ; models at Cornell College, at Kirksville, Mo., and in Illinois, 209 ; ventilation of, 210 ; lighting, 214 ; interior finish, 216 ; seating, 217 ; sanitation and care, 221 ; plans for, 340-46 ; furnishings and equipment for, 346-50. School, course of study, household science in, 37, 244 ; road education in, 129 ; in John Swaney School, 156 ; redirection of, 230-246 ; agriculture in, 179, 243 ; rural sociology in, 245 ; helps on course of study, 350-58 ; 404 INDEX pictures for, 363 ; industrial exhibits, 351 ; country life literature for, 365 ; farm-life songs for, 368 ; domestic science equipment for, 373 ; constructive problems in school subjects, 378-83. School grounds, improvement of, 223 ; what to plant on, 225 ; walks and fences, 227 ; outbuildings, 228. School, social aspects, 229-238 ; teacher's personal leadership, 229 ; boys' and girls' clubs, 230 ; schoolhouse meetings, 232 ; parents' clubs, 234 ; • function of newspapers, exhibits and educational excursions in, 235 ; country life clubs, 237 ; cooperation with other agencies, 238. Seat work in country schools, 360-63. Smith Agricultural School, 179. Sociology, rural, needed by country teachers, 254 ; outline of course in, 336-40. Soil renovation work, Dr. Knapp's, 307. Southern Good Roads, 128. State, chief function of, 13. State aid, for roads, 119 ; for consolidation, 301 ; for one-room schools, 301. Summary of book, 326. Supervision of country schools, importance of, 281 ; difficulties, 281 ; systems, 286 ; methods of selecting county superintendents, 287 ; qualifications required of, 288 ; increasing efficiency of system, 289 ; rural supervision as a profession, 290 ; salaries of county superintendents, 290, 296 ; political influence, 292, 298 ; proper method of selecting rural supervisors, 294 ; leadership of county superintendents, 295 ; assistance for, 297 ; chief need, 298 ; duty of teachers to superintendents, 300. Surveys, rural, 55. System, country school, defects of, 140 ; fundamental need of, 148, 280 ; French highway, 110 ; American highway system, 113 ; rural supervision, 286. Swaney, Mr. and Mrs. John, 159. Swaney, John, school, referred to, 9 ; account of, 150-6. Tearhers, country, responsibility for home improvement, 36 ; relation to churcn question, 67 ; as Grange organizers, 88 ; cooperation with farmers' institute, 105 ; relation to road question, 131 ; overwork of, 143 ; in John Swaney School, 156 ; duty concerning consolidation, 187 ; leadership of, 188-204, 229 ; difficulties of, 193 ; tribute to, 195 ; examples of leader- ship of, 196 ; teacher's problem stated, 206 ; training of, for country schools, 252-80 ; helps and sources for, 350-58. Teachers, country, training of, 252-80 ; need for proper preparation 252 • necessity for special training of, 252 ; kind of training needed, 254 ; training of, in high schools, 255 ; in county normal schools, 256 ; in state normal schools, 258 ; course of study for, 263 ; new spirit of, 273 ; outline for rural departments in state normal schools, 275 ; trained teachers not only need of school, 280 ; outlines of special courses for the training of country teachers, 329-40 ; list of books for, 374 ; list of constructive problems for country teachers, 376-383. Tenantry, growth and percentage of, 8 ; effects of, 8. Townshend, Dr. N. S., 92. Township High School, in Illinois, 176. Township unit of school administration, 300. Transportation, in John Swaney school, 155 ; for consolidated schools, 171-174. Trees, for school grounds, 225 ; planting along highways, 125. Tuition, in country districts, 175. Unity, among churches, 69. Ventilation, of farm houses, 21 ; of school wagons, 173 ; of schoolhouses 210-214. ' Warning to the Grange, 85. INDEX 405 Washington, consolidation in, 166 ; country-teacher training in, 261 ; directors' conventions in, 301. Waste, in one-teacher school system, 140, 145, 175 ; in consolidated schools, 181. Wells, schoolhouse, 223. Wells, George Frederick, quoted, 62. Wilson, Dr. Warren H., 53. Wilson, Oliver, 88. Wisconsin, farmers' institute in, 93 ; county agricultural schools in, 179 ; county normal schools in, 256 ; rural school inspector in, 297 ; state aid to country schools in, 301 ; school directors' conventions, 301. Women, farm, education of, 29 ; in community affairs, 30 ; work of the Grange for, 80 ; institutes for, 97 ; conference of, 310. Youker, H. S., quoted, 257. Young Men's Christian Association, County Work of, 57-60 ; organization, 57 ; function, 58 ; extent of, 58 ; kinds of activity, 59 ; official magazine, 58, Young Women's Christian Association, 60. NOV 18 1912