Rook *£ _£__ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/schoolarchitectu01barn <7 %%!$ffl$£Cy'ii!l/i£9Jy% 375 " Movable Stand or Easel 375 " Table convertible into Blackboard .... 374 Directions for making black plaster 376 Ingraham's Composition for black surface 375 Slate Blackboard 376 Canvas Blackboard 376 Directions for making Crayons 376 Desks, Seats, and Chairs for Scholars Illustration- — Plan of Desk, with seat attached, for one or two scholars, made of wood 91,236 Plan of Desk with seat attached, with iron ends or support 120,205 Plan of Desk, with wood ends or support . . 91 " " used in Providence 236 " " Eliot's School, Boston 200 " cast iron ends — Kimball . 120 " " Boston Latin School 201 " " Wales' . . 202 " " Ross' . . .205 " " Mott's . . 105 Plan of a Chair with cast iron support — Mott's 105 " " Providence . 239 * " Wales' . . 202 " " Kimballs' . 115 " " Ross' . . 205 Movable Desk and Seat used in Providence . 250 Primary School Bench used in Boston . . 201 Primary School or Sand Desk used in New York 104 Boston Primary School Chair 201 Gallery for Infant or Primary School. . 95 104 Desks, &c. for Teachers 272 Illustration. — Plans of &c 272 3. Regulations for the use and Preservation of School-houses, Furniture, <5fc 391 Rules adopted by School Committees in Rhode Island . . .391 Regulations in Manual of Public School Society of N. York . 392 Regulations in Chauncy-Hall School, Boston 396 Mr. Thayer's Remarks respecting 398 4. Dedicatory Exercises 402 School celebration in Salem, Mass . 402 Address by George B. Emerson 402 " G. F. Thayer 405 Dedication at Pawtucket, Rhode Island . 408 Address of President Wayland 408 Address of Rev. Mr. Osgood 414 Dedication of High School in Cambridge, Mass 417 Address of President Everett 41ft 5. Priced Catalogue of Books on Education, Apparatus, Maps, mmon school^ can testify to the narrow dimensions',, and low ceiling of the school" VENTILATION. 47 rooms, and to the discomfort arising from the close, stagnant, offen- sive atmosphere, which they were obliged to breathe. Who does not remember the comparative freshness and vigor of mind and body with which the morning's study and recitations were begun, and the languor and weariness of body, the confusion of mind, the dry skin, the flushed cheek, the aching head, the sickening sensations, the unnatural demand for drink, the thousand excuses to get out of doors, which came along in succession as the day advanced, and espe- cially in a winter's afternoon, when the overheated and unrenewed atmosphere had become obvious to every sense ? These were nature's signals of distress, and who can forget the delicious sensations with which her holy breath, when admitted on the occasional opening of the door, would visit the brow and face, and be felt all along the revi- talized blood, or the newness of life with which nerve, muscle, and mind were endued by free exercise in the open air at the recess, and the close of the school? Let any one who is sceptical on this point visit the school of his own district, where his own children perhaps are condemned to a shorter allowance of pure air than the criminals of the State, and he cannot fail to see in the pale and wearied countenances of the pupils, the languor and uneasiness manifested, especially by the younger children, and exhaustion and irritability of the teacher, a de- monstration that the atmosphere of the room is no longer such as the comfort, health and cheerful labor of both teacher and pupils require. In this way the seeds of disease are sown broadcast among the young, and especially among teachers of delicate health. " In looking back," says the venerable Dr. Woodbridge in a communication on school-houses to the American Institute of Instruction, " upon the languor of fifty years of labor as a teacher, reiterated with many a weary day, I attribute a great proportion of it to mephetic air ; nor can I doubt, that it has compelled many worthy and promising teachers to quit the employment. Neither can I doubt, that it has been the great cause of their subsequently sickly habits and untimely decease."' A physician in Massachusetts, selected two schools, of nearly the- same number of children, belonging to families of the same condition of life, and no causes, independent of the circumstances of their sev- eral school-houses, were known to affect their health. One house- was dry and properly ventilated — the other damp, and not ventilated. In the former, during a period of forty-five days, five scholars were- absent from sickness to the amount in the whole of twenty days. In the latter, during the same period of time and from the same cause, nineteen children were absent to an amount in all of one hundred and forty-five days, and the appearance of the children not thus detained by sickness indicated a marked difference in their condition as to health. The necessity of renewing the atmosphere, does not arise solely from the consumption of the oxygen, and the constant generation of carbonic acid, but from the presence of other destructive agents, and impurities. There is carburetted hydrogen, which Dr. Dunglinson in his Physiology, characterizes, "as very depressing to the vita! unctions. Even when largely diluted with atmospheric air, it occa 48 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. sions vertigo, sickness, diminution of the force and velocity Oi the pulse, reduction of muscular vigor and every symptom of di- minished power." There is also sulphuretted hydrogen, which the same author says, in its pure state, kills instantly, and in its dilu- ted state, produces powerful sedative effects on the pulse, muscles, and whole nervous system. There are also offensive and destructive impurities arising from the decomposition of animal and vegeta- ble matter in contact with the stove, or dissolved in the evaporating dish. The objects to be attained are — the removal of such impurities, as have been referred to, and which are constantly generated, wher- ever there is animal life and burning fires, and the due supply of that vital principle, which is constantly consumed by breathing and com- bustion. The first can be in no other way effectually secured, but by making provision for its escape into the open air, both at the top and the bottom of the room; and the second, but by introducing a current of pure air from the outside of the building, warmed in win- ter by a furnace, or in some other mode, before entering the room. The two processes should go on together — i. e. the escape of the vitiated air from within, and the introduction of the pure air from without. The common fireplace and chimney secures the first ob- ject very effectually, for there is always a strong current of air near the floor, towards the fire, to support combustion, and supply the par- tial vacuum in the chimney occasioned by the ascending column of smoke and rarified air, and in this current the carbonic acid and other impurities will be drawn into the fire and up the chimney. But there is such an enormous waste of heat in these fireplaces, and such a constant influx of cold air through every crevice in the imperfect fit- tings of the doors and windows, to supply the current always ascend- ing the chimney, that this mode of ventilation should not be relied on. The common mode of ventilating, by opening a window or door, although better than none, is also imperfect and objectionable ; as the cold air falls directly on the head, neck, and other exposed parts of the body, when every pore is open, and thus causes discomfort, catarrh, and other more serious evils, to those sitting near, besides reducing the temperature of the whole room too suddenly and too low. This mode, however, should be resorted to at recess. There should be one or more openings, expressly for ventilation, both at the top and the bottom of the room, of not less than twelve inches square, capable of being wholly or partially closed by a slide of wood or metal, and, if possible, these openings, or the receptacle into which they discharge, should be connected with the chimney or smoke-flue, in which there is already a column of heated air. By an opening in or near the ceiling, the warmer impurities (and air when heated, and especially when over-heated, will retain noxious gases longer) will pass off. By an opening near the floor, into the smoke- flue, the colder impurities (and carbonic acid, and the other noxious gases, which at first rise, soon diffuse themselves through the at- mosphere, cool, and subside towards the floor) will be drawn in to supply the current of heated air and smoke ascending the chimney . VENTILATION. ^g These openings, however, may let cold air in, and will not always secure the proper ventilation of a school-room, unless there is a cur- rent of pure warm air flowing in at the same time. Whenever there is such a current there will be a greater economy, as well as a more rapid and uniform diffusion of the heat, by inserting the outlet for the vitiated air near the floor, and at the greatest distance from the inlet of warm air. The ventilation of factories, mines, reading rooms, and halls in- tended for large assemblies of people, has received, of late, much at- tention from men of science and large practical views in England. In factories, the large apartments are heated by steam or hot water pipes, and the air which has become vitiated by breathing and per- spiration, is drawn out by a fan-ventilator. This contrivance resem- bles somewhat our common fanning mill, or machine for winnowing grain. The impure air of the room is drawn into the fan to supply that which is condensed by the revolving wings, and forced out through a pipe leading into the open air. In the House of Commons, the rapid change of air is effected by means of an artificial draft in a chimney erected on the outside of the building, and in which a large fire is kept burning, for this pur- pose solely. The fresh air from without is first introduced through a perforated wall into a chamber below, connected by doors with an apartment containing the hot water apparatus for warming the house. The pure air can chen be warmed or not, according to the season of the year, before it passes into the apartments above. This is done, not by rising in a large volume, through one or two openings, but im- perceptibly through a large number of very small holes in the floor. The air thus admitted, after becoming vitiated by respiration and combustion, escapes through apertures concealed in the ornaments of the ceiling into a common flue or receptacle above, which is con- nected by a descending pipe with the chimney noticed before. In warm weather, the air, before passing into the house, is cooled and freshened by jets of water playing through it, and by the melting of bags of ice suspended in the chamber below. The rooms of the Wellington Club, Liverpool, are warmed and ventilated in nearly the same way. The air from without is first cleansed from all particles of coal dust, and other impurities, by being passed through water, and then brought to the right tempera- ture by steam pipes in the air-chamber below. It is then forced into the room by a revolving fan through a band of minutely perforated zinc, which skirts the large apartments. Concealed in the ornament- al work of the ceiling, are openings communicating with an air- chamber above, in which is a chimney shaft, and in the draft pro- duced by a fire in this, the vitiated air is carried off so rapidly that the odor of a small quantity of rose-water poured into the air-cham- ber below, is, in a few seconds, perceptible in every part of the room. The principles involved in the expensive modes of ventilation above described, can be carried out in any apartment heated by a fur- nace or other modes of warming pure air before it is introduced 4 50 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. which will be treated of in speaking of the temperature of school rooms. There is a mischievous error prevailing, that if a room is kept at a low temperature there is no need of ventilation. Dr. Alcott men- tions the case of a teacher, who when asked if she did not find it diffi- cult to keep her room ventilated, replied, " not at all, it is one of the coldest rooms in the city." The necessity of ventilation arises from he consumption of the oxygen and the generation and accumu- ation of carbonic acid principally in breathing, and both of these pro- cesses can go on and do go on, in a cold room, as well as in a warm one, if human beings are collected in it, and goes on rapidly and fatally ac- cording to the number of persons and the size and closeness of the apartment. Dr. Arnott, in his work on " warming and ventilating," mentions a striking instance of popular ignorance with respect to this subject, and of a mischievous practice founded upon that ignorance among some poor girls in Buckinghamshire, England, who gain- ed their livelihood by lace-makitvg. To save the expense of fire they were wont in winter to choosy among the rooms belonging to their families, the smallest which would contain to the number of twenty or thirty of them, and then to congregate and keep them- selves warm at their work by breathing. The atmosphere of the room, as might have been expected by any one acquainted with its consti- tution and the process going on, although unperceived by themselves, soon became exceedingly offensive to a stranger entering, as well as highly injurious to them. The pale faces, broken health and early deaths of many of these ignorant self-destroyers were the identical re- sults, a little more remote, which are caused by the atmosphere of our school-rooms, churches, manufactories and other places where men women or children, are crowded together. These results are quick- ened in an overheated atmosphere, because such air has less oxygen, and retains the impure gases longer. Still the scenes of death and misery in the Black Hole of Calcutta would have taken place, if the same prison-house had been in Greenland. 5. Temperature. The means of producing, diffusing and duly regulating artificial heat in a school-room, is, in a climate like ours, another of the indis- pensable conditions of health, comfort and successful labor. To effect this, the structure, must not be " a summer-house for winter .residence," but be calculated to keep out the cold wind and espe- cially to prevent its entering at cracks, and defects in the doors, win- dows, floors, and plastering, so as to fall suddenly and directly only on the feet, neck, or other sensitive and exposed portions of the body. Fuel of the right kind, in the right condition, in suitable quantity and in due season must be provided. The best modes of consuming it so as to extract its heat and diffuse it equally through all parts of the .room and "„i,ain it as long as is safe, must be resorted to. The means of re^ mating it, so as to keep up a uniform temperature in different ,paits of the room, and to graduate it to the varying circumstance s of a WARMING. g l school at different periods of the day, and in different states of the weather, must not be overlooked. The open stove with large pipe, not bending till the horizontal part is carried ten or twelve feet above the heads of the children, affords as effectual, economical and unobjectionable a mode of consuming the fuel and disseminating the heat as any stove of this kind. It is far superior in point of economy to the open fireplace, as ordinari- ly constructed, in which near seven eights of the heat evolved ascends the chimney and only one eighth, or according to Rumford and Frank- lin, only one fifteenth is radiated from the front of the fire into the room. It has to some extent the cheerful light of the open fire, to which habit, and association have attached us, and the advantages of the latter, in opening broadly near the floor, and thus drawing in the colder air with the carbonic acid in the current which goes to sustain the combustion and ascend the large pipe of the stove. Unless the common mode of constructing fireplaces and chim- neys can be greatly improved, or the original Franklin fireplace or the double fireplace be substituted, there is no advantage in the open fireplace which cannot be secured in the large open stove. The orig- inal Franklin stove, or fireplace was constructed of cast iron, and by means of a circuitous chimney or smoke flue, which was surround- ed and intersected by air passages, opening at one end out of doors, and at the other into the room, the heat of the fire was retained, and a current of fresh warm air was constantly flowing into the room. This is quite a different thing from the ordinary open fireplace. The double fireplace is a modification of Franklin's plan. It is made from any common fireplace by inserting within it another fireplace made of soap stone, leaving an empty space of about an inch in depth, be- tween the two, so that when finished the back and sides may be hol- low. This hollow space, communicates at one end with the open air by a pipe, and the other opens into the room, on the side of the chim- ney. In this fireplace the advantages of an open fire of wood orcoa can be enjoyed at the same time a current of air is warmed ir the rear of the fire. Various plans have been proposed and adopted, to make the com- mon stove, whether close or open, serviceable in warming pure air before it is thrown into the room. Mr. Woodbridge in his essay on school-houses, describes one as follows : — the stove is inclosed on three sides in a case of sheet iron, leaving a space of two or three inches beneath and around the stove, and as it rises around it becomes warmed before it enters the room at the top of the case. The case is movable so as to allow of the cleaning out of any dust which might collect between it and the stove. Mr. Palmer in his Manual for Teachers, secures the same object by conducting the air from without, into a passage which traverses the bottom of the stove five or six times before it enters the room, and thus becomes warm. In Millar's patent ventilating school-house stove the air is conducted from without, into a chamber below the fire-plate, and after circulating through pipes around the fire, escapes into the room. A more minute description will be given in the second part of this essay. 52 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The same thing can be secured by a similar arrangement connect" ed with stoves for burning arthracite coal. In the Olmsted stove, for instance, the pure air from without can be made to pass in con- tact with the exterior, as well as the interior surface of the radiators and thus be warmed before entering the room. This stove has an advantage, in admiting of the slow combustion of billets of wood in connection with nut or pea coal, and thus maintaining a fire which will keep up a uniform temperature of the proper degree at the cheapest rate. The large radiating surface, which is nothing more than prolonged pipe, conveniently arranged, imbibes and diffuses all the heat evolved by the combustion of the fuel, so that at the point where it enters the chimney, the heat of the pipe is scarcely perceptible. The best mode, however, at the same time of warming and ventila- ting a school-room, especially if it is large, is by pure air heated in a stove or furnace placed in the cellar or a room lower than the one to be warmed. No portion of the room, or the movements of the scholars, or the supervision of the teacher, are encumbered or interrupted by stove or pipe. The fire in such places can be maintained with- out noise and without throwing dust or smoke into the room. The of- fensive odors and impurities of burnt air, or rather of particles of veg- etable or animal matter floating in the air, are not experienced. The heat can be conducted into the room at different points, and is thus diffused so as to secure a uniform summer temperature in every part of it. A room thus heated, even without any special arrangements for this object, will be tolerably well ventilated, for the constant influx of warm pure air into the room will force that which is already in it out at every crack and crevice, and thus reverse the process which is or- dinarily going on in every school-room. By an opening or rather sev- eral small openings into the ceiling, or a flue, which in either case should connect with the outer air, the escape of the impure air will be more effectually secured. But whatever may be the mode of warming adopted, whether bjr open fireplace, or grate, stove for wood or coal, or furnace, the tem- perature of the room should be uniform, and of the proper degree in every part. Not a child should be exposed to sudden and extreme changes of temperature, or compelled when overheated, or at any time, to sit against an inlet of cold air, or, with cold feet. This last is a vi- olation of an indispensable condition of health. To secure a uniform temperature, a thermometer will not only be convenient, but necessary. It cannot be ascertained, for different parts of a room or for thirty or forty persons, differently circumstanced as to heat or cold, or differ- ently employed, some of whom are seated, some standing or changing their position from time to time, without some less variable and uncer- tain standard than the teacher's feelings. However anxious he may be to make every scholar comfortable, he cannot be conscious at all times of the differing circumstances in which they are placed. He is not exposed to the rush of cold air from a broken or loose window, or from cracks in the ceiling, or the floor. He is not roasted by a seat too near the stove. He is not liable to a stagnation of the blood in he feet from want of exercise or an inconvenient bench. Even though WARMING. gg ae were capable of thus sympathizing with, them, the temperature 01 the room after the fire is thoroughly going, and the doors closed, mav pass gradually from 65° to 90° without the change becoming percep- tible. Now though we may breathe freely in such an atmosphere, gradually heated, we cannot pass into the open air 40° or 50° colder, as would be the case on most winter days, and much less receive a current of such air on a portion, and a sensitive portion of the body, without great danger. With a thermometer in the room, the begin- ning and progress of such a change would be indicated, and could be guarded against. In our arrangement for artificial warmth, especially in all stoves for burning anthracite coal, where intense heat is liable to be communi- cated to the iron surface, if we would preserve the purity of the atmos- phere at all degrees of temperature, it is necessary to secure the presence of a certain quantity of moisture. The difference between winds blowing from different quarters, as to health and comfort, is principally owing to the proportion of moisture they contain. When- ever the air has less than its due proportion, it becomes powerfully absorbent of it in every thing with which it comes in contact, whether vegetable or animal. Hence the impression of burnt air, the disagree- able sensation of dryness on the surface of the body, and the delicate membrane of the throat, the shrinking and cracking of furniture, the blight and withering of plants, which are universally experienced in a dry and overheated apartment. Most of these and other effects may be avoided by not overheating the air, but not altogether. There is a difference in the moisture of the atmosphere at different times, without reference to artificial warmth, and however careful we may be to maintain a uniform low temperature in a school-room, we are liable to experience some of the inconveniences above referred to. These can be avoided, even where the room is overheated, by an evap- orating dish supplied with pure water. The water should be frequent- ly changed. The gathering and settling of dirt and other impurities in the vessel containing the water can be guarded against by closing the top except .to admit a suspended linen or cotton cloth, which will absorb the water and give it out again from its exposed surface. 6. Seats and Desks for Scholars. In the construction and arrangement of the seats and desks of a school-room, due regard should be had to the convenience, comfort and health of those who are to occupy them. To secure these ob- jects, they should be made for the young and not for grown persons, and of varying heights, for children of different ages, from four years and under, to sixteen and upwards. They should be adapted to each other and the purposes for which they will be used, such as writing and ciphering, so as to prevent any awkward, incon- venient or unhealthy positions of the limbs, chest or spine. They should be easy of access, so that every scholar can go to and from his seat and change his position, and the teacher can approach each scholar and give the required attention and instruction, without disturbing 54 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. any other person than the one concerned. They should be so arranged as to facilitate habits of attention, take away all temptation and en- couragement to violate the rules of the school on the part of any scholar, and admit of the constant and complete supervision of the whole school by the teacher. Each scholar should be furnished with a seat and desk, properly adapted to each other, as to height and distance, and of varying heights, the seats from nine inches and a half, to fifteen and a half, with desks to correspond) for children of different age or size. The seat should be so made, that the feet of every child when properly seated, can rest on the floor, and the upper and lower part of the leg form a right-angle at the knee ; and the back, whether separated from, or forming part of the adjoining desk behind, should recline to cor- respond with the natural curves of the spine and the shoulders. The seat should be made, as far as possible, like a convenient chair. The desk for a single scholar should be, at least, two feet long (two and a half is better) by eighteen inches wide, with a shelf be- neath for books, and an opening in the backside to receive a slate. The upper surface of the desk, except three or four inches of the most distant portion, should slope one inch in a foot. On the level portion, along the line of the slope there should be a groove to prevent pens and pencils from rolling off, and an opening to receive an inkstand. The top of the inkstand should be on a level with the desk, and be covered by a metallic lid. The end pieces or supporters of the desk should be so made as to interfere as little as possible with sweeping. If the desk is made to accommodate two scholars on one seat, a partition, extending from the floor for four or five inches above the surface of the desk, should separate them, and if possible they should belong to different classes, so that one will be in his seat, while the other is at recitation. The desk should nor be removed from the seat either in distance or height, so far as to require the body, the neck or the chest to be bent forward in a constrained manner, or the elbow or shoulder blades to be painfully elevated whenever the scholar is writing or ciphering. These last positions, to which so many children are forced by the badly constructed seats and desks of our ordinary school-houses, have led not unfrequently to distortions of the form, and particularly to spi- nal affections of the most distressing character. Such marked results are principally confined to females of delicate constitutions and stu- dious and sedentary habits. While boys and young men engage in active exercise and sport during the recess and at the close of the school, and thus give relief to the overstrained and unnaturally applied muscles, and restore the spring or elasticity to the cushion-like substance which gives flexibility to the spinal column ; girls ex- ercise less in the open air, indulge but little in those sports which give variety of motions to the joints and muscles, and are confined to duties and studies which require their being seated out of school hours too much and too long at any one time. The effects of the posture above described, in writing or ciphering SEATS AND DESKS FOR PUPILS. 55 are increased and even induced by their being compelled to lean against the narrow edge of the writing desk, when their faces are turned to- wards the teacher. This edge comes against the weakest portion of the back, and the inconvenience or pain forces those exposed to it, to find relief by resting the elbows on the desk, and thus giving an un- natural elevation to the shoulder-blades — or if no support of the kind is provided, they lean against each other, support the back by closing the hands over the knee, or resort to some other awkward or unnatural position, which if long continued will cause more or less of structural deviation, amounting not unfrequently to positive disease or deformity. Dr. Woodward in a communication appended to Mr. Mann's Re- port, remarks : — " High and narrow seats are not only extremely un- comfortable for the young scholar, tending constantly to make him restless and noisy, disturbing his temper and preventing his attention to his books ; but they have also a direct tendency to produce deformity of his limbs. As the limbs of children are pliable or flexible, they are made to grow out of shape by such awkward and unnatural positions. " Seats without backs have an equally unfavorable influence upon the spinal column. If no rest is afforded the backs of children while seated, they almost necessarily assume a bent and crooked position. Such a position often assumed and long continued, tends to that defor- mity which has become extremely common with children in modern times ; and leads to diseases of the spine in innumerable instances, especially with delicate female children." Dr. J. V. C. Smith, of Boston, in his Anatomical Class Book, says :— " There is a radical defect in the seats of our school-rooms. Malformation of the bones, narrow chests, coughs ending in consump- tion and death in middle life, besides a multitude of minor ills, have often had their origin in the school-room." Again, " To these wretch- ed articles, viz. badly constructed seats and writing desks, are we to look in some measure for the cause of so many distortions of the bones, spinal diseases, chronic affections now so prevalent throughout the country." Dr. Warren, in his admirable lecture before the American Institute of Instruction, in 1830, which should be in the hand of every teacher and parent, says : — " In the course of my observation, I have been able to satisfy myself that about one half the young females brought up as they are at present, undergo some visible and obvious change of structure ; that a considerable number are the subjects of great and permanent deviations, and that not a few entirely lose their health from the manner in which they are reared." And among the causes which lead to such mournful results, he enumerates the unnatural elevation of the right shoulder, the habit of bending the neck, and the stooping; posture of the body when engaged in writing, or similar exercises at. school. No child should under any circumstances be long, or frequently ex- posed to any one or all of these causes of discomfort, deformity or dis- ease. Seats and desks can be as easily and cheaply made of different heights, and for convenient and healthy postures, as they are now, without reference to any such considerations. If desks must be at- 56 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. tached to sides uf the room, which is objectionable in respect to ease of supervision, habits of study, as well as the morals, manners and health of children, then let the seats be provided with a movable back like those in rail-road cars and in no case be made for more than two. The kind of back referred to, is cheap and convenient for desks con- structed and arranged on any other plan. It not only affords a proper support to the back, but. will allow of the scholars standing up behind he seat for reading or recitation, or even for a frequent change of po- sition which is so much overlooked in schools, and by students of every grade. No position, if long continued, is more irksome or more unhealthy, or at least operates so insidiously, and yet directly to derange the circulation and other vital functions, as sitting, especially upright, or with the neck and chest bent forward. To young children, it is cruel in the extreme, and wars directly with all healthy and sym- metrical growth, besides ruining the temper, and imparting a lasting distaste to study, the school-room, and the teacher. Little children are made to suffer, and many of them permanently, from being forced to sit long in one position, without any occupation for mind or muscles, on seats without backs and so high that their feet cannot touch, much less rest on the floor. Nothing but the fear of punishment, or its frequent application, can keep a live child still under such circumstances, and even that, cannot do it long. Who has not an aching remembrance of the torture of this unnatural confinement;, and the burning sense of injustice, for punishment inflicted for some unavoidable manifestation of uneasiness and pain ! Even though the seats are as comfortable as can be made, young children cannot and should not be kept still upon them long at a time, and never without something innocent or useful to do, and under no circumstances, lon- ger than twenty-five or thirty minutes in one position, nor so long at one study, and that with frequent and free exercise in the open air. To accomplish this, great and radical changes in the views and prac- tice of teachers, parents and the community must take place. No where, in the whole department of practical education, is a gradual change more needed, or should be sooner commenced. If school-houses are to consist of but one room for all the children, regard must be had to the varying circumstances of the winter and summer school. In the former, the larger and older children predom- inate, and in the latter, the younger and smaller, and yet in both, the younger and smaller are sadly neglected, not only in matters of in- struction, but in physical comfort. In summer, they, or at least, a por- tion of them, are seated " beyond soundings," on seats intended and occupied by the older scholars in winter ; and in winter, they are packed away on smooth, high, backless slabs, and in a roasting proximity to the fire. Now there is no way of remedying this state of things, but by having a school-room large enough to accommodate all who may attend, and to have seats and appropriate desks for all the children, be they young or old, large or small. In the winter, let so many of the seats and desks for the smaller children as are not wanted be re- moved to the attic, or the wood-room, and their places supplied by some for the older, and in the summer let this arrangement be reversed. ARRANGEMENTS FOR TEACHER. 57 The most effectual way of securing appropriate accommodations for children of different age and size, is to have two or more school- rooms, one of which shall be for the younger, and be fitted up accord- ingly. At one end, with no windows in the wall, should be a plat- form of seats rising one above the other, on which the children can be arranged at suitable times, for inspection as to cleanliness, for man- ual exercise, and for all simultaneous exercises, such as singing, simple operations of mental arithmetic, reading of scriptural and other moral stories, and lessons on real objects, pictures and other visible illustrations. The gallery is an economical arrangement in respect to space and expense, and enables the children to fix their eye more easily on the teacher, and the teacher to observe, explain, be heard, and direct more perfectly every movement of the children, and both teacher and children, to profit by the great principle of social sympa- thy, and imitation. Along the sides of the room should be a pas- sage at least two feet wide, and then a desk, so made as to hold a thin layer of sand, and receive a slate for each scholar, no matter how young. The center of the room should be unencumbered with fixtures of any kind, so as to allow of the arrangement of the school into drafts or classes, and the free movements of the children when ne- cessary. Whatever may be the intellectual and moral exercises of schools for small children, they should be varied and in such a man- ner as to require frequent and varied physical movements — both change of position and place, from sitting to standing, from desk to gallery, marching, clapping of hands, and other exercises of the joints and mus- cles which shall bring them all into play, singing, &c. Even with this diversity of occupation in doors, young children, whose healthy and symmetrical growth is governed by the great laws of constant and cheerful motion, require gamboling, frolicsome exercises for ten or fifteen minutes, as often as every hour they are mentally occupied, in the open air, if it is pleasant, or in the woodshed or other cover- ed building, in damp or rainy weather. A play-ground, safe from all exposure of the health and limbs of children, large enough to allow of trundling the hoop, and of free exercise of the limbs, supplied with a circular swing, &c, is an indispensable appendage to a school where children are to be reared with vigorous and symmetrical bodies 7. Arrangements for Teacher. The arrangements for the teacher should be such, that he can sur vey the whole school at a glance, address his instruction, when neces- sary, to the whole school, approach each scholar in his seat without incommoding any other, and conduct the recitations most convenient- ly to himself, and with the least interference with the study of the school. With this view, his seat and desk should be placed in front of the school on a raised platform ; the aisles should be so arranged as to separate each range of the scholars' seats ; and an open space, or appropriate seats, should be provided for the reciting classes, in front or the side of his desk ; or what would be better, a recitation room , 58 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. opening from the platform, or else a special platform in the rear of the school. The teacher's desk should be sufficiently large, and appropri- ately fitted up, to accommodate his books of reference and apparatus. The recitation room, or place for recitation, wherever it may be, should be furnished with blackboards, stands for hanging maps and diagrams, and all appropriate apparatus. If a platform or area for recitation is provided in the rear of the chool, the attention of the scholars while reciting will be less likely to be disturbed, as the ear only will be attracted by what is going on, and the teacher can overlook the school, while conducting the recita- tions. The teacher should not, however, occupy any one position perma- nently, or the mischievous scholars will shape thek - devices for concealment accordingly, and a position in the rear of the school, ex- cept for convenience in recitation, is better calculated to detect than prevent transgression. The eye of the teacher, that great instrument of moral discipline, cannot invite confidence, or meet the answering confidence of the pupil. 8. Apparatus. No school-room can be considered complete which is not provided with such fixtures, and means of visible illustration, as will aid the teacher in cultivating in his pupils, habits of correct observation, com parison, and classification, and in making the knowledge communi- cated by books orally, accurate, vivid and practical. One blackboard, at least, is indispensably necessary. This should be so placed, as to be easily accessible, and in full view of the whole school. The larger it is, the more useful it can be made. The board should be free from knots, or cracks, well seasoned, smoothly planed, and then rubbed with sand-paper, and painted black, without varnish. On the lower side should be placed a trough to receive the chalk or crayon, tin or brass holders, (called port-crayons) a rubber of cloth, wash-leather, or sponge. If the board is broad, or in two or more parts, it should be kept from warping or opening by cleates of iron or wood on the back side or ends. If there is but one blackboard, it should be movable, so as to be used in different parts of the room. For this purpose, it must be sus- pended on hooks, or rings inserted in the upper edge, or what is bet- ter, on a movable frame, like the painter's easel. It is better, and will add but little to the expense, to provide, in addition to the large one, directly back of the teacher, two or three smaller and portable ones. Every recitation room should be lined with black boards. Each desk should be furnished with a slate, pencil holder and sponge. A slate to every scholar, young or old, is, if possible, more necessary than a blackboard. It is a miserable economy to withhold slates from children on account of their liability to be bro- ken. The saving in the wear and tear of books, effected by the use APPARATUS. 59 of slates, will more than pay for the latter, especially if they are set in a good oak frame, fastened tightly around the corners by a band of sheet iron, or even by cord or wire. The iron or wire, if used, should not project beyond the surface of the frame, or it will scratch the desk. The most appropriate place for the slate is an opening in the backside of the desk. The pencil holder can be made of brass or tin, about the size of a quill, with two slits at the end into which a short peice of pencil can be put. Without such a holder, no child should be allowed to use a short pencil. He will immediately ac- quire the habit of contracting his fingers around it, so as to unfit him- self for holding a pen properly. If pencil holders are not provided, a long pencil should be, and the brittleness of the common slate pen- cil can be obviated by rolling it up in strong paper covered with paste. When dry, the paper and pencil can be shaped like an ordinary lead pencil. With the blackboard and slate, there is no study from the simplest rudiments up to the highest department of science which cannot be il- lustrated and taught to better advantage, 'than without them, while there are some to whose attainment they are absolutely indispensable. It is painful to go into our schools, and see how many little children are trying to sit still, with no occupation for the hands, the eye, or the mind, who might be innocently and usefully employed, in a sand desk, or with a slate and pencil, in printing the alphabet, combining letters, syllables, or words, copying the outlines of angles, circles, sol- ids, or maps, diagrams, real objects ; thus acquiring knowledge as well as correctness of eye and rapidity of hand, which will be of great use afterwards in learning to write and draw with the pen on paper. It will be found invariably that children, who begin early with the use of the slate, and the blackboard, in writing, drawing, spelling, arithmetic, grammar, are more accurate, rapid and practical scholars than others much older and with better opportunities in other respects, who have not been accustomed to their use. The above articles of apparatus may be considered indispensable, and should not be left to the chance supply of parents. But there are other means in training the senses and forming correct elementary ideas which should be provided as far as practicable. A clock, which strikes at stated intervals, is indispensable to a just distribution of the teacher's time and attention among the various classes and studies of the school, and may be made highly useful in imparting a correct elementary knowledge, of the comparative lengths of different portions of time, from a second to a century, and so of the chronology of the human race. The measure of an inch, foot, yard, and rod, marked off on the edge of the blackboard, will give a correct and visible standard of distance, to which all statements, or references in the lessons can be brought to the test. The cardinal points accurately ascertained by the compass, paint- ed on the ceiling, or on the teacher's platform, and associated by fre- quent references of the teacher, with the parts of the heavens in which the sun rises and sets, will be of incalculable service in the study of QO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. geography. In this connection, and as introductory to drawing, plans of the school-house, playground, village-green, district, town, and county, will lead children to an accurate conception of states, continents, the earth, and the system of which it forms a part. The ideas connected with the subjects last named, cannot be properly un- derstood without a globe, tellurium, orrery and similar apparatus. Counters, or flat pieces of wood about an inch long and half an inch wide, a numeral frame, real measures of every kind, linear, superfi- cial, solid and liquid, weights, models and diagrams of the geometri- cal forms, and solids, — articles which the pupil can touch, see, exam- ine, experiment with, copy on the slate or blackboard, will prove invaluable helps in teaching children to form correct elementary ideas of number, size, distance, form, and measurement. The study of geography and history can be made far more useful and interesting by pictures representing the great curiosities of nature and art, views of cities, and other places memorable for great events, the manners, dress, edifices, ruins &c, peculiar to each country. One set of plates, could answer very well for all the schools of a so- ciety or town, and pass in succession through the several districts. For the study of the natural sciences, and there is no study which can be made more useful or delightful in the hands of a judicious teacher, cheap collections of minerals, and specimens or drawings of plants and animals, would not only be useful but necessary. In this department the children could collect their own cabinets, and an inter- change of specimens between the different districts and towns be ef- fected. Some of the hot days of summer had better be spent in the fields, or the woods in search of the beautiful things which God has scattered over the earth and through it, with a teacher, who has a taste for natural science, than in the hot, unshaded school-house of many districts. The Magic Lantern in almost any of its improved forms, and espe- cially in Carpenter's, is accompanied with diagrams to illustrate as- tronomy, natural history, cities, landscapes, costumes, &c, which bring the objects and truths represented so vividly before the younsr, that they never can forget them. The inefficiency of school education of every name, is mainly ow- ing to the want of such cheap and simple aids as have been briefly alluded to above, and of methods of instruction based upon, and adapted to them, begun early and continued throughout the whole course. Hence much of the knowledge of early life is forgotten, and more of it lies in dead, useless, unassimilated masses, in the memory. It does not originate, or mould, or color the meditations of the closet, and is not felt in the labor of the field, the workshop, or any of the departments of practical life. The knowledge then found' availa- ble is the result of self-education, the education attained after leaving school by observation, experience and reading. Under any opportu- nities of school education, this self-education must be the main re- liance, and the great object of all regular school arrangements should be to wake up the spirit, and begin the work of self-culture as early and widely as possible. APPARATUS AND LIBRARY. Q\ 9. Library. The school-house is the appropriate depository of the district libra- ry, and a library of well selected books, open to the teacher, children, and adults generally of the district, for reference and reading, gives completeness to the permanent means of school and self-education, which can be embraced in the arrangement of a school-house. The teacher should be able to extend his own acquaintance with the studies pursued, and to illustrate and explain any name, date, event, terms of art or science, or other allusion or question which might occur in the regular lesson, or which the natural curiosity of children, if encouraged, would suggest. Above all should he be furnished with the best books which have been published on education, and es- pecially with that class which have special reference to the duties and labors of the school-room, and have been prepared by experienced and successful teachers. Children, even the youngest, should be provided with such books, adapted to their age and capacity, as will invest their studies with new interest, help them to observe and understand what they see and hear by the road side, in the field and in their daily conversations, and form a high standard to aim at in manners, morals and intellectual attain- ments. Many an idle hour would thus be redeemed, and the process of self-culture be commenced, which would go on long after their school-life was ended. The farmer, mechanic, manufacturer, and in fine, all the inhabit- ants of a district, of both sexes, and in every condition and employ- ment of life, should have books which will shed light and dignity on their several vocations, help them better to understand the history and condition of the world, and country in which they live, their own nature, and their relations and duties to society, themselves and their Creator. All that is wanted to fill the community with diligent and profitable readers among all classes, is to gratify the natural curios- ity of every child " to know," to convert that curiosity into a well regulated taste, and confirm that taste into a habit, by easy access to a library of appropriate books. Without such books the instruction of the school-room does not be- come practically useful, and the art of printing is not made available to the poor as well as the rich. The rich can always command more or less of the valuable works which the teeming press of the day is throwing off, but the poor must depend for their reading, on such books as public libraries, easily accessible, or the benevolence of more favored individuals, may supply. Wherever such libraries have existed, especially in connection with the advantages of superior schools, and an educated ministry they have- called forth talent and virtue, which would otherwise have been buried in poverty and ignorance, to elevate, bless, and purify so- ciety. The establishment of a library in every school-house, will bring thfe mighty instrument of good books to act more directly and more broadly on the entire population of a state, than it has ever yet 62 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. done, for i will open the fountains of knowledge without money, and without price, to the humble and the elevated, the poor and the rich. 10. Yard and External Arrangements. The external arrangement of a school-house, as connected with its attractiveness and convenience, and the health, manners, morals, love of study and proficiency of the pupils, must not be overlooked. The building should not only be located on a dry, healthy and plea- sant site, but be surrounded by a yard, of never less than half an acre, protected by a neat and substantial inclosure. This yard should be large enough in front, for all to occupy in common for recreation and sport, and planted with oaks, elms, maples, and other shady trees, tastefully arranged in groups, and around the sides. In the rear of the building, it should be divided by a high, and close fence, and one por- tion, appropriately fitted up, should be assigned exclusively for the use of the bovs, and the other, for the girls. Over this entire arrange- ment, the most perfect neatness, seclusion, order and propriety should be enforced, and every thing calculated to defile the mind, or wound the delicacy or the modesty of the most sensitive, should receive at- tention in private, and be made a matter of parental advice and co-operation. In cities and populous districts, particular attention should be paid to the playground, as connected with the physical education of chil- dren. In the best conducted schools, the playground is now regard- ed as the uncovered school-room, where the real dispositions, and habits of the pupils are more palpably developed, and can be more wisely trained, than under the restraint of an ordinary school-room. These grounds are provided with circular swings, and are large enough for various athletic games. To protect the children in their sports in inclement weather, in some places, the school-house is built on piers; in others, the basement story is properly fitted up, and thrown open as a playground ; and in others, the wood, or coal shed is built large for that purpose. Under any circumstances the school-room should not be used for any other, than purposes of study and conver- sation. An appropriate place for fuel should be provided, which, it may be well to remark, should be supplied of the right quality, in proper quantity, in due season, and in the right condition for being used. Every school-house should have its own well, with suitable arrange- ments for drink, and for the cleanliness of the pupils. A bell is always found an essential help in securing punctual at tendance, and determining when the time of recess begins and ends. III. PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. In determining the details of construction and arrangement for a school-house, due regard must, of course, be had to the varying cir- cumstances of country and city, of a large and a small number of scholars, of schools of different grades, and of different systems of instruction. 1. In by far the largest number of country districts as they are now situated, there will be but one school-room, with a smaller room for recitations and other purposes needed. This must be arranged and fitted up for scholars of all ages, for the varying circumstances of a summer and of a winter school, and for other purposes, religious and secular, than those of a school, and in every particular of con- struction and arrangement, the closest economy of material and labor must be studied. A union of two or more districts for the purpose of maintaining in each a school for the younger children, and in the center of the associated districts a school for the older children of all, or, what would be better, a consolidation of two or more districts into one, for these and all other school purposes, would do away with the almost insuperable difficulties which now exist in country districts, in the way of comfortable and attractive school-houses, as well as of thoroughly governed and instructed schools. 2. In small villages, or populous country districts, at least two school-rooms should be provided, and as there will be other places for public meetings of various kinds, each room should be appropriated and fitted up exclusively for the use of the younger or the older pupils. It is better, on many accounts, to have two schools on the same floor, than one above the other. 3. In large villages and cities, a better classification of the schools can be adopted, and, of course, more completeness can be given to the construction and arrangement of the buildings and rooms appro- priated to each grade of schools. This classification should embrace at least three grades — viz. Primary, with an infant department ; Sec- ondary, or Grammar ; Superior, or High Schools. In manufacturing villages, and in certain sections of large cities, regularly organized Infant Schools should be established and devoted mainly to the cul- ture of the morals, manners, language and health of very young children. 4. The arrangement as to supervision, instruction and recitations, must have reference to the size of the school ; the number of teachers and assistants ; the general organization of the school, whether in one room for study, and separate class rooms for recitation, or the several classes in distinct rooms under appropriate teachers, each teacher having specified studies ; and the method of instruction pur- sued, whether the mutual, simultaneous, or mixed. Since the year 1830, and especially since 1838, much ingenuity has been expended by practical teachers and architects, in devising and perfecting plans of school-houses, with all the details of con- struction and fixtures, modified to suit the varied circumstances enu- merated above, specimens of which, with explanations and descrip- tions, will be here given. 64 school architecture. 1. Plans of School-houses recommended by practical Teachers and Educators. Plan, &c. recommended by Dr. Alcott, and by the American Insti tute of Instruction. In 1830 the American Institute of Instruction offered a premium for the best Essay " On the Construction of School-houses" which was awarded in Aug. 1831, to Dr. William A. Alcott, of Hartford. The Prize Essay* was published in the proceedings of the Institute of the same year, together with a " Plan for a Village School-house,' 1 '' devised by a Committee of the Direc- tors of the Institute. The plan of the school-room recommended by Dr. Alcott, although less complete in some of its details, is substantially the same as that recommended by Mr. Mann, and can be easily understood by reference to the cut of the latter on the opposite page. The room, to accommodate 56 pupils each, with a separate seat and desk, and from 8 to 16 small children with seats for two, should be 40 ft. long by 30 wide. The teacher's platform occupies the north end of the room, towards which all the scholars face when in their seats. Each scholar is provided with a seat and desk, (each 2 ft. by 14 inches,) the front of one desk constituting the back of the seat beyond. The top of the desk is level, with a box and lid for books, &c. The aisles on each side of the room, are 2 feet wide, and those between each range of seats and desk is 18 inches. A place for recitation 8 feet wide extends across the whole width of the room, in the rear, with movable blackboards. The room can be warmed by stove, placed as in the cut referred to, or by air heated by furnace or stove in the basement. The room is ventilated by openings in the ceiling. A thermometer, library, museum, &c, are to be furnished. In the " Plan for a village School-house,'''' the school-room is 48 ft. long by 35 wide, to accommodate eighty scholars with separate seats. The details of the arrangements are nearly the same as were at that date recommended for schools on the Lancasterian plan, and as are now recommended by the British and Foreign School Society — except that the floor of the room is level, and the seats are provided with backs. In the explanations accompany- ing the plan, the Directors recommend, that in villages and populous neigh- borhoods, the children be classified according to age and attainment into s series of schools, and that appropriate rooms for each school be provided. Plan recommended by Horace Mann. In 1838, Mr. Mann submitted a Report on School-houses, supplementary to his " First Annual Report as Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Edu- cation," which discusses the whole subject of school architecture with great fulness and ability. This document may be found entire in the Massachu- setts Common School Journal, Vol 1., and nearly so, in the Connecticut Common School Journal, Vol. 1., and the New York District School Journal, Vol. 3. It fixed public attention on the defects of these edifices, and has led to extensive improvement all over that Commonwealth. During the five years immediately following its publication, over $516,000 were expended in the construction of 405 new houses, including land, fixtures, &c, and over $118,000, in the substantial repairs of 429 more. The larger portion of the first sum has been expended in the cities and large villages in the eastern part of the state, where may now be seen specimens of the best school-houses, and the best schools, in our country. The following plan embodies substan- tially the views submitted by Mr. Mann, in his Report. * This Essay of Dr. Alcott was the pioneer publication on this subject. It was fol- lowed in 1S33 by a " Report on School-houses" prepared by the Rev. G. B. Perry, and published by the Essex County Teacher's Association. This last is a searching and: vigorous exposition of the evils resulting from the defective construction, and arrange ments of school-houses, as they were at that date almost universally found'. PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE BY MR. MANN. 65 * A. Represents the teacher's desk. B B. Teacher's platform, from 1 to 2 ft. in height. C. Step for ascending the platform. L L. Cases for books, apparatus, cabinet, &c. H. Pupils' single desks, 2 ft. by 18 inches. M. Pupils' seat, 1 ft. by 20 inches. 7. Aisles, 1 ft. 6 inches in width. D. Place for stove, if one be used. E. Room for recitation, for retiring in case of sudden indisposition, for interview with parents, when necessary, &c. It may also be used for the library, &c. F F F F F. Doors into the boys' and girls' entries — from the entries into the school-room, and from the school- room into the recita- tion room. G G G G. Windows. The windows on the sides are not lettered. For section of seat and desk constructed after Mr. Mann's plan, see p. 47. To avoid the necessity of fitting up the same school-room for old and young, and the inefficiency of such country schools as we now have, Mr. Mann proposed in this Report a union, for instance of four districts which did not cover more than four miles square, and the erection of four primary school-houses, (a a a a) for the younger chil- dren of each district, to be taught by female teachers, and one central or high school, (A) for the older children of the four districts, taught by a well qualified male teacher. This plan is recommended for its wise use of the means of She districts, and the efficiency of the instruction given, 5 66 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plans, &c, recommended by George B, Emerson. The ^School and Schoolmaster,"* contains a very valuable chapter on school-houses, by Mr. Emerson, the President of the American Institute of Instruction, illustrated by drawings, which, with the permission of the authors' and publishers are introduced here. The whole chapter, as the production of one of the most eminent teachers and writers on education of the age, should be studied by every one who would become thoroughly acquainted with he subject. Most of his valuable suggestions are subjoined. Situation. -j-So much do the future health, vigor, taste, and moral principles f the pupil depend upon the position, arrangement, and construction of the school-house, that everything about it is important^} When the most desira- ble situation can be selected, and the laws of health and the dictates of taste may be consulted, it should be placed on firm ground, on the southern declivi- ty of a gently sloping hill, open to the southwest, from which quarter comes the pleasantest winds in summer, and protected on the northeast by the top of the hill or by a thick wood. From the road it should be remote enough to escape the noise, and dust, and danger, and yet near enough to be easily accessible by a path or walk, always dry. About it should be ample space, a part open for a play-ground, a part to be laid out in plots for flowers and shrubs, with winding alleys for walks. Damp places, in the vicinity of stag- nant pools or unwholesome marshes, and bleak hilltops or dusty plains, should be carefully avoided. Tall trees should partially shade the grounds, not in stiff rows or heavy clumps, but scattered irregularly as if by the hand of Na- ture. Our native forests present such a choice of beautiful trees, that the grounds must be very extensive to afford room for even a single fine speci- men of each; yet this should, if possible, be done, for children ought early to become familiar with the names, appearance, and properties of these noblest of inanimate things. The border of a natural wood may often be chosen for the site of a school ; but if it is to be thinned out, or if trees are to be planted, and, from limited space, a selection is to be made, the kingly, magnificent oaks, the stately hickories, the spreading beech for its deep mass of shade, the maples for their rich and abundant foliage, the majestic elm, the useful ash, the soft and graceful birches, and the towering, columnar sycamore, claim precedence. Next may come the picturesque locusts, with their hang- ing, fragrant flowers ; the tulip-tree ; the hemlock, best of evergreens ; the celtis, or sweet gum ; the nyssa, or tupelo, with horizontal branches and pol- ished leaves ; the walnut and butternut, the native poplar, and the aspen. Of extremely beautiful American shrubs, the number is so great that I have no room for a list. What place intended to form the taste of the young, should be without the kalmias, rhododendrons, cornels, roses, viburnums, magnolias, clethras, honeysuckles, and spireeas 1 And whoever goes into the woods to gather these, will find a multitude of others which he will hardly consent to leave behind. The hilltop should be planted with evergreens, forming, at all seasons, a barrier against the winds from the north and east. Of the flower plots, little need be said. They must be left to the taste of the teacher, and of cultivated persons in the district. I can only recommend our wild American plants, and again remind the reader, that there is hardly a * The " School and Schoolmaster," a Manual for the use of Teachers, Employers, Trustees, Inspectors, &c, &c, of Common Schools. Part 1. By Alonzo Potter, D. D. Part II. By George B. Emerson, pp.552. Harper & Brothers, 82 Cliff street, New York. Price, $1. This excellent treatise, the most valuable contribution yet made to the educational lit- «rature of our country, was prepared and published originally at the expense of James Wadsworth, Esq., nf Geneseo, W. Y., in 1842. By him a copy was presented to each of the 11,000 school districts of that state. Following this noble example, the Hon. Martin Brimmer, the present mayor of the city of Boston, caused to be printed, at his expense, such a number of copies as would supply one copy each to all the school districts, and one copy each to all the boards of school committee men, in Massachusetts. The work should be scattered broadcast through every state in the Union. In large orders, or for gratuitous distribution, it can be had of the publishers at a very low rate. &%lh£? PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOrSE, BY MR. G. B. EMERSON. QQ country town in New York or New England, from whose woods and mead- ows a, hundred kinds of flowers might not be transplanted, of beauty enough to form the chief ornament of a German or English garden, which are now neglected .only because they are common and wild. Garden flowers need not be excluded ; and if either these or the former are cultivated, the great ob- ject, to present something to refine and inform the taste, will be, in some de- gree, accomplished. If proper inclosed play-grounds are provided, the master may often be pres- ent at the sports, and thus become acquainted with the character, of his pu- pils. If children are compelled to resort to the highway for their amusements, we ought not to wonder^that they should be contaminated by the vices, brawl- ings, and profanities, which belong to frequenters of highways. Size. — The room should be sufficiently large to allow every pupil, 1. to sit comfortably at his desk ; 2. to leave it without disturbing any one else ; 3. to see explanations on his lessons, and to recite without being incommoded or incommoding others ; 4. to breathe a wholesome atmosphere. If the first three objects are fully provided for, the space on the floor will be sufficient. But to secure the advantage of an adequate supply of air, the room must be not less than 10, and, if possible, 12 or 14, feet high. Arrangement. — For the accommodation of 56 scholars, so as to give ample room for moving, for recitations, and for air, the dimensions of the house should be 38 feet by 25, and 10 feet in height within. This will allow an en- try of 14 feet by 7|, lighted by a window, to be furnished with wooden pegs for the accommodation of clothes ; a wood-room, 10 feet by 7*, to serve also as an entry for girls at recess, or as a recitation room ; a space behind the desks 8 feet wide, lor fireplace, passage, and recitations, with permanent seats against the wall 10 or 11 inches wide ; a platform, 7 feet wide, for the teacher, with the library, blackboards, globes, and other apparatus for teach- ing ; the remaining space to bp occupied by the desks and seats of the schol- ars. For every additional 8 scholars the room maybe lengthened 2^ feet. The desks and seats for scholars should be of different dimensions. A desk for two maybe 3h or 4 feet long. If the younger children are placed nearest the master's desk, the desks in the front range may be 13 inches wide, the two next 14, the two next 15, and the two most remote lb, with the height, respectively, of 24, 25, 26, and 27 inches. The seats should vary in like manner. Those in the front range should be 10 inches wide, in the two next Wk, in the two next 11, in the two last llj or 12 ; and 13.*, 14, 15, and 16 inches, respectively, high. All edges and corners are to be carefully rounded. It is very desirable that the north end of the school-house be occupied by the master's desk ; that this end be a dead Wall ; that the front be towards the south ; and that the desks be so placed that the pupils, as they sit at them, shall look towards the north. The advantages of this arrangement are, 1. that the scholars will obtain more correct ideas upon the elements of geo- graphy, as all maps suppose the reader to be looking northward ; 2. the north wall, having no windows, will exclude the severest cold of winter ; 3. the scholars will, in this case, look towards a dead wall, and thus avoid the great evil of facing a glare of light ; or, if a window or two be allowed in the north wall, the light coming from that quarter is less vivid, and, therefore, less dangerous, than that which comes from any other ; 4. the door, being on the south, will open towards the winds which prevail in summer, and /rem the cold winds of winter. If, from necessity, the house must front northward, the master's desk should be still in the north end of the room, and the scholars, when seated, look in that direction. The end of the room occupied by the master should be fitted with shelves for a library and for philosophical apparatus and collections of natural curios ities, such as rocks, minerals, plants, and shells, for globes and for black- boards. The books, apparatus, and collections should be concealed and pro- tected by doors, which may be made perfectly plain and without panels, so as to be painted black and serve as blackboards. They may be conveniently divided by pilasters into three portions, the middle one for books, the others 70 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. for apparatus and collections. On one of the pilasters may be the clock ; on the other a barometer and thermometer; on shelves in the corners, the globes, and over the library in the center, the study card. One of the pilas- ters may form part of the ventilating tube. The master's platform may be raised eight inches. For all these purposes, the space in front ot the ranges of scholars' desks, should be not less than seven or eight feet wide ; ten or twelve would be much better. The sides and front of this space hould be furnished with seats ten or eleven inches wide, for recitation. By means of a large movable black- board, this space may be, in case of need, converted into two, so that two classes may recite at a time. In a school intended to accommo- date more than 64 pupils, there ought also to be a space for recita- tion in the south end of the room, separable by movable blackboards into two. The entry should be lighted by a window, and be furnished with wooden or iron pins for the accom- modation of hats, bonnets, and cloaks ; and there should be a wood- closet large enough to contain two or three cords of wood, which may, if it is preferred, be used as a recita- tion room. By making the ceiling of the entry and wood-closet only seven feet high, two commodious rooms for recitation may be formed above them, lighted from the window over the front door, and accessible by stairs from within the school-room. .Warming. — In a suitable position, e £ pointed out in the plates, near the door, let a common brick fireplace be built. Let this be inclosed, on the back and on each side, by a casing of brick, leaving, be- tween the fireplace and the casing, a space of four or five inches, which will be heat- ed through the back and jambs. Into this space let the air be admitted from beneath by a box 24 inches wide and 6 or 8 deep, leading from the external atmosphere by an opening beneath the front door, or at some other convenient place. The brick casing should be continued up as high as six or eight inches above the top of the fireplace, where it may open into the room by lateral orifices, to be commanded by iron doors, through which the heated air will enter the room. If these are lower, part of the warm air will find its way into the fireplace. The brick chimney should Mov-i Blackboard. i Fireplace. A. Horizontal section. B. Perpendicular section, c. Brick walls, 4 inches thick. d. Air space between the walls, e. Solid fronts of masonry. /. Air box for supply of fresh air, extending beneath the floor to the front door. #. Openings on the sides of the fire- place, for the heated air to pass into the room. h. Front of the fireplace and mantelpiece. i. Iron smoke flue, 8 inches diameter, j, Space between the fireplace and wall, k Par- tition wall. I. Floor. PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE, BV MR. G. B. EMERSON. 71 rise at least two or three feet above the hollow back, and may be surmounted by a flat iron, soap-stone, or brick top, with an opening for a smoke-pipe, which may be thence conducted to any part of the room. The smoke-pipe should rise a foot, then pass to one side, and then over a passage, to the oppo- site extremity of the room, where it should ascend perpendicularly, and issue above the roof. The fireplace should be provided with iron doors, by which it may be completely closed. The advantages of this double fireplace are, 1. the fire, being made against brick, imparts to the air of the apartment none of the deleterious qualities which are produced by a common iron stove, but gives the pleasant heat of an open fireplace ; 2. none of the heat of the fuel will be lost, as the smoke-pipe may be extended far enough to communicate nearly all the heat contained in the smoke ; 3. the current of air heated within the hollow back, and constant- ly pouring into the room, will diffuse an equable heat throughout every part ; 4. the pressure of the air of the room will be constantly outward, little cold will enter by cracks and windows, and the fireplace will have no tendency to smoke ; 5. by means of the iron doors, the fire may be completely controlled, increased or diminished at pleasure, with the advantages of an air-tight stove. For that purpose, there must be a valve or slide near the bottom of one of the doors. If, instead of this fireplace, a common stove be adopted, it should be placed above the air-passage, which may be commanded by a valve or register in the floor, so as to admit or exclude air. Ventilation. — A room warmed by such a fireplace as that just described, may be easily ventilated. If a current of air is constantly pouring in, a cur- rent of the same size will rush out wherever it can find an outlet, and with it will carry the impurities wherewith the air of an occupied room is always charged. For the first part of the morning, the open fireplace may suffice. But this, though a very effectual, is not an economical ventilator ; and when the issue through this is closed, jome other must be provided. The most effective ventilator for throw- ing out foul air, is one opening into a tube which incloses the smoke- flue at the point where it passes through the roof. Warm air natu- rally rises. If a portion of the smoke-flue be inclosed by a tin tube, it will warm the air within this tube, and give it a tendency to rise. If, then, a wooden tube, opening near the floor, be made to communicate, by its upper extremity, with the tin tube, an upward current will take place in it, which will always act whenever the smoke-flue is ivarm. It is better, but not absolutely es- sential, that the opening into the C ScaIe 8 feet t0 an inch -' wooden tube be near the floor. The Ventilating Apparatus. carbonic acid thrown out by the A - A ' r D0X > 1 foot square, or 24 inches by 6, lungs rises, with the warm breath, ? overed b 5' th e pilaster, and opening at the floor, and the perspirable matter from the VL b »»e_of the pilaster. B. Round iron tube Skin, with the warm, invisible va- \ 5 * ln fes m dmmeter, being a continuation of \ ii- j. <•,! ' ""^""^ "a, the air box, through the center of which passes por, to the top of the room. There C . The smoke flue, 8 inches in diameter. D both soon cool, and sink towards Caps to keep out the rain. the floor ; and both carbonic air and the vapor bearing the perspirable matter are pretty rapidly and equally dif- fused through every part of the room. Seats and Desks.— Instead of a seat and desk for each pupil, Mr. Emer- son recommends that two seats should be contiguous. In his drawings, the? desk is perfectly level like a table, and the back to the seat is perpendicular- 72 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SCHOOL FOR ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY PUPILS. fa, * ""1 X.l \ . Afc£ \_j ffloooonsooooo- lOOOlMMtDOQ © Br B 51 feet by 31 feet outside.] [Scale 16 feet to the inch. D. Entrance door. E. Entry. F. Fireplace. C. Wool closet. T. Teacher's plat- form, a. Apparatus shelves, t. Air tube beneath the floor, d. Doors, g. Globes. I. Li brary shelves, m. Master's table and' seat. p. Passages, r. Recitation seats, s. Schol- ars' desks and seats, rs. Stairs to recitation rooms in the attic. ?>. Ventilator, w. Win- dows, b. Movable' blackboard, as. Air space behind the fireplace. 21 feet by SS feet outside.] D. Entrance door. E. Entry. F. Fireplace. C. Wood closet, or recitation room T. Teacher's platform, a. Apparatus shelves, t. Air tube beneath the floor, d. Doors p. Globes. I. Library shelves, m. Master's table and seat. p. Passages, r. Recitation seats, s. Scholars' desks and seats, v. . Ventilator. W.Windows. 6. Movable black- board, a, s. Air space behind the fireplace. OCTAGONAL PLAN FOR DISTRICT SCHOOL.HOUSE. 73 Plans, &c, of an Octagonal School-house. Furnished for the "School and School-master,' 1 '' by Messrs. Town and Davis. Fig. 1. This design for a school-house intends to exhibit a model of fitness and close economy. The principles of fitness are, 1. Ample dimensions, with very nearly the least possible length of wall for its Enclosure, the roof being con- structed without tie beams, the upper and lower ends of the rafters being: held by the wall plates and frame at the foot of the lantern. The ceiling may show the timber-work of the roof, or it may be plastered. ?. Light, a uniform temperature, and a free ventilation, secured by a lantern light, thus avoiding lateral windows (except for air in summer,) and gaining wall-room for black- boards, maps, models, and illustrations. Side windows are shown in the view, and may be made an addition by those who doubt the efficiency of the lantern light. (The lantern is not only best for light, but it is essential for a free ventilation.) With such a light, admitted equally to all the desks, there will be no inconvenience from shadows. The attention of the scholars will not be distracted by occurrences or objects out of doors. There will be less expense for broken glass, as the sashes will be removed from ordinary acci- dents. The room, according to this plan, is heated by a fire in the center, either in a stove or grate, with a pipe going directly through the roof of the lantern, and finishing outside in a sheet-iron vase, or other appropriate cap. The pipe can be tastefully fashioned, with a hot-air chamber near the floor, so as to afford a large radiating surface before the heat is allowed to escape. This will secure a uniform temperature in every part of the room, at the same time that the inconvenience from a pipe passing directly over the heads of children, is avoided. The octagonal shape will admit of any number of seats and desks, (according to the size of the room,) arranged parallel with the sides, constructed as described in specification, or on such principles as may be pre- ferred. The master's seat may be in the center of the room, and the seats be eo constructed that the scholars may sit with their backs to the center, by which their attention will not be diverted by facing other scholars on the op- posite side, and yet so that at times they may all face the master, and the whole school be formed into one class. The lobby next to the front door is made large, (8 by 20) so that it may serve for a recitation-room. This lobby 74 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. is to finish eight feet high, the inside wall to show like a screen, not rising to the roof, and the space above be open to the school- room, and used to put away or station school ap- paratus. This screen-like wall may he hung with /ffj Lats and clothes, or the j|$ Liangular space next the '' window may be inclosed for this purpose. The face of the octagon oppo- site to the porch, has a wood-house attached to it, serving as a sheltered way to a double privy beyond. This woodhouse is open on two sides, to admit of a cross draught of air, preventing the possibility of a nuisance. Other wing-rooms (A A) may be Fie. 2. attached to the remaining sides of the octagon, if additional conveniences for closets, library, or recitation-rooms be desired. The mode here suggested, of a lantern in the center of the roof for lighting all common school-houses-, is so great a change from common usage in our country, that it requires full and clear explanations for its execution, and plain and satisfactory reasons for its general adoption, and of its great excellence in preference to the common mode. They are as follows, viz. : 1. A skylight is well known to be far better and stronger than light from the sides of the building in cloudy weather, and in morning and evening. The difference is of the greatest importance. In short days (the most used for schools) it is still more so. 2. The light is far better for all kinds of study than side light, from its quiet uniformity and equal distribution. 3. For smaller houses, the lantern may be square, a simple form easily constructed. The sides, whether square or octagonal, should incline like the drawing, but not so much as to allow water condensed on its inside to drop off, but run down on the inside to the bottom, which should be so formed as to conduct it out by a small aperture at each bottom pane of glass. - 4. The glass required to light a school-room equally well with side lights would be double what would be required here, and the lantern would be se- cure from common accidents, by which a great part of the glass is every year broken. 5. The strong propensity which scholars have to look out by a side win- dow would be mostly prevented, as the shutters to side apertures would only be opened when the warm weather would require it for air, but never in cool weather, and therefore no glass would be used. The shutters being made very tight, by calking, in winter, would make the school-room much warmer than has been common ; and, being so well ventilated, and so high in the cen- ter, it would be more healthy. 6. The stove, furnace, or open grate, being in the center of the room, has great advantages, from diffusing the heat to all parts, and equally to all the scholars ; it also admits the pipe to go perpendicularly up, without any incon- venience, and it greatly facilitates the ventilation, and the retention or escape of heat, by means of the sliding cap above. Construction. — Foundation of hard stone, laid with mor- ) tar ; the superstructure framed and covered with 1 \ plank, Wwm t tongued, grooved, and put on vertically, with a fillet,, chamfered OCTAGONAL PLAN FOR DISTRICT SCHOOL.IIOUSE. 75 at the edges, over the joint, as here shown. In our view, a rustic character is given to the design by covering the sides with slabs ; the curved side out, tongued and grooved, without a fillet over the joint ; or formed of logs placed'vertically, and lathed and plastered on the inside. The sides di- minish slightly upward. A rustic porch is also shown, the columns of cedar boles, with vines trained upon them. The door is battened, with braces upon the outside, curved as shown, with a strip around the edge. It is four feet wide, seven high, in two folds, one half to be used in inclement weather. The cornice projects two feet six inches, better to defend the boarding ; and may show the ends of the rafters. Roof covered with tin, slate or shingles. Dripping eaves are intended, without gutters. The roof of an octagonal building of ordinary dimensions may with ease and perfect safety be con- structed without tie beams or a garret floor (which is, in all cases of school- houses, waste room, very much increasing the exposure to fire, as well as the expense.) The wall-plates, in this case, become ties, and must be well secured, so as to form one connected hoop, capable of counteracting the pres- sure outward of the angular rafters. The sides of the roof will abut at top against a similar timber octagonal frame, immediately at the foot of the lan- tern cupola. This frame must be sufficient to resist the pressure inward of the roof (which is greater or less, as the roof is more or less inclined in its pitch,) in the same manner as the tie-plates must resist the pressure outward. This security is given in an easy and cheap manner ; and may be given en- tirely by the roof boarding, if it is properly nailed to the angular rafters, and runs horizontally round the roof. By this kind of roof, great additional height is given to the room by camp-ceiling ; that is, by planing the rafters and roof- boards, or by lathing and plastering on a thin half-inch board ceiling, immedi- ately on the underside of the rafters, as may be most economically perform- ed. This extra height in the center will admit of low side-walls, from seven to ten feet in the clear, according to the size and importance of the buildings and, at the same time, by the most simple principle of philosophy, conduct the heated foul air up to the central aperture, which should be left open quite round the pipe of the stove, or open grate standing in the center of the room. This aperture and cap, with the ventilator, is shown by the figure adjoining, which is to a scale of half an inch to a foot. The ventilator is drawn raised, and the dot- ted lines show it let down upon the roof. It may be of any required size, say two feet ide and twelve inches high, sliding up and vn between the stovepipe and an outward ■., se, forming a cap to exclude water. This >ip maybe pushed up or let down by a rod amxed to the under edge, and lying against the smokepipe. In the design given, the side-walls are ten feet high, and the lantern fifteen feet above the floor ; eight feet in diameter, four feet high. The sashes may open for additional ventilation, if required, by turning on lateral pivots, regulated by cords attached to the edges above. The breadth of each desk is seventeen inches, with a shelf beneath for books, and an opening in the back to receive a slate. The highest desks are twenty- seven inches, inclined to thirty, and the front forms the back of the seat be- fore it. The seat is ten to twelve inches wide, fifteen high, and each pupil is allowed a space of two feet, side to side. For the sake of variety, we have given a design in the pointed style, revised from a sketch by , an amateur in architecture. Any rectangular plan will suit it ; and the principles of light and ventilation dwelt upon in the de- scription of the octagon design, may be adapted to this. The principal light 5 J> 76 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 3. is from one large mullioned window in the rear end. The side openings are for air in summer — not glazed, but closed with tight shutters. The same ven- tilating cap is shown, and height is gained in the roof by framing with collar ^earns set up four or five feet above the eaves. The sides, if not of brick or stone, may be boarded vertically, as before described. PLAN OF VILLAGE SCHOOL-GROUND BY DR. DICK. 77 P:.AN OP SciIOOL-ROOM AND GROUNDS FOR A VjLLAGE SdlOOL. The following sketch by Dr. Dick, (author of Mental Illumination), of the plan and accommodations of a Village School is copied from the Pennsylvania Common School Journal, vol. 1, p. 120. A. B — Covered walks for exercise in winter and rainy days. C. D. E. F— Plats for flowers, shrubs, evergreens, and a few forest trees. G. H — Circles with twelve compartments each, for a different class of plants. I. K — Yards divided with a wall, with suitable accommodations for either sex. L— Portion of ground, smoothed and graveled for play-ground, with circular swing, &c. M— Room, 50 by 30 feet, and 14 feet high. N. N — Class-rooms, 18 by 15, S. T.— Closets for apparatus, &e. 78 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan of District School-Room, recommended By Dr. A. D Lord, Columbus, Ohio. The following plan and description are copied from the Ohio School Journal, Vol. II., edited by Dr. Lord, Superintendent of the Common Schools of Columbus, Ohio. I EZZ i I H G o c The building here presented should be 26 by 36 feet on the ground, or, as least, 25 by 35 feet inside. The plan is drawn on a scale of ten feet to the inch. A C — Entries 8 feet square, one for each sex. B— Library and apparatus room, 8 by 9 feet, which may be used for a recita- tion room for small sized classes. D— Teacher's platform, behind which, on the wall, should be a blackboard 12 feet long by 5 feet wide. E E E E— Recitation seats, those on the sides placed against the wall, those in front of the platform haying backs and being moyable. F F F— Free space, at least two feet wide, next the wall on three sides of the room. G— Desk, for two pupils, four feet long by 18 inches wide. H — Seat, " " do . " " 13 " " I— Centre aisle two feet wide ; the aisles on either side of this should be from 18 to 24 inches wide. The area on either side and in front of the Teacher's platform, is intended tor reading and spelling classes, and any other class exercises in which the pupils stand ; and the space next the wali may be used to arrange the greater part ot the school as one class in any general' exercises requiring it. Four windows are represented on each side of the house, and two on the end opposite the Teacher's stand. The door to the Library-room opens from one oi the entries, and the room is lighted by a large window in the front end of the house. PLANS FOR SCHOOLS OF DIFFERENT GRADES. 79 Pian, &c, of School-rooms for Schools of different grades and DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF INSTRUCTION. The plans and remarks for arranging school-rooms thus far, are more par- ticularly applicable to comparatively small, or country schools, where the in- struction and government is conducted by one teacher, with at most but one assistant. A few remarks explanatory of the terms used by writers on edu- cation, when speaking of systems of organization and instruction, may be useful to a full comprehension of the principles of arrangement embraced in the plans which follow. 1. The individual method is the practice on the part of the teacher, of calling up each scholar by himself for recitation, or giving instruction to each scholar in his seat, or calling up classes and hearing each scholar individually, which is practically the same-thing. This method will answer a valuable end in a very small school, and must be introduced to some extent in our small country districts where there are children of every age, and in a great variety of studies, and of different degrees of proficiency in each study. It prevails, however, altogether too generally, even in larger districts which admit of a classification of children into schools of different grades, and of the children in, each grade of schools. This classification is the first great step towards school improvement. 2. In the simultaneous method, the whole school, together, or in succes- sive classes carefully arranged according to their intellectual proficiency, is instructed directly by the teacher. Questions and explanations are addressed to the whole school, or the whole class, as the case may be, and answers are given by all together, or by some one pointed out by the teacher, while all must show by some silent sign, there ability to do so. This method keeps every mind attentive, gives confidence to the timid, admits of the liveliness of oral and interrogative instruction, economizes the time and labor of the teacher, and enlists the great principle of sympathy of numbers engaged in common pursuit. The extent to which this method can be properly carried, will depend not so much op the size of the schools, as on the fact that the school is composed of children in the same studies, and of the same proficien- cy. This method ought not to exclude entirely individual instruction. When the number of children increases beyond that which one teacher can conveniently instruct together, or in successive classes, he must adopt the monitorial, the mixed, or the F&cher system, for such classes as he cannot superintend or teach. 3. By the monitorial or mutual method, is understood the practice of em- ploying the advanced pupils, and many of them very young, to assist in the su- pervision and instruction of the school, or of particular classes, as systematized by Mr. Lancaster, or Dr. Bell, and as pursued in the schools connected with the National, and the British and Foreign School Societies, England. This method, in different countries, on its first promulgation, attracted much of public favor, on account of its economy, especially in populous districts. In England it still receives the sanction of the two great Societies named above. In Germany it was never adopted in the public schools. In Holland it was tried, and abandoned, but not without modifying very material- ly the methods of instruction before pursued, and finally leading to the adoption of the mixed method. In the large cities of the United States, it was early adopted, but there is hardly a school in the whole country now conducted on the pure monitorial or Lancasterian system, although there are many so called. As pursued in the excellent schools of the New York Public School Society, it is nearly the mixed method as understood and practiced in Hol- land, and as recommended by the Committee of Council on Education in England. With these modifications, and the limitation of the duties of the younger monitors to keeping the registers, heading the classes in marching to and from their class-rooms, or the playground, taking charge of books, &c, and in other matters of order and mechanical arrangements, the monitorial system might be advantageously adopted in schools of every grade, and of any sys- tem of instruction. 80 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 4. The mixed method, as the term is generally understood, is a modifica- tion of the simultaneous and monitorial system, in which the principal teacher, while he has the superintendence at all times of the whole school, and gives general instruction at certain hours, and in certain studies, to the whole school, as well as to particular classes, employs in the work of class instruc- tion, assistants who are better instructed, and, as a general rule, are older than those employed as monitors under the Lancasterian system, and are not yet qualified to have the whole charge of a school. For example, in Holland, " every school produces two classes of assistants, who are most usefully and economically employed in aiding him in the management and instruction of the school, and may be called pupil teachers and assistant teachers. By pupil teacher is meant a young teacher, in the first instance introduced to the notice of the master by his good qualities, as one of the best instructed and most intelligent of the children ; whose attainments and skill are full of promise ; and who, having consented to remain at a low rate of remuneration in the 'School, is further rewarded by being enabled to avail himself of the op- portunities afforded him for attaining practical skill in the art of teaching, by daily practice in the school, and by the gratuitous superintendence of his reading and studies by the master, from whom he receives lessons on technical subjects of school instruction every evening- He commonly remains in the school in the rank of papil teacher from the age of 14 to that of 17, daily im- bibing a more intimate acquaintance with school management, and all the matter of instruction in elementary schools, and he then proceeds, by attend- ance at a Normal school, or by further proficiency attained by his own exer- tions, to qualify himself to act as an assistant teacher. The assistant, teacher prepared by these preliminary studies in the elementary Normal school com- mences his duties at 18 or 20 years of age. Assistants thus reared in the atmosphere of schools are exceedingly pre- ferable to the best instructed men who are not familiarized by daily habitude with the minutest details of school management. Such assistants constantly replenish the ranks of the teachers with men, all the hopes of whose youth have been directed towards success in the profession of a schoolmaster, and whose greatest ambition is to be distinguished by the excellence of their schools. 5. The Fiicher system, as it is termed in Germany where it is. most popu- lar, consists in employing separate teachers for separate studies, or as we should apply it here, for distinct departments of government, and of instruc- tion. This is the principle on which instruction in our colleges and most of our higher seminaries is given, and is in reality the mixed method carried to its highest perfection. The vital error in our common schools, as they are now organized, is the practice of employing one teacher for the government and instruction of fifty or sixty children of every age, of both sexes, in a great variety of studies, and in different stages of proficiency in each study. It is very rare to find a teacher with the varied qualifications, which success under these circumstances presupposes, while it is not very difficult to find a teacher with talent and experience sufficient to teach some one study, or a few cognate branches, as an assistant, acting under the general direction of a well qualified principal. Any school organization and arrangements would be imperfect which did not include the systematic training and instruction of very young children, especially in cities and manufacturing villages. Whatever may have been done by others at an earlier date, it seems to be generally conceded now, that to Mr. Wilderspin belongs the credit of having reduced infant education to the science which it now is. It was unfortunate for the improvement of the quality of education given in our schools, that the infant school system was tried in this country, without a full comprehension of its legitimate principles, methods and end, and that the experiment was abandoned so hastily. Its partial and temporary success, however, led to the extension and improvement of our primary schools, and this circumstance renders the sv«cess of any well directed effort for their re-establishment more certain. PLANS FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MONITORIAL PLAN. §[ Plans, &c, for Schools on the Monitorial or Mutual System. The " Manual of the System of Primary Instruction pursued in the Mode! Schools of the British and Foreign School Society," published in 1839, con- tains the following remarks on the arrangement for schools of mutual in- struction connected with that Society. The school-room should be a parallelogram, the length about twice the breadth. The height of the walls should be proportioned to the length of the room, and may be varied from 11 to 19 feet. It is recommended that the walls be worked fair and lime whitened, in order to give a neat and clean appearance, reflect light, and contribute to the preservation of health. As it is of great importance to admit as much light as possible into the school, there must be a considerable number of windows, each of which should be fixed in a wooden frame, and movable upon pins or pivots in the center, so that by drawing the upper part into the room, the school may be sufficiently ventilated in hot weather — a circumstance of the utmost importance to be attended to, as the health of the pupils in a great measure depends upon it. The lower parts of the windows should be at least 6 feet from the floor, in order that the light may not be inconvenient, and the walls be at liberty for the reading lessons, &c, which are to be attached to it ; if piers are required, they should be on the outside of the building. There should be holes in the roof, or in the wall near it, to let foul air escape. This may be effected by a sufficient number of tubes so contrived that they can be opened or shut at pleasure, and at the same time fresh air be admitted from the outside of the building by tubes communicating with the lower part of the room. All projections in the walls, as well as pillars to support the roof, ought to be avoided; for they interfere with the arrangement of the school, and ob- struct the view of the master and of visiters. But if pillars are necessary, they should be placed at each end of the desks, but never in the middle of the room. Roman Cement, cast into flags, and jointed with the same material, forms a good flooring ; it is perfectly dry and durable,' and emits but little sound. In order that all the children may be completely seen by the master, it is of great importance that the floor should be an inclined plane, rising one foot in twenty from the master's desk, to the upper end of the room, where the high- est or eighth class is situated. At the lower end is the platform, elevated in proportion to the length of the room from 2 to 3 feet. The length and breadth of the platform must be in proportion to the size of the room. The center of the platform is the place for the master's desk ; and on each side there may be a small desk for the principal monitors. The entrance door should be on the side of the platform, in order that visit- ers on entering the school, may have a commanding view of all the children at once. Whatever be the size of the school-room, it may be sufficiently warmed by means of one or two stoves placed at the extremities of the apartment. But the most uniform and constant temperature is obtained by steam, when con- ducted along the lower parts of the room through pipes, or by heated air con- veyed into the room through tubes communicating with a stove, which is sur- rounded by a close casing of iron, leaving a sufficient space for a current of fresh air to be brought in through a tube : this, coming in contact with the stove and the outside of the flue or iron chimney which passes through the casing, is heated, and may be discharged into the room by means of iron pipes. This method has been found to answer extremely well. The middle of the room is occupied by the forms and desk, a passage being left between the ends of the forms and the wall, 5 or 6 feet broad, where the children form semicircles for reading. The forms and desks must be fixed firmly in the ground ; the legs or sup- ports should be 6 inches broad and 2 inches thick, but cast iron legs are pre- 6 g£ SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ferable, as they support the desk-board with equal firmness, occupy less room, and have a neater appearance ; their number of course will be in proportion to the length of the forms. A form 20 feet long will require five, and they must be so placed, that the supports of the forms may not be immediately opposite to those of the desks ; the corners of the desks and forms are to be made round, in order that the children may not hurt themselves. The general rules for fitting up school-rooms are, — 1. One foot for the space or passage between a form and the next desk. 2. Three inches for the horizontal space between a desk and its form. 3. Nine inches for the breadth of a desk, and six for the breadth of a form. 4. Twenty-eight inches for the height of a desk, and sixteen for the height of a form. 5. Eighteen inches in length of the desk for every child to occupy while seated upon his form. 6. From five to six feet for the passage between the walls and the ends of the forms and desks. The semi-circles for the reading > classes are formed opposite to the wall, and are marked by an incision in the floor. Dimensions of school-rooms for 300 children, length, 62^ ft., breadth, 34 feet ; for 200 do. 55 by 28 ; for 150 do. 52| feet by 25. School-room for 56 scholars. D 1 D i The following suggestions are abridged from the " General Observations on the construction and arrangements of school-rooms, See." published by the National Society, London. The form of the room should be ob- long. If the room is built large to ac- commodate boys and girls together, it may be divided by a frame partition, made to slide upon rollers in an iron groove. The superficial area should include 7 square feet for each child : hence, 50 children will require 350 ft ; 80 do. 560 ft. ; 100 do. 700 ft., &c. The desks are generally attached to the wall, and consist of a horizontal ledge two or three inches wide to re- ceive the inkstand, and an inclined plane ten inches wide, made to let down by hinges and movable brackets. The benches or forms are ten inches wide, and supported by standards of cast iron. The benches for the classes in reci- tation, are arranged in the floor with- out desks. The floor is entirely level. □ D D h PLANS FOR SCHOOLS ON THE MIXED SVSTEM. 83 Plans, &c, for Schools on the Mixed and Packer System. The two plans on the preceding page, for schools of 56 children, arranged on the monitorial or mutual system, are taken from the " Minutes of the Com- mittee of- Council on Education, 1840, relative to Plans of School-houses." In each plan, given in the " Minutes," the arrangement of the school-room is delineated, 1. according to the system of 'mutual instruction, distinguishing, as above, that of the National Society from that of the British and Foreign School Society ; and 2. according to the mixed method, in which a modifica- tion of the mutual system, through the agency of better instructed and paid monitors, or pupil teachers, is employed in combination with the simultaneous method. Thus, on the same sheet, with the school-room for 56 children on the mutual system, there is also the following plan on the mixed system. The school-room is 18 feet _ wide by 31 long, the space (20 feet by 12) occupied by the desks and seats being divided into two parts, one for boys and the other for girls, by a mova- ble partition. The desks and benches are arranged on a series of platforms, rising each 6 inches above the preceding one.- The school, if taught on the mixed method recommended would be divided into four class- es, the boys of the first class occupying the first bench on one side, and the girls, do. on the other, &c, and employing one pupil teacher and four monitors. The teacher would give general instruction from the platform to the whole school, and hear any class separately, arranged in a circle around him. Two other classes might be heard in the entry, or class rooms attached. (The plan in this cut is modified slightly from the original inprint when it is connected with the dwelling house.) The " Minutes" contain four series of plans, each presenting a different arrangement. In the first series, there are five plans for schools varying from 30 to 56 scholars, each with the classes arranged and seated as above, and two of them presenting additional accommodations for an infant department, one of 20, and the other of 30 children. In the second series, there is a separate range of desks for each class, with five varieties of arrangements, to accommodate 60 to 100 children, with a separate room for an infant school in two. In this series preference is ex- pressed for the plan copied from the model school of the Normal School of Dejon. In this plan, the room is 56 feet by 16, divided into two apartments, each 28 by 16, one for 55 boys and the other for 55 girls. Each department is divided into three classes, one class occupying a group of desks, rising on platforms directly in front of the teacher, and the other two, one on the left, and the other on the right, so that they form a sort of amphitheater around the level portion of the floor occupied by the teacher. Each class can be taught separately, occupying its own group of desks, as arranged around the teacher's desk. In the third series the accommodations ascend from 144 children, and 150 infants, to an indefinitely greater number, by a larger or smaller number of class-rooms arranged on each side of a central school-hall, which is lighted by sky-lights. , T>, D, D, are four class-rooms, (each 19 by 17) each again divided by a partition into two, so that both cars be superintended by one assistant teacher, and one pupil teacher. Each subdivision of class-room will accom- modate about 40 scholars each. The boys and the girls under eleven years arranged according to attainments, each on separate benches are taught together, while those over eleven years are taught separately in class-rooms appropriated to each. This arrangement affords greater facilities for giving to the instruction of the older children such a particular character as will prepare them for the application of their knowledge to the actual duties of life. Such knowledge must difFer, in a class of boys, from that given in a class of girls. In the fourth series, the same principles of arrangements are observed, ex- cept that the boys and girls occupy rooms on different floors. In all of the plans recommended in the " Minutes," of the Committee, ac- commodations are provided for 1. the technical instruction of the children in classes carefully arranged according to their intellectual proficiency; 2. for the general instruction and exercises of the whole school ; and, 3d, for the residence of the teacher. This last feature is common to almost all school houses in Europe^ and the use of the same constitutes a part of the teacher's compensation. In the larger structures of Prussia and Saxony, there is an entire room appropriated to each class. Thus in a school-house for 600 chil- dren, at Berlin, there are eight rooms, and in these rooms the children are classed according to their ages, capacities and attainments. Eight masters are employed, besides auxiliary masters for special purposes ; and two mis- .. tresses, for teaching at certain hours sewing and knitting to the girls. The " Minutes" contain many valuable suggestions respecting the location, ventilation, and warming of school-rooms, similar to what has been already printed. The following section exhibits three forms of desks. The stand ards are of wrought or cast iron. Desk with Lid. Simple Desk, Desk with Shelf. PLAN FOR INFANT SCHOOL-HOUSE AND GROUNDS.' 85 Flan, &c, of School-room and Grounds for an Infant School. The following plan and explanations are condensed from a valuable manu- al for teachers in infant and primary schools, entitled " Infant Education," one of Chambers' Educational Course, published at Edinburgh, in 1840. It is nearly similar to the plan recommended by Mr. Wilderspin in his " Infant School System," and his " Education for the Young," and by Mr. Stow, -in the " Manual on the Training System for Infant and Juvenile Schools." Play Ground— 80 ft. by 60. 05-sts^ 8 ° > g^ 2 Io » g 1,3. >!»_.. . * = ~^T3 .^fs, o \d 05 rK • 52 bS £,£o £• 23 05 cd «o°0_, g ■Jn Bf S3 05 05 -TO ? > ^^^ OS S3 05OoJ0 05°T 3e0r 5 •3 .-SSoo ° ?,» 05 .-»B£ . §£>§ g* -ft; ^ O -B o , o o 2 o -s P. £?TJ 05 05 -B £ U i^t- 1 2 2- r 05 05 O) £_! 5 jj os ° 05 >, S3 J. 1 m Vi «-fi 2 :.smj? » § ffi ."3T3 - S.-s so o o B •52b- S . 05 ie PXl £ 05 O 05 C £ •g h OJ-g •-,,£ 05 « rs g bo oS,o EJ? B M ?s — o J3 — « ^3 sp m 5 £ -rs -5 S 2-S r^5 g g Ph_ co o 05 m B •1§ «02-2 5 S 8 1 § f 1 o o o o o o o o o o s* Q _d§b ^L the bottom to receive the chalk or crayon, a sponge or soft leather. Over the black-board, are the printed and written alphabet, arithmetical and geo metrical figures, the pauses, &c, for copying or general exercise. Along the edge of the blackboard, the length of an inch, foot, yard, &c, are de- signated. Over the teacher's platform, on the ceiling, the cardinal points of the compass are to be' painted. In a case (G) 4 feet wide, 15 inches deep, and 7 feet high, in the rear of the room, there is a terrestrial and celestial globe, an orrery, a set of geometrical solids, a set of alphabetical and draw- ing cards, arithmetical blocks, and a numerical frame, a model to illustrate cube root, a set of outline maps and historical charts, a movable stand to support maps, diagrams, movable blackboards, &c. On the western wall, on each side of the window, are the eastern and western hemispheres, each six feet in diameter. There are also maps of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and the United States, and Catherwood's plan of Jerusalem, together with maps illustrative of the history of the bible. An eight-day clock is also provided. The library case (E) is of the same size as the apparatus closet, and con- tains already nearly 400 volumes. Fig. 7. The movable stand for blackboard (Fig 6) is like a painter's easel. u. Pins on which the board rests, c. Hinge or joint to the supporting legs which are braced by hook b. The primary department may be fitted up with a gallery, (Fig. 7) as is recommended by Mr. Wilderspin for infant schools, consisting of a series of seats, ascending from the floor. The first or lowest is 8 inches ; each ascending, one being one inch higher than the next before it. 96 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Fig. 8. A cheap movable blackboard was made for the primary department as is represented in (Fig. 8,) and a movable bench, (Fig. 9) on which the Fig. 9. children are separated by a little compartment (A,) for books, which also serves as a support for the arms. The blackboards are furnished with crayons prepared after directions, given by Prof. Turner, of the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, as follows. " Take 5 pounds of Paris White, 1 pound of Wheat Flour, wet with water, and knead it well, make it so stiff that it will not stick to the table, but not so stiff as to crumble and fall to pieces when it is rolled under the hand. To roll out the crayons to the proper size, two boards are needed, one, to roll them on ; the other to roll them with. The first should be a smooth pine board three feet long and nine inches wide. The other should also be pine, a foot long and nine inches wide, having nailed on the under side near each edge a slip of wood one third of an inch thick, in order to raise it so much above the under board as that the crayon when brought to its proper size, may lie between them without being flattened. The mass is rolled into a ball and slices are cut from one side of it about one third of an inch thick ; these slices are again cut into strips about four inches long and one third of an inch wide, and rolled separately between these boards until smooth and round. Near at hand should be another board 3 feet long and 4 inches wide, across which each crayon, as it is made, should be laid, so that the ends may project on each side — the crayons should be laid in close contact and straight. When the board is filled, the ends should all be trimmed off so as to make the crayons as long as the width of the board. It is then laid in the sun, if in hot weather, or if in winter, near a stove or fire-place, where the crayons may dry gradu- ally, which will require twelve hours. When thoroughly dry they are fit for use. An experienced hand will make 150 in an hour. We sell them at 50 cents for a single hundred — and less by the quantity." The Windsor and Washington District school-houses were constructed and fitted up in 1839 — 40, mainly after plans furnished by the Secretary of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools of Connecticut, who was anxious to have one or two structures to which he could refer when lec- turing and writing on the subject, as, in some respects, models of taste, comfort, and convenience, for a country school-house. SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan, &c, of High School, Middletown, Ct, The High School building is located on Parsonage street, away from the business part of the city. The lot is 227 ft. on the street, by 200 ft. deep, and is divided into two equal parts, one of which is appropriated to the boys, and the other to the girls. The building stands near the center of the lot, east and west, and 12 feet from the street. The entrances are on the sids next to the street. Fig. 2. Transverse Section. A. Basement, 90 ft. by 50, and 9 ft. in the clear. B. Male De» partment, 50 ft. by 47, and 12 ft. high in the clear, with two reeitatioa rooms 25 ft. by 12. C. Female Department, same dimensions as Male Department. D. Attic arched, appropriated for calistkeaic exercises. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, MIDDLETOWN. 99 R €> © mmom [•■•■•I •H 9 H»E«>B»H«li»i»§a Fig. 3. Male Department. _ The exterior dimensions of the building are 72 ft. by 54. It is two stories high, with a basement 9 ft. in the clear, and an arched attic, 6 ft. to the spring of the arch. The first story is occupied by the male department, and the second by the girls' department. The basement will be used as a play ground for the boys in wet weather, and the attic is appropriated for calisthenic exercises for the girls, and meetings of the whole school. The lower school-room is 50 ft. by 47, and 12 ft. high in the clear, with two recitation rooms, each 25 ft. by 12. The entrance is from the East, near the end, into a lobby (A) 8 ft. wide, and fitted up with scraper, mats, hooks, &e. &e. The desks are so placed, that the scholars face towards the teacher's platform, (D) which is against the northern partition, separating the school- room from the entry. The desks are placed in seven ranges, containing each 12 desks, each desk accommodating two scholars, and the front of one desk constituting the back of the preceding one. The seats and desks are painted green. Each range is separated from the other by an aisle 18 inch- es wide, and the whole body of desks is surrounded or three sides by an open space (C C) 6 feet wide. On each side of the teacher's platform (D) there is a platform with an open space (B) in front, of 10 ft., of half the elevation, for two assistants. In the rear of the platform is a room (E) appropriated to the teacher. The recitation rooms are separated from the school-room by a glass par- tition. Two sides of each is occupied by blackboards. The school-rooms and recitation rooms are ventilated by openings at the top and bottom, into eight flues carried up in the wall into the space between the areh of the attic and the roof. This space communicates at all times with the open air by a grating at either end, (as indicated in Fig. 1 and 2.) The school-room is heated by two furnaces in the basement, the hot air ascending through the openings (r r) into the lower room, and carried into the second story and attic, by conductors (ff.) There are six large windows to the school-room, and one to each recita- tion room. The windows are protected by Venetian blinds, which are never opened. The amount of light is graduated by opening or closing the slats. The girls' school-room is on the second floor, and is, in every respect ?ike the one below. Both rooms are well supplied with blackboards, an with, a set of Mitchell's series of Outline Maps, and globes. 1(J0 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan and Description of Public School, No. 17, New York. The following plans and explanation of a " Public School" and a " Primary School" are copied from the " Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Public School Society of New York." The plans after which the school-houses of this Society were originally constructed, as well as the methods of instruction pursued in their schools, were adopted from those recommended by Joseph Lancaster, and the British and Foreign School Society. These plans and methods have been from time to time essentially modified, until they can no longer be characterized as Lancasterian or Moni- torial, but the plans and methods of the Public School Society of New York. There are two grades of schools, the higher called the Public Schools, and the lower, called the Public Primary Schools. Those schools of the primary grade, which are in the buildings appropriated to the higher schools, are designated Primary Departments, to distinguish them from the Primaries taught in separate buildings. The system of instruction pursued in the Primary Departments was originally the Infant School system, and still retains many of the methods of that system. The school-rooms were, therefore, constructed and furnished in reference to simultaneous exercises of the whole school, to oral instruction with visible illustrations, and to physical movements of various kinds. Public School, No. 17, is in 13th Street, between the 7th and 8th Avenues, on the centre of a lot of ground 100 feet front and rear, by 103| feet deep. The main building is 42 feet front, and 80 feet deep ; the stair building (in the rear,) is 21 by 14 feet. The main building is 49 feet high, from the pavement to the eaves. The first story of the front of the main building is of brown stone, polished, as is also the bases and caps of the pilasters. The walls are all of brick (including the front fences) ; the front being of (what are called) Philadelphia pressed bricks ; the front cornice is of wood, and painted white. The windows of the lower story, contain each 30, and the two upper stories each 40 panes of glass, 12 by 10 inches : the sashes are all hung with weights and cords, so that they may be raised or lowered at pleasure. The rooms are all wainscoted, as high as the window sills : the wain- scoting, doors, and desks are all grained in imitation of oak : the doors, window casings, and sashes are painted white. The rooms are ventilated by means of six blinds, 2 by 3 feet, being placed in the ceiling between the timbers, and two or three bricks being left out opposite the blinds, in the out- side walls. The first story is 11 feet 6 inches high in the clear, and is occupied as a Primary Department, for both boys and girls, and contains seats for 150 children in the Front Room, (marked A on Fig. 1.) and 200 on the Gallery, (marked M on Fig. 1) ; making in all 350 seats in this department. The second story is occupied as the Girls' department; the room is 15| feet high in the clear, and contains seats for 252 scholars. The third story is occupied as the Boys 1 department ; the room is 16|- feet high in the clear, and contains seats for 252 scholars ; making in all 854 seats in the building, exclusive of the seats in the recitation rooms. The steps in the stair building, by which the scholars enter and retire from school, are of blue stone, 3 inches thick by 12 inches wide, and are expected to last as long as any part of the building. This method was adopted to avoid the necessity of putting in new steps every few years, (which has heretofore been necessary where wooden steps have been used,) and also to lessen the noise consequent on a great number of children going either up or down wooden steps, at the same time ; thus far the experiment has succeeded admirably, and is now adopted for both Public and Primary Schools* NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE. Fig 1. Ground plan of Primary Department, yards, &c. 101 A. — Primary School room 39 by 38 feet. B— Infant do do 39 by 30 feet. C — Room for brooms, pails, &c. J — Boys' ward-robe, 16V by 8 feet. K— Girls' do 12^ by 8 feet. M— Gallery, 32 by 11 feet— Seats for 200 children. N, N— Desks, each 16| feet long. — Teachers' table. L — Main entrance. R, R — Entrance to the yard. U, U do to Primary department. V — Stairs to Girls' and Boys' do. S — Scholars' entrance — Boys' do. T do do Girls' do. Q— Sliding doors— 28 by 9^ feet. P, P — Stoves. Z, Z — Flues for stove pipes. I, I— Play ground, 102 by 26 feet; paved with brick. F, F — Privies, 12 by 8 feet. G, G— Boxes for sand— 3 by 2\ feet. D, D— Wood-houses— 83 by 2\ feet, and 6| feet high; the front of which is made of hemlock strips, 4 by 2 inches, set perpendicularly 2 inches apart, to al low a free circulation of air. E, E — Roof of wood-houses — project- ing 3^ feet beyond the front of the houses; forming a shelter for the scholars in stormy weather. H, H — Gutters of blue stone to con- duct the waste water from the wood houses and yards to the street. X — Court Yard — Q\ wide ; blue stone flagging. Y, Y — Stone foundation blocks, to which the iron railing in front is secured. 102 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE, NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE. 103 Plan &c, op Primary School, New York. The main building is 25 feet front, by 62f feet deep : the stair building is 27 feet by 11 feet 8 inches. The main building is placed 6 or 8 feet from the line of the street, according to the depth of the lot. The walls above the ground are built entirety of brick. The roof is of tin ; and the gutters of copper. The lower doors and windows have iron bars inserted, for safety, and to admit a free circulation of air in the summer, but are closed with sashes in the winter. Fig. 1. Ground plan of first story, or play-ground. This story is 7^ feet in the clear, with a partition wall through the middle to give separate play-grounds for the boys' and girls' schools. This wall is 8 inches thick ; and about 2\ feet of the upper part is open work for ventilation. C, C — Stairways. L, F — Places for pine (kindling) wood — under stairs. E. — Sand box for both departments. h, h — Piles of wood about 4| feet high. I, I — Lines on which the scholars are marshaled, previous to entering school. 1, 1, 1 — -Doors. Fig. 2 and 3. Ground plan of boys' and girls' department, each 60 by 32. D — Teachers' platform and table, (movable rollers.) d, d — Desks for scholars — the black dots are iron chairs, a — Cast iron lesson stands — on which two lesson boards are hung, to accommodate classes standing on the line b, b. H — Class Room, g, g, g — Flues, or chimnies, for stove pipes. f, f, f, &c. — Air flues, or recesses for ventilation, extending from the 2d story to the garret. C — Stove — the pipes extend from the stove to the front into the Sue, and also to the rear. 104 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The gallery consists of 7 seats, varying in height from 7 to 9 inches, each seat 20 feet long, and provided with a support for the back. These seats will accommodate 200 children. The whole is set 2\ feet from the wall, and is left open beneath — the space being used as a wardrobe for the youngest children. The youngest class is provided with a desk, having a trench (b) painted black to contain a thin layer of sand, in which to trace letters, and rude attempts at imitating forms. Each child has a slate, and there is an opening in the top of the desk (a) to receive it when not in use. Since the erection of this school-house some modifica- tions have been made in the construction of the desks and seats. Instead of the long bench for 10 or 12 pupils, each pupil has a chair similar to those represented below. The desks are 10^ inches wide; and the uprights, or legs, are cut out on the edge towards the chair. The highest desk is 1 foot 7 inches on the lowest side ; the lowest 1 foot 5 inches The chairs are 12 and 10 inches. The seat of the chair is about 8 inches wide, and is intended to be set so that the front of the seat and the edge of 'the top of the desk, shall be perpen- dicular, one with the other, so that the scholars may sit erect, and receive the benefit of the back of the chair while writing. The desks (Fig. 2.) are each for eight scholars and vary in height — the highest, which are most distant from the teacher, being on the lower edge 26 inches f/om the floor, and requiring a seat 17^ inches ; and the lowest being nearest the teacher, being 17 inches and requiring a seat 10 inches from the floor. Each desk has an appropriate place for an inkstand, books, pen, pen-wiper, pencil, and slate for each scholar. The slates are of the best quality, bound over the corners with a band of iron made fast to the frame The seats are stools, without backs — all belonging to one desk, being attached to a plank, which can be moved, although it is ordinarily made fast to the floor. There is sufficient space between each stool, and between each range of stools and the adjoining desk, to allow a scholar to leave or take his seat without disturbing any other. The monitors' seat and desk (F) are elevated about five inches above the rest, so as to command a view of each range of scholars' seats and desks. The top of the monitors' desk is hung with hinges, and sup- ported by a movable brace. NEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSE. 105 The attention of the Trustees and especially of a committee having charge of this subject, having been recently called to the importance of having some support provided for the backs of the older as well as the youuger scholars, has resulted in the introduction of MotPs patent revolving cast-iron chair into several of the new Primary Schools, and into one of the Public Schools. The chairs, except the seat, are made of cast iron, and are so constructed, that the seat and back may be turned round, while the bottom being screwed fast to the floor, remains stationary. The height of thelower partof the top of the desk, is just equal to the highest part of the back of the chair, so as to allow it to pass under. The front edge of the seat is in a perpendicular line with the edge of the top of the desk, so that the scholar is required to sit erect, when engaged in writing or studying, and the same time that part of bis back which re- quires support is fully in contact with the chair. These chairs are made of four sizes as follows — No 1 is 10 in. high, and requires a desk 17 in. " 2 " 12 " " " " 19i " " 3 " 14 " " " " 22 " " 4 " 16 " " " " 24 " These chairs are considered so ex- actly suited to the wants of the chil- dren, both as it regards ease in sitting, and in maintaining order while taking, or leaving their seats, that the Com- mittee on Primary Schools have con- cluded to recommend them wherever new desks are needed. J. L. Mott, 264 Water-street, has for sale cast iron lesson stands ; and cast iron standards or end pieces for school desks of four different sizes; and school stoves of various patters. The chair and standard have been recently introduced into many public and private schools in the city of New York and other places. 206 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The following remarks are from the " Report of the Primary School Committee to the Board of Trustees of the Public School Society of New York, on the use of seats without backs : — ' • s " On inquiry of the female teachers, several of the oldest and most expe- rienced among them say, that instances of curved spine are often perceived among their scholars. Individual members of this Board have noticed simi- lar instances ; and it deserves to be mentioned, that a highly respectable and intelligent foreign gentleman, who is deeply interested in the cause of educa- tion, on a late visit to one of our schools, expressed his surprise on perceiving how large a proportion of the girls were round-shouldered and stooping in their figure." ******* " 1st. It is a matter of notoriety to the medical profession, that, until about thirty or forty years ago, spinal curvatures were very little known. It is only since " the schoolmaster has got abroad," — only since so great and universal an impulse has been given to education, that these cases have become sufficiently numerous to attract the particular attention of medical men. There is now to be found a distinct class of practitioners, and of machinists, who live and thrive by the treatment of spinal injuries. 2d. A large proportion of these cases can be distinctly traced to causes connected with school education. Among the illiterate in all countries, these injuries are scarcely known. They occur most frequently in schools where females are much confined to a sitting posture, with but a scanty allowance of those robust and active exercises which impart power to the muscular system, and invigorate the general health. It should be here explained, that the trunk of the body is sustained in its erect position, solely by the action of muscles. Young and growing femalea who are but feebly endowed with muscular strength, experience such a sense of weariness in sitting upright, as to be induced, from necessity, to drop the body into a variety of curvatures ; and one particular curve becoming habit- ual and long persisted in, finally ends in permanent deformity. The influence of exercise in preventing the evil, is precisely that which it has on the arm of a blacksmith ; it augments the bulk, and redoubles the power of the mus- cles, and gives greater firmness and security to the joints. 3d. In all large cities there are many children, who, from infancy, are strongly predisposed to these affections, owing to a constitutional feebleness of muscle, or an unhealthy condition of the bones or joints. These require every precaution, during the course of their education, to prevent deformity. Supposing- the females attending our schools to be liable to spinal injuries, are these injuries owing to the use of seats without backs 1 The answer must be, that they are instrumental in causing them, just so far as they place the scholar under the necessity of seeking relief in the crooked and unhealthy attitudes into which she throws her body. Another question of similar im- port, is this : — Would seats with back-supports tend to prevent these injuries? A similar answer must be given. Such seats would act as a preventive, just in proportion as they removed the temptation and the necessity for indulging in injurious flexures of the body. When we see, as we often may, a girl of rapid growth, of yielding joints, and of feeble muscles, propping the weight of her body on her elbows, or, by way of change, bringing her sides alter- nately to rest on the desk before her, can we doubt for a moment, that, with a back-support, she would run less risk of injury to her figure 1 And in regard to those children, before alluded to, as having a natural predisposition to spinal distortions, seats of this kind would be indispensable to their safety " MOTT'S CAST IRON CHAIR. 107 Mott's School Chair and Desk. The following minute description of Mott's Patent Revolving Pivot Chair, and cast iron Scroll Stanchions for School Desks, is gathered from a circular of the patentee : The seat of the chair is of wood : all the other parts, of cast iron. The desk stanchions are adjusted to the height of the chair — in the following scale, viz : No. of the Chair. Height of Chair Seat. Height of front edge of Desk. Width of Desk. ™,m th fo°r f Si Distance scholar; (not between the less.) 1 rows of Desks. 1 2 3 4 10 Inches. 12 " 14 " 16 " 17 Inches. 19 " 22 " 24 " 12 Inches. 12 " 14 " 15 " 17 Inches. 18 " 20 " 22 « 20 Inches. 22 " 24 " 25 " The first column denotes the number of the dhair, as also the number of the desk stanchions. Second column, the height of the seat from the floor. Third column, the height of the front edge of the desk from the floor. Fourth column, the width of the top of the desk. The slope of the desk should rise li inch to the foot ; the larger desks having 2j to 3 inches level on top to accommodate inkstands. Fifth column, the length of desk room required for each scholar. It should not be less than here given. Sixth column, the distance that should be allowed between the desks, from the back of one to the front edge of the other. This space will allow a passage between the chair and the next rear desk. The number of scholars at a desk need not be limited. The position of each chair, when screwed to the floor, should have two-thirds of the allotted desk room to the right of its centre, and be so near that the back of the chair, in its revolution, will barely clear the desk. By placing the chair as described, the body of the child is brought in close proximity to the desk, causing the back of the person to rest, at all times, and under all circumstances, against the back of the chair. By a happy combination of the chair and the height of the desk, the children readily assume a position that is most convenient and conducive to their ultimate health, preventing those awkward habits sofre- quently acquired at school, and which are always so annoying to teachers. So uniform is the effect produced, that the back of the heads of twenty children, seated at a desk, will not vary one inch from a straight line. A distinguished literary lady, visiting one of the New York Public Schools, observing this uni- formity in the position of the children when seated, inquired of the female teacher, how she managed to keep them so. She answered, she did not know; she believed the one adopted it because the other did. The fact is, it was owing to the chair and desk. The chairs are made lower than usual, so that the feet of the scholar may rest upon the floor, and the muscles of the thigh do not tire by pressing hard upon the front edge of the seat. Fashion has had more influence in fixing the height of our chairs, than ease or convenience. The ladies are the best judges of such matters. When they order a sewing or a rocking chair, the direction is, make it low. The following testimony was furnished by an eminent physician of New York, who has taken a lively interest in the progress of schools. He says the advantages of this chair are : — 1st. That it gives an easy and firm support to the muscles of the back ; so uniform and agreeable that the posture of sitting never becomes painful, even though continued longer than is ever required in school. 2d. It thus effectually prevents that unequal and irregular action of the mus- cles on either side of the spine,. which, in delicate children, is likely to result from the habit of sitting upon a bench or stool without a back, and which has often produced in such children a curvature of the spine, and other deformities. 3d. Its rotary or revolving motion affords opportunities for that kind and de- 1 08 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. gree of exercise, even in the sitting posture, which is a salutary part of phys- ical education. 4th. Its permanent fixedness on the floor upon a pedestal, secures its proper proximity to the desk in front, and guards against the leaning or reclining po- sition which results from a movable bench, stool or chair, which may be nearer to the desk at one time than at another, and which has been found "wearisome to children, and otherwise detrimental to both their comfort and health. 5th. It admits of being adapted to the size and height of children, the seat being higher or lower, and its relation to the desk in front, varied as the chil- dren are larger or smaller. In every school there may be sufficient diversity in these particulars to enable the judicious teacher to select seats for every scholar which shall be found convenient and comfortable, changing them as often as circumstances may require. Simple as the chair may appear, it is the result of many experiments and much time. It was first thought that an ordinary rotary chair would answer the purpose ; but it was found that on account of its back, the chair, when al- lowed to revolve, could not be placed sufficiently near to the desk, to afford the desired support to the back of the scholar. To ascertain the proper height of the chair, a large number of children were measured ; to arrive at that of the desk, the length of arm from elbow to shoulder was taken, as it was thought that this might be a guide. The length differing to the extent of an inch and a half in children of the same stature, resort was had, in connection therewith, to the distance of sight. Upon experiment, it was found that when the desks were low, the back of the child was too much curved ; when high, the body was too erect — a medium height was selected. The chief peculiarity in the desk is, that in the place of straight wooden legs, there are substituted curved cast iron stanchions ; the obvious advantages of which are, that they occasion no interference with the movements of the scholar seated opposite or near to them. Two stanchions are necessary for a single desk. Two, also, will support a desk of sufficient length to accommodate three scholars ; three, to accommo- date six scholars; four, nine scholars ; and so on for a greater number. The expense of fitting up a room with this chair and desk, in the city of New York, varies from $1 50 to $2 00 a scholar, aside from the putting up of the desks. Although we think very highly of these chairs in some respects, we have serious objections to the shape and material of the iron back piece. This is too low, and not shaped to give the requisite support to the back when fatigued from an upright or any other position, long continued. Children, thinly clad, and of delicate constitution, must experience inconvenience, and be exposed to more serious consequences, from the rapid conduction of heat from the body, and especially from the spinal column, coming as the iron support does, across the small of the back. We can see no objection to attaching an ordinary shaped chair seat and back to the revolving pedestal. Indeed, school chairs of this last description are manufactured by Mr. Mott, when ordered. Since the above paragraph appeared in the first edition of this work, Mr. Mott informs us that he has modified the pattern of the back of his chair to ob- viate the objections therein made. The back piece is to be carried higher, and the iron is to be covered with cloth or felt. The seat is also to be covered Avith a stuffing of felt. Mr. Mott has also added another size, both of his chair and scroll stanchions for desks, so as to accommodate better the oldest class of scholars in our pub- lic schools. public school society. jq9 Public School Society op New York. Prior to 1805. the only schools in the city of New York which partook at all of the character of public schools, were one established by the " Female Association for the Relief of the Poor," in 1802, and those sus- tained by different religious denominations for the gratuitous education of the children of their own members. These were few, feebly sustained, and the course of instruction altogether inadequate. In April, 1805, on the petition of De Witt Clinton and other individu- als, a " free school" was incorporated by the legislature for the education of children who did not belong to, and were not provided for by any reli- gious society. This school was. organized in May, 1806, and taught on the plan then recently originated by Joseph Lancaster. In 1S08, the institution was enlarged by the legislature under the name of the " Free School Society of the City of New- York," and the city corporation presented a site for a school-house, and entrusted to its keep- ing the education of the children of the alms-house. In 1809, the first edifice was completed and dedicated to its future pur- poses in an address by De Witt Clinton, the president of the society. In 1815, the society received its quota ($3,708) of the first apportion- ment of the State Fund for the support of Common Schools. In 1821, a committee of the society were instructed to correspond with distinguished educators, in Europe and the United States, for information on the subject of schools, and especially the education of the poor. This step resulted in some modifications of the plans of the society, and the methods of instruction in the schools. In 1828, the first primary school was opened in the Duane street build- ing, on the plan of the infant schools, which had been introduced into the large cities of the United States, under voluntary efforts. The result was favorable. It drew off the younger scholars from the other schools in the same building, and facilitated the instruction and government in both classes of schools. This school was for a time under the joint manage- ment of the society and a committee of ladies from the infant school society. At this time, Mr. Samuel S. Seton was employed by the society as an agent to visit the families of the poor, to make known the benefits of the schools and secure the punctual attendance of delinquent scholars. This step led to a knowledge of various abuses, and the introduction of several improvements. Mr. Seton has since acted as the Agent of the Society, and in this capacity has given unity to all of the operations of the several committees of the Board. In 1828-29, the schools of the public school society were placed more on the basis of ". Common Schools" — open to all, not. as a matter of charity, but of right, and supported in part like other great public inter- ests, by a general tax. This tax was one eightieth of one percent., and was the first tax raised by the city of New York, for the support of Com- mon Schools; the memorial by which the attention of the Common Council was called to the subject was signed principally by the wealthiest citizens. In the winter of 1832 a large committee on the part of the society,, was appointed to examine into the condition of the schools, and propose such modification and improvement, as might be considered judicious. To aid the committee with the experience of other cities, two of their number were deputed to visit Boston and examine the school system and schools of that city. This committee reported certain modifications, which were concurred in by the board. These modifications were the establishment of primary schools, under female teachers, for the elementary classes, with some simple apparatus for visible illustration; an extension of the HO SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. studies in the upper public schools, so as to embrace astronomy, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and book-keeping ; an increase of the salaries or teachers, the substitution of assistant teachers for certain class recitations and reviews, and the opening of recitation rooms for this purpose ; the more extended use of blackboard, maps, globes, and other apparatus ; and the establishment of evening schools for apprentices, and such as leave school at an early age. In 1834, owing to the increase of the primary schools, a school was opened for the benefit of those who were employed as monitors in that class of schools. This plan has been extended so as to embrace such pupils of the older class of the upper schools, as from their peculiar taste, industry and proficiency, could be recommended as monitors or teachers. While in these normal schools, they are denominated " cadets," and such as are properly qualified are promoted to the station of monitors, under pay, and so on to " passed monitors," from which class the assistant teachers are to be selected. These schools now embrace two hundred pupils, under the charge of nine teachers, and have already furnished the schools with a number of teachers. In 1836. owing to a want of one or more high schools in the system, a number of scholarships in Columbia College and the University, with their preparatory schools, were opened by those having the management of these institutions, for such scholars of the public schools as were ad- vanced to the limit of the instruction there provided. In 1841-2, simi- lar privileges were opened in the Rutgers Female Institute, for a certain number of girls. In 1842. an act passed the legislature which altered very essentially the system of public schools in the city of New York, by providing for the appointment of School Commissioners in the several wards, who together constitute a Board of Education. In 1S44, Mr. Josiah Holbrook's system of scientific exchanges and a plan of oral instruction in the natural sciences, were introduced into the schools of the Society. The teachers were authorized to allow the pupils to occupy a limited portion of time weekly in pre- paring specimens of writing, mapping and drawing, with a view to the exchanging of such specimens for those of other schools in this and other states. These exchanges of the results of mental and artistical labors on the part of the pupils, have excited a most healthful rivalry, greatly favorable to the development of their mental faculties, while its moral influences have been decidedly good. Not the least among its benefits has been the cultivating of a taste for the art of drawing, so ne- cessary and useful a part of common school education, particularly in those pupils designed for mechanical pursuits. Connected with the oper- ations here alluded to, was a plan of instruction by short oral lectures on the natural sciences, from objects collected and placed in the school cabi- nets by the pupils themselves, formed into associations or " school lyce- ums." The combined operations of these simple but effective plans, has already been productive of sensible improvement in the schools, and its benefits thereby extended to others. As an evidence that this new plan of operations has excited renewed interest in the pupils for their own im- provement, and an increased local attachment to their schools, it may be stated, that by the voluntary agency of the pupils themselves, the spon- taneous efforts of these " school lyceums" and " scientific exchanges," some of the schools have thus acquired extensive cabinets of minerals, and other natural objects, with much valuable philosophical apparatus for carrying out this useful plan of public instruction. In 1845, two hundred volumes of carefully selected books were added to the Libraries of all the Public Schools of the Society, for the use oi the pupils. to 112 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plans, &c. of High-School, Lowell. Fig. ]. — End Elevation. [ L c i 1 -+ 1 1 1 1 bj ~"T" i ] i mil The house stands in the centre of a lot extending from Ann to Kirk street, furnishing separate entrances, yard, and play-ground for each sex. The house is of brick, 84 feet by 48, with two stories, each 14J feet in the clear, one for the male and the other for the female department, and an attic, which is arched and fitted up for a writing department. A, A, entrances at the ends. B, B, entries, provided with hooks, &c. for hats, bonnets, and outer garments. Cb, Cb, single desks and seats. E, E, Teacher's platform, 6i feet wide, raised 6 inches above the floor. F, Teach- er's desk. G, G, aisles, nearly 4 feet in width, all around the school-room. H, room for library, apparatus, &c, 18£ by 12J feet. I, recitation-room, 18£ by 12§ feet. J, J, stairways to the second story. K, hot air pipe from furnace. The rooms are heated by furnaces in the cellar, and ventilated by foui .openings in the ceiling, 8 inches by 16, which are carried out in flues buil- for this purpose in the chimneys. Each pupil has an area on the floor o more than 14 square feet. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE, LOWELL. Fig. 2.— Lower School-Room. 113 w ^ n • -■ ■■ ■■ ■■ =1 ■■ ■ .1 -I .1 -■ >H 4 • ■I 4 -■•■■ -■ -■ ■ .1 .1 ■■• .| .§ .1 . -I -I ■■ -I -I -I ■ >I .| ■■ -■ -I -| . .| .| .■*-■-■-■• 'I -I >■»■ >I »I >■ .| ■■•-■ B I n ^z i j 4 school architecture Plan, &c, of East School, Salem, Mass. The lot on which the house stands extends from Essex street to Bath street. — There is a sufficient passage-way on each side of the house, and access from each street. The north end faces the common, which affords the most ample play-ground, always open. The exterior dimensions of the building are 136 by 50 ft. The school- rooms are 65 by 36 ft. and 15 ft. high, each : the space in front of the desks, 65 by 4 ft. 6 inches ; the space occupied by the desks, 59 by 25 ft. ; the space in rear of the desks, 65 by 6 ft. 6 inches ; the floor of which is raised 8 inches above the floor of the rooms ; the side aisles are 3 ft., and all the other aisles 18 inches in width. The desks are so placed that the scholars sit with their faces towards the partition which separates the school-room from the recitation rooms, the light being thus admitted in their rear and on one side. The desks are 4 ft in length, and of four sizes in width, the two front ranges being 16 inches, the two next 15, the two next 14, and the two next 13. The desks are also of four sizes in height ; the two front ranges being, on the lower side, 27 inches, the two next 26, the two next 25, the two next 24. The desks in each school-room are placed in ranges, each range contain- ing eleven desks, and each desk being fitted for two scholars ; so that 176 scholars may be received in each department, or 352 in the whole school. The desks are constructed like tables, with turned legs, narrow rails, in- clined top and a shelf beneath. The legs and rails are of birch, stained and varnished, and the tops of cherry, oiled and varnished. The legs are se- cured in the floor by tenons. The tables of the teachers are constructed and finished like the desks of the scholars. The chairs are also of four sizes ; those in the two front ranges being 12 by 12^ inches in the seat, (i. e. extreme width, the sides being of the usual shape of chairs,) and 16 inches in height, and those in the succeeding ranges being reduced in height in proportion to the desks, and also varying propor- tionally in the dimensions of the seats. The chairs are constructed with seats of bass wood, and cherry backs ; the seats and backs hollowed, and the seats resting on wooden pedestals, secured to the floor by tenons and screws. Upon the front edge of the raised platform, in the rear of the desks, set- tees are placed, which are of the same length as the desks, and are placed in corresponding positions, with intervening spaces in continuation of the aisles. The settees are placed with the back towards the desks, and are designed exclusively for the use of classes attending reviews before the principals. The settees in width and height correspond to the largest size of chairs, and are constructed of the same materials, and finished in the same style. In the center and at the extremities of the range of settees, are placed tables, (of 4 by 2 ft. 6 inches, oval shape,) which are occupied by the assist- ants, during general exercises, when the station of the principal is in front of the desks, the middle one being used by the principal when attending reviews. Each recitation room (18 by 10 ft.) is appropriated to a single course of study, as marked upon the plan, and is therefore used exclusively by one assistant. Three sides of the room are appropriated to seats, being lined with cherry wood, (oiled and varnished) to a height reaching above the heads of the scholars. The lining is projected at the bottom, so as to fur- nish inclined backs to the seats, which are constructed of cherry wood, 13 inches in width, 2 inches thick, with hollowed top and rounded edge, sup- ported on turned legs, the height being 15£ inches from the top of the seat to the floor. The fourth side of the room, opposite the window, is occupied by a blackboard of 3 ft. in width, which extends across the space upon each side of the door. All the spaces between the doors and windows upon the four sides of the EAST GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE, SALEM. 115 school-rooms are occupied by blackboards. In the spaces between the windows upon the rear, recesses have been constructed, which are fitted with book-shelves, and are closed by means of covers in front, which are raised and lowered by weights and pulleys. These covers are blackboards, and are so finished as to represent sunken panels. Drawers are construct- ed beneath the blackboards to receive the sponges, chalk, &c. Circular ventilators are placed in the ceiling of each school-room and recitation room ; three in each school-room of 3 ft. in diameter, and one in each recitation room of 2 ft. in diameter. These ventilators are solid cov- ers of wood, hung with hinges, over apertures of corresponding size, and raised or lowered by means of cords passing over pulleys, through the ceil- ing into the room below, the cords terminating in loops, which are fastened to hooks in the side of the room. When the ventilators are raised, the im- pure air escapes into the garret, the ventilation of which is also provided for by means of the circular windows in the gable ends, which turn on pivots in the center, and are opened or shut by cords passing over pulleys in the same manner as the ventilators. Each school-room is warmed by a furnace, placed directly under the cen- ter of the space in front of the desks, the hot air ascending through a circu- lar aperture of 2 ft. in diameter, which is represented upon the plan. The smoke-pipe, (of galvanized iron) is conducted upward through the center of this aperture, and thence, after passing a considerable distance into the school-room, through one of the recitation rooms into the chimney, which is built in the center of the front wall. The recitation rooms are warmed by means of apertures at the top and bottom respectively of the partitions which separate them from the school-rooms, which being open together, secure a rapid equalization of temperature in all the rooms. These aper- tures are fitted to be closed, with revolving shutters above, and shutters hung on hinges below. In the partition wall between the school-rooms, is a clock having two faces, and thus indicating the hour to the occupants in each room. The clock strikes at the end of each half hour. In the ante-rooms, (marked F, F, on the plan Fig. 1) are hooks for caps, overcoats, &c. In each of these rooms, also, there is a pump and sink. In the loioer story, there are two primary school-rooms 36|- ft. by 24^- ft., each seating 60 children. Each child has a chair firmly fixed to the floor, but no desk. In the rear there is an appropriate shelf for books, for each pupil, numbered to correspond with the number on the chair. In front of the school, there is a blackboard occupying the distance between the doors, and a desk, at which the several classes stand in succession, and copy appropriate exercises on the slate from the blackboard. For this school-house, with all its completeness of arrangements and regulations, the city of Salem is indebted mainly to the indefatigable exer- tions of the late Mayor, the Hon. Stephen C. Phillips. During the three years of his administration, every school-house was repaired or rebuilt, and all the schools brought under an admirable system. On leaving his of- fice, in 1842, he gave to the city for school purposes, his salary for three years, amounting to $2,400, which has been applied to repair- ing and refurnishing the High School building, which is now a monument of his taste and mu- nificence. The High School, and one of the new primary schoois, are fur- nished with " Kimball's Improved School Chair," which for strength, comfort, and style of finish, is su- it' h School Chair P erior to an y otner now before the Primary School Chair. lg c oo air. p U ^j c> 116 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. SO f ■" s 2 °° "3 tS »H S w "« § a o 3 a" B '5 o | > 1 6 0) o IS ta Q | cr. t-ve.ntj' feat b- twelve, and is designed for the N. nnal School. The Lower st*»rjr is" fitted u* for a Model School. MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES \ 37 Bridgewater State Normal School-House. Fig. 2. — Lower Story. B & MS H D ■ ■ 9 1 SB 13 f " A. .A. ■"""*S 3) - *Sp3«i ^SS^E^ 1 D, D — Doors, one for males, trie other for females. E, E — Hall-entries, into which the doors D, D open, 19 feet by 15. A, A — Stairways, leading from the entries to the Normal School-room. M, S, R — Model School-room, 40 feet by 24, with single seats and desks. H — Entry-way, 6 feet 8 inches wide, for Model School scholars. At each end of this entry is an outside door, for the entrance of the Model School scholars — a separate entrance for each sex. G, F — Laboratory and chemical room, or lecture-room, connected by folding doors. The two rooms 40 feet by 16. B, C — Back stairways. J 38 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Bridgewater State Normal School-House. Fie. 3. — Upper Story. A, A— Separate stairways, for the different sexes, leading from the lower entries or halls to the Normal School-room. N, S, R— Normal School-room, 41 feet by 40. c, c, c— Single seats, d, d— Double desks. P, P, P— Teachers- platform, e, e. e, e, e — Behind the platform are recesses in the partition for a library", e', e— Between R, R, are closets for apparatus. R, R— Recitation- rooms, 22 feet by 12. B, C— Back stairways. MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES. \ 39 "Westfifld State Normal School-House. Fig. 4.— Front Elevation. This edifice is of brick, of the size of sixty-two feet by forty feet, with a portico of eight feet at each end of the building, and is two stories in height. The Normal School-room is about forty feet square, and is provided with two recitation-rooms. The first story is fitted up with a room large enough to accommodate a Model School, which is composed of the children of one of the districts in the town of Westfield, the district having paid the sum of $1500 towards the erection of the building, and being obligated to pay an agreed proportion of the expenses of fuel, instraition, &c, 140 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Westfield State Normal School-House. Fig. 5.— Lower Story. MASSACHUSETTS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL-HOUSES. 141 Westfield State Normal School-House. Fig. 6.— Upper Story. S, S — Stairways, leading from entry to Normal School-room. N, S, R— Normal School-room, 38 feet by 37. e, e — Single seats, d, d— Double desks. P, P — Platform, with recesses in the partition behind for a library, c, c— Closets for apparatus. R, R— Recitation-rooms, one 22 feet by 11, the other 22 feet by 10J. 142 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Hints respecting Ventilation. The annexed section exhibits the mode recommended in the " Minutes of the Committee of Council (England) on Education," for regulating a supply of fresh air, and providing for the escape of that rendered unfit for respi- ration in school-houses with two stories. A, A and G are gratings commu- nicating by a passage through the external wall into a space under the floor, by which cold pure air enters at B and D through valvular openings in the floors into each apartment respectively. The extent of these openings can be enlarged or diminished or entirely closed at any time by turning the valve or register with which each opening should be furnished. At C and E the impure air can be allowed to escape through valvular openings in or near the ceiling ; from the lower apartment, by means of a flue in or along the wall into the open space between the upper ceiling and roof ; and from the upper apartment directly into the same space. At F are air grates in the ends of the build- ing through which the warm gl impure air escapes. The mode of ventilation, above described and illustrated, can be improved by introducing the pure cold air from the atmosphere above the building by one of Motfs Receiving Coiols placed on the tdp of a recess of four or six inches made in the wall if built of brick, or of a flue or pipe extending from the floor to the roof, and discharging it into the room by a valvular opening in the floor. The escape of impure air can be hastened by placing one or more of Motfs Exhausting Cowls on a ventilating flue or flues, leading directly from each apart- ment above the roof or from the attic, into which the impure air has been discharged. The flues or recess, both for in- troducing pure air, and discharging that which has become impure should have two openings into the room, one near the ceiling and the other at the floor. These flues can be constructed without any additional cost for mason work, by leaving a recess of 4 inches (in a 12 inch wall) by 20 inches, and continuing it through the coping on which the cowl is placed. The furring for the lath being 1 inch, leaves Receiving Cowl a flue of 100 square inches. The beams, floor, and ceiling will complete the flue. If the room is warmed by one or more stoves, the cold air should be introduced within a few inches of the bottom of the stove. The openings into the flues should be furnished with valves or doors, and should be managed so as to admit the pure cold air to the most heated part of the room, and effect the escape from that part of the room where the air is most impure. This will vary with the mode of heating the room, whether by fire- place, stove, or furnace; and from summer to winter. The openings for the escape of the vitiated air should be so placed as to cause the pure air warmed by contact with the stove, or flowing in from a furnace below, to traverse the whole apartment. Exhausting Cowl. VENTILATION. J 43 The annexed section of one of the Primary School buildings of the Public School Society of New York, exhibits the mode of introducing fresh air from out of doors, beneath the stove, {a a a,) and the egress of the impure air through openings in the ceiling (b b b). Tims a current of pure air is caused to flow through the apartment. The combined effect of the two, is represented to be a sufficient ventilation of the building where this mode has been adopted, espe- cially when aided by Mott's Exhausting Cowl on the top of the ventilating flue. The flues under the floor and over the ceiling are covered with cast iron piates about twelve inches square, of a light casting, and full of small holes; those in the floor plates being less than an eighth of an inch diameter, to spread the current of fresh air as it enters the apartment. The holes in the ceiling plates are from one fourth to three eighths of an inch in diameter, to facilitate the es- cape of the impure air. The school-rooms of the Public School Society are generally warmed by wood stoves, which are cast with thick plates, so as not to become easily over-heated. The result of an experiment in one of the Primary Schools, to heat by wood in a furnace, showed that this is not as economical a mode of warming these apartments as by wood in stoves, although it is stated that "the ventilation, it must be confessed, is more efficient " In most of the school-rooms, the ingress of fresh air is secured by lowering the upper sash, as is exhibited in the side drawing. (44 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Method op Ventilation, by Frederick Emerson. Ejecting Ventilator. Another method of ventilating buildings has been recently invented by Mr. Frederick Emerson, of Boston, which is acquiring very general use in that city and its vicinity. In the complete arrangement of his plan, Mr. Emerson em- ploys two ventilators, — an Ejector and an Injector, — one to withdraw the im- pure air, and the other to introduce fresh air. These ventilators are not dependent on a vane, but perform iheir office without changing position, what- ever may be the direction of the wind, even if it be inclined or vertical, and however fitful its changes. It is the peculiar character of these ventilators, that distinguishes his plan, and for them he has obtained letters patent. The Ejecting Ventilator consists of a frustrum of a cone attached to the top of a tube, open in its whole extent, and surmounted by a fender, which is supported upon rods, and answers the double purpose of keeping out the rain, and of so directing and turning a blast of wind upon the structure, as that in whatever direction it falls, the effect, that of causing a strong upward draft, will be very uniform and constant. Each of these ventilators is fixed upon the upper end of a tube or ventiduct, that pro- jects through the roof of the building into the open air, and extends downward into the room to be ventilated. The ventiduct of the Ejector is constructed on one side of the room, opposite the side in which the stove or other means of warm- ing is placed, and extends from the ceiling to the floor. In this ventiduct (here are two apertures — one at the ceiling and the other at the floor — for the escape of air. The aperture at the floor is twice as great as that at the ceiling; and the sum of the area of the two apertures is equal to the area of the ventiduct. The ventiduct of the Injector leads into the warm-air chamber of a ventilating stove, or into a furnace ; so that, in the cold season, the fresh air becomes warm before it enters the room. The Ejecting ventilator, without the Injector, will, in general, be found sufficient to ventilate a school-room. It should, however, be used in con- nection with a ventilating stove or furnace, through which the quantum of warm air admitted into the room is equal to the quantum of air withdrawn from the room. Mr. Emerson insists on the admission of warm air into a school-room, as indis- pensable to its safe ventilation ; and he enforces his views on this point, by re- fusing to allow his ventilators to be put upon any school-house that is not, by some means, supplied with fresh warmed air. He objects to the use of all such stoves and furnaces as emit their heat through red-hot iron, and recommends that, where anthracite coal is used, the stove or furnace in which it is burned, be lined with brick or stone. The size of the ventilators is made to correspond to the capacity of the room. A room containing fifty scholars is found to require an Ejecting ventila- tor whose tube is fourteen inches in diameter. A room for one hundred scholars requires the tube to be eighteen inches ; and a room for two hundred scholars requires it to be twenty-four inches. The mode of using Mr. Emerson's Ejecting and Injecting Ventilators, is illustrated on page 158 of this Essay, and described in the extracts from the "Final Report of the Committee on Ventilation" in the public schools of Boston. Injecting Ventilator. boston mode of ventilation. \ 45 Methods of Ventilation and Warming, recently introduced into the School-Houses of Boston. In February, 1846, the School Committee of Boston appointed Dr. Henry G. Clark, E. G. Loring, Esq., and Rev. Charles Brooks, a Committee "to consider the subject of ventilation of the school- houses under the care of this Board, and to report at a future meeting some method of remedying the very defective manner in which it is now accomplished." The Committee were further " authorized to ventilate any three school-houses, in such manner as they may deem expedient." Under these instructions, the Committee visited, and carefully examined all the school-houses under the care of the Board, and instituted a variety of experiments, for the purpose of determining on the best method of ventilation, to be generally intro- duced. In December, 1846, this Committee made a Report, for a copy of which we are indebted to the author, Dr. Clark, by whose agency and ingenuity mainly, these great improvements, both in ven- tilation and warming, hereafter detailed, have been introduced into the Public Schools of Boston. We are also indebted to Dr. Clark for the use of the cuts by which this Report, and a subsequent Re- port, are illustrated. We shall extract largely from these valuable documents, with the permission of the author. It will be seen that the views here recommended are substantially the same with those presented under the head of Ventilation, in this Treatise. " Your Committee desire to call the attention of this Board, chiefly to the con- sideration of such general and well established Physiological and Philosophical principles, as have a distinct and intimate relation to the subject of tins Re- port, and may be useful in its elucidation. In doing this^ there are two things of which they hope to satisfy the Board. First. The necessity of a system of ventilation, which shall furnish, for all the pupils in the Public Schools of Boston, at all times* an abundant supply of an atmosphere entirely adapted, in its purity and temperature, to the pur- poses of respiration. Secondly. The entire failure of the measures heretofore adopted to accom- plish this desirable end. The function of Respiration, is that process, by whose agency and constant operation, atmospheric air is admitted to the internal surface of the lungs, and there brought into close contact with the blood, for the purpose of effecting certain changes in it, which are essential to the continuance of life, and to maintain the integrity of the bodily organs. During this process, the atmos- phere is constantly losing its oxygen, which is carried into the circulation, while, at the same time, it is becoming overcharged with the carbonic acid gas, which is continually thrown off from the lungs by respiration. This effete and deadly poison spreads itself rapidly into all parts of the room. ' M. Lassaigne has shown, by a series of investigations, that, contrary to a. common opinion, the air in a room which has served for respiration without being renewed, contains carbonic acid alike in every part, above as well as be- low; the difference in proportion is but slight ; and, where appreciable, there is some reason to believe that the carbonic acid is in greater quantity in the upper parts of a room. These experiments establish the very important fact, that all the air of a room must be changed, in order to restore its purity.'* Dr. Wyman makes the following remarks on this point : ' Although carbonic acid is a much heavier gas than atmospheric air, it does not, from this cause, fall to the floor, but is equally diffused through the room. If the gas is formed ob the floor without change of temperature, this diffusion may not take place "Silliman's Journal for September, 1846. 10 146 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. rapidly. In the celebrated Grotto del Cane, carbonic acid escapes from the floor, and rises to a certain height, which is pretty well defined to the sight on the walls; below this line, a dog is destroyed, as if in water; above it, he is not affected. An analysis of the air above and below a brazier has been made, and it was found equally contaminated, — the former containing 4.65 per cent., and the latter 4.5 per cent, of carbonic acid. ' From the experiments of M. Devergie, who has devoted much attention to the poisonous effects of these gasses, it appears, that the heat disengaged from the combustion of charcoal, produces an equable mixture at all eleva- tions in the apartment ; and this state of things continues as long as the room remains warm ; but after twelve hours or more, the carbonic acid sinks, and while that near the ceiling contains only a seventy-eighth, that near the floor contains nearly four times as much, or a nineteenth.' (See Prac. Trea. p. 77.) If further proof be needed, to establish this position, we have other testimony. During respiration, a considerable quantity of vapor is discharged from the lungs. With regard to this, Mr. Tredgold says : ' if the air did not contain this mixture of vapor, it would not rise when expelled ; and we have to ad- mire one of those simple and beautiful arrangements, by which our all-wise Creator has provided against the repeated inhalation of the same air ; for a mixture of azote, carbonic acid gas, and vapor, at the temperature it is eject- ed, is much lighter than common air even at the same temperature. Hence, it rises with such velocity, that it is entirely removed from us before it becomes diffused in the atmosphere. But as all gaseous bodies and vapors intimately mix when suffered to remain in contact, we see how important it is that venti- lation should be continual ; that the noxious gasses should be expelled as soon as generated ; and that the ventilation should be from the upper part of a room.' (S e Tredgold on Warming, fyc, p. 70. If, to the foul efnuvia ejected from the lungs, and accumulating in an apart- ment as badly ventilated as one of our school-rooms, be added the fouler matter thrown into the air from the insensible perspiration of so many individuals, many of whom are of uncleanly habits in person and apparel, it is apparent, that, in a very limited period of time, the air, in a perfectly close room, would become so entirely unfit for respiration, that, to all who were exposed to its influence, submersion in water could not be more certainly fatal. The terrible effects of continued exposure to carbonic acid gas in a concen- trated form, have been graphically described by Howard, in his account of the Black Hole of Calcutta. Of one hundred and forty-six persons, shut up in this place for only ten hours, without any other means of ventilation than one small opening, but twenty-six were found alive, when it came to be opened ; and most of these suffered afterward from malignant fevers. The fainting of feeble persons in crowded assemblies, and the asphyxia, so often produced in those who descend into deep wells without suitable precau- tion, are familiar examples of the same noxious effects of this poison. In has been usually estimated, that every individual, by respiration, and the various exhalations from the body, consumes or renders unfit for use, at least from four to five cubic feet of air per minute. This is probably a low esti- mate ; but authors of good repute differ considerably on this point. Mr. Tred- gold's remarks, in this connection, are interesting and pertinent. ' The Phys- iological Chemists,' says he, ' have placed in our hands a more accurate means of measuring the deterioration of air in dwelling rooms, than by the best eudiometer : for they have shown, by repeated experiments on respira- tion, that a man consumes about thirty-two cubic inches of oxygen in a minute, which is replaced by an equal bulk of carbonic acid from the lungs. Now, the quantity of oxygen in atmospheric air is about one fifth ; hence it will be found, that the quantity rendered unfit for supporting either combustion or ani- mal life, by one man, in one minute, is nearly one hundred and sixty cubic inches, by respiration only. But a man makes twenty respirations in a minute, and draws in and expels forty inches of air at each respiration; consequently, the total quantity contaminated in one minute, by passing through the lungs, is eight hundred cubic inches.'* The other sources of impurity, which should be considered, will increase the estimate to the amount above stated. The amount of vapor discharged from the lungs, and thus added to the impurities of the air, is said to exceed six grains per minute. It has also been shown 'Tredgold on Warming, &c, p. 69 BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 147 that air, which has been some time in contact with the skin, becomes almost entirely converted into carbonic acid. In estimating the amount of fresh air to be supplied, we ought not merely to look at what the system will tolerate, but that amount which will sustain the highest state of health for the longest time. Dr. Reid recommends at least ten cubic feet per minute, as a suitable average supply for each individual ; and states that his estimate is the result of an ' extreme variety of experiments, made on hundreds of different constitutions, supplied one by one with given amounts of air, and also in numerous assemblies and meetings, where there were means for estimating the quantity of air with which they were pro- vided.' (Illustrations of Ventilation, p. 116.) These calculations refer to adults ; but the greater delicacy of the organiza- tion of children, and their feebler ability to resist the action of deleterious agents, together with their greater rapidity of respiration, demand for them at least an equal supply. Proceeding upon this basis, and multiplying the amount required per minute, by the minutes of a school session of three hours, we have eighteen hundred cubic feet for each pupil, and for two hundred and fifty pupils — the average maximum attendance in one of our large school-rooms, — 450,000 cubic feet, as the requisite quantity for each half-day. The rooms contain about 22,500 cubic feet only : so that a volume of air, equal to the whole cubic contents of each room, should be supplied and removed, in some way, ten times every three hours, in order to sustain the atmosphere in them at a point which is perfectly wholesome and salubrious. For such a purpose, the present means are so entirely inadequate, that it was found that the air of a room became tainted in ten or fifteen minutes. In ordinary cases, four per cent, of the air expelled from the lungs is carbonic acid. The presence of five or six per cent, will extinguish a lamp, and with difficulty support life. It is therefore certain, that the air would become deprived of all its best properties in one school session. Le Blanc, — who examined many public and private buildings, in France and elsewhere, — speaking of the Chamber of Deputies, where sixty-four cubic feet of fresh air per minute, were alloAved to each individual, states, that ol 10,000 parts escaping by the ventilator, twenty-five were carbonic acid ; whik the quantity of this gas ordinarily present in the atmosphere, is but foTnnr Dr. Reid states, that he never gave less than thirty cubic feet of air a minute, to each member of the House of Commons, when the room was crowded; and once he introduced, for weeks successively, sixty cubic feet a minute, to each member. The very earliest impressions received by your Committee, in their visits to the school-houses, satisfied them of their lamentable condition in regard to ventilation. In some of them, they found the air so bad, that it could be per-, ceived before reaching the school-rooms, and in the open entries ; and the chil- dren, as they passed up and down the stairs, had their clothes and hair percep- tibly impregnated with the fostid poison. And these circumstances existed in houses, where the open windows testified, upon our entrance, that the Masters had endeavored to improve the atmosphere by all the means placed at their disposal. To this custom, — that of opening windows in school .hours, — the In- structors are compelled to resort, for relief; and this expedient, certainly, is the lesser of two very great evils. Your Committee found in their visits to the school-houses, during the severest days of last winter, that no school-room had less than three, and that more than half of them had at least seven windows open for the admission of pure air. Yet this dangerous and injurious practice only mitigates the evils of bad air, by creating others. It produces colds and inflammatory complaints, and the air still remains impure, offensive, and highly deleterious ; sufficiently so, to affect the delicate organization of child- hood, to blight its elasticity, and destroy that healthful physical action, on which depends the vigor of maturer years. We have already referred to some of the more violent and sudden effects of ex- posure to air highly charged with these noxious gasses. There are others, which are more remote, and, to a superficial observer, less noticeable. But they are not, therefore, of less importance. The grave consequences of a long-contin- ued exposure to an atmosphere but a little below the standard of natural purity, although not immediately incompatible with life, can hardl , be over- .43 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. stated. These effects are often so insidious in their approach, as hardly to at- tract notice ; they are therefore the more necessary to be provided against in advance. Children, confined in the atmosphere of these schools, soon lose the ruddy and cheerful complexions of perfect health which belong to youth, and acquire the sallow and depressed countenances which might reasonably be expected in over-worked factory operatives, or the tenants of apartments unvisited by the sun or air. We noticed in many faces, also, particularly towards the close of a school session, a feverish flush, so bright that it might easily deceive an in- experienced eye, and be mistaken for a healthy bloom. Alas ! it was only a transient and ineffectual effort of nature to produce, by overaction, those salu- tary changes which she really wanted the fencer to accomplish. The condition of the pupils, depressed as they are by these influences, is constantly demanding increased exertions from their Instructors, while the re- quirements of the age place the standard of education at an elevation suffi- ciently difficult of access under the most favorable circumstances. Your committee are satisfied, therefore, that the present state of the school- houses daily impairs the health of the pupils and Instructors, and the efficiency of the schools for the purposes of instruction. That its continuance will pro- duce, not only immediate discomfort and disease, but, by its effect on the con- stitutions of the children, who must pass in them a large portion of those years most susceptible to physical injury, will directly and certainly reduce the amount of constitutional vigor hereafter to be possessed by that large mass of our population, which now and hereafter is to receive its education in these schools. Although the atmosphere in the different school-houses varied very much in particular cases, either owing to the time of the visits, or from the amount of attention and intelligence of the Masters, yet in none of them was it at all sat- isfactory ; not one of them was furnished with any useful or systematic means of ventilation. Every one, in order to be kept in a tolerably comfortable con- dition in this respect, required the frequent and laborious attention of the In- structors, and often to a degree which must have seriously interfered with their legitimate duties. All of the rooms are provided with registers, in or near the ceiling, ostensi- bly for the purpose of discharging the foul air, but which your Committee be- lieve to be almost entirely useless. The openings through the roof into the open air, where they exist, are so small, as to be quite inadequate to relieve the attics ; so that the bad air must accumulate there, and, after becoming condensed be gradually forced back again, to be breathed over by the same lungs which have already rejected it. The condition of the apartments, after under- going a repetition of such a process, for any length of time, can easily be imagined." A reference to the subjoined diagram will explain at once the present state of the Ventilation of the School-Houses. a. Heated air from furnace. b. Hot air escaping through open window. c. Cold air entering through open window. BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 149 It may be a matter of surprise, to some, perhaps, that the subject of ventila- ting our school-rooms has not long ago received the consideration necessary . to remedy, or even to have prevented altogether, the evils of which we at pres- ent complain. But these evils have not always existed. It should be recol- lected, that the stoves and furnaces now in common use, are of comparatively modern date; and moreover, that the ample fireplaces, which they have dis- placed, always proved perfectly efficient ventilators, although, it is true, some- what at the expense of comfort and fuel. But in closing the fireplaces, and sub- stituting more economical methods of warming, evils of far greater magnitude have been entailed upon us. It is evident, that, in order to carry into operation any complete system of ventilation, there must be connected with it some apparatus to regulate the temperature of the air to be admitted, as well as to ensure its ample supply. Your committee have accordingly examined, with much care, this part of the subject. A majority of the buildings are furnished with ' hot-air furnaces,' situated in the cellars ; the remainder with stoves, placed in the school-rooms themselves. Most of the furnaces possess great heating powers, — indeed much greater than is necessary, if the heat generated by them were properly econo- mized, or could be made available ; — but, as now constructed, they are almost worse than useless, consuming large quantities of fuel, and, at the same time, so overheating the air which passes through them, as to deprive it of some of its best qualities, and render it unsuitable for respiration. It is difficult to define, with precision, and by analysis, the changes which take place in air subjected to the action of metallic surfaces, at a high temperature. The unpleasant dryness of the air can be detected, very readily, by the senses ; and the head- ache, and other unpleasant sensations, experienced by those who breathe such an atmosphere, would seem to prove a deficiency of oxygen and electricity. The rapid oxydation and destruction of the ironwork of the furnaces them- selves, also tends to confirm this supposition. _ It has been ascertained, by repeated examinations, that the temperature of the air, when it arrives at the rooms, is often as high as 50(P and 6003 Fahren- heit. Of course, it is entirely impossible to diffuse air, thus heated, in the parts of the room occupied by the pupils. Much of it passes rapidly out of the windows, which may be open; the rest to the ceiling, where it remains until partially cooled, gradually finding its way down by the walls and closed win- dows, to the lower parts of the room. The consequences are, that, while much more caloric is sent into the apartment than is requisite, many of the pupils are compelled to remain in an atmosphere which is at once cold and stagnant. The source of the cold air for supplying the furnaces, is not always free from objection ; some being drawn from the neighborhood of drains, cesspools, &c. This is a radical defect, as it must inevitably affect the whole air of the building. The boxes, which admit the cold air to the furnaces, are much too contracted ; some of them being only a few inches square, when their capacity ought to be nearly as many feet. The air enters the ' cold-air ' chamber of the furnace, at its top, whence it is intended to be carried down between thin brick walls, (which should be cold, but which are often heated to 3003 Fahren- heit,) to the lower part of the furnace, and thence into the ' hot-air ' chambers, and so on to the rooms above. It is obvious that the 'hot-air' chamber must be heated to a temperature far beyond that of the ' cold-air ' chamber, in order to compel the air, against its own natural tendencies, to pass into it with any velocity or volume, and the very attempt to accomplish this, almost de- feats itself; as, by driving the fire for this purpose, the ' cold-air ' chamber be- comes still hotter, so that at last the contest is decided only by the greater cal- orific capabilities which the iron plates possess over the brick wall. At any rate, the temperature of the iron is frequently raised to a red and even a white heat, by running the furnaces in the ordinary way. This soon destroys them, and they require consequently to be frequently renewed. In addition to all this waste of fuel and material, the folly of attempting, in any way, to warm school-rooms whose windows are freely opened to the admission of an atmosphere, at the low temperature of our winter climate, may well claim a oassing notice. 150 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The following diagrams will exhibit the mode in which the two houses al- ready referred to, are now ventilated. Plan of the Ventilation of the Eliot School-House. a. a. Cold air channels to furnaces. b. b. Heated air. The arrows show the cur- rents of air from the furnaces to the outlet at the roof. c. Gas burner. This house was entirety without any external opening through the roof. The other arrangements in it presented nothing peculiar. The ' exits and the entrances ' were all as deficient in capacity as usual. The first care was to perforate the roof. This was accordingly done, and an opening of sufficient size made to carry a turn-cap of two and a half feet in diameter in its smallest part. The cold-air shaft, with an area of only one hundred and forty square inches, was enlarged so as to measure six hundred, or about four times its for- mer size. The necessary repairing of one furnace, gave us an opportunity to enlarge its air-chamber very considerably. Water, for evaporation, was placed within a chamber of the furnace. The registers in the rooms opening into the attic, being below the ceiling, were raised to the highest point, and increased in size. Although we think the want of connection of the cowl at the roof with the registers from the rooms by closed tubes, a decided disadvantage, we were sat- isfied, on the whole, with the results ; as the alterations gave great relief. These changes were made during the month of February, 1846, and the only inconvenience suffered during the winter, was the occasional rise of the temperature to five or ten degrees beyond the desired point. The atmosphere has lost its bad odor almost entirely, and is of course much more agreeable. A gas burner has lately been placed in the throat of the ventilator, for use when extra power is needed. Plan op the Ventilation op the Endicott School-House. This house, as well as the preceding, was heated by furnaces in the cellar, one for each room. Its ventilating flaes were arranged in a better manner thau usual, opening into little separate chimneys which pierced the roof near the copings. But they had proved to be insufficient, both on account of their size and situation. They were also affected sensibly by down-gusts, which com- pletely reversed their action in certain states of the atmosphere and wind, BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 151 a. a. Currents of heated air passing to the ventilating flues. b. b. Cold air channels. c. c. Cold air valves opening upon the hot-air currents. F. F. Furnaces. <§. Stove in ventilator in the attic. After enlarging the cold-air shaft to a proper size, it was thought best, (as the hot-air pipe passed through the brick wall, so that it could not easily be altered,) to make an opening through the outer wall directly behind the register which delivered the hot-air into the room. An aperture of sixteen inches square, commanded by a revolving damper, was therefore cut. It has been found to answer exceedingly well; as we now get a much larger volume, of more tem- perate and purer air. For the delivery of the bad air, the following arrangements were adopted. Large wooden boxes, or air-shafts, were carried from the floor of each story into the attic, where they communicate, by closed metal pipes of the same size, with a tin cylinder, three feet in diameter, which is continued to the roof, ter- minating there in a large cowl. There are openings, at the top and bottom of each room, into the ventilating shafts, which can be used separately, or together, as the state of the atmosphere requires. An air-tight coal stove, placed within the drum, in the attic, completes the apparatus. This has been only recently constructed ; but from results already produced, there is no doubt of its entire ability to accomplish all that is desirable. The same general statements which have been made with regard to the Grammar School-houses, will apply to the Primary School-houses. They are undoubtedly in as bad a condition, to say the least; and from their smaller ca- pacities in proportion to the number of pupils which they contain, require particular attention. For ventilation of these, and the Recitation rooms, which resemble them in structure and size, your Committee recommend the use of the double fireplace* or the Ventilating Stove, which will be hereafter described. If the latter be used, ventilating flues, opening at the ceiling, must be carried out of the roof. It only remains for your Committee to describe, more particularly, the system of ventilation which they consider to be, in its general features, best adapted for the school-houses under the care of the Board. Much of it has al- ready been anticipated in other parts of this Report; and the following plan will show, at a glance, better than any description can do, its particular features. : See page 38 of this Essay for a diagram and description. 152 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Diagram showing the best general plan for warming and ventilating the Grammar School-Houses. a. a. Cold-air channel, three feet in diameter, opening underneath tne Furnace. F. Furnace, three feet in diameter in a brick chamber ten feet square. The walls twelve inches thick. d. Smoke flue, surmounted with Mr. Tredgold's chimney top. b. b. b. b. Currents of warmed air, passing from the furnace, through a main flue of four feet in diameter, which supplies two branch flues. From these the air is diffused into all parts of the room, by means of the tablets which are placed over the mouths of the registers. e. The ventilating shaft, two and a half feet in diameter, into which the foul gasses are collected, and from which they are finally discharged into the open air. c. An Argand Lamp, to be lighted from the attic. r. r. r. Registers, by means of which the whole circulation is controlled. The Committee recommend attention to the following general rules for Ven- tilation and Warming. 1. The air must be taken from a pure source. The higher parts of the building are the best, as thereby all impurities, which often contaminate air taken from near the surface of the ground, are avoided. 2. In order to ensure a constant and abundant supply, the air shaft must be surmounted with a cowl or hood of some kind, with its mouth turned towards the wind. 3. The fresh air should in all cases be carried entirely beneath the fumaee* BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 153 If the cellar is wet and the situation low, the underground culvert or channel should be of brick, laid in cement. 4. The furnace chamber should be so large that it can be entered at any time, without the necessity of taking down walls, for the purpose of repairs, or to observe the temperature. A large earthen pan for the evaporation of water should never be omitted. This should be kept always perfectly clean, and the water required to be frequently changed. 5. A thermometer should be constantly at hand, and the temperature in the warm-air chamber should never be allowed to exceed that of boiling water. A still lower temperature is often desirable. If this point is'secured, the hot air can be conducted with perfect safety under floors, or into any part of the building, for its better diffusion. 6. The openings for the admission of the warm air into the rooms, should be as numerous as possible. The long platform occupied by the teachers, by being perforated in front for its whole length, would be an excellent diffusing surface. 7. Openings of ample size must be made in the highest points of the ceiling, to be connected at the top of the roof with a turn-cap or louvre, the former being always surmounted with a vane. It is better that the ceiling should be perforated at its centre, and there is no objection to running the ventilating shaft, at first, horizontally, if the perpendicular and terminal portion of it is of considerable length. 8. It is highly important to have a power of some sort, within the apparatus at its top, for the purpose of compelling constant action, and of increasing the force of the apparatus, whenever the state of the weather, or the crowding of the room, render it necessary.* For this purpose, the most convenient and economical means are furnished by a gas burner, an Argand lamp, or a stove; and one of these should be in cons.am leadiness for use, when neither the velocity of the wind, or the low temperature of the external aimosphere are sufficient to pro- duce the desired effect. 9. All the openings and flues for the admission of pure air, and the discharge of the foul air, should be of the maximum size; that is, they should be calculated for the largest numbers which the apartment is ever intended to accommodate. 10. Valves must be placed in all the flues, and so arranged as to be easily regulated without leaving the rooms into which they open. 11. The best average temperature for school-rooms, is from 64° to 68° Fahrenheit; this range including that of the healthiest climates in their best seasons. For the purpose of summer ventilation, and for occasional use in moderate weather, fireplaces of good size should be constructed in all the new houses, at least. They should always be double, and furnished with large air chambers, which communicate with the open air. When not in use, they must be closed with tight boards or shutters, as they would otherwise interfere with the regular ventilation. With these arrangements, intelligently controlled by the Teachers, your Committee believe that an atmosphere will be secured which will be perfectly agreeable and salubrious ; which will lighten the labors of the Teachers, and promote the comfort, health, and happiness, of the thousands of children who are daily congregated in our Public Schools." This Report was received, and the same Committee were " directed to adapt to each school-room such apparatus, if any, as may be re- quired to secure to them proper ventilation in winter and summer, and to make such alterations and arrangements of the furnaces as may be required." To be able to execute this order, the Committee applied to the City Authorities for an appropriation of $4,000, which was readily granted, after an examination by a Joint Committee of the Board of Aldermen and Common Council, of the school-houses in which the improved ventilating apparatus had been introduced. The following is an extract from the Report of the Joint Committee t * This in practice has not been found necessary, although it may be sometimes. 154 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. " In order to be fully satisfied, the Committee visited the Endicott School, where the apparatus was in operation. The day was exceedingly wet and dis- agreeable, and yet the air of the rooms was found in an unobjectionable condi- tion. The masters fully sustained the representations of the petitioners ; and from their statements, as well as from their own observations, the Committee were satisfied of the beneficial effects of said apparatus. In order, however, to have a more full investigation of the matter, the Com- Taittee, on a subsequent day, visited the Johnson School and the Boylston School. The day was dry and cold, and they found the air in the Johnson School in a tolerably good condition. This is a girls' school; and it is well Known that the pupils in such schools are neater, and attend in cleaner and more tidy apparel, than the pupils in the boys' schools. In the Boylston School, however, the Committee found the air very disagree- able and oppressive ; and they could not but feel the importance of executing some plan of relief." If the Committee of Ways and Means, — or whatever the money- compelling power may be called — in every city, and town, and dis- trict, would satisfy themselves by actual examination, of the necessity of a more perfect system of ventilation in all school-rooms, or in all public halls where a large number of human beings are congregated for a considerable length of time, and where fires or lamps are burning, a reform would be speedily introduced in this respect. With the means thus placed at their disposal, the Committee applied themselves diligently to the duty of ventilating the school- . houses — and at the close of the year, they had the satisfaction of announcing in their Final Report, " that the Grammar School-houses of Boston are now in a better condition in respect to their ventilation, than any other Public Schools in the world." The Committee thus sum up the results of their labors. "The diversity of arrangement and the modifications in our plans which we have been compelled by circumstances to adopt, have had their advantages, and enabled us to arrive at the best results, and to satisfy ourselves entirely in re- gard to the particular set of apparatus which we can recommend with confi- dence for future use as decidedly the most effective and convenient. We have therefore furnished drawings and specifications of the set of apparatus which we recommend. CMlson's Furnace. Your Committee have made themselves acquainted not only with all the Furnaces which have been manufactured in this place, and its neighborhood, but with all those which have been exhibited here recently. Most of them show much ingenuity of contrivance and excellence of workmanship ; but are all, so far as we can judge, inferior in many respects, to the one invented by Mr. Chilson, a model and plans of which we now exhibit, and recommend as superior to all others. It is simple in its structure, easily managed, will consume the fuel perfectly, and with a moderate fire. It is fitted for wood or coal. The fire place is broad and shallow, and is lined with soapstone or fire-brick, which not only makes it perfectly safe and durable, but modifies very materially the usual effect of the fire upon the iron pot. The principal radiating surfaces are wrought iron, of a suitable thickness for service, while at the same time the heat of the smallest fire is communi- cated immediately to the air chamber. The mode of setting this Furnace we consider essential ; more especially the plan of admitting the air to the furnace at its lowest point, as it then rises naturally into the apartments above. This BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 155 process commences as soon as the temperature is raised even a single degree. The outer walls remain cold ; the floor above is not endangered, and the whole building is rapidly filled with an atmosphere which is at once salubrious and delightful. Section of Chilson's Furnace. Section. Ventilating Stove. For the houses which we found without the Hot Air Furnaces, as also lor the Recitation and other single rooms, the invention of a Stove which shoul 156 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. answer the same purpose became essential. One was therefore contrived ; ana having been found in its earlier and ruder forms to be of great utility, it has since been improved in its appearance, as well as in the convenience of its management. These Stoves are composed of two cylinders, the inner containing a fire chamber, which is lined with soap-stone or fire brick, while the outer consti- tutes a chamber for warming the air, which is introduced into it beneath the inner cylinder, from an air box directly connected with the external atmos- phere. They possess the following advantages : — 1. They are in fact furnaces, having distinct and capacious air chambers. 2. They insure, when properly set, that supply of fresh air which is indis- pensable to the proper ventilation of any apartment. 3. The Regulating Distributor, which is movable or fixed, as may be de- sired, determines with great accuracy the amount and temperature of the admitted air. 4. The outer cylinder is never hot enough to burn the person or clothing, or to be uncomfortable to those who are situated in its immediate vicinity. 5. They are constructed with the utmost regard to efficiency, durability, compactness, and neatness of appearance. These Stoves have been furnished to the Schools whenever your Committee have required their use, and at manufacturers' prices, without any profit what- ever to the inventor and patentee. They may be used with advantage in the largest rooms, when the cellars are unfit for Furnaces, or when it is preferred to have the fire in the room itself. The Johnson, Wells, Hawes, and Winthrop School-houses are warmed entirely by them. The discharging ventiducts have been made in various ways; some of wood, some of metal, and others of ' lath and plaster.' Some have opened at the ceiling only, and in but one part of the room, while others have been equally divided at opposite sides of the apartment. Our rule is this: — If the Heating Apparatus is at one end of an oblong room, the ventiduct is placed at the op- posite. If the stove or furnace flue is at the middle of the longest side, the ventiducts are placed at each end, and are of course reduced to one half the size of the single one. The best manner of constructing them is shown by the drawing. Fig. 1, and described on the following page. There is great economy in carrying the boxes to the floor in all cases. In i his way the room can be kept warm and the air pure in the coldest and most windy days. The registers at the top and bottom can be used separately or together, as may be desired. It is necessary and advantageous to apply some kind of cap or other covering upon the ventiducts where they terminate above the roof. It is necessary as a protection from the rain and the down blasts of wind, and it is also very advan- tageous to be enabled in this way to avail our- selves of the power of the wind to create an active upward current. We used at first the turncap or cowl invented by Mr. Espy, and with satisfac- tory results. It is undoubtedly the best movable top known; but is noisy, and somewhat liable to get out of working order. These objections to the movable tops have long been known, and va- rious stationary tops have been invented, and have been partially successful. An improved Stationary Top, or Ejecting Ventilator, as it is called, has been invented during the past year by Mr. Em- erson. It is shown in the drawing, and consists of the frustrum of a cone attached to the top of a tube, open in its whole extent, and surmounted by a fender which is supported upon rods, and answers the double purpose of keeping out the rain and of so directing or turning a blast of wind upon the structure, as that in what- Ejecting Ventilator. BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 157 ever direction it falls, the effect, that of causing a strong upward draft, will be very uniform and constant. Being satisfied that this Stationary Ejector possessed all the advantages of the best, tops hitherto known, without the disadvantages of either of them, we bave adopted it for several of the houses last ventilated, and find it in all re- spects satisfactory. We therefore recommend it for general use. The Injector may generally be dispensed Avith, but in situations unfavorable for introducing air, it may be sometimes found convenient, or even necessary. [Mr. Emerson recommends the use of the Injector, whenever a ventilating stove or furnace is used, so as to secure the admission of a quantity of pure air, warmed by the heating surfaces of the stove or furnace, equal to the quantity of air rendered impure by respiration withdrawn by the Ejector. He refuses to allow his ventilators to be placed upon any school-house which is not supplied with fresh warm air."] Injecting Ventilators. Ventiducts. The discharging ventiducts should be situated at the part of the rooms most distant from the stove or register of the furnace, and should always, if possi- ble, be constructed in or upon an interior wall or partition, and an outer brick wall must, if possible, be avoided. They should be made of thoroughly sea- soned sound pine boards, smoothed on the inner sides, and put together with two-inch iron screws. The outside finish may be of lath and plaster, or they may be projected backwards into a closet or entry, as shown in Figure 3. They must be carried entirely to the floor, and should be fitted at the top and bottom with a swivel blind, whose capacity is equal to that of the ventiduct into which it opens. This blind may be governed by stay rods or pulleys. The elevation gives a view of the ventiducts for a building of three stories, and shows the best mode of packing them, so as to avoid injuring the ap- pearance of the rooms. These ventiducts must be kept entirely separate to the main discharger at the roof, as any other arrangement would impair or destroy their utility. The size of the ventilators and ventiducts must correspond to the capacity of the room, and the number it is intended to accommodate. A room containing sixty scholars is found to require a discharging duct of fourteen inches in diameter. A room for one hundred scholars requires the tube to be eighteen inches ; and a room for two hundred scholars requires it to be twenty-four inches. The fresh air ventiducts should exceed in capacity those for carrying off" the impure" air by about fifty percent; so that there will then always be a sur- plus or plenum supply, and the little currents of cold which press in at the crevices of the doors and windows will be entirely prevented. The section shown in Fig. 3 exhibits a very convenient mode of bringing the cold air to the ventilating stoves in a three story building in connection with the smoke flues. 158 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Figure 1. Figure 2. W,v h Elevation of Ventiducts. a. Cold air ducts, d. Smoke flues BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. 159 The following section, (Fig. 3,) and plans (Fig's. 4 and 5,) exhibit at one view an example of a building of two stories warmed and ventilated by the apparatus and in the manner recommended. Figure 3. A. Chilson's Furnace. B. The Boston School Stove. C. Emerson's Ejector. a. Cold or fresh air ducts. b. Warmed air ducts. c. Impure air ducts. d. Smoke flues. Che letters on the plans correspond to those in the section. 160 SCHOOL-HOUSE ARCHITECTURE. Plans of First and Second Floors. Figure 4. Second Floor. A. Furnace, a. a. a. Fresh air ducts, b. b. b. Warm air registers, c. c. c. Impure air ducts. / The modes of ventilation and heating above described and illus trated, were unanimously approved by the school committee, and recommended to the city government, for introduction into the school-houses which may be hereafter erected. BOSTON MODE OF VENTILATION. jgj The Committee append to their Report directions for the manage- ment of the Stoves, Furnaces and Ventiducts, to which they request the attention of the masters of the Public Schools, in conformity to the rule of the Board, which requires their attention to the Ventilation of the School-houses under their care. Rules relative to the use of the Stoves, Furnaces and Ventilators. 1. To kindle the fire. — Close the upper, and open the lower registers of the ventiducts; close the upper door of the stove or furnace and open the lower door; place the cover of the stove one or two inches up. 2. After the room becomes warm — Raise the cover of the stove three or five inches ; close the lower door of the stove and open the upper door ; open the registers of the ventiducts about half their width. 3. If the room become too ivarm — Open the registers full width, and raise the cover of the stove high up, keeping the upper door of the stove or furnace open, and the lower door closed. 4. If the room become too cool — Close the upper registers, (for a short time only;) close the upper door of the stove and open the lower door; drop the cover down within two inches of the sides. 5. Never close the top of the stove entirely down, while there is any fire therein. 6. At night, on leaving the room, let the cover of the stove down within one inch of the sides ; close the lower door, and open the upper one ; place all the registers open about half their width. 7. Fill the water basins every morning, and wash them twice a w T eek. The fires should be kept, if possible, through the night, by covering the coal. The coal to be white ash. Construction of Ventiducts. Since the first edition of this work was published, the following note has been received from Dr. Clark, in relation to the structure of the dis- charging ventiducts. Boston, Feb. 12th, 1849. Henry Barnard. Esq. : My Dear Sir,— Will you allow me to ask your attention to a single matter relating to ventilation? I refer to the construction, situation, and proper materials of the venti- ducts which are intended to carry off the foul air. In almost all instances within my knowledge, excepting in the buildings in this place, which have been ventilated within tw r o or three years past, these discharging ducts are made of brick or stone, being often, therefore, also built in the outer wall. If there is any peculiar advantage in our school- house ventilation, its success is very much owing to the manner of locating and con- structing these same ejecting ventiducts. The brick ducts always operate downwards ; that is to say, the air has a constant ten.' dency to fall in them, and they will never " draw" in the proper or upward direction, with the best turncap or top known, unless there is a high wind, or unless artificial power, such as afire, or a fan wheel be put in requisition. Now the contrary is the fact with the thin wooden, or lath-and-plaster, interior ventiduct. The current is always in the right or uvward direction. They are warmed to the temperature of the room, and when provided with a proper top will operate in all seasons. Although the currents will vary in power and rapidity, yet. while almost all our ventiducts are provided, and should be, with means of heating by lamps or otherwise, I believe they have scarcely had occasion to light them. So that any impressions formed in relation to this part of the subject from the English, and particularly the French methods of ventilating school-houses, when the brick flues are always used, must be entirely erroneous. The days in which the fires in the French flues would be forgotten and omitted, or be permitted to go out, would far exceed the number of those in which our ventiducts would not act in the most perfect manner icithout any power at all. I would not have troubled you, but that I know this point, from much practical experi- ence, to be worthy of especial attention, and in case you should publish a new edition of your work on school-houses, I hope it may be considered. I am, dear sir, Yours very truly, j j HENRY G. CLARK ig2 school architecture. Ventilation of Buildings. The ventilation of buildings in relation to public health in large towns is now attracting much attention in England. The following valuable suggestions are taken from a recent work, published in London, ny John Murray, entitled, " A guide to the proper regulation of buildings in towns as a means of promoting and securing the health, comfort and safety of the inhabitants" by William Hosking. In the chapter preceding that from which these extracts are taken, the author discusses the subject of drainage, and as ventilation as applied to buildings implies both the means of admitting and of compelling the entrance of fresh air, and the means of escape and of compelling the exit of spent or otherwise foul air from any building, and from the several apartments with which a building may be divided, the importance of a system of drainage, or the removal of all such matters as are offensive to any sense, or capable of. under any cir- cumstances to which they may be exposed, of causing annoyance and injury, is readily understood. Perfect scavengering is the first essential to cleanliness, and to the protection of the air from pollution in and about buildings, the excreta arising in which are dejected into dry sand or gravel ; whilst the soil-drainage of buildings will not supersede the necessity of scavengering, nor, having regard to the wholesome- ness of the locality, ought it to be preferred to the dry cesspool, where the dry cesspool is available to the effect already indicated, unless provision be first made for scouring the contents away, and for removing directly to the upper air the gases which they will evolve in their psssage.* Doors and windows ought not to be taken into consideration in connection with the ventilation of buildings ; they are provided for facility of ingress and egress to and within the building, and for admitting light to the several apart- ments, and cannot be applied to promote ventilation in the seasons, and under the circumstances, which make ventilation most highly desirable. It is not enough, indeed, to set a window or a door open to admit fresh air into an other- wise unventilated apartment, even when windows and doors can be properly set open. The air must be drawn in, or it must be pressed in, and in either case there must be a way of escape for that Which the apartment had previously con- tained; and as two opposite currents of the same kind of fluid can hardly pass one another in the same orifice, the ventilation of an apartment — that is, the establishment of a current of air through it — can only be properly effected by the establishment of opposite currents through different orifices. In this man- ner it will be found that a fire-place, with an open flue from it leading to the outer air, will act in concert with an open window, by allowing an up-draught to be fed by the window, or by permitting a down-draught, according to the state of the atmosphere and the direction of any currents of wind, or as there may or may not be a fire in the chimney, or heat affecting its flue from fire in another chimney. But the state of the atmosphere is uncertain, currents of winds are unsteady and changeable, and, moreover, open windows are seldom consistent with fires as sources of warmth, and the common domestic focal fire may not, therefore, be relied upon as a means of ventilating an apartment in connection with open windows. Moreover, one-third of the life of civilized man is passed in apartments within buildings, under circumstances which, for the most part, preclude open windows, and render fires either inconvenient or un- necessary as a source of warmth. One-third of the lives of three-fourths of the people of England is passed, however, in rooms which have no chimney at * In coal countries, where ash and cinder arise in large quantities in even the poorest dwell- ings, and go to the ash-pit or dust-bin with animal and vegetable refuse, &c, the injury to the air of the locality from defective scavengering is not so great as in London, and other towns where coal is dear. VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 163 ail, or of which the chimney opening has a board before it, and of which the doors and windows are all shut as closely as the occupiers can shut them. In the cases of the few who may indulge in bed-room fires in the winter, or of those who will open a bed-chamber window an inch or two in the summer, the for- mer allow the fire to divide with them the pent-up air of the apartment, and the latter shut down the register-flap, or put up the chimney-board, to prevent the circulation, which the state of the atmosphere or of the wind might bring about. But although, between the focal fire which compels air to enter, and the chinks and crannies by which, when doors and windows are shut, the air is compelled to pass, some amount of ventilation is obtained in the customary day-rooms, it is mainly through the lower parts of a room, and to the height of the chimney- opening, that any change is really effected ; and even this amount of ventilation is not obtained without exposing the occupiers of the room to cold draughts; whilst in summer time, when the air of an apartment is sought to be changed by opposite open windows, the occupiers are exposed to draughts which are often as much more dangerous, as they are more agreeable, than the cold draughts which the fire compels in the winter. Fire-places and their flues, and doors and windows, may, therefore, be fully provided in any building, and to every apartment of a building, and the build- ing, and its apartments remain wholly unventilated in the proper sense of the term, which — it may be repeated in another form — consists in the continued flow into the building, and into its apartments, of fresh air, in a state to be agreeable as it regards temperature, and in a manner which shall not constitute a sensible current, and the consequent ejection from the building of spent or otherwise de- teriorated air, and this at all times and seasons. But air is an inert body, and will not move either into or out of an apartment, unless something be done to induce movement; but it yields ready obedience to any action that does not seek to compress it, and responds freely to any endeavour to draw it. It will neither enter a close room, unless way is first made for it by the exit of what may be there already ; nor will it submit, without resistance, to be pressed into a close room, but it will follow in at one opening if air be drawn out at another, or it will enter and drive/ out what might be already in possession of the in- closed space with the slightest possible force ; that is to say, the way out being as large as the way by which the air is pressed in. Some power must, thereibre, be employed aud applied to secure the move- ment of air, necessary, in the first place, to the ventilation of a building or of an apartment, and irrespective of the condition of the air as to temperature ; and the power employed should be certain and constant. But there is no power placed at our disposal that can be relied upon as certain and constant, Avithout involving labor, that is to say, expense ; whilst the purpose under consideration is one, of which the people generally do not see the necessity so clearly, nor feel so acutely, as to induce them to- be at charges to promote it. People, who would revolt at the idea of drinking out of the same cup or glass with a stranger, or even with a guest, suffer no annoyance from, and feel no dis- gust at, inhaling what has already passed through the lungs of those who may be shut up in a room with them, however close the room maybe, and whether the room be an apartment of a dwelling-house, a shop, a chapel, a church, or a theatre. Another phase of foulness as it regards ventilation is found in the practice of the tobacco-smoker, whom fastidiousness would prevent from taking up a cigar that had been between the lips of another; but who seems to be unconscious that, although the expired air of untainted breath may rise as it passes the lips, the air comes dense, and tainted with a nauseous odour, out of his mouth, and, refusing to rise, is perforce inhaled by whoever may follow the same way; the squeamishness being exercised in his own favor, and the grossness to the loath- ing of his neighbors. But although power, involving expense in its establishment, maintenance, and application, is necessary to effect the proper and complete ventilation of any buildings used for the purposes of habitation in civilized life, a much greater approach to ventilation than is generally attained maybe made without the ad- ditional expense which the employment of a certain and constant power would impose, if advantage were taken of the agencies which nature provides without charge, and of those which are commonly established and maintained for other 'purposes. The agencies provided by nature, available towards the ventilation of IQ4 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. buildings, consist in the difference in density of the atmosphere at different ten?* peratures, and in the force of the wind : the one always, to some extent, availa- ble, as between the inside and outside of a building : and the other only availa- ble when it is in force, at which time, however, it is liable to act with more than the desired effect, if the means of its application be adapted to render its send- ees of use when it acts but slightly. These agencies being taken together, however, and aided rather than checked, as they would be according to the com- mon practice, by the heat from the flues of the fires which are to be found in every dwelling-house, at least, to a greater or less extent, all the year round, will be found to do much if properly applied to ventilation in most ordinary eases. Let every fire-place be connected with the outer air by a flue, tube, or other means of communication in the wall, or through or under the floor, opening out at the lowest level above ground and admitting the air behind the range or stove, or rather behind the faces or cheeks which may be made to form a coffer about the fire-box or grate, shut off at the top by a metal pkte, or by the boiler if it be a range, or by tiles set to that effect; and make openings through the faces or cheeks at the level of the hearth to let in air before the fire, and so that the fire may be fed with air which it will compel to enter, and be spared the task of checking the desired up-draught in whatever flue or flues may be provided to carry off the foul or spent air from the apartment, or from the inside of the house- generally. If the air so delivered by the special provision made for every fire, is in sufficient quantity— that is to say, if the way for it be large enough, and it ought for the purpose to be equal in area in its transverse section to the register- way over the fire — there will be no draughts in the room when the doors and windows are shut, although the wind may force currents if the joints be badly made ; and, moreover, the air admitted to feed the fire will take up warmth enough from the grate, in passing behind and about it, not to be disagreeable if it escape into the room and be felt, nor detrimental to the purposes of afire used for cooking. The fires being thus provided with air for the purposes-, as well as with vents for the products, of combustion, will make no demand for airupon those vents — that is to say, upon their own smoke-flues, but, on the contrary,, send a stronger draught up them. In such case the chimney-flue may be made the means of removing the spent air from the room itself by an opening made under the ceil- ing into the flue. But, it may be said, there will be an effective up-draught only when there is a fire burning in the grate — and that is true, and therein the oper- ation is defective for the full purposes of ventilation ; and, it may be added, that it does not yet appear in what manner the room' itself is to be supplied with the air which, when spent, will be drawn into the flue by the up-draught, occa- sioned by the combustion going on in the grate when there is a fire. And to supply the deficiency in this respect without resorting to the clumsy, dirty, and uncomfortable practice of letting cold air in behind and under the skirtings of a room, the current of sweet air coming in by a flue or tube, and delivering itself behind and about the grate, may be made to do the double duty of feeding the fire and supplying the room for the purposes of respiration. It has been said that the inlet for fresh air to the fire should be equal in area to the area of the register opening, and a register is almost essential, over the fire ; but a supply by such an inlet will be in excess of the demand of combus- tion in the grate, inasmuch as the register opening must bealways large enough to carry off the smoke, or steam rather, which coal, when it first reaches the fire, throws oft'; and although this should be followed by a full body of air, much of what the fire would draw in will pass up the flue un consumed, when the simple purposes of combustion alone have to be supplied. The register- flap will admit, therefore, of being partially closed during the long intervals between the coalings of a fire, and the fresh and tempered air emerging from the openings through the cheeks of the grate will enter the room to supply the place of what the chimney-flue is drawing offby the orifice under the ceiling. By this simple process, and with most inexpensive mechanical arrangements, every room in which a fire is employed may be pleasantly and most wholesomely fed with air, and.be, to a great extent, really and effectually ventilated so long as a fire is employed. So long as the up-draught is certain, that is, as long as afire is burning in the grate below, and the fire is well supplied with air, there will be no danger of VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 165 anything coming down the flue. But inasmuch as the flue is a smoke-flue, and to prevent any down-draught from dislodging the soot, and driving i t through the orifice into the apartment, it is necessary to apply soine simple self-acting valve which shall close the orifice to the slightest pressure from the side toward the flue, and open it to an equally slight pressure on the side of the apartment. **** *** * * * * Power may be applied in the ventilation of buildings, either — as already re- marked — by forcing in the fresh air, or by drawing out the spent air, and a light and simple pump of not more than a turnspit power will suffice to ventilate al- most any building of average size, to the extent of establishing an equable and sufficient current of air through it; so that, whether the pump be worked by di- rect or by reversed pumping action, there be both an inlet and an outlet fully equal to the capacity of the pump, the outlet at least being not liable to be acted Upon by any currents of wind. Thus, if there be an apparatus for warming air, it should be placed at a low level, in free communication with the outer air, which should be warmed in its way into the building, and the warmed air passing freely into the building, a pump applied to a lift-case, or other tube or flue open- ing to the interior at a high level diagonally opposite to the inlet, and worked there, the whole of the air in the building, so far as It is exposed to the current, may be changed in a time that can be calculated, the fresh warm air taking the place of what is removed — that is, if all the other inlets besides that for the warmed air be closed, and the warming apparatus and its means of warming be sufficient; and, in like manner, in the season when it is not necessary to warm the air before it is admitted, the same action will change the air and eause substitution of fresh for foul, though the ways in may be greatly increased by opened windows and doors. Conversely, the power may be applied at the inlet for the warmed air, when the reversed action of the pump will throw air in ; there being, as a matter of course, a way out provided; when the spent air, meeting with no sensible resistance, will pass off by such outlet, and so thorough ventilation will be effected. It may not be out of place to remark that many churches are supplied with a certain and constant power, so placed for the most part, with reference to the body of the church, as not only to offer itself, but to offer itself in the most con- venient place for the purpose of promoting the effective ventilation of the build- ing whenever its services may be required Church clocks have, or ought to have, power beyond their ordinary work, to overcome the effect of the highest wind upon the hands, so that every church dock may be supposed able to spare power enough to work, at sufficient speed, the light pumps necessary in any case to draw off the spent air from the body of the church. And the church clock is placed in the tower, and the tower rises so much above the body of the church, that it may be most easily made to act as the ventilating flue to the church. Thus, in winter-time the withdrawal of the cold air by pumps in the tower, fitted into flue-like lift-cases and geared to the clock, will give the warm- ing apparatus, which ought perhaps to be diagonally opposite, or thereabouts, to the outlet into the tower, the means of warming the church in a much shorter time than when it has to aet upon the confined and inert body of cold air which the chureh may have contained'; inasmuch as the pumps would, in withdraw- ing the cold air, compel the fresh air, tempered by the warming apparatus, to supply its plaee; and this operation being effected before the services com- mence, the church would not be felt by the assembling congregation to be either cold or close, and the ventilating process continuing, the spent air would be re- moved as it arose, and its place being supplied by fresh and tempered air for respiration, the faintness and weariness which so often distress a congregation in a close unventilated church would never be felt: nor would the operation be less beneficial in summer-time, when the horizontal flaps to the half-hopper windows of churches stand, without such operations, unavailingly open, as the cooler outer air cannot rise to flow over the hoppers, even if it could make its way in against the pent-up air already inclosed. But the pumps in the clock- tower, worked by the clock, summer as well as winter, and drawing the spent and heated air out from under the roof or ceiling of the church, would compel the outer air to supply its place within the church, by whatever ways it may be found in any case most to the comfort d£ the .congregation to opera fer its adsaission. 1(3(3 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. A knowledge of the organization of the Public Schools of Boston, is necessary to a ready understanding of the plans of the new school-houses recently erected in that city, — especially of the new Grammar school- houses. For this reason, and for general information, we have drawn up the following sketch of the system. System of Public Instruction in Boston, Mass. The system of Public Instruction in Boston, as it now stands, embra- cing Primary, Grammar, and High Schools, is the growth of more than two centuries. The germ of the whole system is to be found in the vote of the town by which " Brother Philemon Purmont was intreated to be- come school-master for the teaching and nurturing of children with us," and the first records of the town contain a sum voted for the " maintenance of a free school-master." By the Act of the General Court passed 1647, " to the end that learning should not be buried in the graves of our fore- fathers," every town having one hundred householders was required to maintain a "free grammar school ; the master whereof being able to in- struct youth so far as they may be fitted for the university." In that year the present Latin School was founded, but was known as the Gram- mar School till 1713, when it took the name of the South Latin School, — a new Grammar school having been established in that year, called the North Latin School, and now known as the Eliot school. In 16S4, a class of free schools called writing schools were founded, to leach children to ' L read and write." Of this class there were four in 1785. In 1789, the schools were remodeled. One (the North) of the Latin Schools were discontinued, and "reading schools" (now known as depart- ments under the Grammar master) were established in separate depart- ments from the " writing schools ;" and the whole placed under the direction of a School Committee chosen annually by the town. Previous to this, the schools were under the inspection of the Selectmen, " and of such gentlemen of liberal education, together with the reverend minis- ters" as should be appointed for the purpose. In 1S12, a separate school for colored children was established, and called the Smith School. In 1818, the School Committee were instructed by a vote of the town to appoint three persons from each ward, whose duty it was made collec- tively, to provide instruction for children between the ages of four and seven years, out of the sum of $5000, appropriated for the purpose for that year. This was the origin of the Primary Schools of Boston, and of this class of schools in this country. Previous to this date, no child could be sent to the Grammar schools, until he could read the English language. In 1821 the English High School for boys was begun, and its success was such, as to lead to the establishment in 1825 of the High School for girls. This last school was discontinued in a Hew years. Its place is in part supplied by allowing the girls to remain two years longer than the boys in the Grammar school. But the fact that near two-thirds of all the scholars in the private schools are females, shows that there is a defi- ciency in the system of public schools in reference to female education. In 1828 ten schools, one in each primary district, were designated t© receive children who were over seven years, and were not prepared for the Grammar schools. The following is the organization of the Public Schools, as gathered from the Rules and Regulations published in 1848. ORGANIZATION of the system. All the schools of the city are under the superintendence of a Board, or General School Committee, consisting of the Mayor, the President of the SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. {Qf Common Council, and twenty-four persons, annually elected in each ward of the city. The Board meet for organization in January, and regularly on the first Tuesday of February, May, August and November. In January there are appointed a Primary School Committee, consisting of a suitable num- ber of gentlemen ; a sub-committee of visitation, of five members for the Latin and English High Schools respectively, and of three for each of the Grammar schools ; a committee on books, of five members ; a com- mittee on music, of three members ; a committee of conference with the Primary school committee, of three members — and a committee on school- houses, to eonsist also of three members. The Primary school committee have the exclusive management of the Primary schools, organize by themselves with their own sub-committees, and fill any vacancy which may occur during the year. The sub -committee of visitation must examine the classes in their re- spective schools at least once each quarter of the year, and visit them at least once a month, and report in writing to the quarterly meeting of the Board. This committee decide who are to receive the six medals in their respective schools, purchased out of the fund left for that purpose by Franklin ; take cognizance of any difficulties in the school, or respecting it ; supply vacancies temporarily in the office of teacher, and generally take good care of their respective schools. The committees of examination must visit all the schools for which they are appointed, in May. June or July, and critically examine all the pupils of the first elass, in all the branches taught therein, and report to the board ; and after their report has been accepted, it shall be printed and distributed to every family in the eity. Besides the specific duties assigned to each member on the several sub- committees, each member must consider it his duty to watch over all the public schools, to attend the visitations, exhibitions and examinations. All the instructers are elected annually in August, and their salaries fixed for the year. In case of a vacancy, notice must be given in the newspapers, and application to the committee must be made in writing by the candidates. PRIMARY SCHOOLS. There are now 181 Primary sehools for children over 4 and under 8 years of age. Each school receives an average of fifty children of both sexes, and are taught by female teachers. In these schools, the alphabet, pronouncing and spelling words, numer- ation and combination of numbers, the stops and marks, mental arithme- tic and reading, are attended to. On Tuesday and Friday instruction is given to such as come prepared for it in needle-work. Oral instruction and exereises on the slate and blackboard constitute a part of the daily exercises. The health and physical comfort of the pupils receive special attention- For this purpose there are three recesses of ten minutes each, every half day. When the weather, or the arrangements of the build- ing will not admit of out-door exercises, various gymnastic exercises are gone through with in doors. The ventilation of the rooms is now made an objeet of speeial attention. In these sehools the stimulus of rewards and prizes is applied — ten dollars being annually appropriated to each school for this purpose. At the age of 7, every pupil, who can spell correctly, and read fluently receives a certificate of recommendation to one of the Grammar schools. If not prepared for the Grammar school, the pupil is sent to what may be termed the intermediate school of the district. The city in reference to this class of schools is divided into a conven- ient number of districts. Each school is under the special charge of one 168 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. person, and the schools of the district are under the supervision of a board, composed of the committee of each school. Each member must visit his own school once a month, and all the schools in his district at least once a year. The first classes in all the schools of a district are examined together, by a committee of the Primary school committee semi-annually at one place. The Primary School Board, composed of all the members appointed by the School Committee, meet for organization in February, and appoint a President, Secretary, an Executive Committee, and a committee on school-houses, and on school-books. The Executive Committee attend to the semi-annual examinations of the schools of each district, and report on their condition, and suggest plans of improvement. They hold also semi-annual meetings of ail the Primary school teachers. Grammar Schools. The following are the names, situation and date of the establishment of the several Grammar Schools. 1. Eliot School, . 2. Jldams School, 3. Franklin School, 4. Mayhem School, 5. Hawes School, 6. Smith School, 7. Boylston School, 8. Bowdoin School, 9. Hancock School, 10. Wells School, 11. Johnson School, 12. Winthrop School 13. Lyman School, 14. Endicoti School, 15. Mather School, 16. Brimmer School, 17. Phillips School, 18. Otis School, . 19. Dwight School, 20. Quincy School, North Bennet St For Boys. Mason St For Boys! Washington St For Girls. Hawkins St For Boys, South Boston, For Boys Belknap St For Boys Fort Hill, . For Boys Myrtle St For Girls, Between Richmond and Prince sts.For Girls, McLean St For Girls, Tremont St For Girls, East St For Girls, East Boston, For Boys Cooper St For Boys South Boston, For Boys Common St For Boys, Pinckney St For Boys, Lancaster St For Boys Concord St For Boys Tyler St For Boys, 1713 1717 1785 1803 and Girls, . . . 1811 and Girls, . . . 1812 and Girls, . . . 1819 1821 ...... 1822 1833 .... 1836 .... 1836 and Girls, . . . lSS^ and Girls, . . . 1840 and Girls, . . . 1843 .... 1844 1844 and Girls', '. '. ! 1844 and Girls, . . . 1844 .... 1847 Children who can read fluently easy prose may be admitted into the Grammar and Writing Schools at the age of .eight years. They must be examined by the grammar master. Children above eight years of age. although not possessing the necessary qualifications, may be admitted by a special permit from the Sub-Committee of the school, and children of the age of seven years may be admitted when they shall satisfactorily appear, on examination by the grammar master, to be other- wise qualified for admission ; but no pupil can be admitted to the Gram- mar Schools from the Primary Schools, without a permit from a member of the Primary School Committee. Boys are not permitted to retain their place in these schools beyond the day of the next annual exhibition, after they have arrived at fourteen years of age, unless by special leave from the Sub-Committee. Girls are allowed to attend these schools until the next annual exhibition, after they shall have arrived at the age of sixteen. In these schools are taught the common branches of an English edu- cation. They are organized on three different plans. First Plan. In the Eliot, Adams, Franklin, Boylston, Bowdoin. Han- cock, Wells, Mather, Brimmer, Phillips and Otis Schools, there are two halls, occupied by two departments, one of which is a Grammar and the other a Writing School. The pupils are organized in two divis- ions. While one division attends the Grammar, the other attends the Writing School. Thus the two departments exchange pupils half daily. In the Grammar department, the pupils are taught chiefly Spelling, SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. Jgg Reading, English Grammar, Geography, and History ; and in the Wri- ting department, Writing, Arithmetic, Algebra. Natural Philosophy, and Drawing. Second Plan. In the Hawes, Johnson, Winthrop, Lyman, and Endi- cott Schools, there are two departments, entirely distinct, each under the control of separate instructers. Third Plan. The Mayhew, Dwight, Quincy, and Smith Schools, are each under the charge of one head master, who has the direction of the whole course of education. In the schools on the first plan, for boys exclusively, each department is instructed by a master, an usher, and a female assistant. In the schools on the first plan, for girls exclusively, each department is in- structed by a master and three female assistants. In the mixed schools on the first plan, each department is instructed either by a master, an usher, and one female assistant, or by a master and three female assist- ants, at the option of the Sub-Committee. In the schools on the second plan, each department is instructed by a master and three female assistants. The schools on the third plan are each instructed by a master, a sub- master, an usher, and three female assistants. Each school or department is allowed a teacher for every fifty-five pupils on the register, and an additional female assistant may be ap- pointed whenever there are thirty scholars above the complement for the teachers already in the school or department; and whenever the number of pupils on the register is reduced to thirty less than such com- plement, one female assistant is removed from such school or department. Pupils in the schools on the first plan shall attend equally in both de- partments, unless specially permitted by the Sub-Committee to attend generally or exclusively in one. Each school or department of a school is divided into four classes, sub- ject to such sub-divisions as the master may judge expedient. The order of attendance in the schools on the first plan, where both sexes attend, is as follows: — On the first week after the summer vacation, the boys attend the Grammar School, and the girls the Writing School in the morning ; and the boys attend the Writing School and the girls the Grammar School in the afternoon. The week following, the order is re- versed, and this alternation continues through the year ; the weeks of vacation not being counted. In the schools on the first plan, where only one sex attends, each of the four classes is divided into two divisions, nearly equal in numbers, and the order of attendance is as follows:— On the first week after the summer vacation, the first divisions attend the Grammar School and the second divisions the Writing School in the morning ; and the second divisions attend the Grammar School and the first divisions the Writing School in the afternoon. The week following the order is reversed, and this alter- nation continues through the year, the weeks of vacation not being counted. In the schools on the second and third plans, the order of attendance and the sub-divisions of the classes are arranged by the Sub-Committees of such schools, upon consultation with the instructers. English High School. This school is situated in Bedford street. It was instituted in 1821, with the design of furnishing the young men of the city, who are not intended for a collegiate course of study, and who have enjoyed the usual advantages of the other public schools, with the means of completing a good English education. Here is given instruction in the elements of mathematics and natural philosophy, with their application to the sciences and the arts, in grammar, rhetoric, and belles lettres, in moral philosophy, 170 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. In history, natural and civil, and in the French language. This institu- tion is furnished with a valuable mathematical and philosophical appara- tus, for the purpose of experiment and illustration. The instructors in this school are, a master, a sub-master, and so many- assistants as shall give one instructor to every thirty-five pupils, but no additional assistant. It is allowed for less than twenty-one additional pupils. It is a necessary qualification in all these instructors, that they have been educated at some respectable college, and they shall be competent to in- struct in the French language. No boy can be admitted as a member of this school, under the age of twelve years. The pupils are arranged in divisions, corresponding to their respec- tive degrees of proficiency. It is made the duty of the master to exam- ine each division as often as may be consistent with the attention due to those under his immediate instruction. Individuals are advanced according to their scholarship, and no faster ; and none are permitted to remain members of the school longer than three years. Each class, or section, is occasionally reviewed in its appropriate studies ; and, once a quarter, there is a general review of all the pre- vious studies. Latin Grammar School. This school is situated in Bedford street. It was instituted about the middle of the 17th century The Latin Grammar School and the Eng- lish High School, complete the system of public education, enjoyed alike by all classes in this city. In the Latin Grammar School the rudiments of the Latin and Greek languages are taught, and scholars are fully qualified for the most respect- able colleges. Instruction is also given in Mathematics, Geography, History, Declamation, and English Composition. The instructors in this school are a master, a sub-master, and so many assistants as shall give one instructor to every thirty-five pupils, but no additional assistant is allowed for less than twenty-one additional pu- pils. It is a necessary qualification in all the instructors of this school that they have been educated at some respectable college. The regular course of instruction continues five years, and no scholar can enjoy the privileges of this school beyond that term, unless by leave of the Sub-Committee. These schools are justly the pride and boast of the city ; and the senti- ment with which they are universally regarded is beautifully embodied in the following extract from an address by George S. Hillard, Esq. The schools of Boston are the best jewels in her crown. If I were asked by an intelligent stranger to point out to him our most valued possessions. I would show to him — not our railroads, our warehouses, filled with the wealth of all the earth, our ships, our busy wharves and marts, where the car of commerce is ever " thundering loud with her ten thousand wheels," but I would cany him to one of our public schools, would show him its happy and intelligent chil- dren, hushed into reverent silence at their teacher's word, or humming over their tasks with a sound like that of bees in June. I would tell him that here was the foundation on which our material prosperity was reared, that here were the elements from which we constructed the State. Here are the fountains from which flow those streams which make glad our land. The schools of Boston are dear to my heart. Though I can have no personal and immediate interest in them; though no child on earth calls me father; yet most gladly do I contribute to their support, according to my sub- stance; and when I see a father's eyes filled with pleasant tears as he hears SYSTEM OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN BOSTON. 171 the music of his child's voice linked to some strain of poetry or burst of elo- quence, I can sympathize in the feeling in which I cannot share. May the blessing of Heaven rest upon our schools. They are an object worthy of all efforts and sacrifices. We should leave nothing undone which may tend to make them more excellent and more useful. For this; we should gather into our own stores all the harvest of experience which have been reaped from other soils. The present is an age of progress. The claims of humanity are now beginning to be heard as they never were before. The movements in favor of Peace, of Anti-Slavery, of Temperance, of Education, of Prison Dis- cipline, all spring from the same root — a sense of sympathy and brotherhood. Is it too much to say that the dawn of a new day is reddening the tops of the mountains'? Higher yet may that light ascend, till its golden shafts have pierced the deepest valleys of ignorance and sin! Let us not stand idly on the brink, while the tide of improvement sweeps by us, but boldly launch our bark upon the stream. We live in a community ready to discern and to do that which is right. It should be a source of gratitude to us that our lot is cast on a spot, where every good and worthy faculty may find appropriate work to do. When I behold this city that we love, seated upon her triple throne of hills with her mural crown of spires and domes glittering in the smokeless air, when I remember how much of that which embellishes and dignifies life is gathered under those roofs, I feel that he has not lived in vain who has contributed, even in the smallest measure, to the happiness and prosperity of Boston. And how can we do this more effectually than by watching over her schools, — by making them as nearly perfect as human institutions can bel For this object let neither wealth nor toil be spared. Here are fountains of life; as they are, so will its issues be. The child is father to the man. Make our schools all that they can be, and all that they should be, and we shall give to the prosperity of our beloved city a permanence like that of moral truth. It will become an inevitable necessity, like that which compels the heart of man to love what is lovely, and venerate what is venerable. The original cost of the public school-houses, exclusive of the amount expended from time to time for alteration or repairs, of rebuilding when destroyed by fire, exceeds $1,000,000. The following table exhibits the expenditures for school-houses and other school purposes, by the City of Boston, for the last ten years end- ing in May, 1848. We are indebted to Joseph W. Ingraham, Esq., who knows the history and statistics of the public schools of Boston by heart, for these statistics. For new houses, rents, and repairs, Fuel, Furniture, Salaries of Teachers, Incidentals, Total iGrammnr Schools $602/720" 9' 27,622 12 17,589 96 857,824 91 26,238 24 '$1,531,996 20 Primary Schools. Total for all the Schools.' $236,026 10 20,864 27 10,825 32 293,986 45 6,613 67 $838,747 07 48,486 39 28,415 28 1,151,811 36 32,851 91 $568,315 81 $2,100,312 01 The following are the items of expenditures for public schools for the year ending May 1, 1848. For new houses, rents, and repairs, Fuel Furniture, and Apparatus, . . Salaries, Incidentals, Total, ........ Grammar Schools. Primary Schools Total for all the Schools. $165,987 58 4,381 27 4.439 46 114,925 80 2,228 75 $52,848 71 4,896 74 3,584 08 47,950 64 763 83 $218,836 29 9,277 95 8,023 54 162,876 44 3,092 59 $291,962 86 $110,044 00 $402,966 81 The above tables do not include the expenditures for the support of the House of Reformation for Juvenile offenderSj which is a part of the educa- tional system of the city. |72 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. It is to be feared there are not many communities, even in New Eng- land, where the Chief Magistrate, elected annually by the people, would have the courage to utter the following noble sentiments, spoken by Mayor Q,uincy, at the dedication of the Gluincy Grammar School-house, June 26, 1848. As Chairman of the " City Fathers," he did not hesitate to stand there and tell the tax-paying community that they had, in this manner, just expended $200,000 of their money ; and he was confident the question would not be asked, Why spend so much 1 Why spend more for popular education in the city of Boston, than is expended in the whole of Great-Britain 1 He said, if but once in a century, a little being should be sent into this world, of most delicate and beautiful structure, and we were told that a wonderful principle pervaded every part of it, capable of unlimited expansion and hap- piness, capable of being fitted to associate with angels aud becoming the friend of God.: or if it should receive a wrong bias, of growing up in enmity against him, and incurring everlasting misery,- could any expense of education which would contribute to save from such misery and elevate to such happiness, be too much"? But, instead of one such little being, 24,000 were now entrusted to the care of the " City Fathers," and their education, in this world, will deter- mine their future destiny, — of companionship with angels, or with the degraded wretched, enemies of God. If the community had no responsibility in the matter, how, he asked, could it spend money better than in educating these children 1 But they would soon control the affairs of Boston, and, to a great extent, of the Commonwealth. Nor would their influence stop here. "No man liveth for himself" Each ol these children would form a centre of widening influence, whose circumference might yet embrace millions of minds, and extend through unnumbered centu- ries. Here, unlike other countries, every restraint to individual elevation is thrown off. All have the most perfect liberty that can be enjoyed, without infringing upon the rights of others. How important then, that each child should be ed- ucated to understand his rights, and the principles and habits of self-Govern- ment, We are all, said he, in a partnership, and if one of these little partners suf- fers in his character, the whole community suffer in consequence. He believed that nearly half of the 400 boys in that school were not Ameri- cans. Many of their parents were not fitted for the duties of a Republic. But these children, educated side by side with our own, would learn self-govern- ment, and be trained to become worthy citizens of this free country. It seemed, he said, the design of Providence to mix races; and this influx of foreigners might constitute the very elements necessary to give to American character its highest excellence. Standing on such a moral elevation, as Bos- ton did, they felt it a duty to provide for the education of all, and thus present to the whole country, models of popular education. His policy would ever be to inquire, not how little would do in appropria- tions for educational purposes ; but how much could be judiciously and economi- cally expended? And he believed the general voice of the citizens of Boston, would continue to sustain this policy. The liberality with which public schools are fostered in Massachusetts is not confined to Boston, and the large towns, as will appear from the following tables, compiled from the School Returns for 1844-45, and first published in this form in Educational Tract, No. 3. No state in the Union, — no country in the world can show returns for the same number of towns, which argue so favorably for the condition and improvement of common schools, as does Table No. 1, which exhibits the condition of the common schools in several important particulars, m twenty-nine towns, which rank highest among the three hundred and eight towns in the .state. 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I s - f% 03 © H -V p © CIJ C 1 ' s w 03 Ti be ^ O o GO ,. receive a clamp to screw the frame to the brick work ; the door is of plate iron, (yg- wire gage), with a rod passing down the center of the plate, on the back side, each end of the rod running by the plate and entering the frame, forming a pivot on which the plate or door of the. ventilator turns. The door shuts against a projection in the frame. ^ NM £ l_ I f 8 xn Hrvmary, School . 30-6 * 22 O O O Primary School. 30-6x22 Basem&nt IS s ^ N^ l Ward Boom. 30-6 x 50 "I Story 1' M I L lS, o J 5 sc The Brimmer school has two masters, one in each room, and each withi an usher and female assistant. [Since the above description was first published, (in 1843) the seats and. 1 desks have been reversed, so that the pupils sit with their faces to the plat- form- The former method was found by the teacher to be " very incon- venient, and wholly impracticable. The scholar should see the face and' hear the voice of the Principal as much as possible."] 200 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The second and third stories are furnished with Wales' Patent American School Chair, which has been very extensively introduced into the public schools ot Boston and vicinity. Wales' American School Chair. The seat of the chair is based upon a pedestal of cast iron, having no joining to get loose or come apart in the arm, and is made fast by screws both to the seat and to the floor. The back of the chair is firmly supported by the middle piece, which passes directly from the top through a dove-tail in the seat into the foot of the pedestal. These chairs are manufactured by S. Wales, Jr., 66 Kil- by street, Boston, of any height from 8 inches to 17 inches from the top surface of the seat to the floor. Mr. Wales has, during the present year, (1848,) greatly improved the style of his chairs, and now manufactures a desk with iron supports of new and im- proved construction. For description, see p. 202. thp T 5l^ Sks in the Brimmer Scho °l are more like the one represented in the accompanying section of desk and chair used in the Eliot Grammai O A. JLi. 3ft. HIT, The cut below represents the bench used in the Primary School The scholars are separated by a compartment, A, which serves as a rest 'for the arm, and place of deposit for books. BOSTON SCHOOL FURNITURE. 201 Since the foregoing style of chair and desk was introduced, much atten- tion has been paid to the improvement of school furniture, with a view of securing convenience, durability, and economy, in the construction both of chairs and desks. The Boston Latin High School Desk. The above cut represents an end view of a new style of desk used in the Latin High School, in Bedford street, with a section of Wales' Patent School Chair. The standards of the desks are made of cast iron, and are braced in such a manner, that when properly secured to the floor, there is not the least motion. The curve in the standard facilitates the use of the broom in sweeping. The Boston Primary School Chair. These Chairs were got up for the special benefit of the Boston Primary Schools, by Joseph W. Ingraham, Esq., Chairman of the Primary School Standing Committee; and have already been introduced, by order of the Primary School Board, into the greater portion of their Schools. The first pattern, is a Chair with a Shelf (s) under the seat, for the purpose ■of holding the Books, Slates, &c. of the scholars. The second pattern differs from the first, in having, instead of the Shelf a Rack (a) on the back of the chair, for the same use as the Shelf in the pre- ceding pattern. The third pattern is similar to the second, except that the Rack (a) is placed at the side, instead of the back, of the chair. The latter pat- tern (with the Rack on the side) is that now adopted in the Boston Schools. These chairs are manufactured by William G. Shattuck, No. 80 Commercial Street, Boston. The price is fifty cents, each, for those with the Shelf, and sixbii-five cents for those with the Rack. 202 school architecture. Wales' School Chairs and Desks. Wales' American School Chairs and Desk. The figures above represent the largest size of Chairs and Desk, as described in the series of sizes below, the height decreasing as there stated from size to size. The Chairs represented in the above cut are based upon a single pedestal of iron, (instead of the. usual legs of a chair ;) the wood-work of the Chair is fastened securely upon the top of the pedestal, the middle piece passes directly from the top into the foot of the pedestal, and the whole is firmly screwed to the floor of the school-room. The Desk above is intended for two scholars, being in form and style, both in wood and iron, of the latest pattern. The supports of the Desk are of iron, so constructed as to be entirely out of the way of the scholar, and at the same time light in form, and perfectly strong and firm in their position. They are secured to the wood-work at the top, and screwed firmly to the floor of the school-room at the bottom. The whole plan embraces Chairs and Desks in seven sizes, as follows : First size. Second size. Third size. Fourth size. Fifth size. Sixth size. Seventh size. Chair 9 inches high, Desk, side next the scholar, 17 inches. 19 21 23i 25 26* 28 Thus combining a mode of furnishing public schools, for scholars of all ages, which, for comfort, durability, and ultimate economy, is believed to be unequalled. These Chairs have been very generally adopted in the Schools in Boston and the New England States. The Chairs or Desks, or any desired sizes of either, can be had separately. wales' school chairs and desks. 203 Wales' Bowdoin School Chair and Desk The Chair above represented is finished with a very graceful scroll top and ornamental centre, the latter passing from the top through a dovetail in the seat, directly into the foot of the iron pedestal upon which it is based, thereby securing an unequalled degree of strength and durability, with com- fort and beauty. The iron pedestals are secured firmly to the wood- work at the top, and are then screwed immovably to the floor pf the school -room. The Desk is for a single scholar, but can be made of any length in the same fashion, accommodating any number of scholars which may be needful. It rests upon iron supports, of a new and improved construction, which secures great firmness and strength. A comparison of this cut with that preceding, will show that while the or- namental in form has been introduced in the Bowdoin School Chair, the more important elements of strength, durability and comfort, which experience has accorded to the American School Chair, have not been omitted. One secures every attainable degree of strength and comfort, at the lowest price, Avhile the other adds to all these a greater beauty of style, with the price increased in proportion. The size in the drawing is of a Chair of 16 inches, with a Desk of 28 inches in height, being the largest of the series of seven sizes, which may be found on a preceding page, in the description of the American School Chair. 560 of these Chairs are in use in the Bowdoin School, and 672 in the Quincy School, in Boston. The Desk is of a later pattern than those in either of the schools named. Chairs or Desks of this style, or any sizes of them, can be had separately, if desired. It is now about ten years, since the manufacturer first invented and adopted the iron pedestal, as the base for School Chairs, and although the introduc- tion of this new principle has been slow, it has, nevertheless, been sure and satisfactory. The knowledge of this mode of setting up School Chairs and Desks on pedestals, or on fancy forms of iron, as illustrated by the accompanying cuts has been widely extended, and has met with the universal approbation of ex- perience. 204 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. "Wales' Hancock School Chair and Desk. The figures above represent the largest of a series of seven sizes, as described on a preceding page. The Desk is for a single scholar, with a single chair. The supports, both of the Chairs and Desks, are of iron, secured firmly to the wood-work of the Chair or Desk at the top, and to the floor of the school-room at the bottom. 560 of these Chairs, with single Desks, are in the Hancock School, in Boston. The Desk represented in the drawing is of a later, and, it is believed, a better pattern in several respects, than those in the Hancock School. Chairs or Desks of this description are furnished separately, when desired. The greatly increased demand for School Furniture of this description, and indeed for an improvement in School Furniture of all kinds, has induced the subscriber to establish a Manufactory, where, under his own direction, all kinds of School Furniture will be manufactured in the best manner. Every article from this establishment will be warranted. Before closing these notices, it is proper to observe that drawings rarely give the complete idea of the thing, either in style or proportion, especially when small objects are intended to be represented . At the Ware-room of the Manufacturer, samples of all the foregoing styles of Desks and Chairs are set up, as if in actual use ; and all persons who feel interest or curiosity in such matters are invited to visit and examine them. It is only by such an investigation that the complete idea can be realized. Orders by mail or otherwise will be executed with the same promptness and fidelity as if pre- sented in person. S. Wales, Jr., No. 14 Bromfield street, Boston. The foregoing drawings and description of School Chairs and School Desks, manufactured by S. Wales, Jun., 14 Bromfield street, Boston, Mass., are copied from the circular of the manufacturer, by permission. ROSS'S SCHOOL FURNITURE. Ross's School Chair and Desk. 205 The above cut represents a new style of school chair and desk, manu- factured by Joseph L. Ross, corner of Ivers and Hopkins streets, Boston. " The legs, or supports of the desk and seat, are of cast-iron, of clas- sical design, conveniently shaped in reference to sweeping, and are firmly secured to the wood-work of the chair and desk, and to the floor. The chairs are made of seven sizes, viz. : 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16 inches high from the floor to the upper surface of the seat ; and the desks are manufactured to correspond to the size of the chairs." These has been introduced into the new Public High School-house, Cambridge, and in Charlestown, and into several of the new Grammar School-houses in Boston, and have given entire satisfaction wherever they have been introduced. Mr. Ross also manufactures tables and desks for the use of teachers, eases for apparatus, and for library, and other furniture for school-rooms." Mr. Ross also manufactures a style of school desk, with seat attached, which has been introduced very extensively into village and country dis- tricts in Rhode Island, and is recommended wherever a rigid economy must be observed in furnishing a school-room. The end-piece, or sup- ports, both of the desk and seat, are of cast-iron, and the wood-work is attached by screws. They are made of eight sizes, giving a seat from ten inches to seventeen, and a desk at the edge next to the scholar from seventeen to twenty-six inches from the floor. 206 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan and Description of Bowdoin Grammar School-House. The new Bowdoin School-house, completed in 1848. is situated on Myrtle street, and with the yard occupies an area of about 75 feet by 68 feet, bounded on each of the four sides by a street. It is built of brick with abasement story of hammered granite, and measures 75 feet 9 inches extreme length by 54 feet 6 inches extreme breadth — having three stories, the first and second being 13 feet, and the third, 15 feet high in the clear. The ground descends rapidly from Myrtle street, thereby securing a basement of 15 feet in the rear. One third of which is finished into entries, or occupied by three furnaces, coal bins, pumps, &c, and the remaining two thirds is open to the yard, thereby affording a cov- ered play-ground for the pupils. The third story is finished into one hall 72 feet long by 38 feet wide, with seats and desks for 180 pupils. On the south side of this hall there are two recita- tion rooms, each 16 feet by 12 feet, and a room for a library, &c. There are three rooms of the same size on the two floors below. The second story is divided into two rooms by a partition wall, each of which is 35 feet by 38, and accommodates 90 pupils, and so connected by sliding doors that all the pupils of both schools can be brought under the eye and voice of the teacher. The first story corresponds to the second, except there are no sliding doors in the partition, and no connection between the room except through the front entry. The two rooms on this floor have each seats and desks for 100 pupils. Each story is thoroughly ventilated, and warmed by one of Chilson's Fur- naces. In each furnace the air chambers, the apertures for conducting the cold air into them, and the flues for constructing the heated air into the rooms in each story, being all large, a great quantity of warm air is constantly rushing into the rooms, and the ventilating flues or ventiducts being so constructed and arranged that the air of the rooms will be frequently changed, and that a pure and healthy atmosphere will at all times be found in each of these rooms, pro- vided the furnaces are properly and judiciously managed. On the top of the building there are two of Emerson's large ventilators, connected with the attic and ventilating flues, through which the impure air passes out into the atmos- phere above. To accommodate pupils who come to school with wet feet or clothes, there is an open fire in a grate in one of the recitation rooms. Each room is furnished with Wales' American School Chair, and Ross's Desk, and both desk and chair are in material, form and style, as described on page 202 and 205. This is a school for girls only, and consists of two departments, one of which is called the Grammar department, and the other the Writing department; the master of each department being independent of the other. The number of assistant female teachers in each department of this school, when full, will be four, the teachers in each department being independent of the master and teacher in the other. The master of the Grammar department and two of his assistants will occupy the large hall in the third story, and his other two assistants will occupy one of the rooms in the first story. The master of the writing department and two of his assistants will occupy the rooms in the second story, and his other two assistants will occupy the other room in the first story, each master being the superintendence of his own department. The school, when full, will be divided into five classes, and each class into two divisions, nearly equal in numbers. The first week after the vacation in August, the first division of each class will attend in the grammar department in the morning, and the second division of each class will attend in the writing department ; and in the afternoon, the second division of each class will attend in the grammar department, and the first, in the writing department. The next week, this order of attendance is to be reversed, and this alteration is to con- tinue through the year, the weeks of vacation not being counted. This house and the Gluincy Grammar School-house are built after designs by Mr. Bryant. BOWDOIN GRAMMAR SCHOOL-HOUSE. Plan op First and Second Floor. 207 A, A, Entrance for Pupils. B, Ditto for Teacher. C, C, Study halls, each 35 by 38 feet ; with seats and desks for 100 pupils. D, Sliding door, by which the two rooms on the second floor are thrown into one. E, Study hall, 72 feet by 38. F, F, Two recitation rooms on each floor, 16 feet by 12. G, Room 10 feet by 12, for library, ap- paratus, &c. H, Ross' desk, and Wales' chair. P, Teacher's platform with desk for teacher and assistants. S, S, Staircase leading to second and third floors. a, Case with glass doors for appara- tus. c, Closet for Teacher. q, Grate. r, Hot air register. v, Flues for ventilation. Plan op Third Floor. 208 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan and Description of GIuincy Grammar School-House, Boston. This building, which was commenced in 1847, and dedicated on the 26th of June, 1848, is situated on a lot 90 feet by 130 feet, extending from Tyler street to Hudson street. The ground plan is in the form of a cross, the exterior dimensions of the body being 80 feet by 58 feet, the end fronting on Tyler street. The wings are 12 feet in front by 36 feet deep. It is four stories high, with a basement 8 feet in the clear, for the furnaces and fuel, and an attic for gymnastic exercises. Each wing contains a front and back entrance, a flight of stairs from the basement to the attic, and a room on each floor 10 feet by 11 feet, connected with a school-room. The fourth story of the body is finished in one spacious hall, 16 feet high in the clear, with centre-pieces and a cornice, and a platform at each end 22 feet by 11 feet, and 22 inches high. It is furnished with settees arranged in 4 rows, sufficient to accommodate 700 children. The third floor is divided by a corridor 8 feet wide, extending across the main body from one wing to the other, having 2 school-rooms on each side. These four school-rooms are of nearly the same size, averaging about 31 1 feet by 26 J feet, and 13 feet high. Each room is lighted by 2 windows at the side, and 2 at the end, and has a platform for the teacher 24 feet by about 5£, with one end towards the entrance from the corridor, and on the other end is placed a book-case of cherry, 3J feet by 8 feet, with glazed doors, facing the entrance. The scholars' desks front the platform and the windows on the side of the building, and are separated by aisles 1 foot and 4 inches wide. They are 2 feet in length, made of cherry-wood, and varnished and supported by cast iron stands. J. L. Ross, maker. Each scholar has a desk by himself. The chair is made by Mr. Wales, of Boston. It has a scroll back and cast iron support. Each room accommodates 56 pupils, one desk and chair being placed on a small movable platform for a monitor. The rooms are lined with composition blackboards 3£ feet wide, 2 feet from the floor. The school-rooms which have not small rooms attached, are provided with closets for the children's clothes. There are 2 sinks in the corridor, with con- veniences for introducing Cochituate water. The description of this story will answer for the two below it, as the first three are essentially the same. The windows are furnished with inside blinds, having revolving slats, so that the light may be regulated with great ease. The building is warmed by 4 furnaces placed in the basement, 2 being placed at the middle of each end, each being intended to warm the three rooms imme- diately over it, the cast iron chimnies being relied upon for heating the hall. Emerson's system of ventilation has been introduced since the building was finished, each room having a separate air-duct to the roof, 14 inches by 14 inches. The apparatus consists of the Boston Philosophical set, by J. M. Wightman, Eayrs and Fairbanks' globe, 2 sets of Pelton's Outline Maps, and one of Mitchell's. A library costing $200 has been furnished by the donation of Mayor GIuincy. To protect the desks from injury, the slate-frames are all required to be cov- ered with cloth, and each scholar is to provide himself with a convenient box to contain his pen, pen-wiper, pencils, rubber, &c. Each desk has an inkstand sunk into the right-hand corner, with a revolving metalic cover. The building is calculated for but one school, and is at present occupied by but one, the organization of which is adapted to the arrangement and construc- tion of the house. When the organization is complete, the school will be divided into 4 classes, each class containing 168 scholars, and each class into 3 divisions. At present the 3 lower classes contain two divisions each, and the first class 3. On the 3rd floor are the first division of the first class ander the instruction o/ CtfJINCY SCHOOL-HOUSE. 209 the Principal, and the several divisions of the 2d class instructed by assistants; On the 2d floor is the 2d division of the 1st class instructed by the sub-mas- ter, with the several divisions of the 3d class under assistants; and the usher takes the 3rd division of the 1st class, with the several divisions of the 4th class on the 1st floor. By this arrangement the government is rendered compara- tively easy. The whole school is brought together in the hall for devotional services, and other general exercises. Plan of First Floor. A, A, Front Door. B, B, Entries. C, Corridor or Hall. T, T, T, T, Teachers' Platform 24 feet by bh. r, r, r, r, Hot-air flues. v, v, v, v, Preston's Ventilators for controlling the flues in the partition wall, which communicate with the iron smoke pipes near the top of the building. This plan is adopted in the first story only. e, e, e, e, Indicates the location of the flues of Emerson's Ventilators in the second, third and fourth stories. s, Sink. c, c. c, c, Closets. d, d, Closets 10 feet by 11 feet 14 PUTNAM FREE SCHOOL-HOUSE. 211 Plans and Description of the Putnam Free School-House, Newburyport, Mass. We are indebted to W. H. Wells, Esq., the gentleman who has been selected as Principal of the Putnam Free School, and to whom the work of organizing this important institution has been committed, for the following plans and description. The Putnam Free School was founded by Mr. Oliver Putnam, a native of Newbury. It has a permanent fund of fifty thousand dol- lars, besides the amount invested in the school-house and its appur- tenances. The number of pupils to be admitted at the opening of the school (April, 1848,) is limited by the Trustees to 80. No pupil can be received under twelve years of age, nor for less time than one year. The object of the Institution is to lead pupils through an extended course of English studv. It is open to students from any portion of the country, who are prepared to meet the requirements for admis- sion. No charge is made for tuition. This building is situated on High street, directly opposite the Common or Mall. It is constructed of brick, with corners, door-sills, underpinning, steps, etc., of freestone. It is two stories in height, exclusive of a basement story, 85 k feet in length, and 52 i in breadth. The upper story is divided into two principal school-rooms, each 49i feet by 40L There is also a small room in this story for the use of the Principal. The lower story contains a hall for lectures and other general exercises, and four recitation rooms. The hall is 44 feet by 48|. Two of the recitation rooms are 14 feet by 17, and two are 11 by 20. Each of the principal school-rooms is furnished with 64 single seats and desks, besides recitation chairs, settees, etc. The desks are made of cherry; and both the desks and the chairs are supported by iron castings, screwed firmly to the floor. In form and construction, they are similar to Kimball's " Improved School Chairs and Desks." The central aisles are two feet and eight inches in width ; the side aisles, four feet and four inches; and the remaining aisles, two feet. The building is warmed by two furnaces. It is ventilated by six flues from the hall on the lower floor, six from each of the school-rooms on the second floor, and one from each of the recitation rooms. Each of these flues has two registers ; one near the floor, and the other near the ceiling. The two princi- pal school-rooms are furnished with double windows. The institution is provided with ample play-grounds and garden plots, back of the building and at the ends. It has also a bell weighing 340 lbs. The first appropriation of the Trustees for the purchase of apparatus, is one thousand dollars. Other appropriations will probably be made, as the wants of the school may require. In addition to the apparatus procured by the Trus- tees, the institution is to have the use of an achromatic telescope, which will cost between three and four hundred dollars. The cost of the building and ground, with the various appurtenances, exclu- sive of apparatus, has amounted to twenty-six thousand dollars. The accompanying plans give a correct representation of the arrangements on the two principal floors. The building was erected after designs and specifications by Mr. Bryant, Architect. Boston, 212 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PUTNAM FREE SCHOOL-HOUSE.— LOWER STORY H — Hall for lectures and other general exercises, 44 feet by 48^. A — Raised platform for desk. D — Front door. (The portico in front does not appear in the plate.) B, B — Recitation rooms, 11 feet by 20. R, R — Reoitation rooms, 14 feet by 17. E, E, E, E — Entries. C, C — Wash closets, under the stairs, a, a — Doors leading to the basement story, d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d, d — Doors, v, v, v, v, v, v, y, t, v, v. — Ventilating flues. PI TNAM FREE SCHOOL-HOUSE, NEWBURYPORT. 213 PUTNAM FREE SCHOOL-HOUSE.— UPPER STORY. Q □nan°nanci°n°DnLi □ □D oQ nQ □□ □[] nQ nn nD D □ cQcQcacicacidccb °n °n □□□□□□ °n □□□□□ ^oDdcicidcicccp ancoqncicnciciicp a a □ □ a □ a * "u* M, D— Room for Male Department. F, D— Room for Female Department. A, A Raised platforms for teachers' desks. L — Principal's room. C, C — Closets, p, p — Raised platforms under the black-boards, s, s, 3, s, s, s — Settees 4, d, d, d, d, d— Doors, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v, v— Ventilating flues 214 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plans and Description of the Public High School-House, . ■ Hartford, Conn. The Public High School-House of Hartford was built after more than ordinary search for the best plan, (a committee having visited Boston, Lowell, Salem, Newburyport, Worcester, Providence, and Middletown, for this purpose,) under the constant oversight of a prudent, practical and intelligent building committee, and with due regard to a wise economy. The committee were limited in their expenditure for lot, building, and fixtures, to $12,000; and when it was ascertained that a suitable building could not be constructed for that sum, individuals on the committee immediately contributed $2,400 out of their own pockets to complete the house with the latest improvements. The committee have now the satisfaction of knowing that their contributions and personal oversight have been mainly instrumental in erecting and furnishing the most complete structure of the kind in New England, when the aggregate cost is taken into consideration. The High School is designed for both males and females, and the arrange- ments of the buildings, and the grounds, are made with reference to the separa- tion of the sexes, so far as this is desirable in the same school. The lot on which the building stands is at the corner of Asylum and Ann streets, and is at once central, and large enough for the appropriate yards. The yards are separated by a close and substantial board fence, and the grounds are well laid out and properly inclosed ; they will also soon be planted with trees and shrubbery. The building is of brick, three stories high, upon a firm stone basement. Its dimensions are 50 by 75 feet. The basement is 13 feet in the clear, six feet of which are above the level of the yard. This part of the build- ing is occupied by furnaces, coal bins, sinks, pumps, entrance rooms, &c. At one end, and on two opposite sides of the building, a stair case eleven feet in width extends from each of the two entrance rooms, to the upper story, with spacious landings on the first and second floors. Two rooms, each 11 by 14 feet, are be- tween the stair cases, the one on the first floor being used for a front entry to the building, and the one on the second floor being appropriated to the Library and Apparatus. Two closets, eleven by four feet on the first floor, and imme- diately beneath the stair cases, receive the outer garments, umbrellas, &c, of the teachers. An aisle of four feet four inches in width extends between the desks and outer walls of the rooms, and between every two ranges of desks is an aisle of two feet four inches in width. An aisle of eight feet in width passes through the middle of the rooms, parallel to the narrower passages. A space of five feet in width is likewise reserved between the remote seats in the ranges and the partition wall of the rooms. Around the sides of the rooms, tastefully con- structed settees are placed for occasional recitations, and for the accommodation of visiters, and in the upper room for the use of the pupils of the room below, during the opening and closing exercises of the school. The pupils, when seated, face the teachers' desks and platforms,which occupy the space between the entrance doors of each room. A blackboard, or black plaster surface, forty feet long, and five broad, ex- tends between the doors leading to the recitation rooms, which are also lined with a continuous blackboard. There is also a blackboard extending the entire length of the teachers' platform in the lower room, and two of smaller di- mensions in the room above, a part of the space being occupied by the folding doors leading to the library and apparatus room. Twenty chairs, of small di- mensions and sixteen inches in height, are placed around each recitation room, ♦hirteen inches apart and seven inches from the walls, and securely fastened to the floor. A clock, with a circular gilt frame and eighteen-inch dial plate, is PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL HARTFORD. 215 placed over the teachers' platform in each school room, in full view of the pupils. A small bell is also placed above the teachers' platform in the lower room, with a wire attached, passing to the desk of the Principal, in the room above, by which the time of recesses, change of recitation classes, &c, are signified to the members of the lower rooms. The school-rooms in the first and second stories are 50 feet square, and 13 feet in height — to each of which, two recitation rooms 12 by 23 feet are attached. The large rooms are furnished with " Kimball's improved School Chairs and Desks," placed in six ranges, extending back from the teachers' platforms, ten esks forming a range, and two chairs attached to each desk, furnishing accom- odations in each room for 120 pupils — 60 of either sex. Ample room yet emains in front of these ranges to increase the number of desks when the wants of the school demand them. The desks are four feet in length and one foot four inches in breadth, constructed of cherry, oiled and varnished. The moderately inclined tops am fixed to the end supporters, and the openings for books are in front of the pupils. Glass inkstands are inserted in the tops of the desks, and the ink protected from dust and the action of the atmosphere by mahogany covers turning on pivots. The chairs are constructed with seats of basswood, hollowed, and backs of cherry, moulded both to add beauty to the form of the chair, and to afford support and comfort to the occupants. Ah are neatly stained and varnished, and they, as well as the desks, rest on iron supporters, firmly screwed to the floor. The entire upper story is converted into a hall, being twelve feet in height at the walls, rising thence in an arch to the height of seventeen feet. This is ap- propriated to reading, and declamation, and for the female department of the school, to daily recess, and calisthenic exercises. A moderately raised platform is located at one end, above which an extended blackboard is placed, and settees are ranged around the walls ; these, properly arranged, together with the settees from the lower rooms, which are easily transported above, speedily convert the open Hall into a commodious Lecture room, — and also adapt it to the purposes of public examinations and exhibitions. In each of the two entrance rooms are placed the means of cleanliness and comfort, — a pump of the most approved construction, an ample sink, two wash basins with towels, glass drinking tumblers, and a looking-glass. Kanges ol hooks for hats, coats, bonnets, cloaks, &c, extend around the rooms, and are numbered to correspond with the number of pupils, of each sex, which the capacity of the house will accommodate. In the girls' room, pairs of small iron hooks are placed directly beneath the bonnet hooks, and twelve inches from the floor, for holding the over-shoes. In the boys' room, boot-jacks are pro- vided to facilitate the exchange of boots for slippers when they enter the build- ing — an important article, and of which no one in this department of the school is destitute. A thin plank, moderately inclined by hollowing the upper side, is placed upon the floor, and extends around the walls of the room, to receive the boots and convey the melted ice and snow from them, by a pipe, beneath the floor. A large umbrella stand is furnished in each of the two entrance rooms, also with pipes for conveying away the water. Stools are secured to the floors for convenience in exchanging boots, shoes, &c. Directly under the stairs is an omnium gatherum — an appropriate vessel, in which are carefully deposited shreds of paper, and whatever comes under the denomination of Utter,- subject, of course, to frequent removal. These rooms, in common with the others, are carefully warmed. The wainscoting of the entrance' rooms, and the stair ease, is formed of narrow boards, grooved and tongued, placed perpendicularly, and crowned with a simple moulding. The railing of the stair case is of black walnut. A paneled wainscoting reaching from the floor to the base of the windows, extends around the walls of the remaining rooms. All the wood work, including the library and apparatus cases, is neatly pain ted, oak-grained, and varnished. The teachers' tables are made of cherry, eight feet in length, and two feet four inches in breadth, with three drawers in each, and are sup- ported on eight legs. A movable writing desk of the same material is placed on each. Immediately in front of the teachers' desk in the upper room, a piano is to be placed, for use during the opening and closing exercises of the school, and for the use of the young ladies during the recesses. Venetian window blinds with rolling slats, are placed inside the windows, and being of a slight buff color, they modify the light without imparting a sombre hue to the room. 215 . SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The building is warmed throughout by two of Hanks' Improved Air Heater, placed in the basement. The ventilation of the school-rooms, or the rapid discharge of the air which has become impure by respiration, is most thoroughly secured in connection with a constant influx of pure warm air from the furnaces, by discharging ven- tiducts or flues, situated on each side of the building at the part of the rooms most distant from the registers of the furnaces. The ventiducts of each room are eighteen inches in diameter, and are carried from the floor entirely separate to the Stationary Top, or Ejector above the roof. The openings into the ven- tiducts, both at the top and bottom of the room, are two feet square, and are governed by a sliding door or blind. A flight of stone steps leads to the front and main entrance of the building. The architectural entrance is of simple design, fourteen feet in width, and twenty feet in height. All the parts are wrought from dark colored stone, and on the crowning stone of the entablature, Public High School, appears in plain and prominent relief. Large folding doors, with side and top lights, close the entrance. A side knob commands a bell suspended in the Library Room, directly behind the Principal. A broad stone walk reaches from the steps to the street ; flagging walks also extend from the street to the side entrances of the building, and thence to the outbuildings. The Library contains an Encyclopedia, the most approved Dictionaries, both Classical and English, and other important books of reference for the use of the School, together with selected works for the direct professional reading of the teachers. Several educational and scientific periodicals are furnished to the School, and which at the end of each year will form additional volumes for the Library. Pelton's and Olney's, together with Mitchell's new series of outline maps, published by J. H. Mather & Co., of Hartford, Ct., and a fourteen-inch terres- trial globe, aid in the department of General Geography. Mattison's series of sixteen astronomical maps; a fourteen-inch celestial globe ; Vale's improved twenty-four-inch celestial globe and transparent sphere ; a magic lantern, with sets of slides, containing thirty accurate telescopic and astronomical views; a reflecting telescope of five feet focal distance, with magnifying power of 700, and Chamberlin's best Tellurium, aid in the depart- ment of Astronomy. Historical maps, charts, &c, an Isothermal chart, and set of large drawings to illustrate the anatomical structure, and the physiological functions of the system, will be procured. The following apparatus has already been procured to aid in illustrating and demonstrating in the studies named : Mechanics. — Set of mechanical powers, arranged in a mahogany frame, comprising three levers, each sixteen inches long. Five sets of brass pulleys strung with cord and properly balanced. Brass weights from one to sixteen ounces. Serew and lever with nut. Screw as an inclined plane. Ship cap- stan. Wheel and axle. "Wedge in two parts. Inclined plane, with carriage. Movable fulcrum and lever, for combining the power of screw and lever. Machine for illustrating the centrifugal and centripetal forces — thirteen experi- imentis. Pneumatics. — Air Pump — frame made of rose-wood beautifully polished — barrel twelve by four inches inside ; large plate, stop-cock, and barometer in vacuo, and worked with a polished steel lever four feet in length, $85,00. Large swelled, n ™en-top bell glass. Several plain bell glasses of smaller dimensions. Bell glass with brass cap to receive stop-cock. Connector, sliding rod, &c. Revolving jet in vacuo. Bursting squares and wire guard for same. Condensing chamber and condensing gauge. Artificial fountain, with exterior and interior jets. Sheet rubber bag in vacuo, illustrating the rarefaction of confined air by removing the pressure of the external. Mercury tunnel to ex- hibit the mercurial shower, porosity of wood, pressure of the air, and also the luminous shower. Guinea and feather tube. Philosophical water hammer. PUPLIC HIGH SCHOOL, HARTFC RD. 217 Apparatus illustrating the absurdity of suction, or the necessity of atmospheric pressure to the operation of the lifting pump. Torricellian barometer improved. Bell in vacuo. Apparatus illustrating the buoyancy of air, gas, &c. Weighing air and' specific gravity apparatus. Freezing apparatus with thermometer. Condensing syringe. Cylindrical open-top bell glasses, three sizes. Hand and bladder glass, to illustrate atmospheric pressure. Bladder cap, with cap and stop-cock. Double acting exhauster and condenser. Brass hemispherical caps with handles, stop-cock and stand. Apparatus to illustrate the upward pressure of the atmosphere. Connecting screws, guard screws, sliding rod, with pack- ing screws and binding screws. Flexible hose and screw connectors. Hydro- gen bottle. Lead hose for conducting gases. Floating bulbs for condensation. Sheet rubber and sheet rubber bags. Glass bells and stems for freezing appa- ratus. Pair magnetic swans. Detonating glass tubes. Wire gauze, to illus- trate Davy's safety lamp. Hydrostatics. — Hydrostatic bellows, with glass and brass tubes, glass tun- nels, weights, &c. Pair of working models of the forcing and lifting pump. Graduated glass jars for cubic inches. Electricity. — Electrical machine, 24 inch plate, $50,00. Leyden jar of four quarts. Do. do. for suspension with movable rings and points. Do. do. with sliding discharger. Electrometer jar, by which the charge may be measured, &c. Electric batteries with six four-quart jars. Sliding, directing rod. Spiral spotted tube. Jointed discharger, glass handle. Universal discharger. Insu- lating stand. Electric bells. Wax cylinder. Thunder house with fixtures. Gas pistol. Gas generator and platina igniter, four quarts. Longhaired man. Electric float wheel and point. Abbe Noloes' globe. Luminous bell glass. Electric S. Aurora flask. Electric seasons machine. Elastic rubber ball. Ether spoon. Chamberlin's cylindrical gasometers, for oxygen and hydrogen, united, forming a compound blow pipe, $60,00. Iron retort for oxygen gas. Metallic reflectors with stand, iron ball and stands and a thermometer. Glass spirit lamp. Spirit boiler to use with reflectors. Dropping tube. Glass tun- nels. G raduated glass hydrometer. Flask with screw-cap admitting thermom- eter. Platina and copper pendant spoons. Brass pipe for blowing gas bubbles. Hydrogen gas generator, with platina sponge for lighting a long detonating jet. Lamp stand. Flexible hose for transferring and conducting gases. Scales and weights for chemical purposes. Pyrometer with two lamps and rods. Section model of the high pressure engine. Galvanic Magnetic and Electro Magnetic. — Davis's cylindric battery. Steel U magnet and armature. Magnetic needles and stands. Electromag- net. Electro coil and hemispheric magnets. Terrestrial helix. Primary coil and handles for shocks. Separable helics for analysis of shocks. Optics. — Models of the human eye in three parts. Fig. 1st. A dissectible eye four inches in diameter, showing the cornea, iris, ciliary process, choroid tunic, crystalline lens, vitreous hi,mor, retina, black pigment, optic nerve, &c. Fig. 2d. Showing the eye in its socket, with the muscles. Fig. 3d. The eye with rays of light passing from an object and forming the image on the retina. The object and the image movable, showing the cause of lens light, short sight, and perfect sight. An oxy-hydrogen microscope will soon be added in this department. With the above apparatus more than eight hundred experiments can be per- formed. For the purpose of teaching practical surveying, and the elements of en- gineering, a Theodolite, of approved English manufacture, is provided. Cost Other apparatus will from time to time be added, as the wants of the School may require. Building Committee. — A. M. Collins, D. F. Robinson, T. Belknap, J, ML Buncb, W. Pease, Jr., Edward Button, E. D. Tiffany, PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, HARTFORD. Fig. 2— Ground Plan, Yard, Basement, &c. 219 A — Front yard. B — Girls' yard. C — Boys' yard. D — Door. E — Boys' entrance rooms. G — Girls' entrance rooms. F — Furnace. S — Stairs. W — Windows. P — Privies, with screen, doors, &c. X— Gates. a — Cold air ducts. b— Warm air ducts. c — Foul air ducts or ventilating flues. d — Smoke pipe. e — Pump, sink. f— Umbrella stand. g — Hollowed plank to receive wet boots, overshoes, &c. o — Bins for hard coal, charcoal, &C j— Close board fence. 220 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. -Plan op First Floor. sosnsnsnsnsnsDsasQsDsD 'mosososflsosososa c Ik M V///,my//////2 vJm sasastHHisasasasasDsn A — Front entrance. B — Girls' entrance. C — Boys' entrance. I— Centre aisle, eight feet. L — Aisle between each range of seats and desks, two feet four inches. K — Side aisle, four feet four inches. M — Space five feet wide. T — Teachers' platform and desk. R — Recitation rooms, each twenty-three feet by twelve, furnished with* twenty chairs, seven inches from the wall and thirteen inches apart. Q, — Library and apparatus, from eleven feet by fourteen feet. N — Kimball's desk and two chairs. O — Piano. r — Hot air registers. c — Ventilating flue or foul air duct. N — Settees. I sammomron 3DOT[ffi[»ow[i ^____^ c mfiE=rt=An./; wwtwm — n — wi. Fig. 4— Plan op Second Floob. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL, HARTFORD. 221 Figs. 5 and 6. Plans exhibiting Mode of Ventilation. Fig. 5. Transverse section exhibiting the manner in which the ventiducts or tot air flues are carried up on the inside of the walls, under the roof, till they discharge into the Stationary Top or Ejector. Fig. 6. Lateral section of the ventiducts or fou] air flues, showing the man- ner in which the flues are packed together and carried up separately from the floor of each room until they discharge into the common Ejector. The cut does not represent properly the manner in which the flues are carried under and oui of the roof. Fig. 7. Hanks' Improved Air Heater. 222 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE The following description and notice of Hanks' Furnace or Im- proved Air Heater, which has worked well in the High School, is taken from the Circular of the Patentee. " The Air Heater is set in the cellar or basement surrounded by a double brick wall — each four inches thick and four inches apart, arched oyer the top, leav- ing a door in the rear, of sufficient size to take out the Healer — the door to be closed with two thicknesses of tin or sheet iron, three inches apart. At the bottom of the wall, directly under the pipes, also opposite the stove, introduce a supply of pure air from outside of the building — this coming in contact with the heated surfaces, rises rapidly and passes off into tin conductors leading from the arch over the Heater, to the apartments intended to be warmed. The peculiar improvement and operation of this Apparatus is, that the heat, ^s its temperature is reduced, passes dovm into pipes of a still lower temperature, and at the lowest, passes off into the chimney. The air to be warmed, is brought first in contact with the pipes and conductors of the lowest temperature, and as it becomes warm and rises, is brought in contact with, and rises among pipes of a temperature continually and regularly increasing, until at the highest it passes off into conductors leading to the rooms. Thus the current oiheat is directly contrary to the current of air passing into the apartments. It will radiate more heat, with a given quantity of fuel, than any other appa- ratus now in use for the same purpose. It is perfectly accessible at all times, and may be cleared of ashes and soot either when in operation or not, by simply opening the door of the Radiator. All the coal it may contain can always be seen by looking in at the " feeding ioor;" thus it may at once be known if the quantity and quality of the coal is as it should be. It is so constructed that the required quantity of heat can always be had and controlled, diminished or increased at pleasure, with a corresponding consump- tion of fuel." Fig. 8. Kimball's Improved Chairs and Desk. For description, see p. 116. free academy, new york. 223 Plan and Description of the Free Academy in the City of New York. The Free Academy is situated on the S. E. corner of Twenty-third street and Lexington avenue, in the upper part of the city, being convenient of access from all the great thoroughfares. The style of architecture, in which the build- ing is erected, is the same as that of the town halls and colleges of the 14th cen- tury, in Europe. This style attained its greatest perfection in the Low Coun- tries, and especially in Belgium, which at that period was the great seat of learning, science and the arts, as well as the great centre of the commercial enterprise of Europe. It was the opinion of the architect, therefore, apart from the economy in construction, of the Gothic style, when properly managed, that this style would be peculiarly appropriate for the High School of the city of New York, and was also well adapted to the materials of which it was pro- posed to construct the building, many of the old halls and colleges being built of brick. The architect, Mr. Renwick, of New York, in a letter to the Presi- dent of the Board of Education, remarks, " I am confident that the style I have adopted is, at the same time the strong- est, the cheapest, and the one best adapted to the purposes of heat and ven- tilation, being the only one, except the Norman, in which chimneys and flues become ornamental, and a roof of high pitch, necessary for external beauty, and capable of being intersected by dormer windows, which latter will add to the beauty of the building and to the convenience of lighting and ventilating the great hall, in the roof. ."As you (the Board) have proposed, with perfect correctness, to make the great hall in the Gothic style, for it can be in no other order, placed in such a position immediately beneath the roof, and is capable of being made highly or- namental in such a place, I was of opinion that the exterior of the whole build- ing should accord with it, as, if it were planned in any other style, it would ap- pear inharmonious, and therefore produce an unpleasant effect on the mind by its incongruity. The height of the building, too, the great pitch of the roof, and the numerous chimneys and ventilating flues necessary to render the arrange- ment perfect, would entirely preclude the adoption of the Grecian, Roman, or modern Italian styles, with any good effect, apart from their being much more expensive, and less beautiful. " 1 have entered at length into the reasons which guided me in the adoption of a style for the building, because it might at first sight appear expensive, and therefore improper for such an institution. You will at once perceive the great strength which the buttresses impart to the building, and the consequent reduc- tion in the thickness of the walls. These buttresses will also serve for ventila- ting flues, which in such a building should be of large size, in order to prevent, as far as possible, any friction from interfering with the passage of the currents of air, an end which can only be attained by large and smooth flues." The dimensions of the building are as follows : The length of the building, exclusive of all projections, is 125 feet, and the breadth 80 feet. The height, to the eaves, 65 feet, and to the top of the gable, 100 feet. The height of the tow- ers, 110 feet The building is divided into a basement, three stories, and a great hall under the roof. The basement is nine feet in height, and is arched to afford ground for exercise in bad weather. In it, also, are the janitors' lodgings, the chemical laboratory, and the closets for the hats and clothes of the students. The first, second and third stories are divided into four great rooms by two wide, spacious halls, which are carried through the centre of the building longitudinally and transversely. Two of these rooms, on each floor, are again divided, affording smaller rooms for recitation, &c. Above these stories is the great hall, 125 feet long by GO feet in Meadth, divided by the king and queen posts of the roof, which are made ornamental, into three aisles, the centre one of which is 40 feet in height, and the two side aisles each 20 feet in height. The ceiling of this room is of wood immediately under the roof, of which it forms part, and it is ornamented with carved ribs of wood, in the manner of the old college halls at Oxford and Cambridge. It is lighted by windows at the ends and by dormers in the roof, and when finished, will probably be the largest and finest collegiate haL in this country. The expense of the building, complete, without the furniture, will be 46,000 dollars. 224 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The Free Academy of the city of New York was established by the Board of Education, in 1847, in pursuance of authority granted by the Legislature on the memorial of the Board, and on condition that the question of its establishment should be submitted to the people of the city, and a majority of the votes given should be in favor of the proposition. The question was so submitted on the first Monday of June, 1847, and 19,904 votes were given in favor of the same to 3,409 against. The act of the Legislature authorized the Board to erect a building at an expense of $50,000, and to raise by tax annually for its support, the sum of $20,000, exclusive of a pro- portion of the State Literature Fund, and any other means from other sources than those of taxation. Admission into the Academy is con- fined to those who have been pupils in the public schools of the city. The character and design of this institution may be gathered from the following extracts from the Memorial of the Board : — " It cannot be denied that the unavoidable expense of a regular course of ed- ucation at this time, is greater than can be borne by the heads of families in this city pursuing the various trades and occupations, whose business occupies the great mass of the people. "If the number of highly educated men can, with a trivial addition to the public expense, be greatly multiplied ; if these benefits can be rendered acces- sible to the great mass of young men who cannot now indulge the hope of en- joying them at all, if pecuniary inability to defray the present expenses of a collegiate education can cease to be a barrier to the acquisition of it, it is but reasonable to expect that in a brief period the number liberally educated in this city will be increased at least four-fold. " One of the important objects designed to be secured by establishing a Free Academy, is to bring the advantages of the best education that any school in our country can give, within the reach of all the children of the city whose ge- nius, capacity, and desire of attainment are such as to render it reasonably cer- tain thai they may be made, and by such means would become, eminently use- ful to society. " The permanency of our free institutions, the future state of society, the ex- tent to which the laws of the country will be regarded, and social quiet and or- der preserved, depend essentially upon the virtue and intelligence of the people. " It is believed that a liberal education of the largest practicable number of the young men who may propose to seek the means of subsistence in agricul- ture, mechanical, or other productive occupations, would exercise a genial in- fluence upon all the varied relations of social and political life : and that such an education would not tend to dissatisfy them with such pursuits. " One object of the proposed Free Institution is, to create an additional inter- est in, and more completely popularize the Common Schools, it is believed that they will be regarded with additional favor, and attended with increased satisfaction, when the pupils and their parents feel that the children who have received their primary eddcation in these schools, can be admitted to all the benefits and advantages furnished by the best endowed college in the state, without any expense whatever. It is believed that such an institution as the proposed Free Academy is designed to be, in addition to the great benefits it will confer by annually graduating a large number of highly educated young men, destined to pursue some of all the various pursuits of life, would stimu- late tens of thousands, who might never enter this academy, to additional indus- try and greater advances while in the common schools. The certainty to a young man of good abilities, and desirous of making large acquisitions in knowledge, of having the opportunity of gaining as extensive an education as can be acquired in any institution in the State, if his parents can only furnish him the means to subsist at home, is in the highest degree cheering, while the certainty that the limited earnings of his parents will preclude him, in the ex- isting state of things, from having anv such advantages, tends to repress all such generous aspirations, paralyze effort, and prevent the full development of his ability to become extensively useful to the class in which his lot may be cast, or to society at large." 226 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE, A. Iron or brick ash-pit. B. Ash-pit door. C. Pot, or coal Burner, with or without soap- stone lining. D. Fire chamber. E. Lower half of tubular drum. F. Elliptical tubes. G. Upper half of tubular drum. H. Top of tubular drum. I. Cap and smoke-pipe. K. Flat radiator. L. "Water basin or evapo- rator. M. Smoke pipe to chimney. N. Conductors of hot air. N. Cold air conductor and chamber. P. Feed door. GL. Hot air chamber. R. Damper in globe with rod attached. S. Pendulum valve for cleaning. -t— Shows the direc- tion of the currents of hot or cold air. Fig. 3.— Culver's Furnace. FREE ACADEMY, NEW YORK. 227 The mode of warming and ventilating the several apartments of the Free Academy can be easily understood by consulting Figures 2, 3 and 4. Four of Culver's furnaces are set in the basement, as shown in Fig. 3. A large quantity of fresh air from out of doors, after being warmed by these furnaces, is carried up to the several stories by pipes in the division walls, (Fig. 2,) and is admitted into the rooms at a convenient point, as indicated in Figures 5 and 6. The air of each room, as it becomes vitiated by respiration, is discharged by openings near the ceiling into the buttresses, which are constructed hollow and finished smooth, so as to constitute large ventilating flues. Each opening is fitted with one of Culver's Ventilators or Registers, with cords attached, by which the ca- pacity of the opening for the discharge of vitiated air can be enlarged and di- minished at the pleasure of the teacher. The practical working of the furnaces and flues for ventilation, secures the object aimed at — a genial and pure atmos- phere at all times. Fig. 3. — Basement Floor. The above cut gives an incorrect view of the exterior of the building, but a good idea of the internal arrangement of the basement story. 228 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Fig 5.— Plan op First Story. The author of this treatise has not been furnished with descriptions of this and the following- plan, but a general idea of the arrangement of the room can be obtained from the cuts themselves, and from the description on page 232. The building contains more accommodations than any similar struc- ture in any of our large cities, according to the cost. FREE ACADEMY. 229 Fig. 6.— Plan op Second Story. 230 school architecture. Apparatus foe. Warming. The thorough ventilation, the constant and regular change of the at- mosphere of a school-room cannot be secured by simply providing flues or openings, however judiciously constructed and placed, for the escape of the air which has become impure from the process of breathing or other causes. These flues will not work satisfactorily, unless a mode of warm- ing the room is adopted by which a large supply of pure fresh air, properly heated, is flowing in to supply the place of that which is escaping by mean& of the flues. Among the various modes of warming school-rooms and public halls, which we have seen in full and successful operation, we select a few, in addition to those described in other parts of the work, as worthy of the par- ticular attention of committees and others, who are looking round for a heating apparatus. We shall use the cuts and description by which the patentees and venders have?chosen to make their several modes of warm- ing known to the public, without intending to decide on the relative merits of any one mode. Culver's Hot- Air Furnace. Patented and Manufactured by Culver & Co., 52 Cliff-street, New York. Culver's Hot-Air Furnace, as described in the following diagram and explanations, is intended for hard coal, to be set in double walls of brick masonry in cellar or basement, below the rooms to be warmed. Figure 1. A. Iron or Briek Ash Pit. B. Ash Pit door. C. Pot, or coal Burner, ■with or without soap- stone lining. D. Fire Chamber. E. Lower half of Tabular drum. F. Elliptical tubes. G. Upper half of Tubular drum. EL Top of Tubular drum. L Cap and smoke pipe. K. Flat Radiator. L, Water bason or evapo- rator. M. Smoke pipe to chimney. N. Conductors of Hot Air. O. Cold air conductor and chamber. P. Feed door. d. Hot- Air chamber. R. Damper in globe with rod attached. S. Pendulum valve for cleaning. — f- Shows the direc- tion of the currents of hot or cold air. CULVER'S FURNACE. 231 Culver & Co. also make, and put up, various sizes of Portable Furnaces, with metallic coverings, suitable for counting rooms, stores, school- rooms and small houses, warming the rooms in which they stand, as well as others in the same building, and they can be removed in summer as conveniently as stoves. Figure 2. Figure 3. r 1 It Figure 2 represents a section of large size Portable Furnace or double cas- ings of sheet iron or zinc. The same letters for reference are used as in Fig. 1. Figure 3 represents a smaller size Portable Furnace, with two metal cover- ings and an evaporating dish standing upon the top of the drum. The peculiarities and advantages of the Furnace are thus set forth: 1. Its compact, convenient and beautiful form. 2. Its great durability ; being in all its parts of cast iron, set within walls of brick masonry. The pot or burner being whole, is found by experience to be more durable than those made of rings or segments, and entirely prevents the admission of gas into the hot-air chamber. 3. The great radiating surfaces of this Furnace exceed those of any other, and being nearly all perpendicular, and so arranged as to afford no chance for the soot, light coal ashes or dust to collect on the plates and prevent the trans- mission of heat through them, for it must be obvious to every thinking mind, that if a radiating surface is of a zig-zag, or any other form that prevehtn the descent of dust or soot in a perpendicular line, it will certainly collect dust upon it, and just so much surface thus covered 's destroyed for radiating purposes, and in the same proportion will a greatex consumption of fuel be required to produce a given result. These furnaces are so constructed that heat acts actively upon those surfaces within, and produces the immediate and powerful heating of the cold air that is admitted to the outer surface from the atmosphere, through the tubes for that purpose. 4. The great economy in the use of fuel, making and controlling more heat than by any other process of using it. 5. The joints of this Furnace are so constructed that the expansion and con- traction of the metal cannot open them to admit gas into the hot-air chamber, and it can be cleaned of soot and ashes easily, without the necessity of taking down or breaking a joint; its action is simple, as easily understood and managed as a cylinder stove, and as readily repaired and kept in order, and the manner of "removing the deposits" is entirely novel and most efficient. 6. The constant current of the pure atmosphere into the air chamber, with 232 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the evaporation for tempering it to any degree of humidity, gives a fine health- ful ventilation, and a soft summer temperature, suited to the most delicate con- stitution, and without injury to the building or furniture. . The above described Air Heaters are manufactured and sold, wholesale and retail, by Culver & Co., who, when required, set them in double walls of brick masonry, with cast iron smoke pipe to chimneys, and conductors of hot air. of double cross tin, terminating with registers in the rooms, and secured safely from fire by tin or soap-stone linings. Figure 4 represents patterns of scroll work Registers manufactured by Culver &: Co., and put in with their furnaces if desired. The registers have valves under the surface, which are easily controlled by means of the star centers. They can be used for ventilating purposes as well as for admitting warm air. The following directions are given in Culver & Co.'s Circular for the use of their Furnace. Directions for Use. — In kindling the fire, the valve should be opened by drawing out the Damper Rod R, so as to let the smoke pass directly through smoke pipe M to chimney. Shavings, pine wood, or charcoal, should be thrown into the pot or coal burner C, and when well ignited, put in about half a hod of coal, and as soon as it also becomes ignited, fill the pot two thirds full of coal, and push the damper R parti}'' in, so as to regulate the draught and heat as may be necessary. The. valve may be entirely closed, if need be, so as to retain the heat, making it to pass through the Flat Radiator K. In moderate weather, when little heat is wanted, put two shovels full of ashes on the centre of the fire, and by regulating the draught, you can make one fire last 24 hours without any alteration ; and when you wish to renew the fire, poke out a portion of the ashes, and put on fresh coal, without turning the grate. In cold weather, however, to secure a brisk fire, the crank should be turned so as to empty the pot entirely of ashes, and commence a new fire at least once in 24 hours. When there is too much heat generated, the ash-pit door, B, should be closed entirely, and the damper rod partly drawn out, and if this is not sufficient, the Register in feed-door P may be opened ; the heat in the different rooms may be regulated by opening or closing the Registers ; all the Registers however should never be closed it the same time, unless the water door is opened to let out the hot air. The cold-air :onductor, 0, should always be open when the Furnace is in operation. PUBLIC SCHOOL-HOUSES, PROVIDENCE. 233 Plans and Descriptions of the Public School-Houses in Providence, R. I. By an ordinance of the City Council of Providence, m the spring of 1838, the public schools were reorganized, and provision was made for a liberal course of instruction, in schools of different grades, for all the children of the city. A committee was appointed to examine into the condition of the school-houses then occupied by the public schools, and report what alterations, improvements, and additional accommodations were required. This committee, after a full investigation, reported in favor of building new school-houses, on large and eligible . sites, in different parts of the city. After a further report from a sub-committee, who had visited Boston, Salem, Lowell, and New Bedford, for the purpose of examining the latest improvements in the construction of school-houses, and the style and arrangements of seats and desks, plans for the different grades of schools were determined on, and the committee were authorized to purchase such new sites as should be required, and " to erect such new school-houses as maybe necessary to carry into full operation" the new ordinance. This committee acted with great discretion, and, at the same time, with wise regard to the accommodations of the public schools ; and the result was, that, at the close of their work in 1842, no city in the United States could show so many public school-houses, uniformly well built, with most of the latest improvements, as Providence. Since 1842, great improvements have been introduced into this class of buildings, in many of the large cities and villages of Mas- sachusetts, as well as in the large districts of Rhode Island ; and it is feared, that, in respect to ventilation, size of recitation rooms, and suitable accommodation for hats and outer garments, the public school-houses of Providence can no longer claim that superiority in school architecture which has been heretofore very generally, and most justly, accorded to them. From the Report of the Building Committee to the City Council, giving the details of their proceedings and expenditures, it appears that they expended in the purchase of lots and the erection of buildings, $100,060.92. Since this committee completed their duties, ten new houses have been erected, making the aggregate amount invested by the city in school-houses, lots, and furniture about $150,000. The following plans and descriptions of these houses are taken, with permission, from the Report of Nathan Bishop, Esq., Superintendent of Public Schools in Providence dated August, 1846. 234 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Primary School-Houses. These buildings are located in different parts of the city, and are designed for the accommodation of children from four to six or seven years of age, or until they are prepared to enter the intermediate schools. No. 1.— View of a Primary School-House. These school-houses stand back from thirty to sixty feet from the line of the street, and near the center of lots varying from eighty to one hundred feet in breadth, and from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet in length. Each lot is inclosed by a neat and substantial fence, six feet high, and is divided into two yards— one for boys and the other for girls— with suitable out-buildings, shade trees, and shrubbery. These houses are each forty feet long" by thirty-three feet wide, with twelve- feet posts, built of wood, in a plain, substantial manner, and, with the fences, are painted white, presenting a neat and attractive exterior. The entrance is into a lobby [A] and thence into an open area, where stands the stove [a]. A portion of the lobby is appropriated to bins for charcoal [c] and anthracite [d], which is the fuel used in all the schools; the remainder [Bj is occupied by a sink, and as depositories for brooms, brushes, &c. Each room is arched, thereby securing an average height of thirteen feet, with an opening in the center of the arch, two feet in diameter, for ventilation. The ventilator is controlled by a cord passing over a pulley, and descending into the room near the teacher's desk [b]. In each end of the attic is a circular window, which, turning on an axis, can be opened and closed by cords, in the same manner as the ventilator. PRIMARY SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE. r. — t~ 235 No. 2. — Interior of a Primary School-House. The teacher's platform [C] is five feet wide, twenty feet long, and seven inches high, with a black-board ten feet long and three feet wide on the wall in the rear. The floor is of inch and a half plank, tongued and grooved ; and, for the purpose of securing warmth and firmness, and avoiding noise, is laid on cement. The windows, eleven in number, of twenty-four lights, of seven by nine glass, are hung with weights, and furnished with inside blinds. The sides of the room and entries are ceiled all round with wood as high as the window- sills, which are four feet from the floor. The rest of the walls are plastered, and covered with white hard finish. Each room is provided with sixty seats [5] and desks [f], placed in six ranges; each range containing ten seats and desks, of three different sizes, and each seat and desk accommodating two scholars, or one hundred and twenty in all. The center aisle is three feet and a half wide, and each of the others about two feet. The desks are over three feet long, by sixteen inches wide, with a shelf beneath for books. The upper surface of the desk fa], except about two inches at the top [b], slopes one inch and a half in a foot. 236 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. 6 a No 3. — View of Top of a Desk, and Sectional View of Primary Seats and Desks. The front of the desk, constituting the back of the next seat, slopes one inch in a foot. The seat also inclines a very little from the edge. The seats are of four different sizes, varying from seven to ten inches wide, and from nine to fourteen inches in height, the lowest being nearest the teacher's platform. Intermediate School-Houses. All the buildings of this class are two stories high, affording accommoda- tions for two schools, a primary and an intermediate. These houses are generally in pleasant situations, on large lots, varying in size from one hundred feet wide by one hundred and twenty feet long, to one hundred and fifty by two hundred feet. Rows of shade trees, consisting of elms, lindens, and maples, are planted along the side-walks and the fences inclosing the yards ; and evergreens, the mountain ash, and other ornamental trees, are placed within the inclosures. These houses are forty-four feet long, by thirty-three feet wide. Some of them are built of wood, the remainder of brick, and all in a tasteful and substantial style. The rooms are large, and easily ventilated, being twelve feet in the clear, with large openings in the ceiling of the upper room, and on the sides in the lower room, leading into flues in the walls, which conduct the foul air into the attic, from which it escapes at circular windows in the gables of the buildings. These flues and windows can be opened and closed by cords passing over pulleys, and descending into the rooms below, where the teachers can control them with ease. No. 5.— Sections of Ventilators. In this cut, the cord [i], passing over the pulley [j], raising [h], hung on hinges at [g-], opens wholly or partially the ventilator [/], a circular aperture three feet in diameter. The plan of ventilating the lower rooms is shown on 238 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. the other part of the diagram, in which [a] represents a cord running over a pulley, and attached to [e], a board three feet long by one foot wide, opening the space between [b], the top of the lower room, and [d], the floor of the upper, leading into the flue [e], ascending to the attic. The windows, nine in number in each school-room, of twelve lights, of ten by sixteen glass, are hung with weights, so as to be easily opened at top and bottom, and furnished with Venetian blinds inside, to regulate the amount of light admitted. The floors are of hard pine boards, an inch and a half thick, and about six inches wide, tongued and grooved, and laid on mortar, as a protection against fire, for the prevention of noise, and to secure warmth and firmness. All the rooms, entries, and stairways are ceiled up with matched boards about four feet, as high as the window-sills. The remaining portions of the walls are plastered, and coated with white hard finish. 6 O o i II ll 1 o o o o o o 1 II II 1 o o -p o o 1 II 1 1 1 O O O o o 1 II II 1 O O O O 1 II 1 1 1 o o o o o o 1 II II 1 1 II It 1 1 II II 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 II II 1 1 II II 1 1 II II 1 1 II II 1 1 II II 1 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o P o o o o : LZZ3 rr o o O O o o so OS oo o o 1E3 H B B A. & No. 6. — Interior of an Intermediate School-House. The walls of some of these buildings are solid stone-work, faced with brick ; others are built with double brick walls, as above shown, connected by ties of iron or brick. INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL-HOUSE, PROVIDENCE. 239 As the rooms in the lower stories of this class of buildings are appropriated to primary schools, and are furnished in the same manner as those already described, the preceding cut is intended to serve the double purpose of exhibit- ing on- the first floor only the improvements on the former plan, and, on the second, the whole view of a room for an intermediate school. The steps [a,a,a] are broad, granite blocks, with scrapers on each end. The side doors [A, A], one for boys, the other for girls, lead into entries, eight feet by ten, from which the pupils of the primary schools pass through the doors [B, B] into the main rooms, which differ from those above described, in having a space [o, o], two feet wide, on the back part of the rooms, for reading and other class exercises ; and the recitation-room, [D], another valuable improvement, as it avoids the confusion arising from having two recitations in one room at the same time. The flight of stairs in each entry, commencing at the points [R, R], and ascending in the direction of [1, 2, 3], lands on the open space [P] in the upper entry, from which the pupils pass through the doors [C, C] into the school- room. Coal-bins and convenient closets, for brooms, brushes, &c, are built under the stairs, in the lower entries ; and similar closets, for the same purposes, are provided in the upper entries. The large area [H, H], thirty feet long by seven wide, is the same in both the rooms, and is occupied by the principal teacher in each school, for such class exercises as may be more conveniently managed there than in the other place [o, o], left for the same purpose. The position of the stove [w] is such as not to render it uncomfortably warm on the front seats, and, at the same time, not to interfere with the passage of classes through the door [G] into the recitation-room [D], which is fourteen feet by ten, and, like all the school- rooms, furnished with black-boards. The lower room is lighted by a window over the front door, and by the side-lights ; and the upper one by a double or rnullion window, of sixteen lights, of ten by sixteen glass. The side aisles [m, m] are two feet and a half wide ; the others [P, P,&c] are only eighteen inches wide, except the middle one [C], which is three and a half feet. The passage across the center of the room is about a foot and a half wide, and is very convenient for teachers in passing to the different parts of the room, and also for scholars in going to and from their recitations. The seats and desks, in the front part of this room, are made and arranged on the same plan as those in the primary school-rooms above described, differ- ing from them only in being one size larger. The lower end, or foot of each perpendicular support, or end-piece, is strongly fastened into a groove in a "shoe," or piece of plank, which, being screwed to the floor, secures the desks in a durable manner, and in a firm position. The others are constructed upon a different plan, designed especially for the accommodation of pupils while writing. These desks and seats are "of three different sizes, No. 7. — Section of a' Writing-Desk and Seat. 240 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The top of the desk [a] is of pme, one inch and a half thick, fifteen inches wide, and three feet and a half long. These desks are twenty-seven inches high on the front, and twenty-four on the side next to the seats. A space about three inches wide, on the front edge of the top, is planed down to a level, and an inkstand is let into the center of this, even with the surface, and covered with a small lid. The ends of these desks are an inch and a half thick, and fastened by a strong tenon to the shoe [c], which is screwed to the floor. The front of the desk, and the shelf [4], for books, &c, are inch boards ; the whole desk, made in the strongest manner, is painted a pleasant green, and Tarnished. In the next smaller size, the same proportion is observed, but all the dimensions are one inch less; and in the third, or smallest size, the dimen- sions are all one inch less than in the second. For each desk there are two chairs, resting on cast-iron supporters [d], an inch and a quarter in diameter, with a wide flange at each end ; the upper one, screwed to the under side of the seat [e], is a little smaller than the lower, which is fastened to the floor by five strong screws, rendering the chair almost immovable. The largest size seats [e] in these rooms are fourteen inches in diameter and fifteen inches high, with backs, twenty-eight inches from [g - ] to the top, slanting an inch and a quarter to a foot. These backs are made with three slats, fastened by strong tenons into a top-piece, like some styles of common chairs, and screwed to the seat, while the middle one extends down into a socket on the foot of the iron standard. The seats, like the desks, are diminished one inch for the middle size, and two for the smallest, preserving the proportions in the different sizes, which adapts them to the sizes of the desks. Grammar School-Houses. There are six buildings of this class, constructed on the same plan, and of the same size. They are seventy feet long by forty wide, with a front pro- jection, twenty-eight feet long by fourteen feet wide. They are located on very large lots, varying from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet long — from a hundred and twenty to a hundred and fifty feet wide. All of them, except one, are on corner lots, and all have large open spaces around them. These, and all the other public school-houses in the city, are protected with GLuimby's lightning-rods, and each is furnished with a bell, which can be heard in the remotest parts of its district. In the accompanying view, No. 9, the engraver has represented a few trees, a little larger than any at present around these buildings, because he could not crowd all the trees and shrubbery into the picture, without obscuring the lower part of the house. The cut on p. 91, No. 10, is a ground plan, on a reduced scale, of a Grammar School-House, including a general view of the cellar, yards, fences, gates, sidewalks, &c. The yards around each of the grammar school-houses contain from 18,000 to 20,000 square feet, or between a third and half an acre. These grounds are inclosed, and divided into three separate yards, by substantial close board fences ■[/,/,/,/], six feet high, neatly made, and painted white. The boys' play-ground [B], and that of the girls [G], are large; but the front yard [E] is small, and, not being occupied by pupils, is planted with trees and shrubbery. The graveled sidewalks [s, s, s], running on two sides of all the grammar school lots, and on three of some of them, are shaded by rows of elms, maples, and lindens, set near the curb-stones. The gates [A, C, D] and the graveled walks [d, d, d] lead to the front and the two side doors of the school-house ; and [/] is a large gate for carting in coal, &c. The out-buildings [i, i] are arranged with a large number of separate apartments on both sides, all well ventilated, each furnished with a door, and the whole surrounded with evergreens. In the plan of the projection [H] the stairway [r] leads to the cellar, which is seven feet in the clear, and extends under the whole of the main building. These cellars are well lighted, having eight windows [W, W], with ten lights df seven by nine glass. The windows, being hung with hinges on the upper 16 242 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. i f — X "vr o p > I , slii ft 1 I ll: J» v -*..wed to secure in the best class of school edifices, respecting the location, or plan of which he 'was consulted, or called upon officially to act : 1. A location, healthy, accessible from all parts of the district; retired from the dust, noise, and danger of the highway ; at- tractive, from its choice of sun and shade, and commanding, in one or more directions, the cheap, yet priceless educating influences of fine scenery. 2. A site large enough to admit of a yard in front of the building, either common to the whole school or appropriated to greensward, flowers and shrubbery, and two yards in the rear, one for each sex, properly inclosed, and fitted up with rotary swings, and other means of recreation and exercise, and with privies, which a civilized people never neglect. 3. Separate entrances to the school-room for each sex ; each en- trance distinct from the front door, and fitted up with scraper, mats, and old broom for the feet ; with hooks, shelves, &c, for hats, over- coats, over-shoes, and umbrellas ; with sink, pump, basin and towels, and with brooms and duster, and all the means and appliances necessary to secure habits of order, neatness and cleanliness. 4. School-room, in addition to the space required by aisles and the teacher's platform, sufficient to accommodate with a seat and desk, not only each scholar in the district who is in the habit of at- tending school, but all who may be entitled to attend ; with verge enough to receive the children of industrious, thoughtful, and reli- gious families, who are sure to be attracted to a district which is blessed with a good school-house and a good school. 5. At least, one spare room for recitation, library, and other uses, to every school-room, no matter how small the school may be. 6. An arrangement of the windows, so as to secure one blank wall, and at the same time, the cheerfulness and warmth of the sunlight, at all times of the day, with arrangements to modify the same by blinds, shutters, or curtains. 7. Apparatus for warming, by which a large quantity of pure air from outside of the building can be moderately heated, and intro- duced into the room without passing over a red-hot iron surface, and distributed equally to different parts of the room. 8. A cheap, simple, and efficient mode of ventilation, by which the air in every part of a school-room, which is constantly becoming vitiated by respiration, combustion, or other causes, may be constantly flowing out of the room, and its place filled by an adequate supply of fresh air drawn from a pure source, and admitted into the room at the right temperature, of the requisite degree of moisture, and without any perceptible current. 9. A desk with at least two feet of top surface, and in no case for more than two pupils, inclined towards the front edge one inch in a foot, except two to three inches of the most distant portion, which should be level, and covered with cloth to prevent noise — fitted with an ink-pot (supplied with a lid and a pen-wiper,) and a slate, with a pencil-holder and a sponge attached, and supported by end-pieces or 27& SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. stanchion®, curved so as to be convenient for sweeping, and to admit of easy access to the seat — these of varying heights for small and large pupils, the front edge of each desk being from seven to nine- inches (seven for the lowest and nine for the highest,) higher than the front edge of the seat or chair attached. 10. A chair or bench for each pupil, and in no ease for more than two, unless separated by an aisle,, with a seat hollowed like an ordi- nary chair, and varying in height from ten to seventeen inches from the outer edge to the floor, so that each pupil, when properly seated, can rest his feet on the floor without the muscles of the thigh press- ing hard upon the front edge of the seat, and with a support for the muscles of the back, rising above the shoulder-blades. 11. An arrangement of the seats and desks, so as to allow of an aisle or free passage of at least two feet around the room, and be- tween each range of seats for two scholars, and so as to bring each scholar under the supervision of the teacher. 12. Arrangements for the teacher, such as a separate closet for his overcoat, &c. r a desk for his papers-, a library of books of reference,, maps, apparatus, and all such instrumentalities by which his capa- cities for instruction may be made in the highest degree useful. 13. Accommodations for a school library for consultation and cir- culation among the pupils, both at school and as a means of carrying on the work of self-education at their homes,, in the field, or the work- shop, after they have left school. 14. A design in good taste and fit proportion, in place of the wretched perversions of architecture, which almost universally char- acterize the district school-houses of New England. 15. While making suitable accommodation for the school, it will be a wise, and, all things considered, an economical investment, on the part of many districts, to provide apartments in the same building, or In its neighborhood, for the teacher and his family. This arrangement will give character and permanence to the office of teaching, and at the same time secure better supervision for the school-house and premises, and more attention to the manners of the pupils out of school. Provision for the residence of the teacher, and not un- frequently a garden for his cultivation, is made in connection with the parochial schools in Scotland, and with the first class of public schools in Germany. 1 6. Whenever practicable, the privies should be disconnected from the play-ground, and be approached from a covered walk. Perfect seclusion, neatness and propriety should be strictly observed in re- lation to them. 17. A shed, or covered walk, or the basement story paved under feet, and open for free circulation of air for the boys, and an upper room with the floor deafened and properly supported for calisthenic exercises for the girls, is a desirable appendage to every school. As many of the houses described are provided with very inad- equate means of warming and ventilation, the following summary of the principles, which ought to be regarded in all arrangements for PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION. ~277 these objects, Is given as the result of much observation, reflection, and experience. 1.- The location of the school-house must be healthy, and all •causes, — such as defective drains, stagnant water, decaying animal or vegetable substances, and manufactures, whose operations evolve offensive and deleterious gases, — calculated to vitiate the external at- mosphere, from which the air of the school-room is supplied, must be removed or obviated. 2. The means provided for ventilation must be sufficient to secure the object, independent of doors and windows, and other lateral openings, which are intended primarily for the admission of light, passage to and from the apartment, and similar purposes. Any de- pendence on the opening of doors and windows, except in summer, will subject the occupants of the room near such .points to currents of cold air when the pores of the skin are open, and when such ex- treme and rapid changes of temperature are particularly disagreeable and dangerous. 3. Any openings in the ceiling for the discharge of vitiated air into the attic, and hence to the exterior of the building, or by flues carried up in the wall, no matter how constructed or where placed, cannot be depended on for purposes of ventilation, unless systematic ar- rangements are adopted to effect, In concert with such openings, the introduction and diffusion of a constant and abundant supply of pure air, in the right condition as to temperature and moisture. 4. All stoves, or other heating apparatus, standing in the apartment .to be wanned, and heating only the atmosphere of that apartment, which is constantly becoming more and more vitiated by respiration and other causes, are radically defective, and should be altogether, without delay, and forever discarded. 5. Any apparatus for warming pure air, before it is introduced into the school-room, in which the heating surface becomes red-hot, or the air is warmed above the temperature of boiling water, is incon- sistent with true ventilation. 6. To effect the combined objects of warming and ventilation, a large quantity of moderately heated air should be introduced in such a manner as to reach every portion of the room, and 'be passed off by appropriate openings and flues, as fast as its oxygen is exhausted, and it becomes vitiated by carbonic acid gas, and other noxious qualities. 7. The size and number of the admission flues or openings will depend on the size of the school-room, and the number of persons occupying the same ■; but they should have a capacity to supply every person in' the room with at least five cubic feet of air per minute* Warm air can be introduced at a high as well as a low point from the floor, provided there is an exhaustive power in the discharging flues sufficient to secure a powerful ascending current of vitiated air from openings near the floor. 8 Openings into flues for the discharge of vitiated air, should be made at such points in the room, and at such distances from the ©penings fox the admission oi pure warm air, that a portion of the 078 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. warm air will traverse every part of tire room, and impart as much warmth as possible, before it becomes vitiated and escapes from the apartment. These openings can be made near the floor, at points most distant from the admission flues, provided there is a fire draught, or other power operating in the discharging flues, sufficient to overcome the natural tendency of the warm air in the room to ascend to the ceiling ; otherwise they should be inserted in or near the ceiling. Openings at the floor are recommended, not because carbonic acid gas, being heavier than the other elements of atmospheric air, settles to the floor, (because, owing to the law of the diffusion of gazes among each other, carbonic acid gas will be found equally diffused through the room,) but because, when it can be drawn off at the floor, it will carry along with it the cold air which is admitted by open doors, and at cracks and crevices, and also the offensive gases sometimes found in school-rooms. 9. All openings, both for the admission and discharge of air, should be fitted with valves and registers, to regulate the quantity of air to pass through them. The quantity of air to be admitted should be regulated before it passes over the heating surface ; otherwise, being confined in the air chamber and tubes, the excessive heat will cause much injury to the pipes and the woodwork adjoining. 10. All flues for ventilation, not intended to act in concert with some motive power, such as a fan, a pump, the mechanism of a clock, a fire-draught, a jet of steam, &c, but depending solely on the spon- taneous upward movement of the column of warm air within them, should be made large, (of a capacity equal to at least 18 inches in diameter,) tight, (except the openings at the top and bottom of the room ;) smooth, (if made of boards, the boards should be seasoned, matched, and planed ; if made of bricks, the flue should be round, and finished smooth,) and carried up on the inside of the room, or in the inner wall, with as few angles and deviations from a direct ascent as possible, above the highest point of the roof. 1 1 . All flues for the discharge of vitiated air, even when properly constructed and placed, and even when acting in concert with a cur- rent of warm air flowing into the room, should be supplied with some simple, reliable exhaustive power, which can be applied at all sea- sons of the year, and with a force varying with the demands of the season, and the condition of the air in the apartment. 12. The most simple, economical, and reliable motive power available in most school-houses is heat, or the same process by which the natural upward movements of air are induced and sus- tained. Heat can be applied to the column of air in a ventilating flue, 1. By carrying up the ventilating flue close beside, or even within the smoke flue, which is used in connection with the heating appa- ratus. 2. By carrying up the smoke-pipe within the ventilating flue, either the whole length, or in the upper portion only. In a small school-room, the heat from the smoke-pipe carried up for a few feet only in the ventilating flue before it projects above the roof s is a PRINCIPLES OF VENTILATION. 279 motive power sufficient to sustain a constant draught of cool and vitiated air, into an opening near the door. 3. -By kindling a fire at the bottom, or other convenient point in the ventilating flue. If the same flue is used for smoke from the fire, and vitiated air from the apartment, some simple self-acting valve or damper should be applied to the opening for the escape of the vitiated air, which shall close at the slightest pressure from the inside of the flue, and thus prevent any reverse current, or down draught, earrying smoke and soot into the apartment. 4. By discharging a jet of steam, or a portion of warm air from the furnace, or other warming apparatus, directly into the ventilating flue. Any application of heat by which the temperature of the air in the ventilating flue can be raised above the temperature of the apartment to be ventilated, will' cause a flow of air from the apartment to sus- tain the combustion, (if there is a fire in the flue,) and to supply the partial vacuum in the flue, which is caused by the rarefaction of the air in the same. In all school buildings, when several apartments are to be venti- lated, the most effectual, and, all things considered, the most econom- ical, mode of securing a motive power, is to construct an upright brick shaft or flue, and in that to build a fire, or carry up the smoke- pipe of the stove, furnace, or other warming apparatus ; and then to discharge the ventilating flues from the top or bottom of each apart- ment, into this upright shaft. The fire draught, will create a partial vacuum in this shaft, to fill which, a draught will be established upon every room with which it is connected by lateral flues. Whenever a shaft of this kind is resorted to, the flues for ventilation may be lateral, and the openings into them may be inserted near the floor. 13. With a flue properly constructed, so as to facilitate the spon- taneous upward movement of the warm air within it, and so placed that the air is not exposed to the chilling influence of external cold, a turncap, constructed after the plan of Emerson's Ejector, or Mott's Exhausting Cowl, will assist the ventilation, and especially when there are any currents in the atmosphere. But such caps are not sufficient to overcome any considerable defects in the construction of the ventilating flues, even when there is much wind. 14. The warming and ventilation of a school-room will be facili- tated by appbying a double sash to all windows having a northern and eastern exposure. 15. In every furnaee, and on every stove, a capacious vessel well supplied with fresh water, and protected from the dust, should be placed. 16. Every school-room should be furnished with two thermometers placed on opposite sides in the room, and the temperature in the winter should not be allowed to attain beyond 68° Fahrenheit at a level of four feet from the floor, or 70° at the height of six feet. 17. The necessity for ventilation in an occupied apartment is not obviated by merely reducing the atmosphere to a low temperature. 2gQ SCHOOL ARCHITECTUKE. Plans of School-Houses with one School-room. The largest number of school-houses which are erected with but one school-room, are intended for District, or for Primary Schools. District School. ...By a District School, in this connection, is understood a public school open to all the children of the district, of both sexes, and of the school age recognized by the practice of the district, or the regu- lations of the school committee of the town to which such district belongs. It is an unclassified school] and is taught in one apartment, by one teacher, usually without any assistance even from older pupils of the school. (it varies in the character of its scholars, and its methods of instruction, from summer to winter, and from winter to summer. In summer, the younger children and classes in the ele- mentary studies predominate, and in the winter the older pupils, and classes in the more advanced studies, whilst some of both extremes, as to age and studies, are to be found in both the winter and summer session of the district schoolj This variety of ages and studies, and consequent variety of classes, increased by the irregularity of at- tendance, is not only a serious hinderanceto the proper arrangement, instruction and government of the school, but presents almost insu- perable obstacles to the appropriate construction and furniture of the school-house, which is too often erected on the smallest possible scale of size and expense. A vast amount of physical suffering and discomfort to the pupils is the necessary result of crowding the older and younger pupils into a small apartment, without seats and furniture appropriate to either, and especially when no precaution has been taken to adapt the supply and arrangements of seats and desks ac- cording to the varying circumstances of the same school in winter and summer. In every district, or unclassified school, the school- room should be fitted up with seats and desks for the older and younger pupils, sufficient to accommodate the maximum attendance of each class of scholars at any season of the year. And if this cannot be effected, and only a sufficient number of seats can be secured to accommodate the highest number of both sexes in attendance at any one time, then in winter the seats and desks for the smaller children., should be removed to the attic, and their place supplied by additional seats and desks for the older pupils ; and in summer this arrange- ment should be reversed. Primary Schools. By a Primary School, in our American School Systems, is under- stood, not generally an Elementary School, embracing a course of instruction for the great mass of the children of the community PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 281 under fourteen years of age— rbut specifically, that class or grade of schools which receive only the youngest pupils, and those least advanced in their studies. Any scheme of school organization will be imperfect which does not include special arrangements for the systematic training and in- struction of very young children, especially in all cities, manufactur- ing villages, and large neighborhoods. [Among the population of such places, many parents are sure to be found, who, for want of intelligence or leisure, of constancy and patience, are unfitted to watch the first blossoming of the souls of their children, and to train them to good physical habits, virtuous impulses, and quick and accu- rate observations ; to cleanliness, obedience, openness, mutual kind- liness, piety, and all the virtues which wise and far-seeing parents desire for their offspring. The general result of the home training of the children of such parents, is .the neglect of all moral culture when such culture is most valuable A an d the acquisition of manners, personal habits, and language, which the best school training at a later period of life can with difficulty correct or eradicate. [To meet the wants of this class of children, Halls of Refuge and Infant Schools were originally instituted by Oberlin, Owen, and Wilderspin, and now constitute under these names, or the names of Primary Schools, or Primary Departments, a most important branch of ele- mentary education, whether sustained by individual charity, or as part of the organization of public instruction. No one at all acquainted with the history of education in this | country, can doubt that the establishment of the Primary School for children under six years of age, in Boston, in 1818, as a distinct grade ol schools, with the modifications which it has since re- ceived there, and elsewhere, from the principles and methods of the Infant School system, has led to most important improvements in the quality and quantity of instruction in our public schools, and the sooner a Primary School properly organized, furnished and man- aged, can be established in every large neighborhood, and especially in the " infected districts" of cities and manufacturing villages, the more rapid and more thorough will be the progress of education^ Its doors should stand wide open to receive such children as are; abandoned by orphanage, or, worse than orphanage, by parental! neglect and example, to idle, vicious, and pilfering habits, before the j corruptions incident to their situation have struck deep into their moral nature, and before they have' fallen under the alluring and j training influences and instruction of bad boys who infest such regions, polluting the atmosphere by their profane and vulgar speech, and participating in every street brawl and low-bred riot, j From all such influences, the earlier the children of the poor and the ignorant are withdrawn, and placed under the care and instruction of an Infant~sOr Primary School, the better it will be for them and for society \ But in every localitylthe Primary School should be estab- lished, and brought as near as possible to the homes of the children, in order to secure their early and regular attendance, and to relieve She anxiety of parents for their safety on their way to and from 282 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. school. The peculiarities of play-ground, school-room, and teachers required for this class of schools, should be carefully studied, and promptly and liberally provided. The school-room should be light, cheerful, and large enough for the evolutions of large classes, — fur- nished with appropriate seats, furniture, apparatus, and means of visible illustration, and having a retired, dry, and airy play-ground, with a shelter to resort to in inclement weather, and with flower borders, shrubbery, and shade-trees, which they should be taught to love and respect. The play-ground is as essential as the school- room for a Primary School, and is indeed the uncovered school- room of physical and moral education, and the place where the manners and personal habits of children can be better trained than elsewhere. With them, the hours of play and study, of confinement and recreation, must alternate more frequently than with older pupils. To teach these schools properly, to regulate the hours of play and study so as to give variety, vivacity, and interest to all of the exer- cises, without over-exciting the nervous system, or overtasking any faculty of mind or body, — to train boys and girls to mild dispositions, graceful and respectful manners, and unquestioning obedience, — to preserve and quicken a tenderness and sensibility of conscience as the instinctive monitor of the approach of wrong, — to cultivate the senses to habits of quick and accurate observation and discrimination, — to prevent the formation of artificial and sing-song tones, — to teach the use of the voice, and of simple, ready, and correct language, and to begin in this way, and by appropriate exercises in drawing, calcu- lation, and lessons on the properties and classification of objects, the cultivation of the intellectual faculties, — to do all these things and more, require in the teacher a rare union of qualities, seldom found in one in a hundred of the male sex, and to be looked for with the greatest chance of success among females, " in whose own hearts, love, hope, and patience have first kept school," and whose laps seem always full of the blossoms of knowledge, to be showered on the heads and hearts of infancy and childhood. In the right educa- tion of early childhood, must we look for a corrective of the evils of society in our large cities and manufacturing villages, and for the beginning of a better and higher civilization than has yet blessed our world. The earlier we can establish, in every populous district, primary schools, under female teachers, whose hearts are made strong by deep religious principle, — who have faith in the power of Christian love steadily exerted to fashion anew the bad manners, and soften the harsh and self-willed perverseness of neglected children, — with patience to begin every morning, with but little, if any, percep- tible advance beyond where they began the previous morning, — with prompt and kind sympathies, and ready skill in music, drawing, and oral methods, the better it will be for the cause of education, and for every other good cause. The following plan of a Play Ground for an Infant or Primary School is copied from " Wilder spin's Early Education." We should prefer to see an accomplished female teacher presiding over the scene. 284 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Primary School in Westerly, R. I. The above cut presents a sufficiently correct view of a Primary School- house erected in Westerly in 1846, after designs by Mr. Teft, of Provi- dence, except that there are two porches or entrances in front, instead of one, as shown in the above view. The porch opens into a spacious entry furnished with hooks and shelves for hats, bonnets, &c, and a sink, with water-pail, wash-bowls. &c. The school-room accommodates sixty pupils, with a desk and seat, each desk accommodating two scholars. In the original plan there were to be thirty chairs, similar to the Boston Primary School Chair, but the committee preferred that every child should have a desk, in which a slate should be inserted. There is a blackboard, or black surface in front of the scholars, extend- ing between the two entrance doors, and across the entire end in the rear. Below the blackboard, at the rear end of the school-room, there is a leaf in which slates are inserted, where the young children can copy, or other- wise amuse themselves, from lessons drawn by the teacher on the black- board above. The play-ground attached is spacious, and the children can there amuse and recreate themselves in the open air, without exposure to accidents from passing vehicles,. &c. A second primary school-house on the same plan has been erected in another part of the village. With very slight modifications, these houses can be pointed to as safe models for Primary school-houses. These schools receive the small children, while the older attend in an intermediate department and in the High School situated in the centre ot the village. These schools, as at present organized and managed, meet the educational wants of the village. VILLAGE SCHOOL-HOUSE. 285 Plan of V illage School-house in Allendale, N. Providence, R. 1. - -V/^-^^v^ ^2^5 m The above is a view of the Village school-house erected by Z. Allen. Esq., at Allendale, North Providence, after designs by T. A. Teft, or Providence. It is situated in a beautiful grove, on a little knoll which admits of a basement room in the rear, originally designed for a library and reading room for the village, but now occupied by a Primary school. It is built of stone in a style very common in structures of this kind in England. The main room, which is intended for a school-room, although for the present used for lectures, and religious exercises, is very appropri- ately finished— the walls being made to represent stone work of a very subdued neutral tint, and the ceiling, supported by wooden tracery, is fin- ished partially in the roof, leaving the necessary open space above to pro- tect the room from the effects of excessive heat and cold. The ceiling, wainscoting, seats, desks and doors, are grained in imitation of oak. It is thoroughly ventilated and warmed by air heated in a chamber below. By the above pleasing specimen of the Elizabethan style, and other varieties not commonly introduced into structures of this kind, Mr. Teft has broken, in Rhode Island at least, the dull monotony of wretched per- versions of architecture which characterize the village and country school- houses of New England. We shall present in another place a kw speci- mens of the Elizabethan style, in front and side elevations, for large and small schools, which can be easily modified to suit the wants of particular localities. In many neighborhoods it is a matter of economy to build of stone, and where this is the case, the style of architecture should be adapted to the material. 286 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan of District School-House in Glocester, R. I. The above cut represents the front elevation of a new school-house erected in District No. 13, in the town of Glocester, Rhode Island, which, for location, neatness, and proportion in the external appearance, mode of seating, warm- ing and ventilation, can be consulted as a safe model for small agricultural districts. The cost of the building and furniture was $600. The style and arrangement of the seats and desks is indicated in Figures 3 and 4 The end pieces are of cast iron, and so shaped, as to facilitate the sweeping of the room, and the pupils getting in and out of their seats, and at the same time are firm- ly attached to the floor by screws. This building is 30 feet by 20 feet. The room is heated by Mott's Ventilating School Stove, designed both for wood and hard coal. Fresh air is introduced from outside of the building by a flue beneath the floor, and is warmed by passing along the heated surfaces of the stove as indicated in the following section. A. A chamber, for coal or wood. B. A revolving grate with a cam motion, by which the ashes are easily detached and made to drop into the ash-pit be- low. C. Ash-pit, by which also the draught can be regulated, and the stove made an air-tight. D. Duct, or flue under the floor, by which fresh air from with- out is admitted under and around the stove, and circu- lates in the direction indi- cated by the arrows. DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN GLOCESTER. 287 The smoke-pipe is carried in the usual way, high enough to prevent any injurious radiation of heat upon the heads of the pupils below, to the centre of the opposite end of the room, where, after passing through the ceiling, it enters the ventilating flue, which, commencing at the floor, is carried up through the attic and out above the roof, as shown in Figures 3 and 4. The heat of the smoke-pipe produces a lively upward current of the air in the upper portion of the ventilating flue, sufficient to draw off the lower stratum of air near the floor, and at the same time draw down, and diffuse equally through the room, the fresh air which is introduced and warmed by the stove at the opposite end. A — Front entrance. E — Girls' Entrance and lobby. C — Boys' do. do. D — Teachers' platform. E — Seat and desk, for the pupils. S — Mott's ventilating school stove. V — Flue for ventilation. F — Seats for classes at recitation. d — Teacher's desk. e — Library of reference in front of teacher's desk. c — Closets for school library and ap- paratus. f — Fence dividing back yard. 288 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan of District School-House in Barrington, R. I. The above cut represents in perspective the new school-house in District No. 2, in the town of Barrington, Rhode Island — the most attractive, convenient, and complete structure of the kind in any agricultural district in the State — and, it is believed, in New England. The house stands back from the highway in a lot, of an acre in extent, and commands an extensive view up and down Narraganset Bay, and of the rich cultivated fields for miles in every other direction. The building is 49 feet long by 25 wide, and 12 feet high in the clear, and is built after working plans drawn by Mr. Teft, of Providence. The school-room is calculated to accommodate 64 pupils, with seats and desks each for two pupils, similar to the folowing cut, and arranged as in Figure 3. The end-piece, or supports, both of the desk and seat, are of cast-iron, and the wood-work is attached by screws. They are made of eight sizes, giving a seat from ten inches to seventeen, and a desk at the edge next to the scholar from seventeen to twenty-six inches from the floor. Each pupil, when properly seated, can rest his feet on the floor without the muscle of the thigh pressing hard upon the front edge of the seat, and with a support for the muscles of the back. DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN BARRINGTON. 289 The yards and entrance for the boys and girls are entirely separate, and each is appropriately fitted up with scraper, mats, broom, water-pails, sink, hooks and shelves. "~ ■ - »»»-^ WSZZZ. W222MZZZH 1 ......--. -.,■ ■ , v,;M//.>„w/,/,))mimm//i/>, L (S A — Front entrance. B — Girls' entrance and lobby, fitted up with mats, scrapers, hooks, shelves. C — Boys' entrance. D — Teacher's platform. S — Boston Ventilating Stove. V — Flue for ventilation surmounted, by Emerson's Ejector. L — Cases for library. E — Closets for apparatus, &c. The school is well supplied with blackboards, maps, globes, and diagrams, and such other instrumentalities as are necessary and useful in the studies usually taught in a district school. There is abundance of unoccupied space around the sides of the room and between the ranges of desks 10 allow of the free movements of the teaeher and of the pupils, in passing to and from their seats. There is also a district library of about 600 volumes, containing a large number of books of reference, such as Dictionaries, Encyclopedia, and a va- riety of the best text books in the several studies of the school, to enable the teacher to extend his knowledge, and illustrate his recitations by additional information. There are about one hundred volumes selected with reference to the youngest class of children, and about 400 volumes in the different departments of useful knowledge, calculated for circulation among the older pupils, in the families of the district generally. The maps, apparatus and library were purchased by the Commissioner or Public Schools at an expense of $250, which was contributed by five or six individuals. The building, furniture and land, cost about $1200. The school-room is warmed and ventilated under the direction of Mr.Gard- ner Chilson, Boston, by one of the Boston Ventilating Stoves, and by a flue- constructed similar to those recently introduced into the Boston Public School houses by Dr. Henry G. Clark, and surmounted by Emerson's Ejector. A cut and description of this stove, and of MoWs Ventilating Stove for burn- ing wood as well as coal, is given on the next page. The flue for ventilation is carried up in the partition wall, and is constructed. ©f well seasoned boards, planed smooth on the inside. 19 290 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Mott's Ventilating School-Stove, for burning wood or coal. Patented and Manufactured by J. L. Mott, 264 Water-street, N. Y. By this stove the room is warmed by conducting a supply of moderately heated pure air from without, as well as by direct radiation from the upper por- tion of the stove. ■ B IBB IIS ■ i'ul ':■("■;■ •'■" ^ ; , ■ -,,, ■■■■-. ^ ■ -.-j-ri,. -. . .. :i-:.- . ■■: :■■; li 1 felllBHIi ■ :" i::,:;' 11 -"': V;/^'-r'!!!t| i ; ' 1 V^ ,l i!|.;:!^sI'.;3l; , l i ; ::. ,| r! A. Air Chamber, lor coal or wood. B. A revolving grate with a cam process, by which the ashes are easily detached and made to drop into the ash-pit below. C. Ash-Pit, by which also the draft can be regulated, and the stove made an air-tight. D. Duct, or flue under the floor, by which fresh air from without is admitted under and around the stove, and circulates in the direction indicated by the arrows. This, and all stoves designed to promote ventilation by introducing fresh air from without, will work satisfactorily only where a flue properly constructed is provided to carry off the air which has become impure from respiration. BOSTON SCHOOL VENTILATING STOVE. 291 Since the first edition of this volume was issued, the stove and furnace described in the Report on the Boston Mode of Ventilation, on pages 154, 155, have been somewhat modified by the original patentees, so as to increase the radiating surface, and thereby secure greater economy in the consumption of the fuel. We therefore insert the new drawings, with descriptions abridged from the printed Circulars of Mr. Chilson, The Boston Ventilating Stove and Portable Ventilating Furnace. Patented March 10th, 1848, by Henry G. Clark, M. £>., and manufactured by Gardner Chilson, Boston. The Boston Ventilating Stove is composed of two cylinders, the inner(Fig. 1,) containing a fire chamber, which is lined with soapstone or fire brick, and is fitted with additional smoke-pipes to increase the radiating surface, while the outer (Fig. 2,) constitutes a chamber for wanning the air, which is introduced into it beneath the inner cylinder by a flue from out of doors, and flows out at the top, to which there is a movable cap, or distributor attached, by which the opening is enlarged or diminished, and .thus the supply and temperature of the air admitted can be .easily regulated. Fig. 1 Fig. 2. The dark arrows show the course of the air in its passage from the opening underneath the stove, through the air-chamber, into the apartment. The light arrows show the circulation of the smoke through the various radiating pipes. This stove is made of three sizes, varying in price from twenty-five to forty dollars. It received a silver medal at the Fifth Exhibition of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association, and has been introduced with signal success into many school-houses in Boston, Charlestown, and other places. This stove can be advantageously used as a hall stove and as a portable fur- nace, under circumstances which will not admit of a brick inclosure. 292 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. More than sixty District school-houses have been erected in Rhode Island on the same general plan as that presented in the cuts of the Barrington and Glocester school-house, with some slight variations required by the nature of the site, or the peculiar views of the majority of the district, or of the building committee, in each case. The following plans present some of these modifi- cations. The first is 34 ft. by 25, and the second, 36 ft. by 27. Plan of School-House in District No. 10, Cranston. A — Front entrance. B — Girls' entrance. C — Boys' do. D — Teacher's platform. E — Library. S — Worcester Ventilat- ing Stove. V — Flue for ventilation. F — Seat and desk with iron ends. s — Cold air duct. ////////////////,/M/M///// / ///////////, x \;;/MM;/vss//>///,ss////,///v//,/r/,/di\ V/////M//f//iMM///M,'M/M/M//M F o o o W/MtefflMWM//W/>M l ///t- \lAJ^/////MMWfo//////JM>,'///r//,;i- M,/MM»mMW»MWm»,. Plan of School-House at Clayville, Scituate. PLAN OF DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE. 293 The following plan, although not followed throughout in any school-house in Rhode Island, presents substantially the internal arrangement which has been adopted in several instances, as in the school-house at Peacedale, in South Kingston, at Carolina Mills in Richmond, and in the lower room of the acad- emy in Kingston. o o 1° o o o J° o o °r o o - X o °L o o o o °r 1° o o n° °L o J° G J° o o o The following cut, which is copied from a plan of a district school-house recommended by Dr. Lord, Superintendent of the common schools of Columbus, Ohio, presents the plan of several district and village school-houses erected in Rhode Island. The house is 26 feet by 36 feet on the ground. H C5 A — Entry for girls, 8 feet square. C — do. for boys, do. do. B — Library and apparatus room. E— Recitation seats. D — Teacher's platform. H G — Seat and desk for two pupils, 4 feet long. F — Aisles, 2 feet wide. I — do. 18 inches wide. 294 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan of School-House in Centreville, Warwick, R. I. The following plan presents a mode ©£ seating a District School-House sins ilar to that adopted in several public school-houses in the city of New York. _ Qp on o b b o o o Uo - : E l_ — : -— ~l — -■:": . sESa -< ■'■■■■■".:■ ' ■--- > vJi,w,Bmam. o o A o o The building is 50 feet long (beside'the porch 5^ feet in front) by 30 feet wide A — Porch. |R — Recitation-room for assistant. B — Girls'' entrance and lobby. S— Stove: C— Boys' do. T— Smoke flue. D — Teacher's platform. V — Flue for ventilator. E — Mott r s school desk and chair. The above mode of seating has been adopted in other districts, and in one in- stance, with the desks attached at one end to the wall, as in the following plan recommended by Hon. Ira Mayhew. There are serious objections to this ar- rangement of the seats and desk. D, entrance and inner doors. W, windows. E, entries, lighted over doors, one for boys and the other for girls. A, teacher's platform. B, blackboard r reaching entirely across the end of the house. T, teacher's desk. H, desks 11 feet long, except the two next the entrance doors. C, Mott : s patent cast-iron chairs. S stove. O, an air tube under the floor, through which pure air from without is introduced beneath the stove, L, shelves for library, apparatus, etc. union schools. 295 Plans of School-Houses for. Union Schools. Before describing a few of the best school-houses which have been recently erected in the large villages of Rhode Island, for two or more schools of different grades in the same building, a brief con- sideration of the importance of classification, or gradation, as ap- plied to the schools of a district, or town, cannot be deemed irrelevant. To enable children to derive the highest degree of benefit from their attendance at school, they should go through a regular course of training in a succession of classes, and schools arranged according to similarity of age, standing, and attainments, under teachers pos- sessing the qualifications best adapted to each grade of school. The practice has been almost universal in New England, and in other states where the organization of the schools is based upon the division of the territory into school districts, to provide but one school for as many children of both sexes, and of all ages from four to sixteen years, as can be gathered in from certain territorial limits, into one apartment, under one teacher ; a female teacher in summer, and a male teacher in winter. The disadvantages of this practice, both to pupils and teachers, are great and manifold. There is a large amount of physical suffering and discomfort, as well as great hinderances in the proper arrangement of scholars and classes, caused by crowding the older and younger pupils into the same school-room, without seats and furniture appropriate to either ; and the greatest amount of suffering and discomfort falls upon the young, who are least able to bear it, and who, in consequence, ac- quire a distaste to study and the school-room. The work of education going on in such schools, cannot be appropriate and progressive. There cannot, be a regular course of discipline and instruction, adapted to the age and proficiency of pupils — a series of processes, each adapted to certain periods in the development of the mind and character, the first intended to be fol- lowed by a second, and the second by a third, — the latter always depending on the earlier, and all intended to be conducted on the same general principles, and by methods varying with the work to be done, and the progress already made. With the older and younger pupils in the same room, there cannot be a system of discipline which shall be equally well adapted to both classes. If it secures the cheerful obedience and subordination of the older, it will press with unwise severity upon the younger pupils. If it be adapted to the physical wants, and peculiar tem- peraments of the young, it will endanger the good order and habits of study of the more advanced pupils, by the frequent change of posture and position, and other indulgences which it permits and requires of the former. With studies ranging from the alphabet and the simplest rudiments of knowledge, to the higher branches of an English education, a variety of methods of instruction and illustration are called for, which are seldom found together, or in an equal degree, in the same 295 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. teacher, and which, can never be pursued with equal success in the same school-room. The elementary principles of knowledge, to be made intelligible and interesting to the young, must be presented by a large use of the oral and simultaneous methods. The higher branches, especially all mathematical subjects, require patient ap- plication and habits of abstraction, on the part of the older pupils, which can with difficulty, if at all, be attained by many pupils, amid a multiplicity of distracting exercises, movements and sounds. The recitations of this class of pupils, to be profitable and satisfactory, must be conducted in a manner which requires time, discussion and explanation, and the undivided attention both of pupils and teachers. From the number of class and individual recitations, to be attended to during each half day, these exercises are brief, hurried, and of little practical value. They consist, for the most part, of senseless repetitions of the words of a book. Instead of being the time and place where the real business of teaching is done, where the ploughshare of interrogation is driven down into the acquirements of each pupil, and his ability to comprehend clearly, remember accu- rately, discriminate wisely, and reason closely, is cultivated and tested, — where the difficult principles of each lesson are developed and illustrated, and additional information imparted, and the mind of the teacher brought in direct contact with the mind of each pupil, to arouse, interest, and direct its opening powers — instead of all this and more, the brief period passed in recitation, consists, on the part of the teacher, of hearing each individual and class in regular order, and quick succession, repeat words from a book ; and on the part of the pupils, of saying their lessons, as the operation is significantly described by most teachers, when they summon the class to the stand. In the mean time the order of the school must be maintained, and the general business must be going forward. Little children without any authorized employment for their eyes and hands, and ever active curiosity, must be made to sit still, while every muscle is aching from suppressed activity ; pens must be mended, copies set, arithmetical difficulties solved, excuses for tardiness or absence re- ceived, questions answered, whisperings allowed or suppressed, and more or less of extempore discipline administered. Were it not a most ruinous waste of precious time, — did it not involve the deaden- ing, crushing, distorting, dwarfing of immortal faculties and noble sensibilities, — were it not an utter perversion of the noble objects for which schools are instituted, it would be difficult to conceive of a more diverting farce than an ordinary session of a large public school, whose chaotic and discordant elements have not been reduced to system by a proper classification. The teacher, at least the con- scientious teacher, thinks it any thing but a farce to him. Com- pelled to hurry from one study to another, the most diverse, — from one class to another, requiring a knowledge of methods altogether distinct, — from one recitation to another, equally brief and unsatis- factory, one requiring a liveliness of manner, which he does not feel and cannot assume, and the other closeness of attention and abstrac- GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 297 tion of thought, which he cannot give amid the multiplicity and variety of cares, — from one case of discipline to another, pressing on him at the same time, — he goes through the same circuit day after day, with a dizzy brain and aching heart, and brings his school to a close with a feeling, that with all his diligence and fidelity, he has accomplished but little good. But great as are the evils of a want of proper classification of schools, arising from the causes already specified, these evils are aggravated by the almost universal practice of employing one teacher in summer, and another in winter, and different teachers each successive summer and winter. Whatever progress one teacher may make in bringing order out of the chaotic elements of a large public school, is arrested by the termination of his school term. His experience is not available to his successor, who does not come into the school until after an interval of weeks or months, and in the mean time the former teacher has left the town or state. The new teacher is a stranger to the children and their parents, is unacquainted with the system pursued by his predecessor, and has himself but little or no experience in the business ; in consequence, chaos comes back again, and the confusion is still worse confounded by the introduction of new books, for every teacher prefers to teach from the books in which he studied, or which he has been accus- tomed to teach, and many teachers cannot teach profitably from any other. Weeks are thus passed, in which the school is going through the process of organization, and the pupils are becoming accustomed to the methods and requirements of a new teacher — some of them are put back, or made to retrace their studies in new books, while others are pushed forward into studies for which they are not pre- pared ; and at the end of three or four months, the school relapses into chaos. There is constant change, but no progress. This want of system, and this succession of new teachers, goes on from term to term, and year to year — a process which would in- volve any other interest in speedy and utter ruin, where there was not provision made for fresh material to be experimented upon, and counteracting influences at work to restore, or at least obviate the injury done. What other business of society could escape utter wreck, if conducted with such want of system, — with such constant disregard of the fundamental principle of the division of labor, and with a succession of new agents every three months, none of them trained to the details of the business, each new agent acting without any knowledge of the plan of his predecessor, or any well settled plan of his own ! The public school is not an anomaly, an excep- tion, among the great interests of society. Its success or failure de- pends on the existence or absence of certain conditions ; and if complete failure does not follow the utter neglect of these conditions, it is because every term brings into the schools a fresh supply of children to be experimented upon, and sweeps away others beyond the reach of bad school instruction and discipline ; and because the minds of some of these children are, for a portion of each day, left 298 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. to the action of their own inherent forces, and the more kindly influ- ences of nature, the family and society. Among these conditions of success in the operation of a system of public schools, is such a classification of the scholars as shall bring a larger number of similar age and attainments, at all times, and in every stage of their advancement, under teachers of the right qualifi- cations, and shall enable these teachers to act upon numbers at once, for years in succession, and carry them all forward effectually together, in a regular course of instruction. The great principle to be regarded in the classification, either of the schools of a town or district, or of scholars in the same school, is equality of attainments, which will generally include those of the same age. Those who have gone over substantially the same ground, or reached, or nearly reached the same point of attainment in several studies, should be put together, and constitute, whenever their num- bers will authorize it, one school. These again should be arranged in different classes, for it is seldom practicable, even if it were ever desirable, to have but one class in every study in the same grade of school. Even in very large districts, where the scholars are pro- moted from a school of a lower grade to one of a higher, after being found qualified in certain studies, it is seldom that any considerable number will have reached a common standard of scholarship in all their studies. The same pupil will have made very different prog- ress in different branches. He will stand higher in one and lower in another. By arranging scholars of the same general division in different classes, no pupil need be detained by companions who have made, or can make less progress, or be hurried over lessons and sub- jects in a superficial manner, to accommodate the more rapid ad- vancement of others. Although equality of attainment should be regarded as the general principle, some regard should be paid to age, and other circumstances. A large boy of sixteen, from the deficiency of his early education, Avhich may be his misfortune and not his fault, ought not to be put into a school or class of little chil- dren, although their attainments may be in advance of his. This step would mortify and discourage him. In such extreme cases, that arrangement will be best which will give the individual the greatest chance of improvement, with the least discomfort to himself, and hindrance to others. Great disparity of age in the same class, or the same school, is unfavorable to uniform and efficient discipline, and the adaptation of methods of teaching, and of motives to application and obedience. Some regard, too, should be had to the preferences of individuals, especially among the older pupils, and their probable destination in life. The mind comes into the requisitions of study more readily, and works with higher results, when led onward by the heart. ; and the utility of any branch of study, its relations to future success in life, once clearly apprehended, becomes a power- ful motive to effort. Each class in a school should be as large as is consistent with thoroughness and minuteness of individual examination, and practi- GRADATION OP SCHOOLS. 299 cable, without bringing together individuals of diverse capacity, knowledge, and habits of study. A good teacher can teach a class of forty with as much ease as a class of ten, and with far more profit to each individual, than if the same amount of time was divided up among four classes, each containing one-fourth of the whole number. When the class is large, there is a spirit, a glow, a struggle which can never be infused or called forth in a small class. Whatever time is spent upon a few, which could have been as profitably spent on a larger number, is a loss of power and time to the extent of the number who were not thus benefited. The recitations of a large class must be more varied, both as to order and methods, so as to reach those whose attention would wander if not under the pressure of constant excitement, or might become slothful from inaction or a sense of security. Some studies will admit of a larger number in a class than others. The number of classes for recitation in the same apartment, by one teacher, should be small. This will facilitate the proper division of labor in instruction, and allow more time for each class. The teacher intrusted with the care of but few studies, and few recita- tions, can have no excuse but indolence, or the want of capacity, if he does not master these branches thoroughly, and soon acquire the most skillful and varied methods of teaching them. His attention will not be distracted by a multiplicity and variety of cares, pressing upon him at the same time. This principle does not require that every school should be small, but that each teacher should have a small number of studies and classes to superintend. In a large school, properly classified, a division of labor can be introduced in the department of government, as well as in that of instruction. By assigning the different studies to a sufficient num- ber of assistants, in separate class-rooms, each well qualified to teach the branches assigned, the principal teacher may be selected with special reference to his ability in arranging the studies, and order of exercises of the school, in administering its discipline, in adapting moral instruction to individual scholars, and superintending the operations of each class-room, so as to secure the harmonious action and progress of every department. The talents and tact required for these and similar duties, are more rarely found than the skill and attainments required to teach successfully a particular study. When found, the influence of such a principal, possessing in a high degree, the executive talent spoken of, will be felt through every class, and by every subordinate teacher, giving tone and efficiency to the whole school. To facilitate the introduction of these, and similar principles of classification, into the organization and arrangements of the schools of a town or district, as fast and as far as the circumstances of the population will admit, the following provisions should be engrafted into the school system of every state. 1. Every town should be clothed with all the powers requisite to establish and maintain a sufficient number of schools of different grades, at convenient locations, to accommodate all the children re- 300 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. siding within their respective limits — irrespective of any territorial division of the town into school districts. 2. Should provision be made for the creation of territorial school districts, a gradation of districts should be recognized, and every district having over sixty children of an age to attend school, should be obliged to maintain a primary school under a female teacher for the young pupils, and provide a secondary school for the older and more advanced pupils. 3. No village, or populous district, in-which two or more schools of different grades for the younger and older children respectively, can be conveniently established, should be sub-divided into two or more independent districts. 4. Any two or more adjoining districts, in the same, or adjoining towns, should be authorized to establish and maintain a secondary school for the older and more advanced pupils of such districts, for the whole, or any portion of the year. 5. Any district, not having children enough to require the perma- nent establishment of two grades of schools, should be authorized to determine the periods of the year in which the public school shall be kept, and to determine the age and studies of the children who shall attend at any particular period of the year, and also to send the older pupils to the secondary school of an adjoining district. The extent to which the gradation of schools can be carried, in any town or district, and the limit to which the number of classes in any school can be reduced, will depend on the compactness, number, and other circumstances of the population, in that town or district, and the number and age of the pupils, and the studies and methods of instruction in that school. A regular gradation of schools might embrace Primary, Secondary and High Schools, with Inter- mediate Schools, or departments, between each grade, and Supple- mentary Schools, to meet the wants of a class of pupils not provided for in either of the above grades. 1 . Primary Schools, as a general rule, should be designed for children between the ages of three and eight years, with a further classification of the very youngest children, when their number will admit of it. These schools can be accommodated, in compact villa- ges, in the same building with the Secondary or High School ; but in most large districts, it will be necessary and desirable to locate them in different neighborhoods, to meet the peculiarities of the pop- ulation, and facilitate the regular attendance of very young children, and relieve the anxiety of parents for their safety on their way to and from school. The school-room should be light, cheerful, and large enough for the evolutions of large classes — furnished with appropri- ate seats, furniture, apparatus and means of visible illustration, and having a retired, dry and airy play-ground, with a shelter to resort to in inclement weather, and with flower borders, shrubbery and shade trees, which they should be taught to love and respect. The play- ground is as essential as the school-room, for a Primary School, and is indeed the uncovered school-room of physical and moral educa- GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 3Q1 tion, and the place where the manners and personal habits of children can be better trained than elsewhere. x With them, the hours of play and study, of confinement and recreation, must alternate more fre- quently than with older pupils. To teach these schools properly, — to regulate the hours of play and study so as to give variety, vivacity, and interest to all of the exercises, without over-exciting the nervous system, or over-tasking any faculty of mind or body, — to train boys and girls to mild dispositions, graceful and respectful manners, and unquestioning obedience, — to cultivate the senses to habits of quick and accurate observation and discrimination, — to prevent the forma- tion of artificial and sing-song tones, — to teach the use of the voice, and of simple, ready and correct language, and to begin in this way, and by appropriate exercises in drawing, calculation, and lessons on the properties and classification of objects, the cultivation of the intellectual faculties, — to do all these things and more, require in the teacher a rare union of qualities, seldom found in one in a hun- dred of the male sex, and to be looked for with the greatest chance of success among females, " in whose own hearts, love, hope and patience, have first kept school." The earlier we can establish, in every populous district, primary schools, under female teachers, whose hearts are made strong by deep religious principle, — who have faith in the power of Christian love steadily exerted to fashion anew the bad manners, and soften the harsh and self-willed perverseness of neglected children, — with patience to begin every morning, with but little if any perceptible ad- vance beyond where they began the previous morning, — with prompt and kind sympathies, and ready skill in music, drawing, and oral methods, the better it will be for the cause of education, and for ev- ery other good cause. 2. Secondary Schools should receive scholars at the age of eight years, or about that age, and carry them forward in those branches of instruction which lie at the foundation of all useful attainments in knowledge, and are indispensable to the proper exercise and devel- opment of all the faculties of the mind, and to the formation of good intellectual tastes and habits of application. If the primary schools have done their work properly, in forming habits of attention, and teaching practically the first uses of language, — in giving clear ideas of the elementary principles of arithmetic, geography, and the sim- plest lessons in drawing, the scholars of a well conducted secondary school, who will attend regularly for eight or ten months in the year, until they are twelve years of age, can acquire as thorough knowl- edge of reading, arithmetic, penmanship, drawing, geography, history, and the use of the language in composition and speech, as is ever given in common or public schools, as ordinarily conducted, to chil- dren at the age of sixteen. For this class of schools, well qualified female teachers, with good health, self-command, and firmness, are as well fitted as male teachers. But if the school is large, both a male and female teacher should be employed, as the influence of both are needed in the training of the moral character and manners. 302 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Schools of this grade should be furnished with class-rooms for reci- tations, and if large, with a female assistant for every thirty pupils. 3. High Schools should receive pupils from schools of the grade below, and carry them forward in a more comprehensive course of instruction, embracing a continuation of their former studies, and especially of the English language, and drawing, and a knowledge of algebra, geometry and trigonometry, with their applications, the elements of mechanics and natural philosophy and chemistry, natural history, including natural theology, mental and moral science, politi- cal economy, physiology, and the constitution of the United States. These and other studies should form the course of instruction, modi- fied according to the sex, age, and advancement, and to some extent, future destination of the pupils, and the standard fixed by the intelli- gence and intellectual wants of the district — a course which should give to every young man a thorough English education, preparatory to the pursuits of agriculture, commerce, trade, manufactures, and the mechanical arts, and if desired, for college ; and to every young woman, a well disciplined mind, high moral aims, and practical views of her own duties, and those resources of health, thought, manners and conversation, which bless alike the highest and lowest stations in life. All which is now done in private schools of the highest grade, and where the wants of any considerable portion of the community create such private schools, should be provided for in the system of public schools, so that the same advantages, with- out being abridged or denied to the children of the rich and the educated, should be open at the same time to worthy and talented children of the poorest parent. In some districts a part of the studies of this grade of schools might be embraced in the Secondary Schools, which would thus take the place of the High School ; in others, the High School could be open for only portions of the year ; and in others, two departments, or two schools, one for either sex, would be required. However constituted, whether as one depart- ment, or two, as a distinct school, or as part of a secondary school, or an ordinary district school, and for the whole year, or part of the year, something of the kind is required to meet the wants of the whole community, and relieve the public schools from impotency. Unless it can be engrafted upon the public school system, or rather unless it can grow up and out of the system, as a provision made for the educational wants of the whole community, then the system will never gather about it the warmth and sustaining confidence and patronage of all classes, and especially of those who know best the value of a good education, and are willing to spend time and money to secure it for their own children. 4. Intermediate Schools or departments will be needed in large districts, to receive a class of pupils who are too old to be continued, without wounding their self-esteem, in the school below, or interfering with its methods of discipline and instruction, and are not prepared in attainments, and habits of study, or from irregular attendance, to be arranged in the regular classes of the school above. Connected with this class of schools there might be opened a GRADATION OF SCHOOLS. 303 school or department for those who cannot attend school regularly, or for only a short period of the year, or who may wish to attend exclusively to a few studies. There is no place for this class of scholars, in a regularly constituted, permanent school, in a large village. 5. Supplementary Schools, and means of various kinds should be provided in every system of public instruction, for cities and large villages, to supply deficiencies in the education of individuals whose school attendance has been prematurely abridged, or from any cause interfered with, and to carry forward as far and as long as practicable into after life, the training and attainments commenced in childhood. Evening Schools should be opened for apprentices, clerks, and other young persons, who have been hurried into active employment without a suitable elementary education. In these schools, those who have completed the ordinary course of school instruction, could devote themselves to such studies as are directly connected with their several trades or pursuits, while those whose early education was entirely neglected, can supply, to some extent, such deficiencies. It is not beyond the legitimate scope of a system of public instruc- tion, to provide for the education of adults, who, from any cause, in early life were deprived of advantages of school instruction. Libraries, and courses of familiar lectures, with practical illustra- tions, collections in natural history, and the natural sciences, a sys- tem of scientific exchanges between schools of the same, and of different towns, — these and other means of extending and improving the ordinary instruction of the school-room and of early life, ought to be provided, not only by individual enterprise and liberality, but by the public, and the authorities entrusted with the care and advance- ment of popular education. One or more of that class of educational institutions known as " Reform Schools," " Schools of Industry," or " Schools for Juvenile Offenders," should receive such children, as defying the restraining influence of parental authority, and the discipline and regulations of the public schools, or such as are abandoned by orphanage, or worse than orphanage, by parental neglect or example, to idle, vicious and pilfering habits, are found hanging about places of public resort, pol- luting the atmosphere by their profane and vulgar speech, alluring, to their own bad practices, children of the same, and other conditions of life, and originating or participating in every street brawl and low- bred riot. Such children cannot be safely gathered into the public schools ; and if they are, their vagrant habits are chafed by the re- straints of school discipline. They soon become irregular, play truant, are punished and expelled, and from that time their course is almost uniformly downward, until on earth there is no lower point to reach. Accustomed, as many such children have been from infancy, to sights and sounds of open and abandoned profligacy, trained to an utter want of self-respect, and the decencies and proprieties of life, as exhibited in dress, person, manners and language, strangers to those motives of self-improvement which spring from a sense of so- 304 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. cial, moral and religious obligation, their regeneration involves the harmonious co-operation of earnest philanthropy, missionary enter- prise, and sanctified wisdom. The districts of all our large cities where this class of children are found, are the appropriate field of home missions, of unobtrusive personal effort and charity, and of systematized plans of local benevolence, embracing friendly inter- course with parents, an affectionate interest in the young, the gather- ing of the latter into week-day, infant, and primary schools, and schools where the use of the needle, and other forms of labor appro- priate to the sex and age of the pupils can be given, the gathering of both old and young into Sabbath schools and worshipping assem- blies, the circulation of books and tracts, of other than a strictly religious character, the encouragement of cheap, innocent and hu- manizing games, sports and festivities, the obtaining employment for adults who may need it, and procuring situations as apprentices, clerks, &c, for such young persons as may be qualified by age, capacity and character. By individual efforts and the combined efforts of many, working in these and other ways, from year to year, these moral jungles can be broken up, — these infected districts can be purified, — these waste places of society can be reclaimed, and many abodes of penury, ignorance and vice can be converted by ed- ucation, economy and industry, into homes of comfort, peace and joy. PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL-HOUSE. 305 Public School-House in Warren, R. I. Fig. 1. The above cut exhibits a front view of the Public School-house erected in the village of Warren, at the expense of the town, in 1847-48, after drawings made by Mr. Teft, of Providence, under the directions of a committee of the town, who consulted with the Com- missioner of Public Schools, and visited Providence, Boston, Salem, Newhuryport and other places, in order to ascertain the latest im- provements in school architecture, before deciding on the details of the plan. To this committee, and particularly to two of its members, Mr. E. W. Burr and Mr. G. S. Gardiner, is the town largely indebted for the time and personal supervision which they devoted to this public improvement, from its first inception to its completion, without any other reward than the realization of their wish to secure for their town the best school-house, for the amount of money expended, in the State. The Commissioner of Public Schools remarked, in his address at the dedication of the house, in September, 1848, " that, for location, style, construction, means of warming, ventilation, and clean- liness, and for the beauty and convenience of the seats and desks, he had not seen a public school-house superior to this in New England. It is a monument at once of the liberality of the town, and of a wise economy on the part of the committee." The town appropriated $10,000, and the committee expended $8,594. The opening of the Public School in this edifice was followed by a large increase of attendance from the children of the town. 20 306 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The lot is 225 deep and 100 feet wide for a depth of 125 feet, and 161 feet wide for the remaining 64 feet. It is divided into three yards, as exhibited in the ground plan, (Fig. 2,) each substantially inclosed, and planted with trees and shrubbery. The dimensions of the building are 62 feet by 44 on the ground. It is built of brick in the most workmanlike manner. Most of the details of construction, and of the arrangement in the interior, are similar to those described on page 214. Each room is ventilated by openings controlled by registers, both at the floor and the ceiling, into four flues carried up in the wall, and by a large flue con- structed of thoroughly seasoned boards, smooth on the inside, in the partition wall, (Fig. 3, x.) The whole building is uniformly warmed by two of Culver's furnaces placed in the cellar. Every means of cleanliness are provided, such as scrapers, mats, sink with pump, wash basin, towels, hooks for outer garments, umbrella stands, &c. The tops of the desks are covered with cloth, and the aisles are to be cheaply carpeted, so as to diminish, if not entirely prevent, the noise which the moving of slates and books, and the passing to and fro, occasion in a school-room. A — Front yard B — Girls' yard. C — Boys' yard. P — Privies. W— Well. F — Culver's Furnace PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLrHOUSE IN WA11REN. Fig. 3— First Floor. 30? >v^gyri -r\. ■.-:— .-■■-! • --r, --•- ■ ■■-■-^■t ESSSZS^ ,o DoKDsra? A — Front entrance. B — Girls' entrance, with mats, scra- pers, hooks for clothes, a sink, pump, basin, Sec. C — Boys' entrance do. R — Recitation rooms, connected by sliding doors. R, P — Platform for recitation, with a blackboard in the rear. T — Teacher's platform. S — Seats and desks; see page 205. Q. — Library and apparatus. w— Windows, with inside Venetian blinds, c — Flues for ventilation in the outer wall. x. — Flue for ventilation, lined with smooth, well seasoned boards, y — Bell-rope, accessible to the teacher by an opening in the wall. r — Hot air registers. E%. 4. — Second Floor. ~zz^x-~?E£:zj7~- ~~:::. : mswm o I o SDCQCD8 ~l o_ l 0_ Jo[Jo_. B UoUoUoU o LIolJoIJ i DODODOD 308 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Union School-House, at Woonsocket and Chepachet, R. I. By the school law of Rhode Island, two or more adjoining school districts in the same, or adjoining towns, may, by concurrent vote, agree to unite for the purpose of maintaining a secondary or grammar school, for the older and more advanced pupils of such associating districts. Under this provision the four school districts in the town of Cumberland, which comprise the village of Woonsocket, voted to unite and provide a school-house for the more advanced pupils, leaving the younger to be accommodated in their respective districts. The Union school-house is located on a beautiful site, the donation of Edward Harris, Esq., and is built substantially after the plan of the Warren Public school-house, already described, at a cost of $7,000. The following are the front and side elevations, as originally drawn by Mr. Teft, but not adopted by the committee. Side Elevation. Front Elevation. Under the provision above cited, the three districts into which the village of Chepachet, in the town of Glocester, is divided, voted to establish a Union School, and to provide a suitable house for the same. The building is 50 feet by 34, with two stories, and stands in the centre of a large lot, a little removed from the main street, and is the ornament and pride of the village. The lower floor is divided into two apartments ; one for the Primary, and the other for an Inter- mediate School, for the younger pupils of the village, while the Union or Sec- ondary School occupies the whole of the second floor. UNION SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CHEPACHET. Fig. 1.— Plan op First Floor. 309 MMEB \MMM UNMfM MSM! MMJE mmm — '■ '— W-sMM/M ■ ' ... - ^ ' .:: . ' , *r \. mmmmmm D MEMM LZ ■' ■ ■ ■ ,■;-,■„•■■■■- -r .■■■■■■■ :..'■.. A—Entrance for Girls to Secondary School, U. B— " " Boys " " " C — " " Girls to Primar}', E, and Intermediate School, F. D_ « « Boys " " •' " " E — Primary School-room. F — Intermediate ' : U — Secondary - l L — Manton Gloeester Library of 900 volumes. R — Recitation room. S — Stove. V — Flue for ventilation. G — Seat and desk attached, for two pupils, with iron ends. Fig. 2. — Plan of Second Floor. sr— r — ""7 IJvO MLBM \WSSM z . WEL -WWW, L ■ ■■'■■ ■■■-' ■■'"s.'ZZ'/'s 310 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Plan, &c, of Union School-House in Pawtucket, R. I Fig. 1— Perspective. This school-house is calculated to accommodate, on the first floor, a Pri- mary School, (D,)with seats and desks for one hundred and sixty pupils; two Intermediate Schools, (E, E,) for sixty-four pupils each ; and on the second floor a High School, (P,) for one hundred and seventy pupils. The building is warmed and ventilated by a furnace in the cellar, from which the hot air is conveyed into the several apartments, as indicated by the regis- ters, (r, r, r, r,) in Figs. 2 and 3, and discharged by flues carried up in the walls, as seen at v, v, v, v. Each school-room is furnished with an appropriate place for outer garments, and with scrapers, mats and other means of neatness and cleanliness. The boys and girls have each a separate yard in the rear, and separate en- trances into the school-rooms. The High School is furnished with seats and desk having cast-iron end pieces similar to those described on page 282. The Primary and Intermediate school-rooms are furnished with the patent Revolving Pivot Chair, and School-desk, manufactured by J. L. Mott, 264 Water street, New York. The seat of the chair is wood ; all other parts are of cast- iron. The seat and back turn on a pivot, while the pedestal is screwed fast to the floor. The height of the lower part of the top of the desk is just equal to the highest part of the back of the chair, so as to allow it to pass under. The front edge of the seat is in a perpendicular line with the edge of the tap of the desk, so that the scholar is required to sit erect when engaged in writing or studying, and the same time that part of his back which requires support is fully in contact with the chair. Since the chairs above described were placed in this house, Mr. Mott has modified the patterns — so as to carry the back piece higher, and thus give sup- port to the muscles above the small of the back. The iron can be covered with felt, and thus the rapid conduction of heat from the body, especially from the spinal column, in children thinly clad, and of delicate constitutions may be prevented. UNION SCHOOL HOUSE IN PAWTUCKET. 311 Union School- House in Pawtucket. Fig. 2.— Plan op First Floor. ■<■■•-"■ •■•■'■■■ ' i ^'- ~ ' Ooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooo ooooooooooooooooooo I oooooooooooooeooooo OOGOOOOO OOOOO OOP OOOOOOOO OOOOOOQ o OOOOOOOO OOOOO OOP I I I — I POOOPPP o i I PO OOOOP P POOOOOOO E 3 [ 1 1 O O O o o o o 1 OPPO OO O P 1 1 OOOOOOOO 1 1 OOOPOPPP OOOOOOOO A — Entrance to High School. B — Entrance for Boys to the Primary and Intermediate Schools. C— Entrance for Girls to the Primary and Intermediate Schools. D — School-room, 30 feet by 24, for Primary School. E, E — " " 40 feet by 16, for Intermediate Schools. F— : < " 40 feet by 40, for High School. G — Room for Apparatus, &c. H — Recitation room to High School, 20 feet by 16. I— K — Entrance room, one for Boys and the other for Girls, fitted up with hooks, shelves, wash-stand, &c. T — Teacher's desk without any platform. Fig. 3. — Plan op Second Floor — High School. m™™oii] ©ran™™™ mMEamnm ttfflmOIQID mm &m,Ma &fc±*^ vmwha wm/wm m^vm m DISTRICT SCHOOL-HOUSE IN CENTREMILL. 313 Plan and Description of District School-House in CentremelLj North Providence, R. I. ■~ . This house was erected after designs by Mr. Teft, of Providence. It stands back from the highway, on an elevated site, in the midst of a grove, and for beauty of design and convenience of arrangement, is not surpassed by any similar structure in New England. It is 26 feet by 51. and 13 feet high in the clear, with two departments on the same floor. A, Boys' entry, G feet by 10. B, Girls' ditto. C, Primary department, 20 feet by 25, with desks and seats attached for 70 pupils. D, Secondary, or Grammar depart- ment, 25 feet by 25, with desks and chairs for 04 pupils; see p. 120. r, Register for hot air. v, v, Flues for ventilation. c, Closets for dinner pails of those who come from a distance s, Sink. The smoke pipe is carried up be- eween the ventilating flues, and the top of the chimney is finished so as to accommodate the bell. o~ o o c o n o o o o o o CI o o D u o o o o o o o o <) o o o o n o o o o o o. n o o o o o o o o o o o o -in — a— » 26 314 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The persective of the new school-house at Centerdale, North Providence, on the preceding page, gives a very inadequate idea of the proportion and style of the building itself. Better justice is done to the architect in the view on the next page, of Mr. Kingsbury's Female Seminary in Providence. Plan of School-House at Washington Village in Coventry, R. I. The following cut presents the ground plan of the new school-house in the village of Washington, in the town of Coventry, R. I. The location is on the high ground in the rear of the village, and commands an extensive prospect in every direction. The site and yard, occupying one acre, was given to the dis- trict by Governor Whipple. The whole structure, without and within, is an ornament to the village, and ranks among the best school-houses in R.hode Island. n '. La HUD rasa aoo *a ran o 'I o Ho o J o|_0 G O o[ oj_0 o| iiLpiL n | |Q|| |o z 3 O z o o of " o o o o - I I , A — Boy's entrance. I F — Desks for two, with iron end-piece. B— Girl's entrance. G— Chairs supported on iron pedestal. C — Primary school-room. H— Register for hot air. D — Secondary, or Grammar Depart- R— Flue for ventilation, within which ment. is carried up the smoke-pipe. E — Teacher's platform. The two school-rooms can be thrown into one, for any general exercise ot the two schools, by sliding doors. The two rooms are uniformly heated by a furnace in the basement. There is a well, sink, basin, mats, scrapers, bell, and all the necessary fixtures and appendages of a school-house of the first class. The cost of the building and furniture was $2,300. The district possesses a library of upwards of four hundred volumes, the cost of which was raised by subscription in the District. :16 SOHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Chilson's Air-Warming and Ventilating Furnace, Patented and Manufactured by Gardner Chilson, Boston. The construction of the Air- Warming and Ventilating Furnace was projected by the inventor, to obviate the serious, if not fatal, objections, so generally made, to the use of furnaces for wanning apartments, where a fresh, healthful atmospheric air is required. From long experience in putting up furnaces, in which coal was consumed in deep iron pots ; and the air which they warmed was made to pass over a large extent of iron surface, made and kept red-hot, he found that the occupants of the rooms thus warmed, complained that the air was not unfrequently filled with the gases of the burning coal, and was at all times dry and stagnant, causing, especially to persons of a nervous tempera- ment, disagreeable sensations to the whole system, such as dizziness of the head, headache, inflammation of the eyes and lungs, dryness of the lips and skin, &c. He found, too, by his own experience and observation in the manu- facture and use of furnaces of this kind, that there was an unnecessary con- sumption of coal, when burnt in deep, straight and narrow pots, causing the coal to melt and run to cinders, and at the same time burning out the pots, and loosening the joints of the furnace, by which the deadly gases escaped into the air-chambers, and hence into the apartments above. These objections, both on the score of health and expense, the inventor claims that he has thoroughly ob- viated in his Air-Warming and Ventilating Furnace, and at the same time pre- served all the advantages heretofore realized from this mode of warming build- ings. The advantages of the Furnace are — 1. The fire-pot is constructed on the most economical and philosophical principles. It is broad and shallow, — at least twice as broad and one third as deep as the common fire-pot ; — is one third smaller at the bottom than at the top, and is lined with fire-brick or soap-stone. Thus the fire-bed is deep enough to keep the coal well ignited with a slow but perfect combustion, while the en- tire heat from the fuel is given out to act upon the radiating surface alone and the fire-pot can never become red-hot, and does not require renewal. This plan for burning coal is original with the inventor, and has met with universal approbation. 2. The radiating surface is large, and so placed that it receives the immedi- ate and natural action of the heat, and at the same time imparts its heat in the CHILSON'S FURNACE. 3 [ 7 most direct and uniform manner to the fresh air from without, -without suffering waste by absorption from the outer walls of 'the air-chamber. 3. The air-chamber is large, and the fresh air is admitted and discharged so readily and uniformly thai no portion of the radiating surface can ever be- come overheated ; and a delightful summer temperature is maintained in the rooms. 4. The joints of the furnace are so constructed, that, even if the iron-work was liable, like other furnaces, to crack from extreme expansion, by being over- heated, (which it is not,) the gas from the burning coal cannot escape into the air-chamber. 5. There are no horizontal inner surfaces on which dust and soot can gather, which do not, at the same time, clean themselves, or admit of being easily cleaned. 6. The grate in the fire-pot is so constructed, that the ashes can be easily de- tached, and the combustion facilitated. 7. It has stood all the test which sharp rivalry and the most severe philosophi- cal practical science could apply to it, and has thus far accomplished all that its inventor promised, and when tried in the same building with other fur- naces, has uniformly received the preference. Dr. Bell, Superintendent of the McLean Asylum for the Insane, who has given this whole subject his particular attention, in his Essay on the Practical Methods of Ventilating Buildings, published in the proceedings of the Massa- chusetts Medical Society for 1848, remarks as follows : " The character of any variety of the hot-air furnace is measured, in my judgment, by the simplicity of its construction, its non-liability to be brought to an undue degree of heat in any part, and its ready receipt and emission of air. That made by Mr. Gardner Chilson, of Boston, with an air-chamber of brick, and an interspace of two or three feet in width, appears to me to combine all the essentials attainable of this mode of heating air, more fully than any other which has fallen under my observation." In 1847, the School Committee of Boston sanctioned, by a unanimous vote, the introduction of this furnace into the new school-houses to be erected in that city, on the recommendation of a sub-committee, to which the whole sub- ject of warming and ventilating the school-rooms had been referred. The fol- lowing is the recommendation referred to. " Your Committee have made themselves acquainted not only with all the Furnaces which have been manufactured in this place, and its neighborhood, but with all those which have been exhibited here recently. Most of them show much ingenuity of contrivance and excellence of workmanship ; but are all, so far as we can judge, inferior, in many respects, to the one invented by Mr. Chilson, a model and plans of which we now exhibit, and recommend as superior to all others. It is simple in its structure, easily managed, will consume the fuel perfectly, and with a moderate fire. It is fitted for wood or coal. The fire-place is broad and shallow, and is lined with soapstone or fire-brick, which not only makes it perfectly safe and durable, but modifies very materially the usual effect of the fire upon the iron pot. The principal radiating surfaces are wrought iron, of a suitable thickness for service, while at the same time the heat of the smallest fire is communi- cated immediately to the air-chamber. The mode of setting this Furnace we consider essential ; more especially the plan of admitting the air to the furnace at its lowest point, as it then rises naturally into the apartments above. This process commences as soon as the temperature is raised even a single degree. The outer walls remain cold ; the floor above is not endangered, and the whole building is rapidly filled with an atmosphere which is at once salubrious and delightful." This Ventilating Furnace may be seen in the Mayhew, Dwight, Hancock, Boylston, Bowdoin, and Ingraham school-houses, in Boston ; also in several new school-houses in Cambridge, Roxbury, Dorchester, Springfield, in the Blind Asylum and House of Industry, South Boston, and in hundreds of pri- vate houses in Boston and its vicinity. 318 busiinell's furnace and schcol-stove. Bushnell's Hot Air Furnace. Patented and Manufactured by Ezra Clark, Jr., 61 Front street, Hartford. This invention was projected by the Rev. Dr. Bushnell, of Hartford, Conn., for his own use, and by his consent patented in his name, though he disclaims having or retaining any legal interest in it, or title to income from it. In this furnace the fire-pot or burner differs from others, in the fact that the feeding-trunk opens directly into the fire, close upon the grate, and not above the fire, allowing the fire to be stirred above the grate a'nd through the feeding- trunk itself. A stiff poker is pushed under the fire, along the top of the grate, and then is borne down, as a lever, throwing up the coals and allowing the ashes to fall through. The dead coals and cinders will thus be thrown up by the action of the poker, and may be taken off by a claw or a small iron rake. The fire being cleared in this way, the grate need never be dropped, and the dirty process of riddling will be avoided. The ash-door being always shut when the fire is stirred, the tender will not be enveloped in a cloud of ashes. The fire, too, may be stirred and cleared when it is in full action, as well as at any other time, and the coals will never be rattled down into a close state by the agitation, so as to choke the fire, but will always be thrown up into a light and open condition, so as to facilitate the combustion. The radiating part of this furnace, that which extracts the heat, is distin- guished by the fact that the cold air is passed into the furnace chamber through horizontal iron tubes or trunks, between which, as composing the sides of up- right tubes or trunks, the hot gas of the fire is circulating and giving up its heat as it passes off into the chimney ; so that the cold air, in its coldest state, is brought in direct contact with the heated furnace, and is actually heated be- fore it escapes into the chamber of the furnace. Whereas if the heated sur- face were left to act only upon the mixed and already half-heated air of the chamber, in the ordinary way, the difference of temperature between it and the air in contact would be smaller, and therefore less heat be given out by the same amount of surface. While, too, the air is passing one way to be heated inside the iron trunks, the hot gas is passing the other way to be cooled on the outside, that is, up and down the upright trunks, and thus the mean difference of temperature is kept the greatest possible at every point. The greatest amount of heat will be communicated in this way, by the least amount of iron surface ; that is, in the cheapest manner possible. Meantime the construction is such that the radia- tor will clear itself, never requiring to be disturbed until it is worn out. Thus it may stand from season to season, always ready for use. The fire-pot or burner can be furnished with or without soap-stone or fire- brick lining. Ezra Clark, Jr., also manufactures a Ventilating SchooLHouse Stove, in- vented by Dr. Bushnell, and constructed on the same principle as his Hot Air Furnace, but intended to burn wood. Fresh air is introduced from outside the building by a flue below the floor, and is warmed before it is discharged into the school-room. The stove is placed in the school-room, and occupies a space of not more than two and a half feet square. The exterior is finished aa a handsome style, and the cost is low. APPARATUS. In addition to che necessary furniture of a school, such as seats, desks ; and other fixtures and articles required for the accommodation of pupils and teacher, and the order and cleanliness of the premises, every school- room should be furnished with such apparatus as shall enable the teacher to employ the hand and eye of every pupil in illustration and experiment so far as may be practicable and desirable in the course of instruction pursued in the school. It is therefore important, in the internal arrange- ment of a school-house, to have regard to the safe-keeping, display, and use of such apparatus as the grade of the school, for which the house is intended, may require. A few suggestions will therefore be made on these points, and in aid of committees and trustees in selecting apparatus. 1. In a large school, and in schools of the highest grade, there will be need of a separate apartment appropriated to the safe-keeping of the apparatus, and in some departments of instruction, for the proper use of the same. But in small schools, and as far as practicable in all schools, maps, diagrams, and other apparatus, should be in view of the school at all times. This will not only add to the attractions of the school, and make the school-room look like a workshop of education, but. will awaken a desire in the pupils to know the uses of the various articles, and to become ac- quainted with the facts and principles which can thus be seen, heard, or handled. 2. Such articles as are liable to be injured by dust, or handling, must be provided with an appropriate room, or a case of sufficient size, having glazed and sliding doors, and convenient shelves. The doors should not be glazed to the floor, on account of liability to breakage, and also to admit of drawers for maps and diagrams, and a closet for such articles as may be uninteresting or unseemly to the eye, although useful in their place. The shelves should be movable, so as to admit of additions of larger or smaller specimens of apparatus, and also of such arrangement as the varying tastes of different teachers may require. 3. There should be a table, with a level top, and capable of being made perfectly firm, unless the teacher's desk can be so, for the teacher to place his apparatus on, when in use. 4. The apparatus of every school-room should be selected with refer- ence to the grade of schools to which it is appropriated, and in Primary and District schools in particular, should be of simple construction and convenient for use. 5. As far as practicable, the real object in nature and art, and not a diagram, or model, should be secured. 320 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. The following list of articles is necessarily very imperfect, but it may help to guide committees in their search after apparatus. Articles indispensable in Schools of every Grade. A clock. The cardinal points of the heavens painted on the ceiling, or on the teacher's platform, or the floor of the recitation room. As much blackboard, or black surface on the walls of the school-room, and the recitation rooms, as can be secured. A portion of this black sur- face should be in full view of the whole school, for passing explanations; and another portion out of the way, within reach of the smallest pupils. One or more movable blackboards, or large slate, with one or more mova- ble stands or supporters. All the appendages to a blackboard, such as chalk, crayons, and a rub- ber of soft cloth, leather, or sheepskin, and a pointer. An inkstand, fixed into the desk, with a lid, and with a pen-wiper at- tached. A slate, iron-bound at the corners, and covered with list, or India-rub- ber cloth, for every desk, with a pencil-holder and sponge attached. A few extra slates for the use of the youngest pupils, under the care and at the discretion of the teacher. A map of the district, town, county, and state. A terrestrial globe, properly mounted, or suspended by a wire. The measure of an inch, foot, yard, and rod, marked off on the edge of the blackboard, or on the wall. Real measures of all kinds, linear, superficial, solid, and liquid ; as a foot-rule, a yard-stick, quarts, bushels, an ounce, pound, &c, for the ex- ercise of the eye and hand. Vases for flowers and natural grasses. Apparatus for a Primary or District School. The apparatus for this class of schools cannot be specified with much minuteness, because the ages of the pupils, and the modes of instruction vary so much in different localities. The following list embraces the ar- ticles purchased for Primary and District schools in Rhode Island : Movable Lesson Posts. These are from three and a half to four feet high, and are variously made of wood, and of cast-iron. It consists, when made of wood, of an upright piece of plank from two to three inches square at the bottom, and dimin- ishing regularly to the top, where it is one inch, inserted in a round or cross base broad e migh to support the lesson board, or card, which is suspended by a ring on a hook at or near the top of the post. J. L. Mott, 264, Water street, New York, manufactures for the Primary schools of the Public School Society of New York, a very neat cast-iron lesson stand. Reading Lessons. Colored Prints, . and Diagrams of various kinds, such as of animals, costumes, trades, &c, pasted on boards of wood or strong pasteboard ; some with, tand others without printed descriptions beneath; to be suspended at appropriate times on the lesson stands, for class exercises, and at other times, on the walls, or deposited in their appropriate places. In this list should be included the numeration table, ta bles for reading arithmetical marks, easy lessons, geometri cal figures, punctuation marks, outline maps, &c. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 321 The Gonigraph is a small instrument composed of a number of flat rods connected by pivots, which can be put into all possible geometrical figures that consist of straight lines and angles, as triangles, squares, pentagons, hexagons, octagons, &c. v == y The Arithmeticon, represented in the annexed cut, is a most useful in- strument. In an oblong open frame, twelve rows of wooden balls, alter- nately black and white, and of the size of a nutmeg or small walnut, and twelve in each row, are strung like beads on strong wires. The instru- ment, when fixed to a stand, is about four feet high, the frame being one- fourth part broader than it is high. It may be made much smaller, as in the cut. When it is used to exercise the children in arithmetic, the teacher or monitor stands behind, and slides the balls along the wires from his left to his right, calling out the number he shifts, as, twice two are four, thrice two are six, shifting first four balls, and then two more. As the children are apt to confuse the balls remaining with those shifted, a thin board covers half the surface on the side next the children, as marked by a line down the centre, so that they see only the balls shifted to the open side. sd*o»- -OffiOSSOSOC -®OSDO!K)®0 -O»0®0©0« -®o»o®o©c 3©OfflOI80©OffiO® ao©offlOfflo®o®c D®Q8>0!90®0«IOO fflO®09O®OfflO®C D®0®O8O®O®Offl BOSOJOBOOOOC Holbrookes Scientific Apparatus embraces a variety of articles which 1 will be found highly useful in the District school, in which both the older and younger pupils of the districts are ordinarily gathered at the same time, and under one teacher. The following articles constitute a set which costs $14.75, including a neat box with lock and key i Tellurian; Suspension Orrery; Gear or Wheel Orrery with metal wheels j Globe $ Orbit Plain ; Numerical Frame ; Geometrical Forms 21 322 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. and 'Solids ; Twenty-Jive Geological Specimens ; Geometry ; Scale and Triangle; Block to illustrate Cube Roots ; Geometrical Chart; Manu- script Letters : Text Book. Mr. Josiah Holbrook of New York, whose name was originally con- nected with this set of apparatus, and with which, as manufactured under his direction, we are familiar, disclaims at this time (1848) any responsi- bility for the articles manufactured by Holbrook & Co., of Ohio. This gentleman, so long and so favorably known from his connection with Lyceums, and elementary instruction, is now residing in New York, and has an office in the Hall of the Public School Society. There, in connection with Mr. Seton, and two very ingenious workmen, (Messrs. Riker,) he is now getting up apparatus "which shall be simple, easily used, readily understood, not liable to get out of order, and durable." The following is a list of articles already prepared for Primary Schools : A Geological Cabinet. , Geometricals, embracing plain figures, solids, models of crystals, illustrations of insect architecture and human mechanism, trans- posing and revolving figures, all illustrated with cuts and explanations ; a globe with maps of the world and United Stales ; numeral frame ; a simple lever, with weights; a syphon and glass pump, showing the weight of the atmosphere in raising water; an air bulb, showing the expansive power of heat, simply by the hand; a simple permanent magnet; also an electro-magnet, a microscope, a simple orrery, and First Drawing Book for children, are among the instru- ments fitted to make clear, distinct, correct and lasting first impressions upon young minds, before reading-lessons or the letters of the alphabet can be ren- dered intelligible to them. To teach Geography and History properly, the following maps are desirable : Map or plan of the school-room, yard, &c. Map or plan of the District or Village. Map or plan of the Town, County, and State. Map of the United States. Map of North America. Map of Europe. Map of the World. Map of Palestine. Map of the countries mentioned in the Bible and in ancient history. Map of Europe during the middle ages. Fitch's Chirography, or plates and instruction in map-drawing. Series of Outline Maps", published by J. H. Mather & Co., Hartford, Ct A selection from Borgaus & Johnston's Physical Atlas, published in Edinburgh in 1847, viz. Rivers in America. Rivers in Europe and Asia. Mountain chains in North and South America. Mountain chains in Europe and Asia. Regions of Earthquakes and Volcanoes. Geological Map of America. Geological Map of Europe. Distribution of Food-plants over the world. Distribution of Animals. Distribution of Man. Colton's Historical Chart. Willard's Map of Time. Mattison's Astronomical Maps. Page's Normal Chart of Elementary Sounds. SCHOOL APPARATUS. 323 Fulton's Chirographic Charts. Green's Analysis of Sentences. Henry's Family and School Monitor. Wickham's Drawing Tablets. Apparatus for Grammar Schools. The School Committee of Boston, in 1847, adopted the following arti- cles as a set of Philosophical Apparatus for the Grammar schools, which was selected and classified by Mr. Wightman, whose long experience in manufacturing apparatus for schools of every grade, admirably qualified him for the work : Laws of Matter. Apparatus for illustrating Inertia. Pair of Lead Hemispheres, for Co- hesion. Pair of Glass Plates, for Capillary Attraction. Laws of Motion. Ivory Balls on Stand, for Collision. Set of eight illustrations for Centre of Gravity. Sliding Frame, for Composition of Forces. Apparatus for illustrating Central Forces. Mechanics. Complete set of Mechanicals, con- sisting of Pulleys ; Wheel and Axle ; Capstan ; Screw ; Inclined Plane ; Wedge. Hydrostatics. Bent Glass Tube, for Fluid Level. Mounted Spirit Level. Hydrometer and Jar, for Specific Gravity. Scales and Weights, for Specific Gravity. Hydrostatic Bellows, and Paradox. Hydraulics. Lifting, or Common Water Pump. Forcing Pump ; illustrating the Fire Engine. Glass Syphon Cup ; for illustrating Intermitting Springs. Glass and Metal Syphons. Pneumatics. Patent Lever Air Pump and Clamp. Three Glass Bell Receivers, adapt- ed to the Apparatus. Condensing and Exhausting Syr- inge. Copper Chamber, for Condensed Air Fountain. Revolving Jet and Glass Barrel. Fountain Glass, Cock, and Jet for Vacuum. Brass Magdeburg Hemispheres. Improved Weight Lifter for upward pressure. Iron Weight of 56 lbs. and Strap Flexible Tube and Connectors for Weight Lifter. Brass Plate and Sliding Rod. Bolt Head and Jar. Tall Jar and Balloon. Hand and Bladder Glasses. Wood Cylinder and Plate. India Rubber Bag, for expansion of air. Guinea and Feather Apparatus. Glass Flask and Stop-Cock, for weighing air. Electricity. Plate Electrical Machine. Pith Ball Electrometer. Electrical Battery of four Jars. Electrical Discharger. Image Plates and Figure. Insulated Stool. Chime of Bells. Miser's Plate, for shocks. Tissue Figure, Ball and Point. Electrical Flyer and Tellurian. Electrical Sportsman, Jar and Birds. Mahogany Thunder House and Pistol. 324 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Hydrogen Gas Generator. Chains, Balls of Pith, and Amal- gam. Optics. Glass Prism ; and pair of Lenses. Dissected Eye Ball, showing its arrangement. Magnetism. Magnetic Needle on Stand. Pair of Magnetic Swans. Glass Vase for Magnetic Swans. Horseshoe Magnet. Astronomy. Improved School Orrery. Tellurian, or, Season Machine. Arithmetic, and Geometry. Set of 13 Geometrical Figures of Solids. Box of 64 one inch Cubes, for Cube Root, &c. Auxiliaries. Tin Oiler. Glass Funnel. Sulphuric Acid. Set of Iron Weights for Hydrostatic Paradox. Apparatus for High Schools. The articles of Apparatus for a High School, will depend on the extent to which such studies as Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, &c, are carried, and to the amount of money which can be expended. We have drawn up several such lists, and in doing so have been governed by the circum- stances mentioned. As the best guide to committees and teachers, we shall publish in another place, under the head of Priced Catalogues, &c. lists of such articles as can be purchased for sums of money varying from $50 to $1000. MITCHELL'S OUTLINE MAPS, PUBLISHED BY 3 H. MATHER & CO., HARTFORD: H. H. HAWLEY, & CO., UTICA. MITCHELL'S OUTLINE MAPS, REVISED AND IMPROVED. This series of Maps have been thoroughly revised and improved ; being ac- companied with a Manual of Geography, combining a key to the Maps. This revised series consists of the following Maps. No. 5. Europe, " 6. Asia, " 7. Africa. " 8. Oceanica, 4 sheets, 1 " 1 " 1 " No. 1. Hemispheres, 2 sheets, " 2. North America, 1 " " 3. U. States & Mexieo, 4 " " 4. South America, 1 " These Maps and Manual taken in connection, form a system of elementary instruction in Geogrephy and Map-drawing, independently of other text books. These maps on a reduced seale are introduced in the revised edition of the Manual, by which the method of outline instruction ean be fully carried into effect. One set of these maps for the school-room, and one manual to eaeh scholar, In the class, enables the teachers thoroughly to instruct the whole class simul- taneously. The maps are backed with substantial bleached cloth, the coasts water-lined, and the whole beautifully colored, and cased in a portfolio, accompanied by one manual for the teacher. Price per set $8. — Extra Manuals of Geography and Key, 30 cents. MITCHELL'S ORIGINAL SERIES OF OUTLINE MAPS. This set of outlines, being the first and only full series embracing separate State Maps, has been introduced into every State in the Union. This series is arranged in the following order. No. 1. The world represented by Hemis- 2 sheets, 1 ts H pheres, " 2. North America, " 3. U. States and Territor's. ) , " 4. Mexico and Guatimala, ) " 5. Maine, I u 6. N. Hampshire and Vt. 1 " 7. Mass. R. Island and Conn. 1 " 8. New York, 1 " 9. N. Jersey, Penn. and Del. 1 " 10. Maryland and Virginia, 1 " 11. North & South Carolina, 1 " 12. G«o. Ala. and Florida, 1 The State Maps may be profitably used in connection with the revised series, by the addition of one key to the full set. One, or any number of the State Maps, will be supplied to order. Price of full series, $15. — Key 25 cents. — A liberal discount to the trade No. 13. Mississippi, Louisiana and sas, " 14. Kentucky and Tennessee, " 15. Ohio, " 16. Indiana and Illinois, '• 17. Michig'n & pt. of Wisc'n, " 18. Missouri and part of Iowa, " 19. South America, " 20. Europe, " 20. Ex.Cent.andSouth'n. Eu. " 21. Asia, " 22. Africa, " 23. Oceanica, Arkan- sheet. 326 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. VALE'S GLOBE AND TRANSPARENT SPHERE, Vale's Globe and Transparent Sphere, -which is but imperfectly repre- sented in the above drawing, aims to accomplish a much desired object, the conjunction of the Terrestrial and Celestial Globe, on so simple a principle that without cogs or wheels, all the apparent and real motions of the earth and neavens can be illustrated. It therefore presents great facilities for pursuing together the study of Geography and Astronomy, which cannot be separated without injury to each other. The outer circle supports the instrument. In this, the axis slides, by which the instrument is adjusted. This circle is capable of a swivel motion, by which the antipodes, and the seasons in relation to diiferent positions of the spec- tator, can be easily exhibited. VALE'S AND CORNELL'S GLOBES 327 The sphere just within the outer circle, represents the great circles of the Heavens, as the meridians, equator, ecliptic, with the poles, &c. On this sphere can be placed at pleasure, transparent sections of the Celestial Sphere, which are not shown in the above drawing. One or more quarter sections can be used at a time, by which the stars can be seen within the sphere, or as they appear to the earth in a concave heaven, or sphere. On this transparent celestial globe, the places of the planets and moon can be represented by wafers, and as the sphere revolves, their apparent daily motions and their exact places for every hour, can be shown. The solid globe within the sphere, represents the Earth. The globe will move on its axis to represent the real daily motion of the earth. To this globe is attached a small Meridian, on which is placed a broad surface extending from the earth within, to the sphere without, by which the horizon is represented to a little traveller attached to the upper surface of the meridian. The trav- eller can move to any part of the surface of the earth, and the horizon moves with him, thus dividing the heavens into the visible and invisible parts to such traveller, and thereby representing the earth and heavens as they really appear. A quadrant accompanies the globe, but it is attached to the heavens, and not to the earth. It has a swivel motion, and thus will serve to measure the alti- tude of the sun, &c, at all times. The best fitted up Globes have a compass above the stand, and also a horizon- tal motion, in the joint of the stand, which is very convenient in large instru- ments, as it enables the teacher to turn the instrument, without passing round it himself. The instrument is accompanied by wires, by which it can be converted into a Planetarium. By elevating the North end of the axis 23i degrees, and by bring- ing the traveller under the arctic circle, and by turning the Sphere till the eclip- tic coincides with the horizon, the instrument will be converted into a planeta- rium, for the Globe within may represent the sun, the ecliptic the real passage of the Earth, and the horizon the plane of the ecliptic, and the different wires will represent the orbits of both the inferior and superior planets. With equal simplicity the instrument can be used as a Tellurian, or be converted into a Sun Dial, and by it the principles of Dialing can be explained. This instrument is accompanied by a pamphlet containing all the instructions for its use; and by a larger book, explanatory of the elements of Astronomy, and embracing all the problems of "Keith on the Globes," worked out on this Globe and Sphere. The above instrument is manufactured by G. Vale & Son, No. 3, Franklin Square, (Pearl street,) New York. Prices, common size, for schools and families, from $25 to $30, packed. For High Schools and Institutes, from $75 to $95 ; packing extra. CORNELL'S IMPROVED TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. The peculiarities of Cornell's Terrestrial Globe consist in repre- senting the plane of the ecliptic in its true relative position, in whatever position the globe may be placed; and in having a day-circle turning on an axis, by which the line between day and night may be shown for any day in the calendar to which the in- dex may be turned. The leading principles of Geogra- phy and Astronomy may be illustra- ted on this globe, and the most im- portant problems satisfactorily solved. This Globe is manufactured in Ro- chester, by S. Cornell, and is sold in all of the large cities, for $3 at retail. §28 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. J. H. COLTON'S MAPS, CHAKTS, &c, 86 Cedar street New Yor&. Colton's Illustrated and Embellished Steel Plate Map of the World, on Mercator's Projection, exhibiting the recent Arctic and Antarctic Dis- eoveries and Explorations, &c, &e. — 6 sheets, 80 by 60, $10,00. The Book of the World, containing Geographical, Historical, and Sta- tistical Descriptions of all the Countries in the World, illustrated with valua- ble Maps and Charts — in 2 volumes,. 1400 pages octavo, $5,00. Colton's Map of the World on Mercator's Projection reduced from the larger, beautifully engraved on copper — 1 sheet, 32 by 50 inches, $1,25. Map of the. Countries mentioned' in. the New Testament, and the Tray- els of the Apostles, with Ancient and Modern Names, from the most authen- tic sources. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,25. Map of Palestine, from the latest authorities, chiefly from the Maps and drawings of Robinson and Smith, with corrections and additions furnished by the Rev. Dr. E. Robinson, with plans of Jerusalem, and the journeyings of the Israelites. — 4 sheets, 80 by 62, $6,00. Map of Palestine, from the latest authorities, chiefly from the Maps and drawings of Robinson and Smith, with corrections and additions furnished by the Rev. Dr. E. Robinson, with a plan of Jerusalem, and of the vicinity of Jertb~ salem.—2 sheets, 43 by 32, $2,50. Portable,. $1 ,50. Map of Egypt, the Peninsula of Mt.. Sinai, Arabia, Petrea, with the south- ern part of Palestine, compiled from the latest authorities ; showing the jour- neyings of the Children of Israel from Egypt to the Holy Land. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,50. Map of Europe, by J. Pinkerton, London,revised and corrected from the latesi authorities. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,50. Map of France, Belgium, and the adjacent countries, by J. Pinkerton, Lon- don, revised and corrected from the latest authorities. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,50, Map of Asia, by J. Pinkerton, London, revised and corrected from the latest authorities. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,50. Map of Africa, by J, Pinkerton, London, revised and corrected from the latest authorities. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,50. Map of North America, from the latest authorities. — 1 sheet, 29 by 26, $1,25. Portable, 75ets. Map of South America, by J. Pinkerton, London, revised and corrected from the latest authorities. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,50. Map of the West Indies and Adjacent Coasts, by J. Pinkerton, London, revised and corrected from the latest authorities. — 1 sheet, 32 by 25, $1,50. Map of the West Indies, with part of Guatemala. By David H. Burr — 1 sheet, 26 by 22, $1,00. A Map of the United States, the British Provinces, Mexico and the West Indies, showing the country from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oeean. Ex- traordinary pains has been taken to make this Map perfectly reliable and au- thentic in all respects. It is engraved on steel in the best style of the art, and is a very perfect Map of the inhabited portions of North America. In schools and seminaries especially, it deserves to take precedence of all Maps hereto- fore published in this country. — 4 sheets, 6>2 by 55, $5,00. Map of the United States the British Provinces, with parts of Mexico and the West Iudies — 1 sheets, 48 by 38, $2,00. Map of the United States of America, the British Provinces, Mexico, the West Indies and Central America, with parts of New Granada and Venezuela. This Map has been most carefully compiled, and contains much new and interesting information, it is highly embellished and beautifully ea» graved on steel. — 2 sheets, 45 by 36, $2,50. COLTON'S MAPS, CHARTS, &c. 329 Map of the State op New-York, with parts of the adjacent country, embra- cing plans of the Cities and some of the larger villages. By David H. Burr — 6 sheets, 60 by 50, 84,00. Map op the City and County of New-York, Brooklyn, Williamsburgh, Jersey City, and the Adjacent Waters. — 3 plates, 56 by 32, $3,00. Map of the State of Indiana, compiled from the United States Surveys, by S. D. King; exhibiting the sections and fractional sections, situation and boun- daries of' Counties, the location of Cities, Villages and Post Offices — Canals, Raiiroads and other internal improvements, &c. &c. — 6 sheets, 66 by 48, $10,00. Map of the State of Kentucky. By Dr. Luke Munsell. — 4 sheets, 53 by 41, $5,00. Sectional Map of the State of Illinois, compiled from the United States Surveys. Also, exhibiting the internal improvements; distances between Towns, Villages and Post Offices; the outlines of praries, woodlands, marshes, and the lands donated to the State by the General Government, for the purpose oi internal improvements. By J. M. Peck, John Messinger and A. J. Mathew- son— 2 sheets, 43 by 32, $2,50. Portable, $1,50. Map of the Surveyed Part of the State of Michigan. By John Fanner, 1 sheet, 35 by 25, $2,00. Portable, $1,50. The Family and School Monitor, an Educational Chart, by James Henry, Jr. In this Chart the fundamental maxims in Education, Physical, Moral and Intellectual, are presented in such a manner, as to fix the attention and impress the memory. It cannot fail to be eminently useiul ; indeed, we believe the pub- lic will regard it as indispensable to every family and school in our country. — 2 sheets, 42 by 32, $1,50. Stream of Time, or Chart of Universal History, from the original Ger- man of Strauss, revised by D. Haskell. — 2 sheets, 48 by 32, $2,50. A Chronological View of the World, exhibiting the leading events of Uni- versal History; the origin and progress of the arts and sciences, the obituary of distinguished men, and the periods in which they nourished, together with an account of the appearance of comets, and a complete view of the fall of meteoric stones in all ages, collected chiefly from the article " Chronology" in the New Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David Brewster, LL. D., F. R. S., with an enlarged view of important events, particularly in regard to American History, and a continuation to the present time, collected from authentic sources, by Daniel Haskell, A. M., Editor of McCullochs' Universal Gazetteer, and au- thor of the articles relating to the United States in the American edition, pp. 267. Book, 75cts. Missionary Map of the World, presenting to the eye, at one view, the moral and religious condition of the world, and the effects that are now making for its evangelization. It is so colored that all the principal religions of the World, with the countries in which they prevail, and their relation, position and extent, are distinguished at once, together with the principal stations of the various Missionary Societies in our own and other countries. It is on cloth, each hem- isphere six feet in diameter, and both printed on one piece of clolh'at one impres- sion, making a map with borders 160 by 80 inches, and so finished that it may be easily folded and conveyed from place to place, and suspended in any large room.— 160 by 80, $10,00. Portraits of the Presidents, and Declaration of Independence. — 1 sheet, 42 by 31, $1,50. Chart of Rivers and Mountains, showing the comparative heights of Mountains, lengths of Rivers, &c. — 1 sheet, 32 by 50 inches, $1,25. Chart of National Flags, beautifully colored, 27 by 25 inches, $1,25. 330 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. MITCHELL'S NATIONAL MAPS, && North East Corner of Market and Seventh sts., Philadelphia. The subscriber has issued greatly Improved Editions of his large Map op the World, and Reference and Distance Map of the United States. These works, with his recent publication, the National Map of the American Re- public, or United States of North America, are, in point of accuracy and execution, fully equal, in every respect, to any Maps hitherto published in this country; while the price has been very materially reduced. The Map of the World, on Mercator's Projection, is the largest and most comprehensive ■work of the kind ever published in America. It is on six large sheets, and is engraved, printed, colored, and mounted in the most elegant manner. The size of the Map is six feet six inches from East to West, and four feet six inches from North to South. In its geographical details, this Map represents the surface of the earth as it really exists, according to the best au- thorities; the routes and tracks of the most celebrated travellers and naviga- tors, from the first voyage of Columbus, to that of Lieutenant Wilkes, are dis- tinctly exhibited, and all the recent Geographical and Nautical Discoveries in Africa, America, and Australia, and in the Pacific, Arctic, and Antarctic Oceans, are accurately represented — among the latter is the line of coast discov- ered by the United States Exploring Expedition, in the year 1840. Accompa- nying the Map of the World is a book of 600 pages, containing a Consulting Index, by the use of which any item represented on the Map may be readily ascertained ; also, geographical description of the various Empires, Kingdoms, Republics, &c, &c, on the Globe. Price eight dollars. The Reference and Distance Map of the United States is engraved on nine sheets, exhibiting an accurate representation of the American Republic, on a scale of 25 miles to an inch, comprising the various States, Counties, Townships, &c, in the Union ; the principal travelling routes, with the dis- tances in miles, from place to place ; and also the most important Canals, Rail- roads, &c. The size of this Map is six feet two inches from East to West, and four feet ten inches from North to South. The accompanying volume of 400 pages, octavo, includes indexes of the Counties, Towns, Rivers, &c, in the United States, by the use of which, in connection with the Map, any place rep- resented on the latter may be easily found. There is likewise appended to the Accompaniment a general description of the United States, and the several States and Territories; a Synopsis of the Census of 1840, alphabetically ar- ranged, besides various items of useful and interesting Statistical information. Price seven dollars. The National Map of the American Republic, or United States op North America, is engraved on four sheets, and is unequaled for the beauty and distinctness of its lettering and engraving, and the richness of its col- oring. This Map measures four feet two inches from East to West, by three feet six inches from North to South. Surrounding the general Map are smaller Maps of thirty-two of the principal Cities and Towns, with their vicinities ; also, other useful matter. Price two dollars. Mitchell's Universal Atlas, containing Maps of the various Empires, Kingdoms, States and Republics of the World, with a special Map of each of the United States, Plans of Cities, &c, comprehended in seventy-three sheets, and forming a series of one hundred and seventeen Maps, Plans, and Sections. In order to bring this valuable and comprehensive Atlas more generally within the reach of the public, the price has been reduced from fourteen to ten dollars. The plates (costing more than twelve thousand dollars) have been much improved, and the edition now offered, is believed to be, according to its extent, correctness, and state of execution, the cheapest work of the kind ever pub- lished in the United States. S. AUGUSTUS MITCHELL. CHAMBERLAIN'S PRICE CATALOGUE. The following 1 catalogue of apparatus has been introduced, not so much to show where such instruments can be obtained, as to answer the frequent inquiry, What assortment of philosophical apparatus would be well adapted to our school or academy, and what would it cost ? In the lists have been marked such articles as constitute a well-arranged set of apparatus ; affording as many, if not more important illustrations in these branches of science than can be obtained by any other combination of instruments or sets of apparatus comprising the same number of articles. The economy of the selection and arrangement will be understood and appreciated by those familiar with the use of philosophical instruments, when we say that no less than twenty of the pneumatic instruments, in set marked 3 , for two hundred and fifty dollars, may be used in connection with the electric, adding some thirty-five good experiments in the latter branch of science ; while some fifteen of the pneumatic and several of the electric instruments may be transferred to, and used in connection with, the chemical apparatus, increasing considerably the number and importance of the experiments. It will be seen that the sets are composed chiefly of such instruments aa are absolutely essential to give a ready and clear illustration of the prin- ciples designed to be taught; that is, a machine is not employed when the idea can as well be given on the blackboard. On this point we find a great difference of opinion ; while one requires an apparatus, or fixture for each experiment, and thinks that a very incomplete assortment which does not include at least one instrument for each illustration, another perfects many experiments with a single instrument, or at least, secures three, four or more complete illustrations by the use of two simple instruments. 332 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. In the selection of instruments composing the several sets, it has been sought to multiply experiments by bringing together such branches of science as admit of the instruments in each being properly constructed, and yet well adapted for illustrations in other departments of science ; for instance, with a well arranged set of pneumatic apparatus we have many instruments with which to effect not a few fine experiments in chemistry, electricity, &c. This may account for the seeming undue prominence given to these branches of science in making up of sets. We have little reluctance in offering to the notice, even of the common schools of our country, apparatus composed of such a variety of instru- ments, since the opinion now prevails, that the instructor should not only have the instruments, but possess the practical skill requisite to their proper use in illustrating and applying the principles of natural science. The numbers and figures following refer to " Chamberlain's Illustrated Price Catalogue of Philosophical Instruments," " Electric Illustrations and Experiments," " Illustrated Catalogue of Chemical Apparatus," " Pneumatic Experiments and Illustrations," &c, in which a description of the instru- ment is given, with some two hundred and fifty experiments in pneumatics and hydrostatics, and some in electrics. "Francis's Chemical Experiments" (more than two thousand Experi- ments) will be found a valuable accompaniment of the chemical apparatus ; while " Davis's Manual of Magnetism " treats of galvanism and its kindred topics, giving a list of experiments and , illustrations which commend it to all who would avail themselves of the aid afforded by the experience of a scientific mechanic. We may here state that the apparatus marked 3 , has been furnished by Mr. Chamberlain to the following grammar schools in the city of Boston, at a cost of about two hundred and fifty dollars each set. Franklin School, Brimmer " Otis " Phillips " Mather " Mayhew School, Smith " Dwight " Winthrop " The instruments marked 4 are such as have been approved and used in high schools and academies — cost about four hundred dollars — and have been furnished to the Normal Schools of Massachusetts, and others. The instruments marked 6 compose a set for the larger schools and academies, and have been furnished, among others, to the Putnam Free School, W. H. Wells, Principal, Newburyport, Mass.; Central High School, E. Smith, Principal, Cambridge, Mass. ; High School, Worcester, Mass. ; Monson Academy, Rev. C. Hammond ; High School, New Bedford, Mass. ; Boys' High School, Salem, Mass. ; and to schools and academies in Provi- dence, R. I., Philadelphia, Pa., Wilmington, Del., Hartford, Conn., Auburn, Ala., Burlington, N. J. ; Williston Seminary, Easthampton, Mass. APPARATUS. MECHANICS, &c. 10 Fig. 1. Glass Plates illustra- ting cohesive attraction, 3 and 4. inch diameter, . ."i 2 1, 2 00 Set of Tubes and stand, illus- trating capillary attraction, i 2 1 50, 2 00 Pair of Lead Hemispheres and Handles, for cohesive at- traction, i 2 1 00, 1 50 Fig. 2. Frame and six Ivory Balls, for collision, action and reaction, elasticity, &c. 7 6 00 Frame and six Box-wood Balls, 12 3, H 00 Figs. 3 & 4. A set of eight il- lustrations for centre of gravity, * 23677 00 Fig. 5. Table with Spring Pis- tols and Ball, illustrating compound forces, &c. 6 00 & 8 00 Fig. 6. Whirling Machine, with eight illustrations of central and centrifugal for- ces, 78 00 Fig. 7. Atwood's machine for the laws of falling bodies, 50 00 & 100 00 Fig. 8. A set of Mechanical Powers arranged in a ma- hogany frame three and a half feet long and three feet high ; each lever is eighteen inches long; four sets of pulleys strung with silk cord and well balanced; brass weights from 1 to 16 ounces ; screw and lever with nut; screw as an inclined plane ; ship capstan; wheel and axle; wedge in two parts; inclined plane with car- riage ; movable fulcrum and lever, for combining the power of screw and lever, 2 3 6 7 35 00 No. Priw. 11. Mechanical Powers, larger size, with five sets largei size pulleys ; brass weights from 1 to 48 oz., two of each ; wheel and axle, has seven graduations, and runs on friction rollers, $50 00 12. Mechanical Powers, arranged in roseioood frame, brass le- vers ; brass wheel with steel axle, has gear and endless screw and crank attached to the wheel and axle ; is in all respects a highly finished apparatus, 100 00 13. Hunter's Screw, in frame, 6 00 Note. — The straps to all the pulleys are unlike those generally used with philosophical instruments. They are of cast brass, tastefully swelled and finished, and enclose the pulleys, which turn on small steel pins, and are sepa- rated one from the other by partitions, which not only sustain the centre pin, but prevent the difficulty which occurs from the cords running off. OPTICS. 14. Fig. 9. A set of Lenses two inches in diameter, edges finished, in box, 12678 00 15. A set of Lenses two and a half inch, 10 00 16. A set of Lenses mounted, each lens in a Ring or Holder, which may be ex- tended, raised, or lowered, as the experiment or illustra- tion may require, 12 & 15 00 Section of six lenses, 4 00 17. Prisms, four, six, and eight inch, 12672, & 3 00 Mounted Prisms, 2 & 5 00 18. Fig. 10. Compound Micro- scope, with one, two, and 334 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. Price. three ivory slides, four ob- jects on each ; three powers, and the common fixtures and conveniences for using ; is brass mounted and neatly cased, 2 #10 00 19. Compound Microscope, with four powers, which may be used separately or com- bined ; three slides with twelve objects, as No. 18; slides adjusted to the focus by rack and pinion ; the usu- al fixtures and a list of the objects are cased with the instruments, 6 12 00 20. Compound Microscope, large size, and mounted on brass tripod stand, has common fixtures, 7 15 00 21. Compound Microscope, large size, with six powers ; six slides with transparent and opaque objects ; a large con- densing lens and other fix- tures in keeping with a first- rate instrument, 25 00 22. A large tripod-mounted Com- pound Microscope, with hor- izontal joint ; six powers, twenty-four objects, and eighteen pieces for general use with the instrument, ... 42 00 There is accompanying, an accurate copperplate, illustrative of each micro- scope, with all its parts, and a minute description of their uses. 23. Models of the Human Eye, in three parts, 12 00 Fig. 11. The Eye in all its parts, (is four inches in di- ameter,) and dissectible, showing the Cornea, Iris, Ciliary Process, Choroid Tu- nic, Crystalline Lens, Vitre- ous Humor, Retina, Black Pigment, Optic nerve, &c. Fig. 12. The Eye in its sock- et with the muscles. Fig. 13. The Eye with rays of light passing from an ob- ject and forming the image on the retina. The object and image are movable, showing the cause of " long sight," " short sight," and "perfect sight." Fig. 14. Section view of Fig. 11. ASTRONOMY, &c. 24. Fig. 15. Astronomical Tele- scope on brass stand, 2 1-4 inch achromatic object glass, two eye-pieces or powers and sun-glasses, forty-six inches long, with four draws out, in No. Prise a polished velvet lined ma- hogany case, $ 50 00 25. Telescope, large size ; 47 inch brass tube ; 3 inch achro- matic object glass ; one eye- piece for Terrestrial and two for Celestial objects; rack and pinion adjustment for eye-piece ; cased as No. 24; a superior and cheap instru- ment, at 150 00 26. Fig. 16. Reflecting Tele- scope, five and a half feet long, mounted five and a half feet high on tripod stand, with vertical and horizontal motion by micrometer-gear and pinion, as represented in the cut, seven inch reflec- tor ; three small reflectors ; three eye-pieces and Finder,300 00 27. Fig. 18. School Orrery, motion given by a crank, J 7 00 School Orrery, larger size, better finish, motion given to the moon around the earth,. 2 10 00 28. Fig. 19. Spring Orrery, gold gilt planets ; brass arms ; 5 inch sun ; stands two feet high ; spreads 3£ feet from Her- schel to Saturn ; motion to the moon round the earth, 6 " 25 00 If motion is given to Jupiter's moons, 35 00 29. Fig. 20. Spring Orrery; brass mounted ; extra finish ; mo- tion as above, 45 00 30. Fig. 21. Seasons Machine, with five inch sun and three inch earth ; motions all cor- rect ; giving the earth on its axis, round the sun, inclina- tion to the north, aphelion and perihelion position ; moon round the earth ; moon's nodes ; sun on his axis, &c, &c.,... i 2 ^ &12«0 31. Fig. 22. Chamberlain's im- proved high mounted Globes, 13 inch diameter ; stands 48 inches high, on iron legs, neatly bronzed, with cas- tors; the pedestal or pillar is of mahogany, and receives the hub and shaft on which the Globe is mounted. This arrangement admits of a horizontal rotary motion to the whole globe, meridian and horizon. Price per pair, 7 40 00 32. Thirteen inch Globes, low mounted ; pair, e 30 00 33. Ten inch Globes, high mount- ed, pair, 6 30 00 34. Ten inch Globes, low mount- ed, pair, 18 00 35. Six inch Globes, low mounted, pair, 2 10 00 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATAGOGUE OF APPARATUS. 335 No. Price. 36. Five inch terrestrial, i #2 00 37. Fig. 17. Magic Lantern, with improved Solar Lamp and Reflector — condensing Len- ses four inch diameter, will spread a two and half inch painting clear and distinct on a screen twelve feet di- ameter, 6 7 25 00 List of Slides adapted to the above lantern, and illustrative of subjects, as follows : — NATURAL HISTORY. In 56 Sliders. Class I. — MAMMALIA.— 24 Sliders. Slider I. Human Skull — Orang-Outang — Long- armed Ape — Variegated Baboon. Slider II. Dog-faced Baboon — Proboscis Monkey — Fair Monkey — Coaita, or Four- fingered Monkey. Slider III. Slow Lemur — Ring-tailed Macauco — Flying Lemur — Spectre Bat. Slider IV. Peruvian Bat — Three-toed Sloth — Great Ant-eater — Porcupine Ant- eater. Slider V. Little Ant-eater — Duck-billed Platypus — Long-tailed Manis — Three-banded Armadillo. Slider VI. Six-banded Armadillo — Rhinoceros — Elephant — Female Elephant and Young. Slider VII. Sukotyro — Walrus — Common Seal — Crested Seal. Slider VIII. Newfoundland Dog — "Wolf — Striped Hyaena — Fennec. Slider IX. Lion — Lioness and Cubs — Tiger — Leopard. Slider X. Ounce — Serval — Ocelot Cat — Lynx. Slider XI. Ichneumon and Civet Cat — Polecat and Ferret — Striated Weasel and Chin- chilli. Slider XII. Otter — Polar Bear — Common Bear — Opossum. Slider XIII. Kangaroo — Mole and Radiated Shrew — Mulluca and Common Hedge-hogs. Slider XIV. Porcupine — Brazilian Porcupine — Va negated and Spotted Cavies -<- Beaver. Slider XV. White Mouse and Canada Rat — Varie- gated and Maryland Marmot — Com- mon and Flying Squirrels. Slider XVI. Gilt-tailed and Garden Dormice — Jer boas — Hare and Syrian Hyrax. Slider XVII. Dromedary — Camel — Lama — Thibet Musk. Slider XVIII. Elk — Rein Deer — Fallow Deer — Doe. Slider XIX. Spotted Axis — Camelopard — Common. Antelope — Female Antelope. Slider XX. Nilghau — Ibex — Angora Goat — Argali Slider XXI. Cretan Sheep — African Sheep — Bison — Zebu. Slider XXII. Musk Ox — Yak — Buffalo — Indian Ox. Slider XXIII. Zebra — Hippopotamus — Tapir — Baby- roussa. Slider XXIV. Narwhal — Common Whale — Porpoise — Skeleton of Porpoise. 45 00 Class II. — BIRDS. — 7 Sliders. Slider I. Condor — Fulvous Vulture — Golden Ea- gle — Barn Owl. Slider II. Cockatoo — Scaly-breasted Parakeet — ■ Green Toucan — Rhinoceros Bird. Slider III. Vaillantian Bird of Paradise — Red- throated Humming Bird — Summer Duck — Common Pelican. Slider IV. Patagonian Penguin — Red Flamingo — Rose-colored Spoonbill — Agami Her- on. Slider V. White Stork — Common Crane — Nu- midian Crane — Chestnut Jaccana. Slider VI. Common Ostrich — Southern Apteryx — Galeated Cassowary — Hooded Dodo. Slider VII. Peacock — Argus Pheasant — Crowned Pigeon — Tailor Birds and Nest. 14 00 336 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Class III. —AMPHIBIA.— 4 Sliders. Slider I. Snake Tortoise — Green Turtle — Horned Frog — Pipa. Slider II. Flying Dragon — Crocodile — Dracaena Lizard — Basilisk. Slider III. American Guana — Chameleon — Siren — Banded Rattlesnake. Slider IV. Great Boa — Spectacle Snake — Crimson- sided Snake — Painted Snake. 8 00 Class IV. — FISHES. — 5 Sliders. Slider I. Muraena — Electrical Gymnotus — Chor- dated Stylephorus — Gemmeous Drag- onet. Slider II. John Doree — Turbot — Angle Fish — Rostrated Chaetodon. Slider III. Pleat-nosed Chaetodon — Long-finned Chaetodon — Flying Gurnard — Tele- scope Carp. Slider IV. Horned Trunk-fish — Pyramidal Trunk- fish — Short Sun-fish — Sea-horse — Pipe-fish. Slider V. Foliated Pipe-fish — Harlequin Angler — Hammer-headed Shark — Giorna Ray. 10 00 Class V.— INSECTS. — 8 Sliders. J\T. B. Those, marked with a * are magnified ; the others are most of them under the natural size. Slider I. Stag Beetle and *Curculio Bacchus — Kangaroo Beetle and *Pausus Micro- cephalus — *Asparagus Beetle and Cantharis Faciata. Slider II. *Curculio Scropularia and *Lampyris Festiva — "Water Beetle and Larvae — Buprestis Ocellata and *Attelabus Me- lanurus. Slider III. Great Locust — Chinese Lantern-fly and Walking Leaf— Mole Cricket and *Ci- mex Prasinus (two views.) Slider IV. Telemachus Butterfly, with Caterpillar and Chrysalis — Sphinx Ocellata, with Caterpillar and Chrysalis — Atlas Moth. Slider V. Dragon-fly and Larva — Nest of the Humble Bee — * Working and *Female Ants. Slider VI. *Golden Fly and Ichneumon Ramidulus — *Sheep Gad-fly and *Diopsis Ich- neumonea — *Human Louse and *Lice from different Birds. Slider VII. Termites, or "White Ants, male and fe- male — a magnified view of a Termite in the Pupa state (called a soldier ;) in the upper part of the slider is a picture representing a distant view of the Hab- itations of the "White Ants, in the fore- ground of which are several Laborers and a Soldier, of the natural size — a *Flea, with the Egg, Larva, and Pupa. Slider VIII. *A Cheese Mite and Garden Spider— Cancer Mantis — Scolopendra Morsi- tans. 16 00 Class VI. — WORMS. — 8 Sliders. Slider I. Serrated Tape-worm, natural size, with a separate view of the Head, highly mag- nified — Nais Serpentina, magnified — Sea Anemone — Brown Holothuria. Slider II. Phosphoric Pyrosoma — Eight-armed Cuttle-fish — Balloon Cuttle-fish — Me- dusa Pulmo. Slider III. Medusa's Head Star-fish — Duck Barna- cle — Great Sea Pinna — Iceland Scal- lop. Slider IV. Paper Nautilus, with the animal seated in the shell — Pearly Nautilus, with the inhabitant — Tortoise-shell Lim- pet, and Veined Volute. Slider V. Snow-flaked Volute and Waved Turbo — Corded Murex — Anguina Serpula and Serpula Vermicularis, with the animal. Slider VI. Green Polypes, natural size and magni- fied — Sea-bristle Coralline, magnified to show its polype heads — Tubularia Reptans, magnified — Phosphoric Sea- Pen. Slider VII. Red Coral, with a small branch slightly magnified to show its polype heads — Thick-armed Gorgonia — Cinnamon Madrepore — Madrepora, Patella, and Meandrites. Slider VIII. Vorticella Racemosa and a group of Wheel Animals — a group of Bell Ani mals and a group of the Vorticella Ur ceolaris and the Sun Animal — groups of the Cercaria Mutabilis, Globe Ani- mals, and Paste Eels. N. B. The animals in this Slider are Microscopic Animalcules. 16 00 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 337 BOTANICAL ILLUSTRATIONS. In 14 Sliders, with Compendium. Slider I. 1. Cellular Tissue. 2. Cellular Ducts. 3. Woody Fibre. 4. Spiral Vessels. Slider II. 5. Spiral Vessels in Leaf. 6. Vascular Ducts. 7. Forms of Roots. 8. Forms of Stem. Slider III. 9. Section of Exogenous Stem. 10. Section of Sassafras Wood. 11. Sections of Endogenous Stem. Slider IV. 12. Fern Stem. 13. Forms of Leaves. 14. Leaf of Gleditsia. 15. Pitchers of Nepenthes, &e. Slider V. 16. Pitcher of Dischidia. 17. Cuticle and Stomata. 18. Section of Apple Leaf. 19. Section of Oleander Leaf. Slider VI. 20. Forms of Stamens. 21. Structure of Pistil. 22. Monstrous Carpels. 23. Structure of Seed-vesseL Slider VII. 24. Proeess of Fertilization. 25. Germination of Seed. 26. Algje : (Sea-weeds.) 27. Lichen : Iceland Moss. Slider VIII. 28. Fungus : Amanita. 29. Rafflesia Arnoldi. 30. Chara Flexilis. 31. Moss : Bryum caespiticum. Slider IX. 32. Tree-fern. 33. Endogens : Saccharum officinale, (Sugar-cane. 1 ) 34. Phoenix daetylifera, (Date Palm.) 35. Colehieum autumnale, (Meadow Saf- fron.) Slider X. 36. Zingiber officinale, (Ginger Plant.) 37. Exogens : Zamia horrida. 38. Atropa belladonna, (Deadly Night Shade.) Slider XL 39. Linaria communis, (Snap-Dragon.) 40. Convolvulus major. 41. Erieese, (Heaths.) Slider XII. 42. Anthemis pyrethrum, (Pellitory.) 43. Tamarindus Indica, (Tamarind.) 44. Camelia Japonica. 22 Slider XIII. 45. Passifiora magniflora, (Grenadilla.) 46. Cardamine pratensis, (Lady's Smock.) 47. Ficus earica, (Fig.) Slider XIV. 48. Cactus speciosissima. 49. Ligusticum Scoticum. 50. Myristiea moschata, (Nutmeg. )30 06 SELECT SCRIPTURE SUBJECTS. In 12 Sliders. Slider I. Adam and Eve driven out of Paradise. Gen. iii. 24. Hagar and Ishmael . . . Gen. xxi. 14. Isaac blessing Jacob . . Gen. xxvii. 27. Slider IL Joseph sold into Egypt. Gen. xxxvii. 28. Joseph meeting his Father. Gen. 1. 1. The finding of Moses. .Exod. ii. 5. Slider III. The Ark of the Covenant. Exod. xxv. 10. The Dress of the High Priest. Exod. xxviii. 4. The Altar of Incense.. Exod. xxx. 1. Slider IV. The Altar of Burnt-Offering. Exod. xxvii. 1. An Aaronite or Scribe. Exod. xxviii. 40, The Golden Candlestick. Exod. xxv. 31. Slider V. Return of the Spies . ..Num. xiii. 23. The Brazen Serpent. . .Num. xxi. 9. Balaam and his Ass. . .Num. xxii. 22. Slider VI. Samson and the Lion..«7w^. xiv. 6. Presentation of Samuel. 1st Sam. i. 28. Samuel in the Temple. 1st Sam. iii. 10. Elijah fed by Ravens. .1st Kings, xvii. 6. Slider VII. David and Goliath.. . .1st Sam. xvii. 5L David dancing before the Ark. 2d Sam. vi. 14. Nathan reproving David. 2d Sam. xii. 7. Slider VIII. The Annunciation Luke i. 28. The Birth of Christ. ..Luke ii. 16. Christ brought to the Temple. Luke ii. 22. Slider IX. The Flight into Egypt. Matt. ii. 13. The Holy Family Mark i. Christ and the Woman of Samaria. John vt. 7. 338 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Slider X. Christ stilling the Tempest. Matt. viii. 24. The Good Samaritan. .Luke x. 30. The Lord of the Vineyard and Laborer. Matt. xx. 12. Slider XL The Return of the Prodigal Son. Luke xv. 20. Trial of Peter's Faith. .Matt. xiv. 29. Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist Mark vi. 28. Slider XII. The Crucifixion John xix. 30. The "Women at the Sepulchre. Mark xvi. 5. The Resurrection Matt, xxviii. 9. The Disciples at Emmaus. Luke xxiv. 31. 25 00 PORTRAITS OF KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. From "William the Conqueror to Victoria. In 9 Sliders. Slider I. "William the Conqueror. — "William II. — Henry I. — Stephen. Slider II. Henry II. — Richard I. — John. — Hen- ry III. Slider III. Edward I. —Edward II. —Edward III. — Richard II. Slider IV. Henry IV., of Bolingbroke. — Henry V., of Monmouth. — Henry VI., of Wind- sor. — Edward IV. Slider V. Edward V. — Richard III. — Henry VII. — Henry VIII. Slider VI. Edward VI. — Mary I. — Elizabeth.— James I. Slider VII. Charles I. — Charles II. — James II. Slider VIII. "William III. and Mary II. — Anne, of the Stuart family. — George I., of Hanover. — George II. Slider IX. George III. — George IV. — "William IV. — Victoria. 15 00 VLEVVS OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS, &c. In 4 Sliders. Slider I. Tiew of Saint Paul's Cathedral, London. — The Pavilion, at Brighton. 8outh- wark Bridge, London. Slider II. View of Westminster Abbey. — View of the Cataract of Niagara. — Waterloo Bridge, London. Slider III. Saint Peter's Church, at Rome — Fin- gal's Cave — The Pantheon, at Paris. Slider IV. View of Mount St. Michael, Cornwall. — The Military Hospital, Paris. — View of the Island of Staffa. 8 00 ASTRONOMICAL DIAGRAMS. In Eleven Sliders, packed in a Box, with a Description. No. Slider I. 1. System of Ptolemy. 2. Copernicus. 3. Tycho Brahe. 4. Newton. Slider II. 5. Telescopic View of the Moon. 6. Ditto of Jupiter. 7- ■ Saturn. Slider III. 8. Comparative Sizes of the Planets. 9. Comparative Distances of the Planets. 10. Orbit of a Comet. 11. The Comet of 1811. Slider IV. 12. Signs of the Zodiac. 13. Inclination of the Planets' Orbits. 14. Direct and Retrograde Motion. Slider V. {Lever, movable.] 15. Rotundity of the Earth. Slider VI. 16. The Seasons. 17. Phases of the Moon. 18. The Earth's Shadow. Slider VII. 19. Cause of the Sun's Eclipse. 20. Ditto Moon's ditto. 21. Inclination of the Moon's Orbit. Slider VIII. {movable.) 22. Eclipse of the Sun, with a Transit of Venus. Slider IX. {movable.') 23. Eclipse of the Moon. Slider X. 24. Spring Tide at New Moon. 25. Ditto Full Moon. 26. Neap Tide. Slider XI. 27. The Constellation Orion. 28. Ursa Major. 29. Various Nebulae. 30. A Portion of the Milky "Way. 6 ? 20 00 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OP APPARATUS. 339 CONSTELLATIONS. In 6 Sliders. Their situation with regard to the North Pole is denoted by an Arrow. Aries ■ Slider I. ■ Taurus — Gemini ■ ■ Cancer. Slider II. Leo — Virgo — Libra — Scorpio. Slider III. Sagittarius — Capricornus — Aquarius — Pisces. Slider IV. Draco and Ursa Minor — Cepheus and Cassiopea — Andromeda and Triangu- la — Auriga. Slider V. Perseus and Caput Medusa? — Bootes and Canes Venetici — Hercules and Cer- berus — Cygnus and Lyra. Slider VI. Antinous and Aquila — Ophiucus and Serpens — Canis Major and Minor — Cetus, $9 00 ASTRONOMICAL DIAGRAMS. In a Set of 30 Three-Inch Sliders, Double Glass, each Diagram framed sepa/rate. ■Bo. 1. System of Ptolemy. 2. Copernicus. ;3. Tycho Brahe. 4. Newton. 5. Telescopic View of trie Moon. 5. Ditto at three different periods of its increase. 5. Ditto of Venus, with Phases, (three Views.) 5. Ditto of Mars. S. Ditto of Jupiter. 7. Ditto of Saturn. 8. Comparative Sizes of the Planets. 8. Ditto, the colored Circle representing the Sun. 9. Comparative Distances of the Planets. 10. Orbit of a Comet. 11. Comet of 1811. 12. Signs of the Zodiac. 13. Inclination of the Planets' Orbits. 14. Direct and Retrograde Motion. 16. The Seasons. 17. Phases of the Moon. 18. The Earth's Shadow. 19. Cause of the Sun's Eclipse. 20. Ditto Moon's ditto. 21. Inclination of the Moon's Orbit. 27- The Constellation Orion. 28. Ursa Major. 29. Various Nebula?. 30. A Portion of the Milky Way. 30. A Diagram to show Meridians, Par- allels, and Circles. SO. A Diagram, showing the various Zones,, J3G 00 REVOLVING ASTRONOMICAL DIAGRAMS. THE MOTION PRODUCED BY RACK-WORK. In a Set of Nine Sliders, packed in a Box, with a Lock. Slider I. The Solar System, showing the Revolu- tion of all the Planets, with their Sat- ellites, round the Sun. Slider IL The Earth's Annual Motion round the Sun, showing the Parallelism of its Axis, thus producing the Seasons. Slider IIL This Diagram illustrates the cause of Spring and Neap Tides,, and shows the Moon's Phases,, during its Revolution. Slider IV This Diagram illustrates the Apparent Direct and Retrograde Motion of Ve- nus or Mercury, and also its Stationary Appearanee. Slider V A Diagram to prove the Earth's Rotun dity, by a Ship sailing round the Globes and a line drawn from the eye of an observer placed on an eminence. Slider VI. This Diagram illustrates the Eccentric Revolution of a Comet round the Sun, and shows the appearance of its Tail at different points of its Orbit. Slider VII. The Diurnal Motion of the Earth, show- ing the Rising and Setting of the Sun, illustrating the cause of Day and Night, 'by the Earth's Rotation upon its Axis. Slider VIII. This Diagram illustrates the Annual Mo- tion of the Earth round the Sun, with the Monthly Lunations of the Moon. Slider IX. This Diagram shows the various Eclipses of the Sun with the Transit of Venus^ the Sun appears as seen through a Telescope, $40 0® PNEUMATICS. No. Fric«. 1. Fig. 1. Air Pump, (Chamber- lain's American;) rose-wood frame, polished ; barrel, 13 ■by 4£ inches ; large plate, 15 inches ; small do., 6 inches ; three gauges, .#150 0$ 2. Air Pump, superb mahogany frame, polished ; barrel 13 by 4J inches ; plate 15 inches ; barometer gauge ; otherwise as No. 1, 125m 3. Air Pump, plain mahogany 340 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE No. Pn«- frame, varnished ; plate 13 inches ; otherwise as No. 2, , #100 00 4. Fig. 2. Air Pump, rose-wood frame, polished ; barrel 12 by 4 inches ; plate 12 inches ; barometer gauge, 100 00 5. Air Pump, extra finished ; rose- wood frame, polished; plate 12 inches ; barrel 11 by 3£ inches; barometer gauge,. , 7 85 00 6. Air Pump, mahogany frame, varnished ; plate 12 inches ; barrel 11 by 3i ; common finish, 67 75 00 7. Fig. 3. Air Pump, two barrels, 7 by 2 inches ; plate 8 inches ; works with double lever ; mahogany basement, 35 00 8. Air Pump, as above mounted, on rose-wood basement, with parts extra finished, 40 00 9. Air Pump, as above mounted, on a splendid serpentine basement, extra finished in every particular, 45 00 10. Fig. 4. Air Pump, one barrel, 7 by 2 inches ; works with lever ; plate 8 inches, 3 25 00 11. Fig. 5. Air Pump, English form; two barrels, two plates, 8 and 4 inch; works with rack and pinion, 40 00 12. Fig. 6. Air Pump, two barrels; one plate, 8 inch, 25 00 13. Fig. 7. Air Pump, plate, 6inch; one barrel, 7 by 1$ inch ; pis- ton works by a T handle, . . 10 00 14. Fig. 8. Chamberlain's Double Acting Exhauster and Con- denser ; barrel 7 by 1^- inches, 7 8 00 15. Fig. 9. Condensing Syringe ; barrel 7 by 1£, 3 5 00 16. Fig. 10. Stop-cock, large screw; 3 inch, #1 00; 3£ inch, $1 25; 4inch,#150;4£inch,#200; 5inch, 2 50 17. Fig. 11. Stop-cock, small screw, 70 cents ; 1J inch, 80 cents ; 2 inch, 90 cents. 18. Fig. 12. Connecting-Screw; fits pump-plate 3456750 19. Fig. 13. Double Female Screw- Coupling, s ■» 56 7 50 20. Fig. 14. Guard-Screw ; fits pump-plate, 3 4 5 6 7 50 21. Fig. 15. Screw- Plug, for closing brass caps, &c, 3 4 5 6 7 50 22. Fig. 16. Double Female Coup- ling, large and small screw, 3 4 56 7 50 23. Fig. 17. Gallows-Connecter and Tip ; male screws, 1 25 24» Fig. 18. Gallows-Connecter and Tip ; female screws,... 1 25 25. Fig. 19. Flexible Hose and Screw-Connecter, four feet,. 2 00 26. Fig. 20. Sliding-Rod and Brass Plate, with fixtures j 5 00 No. rate. 27. Fig. 21. Sliding-Rod and Pack- ing-Screw, with regulating Binding-Screws, 7 2 00 28. Fig. 22. Sliding-Rod and Pack- ing-Screw, with Ball-Han- dle ; (used with Electrics,) 3 * 56 ! 50 29. Fig. 23. Swelled Bell-Glasses ; six sizes ; one gallon, #1 25 ; two galls., $2 00 ; four galls., #4 00; eight galls., $7 00; ten galls., #8 00 ; twelve galls., $10 00; and ground to fit the six different size pump-plates. 30. Fig. 24. Swelled Open-Top Bell-Glasses ; six sizes ; ca- pacities and dimensions as No. 29 ; one gallon, $2 00 ; two galls., $3 50 ; four galls., #4 506 . eight gal i s . } 7 $8 00 ; ten galls., #9 00 ; twelve galls., 12 00 31. Fig. 25. Plain Bell-Glasses; eight sizes ; half pint, 30 cents ; pint, 50 cents ; quart, 75 cents ; two quarts, $1 00 ; gallon, $2 00 ; two galls., |3 00 ; four galls., #4 00 ; six galls., 5 50 32. Fig. 26. Bell-Glasses with Glass Stoppers ; eight sizes ; half pint, 40 cents ; pint, 60 cents ; quart, $1 00 ; two quarts, %\ 25; three quarts, $1 50; gallon, $2 25; six quarts, $3 00 ; two galls.,.. 4 00 33. Fig. 27. Bell-Glasses with brass Screw-Caps, to receive a stop-cock, connecter, slid- ing-rod, &c. ; six sizes ; two quarts, $1 50 ; three quarts, $2 00 ; four quarts, $2 50 ; six quarts, 3 6 $3 00 ; eight quarts, 6 7 #4 50 ; ten quarts, 5 50 34. Fig. 28. Cylindrical Open-Top Bell-Glass, with Glass Cap ; two quarts, §2 00 ; four quarts, $3 00 ; eight quarts, 5 00 35. Fig. 29. Hand Glass, to show pressure of the air, 3 4 76 36. Fig. 30. Bladder Glass; may be used as a Hand Glass, 5 6 7 1 00 37. Fig 31. Bladder-Cup, Cap, and Cock, to use with Condenser and Condensing Chamber, or under a Bell-Glass ; is used for the Sheet Rubber experiments, &c, 345672 00 38. Fig. 32. Cupping Glass, with Cap and Cock, 1 50 39. Fig. 33. Hemispherical Cups, with Cock, Handles, and Stand ; 5 inch diameter,. . . 67 7 00 40. Hemispherical Cups, with Cock, Handles, and Stand; 3 inch diameter, 345 5 00 41. Fig. 35. Stand, Lever, and Ful- crum, used with Hemi- CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 341 No. Price. spherical Cups, for weighing a column of air, 7 5 00 42. Fig. 37. Apparatus illustrating the upward pressure of the atmosphere ; Glass Cylin- der, 4^ inches diameter, 12 long ; with Piston ; 5 inch brass plate, Hose, and Screws, Strap for connecting weight, and Tripod Stand, three feet high, 12 00 43. Upward Pressure Apparatus ; Glass Cylinder, 3£ by 10 inches ; 4 inch Brass Plate ; Hose, Strap, and 30 inch Stand, 67 9 00 44. Fig. 38. Upward Pressure Ap- paratus ; Cylinder, 3 by 9 inches ; Brass Plate, 3£ inches ; Hose, Strap, and Stand, ..3< 5 6 00 45. Fig. 39. Brass Cylinder and Piston, with Weight, to il- lustrate the power of ex- panding air, 4 00 46. Fig. 40. Expansion Fountain for vacuum, or by condensa- tion, 4 00 47- Fig. 41. Revolving Jet in vacuo, with a stand. This is fig- ured and arranged for sev- eral experiments, and re- ferred to in some ten or twelve following, 3 4 567 1 25 48. Fig. 42. Bursting Squares, for expansion or pressure ; per dozen, boxed, . .... 4567 1 50 49. Fig. 42. Wire Guard, for Burst- ing Squares, 4 75 5 6 7 1 00 50. Fig. 43. Brass Cap Valve, for bursting Squares, 4 5 6 7 25 51. Fig. 44. Revolving Jet and Fountain in vacuo, 2 50 52. Revolving Jet and Fountain in vacuo, with valves by which the water returns to the chamber as the air is let into the bell-glass, and the ex- periment repeated, 3 50 53. Fig. 45. Fountain in vacuo, the treble globe, or liquid transferrer, 7 3 00 Fig. 46. Explains Revolving Jet by external pressure, &c. 54. Fig. 47- Condensing Chamber, &c, arranged for experi- ments, and figured for ex- planations ; Chamber and Cock.......... 345673 50 Cock, with interior and exte- rior jets, 4 567 2 00 Water-Pan and Tube, 6, * s 6 7 75 Paradox Tunnel, Jet, and Balls, < 5 6 7 1 50 65. Fig. 48. Condensation Gauge and Stand, syphon form, in glass case ; two sizes, 7 2 50 and 3 00 No. Price. 58. Fig. 49. Air Gun-Barrel, 3456 100 and 7 1 25 57. Fig. 50. Plate Paradox and Disc, 4=1 00 and „... 67 l 25 58. Fig. 51. Pipe and Ball Para- dox,45i 00 and s?j 25 59. Fig. 52 Flexible Hose and Jet, 345671 00 60. Fig. 53. Brass Jet, for water, air, gas, &c, 3 4 5 6 50 cents and 7 75 Fig. 54. Revolving Jet and Stand, 345671 25 Globe Jet; see Exp,15, page 25, 125 Revolving Stand, for Condens- sing Chamber, &c, 1 25 Single straight Jet, 1 00 61. Reaction, or Revolving Wheels, #1 25 and 2 00 62. Double Revolving Jet, 2 00 63. Fig. 55. Improved Glass Con- densing Chamber ; capacity, two quarts ; one inch thick ; Screw-Cap and Stop-Cock, 7 10 00 Pressure Gauge, for experi- ments with Glass Chamber, 7 1 00 Square Vials, for experiment with condensed air in glass chamber, per dozen, 7 1 00 Horizontal Connecting Piece, for glass chamber, 75 Bell, for condensed air in glass chamber, 7 1 00 64. Fig. 56. Large Copper Con- densing Chamber, ten inches diameter, with Stop-Cock and Interior Jet, 10 00 Fig. 57. Long Jet, for experi- ments with fountains, 50 65. Fig. 58. Artificial Fountain, with Cock, Jets, and Stand, 3 453 00 and 675 00 66. Fig. 59. Bolthead, #1 00 and 7 1 50 Glass Jars, for various experi- ments, 3 25 cents, and. . . 4 5 6 7 1 00 67. Fig. 60. Bacchus in vacuo ; brass mounted 5 00 68. Fig. 61. Bacchus illustrated, «1 50 and 7 3 00 69. Fig. 62. Sheet Rubber Bags, with cap and hook, 3 4 5 1 50 and « 7 2 00 70. Fig. 63. Lungs Glass, illus- trating the mechanical ac- tion of the lungs, #2 00 and 3 00 71. Fig. 64. Bell-Glass, Jar, and Bolthead, illustrating the expansion of air, &c, 3456 100 and.... 7 2 00 72. Fig. 65. Brass Plate and Wood Cylinder, illustrating the porosity of wood, pressure of air, &c, 1 00 73. Fig. 66. Wood Cylinders and Weights, for sinking in wa- ter, after the air is removed from the pores, 15 cts., and 25 74. Fig. 67- Mercury Tunnel, for showing porosity of wood, 342 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Wo. Price. pressure of air, electric lu- minous shower, &c, .. 34567 1 00 75. Fig. 68. Float Wheel, illustra- ting the resistance of air, 3 45 6 1 00 76. Fig. 69. An illustration of the materiality of air. (Each part has been priced sepa- rately.)*'* 5 6 7 77. Fig. 70. An improved Vane and Mill, for vacuo, 7 7 00 78. Fig. 7L Tall Conical Guinea and Feather Glass, three feet high, $4 00 ; three and a half feet, $6 00 ; four feet high, eight inch diameter at bottom, four inch at top,. . . 8 00 Brass Plate to use with Guinea and Feather Tube, four and five inches diameter, $2 00' and... 3 00 SlidingrRod and Drop Button, for guinea and feather ex- periment ; see Fig. 20. Drop Tables (4) for guinea and feather experiment, 2 00 79. Fig. 72. Guinea and Feather Tube, capped both ends ; has Stop-cock and Stand, Ball and Point for Electrici- ty, &c, for vacuum or con- densed air ; (see experi- ments ;) 3 feet long, 3 4 5 6 5 00; four feet, 7 7 00; 5 feet, ^3 00; 6 feet, #10 00; 8 feet, 12 00 80. Fig. 73. Philosophical Water Hammer, #1 00 and 2 00 81. Fig. 74. Philosophical Water Hammer, with brass Cup and Stop-cock, for exhaust- ing, 345673 00 and 4 00 Fig. 75. Stout Syphon Barom- eter, with brass Cap, and Stop-cock, for exhausting, &c, 5 00 Fig. 76- Apparatus illustrating the absurdity of suction, SB inches high, without ex- hausting syringe, 5 00 Fig. 77. Barometer in vacuo, (complete,) 3 ■» 5 3 00 85. Fig. 78. Chamberlain's im- proved Torricellian Barome- ter, with Sliding-Rod, Hook, &c, 677 00 86. Fig. 79. Barometer arranged to use in connection with the air pumps, as a gauge, P OOand 5 00 87. Fig. 80. Syphon Gauge, in glass case, with stand, 3*5"2 50 and 7 3 50 88. Fig. 81. Pear Gauge, for de- termining the actual bulk of air exhausted from a bell- glass, (without sliding-rod,) 7 3 00 89. Fig. 82. Bell and Stand, for yacuo, 3 1 25 and ■» 7 2 50 32. 34. No. Frfs*. 90. Fig. 83. Apparatus illustrating the weight and buoyancy of air, gas, &c, (several experi- ments; see book,) $4 00 and 34 676 00 91. Fig. 84. Scales for weighing air, gas, &c. ; brass beam, 18 inch ; copper globe, 6 inch ; scale pans and bows/ sensitive to one tenth of a grain, 18 00 92. Fig. 85. Stand, with graduated Scale Beam, and 6*inch Cop- per Globe, for weighing air, gas, &c, 12 00 Small size, as above, with 4 inch globe, 8 00 93. Fig. 86. Weighing Air and Specific Gravity Scales ; 6 inch Copper Globe ; 24 inch fine wood beam ; has an ele- vating stand and binding- screw, to adapt to hydrostat- ic experiments, 7 12 00* 94. Fig, 87. Bell-glass graduated to cubic inches,. Stop-cock and Connecter, for measur- ing air or gas for weighing ; capacity, 200 cubic inches, . 4 09 Graduated Bell-Glass as above, 100 cubic inches, with Cap, Cock, and Connecter, 3 00 95. Fig. 88. Syphon in vacuo, with Bell-Glass, Tunnel, Cock, and Jet, two sizes, 4 00 and 7 6 00 96. Fig. 89. Glass Balloon _ and Car, in. glass jar, three sizes ; 15 inch jar, $3 00 ; 18 inch, #4 00 ; and 24 inch, 5 00 97. Fig. 90. Hydrostatic Balloon, with tall jar and Bell-Glass ; 18inch,3i5674 00; 24 inch, 5 00 98. Fig. 91. Glass Flask, with Cap and Stop-cock, for boiling water in vacuum, or under pressure, $2 00 and 3 00 Small Thermometer to suspend in the flask, 75 cents and . . 1 00 Spring Safety Valve, for the above flask, #1 OOand *1 50 99. Fig. 92. Double Transferrer, with six inch Plates, four- teen inch Bar, and three Stop-cocks ; on mahogany stand, 15 00 Double Transferrer, with five inch Plates, eight inch Bar, three Cocks, on Stand, 7 10 0« 100. Fig. 93. Single Transferrer; has a brass capped two- quart Bell-Glass, Stop- cock, Brass Plate, Jet, and small Bell-Glass ; (is made up of parts before enumer- ated,) 345676 00 101. Fig. 94. Freezing Apparatus ; 4.J inch, #1 25; 6 inch, $2 00; 8 inch, 3 * 5 3 00; CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 343 (Jo. Price. 10 inch, #4 00 ; 12 inch, 676 00; 15 inch, #8 00 102. Fig. 95. Freezing Apparatus, with Thermometer and tall glass with brass Cap and Sliding-Rod ; 4£ and 6 inches, #4 00 and . . 6 00 103. Fig. 96. Apparatus arranged to freeze one quart of water at a time, with any of the five largest air pumps, .... 12 00 104. Fig. 97. Freezing Apparatus, with Tunnel, Stop-cock, and Jet ; 8 inch, #4 00 ; 10 inch, #6 00 ; 12 inch, #8 00; 15inch, 10 00 105. Fig. 98. Improved Water Cups, to use with freezing apparatus, from. 15 cents each to 34567 7 5 106. Fig. 99. Apparatus for freez- ing water by the evapora- tion of ether, $1 00 and.. 2 00 107. Fig. 100. Cryophorus in vacuo, with brass Plate ; the wa- ter is frozen in the outer ball, from the condensation of the vapor in the ball with the bell-glass, #4 00 and. . 6 00 108. Fig. 101. Bell-Glass, with glass Bulb and Tube, and spirit Thermometer, for freezing mercury by the cold produced from the evaporation of ether, $4 00 and 6 00 Tubes and Bulbs filled with mercury, for breaking, af- ter being frozen, 15 to 25 cents each. 109. Fig. 102. Freezing Apparatus with Thermometer and Sliding-Rods, adapted to the larger pumps ; 12 inches diameter, $8 00 ; 15 inches, 10 00 110. Fig. 103. Tunnel, Stop-cock, and Jet, for introducing mercury, acid, ether, alco- hol, water, &c, into an ex- hausted bell-glass, $2 00 and ?3 00 111. Fig. 104. Apparatus for ex- ploding gunpowder in vacuo ; used also for other purposes; $3 00 and 5 00 112. Fig. 105. Lock for striking flint and steel in vacuo, #2 00 and 3 00 Leather Collars for Stop- cocks, assorted, per hun- dred, 3456750 Oil prepared to use with Phil- osophical Instruments, per ounce, in vial, 34567 25 Brass Caps for bell-glasses, from one half to two inches diameter, from 15 to 50 Iron Stop-cocks, to use with mercury ; size and price as No. 16 and 17, page 340. HYDROSTATIC AND HYDRAU- LIC APPARATUS. 1. Fig. 1. Equilibrium Tubes and Stand, best finish, $11 00 Second quality, 2 00 2. Fig. 2. Hydrostatic Paradox and fixtures complete, best quality, largest size, 25 00 Hydrostatic Paradox, as above, second quality, 18 00 Hydrostatic Paradox, fixtures, without the Stand and Scale- beam, 8 00 A set of Avoirdupois (brass) Weights, from one half to sixteen ounces, 5 00 A set of Troy Weights, from one half to twelve ounces,. . 3 00 Graduated Glass Jar, two hun- dred cubic inches, 2 00 3. Fig. 3. Glass Hydrometer, better finish, with weight adjusting to all liquids, .... 1 50 4. Glass Hydrometer, large size, zero or water mark in the centre of the scale, is adapt- ed to all liquids, 2 50 5. Glass Hydrometers, cheap fin- ish, graduated for water or ether, 100 6. Fig. 4. Hydrometer Jar, with foot and lip ; ten cubic inches, $1 50 ; twenty cubic inches, $2 00 ; thirty cubic inches, $2 25 ; fifty cubic inches, 2 50 7. Plane Hydrometer Jars, ten inches high, 75 cts. ; twelve inches, $100; fifteen inches, 1 25 ; twenty inches, 1 50 8. Fig. 5. Graduated Tubes, for specific gravity, 50 9. Fig. 5. Hydrostatic Bellows, twelve inches square, six feet brass tube, in two joints, 6 00 10. Fig. 6. Hydrostatic Bellows, best quality, double lined, extra tubes, &c, 7 8 00 11. Fig. 7. Hydrostatic Bellows, circular twelve inch, with six feet brass tube in two joints, 5 00 Fig. 7. Hydrostatic Bellows, as No. 11, with extra glass tube, with sockets and tun- nel, and inch square tube and tunnel, 8 00 12. Fig. 8. Forcing Pump, or Fire Engine, with Stand, Cistern, and Hose, 8 00 Lifting Pump, glass Barrel, with Stand, Cistern, and Re- ceiving Tunnel, 6 00 344 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. No. Price. Both the above on one stand, with Cistern, 37 12 00 13. Fig. 9. Archimedes Screw Pump, with Stand and Cis- tern, 7 6 00 14. Screw Pump, on a large scale, and more highly finished, . . 10 00 15. Fig. 10. Brass Syphon, with Suction Tube, Glass Jar, Stand, and Receiving Basin ; largest size, 5 00 16. Syphon and Suction Tube, as above, 7 1 50 Glass Syphon and Suction Tube, 1 25 "Wertemberg Syphon, of Glass, 50 cents, and 75 17. Cylindrical Glass Jar, with Ball, Plate, and Hook, illus- trating upward and down- ward pressure of fluids; small size, $2 00 ; large size, 4 00 18. Syphon and Cup, or Tantalus's Cup, 1 50 19. Fig. 11. Vacuum Syphon, or Fountain Syphon, with Ba- sins, $ 2 00 and 3 00 20. Fig. 12. Hero's Fountain,.... 6 00 21. Fig. 13. Barker's Mill, #3 00 and 5 00 Glass model of the Centrifugal Pump, #6 00 and 8 00 23. Apparatus illustrating the laws of the spouting of flu- ids, #10 00 and 20 00 24. Fig. 14. Working model of the Hydraulic Press, cheap finished, #20 00 ; best fin- ished, 7 25 00 Several pieces of apparatus, well adapt- ed for Hydrostatic and Hydraulic illus- trations, have been enumerated and figured in Pneumatics. ELECTRIC APPARATUS. 1. An eighteen inch plate Elec- tric Machine, 3 i 25 00 2. A twenty-four inch plate Ma- chine, 56 50 00 3. A thirty inch plate Machine,. 7 75 00 4. A thirty six inch plate Ma- chine, 100 00 5. A forty inch plate Machine, . . 125 00 6. A forty-eight inch plate Ma- chine _ 150 00 7. Two forty-eight inch plates on one shaft ; four pair of fif- teen inch rubbers, and two negative conductors, 300 00 8. A fifty-five inch plate, with two pair of eighteen inch rub- bers, and two negative con- ductors, 300 00 9. Leyden Jars, one, two, three, and four quarts, #1, 3 2, 3, and 4 00 10. Leyden Jars, with ring and No. Price. points, and crooked neck and ball, for suspending to conductor, one and two quarts, #1 25 and e7 3 50 11. Leyden Jars, with sliding Dis- charger, two and four quarts, #4 00 and 6 00 12. Insulating Stand, with Jar and Electrometers, 4 00 13. Diamond or Luminous Jars, two and four quarts, 3 4 5 6 7 3 00 and 5 00 14. Leyden Jars, with movable coatings, one and two quarts, #1 50 and . . . . 3 * 56 7 3' 50 15. Double Leyden Jars, one and two quarts, 45 7 3 50 16. Electrometer Jars, one and two quarts, 3 * ~° 6 1 50 and. . 7 2 50 17. Electric Batteries, four quart Jars, cased, 4 6 00 ; six quart Jars, cased, #8 00 ; four two quart Jars, cased, #10 00; six two quart Jars, cased, 7 14 00 ; six three quart tall Jars, cased, #18 00 ; twelve two quart Jars, cased, 24 00 18. Sliding Directing Rod, three and four feet long, 3 4 5 62 00 and 7 3 00 19. Single Spiral Spotted Tube and Stand, 3 * 5 <> 2 50 and. . 7 3 00 20. Set (7) Spiral Spotted Tubes and Revolving Arm, mount- ed on stand ; two feet long, #15 00; three feet, 25 00 21. Stand for luminating Eggs, #2 00and 3 00 22. Luminous Letters, six and twelve inches square, on silk and in frame ; seen day or night; per letter, 50 cents and 75 23. Luminous Star, on glass, mounted, 7 4 00 24. Profile of Franklin, spotted on glass, and mounted, 4 00 25. Insulated Director, 2 00 26. Plane Discharger, 3 * 6 2 50 27. Jointed Discharger, large size, 67 3 50 28. Universal Discharger, 6 7 6 00 29. Universal Discharger, with movable balls, points, and pincers, 7 00 30. Revolving Bell Glass, with point and ring, #2 00 and. 7 2 50 31. Lane's Sliding Discharger, #3 00 and 5 00 32. Pith-ball Electrometer and stand, 3 4 5 6 75 cellts an) j 7 1 00 33. Quadrant Electrometer and stand, 6 2 00 and 7 3 00 34. Gold Leaf Electrometer, with evaporating cup and point, 62 00 and 7 3 00 35. Improved Gold Leaf Electrom- eter, with evaporating cup, point,and condensing plates, 5 00 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 345 K«. Price. 36 Atmospheric Electrometer, (Kinnersley's) 6 00 37. Insulating Stool, sixteen inches square, 340675 00 38. Stand and Bell for pith-ball dancing, #1 00 and 7 2 00 39. Electric Bells, (3,) three inches diameter, 345673 00 40. Set of nine Bells, mounted on a stand, 12 00 41. Dancing Image Plates, eleven inches diameter, and sus- pended to prime conduc- tor, 345 2 00 42. Dancing Image Plates, eleven inches, on adjusting stand, 67 3 00 43. Dancing Image Plates, on insulating and adjusting stand, 6 00 44. Dancing Images ; a pair, 3 4 30 cents and 5 6 7 50 45. Pith-balls, from one to three fourths inch diameter, from 345 25 cents per dozen, in box, to 6 U 00 Fancy colored Pith-balls, per doz., 30 cents to.. 150 46. Electric Sportsmen and Birds, 345675 cents and 7 1 00 Electric Birds, per dozen, 50 cents and 75 47. Ratification, or Rat-killing Tube, $3 00 and 4 00 48. Wax Cylinders and Handles, six, nine, and twelve inches long, 34567 1 00, 2 00, and 3 00 49. Glass Friction Cylinders, capped and handled, twelve, eighteen, and twenty-four inches long, 345 1 50,6?2 00, 3 00 50. Sulphur Cone and Cup, 75 cents, and 1 00 51. Powder Bombs, 3456 1 25 and 7 2 00 52. Ivory Mortar and Ball, for de- composing oil, $2 00 and. . 3 00 53. Electric Cannons, mounted, |400and 6 00 54. Thunder House and Fixtures, 84565 00 and 7 6 00 65. Gas Pistols, belonging to thun- der house, 3 4 5 6 7 go 56. Brass Electric Pistol ; has fix- tures to use with Galvanic Apparatus, #2 00 and 3 00 57. Hydrogen Gas Generator, or Platina Igniter, with Gas Detonating Jet, Platina Sponge and Jet, various sizes ; two, four, and eight quarts, complete ; 3 45 $3 00, « 7 4 00, $8 00, and 14 00 58. Long Haired Man, 343 50 cents, « 7 75 cents, and 1 00 59. Electric Float Wheel and Point, 3456 l 00, 7 1 50 60. The Abbe Nolet's Globe, 5«3 00 and 7 5 00 No. Price. 61. Luminous Bell Glass, Points, and Sliding Rod, #3 00 and 5 00 62. Balance Electrometer, large size, 6 00 63. Electric S, and Point, 345 50 cents, 6 7 75 cents, and 1 00 64. Compound Electric S, with Point and Stand, $2 00 and 3 00 65. Electric S in vacuo, is arranged with articles before named, 66. Aurora Flasks, 1 00, 1 50, and 2 00 67. Electric Bucket and Syphon, %\ 00 and 7 1 50 68. Electric Swing and Image, %\ 00 and 4567 2 00 69. Electric Seasons Machine, large size, mounted on In- sulating Stand, 6 00 70. Electric Seasons Machine, smaller size, mounted on Insulating Stand, 6 7 3 00 71. Electric Seasons Machine, small size, with point and stand ; stands in the centre hole of the prime conduc- tor, 345 2 00 72. Electrophorus, eleven inches, mounted on Insulating Stand, with cover, and han- dle, and elastic bag, and jet, 6 00 and 7 8 00 73. Electric Spoons for igniting Ether, 34 5 75 cents, « 7 1 25 74. Northern Light, or Aurora Tubes, from three to eight feet long, and mounted, 6 00, 8 00, 10 00 and 12 00 75. Magic Miser's Plate, plain and mounted, 5 75 cents, $1 00, and 67 2 00 76. Electric Wheel and Inclined Plane, 2 00, 7 4 00 77. Electric Swan and Basin, 75 cents and 1 00 78. Revolving Glass Globe and Point, 50 cents and 1 00 79. Helix for Magnetizing Steel, 2and 3 00 80. Apparatus for Decomposing and Recomposing Water,. . 8 00 Amalgam, per box, 25, 50, 75, 1 00 CHEMICAL APPARATUS. 1. Fig. 1. A Pair of Cylindrical copper Gasometers, 30 gal- lons capacity each bell, Com- pound Blow-pipe, with ad- justable Holder, 150 00 2. Pair copper Gasometers, 15 gal- lons each,'. 1 60 00 3. Pair copper Gasometers, 7 gal- lons each, 5 6 35 00 4. Pair tin Gasometers, 7 gallons each, 4 25 00 5. Fig. 6. Malleable Iron Retort, and tube, pint, 5 <32 00 346 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE No. Price. 6. Cast Iron Retort and Tube, quart, 7 3 00 7. Flask and Screw Cap for Oxy- gen, «1 00 8. Lead Tube, with screws con- ducting gas, 4567 1 50 9. Fig. 7. Lead Retort and Tube for Hydrogen, quart, 5 00 10. Fig. 10. Pair 13 inch Plan- ished Reflectors, in cases which serve as stands, and iron ball and stand, 4 5 6 7 8 00 11. Fig. 12. Spirit Boiler, mount- ed to use with the Reflec- tors, 45672 50 12. Fig. 70. Pair Cubes and Shields, for radiation and absorption of heat, 6 7 2 00 13. Fig. 42. Pyrometer, with brass and iron expanding rod and twolamps,4 56 3 00 7 3 00 14. Fig. 46. Lamp Stand, with four bows and binding screws, 4 5 6 7 2 00 15. Lamp Stand or Retort Holder, with shifting bows and two binders, 5 00 16. Conductometer, with iron, brass, copper, lead, tin, and glass conducting rods, . ... 67 2 00 17. Conductometer, of a cheaper form, 45i 00 18. Fig. 37. Apparatus for non- conducting power of liquids, #3, and 4 00 19. Fig. 32. Platina Pendent Spoons and Rod, 6 7 1 00 20. Copper Pendent Spoons and Rod, 56725 21. Fig. 33. Pendent Sockets for tapers, &c, 50 22. Fig. 34. Platina Forceps, 3 00 23. Fig. 48. Fire Syringe, 7 inch plane, and box tinder, . . . 4 ° e 7 1 50 24. Fig. 43. Fire Syringe, with stop-cock tinder cavity,.... 3 00 25. Fig. 60. Set 3 wire gauze for cups with flame, 456775 26. Fig. 20. Plane Mouth Blow- pipe, 50 cents and 7 75 27. Fig. 21. Blowpipe, with con- densing bulb, 1 50 28. Elevating Stands, with Table, Tripod, and Bughorn, 7 1 50 29. Stands, with sliding screw clamps of wood for retort and tube holding, 3 and... 5 00 30. Gas-bag, with socket and stop- cock, 6 gallon, 5675 00 31. Hessian Crucibles, in nests of five, 6 7 20 32. Fig. 22. Chemical Thermome- ter, 650° jointed scale, 5 00 33. Chemical thermometer, 450°, plane scale, 5 67 2 50 34. Fig. 11. Spirit Lamp, with ground cap, 4 5 671 00 85. Aphlogistic Lamp, with plati- na coil, $1 and 7 2 00 No. Pnee. 36. Fig. 14. Air Thermometer, #2 and 3 00 37. Fig. 16. Dropping Tube, 67 25 cents and 30 38. Fig. 17. Dropping Tube, with Rubber Air Bag, 100 39. Fig. 15. Spirit Boiler, used with the hand, 75 cents and 1 00 40. Fig. 18. Graduated oz. meas- ure, 6 75 cents, 46 7 1, and .. 125 41. Fig. 26. Graduated measure, 10 cubic inches, 45671 25 42. Fig. 23. Volta's Eudiometer, graduated, 1 50 43. Fig. 24. Hope's Eudiometer, graduated, 3 00 44. Fig. 25. "Ore's Eudiometer, graduated, 2 50 45. Fig. 27. Graduated Cubic inch tubes, 7 50 cents and 7 75 46. Test Tubes, 5674,5 675,567 6, 5678,456710,4567 12 inch, andlOcts. to 456730 47. Fig. 29. Stand and doz. as- sorted test tubes, 2 00 48. Fig. 35. Bulb and Tube for condensation of mixed li- quids, 7 75 49. Fig. 36. Two Bulbs and Tube for condensation, 1 00 50. Fig. 30. Glass Flasks, with ring necks for corks, half pint, 4 5 6 7 25 cents ; pint, 45 6735 cents; quart 456750 51. Fig. 19. Glass Funnels, half pint, 45 6 7 25 cents; pint, 7 35 cts. and quarts 50 52. Fig. 19. Flat Bottom Flasks, gill 567 20 cents, half pint 567 30 cents, pint 5 6 740 cts., and quarts 56755 53. Fig. 72. Globe Receivers, with ring neck, tube, and stop- per, half pint, 6 7 35 cents ; pint, 6 7 45 cents ; and quart, 55 54. Fig. 72. Tubulated Retorts, gill 4 5 67 25 cents, half pint 456730 cents, pint 455735 cents, and quart 56 7 50 55. Graduated 60 Drop. Tube on foot, 75 56. Cast Iron Mercury Cisterns,.. 1 00 57. Fig. 8. Chemical Furnace, lined, rings or glass holders, tube holes, and sand bot- tles, 7 10, 15, and 20 00 58. Iron Tube, adapted to Furnace, with screws, decomposing water, 75 cents and 7 1 00 59. Glass Evaporating Dishes, 4 5 6 7 20 cents, 4567 25 cents, 4667 30cents, and 67 35 60. Porcelain Evaporating Dishes, nest of five, $1 50 and .... 2 00 61. Wedgwood Evaporating Dish- es, nest of five, 7 1 50 and. . 2 50 62. Glass Mortar and Pestles, 50 cents, 75 cents, and 7 1 00 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 347 No. Price. 63. Porcelain Mortars and Pes- tles, * 67 1 25, 1 50, and.... 2 00 54. Iron Mortar and Pestle, 125, 1 50, and 1 75 65. Platina Spatulas, 7 1 50, 2, and 2 50 66. Steel Spatulas, 25 cents and. . 50 67. Hydrogen Balloons, 12 inch, 1; 15 inch, 456 2; 18 inch, 73; 20 inch, 4: and 24 inch, '. 6 00 68. Woulded Rings for support- ing retorts, flasks, evapo- rating dishes, &c, set of six, l.and 150 69. Assortment of Test Rods, eight, 50 cents and 75 70. Glass Stirring Rods, six, 5 6 7 75 71. Fig. 43. Hydrogen Gas Gene- rator, with gas jet, platina sponge, and long jet for det- onating gas, one and two quarts capacity, 4 and 6 00 72. Fig. 44. Hydrogen Generator, in frame, with basement and fixtures, 8 quarts, 8; 12 quarts, 12 00 73. Glass Alembics, pint, 7 1 75; quart, 2 50 74. Boglana Vials, per dozen,.... 67 1 00 75. PrinceRupert'sDrops,perdoz., 67 50 76. Long-necked Matresses, half pint, 4567 30 cents; pint, . 4 5 fi7 50 77. Air Thermometer, tube and bulb, 36 inch, 50 APPARATUS FIGURED AND DESCRIBED IN PNEUMATICS, BUT USED IN CHEMISTRY. Stop-cocks. See No. 16, Fig. 10. Screw Coupling, (5,) Nos. 18 to 22. Gallows Connecters and Tips, Nos. 23 and 24 Hose for conducting Gas, No. 25, Fig. 19. Sliding Rods and Brass Plates, No. 26, Fig. 20. Transferring Pump, double acting, No. 14, Fig. 8. Bell Glasses, (40,) No. 29, Fig. 23, to No. 34, Fig. 28. Hydrogen Bubble Pipe, No. 58, Fig. 51. Strong Glass Condensing Chamber, with screw cap for showing the chemical effect produced on various substances subjected to atmospheric or gas pressure. Condensation Gauge for glass chamber, No. 55, Fig. 48. Bell Glass, cap, cock, and plate, for transferring air or gas, No. 100, Fig. 93. Evaporating Dishes, Fig. 98. Bell Glasses, with screw cap, and grad- uated to cubic inches, from 100 to 300, No. 94, Fig. 87. Gas Pistols. See Electricity. Scales, with 5 inch steel boxed beam, pair two and a half inch pans, set of weights from half a grain to 6 drams, cased, included in apparatus, No. 91, Fig. 84. Larger, and more highly finished Scales, for use in Laboratory, 18 inch beam, No. 91, Fig. 84. STEAM. F 'S- Price. Steam Balls for exploding by candle, doz., 456750 1. Steam Ball and Jet, brass.. 4567 1 50 2. Wollaston's Illustration of Low Pressure Steam En- gine, copper globe boiler, cylinder, piston and rod, handle and safety-valve,.. 46 7 3 00 3. Working Model of the Upright High Pressure Steam En- gine complete, 35 00 4. Section Model of the High Pressure Steam Engine, 18 inch beam, 25 00 5. Marcet's Steam Globe, 5 inch diameter, lower half of iron, and not injured by mercury, a 36 inch condensation gauge and scale, a steam thermometer in brass case, a safety-valve adjustable • from one to twelve atmos- pheres' pressure, a 7 wick copper lamp and stop-cock to start revolving jet, steam- gun, &c, 67 25 00 5. Marcet's Steam Globe, 6 inch diameter, with large fix- tures as above, steam gun, jet for charging Ley den Jar with electricity from steam, insulating stand for all, .... 50 00 6. Chamberlain's Steam Flask with screw cap, stop-cock, safety-valve, steam ther- mometer, inside, spirit lamp and stand for all, 7 8 00 Note. The Hose connects this steam flask with the air pump, to show the boiling point to vary with the pressure of the atmosphere. 7. Working Model of the Hori- zontal High Pressure Steam Engine, complete in all its parts, 50 00 AN ASSORTMENT OF CHEMI- CAL SUBSTANCES, In quantity and kind, adapted to use with the several sets of Apparatus for a Course of Experimental Lectures. *510, 6 15, 7 20to #25 00 1. Sulphuric Acid, 2. Muriatic " 3. Nitric " 4. Sulphuric Ether, 348 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE 5. Liquid Ammonia, 6. Alcohol, 7. Naphtha, 8. Nitrate of Barytes, 9. Muriate of " 10. Sodium, 11. Potassium, 12. Iodine, 13. Phosphorus, 14. Nitrate of Silver, 15. Nitrate of Ammonia, 16. Carbonate of " 17. Muriate of " 18. Oxalic Acid, 19. Pure Chlorate of Potassa, 20. Granulated Zinc, 21. Black Oxide of Manganese, 22. Prussiate of Potash, 23. Bicarbonate of Soda, 24. Fluor Spar, 2-5. Pulverized Steel, 26. " Iron, 27. " Brass, 28. " Copper, 29. " Tin, 30. " Lead, 31. " Zinc. MAGNETIC, ELECTRO-MAG- NETIC, GALVANIC, &c. Pair ten inch Bar Magnets and Armatures, in case, e 3 00 Single Bar Magnet and Keeper, 3 6 7 1 00 Compound Magnet, twelve inch,. . 7 2 50 U Magnet and Armature, 1 2 3 4 50 cents, and 3 *l 00, 2 00 TJ Magnet and Wheel Armature, . 67 3 00 Double U Magnet and Armature, 3 00, and 5 00 "Wheel Armature for Double Mag- net, 1 00 Round Bar Armature, 3 4 6 25 cents, and 57 50 Y Armature, 3 4 50 cents, and . . . 6 6 7 75 Star Armature, 3 4 6 75 cents, and 5 7 1 00 Magnetic Needle, six inch, and Stand,* 2343 ?! 00, and....«l 50 Galvanic Battery, 25, 50, and 100 ; pair of cast zinc plates, four by six inches, in cop- per cells ; are freed from acid solution by being raised one inch with crank wind- lass; are a very efficient decomposing and igniting battery, 7 25 00, 45 00, and 90 00 Sulphate of Copper Battery, 8 by 9£ inches, 6 8 00 Sulphate of Copper Battery, 6 by 9inches, 45 6 00 Sulphate of Copper Battery, 4 by 5£inch, 1237 3 00 Powder Cup, brass, 3 4 5 6 7 50 Voltaic Pistol, used in electrics, &c., 6 3 00 and 7 4 00 Electro, or wound Iron Magnets, plain, 3 1 00; 43 2 00; and 7 5 00 Electro-Magnets, mounted in frame, with Armature, 10 00 and 15 00 Electro-Magnet, mounted in frame, with Armature and Lever to sustain 1000 pounds with small Battery, 25 00 Electro Coil and Hemispheric Magnets, with ring-handles, 12S2 50, 4 5 673 50, and.... 5 00 Magnetizing Helix, on Stand, and round bar, 3 4 5 6 7 3 00 Pair of Coils to separate from the Magnet, 2 50 and 5 00 Orsted's Galvanometer, 7 4 00 Galvanometer, compass form, 34 3 67 3 00 A seven inch Terrestrial Helix, used with needle, dipping, reversing poles, &c, 34 1 oO and 5672 00 Galvanometer, mounted on tripod stand, with adjusting screws, 6 00 De la Rive's Ring or Floating Bat- tery, 367 1 25 Lever Beam Electro-Magnetic En- gine, 10 00 and 15 00 Horizontal Revolving Armature Engine, 10 00 Revolving Magnet Bell Engine, 6 7 12 00 Revolving Electro-Magnet, be- tween poles of Steel U Mag- net, 3 4 56 7,5 00 and 6 00 Thermo-Electric Revolving Arch, between poles of Steel U Magnet, with Lamp, . . . . 4 5 6 7 5 00 Separable Helices, or Apparatus for Analysis of Shocks, De- composing Water, &c, . . . G 7 12 00 Horizontal Electro-Magiietic Ap- paratus for Shocks, with Vi- brating Armature or Break- piece, for medical tise, &c, 34 5 00, &6 00, 670O, and.. 8 00 Shocking Handles, with binding screws, 34567 1 50 Set (4) Connecting Wires, 3 4 5 6 7 50 Magneto-Electric Machine, with five eighteen inch Magnets, and a large compound re- volving wire Armature, all substantially mounted, and sufficiently powerful to de- compose water, 7 40 00 and 50 00 Decomposing Cell, with tubes for collecting gases, mixed or separate, 6 " 3 00 and 5 00 Note. The above list of magnetic apparatus comprises only the more im- portant instruments for the illustration of principles in this branch of science ; and also affords as wide a range of prices as consists with liberal size, im- proved construction, and good mechan- ism. CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OP APPARATUS. 349 GEOMETRY, &c. Set of eight mahogany Solids, il- lustrating Cube Root, Plane and Solid Measure, &c i 2 1 25 Set of twelve Solids, viz., Cylinder ; Oblique Cylinder ; Prism, three sides ; Prism, six sides ; Cone ; Pyramid ; Frustrum of Cone ; Frus- trum of Pyramid ; Sphere ; Hemisphere ; Oblate Sphe- roid; Prolate Spheroid,... 12 ! 00 Fries. Set of ten Parallelopipeds, pa- pered and numbered with reference to " Holbrook's Geometry," » 2 1 00 Set of regular Solids, made of pasteboard, on cloth, cut and strung so as to be drawn into solid form, ' 2 1 00 Set of five Geometrical Trans- posing Frames 12 1 00 Numeral Frame, i 2 1 25 A sheet of forty Geometrical Illus- trations, 12 02 INDEX TO THE SETS OF APPARATUS SELECTED FROM THE FOREGOING CATALOGUES. To notice all the articles composing the various sets, it will be necessary to look with care through the entire Catalogue. The sets will, of course, be subject to modification by the purchaser. Set No. 1, marked 1 against the price of each article, #50 00 m oo 250 00 400 00 500 00 700 00 1000 00 BOOKS, EXPERIMENTAL, ILLUSTRATIVE, AND EXPLANATORY, WITH PRICE CATALOGUES. " Chamberlain's Pneumatic Experiments," with one hundred and twenty wood cut illustrations and two hundred experiments, with notes and explanations, 75 " Chamberlain's Electric Illustrations and Experiments," seventy illustra- tions, with notes, &c, 1 50 " Chamberlain's Illustrated Price Catalogue of Mechanics, Optics, Astro- nomical, Pneumatic, Hydrostatic, Electric, Chemical, Galvanic, Mag- netic, Electro-Magnetic, &c, 75 " Francis's Chemical Experiments," with one hundred and fifty wood cut illustrations and two thousand one hundred and forty-nine experiments, 2 00 " Davis's Manual of Magnetism," with some two hundred cut illustrations and experiments, 1 25 Note. All of the Instruments are illustrated by Wood Cuts, and such descriptions and dimensions given as will enable the purchaser to judge correctly of the general character of the Instruments. NO TERMS, CASH. DISCOUNT TO AGENTS Prices uniform and definite ; and such as will afford only a manufacturer's profit. Boxes, packing, and shipping, two and a half per cent, on the amount of the bill, if over one hundred dollars. Insured against breakage by transportation for two and a half per cent. Insured against the dangers of the seas, from one to two and a half per cent. ILLUSTRATIONS OF PHILOSOPHICAL INSTRUMENTS MANUFACTURED AND SOLD BY N. B. CHAMBERLAIN, BOSTON, MASS. Pneumatics. — Chamberlain's American Am Pump. Fig. 1.— Nos. 1, 2,3, 4. CHAMBKK^AIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 351 Air Pump. Fig.2.— Nos.5,6. 352 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE Three Inch Stop-Cock Fig. 10. Bell in Vacuo. Fig. 82. Vane and Mill in Vacuc Fig. 70. Q CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OP APPARATUS. 353 Hydrostatics. — Lifting and Forcing Pumps. Fig. 8. Pnevmatics. — Improved Glass Condensing Chamber. Fig.*. Pneumatics. — Copper Condensing Chamber and Fixtures. 23 354 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Chamberlain's Barometer and Expansion Apparatus. Fig. 78. 9 4, Tall Conical Guinea and Feather Glass. Fig. 71. k gUT " Freezing Apparatus with Thermometer. Fig. 95. Syphon in Vacuo. Fig. 88. ^ (f CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 355 One and a half Inch Stop-Cock. Fig. 11. Weight and Buoyancy of Air. Fig. 83. Guinea and Feather Tube, or Northers Light Tube. Fig. 72 Hydrostatics. — Hydrostatic Bellows. Fig. 7. 356 SCHOOL AKeHITECTURE. Seasons Machine — Brass Mounted. Fig. 21. Improved High Mounted Globb. Fig. 22. CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 357 Mechanical Powers. Fig. 8.— Nos. 10, 11. 358 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Reflecting Telescopb. Ftff. 16.— No. 26. CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS. 359 Electrics, — Fifty-five Inch Plate Electric Machine. Fig. 4. 360 SCHOOL, ARCHITECTURE. Section Model or the High Pressure Steam Engine — Eiohteiw and Twenty-four Inch Beam. Fig. 5. Pyrometer, with Lamps and Brass and Iron Expanding Rods Fig. 6. CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OP APPARATUS. 361 Chamberlain's Steam Flask, with Cap, Cock, Safety- Valve, Ther- mometer, Stand, and Lamp. Fig. 2. Marset's Steam Globe, with TALL PreSSURE-GaCGE, StEAM Thermometer, Stop-Cock, Safety- Valve, and Copper Lamp. Fig. 3. Decomposing and Recomposing by Galvanism or Electricity. Fiq. 4. 362 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Electrics. — Eighteen Inch Plate Electric Machine. Fig. 1. Optics. — Improved Magic Lantern. Fig. 17.— No. 27. CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF APPARATUS 363 Galyanic Battery. Fig. 7. Cylindrical Battery. Fig. 8. Magneto-Electric Machine. Fig. 9. 364 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Orrery — Motion by Crank. Fig. 18. Orrery — Motion by Winding Spring Fig. 19. Brass-Mounted Spring Orrery. Fig. 20. CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OP APPARATUS., 365 Apparatus fob Analysis of Shocks ok Separable Helices Fig. 10 Jg Fi"" Eitctricity. — Gas Generator, with Jet and Platina Sponge, Detonating. Jet, &c. Galvanism. — Helix and Hemispheric Magnets. Fig. 11. 366 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE CHEMICALS, STEAM, &c. Cored Bell Gasometers, with Adjustable Com- pound Blowpipe. Fig. I. PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS, SELECTED FROM CHAMBERLAIN'S ILLUSTRATED AND DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUES, AND ARRANGED IN SETS CORRESPONDING TO THE SUMS ANNEXED. [It will be seen that the highest cost and largest sized instruments have not been incorporated into sets, as such instruments are generally required for institutions having more or less good apparatus of a small class, that is made more valuable by being used in connection with an efficient Air Pump or Electric Machine.] SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. No. 1, marked 1 in Catalogue. Cohesive Attraction Plates, Cohesive Attraction Lead Hemi- spheres, Set of six Capillary Attraction Tubes, Set of six Collision Balls, in frame, Set of Centre of Gravity, Centre of Motion, Centre of Magnitude, Common Centre, &c, Set of eight Cube Root Solids,... Set of twelve Geometrical Solids, . Set of ten Parallelopipeds, Set of five Regular Solids, Set of five Geometrical Transpos- ing Frames, 1 00 Sheet of Geometrical Illustrations, 1 00 1 50 3 00 7 00 1 25 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 Numeral Frame,.. Prism Set of six Lenses,. Terrestrial Globe, . Seasons Machine, . Orrery, , 20 1 00 Cylindrical Electro-Galvanic Bat- tery, Helix and pair of Hemispheric Magnets, *. Magnetic Needle and Stand, 3 00 2 50 #50 00 SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. No. 2, marked - in Catalogue. Cohesive Attraction Plates, 1 00 Lead Hemispheres, for Cohesive Attraction," 1 00 Capillary Tubes, 1 50 Collision Balls and Frame 4 00 Centre of Gravity Apparatus,.... 7 00 Mechanical Powers, 35 00 Set of six Lenses, 6 00 Prism, 2 00 Compound Microscope,.. 10 00 Orrery, 10 00 Seasons Machine, 7 00 Terrestrial Globe, 5 00 Cube Root Solids, 1 25 Twelve turned Solids, 1 00 Ten Parallelopipeds, 1 00 Five regular Solids, 1 00 Five Transposing Frames, 1 00 Sheet Geometrical Diagrams,.... 20 Numeral Frame, 1 00 Cylinder Electro-Galvanic Battery, 3 00 Helix and Armatures, 2 50 U Magnet and Armature, 50 Magnetic Needle and Stand, 75 #100 00 368 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OP PRICES. SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. No. 3, marked 3 in Catalogue. *Air Pump, ♦Bell Glass, Screw Capped ♦Freezing Apparatus, ♦Expansion, Straight Glass Jar, ♦Hand Glass, ♦Tall Bell Glass and Jar, ♦Mercury Tunnel, ♦Glass Pan for do., , Hemispherical Cups, , Upward Pressure Apparatus, Set Screw Couplers, Bell for Vacuo, ♦Sliding Rod, ♦Sheet Rubber Bag ♦Artificial Fountain, ♦Guinea and Feather Tube, ♦Barometer Apparatus, ♦Weighing and Buoyancy of Air, Syphon Vacuum Gauge, Inertia Wheel, ♦Philosophical Water Hammer, . ♦Condenser, ♦Condensing Chamber and Cock, Air Gun Barrel, ♦Revolving Jet, ♦Exploding Cup, Cap and Cock,. ♦Hose and Jet, ♦Straight Brass Jet, Stopcock Collars, Pair Water Pumps,. Mechanical Powers, Centre of Gravity Apparatus, . . . Electric Machine, 18 inch Plate, Two quart Leyden Jar, Diamond Jar, ...., Movable Coatings Jar, Electrometer Jar, Discharger, 25 00 f 3 50 4 00 75 75 75 3 00 75 25 5 00 6 00 2 50 1 25 1 25 1 25 4 00 6 00 3 00 5 00 2 50 1 00 3 00 5 00 3 50 1 00 1 25 2 00 1 00 50 25 12 00 35 00 7 00 25 00 2 00 3 00 3 00 1 50 2 50 Directing Rod, Spiral Tube, Bells, S. and Point, Pithball Electrometer, Images and Plates, Insulating Stool, Box Pithballs, Sportsman and. Birds, Powder Bomb, Thunder House and Fixtures, . Hydrogen Generator, Long-Haired Man, Wheel and Point, Seasons Machine, Ether Spoon, Wax Friction Cylinder, Glass Friction Cylinder, Box Amalgam, Cylindrical Electro Battery, Electro Magnet, Electro Coil and Armatures, Powder Cup, Pair of Magnetic Needles and Stands, Bar Magnet, U Magnet and Armature, Terrestrial Helix, Revolving Electro Magnet, Magnetizing Helix, Compound Helices, with vibrating Armature for Shocks, Pair Handles, for Shocks, Set of Connecting Wires, Galvanometer, 200 2 50 3 00 50 50 2 50 6 00 25 75 1 25 5 00 3 00 50 1 00 2 50 75 1 00 1 00 25 3 00 1 00 2 50 50 2 00 5 00 1 50 50 3 00 Pneumatics and Hydraulics,.. $107 00 Electrics, 71 00 Mechanics, &c, 42 00 Magnetics, &c, 30 00 $250 00 SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. No. 4, marked 4 in Catalogue. Collision Balls, 3 00 Mechanical Powers, 35 00 # Set of Eye Models 12 00 Prism,.. 1 00 Compound Microscope, 10 00 Orrery, 10 00 Seasons Machine, 7 00 Pair ten inch Globes, 20 00 Double Barrel Air Pump, 35 00 Eight inch brass capped Bell Glasa 3 50 Tall Bell Glass and Jar, 3 00 Freezing Apparatus, 4 00 Expansion Apparatus, 75 Hand Glass, 75 Mercury Tunnel, 1 00 Glass Pan, for Mercury, 25 Straight Jar, for Bell Glass, 75 Hemispherical Cups, 5 00 Upward Pressure Apparatus 6 00 Dozen Bursting Squares, 1 50 Cap Valve for do. , „ 25 Wire Guard for do., 75 Set of Screw Couplers, 2 50 Bell for Vacuo, 1 25 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OP PRICES. 369 SlidingJRoa, 1 50 Sheet Rubber Bag, 1 25 Artificial Fountain, 4 00 Float Wheel 1 00 Bacchus Illustration, 1 50 Guinea and Feather Tube, 6 00 Water Hammer, . . 3 00 Barometer Apparatus, 3 00 Weight and Buoyancy of Air, .... 6 00 Vacuum Gauge 2 50 Condensing Pump, 5 00 Condensing Chamber and Cock,.. 3 50 Air Gun Barrel, 1 00 Revolving Jet, 1 25 Jet Paradox Tunnel, 1 50 Water Pan and Tube, 75 Plate Paradox and Disks 1 00 Pipe Paradox and Balls, 1 00 Water Hose, 1 00 Brass Jet, 50 Exploding Cup and Cock, 2 00 Stopcock Collars, 25 Pair Water Pumps and Fixtures,. 12 00 Electric Machine, 18 inch Plate,. 25 00 Battery of four quart Jars, 6 00 Double Jar, 3 50 Diamond Jar, 3 00 Movable Coatings, 3 00 Electrometer Jar, 1 50 Discharger, 2 50 Directing Rod, 2 00 Spiral Tube, 2 50 Bells,... 3 00 Pithball Electrometer, 50 S. and Point, 50 Pair Plates and Images, 2 50 Box Pithballs, 25 Insulating Stool, 6 00 Sportsman and Birds, 75 Powder Bomb, 1 25 Thunder House and Fixtures,... 5 00 Hydrogen Generator, 3 00 Long-Haired Man, 50 Float Wheel and Point, 1 00 Seasons Machine, 2 50 Ether Spoon, To Wax Friction Cylinder, 1 00 Glass Friction Cylinder, 1 50 25 00 1 00 1 50 6 00 2 50 Electric Swing and Image, 2 00 Gasometers and Fixtures, Flask, screw-capped for Oxygen,. Lead Conducting Tube, Reflectors and Iron Ball, Spirit Boiler for do., Pyrometer, Rods, and Lamps,... Conductometer and Rods, Fire Syringe and Tinder, Set of Wire Gauze, Lamp Stand, Spirit Lamp, Grad. Oz. Measure, Ten cubic inch do., Test Tubes, six, Flasks, three, Funnel, Retorts, tubulated, three, ........ Evaporating Dishes, three, Hydrogen Balloon, Pair long-necked Matrasses, Dozen Candle Bombs, Dozen Prince Rupert's Drops, Steam Globe and Jet, Wollaston's Steam Apparatus,.. Chemical Substances, 60 2 00 60 50 50 1 50 3 00 10 00 Electro Cylinder Battery, 6 00 U Magnet and Armature, 50 Electro Magnet, 1 00 Bar Armature, 25 Y Armature, 75 Star Armature, 75 Magnetic Needle and Stand, .... 1 00 Powder Cup, 50 Coil and Hem. Armatures, 2 50 Magnetizing Helix, 3 00 Terrestrial Helix, ' 1 50 Revolving Magnet, 5 00 Vibrating Shocker, 5 00 Shocking Handles, 1 50 Set of Connecting Wires, 50 Pneumatics, 124 75 Electrics, , 80 00 Chemicals, 68 20 Magnetics, &c, 29 75 Mechanics, &c 98 00 #400 00 SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. No. 5, marked 5 in Catalogue. Collision Balls, 4 00 Mechanical Powers, 35 00 Centre of Gravity, 7 00 Set of Eye Models, 12 00 Prism,.; 1 00 Microscope, 12 00 Orrery, 10 00 Seasons, 7 00 Pair of Globes, 30 00 Ah- Pump, 40 00 Open Swelled Bell Glass, 4 50 Brass screw-capped Bell, 3 50 24 Straight Jar for do., 1 00 Freezing Apparatus, 4 00 Tall Bell Glass and Jar,.... 3 00 Expansion Apparatus, 75 Swelled Hand Glass, 1 00 Hemispherical Cups, 5 00 Upward Pressure Apparatus,.... 6 00 Dozen Bursting Squares, 1 50 Cap Valve for do., 25 Wire Guard for do., 75 Set of Screw Couplers, 2 50 Bell for Vacuo, 1 25 Sliding Rod for do., 1 25 Sheet Rubber Bag, &e., 1 25 370 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF PRICES. Artificial Fountain, &c, 4 00 Mercury Tunnel, 1 00 Glass Pan for Mercury, 30 Guinea and Feather Tube, 6 00 Barometer Apparatus, 3 00 Weight and Buoyancy of Air, .... 6 00 Syphon Vacuum Gauge, 2 50 Float Wheel, 1 00 Water Hammer, 3 00 Condensing Chamber and Cock,.. 3 50 Condenser, 5 00 Air Gun Barrel, 1 00 Revolving Jet, 1 25 Plate Paradox and Disks, 1 00 Pipe Paradox and Balls, 1 00 Hose and Water Jet, 1 00 Brass Jet, 50 Leathers for Stopcocks, 50 Exploding Cup, Cap, and Cock,.. 2 00 Jet Paradox and Balls, 1 50 Water Pan and Tube, 75 Pair of Water Pumps, 12 00 Electric Machine, 24 inch Plate,. . 50 00 Battery, 8 00 Double Jar, 3 50 JJiamond Jar, 3 00 Movable Coatings, 3 00 Electrometer Jar, •. . 1 50 Directing Rod, 2 00 Discharger, 2 50 Spiral tube, 2 50 Pithball Electrometer, 50 Insulating Stool, 6 00 Set of Bells, 3 00 Dancing Image Plates, . . . • 2 00 Pair of Dancing Images, 50 Box of Pithballs, 50 Sportsman and Birds, 75 Powder Bomb, 1 25 Abbe Nolet's Globe, 3 00 Thunder House and Fixtures, .... 5 00 Hydrogen Generator, 3 00 Long-Haired Man, 50 Float Wheel and Point, 1 00 S. and Point, 50 Seasons Machine, 2 50 Ether Spoon, 75 Miser's Plate, 150 Electric Swing and Image, 1 00 Box of Amalgam, 25 Gasometers and Fixtures, 35 00 Retort for Oxygen, 2 00 Conducting Gas Tube, 1 60 Reflectors on Stands, 5 00 Spirit Boiler, 2 50 Barometer and Lamps, 3 00 Lamp Stand, 2 00 Conductometer 1 00 Pendent Spoon, 25 Fire Syringe and Tinder, 1 50 Set of Wire Gauze, 50 Gas Bag and Cock, 5 00 Chemical Thermometer, 2 50 Spirit Lamp, 1 00 Graduated Measure, 1 00 Test Tubes, six, 75 Flasks, three, 1 00 Funnel, 20 Flasks, flat bottom, three, 15 Tub. Retorts, six, 2 00 Evaporating Dishes, three, 75 Two Wedgwood do., 50 Mortar and Pestle, 1 00 Hydrogen Balloon, 2 00 Stirring Rods, 25 Matrasses, two, 60 Candle Bombs, dozen, 50 Steam Globe, brass, with Jet,.... 1 50 Chemical Substances, 10 00 Electro Battery, 8 00 Bar Magnet, 1 00 U Magnet and Armature, 1 00 Electro Magnet, 2 00 Bar Armature, 25 Y Armature, 75 Star Armature, 75 Pair of Needles, 2 00 Powder Cup, 50 Coil and Hem. Armatures, 2 50 Magnetizing Helix, 3 00 Galvanometer, 3 00 Terrestrial Helix, 150 Revolving Electro Magnet, 5 00 Analysis of Shocks Apparatus, . . 12 00 Shocking Handles, 1 50 Set of Connecting Wires, 50 Thermo- Electric Arch, 5 00 Decomposing Cell, 3 00 Pneumatics, 135 30 Electrics, 110 00 Chemicals, 85 55 Mechanics, &c, 118 00 Electro Magnets, 51 25 #500 10 SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. No. 6, marked 6 in Catalogue. Collision Balls, 4 00 Centre of Gravity Apparatus, .... 7 00 Mechanical Powers, 35 00 Lenses, 6 00 Prism, 2 00 Microscope, 12 00 Orrery, 25 00 Seasons Machine, 7 00 Globes, 30 00 Magic Lantern, 25 00 Astronomical Slides, 20 00 Air Pump, 75 00 Open Swelled Bell Glass, 4 50 Brass capped Bell Glass, 8 inch, . . 3 50 Straight Jar for do., 1 00 Tall Bell Glass and Jar 3 00 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF PRICES. 371 Freezing Apparatus, Expansion do., • Swelled Hand Glass, Hemispherical Cups, Upward Pressure Apparatus,.... Dozen Bursting Squares, Cap Valve for do., Wire Guard for do., Set of Screw Couplers, Bell for Vacuo, Sliding Rod for do., &c, Sheet Rubber Bag, &c, Artificial Fountain, Bacchus Illustration, Mercury Tunnel, Guinea and Feather Tube, Water Hammer, Cap, and Cock, . Barometer Apparatus, Weight and Buoyancy of Air, .... Copper Condensing Chamber and Cock, Condensing Pump, Air Gun Barrel, Jet Paradox and Balls, Cock and Int. Ext. Jets for do.,.. Revolving Jet, Plate Paradox and Disks, Pipe Paradox and Balls, Water Hose and Jet, Brass Jet, Water Pan and Tube, Bladder, Cup, Cap, and Cock,.... Stopcock Leathers, Pair of Water Pumps, . Hydrostatic Bellows,.. Electric Machine, 24 inch Plate, Battery of four Jars, Atmospheric Jar Diamond Jar, Movable Coatings, Electrometer Jar, Directing Rod, Jointed Discharger, Universal Discharger, Spiral Tube, Pithball Electrometer, Insulating Stool, Set of Bells, Dancing Image Plates, Pair of Dancing Images, Box of Pithballs, Sportsman and Birds, Powder ' Bomb, Wax Friction Cylinder, Glass Friction Cylinder, Quadrant Electrometer, Gold Leaf Electrometer, Thunder House and Fixtures, . . Hydrogen Generator, Long-Haired Man, Float Wheel and Point, S and Point, Abbe Nolet's Globe, Seasons Machine, Igniting Spoon, > . . Miser's Plate, Bucket and Syphon, Electric Swing and Image, 00 00 00 00 00 50 25 75 2 50 1 25 1 50 2 00 4 00 ' 1 50 1 00 6 00 3 00 7 00 7 00 3 50 5 00 1 00 1 50 1 50 1 25 1 00 1 00 1 00 50 75 2 00 50 12 00 8 00 50 00 10 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 1 50 2 00 3 50 6 00 2 50 75 6 00 3 00 3 00 50 50 75 1 25 1 50 1 50 2 00 2 00 5 00 4 00 50 1 00 75 3 00 3 50 75 2 00 1 00 2 00 Box of Amalgam, Pair of Gasometers and Fixtures,. Oxygen Retort, Lead Conducting Tube, Pair of Reflectors, Spirit Boiler, Radiating Cubes, Pyrometer, Lamp Stand, Conductometer, Pendent Spoons, Fire Syringe and Tinder, Set of Wire Gauze, Large Gas Bag and Cock, Crucibles, Chemical Thermometer, Spirit Lamp, Dropping Tube, Graduated Measure, Oz., Measure, ten cubic inches, Six Test Tubes, Flasks, six, Tunnel, Glass Flat Flasks, three, Globe Receivers, two, Tubular Retorts, six, Glass Evaporating Dishes, three,. Wedgwood. Mortar and Pestle,. . . Hydrogen Balloon, Stirring Rods, three, Bologna Vials, six, Rupert's Drops, dozen, Matrasses, two, Candle Bombs, dozen, Steam Globe and Jet, Wollaston's *Steam Apparatus, . . , Marset's Steam Globe,... Chemical Substances, 50 35 00 2 00 1 50 8 00 2 50 2 00 3 00 2 00 2 00 1 25 1 50 75 5 00 20 2 50 1 00 20 1 00 1 25 75 2 20 25 1 25 80 2 50 60 1 00 2 00 25 50 50 70 50 1 50 3 00 25 00 15 00 Sulphate Copper Battery, 8 00 Bar Magnet, 1 00 U Magnet and Wheel, 3 00 Bar Armature, 25 Y Armature, 75 Star Armature, 75 Magnetic Needle and Stand, 100 Powder Cup, 50 Voltaic Pistol f. 3 00 Electro Magnet, 5 00 Coil and Hem. Magnets, 3 50 Magnetizing Helix, 3 00 Galvanometer, 3 00 Terrestrial Helix, 2 00 De la Rive's Ring, 125 Bell Engine, 12 00 Revolving Electro Magnet, 5 00 Thermo-Electric Arch, 5 00 Analysis of Shocks Apparatus,... 12 00 Shocking Handles, 1 50 Connecting Wires, 50 Decomposing Cell, 3 00 173 00 Pneumatics, &c, 200 00 Electrics...... 122 00 Chemicals, 130 95 Magnetics, &c, 75 00 #700 00 372 CHAMBERLAIN'3 CATALOGUE OF PRICES. SET OF PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS. No. 7, marked 7 in Catalogue. 7 00 9 00 1 75 25 1 00 2 50 1 25 2 00 Set of Collision Balls, 6 00 Centre of Gravity Apparatus, .... 7 00 Whirling Machine, &c, 8 00 Mechanical Powers, 35 00 Set of Lenses, 6 00 Prism, 2 00 Compound Microscope, 18 00 Orrery, 25 00 Pair 13 inch high-mounted Globes, 40 00 Magic Lantern, 25 00 Astronomical Illustrations, 20 00 Seasons Machine, 7 00 Air Pump, 85 00 Bell Glass, open, swelled, 6 00 Bell Glass, brass capped, 3 50 Tall Bell Glass and Jar, 3 00 Freezing Apparatus, 12 inch, .... 6 00 Expansion Apparatus, 2 00 Hand Glass, swelled, 1 00 Bladder Cup, Cap, and Cock, .... 2 00 Hemispherical Cups, Upward Pressure Apparatus, . . Dozen Bursting Squares...... Cap Valve for do., Wire Guard for do., Set of Screw Couplers, five, . . . Bell for Vacuo, Sliding Bod for do.,. ......... . Vane Mill for Vacuo, V. 7 00 Sheet Rubber Bag, &c, 2 00 Artificial Fountain and Jets, 4 00 Tall Bolthead and Cap, 1 50 Bacchus Illustration, 3 00 Mercury Tunnel, 1 00 Guinea and Feather Tube, 7 00 Water Hammer, Cap, and Cock,.. 3 00 Chamberlain's Barometer, 7 00 Vacuum Gauge, 3 50 Weighing Air Apparatus, 15 00 Buoyancy of Air Apparatus, 6 00 Double Transferrer* 10 00 Straight Jar, 1 00 Pear Gauge, 3 00 Syphon in Vacuo, 4 00 Glass Condensing Chamber, ...... 10 00 Double Acting Condenser, 8 00 Air Gun Barrel, 1 25 Revolving Jet, 1 25 Stopcock, Int. and Ext. Jets,.... 2 00 Jet Paradox Tunnel, &c, 1 50 Water Pan and Tube, 75 Plate Paradox and Disks, I 25 Pipe Paradox and Balls,.. 1 25 Water Hose and Jet, 1 00 Straight Brass Jet, 75 Condensation Gauge Syphon, ... . 3 00 Condensation Gauge Globe, 1 50 Condensation Gauge, graduated,. 1 50 Dozen Crushing Squares, 1 00 Dozen Sinking Globes, 50 Bell for Condensed Air, 1 25 Thermometer for Condens. Cham., 1 00 Stopcock Leathers,.... Pair of Water Pumps, . Hydrostatic Bellows,.. Hydrostatic Press, .... 50 Thirtj^inch Plate Machine, Battery, six Jars, Double Jar, Diamond Jar, Movable Coatings, Atmospheric Jar, Electrometer Jar, Sliding Directing Rod, Jointed Discharger, ............ Universal Discharger, Spiral Spotted Tube. Spotted Star, Revolving Bell Glass, Pithball Electrometer, Quadrant do., Gold Leaf do., Insulating Stool,.... Stand, Bell, and Dancing Balls,. Set of Bells, three, Dancing Image Plates,.... ...... Pair of Dancing Images, Assortment of Pithballs, Electric Sportsman and Birds, . . Wax Friction Cylinder, Glass Friction Cylinder, Powder Bomb, Thunder House and Fixtures,... Brass Cannon, &c Hydrogen Generator, Long-Haired Man, Float Wheel and Point, ........ Abbe Nolet's Globe, Electric S- and Point, Electric Bucket and Syphon,... Electric Swing and Image, Electric Seasons Machine, Electrophorus and Fixtures,.... Electric Igniting Spoon, Miser's Plate, Inclined Plane and Wheel, Pair of Gasometers, Iron Retort for Oxygen, Lead Conducting Tube, Pair of 13 inch Reflectors, in case, Spirit Boiler for do. , Pair of Radiating Cubes, Pyrometer, Rods, and Lamps,. . . . Two Lamp Stands, Conductometer, six Rods, ....... Pair of Pendent Spoons, Fire Syringe and Tinder, Set of Wire Gauze, three, Blowpipe, Elevating Stand, &c, Large Gas Bag and Stopcock,.... Set of Crucibles, Chemical Thermometer, 12 00 8 00 20 00 85 00 14 00 4 00 3 00 3 00 3 00 2 50 3 00 3 50 7 00 3 00 4 00 2 00 1 00 3 00 3 00 6 00 2 00 3 00 3 00 50 1 00 1 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 6 00 4 00 4 00 75 1 50 5 00 1 00 1 50 2 00 3 50 8 00 1 00 2 00 4 00 60 00 3 00 1 50 8 50 2 50 2 00 4 00 4 00 2 00 1 25 1 50 75 50 1 50 5 00 20 2 50 CHAMBERLAIN'S CATALOGUE OF PRICES. 373 Spirit Lamp, 100 Aphlogistic Lamp, . . 2 00 Dropping Tube, 25 Graduated Oz. Measure, 1 00 Measure, ten cubic inches, 1 25 Dozen Test Tubes, assorted, .... 1 50 Graduated Tube, cubic inch,.... 50 Condensation Tube, 75 Flasks, six, assorted, 2 20 Glass Funnels, two, 60 Flasks, flat bottom, six, 2 50 Globe Receivers, two, 80 Tubular Retorts, six, assorted,... 2 50 Chemical Furnace, ' 10 00 Iron Tube for Decomposing,.... 1 00 Evaporating Dishes, three, 75 Wedgwood do., five, 1 50 Glass Mortar and Pestle, 1 00 Wedgwood do., 1 25 Platina Spatula, 1 50 Hydrogen Balloon, 3 00 Stirring Rods, Glass, six, 75 Bologna Vials, dozen, 1 00 Prince Rupert's Drops, 50 Matrasses, three, assorted, 1 10 Alembic, 1 75 Steam Balls, dozen, 50 Brass Steam Globe and Jet, 1 50 Wollaston's Steam Apparatus,.. 3 00 Marcet's Steam Globe and Fix- tures, 25 00 Chamberlain's Steam Flask and Fixtures, 8 00 Sul. Copper Battery, 3 00 Bar Magnet and Keeper, 1 00 U Magnet and Wheel Armature, . 3 00 Bar Armature, 50 Y Armature, 75 Star Armature, 1 00 Magnetic Needle and Stand,.... 1 00 Galvanic Battery, 25 06 Powder Cup, 50 Voltaic Pistol, 4 00 Electro Magnet, 5 00 Coil and Hem. Magnets, 3 50 Magnetizing Helix, 3 00 Galvanometer, 3 00 Orsted's Galvanometer, 4 00 Terrestrial Helix, 2 00 De la Rive's Ring, 1 25 Bell Engine, 12 00 Revolving Electro Magnet, 5 00 Thermo-Electric Arch, 5 00 Analysis of Shocks Apparatus,.. 12 00 Shocking Handles, 1 50 Connecting Wires 50 Magneto-Electric Machine, 40 00 Decomposing Cell, 3 00 Mechanics, Astronomical, Op- tics, &c, 200 00 Pneumatics, 250 00 Electrics, 210 00 Chemicals, 200 00 Galvanic, &c, 100 00 pooo 00 Set of Chemical Substances, for use with the above Ap- paratus, 20 00 Note. — See page 347, Apparatus, figured and described in Pneumatics, but used is Chemistry. 574 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. Hints respecting Blackboards. The upper portion of the standing blackboard should be inclined back a little from the perpendicular, and along the lower edge there should be a pro- jection or trough to catch the particles detached from the chalk or crayon when in use, and a drawer to receive the sponge, cloth, lamb's-skin, or other soft article used in cleaning the surface of the board. Blackboards, even when made with great care, and of the best seasoned materials, are liable to injury and defacement from warping, opening of seams, or splitting when exposed to the overheated atmosphere of school-rooms, unless they are set in a frame like a slate, or the panel of a door. By the following ingenious, and cheap contrivance, a few feet of board can be converted into a table, a sloping desk, one or two blackboards, and a form or seat, and the whole folded up so as not to occupy a space more than five inches wide, and be easily moved from one room to another. It is equally well adapted to a school-room, class-room, library or nursery. // Under side of the „ ' swinging board, sus- | fc)- 1 pended by rule-joint hinges, when turned up, painted black or dark chocolate. a d Folding brackets, inclined at an angle of 75 degrees, and swung out to support the board when a sloping desk is required. b c Folding brackets to support the swinging board when a bench or flat table is required. e e e e Uprights attached to the wall. g g Form to be used when the swinging board is let down, and to be sup- ported by folding legs. The under side can be used as a blackboard for small children. h A wooden button to retain the swinging board when turned up for use as a blackboard. n Opening to receive n inkstands, and deposit for slate, pencil, chalk, &c. m Surface of swing- ing board when let down. I Surface of form or bench. When not in use, or let down, the desk and form should hang flush with each other. A cheap movable blackboard can be made after the following cut (Fig. 3. <> O () i m 8Ft. 7£n. 1 I SCHOOL APPARATUS. 375 A large movable A movable stand to support a blackboard may be made like a painter's easel, as repre- sented in the accompanying cut. n, Pins for board to rest on. c, Hinge or joint to the supporting legs, which are braced by hook b, and may be folded up, and the stand put away in a closet. A stand of this kind is convenient to display outline and other maps, reading lessons and other diagrams. blackboard may be made as represented in the accompanying out. An upright frame, strongly braced by cross-pieces (a) is in- serted into the feet (b,) or horizontal sup- ports having castors, on which the whole may be rolled on the floor. Within grooves on the inside of this upright frame is a smaller frame (c) hung by a cord which passes over a pulley (d,) and is so balanced by weights, concealed in the upright parts, as to admit of being raised or lowered conveniently. Within this inner frame is hung the blackboard on pivots, by which the surface of the board can be inclined from a perpendic- ular. A cheaper movable frame, with a blackboard suspended on a pivot, can he made as represented in the lower diagram. The feet, if made as represented in this cut, will be liable to get broken. Composition for Blackboards. Lampblack and flour of emery mixed with spirit-varnish. No more lampblack and flour of emery should be used than are suf- ficient to give the required black and abrading surface ; and the var- nish should contain only sufficient gum to hold the ingredients togeth- er, and confine the composition to the board. The thinner the mix- ture, the better. The lampblack should first be ground with a small quantity of al- cohol, or spirit-varnish, to free it from lumps. The composition should be appli- ed to the smoothly-planed surface of the board, with a common painter's brush. Let it become thoroughly, dry and hard before it is used. Rub it down with pumice-stone, or a piece of smooth wood covered with the composition. This composition may also be used on the walls. EI ■■ ll®^* ■ ■ '*f '\ gJQ SCHO "H, ARCHITECTURE. Slate Blackboard. In the class-rooms of the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, and all similar institutions, where most of the instruction is given by writing, and drawings on the blackboard, large slates from three feet wide, to four feet long are substituted for the blackboard. These slates cost from $2 to $3, and are superior to any other form of blackboard, and in a series of years prove more economical. Plaster Blackboard. As a substitute for the painted board, it is common to paint black a portion of the plastered wall when covered with hard finish, (i. e. plaster of Paris and sand ;) or to color it by mixing with the hard finish a sufficient quantity of lamp-black, wet with alcohol, at the time of putting it on. The hard finish, colored in this way, can be put on to an old, as well as to a new surface. Unless the lamp-black is wet with alcohol, or sour beer, it will not mix uni- formly with the hard finish, and when dry, the surface, instead of being a uniform black, will present a spotted appearance- Canvas Blackboard. Every teacher can provide himself with a portable, blackboard made of canvas cloth, 3 feet wide and 8 feet long, covered with three or four coats of black paint, like Winchester's Writing Charts. One side -might, like this chart, present the elements of the written characters classified in the order of their simplicity, and guide-marks to enable a child to determine with ease the height, width, and inclination of every letter. Below, on the same side, might be ruled the musical scale, leaving sufficient space to receive such characters as may be required to illustrate lessons in music- The oppo- site side can be used for the ordinary purposes of a blackboard. When rolled up, the canvas would occupy a space three feet long, and not more than three inches in diameter. Directions for making Crayons. A school, or the schools of a town, may be supplied with crayons very cheaply, made after the following directions given by Professor Turner oi the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb. Take 5 pounds of Paris White, 1 pound of Wheat Flour, wet with water, and knead it well, make it so stiff that it will not stick to the table, but not so stiff as to crumble and fall to pieces when it is rolled under the hand. To roll out the crayons to the proper size, two boards are needed, one, to roll them on ; the other to roll them with. The first should be a smooth pine board, three feet long, and nine inches wide. The other should also be pine, a foot long, and nine inches wide, having nailed on the under side, near each edge, a slip of wood one third of an inch thick, in order to raise it so much above the under board, as, that the crayon, when brought to its proper size, may lie between them without being flattened. The mass is rolled into a ball, and slices are cut from one side of it about one third of an inch thick ; these slices are again cut into strips about four inches long and one third of an inch wide, and rolled separately between these boards until smooth and round. Near at hand, should be another board 3 feet long and 4 inches wide, across which each crayon, as it is made, should be laid so that the ends may pro- ject on each side — the crayons should be laid in close contact and straight. When the board is filled, the ends should be trimmed off so as to make the crayons as long as the width of the board. It is then laid in the sun, if in hot weather, or if in winter, near a stove or fire-place, where the crayons may dry gradually, which will require twelve hours. When thoroughly dry, they are fit for use. An experienced hand will make 150 in an hour. GOOD YEAR'S VULCANIZED INDIA RUBBER. 377 Goodyear's Metallic Gum-elastic, or Vulcanized India rubber. The' fabric known as "Goodyear's Gum-elastic, or Vulcanized India rubber" invented and manufactured by Charles Goodyear, of New Haven, Conn., is capable of many highly useful applications in the school-room, and for educa- tional purposes generally. By the changes wrought by Mr. Goodyear in the construction of his fabrics, all of the remarkable properties of the gum in its native state are preserved and improved, while its defects and objeetional features are obviated. There seems to be no limit to the many useful purposes to which it may be applied, in every department of the useful arts, and of prac- tical life, and the public is not yet apprised of its manifold adaptations to hu- mane purposes, and to the protection of life and property. We shall here notice only a few of its many useful applications in the school- room, and for school purposes generally. Book-binding or Covers- Several styles of Goodyear's fabrics are admirably adapted to the binding, or covers of school-books. A cover of this material does not crack, or warp, is not injured by water or oil, is not easily soiled, and if soiled, can be readily cleaned. A school-book bound in this way, we have every reason to suppose, will outlast, in the ordinary "wear and tear" of a child's use, (except that of the knife, which ought never to be allowed in a child's hand in the school- room,) a dozen bound in the best style with any kind of leather. School Books. Its uses are not confined to covers, but school books can be printed on this fabric, which can be manufactured of suitable thinness for this purpose, and at the same time have a strength of texture, which will not tear, but outlast the best linen paper, and at the same time be readily cleaned when soiled. When school books are printed on this fabric, and bound in covers of the same, one of the greatest items of educational expense will be reduced. Maps and Charts. We have seen beautiful specimens of maps printed on various specimens of a new fabric, recently invented, and called vegetable leather, gutn-elastic vellum, and metallic tissue, which will admit of the roughest use, and are capable of being handled for years without any injury, and can be rolled or folded up when not in use. We see no difficulty in printing outline maps, charts, and diagrams of all kinds on this fabric, which can be rolled up when not needed, and which can be washed and wiped clean with sponge, if soiled from use, or from the dust and smoke of the school-room. Both sides of the fabric can be used for the purposes of printing. The outline maps, if made of suitable fabric, can be filled ■ up by the scholar, and the pencil marks erased by the sponge. Maps of this material can be so made as to exhibit the elevations and depressions on the earth's surface. Globes. We have seen beautiful specimens of globes, celestial and terrestrial, and of a great variety of sizes, from three inches to three feet, made of the fabric above described, such as vegetable leather, or gum-elastic vellum. When em- bossed, they show the elevations and depressions, the mountains and valleys, and water-courses of the earth's surface. When inflated with gas lighter than atmospheric air, they float about the room. If soiled, they can be easily cleaned with the sponge, and will bear the roughest usage. If the great outlines of the globe only are printed, the pupil can be exercised in filling up the blank with a lead pencil. When articles made of this fabric come into demand, our schools can be furnished with globes almost at the price of children's toys, and thus the great objection of expense will no longer prevent the introduction of this 378 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. piece of apparatus, and of visible illustration, into every school of every grade. When not inflated, the globe of three feet can be packed away in a space of about as many inches. Floor Cloth, or Carpet. This fabric is admirably adapted for carpeting the aisles of a school-room, both to prevent reverberation, and to secure cleanliness. It can be easily cleaned, and will wear as long as the floor itself. Blackboard and Desk Covering. By using different styles of this fabric, a suitable surface of any desirable size can be obtained for the lead or slate pencil, which can be attached per- manently to a wall, or be made in a portable form. Ii can be attached to the top of the desk, and thereby prevent all reverberation. When thus applied, it will not gather dust, or wear out, like cloth, but can be kept clean with a sponge, and will wear as long as the wood itself. The fabric used for covering a desk, can be of the same style of fabric as that used for a blackboard or slate, and thus answer all the purposes of either of these articles of apparatus. Sponge. An article is made of the gum, leavened and raised like bread, and called a sponge, from its close resemblance, in texture and uses, to the natural sponge. It is the best article which we have seen for erasing marks made by a lead or slate pencil, or chalk, on paper, slate, or blackboard, or prepared surface of any kind in the nature of the blackboard or slate. Besides answering all the purposes of the sponge in such applications, it will remove the oiliness which is frequently communicated to the slate by the hand, &c. It is also inval- uable as a mop, or scrub, or shoe mat, at the door of the school-house, as it is not injured by exposure, or the roughest and most constant usage. Pen and Pencil Wiper. The article used for making the sponge can also be made into a pen-wiper, and can be attached to the inkstand, (which can also be manufactured of the same material.) It can also be attached to the end of the lead pencil, or to the port-crayon, or handle for the more convenient use of the crayon, chalk, or slate pencil. It will work much closer than the native gum, and is admirably adapted to drawing purposes. Calisthenic Exercises. Every school, and especially every school for girls and young ladies, should be supplied with swings, and other apparatus for developing, expanding, and strengthening the muscles of the chest, arms, &c, and for these purposes several styles of this fabric are admirably adapted. Drawing and Writing Tablets. One style of the improved metallic fabric is admirably adapted as a substi- tute for paper or slate, for introductory exercises in writing and drawing, as each impression of the pencil can be removed by the sponge, and a fresh, clean surface as constantly secured. The same material can be used for books for memoranda, records of attendance, returns of school committees, 6cc. The excellence of this fabric for all school purposes, as compared with paper, and other materials used for similar purposes, consists in its durability and economy. LIBRARY. Every school should he furnished with a Library which should include, 1. Books on schools and school-systems, for the use of school officers and parents ; and on the theory and practice of teaching, for the pro- fessional instruction of teachers. 2. Books of reference, for the use principally of teachers. 3. Books for circulation among the pupils. 4. Books for circulation among the parents, and inhabitants of the Dis- trict, or neighborhood. In the arrangement, and furniture of a school-house, provision should be made for the Library. The following catalogue may assist those who are charged with the purchase of books : Books on Education. The School and School-master, by Alonzo Potter, (Bishop of Pennsylvania,) and George B. Emerson. New York: Harper and Brothers. Boston : Fowle and Capen. Price $1.00. 551 pages. This volume was prepared at the request of the late James Wads- worth, of Geneseo, New York, with special reference to the condition and wants of common schools in that State. Its general principles and most of its details are applicable to similar schools in other parts of the country, and. indeed, to all seminaries employed in giving elementary instruction. Mr. Wadsworth directed a copy of it to be placed in each of the school libraries of New York, at his expense, and his noble example was fol- lowed in respect to the schools of Massachusetts, by the Hon. Martin Brimmer, of Boston. CONTENTS. PART I. Introduction. Chapter I. Education op the People. Sec. I. What is Education. Sec. II. Prevailing Errors in regard to the Nature and End of Education. Sec. III. The same Subject continued. Sec. IV. Same Subject continued. Sec. V. What is the Education most needed by the American People. Sec. VI. The Importance of Education, 1. To the Individual. Sec. VII. The Importance of Education, 2. To Society. Chapter II. Common Schools. Sec. I. Relation of Common Schools to other Means of Education. Sec. II. Present State of Common Schools. — 1. School-houses. 2. Manners. 3. Morals. Sec. III. Sa?ne Subject continued. — 4. Intellectual Instruction. 5. Irregular Attend- ance. Sec. IV. How can Common Schools be improved ? — 1. Discussion. 2. Female Teachers. 3. Union or High Schools. 4. Consolidation of Districts. Sec. V. The Improvement of Com- mon Schools continued. Organization in Cities. — 1. District System. 2. Monitorial. 3. Facher System. 4. American system. 5. Diversity of Class-books. Sec. VI. Sa?ne Subject, continued. — Education of Teachers. CONTENTS. PART II. Introduction. Book I. Qualities. Chap. I. Mental and Moral, important in a Teacher. Chap. II. Health. Exercise. Diet. Sleep. Recreation. Book II. Studies. Chap. I. Laws of the Creation. Chap. II. Natural Laws. Chap. III. Independence of the Natural Laws. Chap. IV. Higher Studies. Chap. V. Advantages of a Teacher's Life. Book III. Duties. Chap. I, To Himself. Self-Culture. Chap. II. To his Pupils, to give them means of Knowledge. Chap. III. To his Pupils, to form their Moral Character. Chap. IV. To his Pupils, Cultivation of their Powers. Chap. V. Communication of Knowledge. Chap. VI. To his Fellow-Teachers. Chap. VII. To Parents and the Community. Book IV. The School. Chap. I. Organization. Chap. II. Instruction. General Prinei« pies. Chap. III. Teaching: 1. Reading. 2. Spelling. 3. Grammar. 4. Writing. 5. DrfaW- 380 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. ing. 6. Arithmetic. 7. Accounts. 8. Geography. 9. History. 10. Physiology. 11. Com position. Chap. IV. Government. Book V. The School-house. Chap. I. Situation. Chap. II. Size. Chap. III. Position and Arrangement. Chap. IV. Light. Warming. Ventilation. The Teacher's Manual, by Thomas H. Palmer. Boston: Marsh, Capen, Lyon & Webb, 1840. pp. 263. Price, 75 cents. This work received the prize of five hundred dollars, offered by the American Institute of Instruction, in 1838, for " the best Essay on a sys- tem of Education best adapted to the Common Schools of our country.' 1 CONTENTS. PART I. Chapter I. Introductory. Chapter II. Who are our Schoolmas- ters. Chapter III. Physical Education. Chapter IV. Intellectual Education. Chapter V. In- tellectual Education, continued. Chapter V 'I. Moral Education. Chapter VII. Recapitulation. PART II. Chapter I. Introductory. Chapter II. Physical Education. Chapter III. Physi- cal Education, continued. Chapter IV. Physical Education, continued. Chapter V. Intellec- tual Education. Chapter VI. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter VII. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter ■ VIII. Intellectual Education, continued. Chapter IX. Intel- lectual Education, continued. Chapter X. Intellectual Education, concluded. Chapter, XL Moral Education. Chapter XII. Moral Education, continued. Chapter XIII. Conclusion. The Teacher Taught, by Emerson Davis, late Principal of the Westfield Academy. Boston: Marsh, Capen, Lyon & Webb, 1839. pp. 79. Price 37 § cents. This valuable work was first published in 1833, as " An Abstract of a Course of Lectures on School-keeping." Slate and Blackboard Exercises, By William A. Alcott. New York: Mark H. Newman. Price 37 cents. The chapters in this little work were first published in the Connecticut Common School Journal, in 1841. The various suggestions and methods are highly practical. Theory and Practice of Teaching, by David P. Page, Principal of the New York State Normal School. New York : A. S. Barnes & Co. CONTENTS. Chapter I. The Spirit of the Teacher. Chapter II. Responsibility ot the Teacher. Sec. I. The Neglected Tree. Sec. II. Extent of Responsibility. Sec. III. The Au- burn Prison. Chapter III. Habits of the Teacher. Chapter IV. Literary Qualifications of the Teacher. Ceapter V. Right Views of Education. Chapter VI. Right Modes of Teach ing. Sec. I. Pouring-in Process. Sec. II. Drawing-out Process. Sec. III. The more Excel lent. WSy. Sec. IV. Waking up Mind. Sec. V. Remarks. Chapter VII. Conducting Recita tions. Chapter VIII. Exciting an Interest in Study. Sec. I. Incentives. Emulation. Sec. II. Prizes and Rewards. Sec. III. Proper Incentives. Chapter IX. School Government, Sec. I. Requisites in the Teacher for Government. Sec. II. Means of securing Good Order, Sec. III. Punishments, Improper, Proper. Sec. IV. Corporal Punishment. Sec. V. Limita> tions and Suggestions. Chapter X. School Arrangements. Sec. I. Plan of Day's Work Sec. II. Interruptions. Sec. III. Recesses. Sec. IV. Assignment of Lessons. Sec. V. Re views. Sec. VI. Examinations, Exhibitions, Celebrations. Chapter XI. The Teacher's Re lation to the Parents of his Pupils. Chapter XII. The Teacher's Care of his Health. Chap ter XIII. The Teacher's Relation to his Profession. Chapter XIV. Miscellaneous Sugges< tions. Sec. I. Things to be avoided. Sec. II. Things to be performed. Chapter XV. The Rewards of the Teacher. Hints and Methods for the use of Teachers. Hartford: Price 25 cents. This volume is made up principally of selections from publications on methods of teaching, not easily accessible ; and under each subject dis- cussed, reference is made to various volumes, where additional sugges- tions can be found. The District School as it was, by one who went to it, (Rev. Warren Burton.) New York: J. Orville Taylor, 1838. In this amusing picture of "the lights and shadows" of school Ine as it was in New England twenty years ago, the teachers and scholars of gome of our District Schools as they are, will recognize the school-house, books, practices, and methods with which they are too familiar. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 381 Confessions of a School-master, by Dr. William A. Alcott. New York: Mark H. Newman. Price 50 cents. If our teachers will read these confessions of errors of omission and commission, and the record which it gives of real excellencies attained by the steps of a slow and laborious progress, they will save themselves the mortification of the first, and realize earlier the fruits of the last. Few men have the moral courage to look their former bad methods so directly in the face. Every young teacher should read this book. CONTENTS. Chapter I. My Introduction to School Keeping. Section I. Prepara tion and Engagement. Section II. The Examination. Section III. My Cogitations. Chapter II. My First Year. Section I. First day of School. Section II. General Course of Instruction. Section III. Particular Errors. SectionYV. Religious Exercises. Chapter III. My Second Year. Section I. Course of Instruction. Sectionll. Serious. Mistakes. Chapter IV. My Third Year. Section I. Complaint to the Grand Jurors. Section II. Introduction of a New School Book. Section III. Meeting of the Schools. Chapter V. Fourth and Fifth Years. Section I. Modes of Punishing. Section II. At- tending to other Employments. Section III. Late Evening Visits. Section IV. Studies and Methods. Chapter VI. My Sixth Year. Section I. Teaching by the Year. Terms and Object. Section II. Description of the School and School-house. Section III. First Efforts at Im- provement. Punctuality. Section IV. Methods and Discipline. Section V. Schools Neglected by Parents. Section VI. School Libraries. Section VII. Improper Company. Example. Chapter VII. My Seventh Year. Section I. Divided Attention. Section II. Teaching on the Sabbath. Chapter VIII. My Eighth Year. Section I. General Account of my School. Sectionll. Causes of Failure. Chapter IX. My Ninth Year. Section I. A Novel Enterprise. Section II. Methods of Teaching. Discipline. Chapter X. My Experience as a School Visitor. Sectionl. Examination of Teachers. Section II. Special Visits to Schools. Section III. Mettings for Improvement. Section IV. Introduction of a New Reading Book. Chapter XI. My Tenth Year in School. Section I. Commencement of School. Sec- tion II. Spelling, Reading, Writing, etc. Section III. Teaching Geography. Section IV. A Practical Exercise. Section V. Experiment in Teaching Etymology. Section VI. Teaching Orthography. Section VII. Forcing Knowledge. Section VIII. Teaching Pupils to sit still. Section IX. My Moral Influence. Section X. My 111 Health. Section XI. Countenancing the Sports of my Pupils. Section XII. Discipline. The School Teacher's Manual, by Henry Dunn, Secretary of the British and Foreign School Society, London. Hartford : Reed & Bar- ber, 1839. pp. 223. Price 50 cents. The American edition of this work is edited by Rev. Thomas H. Gal- laudet, which is the best evidence that could be given of the general soundness of the views presented by the English author. Teachers' Institute, by W. B. Fowle. Boston. Teaching a Science : The Teacher an Artist, by Rev. B. R. Hall. New York: Baker & Scribner. Corporal Punishment, by Lyman Cobb. New York : Mark H. Newman. School Keeping, by an Experienced Teacher. Philadelphia : John Grigg, 1831. The School-master's Friend, with the Committee-man's Guide, by Theodore Dwight, Jr. pp. 360. New York, Roe Lockwood, 415, Broad- way, 1835. The Teacher, or Moral Influences in the Instruction and Govern- ment of the Young, by Jacob Abbott. Boston, Whipple & Damrell, No. 9 Cornhill, Boston. Price 75 cents. Theory of Teaching, with a few practical Illustrations, by a Teacher., Boston : E. P. Peabody, 1841. pp. 128. District School, by J. Orville Taylor. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1834. gg2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Lectures on Education, by Horace Mann. Secretary of the Massa- chusetts Board of Education. Boston: Fowle& Capen, 1845. Pp. 338. Price $1.00. This volume embraces seven lectures, most of which were delivered before the Annual Common School Conventions, held in the several counties of Massachusetts, in 1838, '39, '40, '41, and '42. They are pub- lished in this form at the request of the Board of Education. No man, teacher, committee, parent, or friend of education generally, can read these lectures without obtaining much practical knowledge, and without being fired with a holy zeal in the cause. CONTENTS. Lecture I. Means and Objects of Common School Education. Lecture II Special Preparation, a prerequisite to Teaching. Lecture III. The Necessity of Education in a Republican Government. Lecture IV. What God does, and what He leaves for Ma'i to do, in the work of Education. Lecture V. An Hsfor.cal View of Education ; showing its Dignity and its Degradation. Lecture VI. On District School Libraries. Lecture VII. On School Pun- ishments. Locke and Milton on Education. Boston: Gray & Brown, 1830. The Education of Mothers, by L. Aime-Martin. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard, 1843. Education and Health, by Amariah Brigham. Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1843. Dr. Channing on Self Culture. Boston : Monroe & Co. Price 33 cents. Miss Sedgwick on Self Training, or Means and Ends. New York : Harper & Brothers. These two volumes, — the first written with special reference to young men, and the last, to young women, should be read by all young teachers 1 who would make their own individual character, attainments, and con- duct, the basis of all improvement in their profession. , The following works have special reference to instruction in Infant and Primary Schools : Exercises for the Senses. London: Charles Knight & Co. Pub- lished under the superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Use- ful Knowledge. Lessons on Objects : as given to children between the ages of six and eight, in a Pestalozzian School at Cheam, Sussex, by C. Mayo. London : Seeley, Burnside & Seeley, Fleet street, 1845. Lessons on Shells, as given to children between the ages of eight and ten, and by the author of "Lessons on Objects." London: Seeley, Burnside & Seeley, 1846. Patterson's Zoology for Schools. London. Model Lessons for Infant School Teachers, by the author of " Lessons on Objects." Parts I. and II. London : Seeley, Burnside & Seeley, 1846. Wilderspin's Infant System. London: James S. Hodgson, 112 Fleet street. Wilderspin's Elementary Education. London: James S. Hodgson. Chambers' Educational Course, — Infant Education, from two to Bix years of age. Edinburgh: W. R. Chambers. Practical Education, by Maria Edgeworth. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1835. BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 333 The following works will exhibit a pretty full view of the progress and condition of education in Europe. Smith's History of Education. Harper & Brothers. Price 50 cents. This work is substantially an abridgement of the great German work of Schwartz, and is worthy of an attentive perusal, not only for its his torical view of the subject, but for the discussion of the general principles which should be recognized in every system of education. Biber's Memoir of Pestalozzi, and his plan of Education. London: I.-Souter, 1831. Educational Institutions of Dr. Fellenberg, with an Appendix containing Woodbridge's Sketches of Hofwyl. London: Longman, 1842. Report on Education in Europe, by Alexander Dallas Bache. Philadelphia : Lydia R. Bailey, 1829. pp. 666. Report on Elementary Instruction in Europe, by Calvin E. Stowe, D. D. Boston: Thomas H. Webb & Co. Price 31 cents. Seventh Annual Report of the Secretary of the (Massachusetts) Board of Education, Hon. Horace Mann, 1843. Boston: Fowle and Capen. Price 25 cents. These three reports introduce the teacher into the school-rooms of the best teachers in Europe, and enable him to profit by the observations and experience of men who have been trained by a thorough preparatory course of study and practice at home, to the best methods of classification, instruction, and government of schools, as pursued abroad. Account of the Edingurgh Sessional School, Edinburgh, by John Wood. Boston : Monroe & Francis, 1830. Cousin's Report on Public Instruction in Prussia, translated by Sarah Austin. New York : Wiley & Long, 1835. Willm on the Education of the People, translated from the French by Prof. Nichol. Glasgow : 1847. Manual of the System of Primary Instruction pursued in the model schools of the British and Foreign School Society. London: 1839. Minutes of the Proceedings of the Committee of Council on Education, from 1838 to 1844. London : 8 vols. Stow's Training System, as pursued in the Glasgow Normal Semi- nary. Edinburgh: 1840. An Outline of the Methods of Teaching, in the Model School of the Board of National Education for Ireland. Dublin: I. S. Folds, 1840. Cousin's Report on Primary Instruction in Holland. London : 1835. Girardtn's Report on Education in Austria, Bavaria, &c. Paris : 1835. Hickson's Account of the Dutch and German Schools. London: Taylor and Walton, 1840. Introduction to the Science and Art of Education and Instruc- tion for Masters of Primary Schools, by B. S. Denzel, President of Royal Training College for School-masters at Esslingen. 6 vols. Stut- gard, 1839. This is considered the most complete German Treatise on the subject 384 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. if Lectures and Proceedings of the American Institute of In- struction from 1830 to 1847. Eighteen volumes. Boston: Ticknor. These volumes embrace more than 150 lectures and essays, on a great variety of important topics, by some of the ablest scholars and most suc- cessful teachers in the country. CONTENTS.— Vol. I, for 1830. Introductory Discourse, by President Wayland. Lecture I. Physical Education, by John C. Warren, M. D. Lecture II. The Development of the In- tellectual Faculties, and on Teaching Geography, by James G. Carter. Lecture III. The In- fant School System, by William Russell. Lecture IV. The Spelling of Words, and a Rational Method of Teaching their Meaning, by Gideon F. Thayer. Lecture V. Lyceums and Socie- ties for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by Nehemiah Cleaveland. Lecture VI. Practical Method of Teaching Rhetoric, by Samuel P. Neicman. Lecture VII. Geometry and Algebra, by F. J. Grund. Lecture VIII. The Monitorial System of Instruction, by Henry K. Oliver. Lecture IX. Vocal Music, by William C. Woodbridge. Lecture X. Linear Drawing, by Walter R. Johnson. Lecture XI. Arithmetic, by Warren Colbum. Lecture XII. Classical Learning, by Cornelius C. Felton. Lecture XIII. The Construction and Furnishing of School- Rooms and School Apparatus, by William J. Adams. Vol. II. for 1331. Introductory Lecture, by James Walker. Lecture I. Education of Fe- males, by George B. Emerson. Lecture II. Moral Education, by Jacob Abbott. Lecture III. Usefulness of Lyceums, by /S 1 . C. Phillips. LecturelV. Education of the Five Senses, by William H. Brooks. Lecture V. The Means which may be employed to stimulate the Student without the aid of Emulation, by John L. Parkhurst. Lecture VI. Grammar, by Goold Brown. Lecture VII. Influence of Academies and High Schools on Common Schools, by Wil- liam C. Fowler. Lecture Will. Natural History as a Branch of Common Education, by Cle- ment Durgin. Prize Essay on School-Houses, by W. A. Alcott. Vol. Ill, for 1832. — Introductory Discourse, by Francis C. Gray. Lecture I. The best Methods of Teaching the Living Languages, by George Ticknor. Lecture II. Some of the Diseases of a Literary Life, by G. Hayward, M. D. Lecture III. The Utility of Visible Illus- trations, by Walter R. Johnson. Lecture IV. The Moral Influences of Physical Science, by John Pierpont. Lecture V. Prize Essay, on the Teaching of Penmanship, by B. B. Foster. Lecture VI. Nature and Means of Early Education, as deduced from Experience, by A. B. Alcott. Lecture VII. On Teaching Grammar and Composition, by Asa Rand. Vol. IV, for 1S33. — Introductory Lecture, by William Sullivan. Lecture I. On the Impor- tance of a Knowledge of the Principles of Physiology to Parents and Teachers, by Edward Reynolds, M. D. Lecture II. The Classification of Schools, by Samuel M. Burnside. Lec- ture III. Primary Education, by Gardner B. Perry. Lecture IV. Emulation in Schools by Leonard Wiildngton. Lecture V. The best Method of Teaching the Ancient Languages, by Alpheus S. Packard. Lecture VI. Jacotot's Method of Instruction, by George W. Greene. Lecture VII. The best Method of Teaching Geography, by W. C. Woodbridge. Lecture VIH. Necessity of Educating Teachers, by Samuel R. Hall. Lecture IX. The Adaptation of Intel- lectual Philosophy to Instruction, by Abijah R. Baker. Lecture X. The best Mode of Teach- ing Natural Philosophy, by Benjamin Hale. Vol. V. 1834.— Introductory Lecture, by Caleb dishing. Lecture I. The best Mode of Fix ing the Attention of the Young, by Warren Burton. Lecture II. The Improvement which may be made in the Condition of Common Schools, by Stephen Farley. Lecture III. Duties of Parents in regard to the Schools where their Children are Instructed, by Jacob Abbott. Lecture IV. Maternal Instruction and Management of Infant Schools, by M. M. Carll. Lecture V. Teaching the Elements of Mathematics, by Thomas Sherioin. Lecture VI The Dangerous Tendency to Innovations and Extremes in Education, by Hubbard Winslow. Lecture VII. Un- ion of Manual with Mental Labor, in a System of Education, by Beriah Green. Lecture VIII. The History and Uses of Chemisti-y, by C. T. Jackson. Lecture IX. Natural History as a Study in Common Schools, by A. A. Gould, M. D. Lecture X. Science of Government as a Branch of Popular Education, by Joseph Story. Vol. VI, for 1835.— Introductory Lecture, by W. H. Furness. Lecture I. The Study of the Classics, by A. Crosby. Lecture II. Education for an Agricultural People, by Samuel Nott, Jr. Lecture III. Political Influence of Schoolmasters, by E. Washburn. Lecture IV. State and Prospects of the German Population of this Country, by H. Bokum. Lecture V. Religious Ed- ucation, by R. Park. Lecture VI. Importance of an Acquaintance with the Philosophy of the Mind to an Instructor, by J. Gregg. Lecture VII. Ends of School Discipline, by Henry L. McKean. Lecture VIII. Importance and Means of Cultivating the Social Affections among Pu- pils, by J. Blaachard. Lecture IX. Meaning and Objects of Education, by T. B. Fox. Lec- ture X. Management of a Common School, by 7'. Dwight, Jr. Lecture XI. Moral and Spirit- ual Culture in Early Education, by R. C. Waterston. Lecture XII. Moral Uses of the Study cf Natural History, by W. Channing, M. D. Lecture XIII. Schools of the Arts, by W.Johnson. Vol. VII., for 183*3.— Lecture 1. Education of the Blind, by Samuel G. Howe, M. D. Lec- ture 11. Thorough Teaching, by William H. Brooks. Lecture III. Physiology, or " The House I live in," by William A. Alcott. Lecture IV. Incitements to Moral and Intellectual Weil-Doing, by J. H. Belcher. Lecture V. Duties of Female Teachers of Common Schools, by Daniel Kimball. Lecture VI. Methods of Teaching Elocution in Schools, bv T. D. P. Stone. Lec- ture VII. Influence of Intellectual Action on Civilization, by //. R. Cleavcland. LectureYlll. School Discipline, by S. R. Hall. Vol. VIII., for 1837.— Introductory Discourse, by Rev. Elipha While. Lecturel. Study of the Classics, by John Mulligan. Lecture II. Moral Education, by Joshua Bates. Lecturelll. Study of Natural History, by John Lewis Russell. Lecture IV. Comparative Merits of Private and Public Schools, by Theodore Edson. Lecture V. Elocution, by David Fosdick, Jr. Lee- BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 335 lure VI Relation between the Board of Trustees and the Faculty of a University, &c, by Jas- per Adams. Lecture VII. School Reform, or Teachers' Seminaries, by Charles Brooks. Lea- lure VIII. Teaching of Composition in Schools, by R. G. Parker. Lecture IX. Evils of the Present System of Primary Instruction, by Thomas H. Palmer. Lecture X. Reading and Declamation, by William Russell. Vol. IX, for 1838. — Lecture 1. Literary Responsibility of Teachers, by Charles White. Lec- ture II. The Head and the Heart ; or, The Relative Importance of Intellectual and Moral Cul- ture, by JElisha Bartlett. Lecture III. Vocal Music in Common Schools, by Joseph Harring- ton, Jr. Lecture IV. Model Schools, by Thomas D. James. Lecture V. Observations on the School System of Connecticut, by Denison Olmsted. Lecture VI. Teaching of English Cram- mar, by R. G Parker. Lecture VII. Mutual Dul ies of Parents and Teachers, by David P. Page. Lecture V 111. Man, the Subject of Education, by Samuel G. Goodrich. Vol. X, for 1S39 — Introductory Discourse, The Education of a Free People, by Robert Ran- tcnd, Jr. Lecture I. Physiology of the Skin, by John G. Metcalf,M. D Lecture II. Mind and its Developments, by Emerson Davis. Lecture III. A Classic Taste in our Common Schools, by Luther B. Lincoln. Lecture IV. Natural Theology as a Study in Schools, by Henry A. Miles. Lecture V. Division of Labor in Instruction, by Thomas Gushing, Jr. Lecture VI. The Claims of our Age and Country upon Teachers, by David Mack. Lecture VII. Progress of Moral Science, and ils Application to the Business of Practical Life, by Alexander H. Everett. Lecture VIII. The Comparative Results of Education, by T. P. Rodman*, Lecture IX. Physi- cal Education, by Abel L. Pierson, M. D. Vol. II. New Series, for 1840.— Lecture I. Intellectual Education in Harmony with Moral and Physical, by Joshua Bates. Lecture II. Results to be aimed at in School Instruction and Discipliie, by T. Cushing, Jr. Lecture III. Duty of Visiting Schools, by Thomas A. Greene. Lecture IV. Objects and Means of School Instruction, by A. B. Muzzey. LectureV. Courtesy, and its Connection with School Instruction, by G. F. Thayer. Lecture VI. On the Brain and the Stomach, by Usher Parsons, M. D. Lecture VII. Common Complaints made against Teachers, by Jacob Abbott. Vol. XII, for 1841.— Lecture I. Best Method of Preparing and Using Spelling- Books, by Hor- ace Mann. Lecture II. Best Method of Exercising the Different Faculties of the Mind, by Wm. B. Fowle. Lecturelll. Education of the Laboring Classes, by T. Parker. Lecture W. Impor- tance of the Natural Sciences in our System of Popular Education, by A. Gray. Lecture V. Moral Culture Essential to Intellectual Education, by E. W. Robinson. Lecture VI. Simpli- city of Character, as Affected by the Common Systems of Education, by J. S. Dwight. Lec- ture VII. Use of the Globes in Teaching Geography and Astronomy, by A. Fleming. Lecture VIII. Elementary Principles of Constitutional Law, as a Branch of Education in Common. Schools, by Edward A. Lawrence. Vol. XIII, for 1842.— Lecture I. Moral Education, by George B. Emerson. Lecture II. Uni- versal Language, by Samuel G. Howe. Lecture III. The Girard College, by E. C. Wines. Lecture IV. School Room, as an aid to Self-Education, by A. B. Muzzey. Lecture V. Moral Responsibility of Teachers, by William H. Wood. Lecture VI. The Teacher's Daily Prepara- tion. Vol. XIV, for 1843. — Lecture I. The Bible in Common Schools, by Hetnan Humphrey, D. D. Lecture II. The Classification of Knowledge, by Solomon Adams. Lecture HI. Moral Dignity of the Teacher's Office, by Prof. i". H Agnew. Lecture IV. A few of the •• Hows" of School- keeping, by Roger S. Howard. Lecture V. Advancement in the Means and Methods of Public Instruction, by David P. Page. Lecture VI. Reading, by C. Pierce. Lecture VII. Some of She Duties of the Faithful Teacher, by Alfred Greenleaf. 'Lecture VIII. Some of the Defects of our Systems of Education, by R. B. Hubbard. Lecture IX. Importance of our Common Schools, by S. J. May. Vol. XV, for 1844. — Lecture I. The_ Religious Element in Education, by Calvin E. Stowe.. Lecture II. Female Education, by William Russell. Lecture III. Some of the Obstacles to the- Greater Success of Common Schools, by Charles Northend. LecturelV. Some of the Dangers of Teachers, by Daniel P. Galloup. Lecture V. Natural History as a Regular Classic in our Seminaries, by Charles Brooks. Lecture VI. Classical Instruction, by A. H Weld. Lecture VII. School Discipline, by Joseph Hale. Lecture VIII. Methods of Teaching to Read, by Sam- uel S. Greene. Lecture IX. The Duty of the American Teacher, by John AT. Bellows. Lec- ture X. The Necessity of Education in a Republican Form of Government, by Horace Mann. Vol. XVI, for 1845.— Lecture I. Dignity of the Teacher's Office, by Joel Hawes, D. D. Ad- dress. The Formation and Excellence of the Female Character, by Joel Hawes, D. D. Lee? turell. The Duties of Examining Committees, by Prof. E. D. Sanborn. Lecturelll. The Per- fect Teacher, by Denison Olmstead. L. L. D. Lecture IV. Physiology, by Edward Jarvis, M. D. Lecture V. Intellectual Arithmetic, by F. A. Adams. Lecture VI. County Teachers' Institutes,, by Sa'em Town. Lecture VII. Geography, by William. B. Foiole. Lecture VIII. Vocal Mu- sic in Common Schools, by±A. N. Johnson. Lecture IX. History, by George S. Hillard. Vol XVII, for 1846. — Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Annual Report. Lee- lure I. Home Preparation for School, by Jason Whtima.n. Lecture II. The Influence of Moral upon Intellectual Improvement, by H. B. Hooker. Lecture III. The Essentials of a Common School Education, and the conditions most favorable to their Attainment, by Rufus Putnam. Lecture IV. The Education of the Faculties, and the Proper Employment of Young Children, by Samuel J. May. Lecture V. The Obligation of Towns to Elevate the Character of our Com- mon Schools, by Luther B. Lincoln. Lecture. VI. Importance of Cultivating Taste in Early Life, by Ariel Parish. Lecture VII. On Phonotypy and Phonography, or Speech-Writing and Speech-Printing, by Stephen P. Andrews. Lecture VIII. On the Study of the English Lan- guage, by D. Huntington. Vol. XVIII, for 1847.— Journal of Proceedings. List of Officers. Lecture I. On the Study of Language, by Hubbard Winslow. Lecture II. On the Appropriateness of Studies to the State of Mental Development, bv Thomas P. Rodman. 25 386 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Reports and Documents relating to the Common School System of Connecticut. Hartford : Case, Tiffany & Co. This Volume is made up of different numbers of the Connecticut Common School Journal, which contain separate documents of permanent value. It makes a large quarto volume of 400 pages, in double columns, and small type. Price $1.00. I.— DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE COMMON SCHOOLS OF CONNECTICUT, FROM MAY, 1838, TO MAY, 1842. Reports of the Board of Commissioners of Common Schools, for 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842 Barnard's Report — Legislative Document, 1838. " Address of the Board of Commissioners of C. S. to the People, 1838. " First Annual Report to the Board of C. C. S., 1839; Second do. for 1840; Third do. for 1841 ; Fourth do. for 1842. " Report on Education in other States and Countries, 1840. " " Public Schools in Boston, Providence, Lowell, Worcester, &c, 1841. " Address on School-houses in 1839. " Report on Public Schools of Hartford, 1841. " Remarks on the History and Condition of the School Laws of Connecticut, 1841. '• Report on the Legal Provision respecting the Education and Employment of Children in "Factories in various States and Countries. " Letter to a Committee of the Legislature on the Expenses of the Board of Commissioners, 1841. Reports of School Visitors in most of the Towns in Connecticut, for 1840 to 1842. Summary of the Legislation of the State respecting Schools from 1647 to 1839. Act to provide for the better Supervision of Common Schools, passed 1838. Act giving additional powers to School Districts and School Societies, 1839. Revised Common School Act, 1841. Report and Act for repealing the Board of Commissioners, 1842. II — DOCUMENTS OR ARTICLES RESPECTING THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF OTHER STATES AND COUNTRIES. Condition of Public Education in Scotland, Ireland, England, and Wales, from various sources. " " " Holland, by Prof. Bache, Cousin, and Cuvier. " " " Prussia, by Prof. Bache, Cousin, Wyse, and Prof. Stowe. " " " Duchy of Baden, and Nassau, by Prof. James. " " " Austria, by Prof. Turnbull and Bache. " " " Tuscnny, from On. Review. " " " Switzerland, from Journal of Education, and Prof. Bache. " " " Bavaria and Hanover, by Hawkins. " " " Saxony, by Prof. Bache. " " " Russia, by Prof. Stowe. " " " France, by Mrs. Austin and Prof. Bache. " " " Belgium, from Foreign Q.u. Review. III.— NORMAL SCHOOLS, History of Teachers' Seminaries. Essays on, by Rev. T. H. Gallaudet. Address respecting, by Prof. Stowe. Account of in Prussia, by Dr. Julius. " " France, by Guizot. " " Holland, by Cousin. " " Europe, by Prof. Bache. " " Massachusetts, by Mr. Mann. " " New York, by Mr. Dix. Normal Seminary, Glasgow. Teachers' Departments, New York. OR TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. State Normal School at Lexington, Mass. Borough Road School, London. Primary Normal School, at Haarlem, (Holland. Seminary for Teachers, at Weissenfels, Prussia " ' " Potsdam, " Primary Normal School at Stettin. '" " " Briihl and Neuweid. Normal School at Versailles, France. " " Kussnacht, Switzerland " " Beuggen, " " " Hofwyl, " IV.— ACCOUNT OF PARTICULAR SCHOOLS Infant Schools. Model Infant School, Glasgow. " " " London. Quaker Street Infant, " Infant School in Lombardy. " " Rotterdam. Evening Schools. — Schools of Industry, fyc. Evening School in London. School of Industry at Norwood. " " Ealing. " " Lindfield. " Gowers Walk. " Guernsey. " Warwick. " for Juvenile Offenders, Rotterdam. Public Schools of Various Grades. Primary School at the Hague. Intermediate School at Leyden. Borough Road School, London. Sessional School, Edinburgh. High School, Edinburgh. School for the Poor, Amsterdam. Primary School, Berlin. Dorothean High School, " Burgher School, " Higher Burgher School, Potsdam. Lovell's Lancasterian School, New Haven Schools of Agriculture, tyc, <$-e. City Trade School, Berlin. Commercial School, Leghorn. Agricultural School at Templemoyle. Institute of Agriculture, Wurtemburg. School of Arts, Edinburgh. Polytechnic Institute, Vienna. Technical School, Zurich Institute of the Arts, Berlin. Mechanic Institutions, London. " " Manchester. Factory Schools. Adult Schools. Sunday Schools. BOOKS ON EDUCATION, ggj Report on the Public Schools of Rhode Island, for 1845, by Henry Barnard, Commissioner of Public Schools. Providence : C. Burnett, Jr. Act for ascertaining the condition of the Public Schools, and the better management and improve- ment of the same. Circular of Governor Fenner. Report of Commissioner of Public Schools. I. Mode of ascertaining the condition of Public Schools, and other means of popular education. 1. By personal inspection and inquiry. 2. By circulars addressed to teachers and school com- mittees. 3. By official returns and reports of school committees. 4. By statements in public meeting, 5 — 7. II. Measures adopted to improve the public schools under their present organization, and prepare the way for a more complete and efficient system of public instruction. 1. By public lectures. 2. By conversation and letters. 3. By circulating tracts, periodicals, and documents relating to schools, school systems, &c. 4. By establishing a Library of Education in each town. 5. By associations for school improvement. 6- By assisting in the selection of good teachers. 7. By a more extensive employment of female teachers. 8. By a gradation of schools. 9. By teachers' associations, or institutes. 10. By an itinerating normal school agency. 11. By preparing the way for one normal school. 12. By making known plans of scjiool-houses. 13. By school apparatus and library. 14. By lyceums, lectures, and library associations. 15. By preparing the draft of school act, 7 — 16. HI. Defects in the former organization and administration of the system, with the outline of the existing organization. 1. Summary of defects. 2. Outline of the system as reorganized IV. Condition of the public schools, with remedies for existing defects, and suggestions for theit increasing usefulness. 1. Organization. 2. School-houses. 3. School attendance. 4. Clas- sification of schools. 5. Agricultural districts. 0. Manufacturing districts. 7. City districts. Appendix. — Documents referred to in the Report. I. Circular to Teachers, and to School Committees, ------- 81 II. Topics of Lectures on Education, -----------85 III. Associations for the Improvement of Public Schools, -------86 Washington County Association, ----------86 do. do. Teachers' Institute, ---------88 Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, ----------89 IV. Educational Tracts, 90 V. Books and Pamphlets, relative to education, circulated in the State, - - - - 91 VI. Catalogue of Books in Library of Education, --------92 Educational Periodicals, ------------95 VII. History and condition of the legislation of Rhode Island respecting public schools, - 97 VIII. Draft of an act respecting public schools, with remarks explanatory of its provisions, - 113 IX. Act relating to Public Schools, passed June, 1845, ------- J37 X. Statistical Tables, relating to population, valuation, expenditures of the State and of the several towns, -------------- 149 XI. Apportionment of the State appropriation for public schools, for 1846, - 158 XII. School-house Architecture, -------.----- 165 XIII- Names of different kinds of text-books used in the State, ------ 227 XIV. Public Schools in cities and large villages, --------- 229 XV. Rules and Regulations of School Committees, -------- 241 do. do. Providence, ---------- 243 Index to Report, -------------- 253 Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction: commenced in 1845, and discontinued in 1849. Edited by Henry Barnard, Commissioner of Public Schools. The set consists of three volumes. Price $3.50 per set. CONTENTS.— VOLUME I. Report on the Public Schools of Rhode Island for 1845, and the following articles in Extra Journal. PAGB Prospectus of Journal, -------------- j Circular respecting Teachers' Institutes, ---------- j Teachers' Institutes, origin of, ------------ 5 Teachers' Institute at Scituate, --------- - - _ g Notices of Institutes and Public Meetings, ----------12 Circular of Commissioner, ------------ -13 Lyceums — Lectures — Libraries, ------------ jg Westerly Lyceum, -------- ------ ^g Progress of education, — Vermont, -----_.---_ 27 " " " Massachusetts, ---------- -jg Teachers' Institutes, ------.------. 20 Scituate and Foster Association, -----.---.._ 23 Modes of school improvement, ------------25 Books on Education, ------------- -26 Progress of Education — Virginia, - --.---...31 " " " Massachusetts, ---------35 ggg SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PASS Educational Tracts, - 39 Death of Francis Dwight, --------- .... 49 Modes of school improvement, -.---------.41 Educated men and the education of the people, ---------40/ Normal school at Kruitzlingen, --------.---51 Rules for the good behavior of Pupils, - - - - - - -- - - -54 Notices of Public Meetings, .---------.-56 Annual Meeting of the Institute of Instruction for 1845, --------57 Professor Gammell's Report, ------------53 Mr. Russell's Remarks, --------------63 Mr. Kingsbury's Report, -------------65 Modes of school improvement, ------------66 Duties of Parents to their schools, -----------68 Letter from a Teacher to his Pupil, ._.---._.. -73 School motives and school vices, ------------81 Teachers' meetings and associations, ----------- 86 District School Journal of New York, ----------88 Progress of education in other states, -----------88 " " " in Massachusetts, ----------89 " " " in New York, ----------- 105 " " " in Pennsylvania, ---------- 112 " " " in Michigan, ----------- 121 " " " in Ohio, ----- 126 Smithsonian Bequest, -, .- - ----------- 134 Organization of School Districts, --------- .- 136 Progress of education in Connecticut, ----------- 137 History of the English Language, by E. R. Porter, -------- 153 Adaptation of the Universe to the cultivation of the mind, by R. G. Hazard, - - - - 169 Address on Education, by R. G. Hazard, ---------- 189 Individual and Associated effort, ------------ 210 A Father's Prayer for his Son, ------- -..- 211 Index to Extra Journal, -------------- 213 VOLUME II., FOR 1847. Prospectus, ---------------- 1 Discourse before the Rhode Island Historical Society, by Hon. Job Durfee, - - - - 1 Causes of the neglect of Public Schools in Rhode Island, ------- 33 Origin and Repeal of the School Act of 1830, by John Howland, 37 Condition of Education in Rhode Island, in 1828, --------38 Debate on the School Act of 1828, 41 Memorial from East Greenwich, -----------41 Remarks of J. L. Tillinghast, ------ 42 " J. J. Waterman, ----------- 45 " — Dixon, -------------47 E. R. Porter, - ; 48 R T. Cranston, ------------ 48 Condition of Public Schools of Rhode Island in 1832, --------49 Report by Oliver Angell, -------------49 Annual Abstract of School Returns for 1839, ---------51 for 1844, - 53 Debate on the School Act of 1845, - 53 Remarks of Wilkins Updike, -------------53 Report of School Committee of North Providence, ------ - . 57 " Smithfield, 62 " Cumberland, --_-.-. - - 7<> " " " Scituate, -----..-.-86 School-houses, ------..----.-.-88 Plan of Grounds for Village School, ----_, ..,--.. 90 Plans for Schools of different grades, ----------91 Plan of Public School in City of New York, 93 " Primary School, -------.....96 Report on seats without backs, ------.---.99 Boston Primary School Chair, ---__-_../.. 100 Plans of Normal Schools in Massachusetts, - - - - - - - - - - 101 Brimmer Grammar School, Boston, ---------- 107 Hints respecting Blackboards, --------.---- 109 Boston Plan of Warming and Ventilation, --------- 112 Condition of School-houses in Massachusetts, --------- 137 " " New York, Vermont, Maine, &.c. ----- 139 Second Annual Meeting of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, - -153 Mr. Perry's Report, -------....-.. 153 Libraries — value of books, ------------- 163 Origin of District School Libraries, ----------- 167 Letter of James Wadsworth, of Genesee, New York, -------- 167 Report of D. D.Barnard, - - 171 The first Juvenile Library in America, -----....-- 173 Act relating to Libraries in Rhode Island, ---------- 175 Specimen of Constitution for Library Association, --------- 176 Catalogue of Books for Village Libraries, ---..__..- 177 Rules and Regulations for the use of the books of a Library, ------ -205 BOOKS ON EDUCATION. 389 PAGE Norraal Schools, -----------*--.-"-. SJfl State Normal Schools in Massachusetts, ----------- 212 New York State Normal School, -- 216 Acts relating to Public Schools in Rhode Island, - - - - - - ■ - - - 225 Remarks on the several provisions of the same, --------- 241 Forms for conducting proceedings under the same, --------- 262 Form of District Return, -----.-------28 Specimen of Rules and Regulations for School Committees, ------- 289 Index to School Law, Remarks and Forms, ---------- 293 Progress of Education in Ike United States for 1847, -------- 305 Connecticut, _----___------ 305 Prize Essay by Noah Porter, ------------ 307 Maine, --- 328 Massachusetts, --------------- 331 New Hampshire, -------------- 331 Vermont, ---------------- 332 New York, -------- 333 New Jersey, --------------- 333 Report on Normal Schools, ------------ 333 Pennsylvania, --------------- 344 Maryland, --------------- 346 Virginia, ---------------- 346 Letter of S. S.Randall, 347 Ohio, --------- 348 Indiana, --------------- 350 Teachers' Institute in Rhode Island for 1847, ---------- 353 " " Centreville, -----------354 " " Pawtucket, ------------ 361 Progress of Teachers' Institutes in Connecticut, --------- 369 " " New York, - 369 " " " Massachusetts, -------- 380 " " " Ohio, - - - - - - - - - - 382 " New Hampshire, -------- 388 " " " Maine, - - • - - - - - - - - 390 " " " Michigan, - 393 ; u " " Vermont, 394 " " " Rhode Island, 395 Teachers' Meetings and Associations, ----------- 398 Topics for discussion, &c. --------- • - - - 398 List of Educatioual Periodicals, ------------ 399 VOLUME III. Report of Commissioner of Public Schools for 1848, -------- J Third Annual Report of Executive Committee of Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, - - 3 Officers for 1847, ---- .---___._-._ Proceedings of Third Annual Meeting, -----------13 Remarks of Mr. Barnard, -----■---_---- 15 " Prof. Gammell, 23 " Rev. Mr. Osgood, ------------ 25 " Mr. Bishop, --------------26 Evening Schools, -- ------------28 Documents relating to the History aisd Condition of Public Schools in Rhode Island, - - 33 " " " " ". " Providence, - 33 Letter of John Howland in 1824, -----------44 Report by President Wayland in 1828, ---- 46 Memorial of Mechanics' Association, 1837, ---------55 Report to City Council, ------------ 57 Ordinance of City Council, 1838, -----58 Organization of Public Schools in 1848, ---------62 Report of School Committee for 1838, ----------64 " " 1839, 1840. 1841, 1842. 1843. 1844 1845. 1846 1847 1848, Rules and Regulations, 1848, -___.-.,---- 84 fieport of School Committee of North Providence, 1848, --------97 " " " Scituate, 1848, - 103V " " •' Smithfield, - 108 " " " Glocester, 1847, 122 " u " " 1848 __.------ 126 it u u Coventry, 1847,' 128 «:•«'•« " 1848, 138 a u " Warwick, 1847, 141 * " ' '- Cumberland, 1848, 142 39Q SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. PASB Report of School Committee of Burrillville, 1847, 144 " " " Newport, 1827, 145 " " " " 1828, - - 148 " " " " 1844, --- !50 » " " " 1848, ---153 " " " Bristol, 1843, ----158 «•«,«■" 1845, -160 " " " " 1847, ---------163 " " « " 1848, -171 " " " Warren, ----------- 174 School Architecture, -------------- 175 Ingraham's Primary School-house, Boston, ---------- 177 Boston and other School Furniture, ----------- 201 ttuincy Grammar Scbool-house, ------------ 208 Putnam Free School-house, Newburypoft, ---------- 211 Public High Scbool-house, Hartford, ----------- 214 Free Academy in City of New York, ----------- 223 Culver's Furnace, ---------------230 Public School-houses in Providence, ----------- 233 Public High School, -------------- 253 Plans of School-houses with Apartments for Teacher, - - ' - - - - - - 260 Teacher's Desk, ------272 Remarks on School-houses in Rhode Island, - - - - -- - - - 273 Principles of School Architecture, ----------- -274 Principles of Ventilation, ------------- 277 Plans of School-houses with one- School-room, --------- 280 Plan of Grounds for Infant School, -----------283 Primary School-house in Westerly, ------------ 284 Village School-house at Allendale, North Providence, -------- 285 District School-house in Glocester, ------------ 286 " " BarringtoE, - -----288 Mott's Ventilating School Stove, ------- 290 Boston Ventilating School Stove, ------------ 291 District School-house in Cranston, ------------ 292 " " at Clayville, Scituate, --------- 292 " " at Centreville, Warv/ick, 294 Remarks on Gradation of Schools, ----------- 296 Public School-house in Warren, ------------ 305 Union School-house at Woonsocket, ----------- 308 " Chepachet, ------------309 " "■ Pawtucket, ------ 310 Village School-house at Centre Mill, ----------- 312 " " Washington Village, --------- 314 Female Seminary of Mr.. Kingsbury, Providence, -------- -315 Chilsou's Furnace, -------------- 316 Bushnell's •' ---------------318 Apparatus for District Schools, ------------ 319 " Grammar Schools, ------------ 323 High Schools, &c. ----- - 325 Hints respecting blackboards, ------------- 374 Library— List of Books on Education, - - - - - -.- -- - 379 " " " of Reference, ----------- 309 Rules for the Care and Preservation of School-houses, -------- 391 Dedicatory Exercises, -------------- 401 Address of G. B. Emerson, -- 402 " Gideon F. Tho.yer, ----- -405 " President Wayland, - - - - - - - - - - - 408 " Rev. Mr. Osgood, ------------ 414 " President Everett, ----------- 419 Remarks on Libraries in Rhode Island, ----------- 425 History and Catalogue of Pawcatuck Library Association, ------- 429 General Index to Vols. I., II. and HI., - 549 2. Books of Reference. A list of Dictionaries, Encyclopedias, and similar works, for reference by the teacher, and consultation in the school-room or library, is given on page 45. 3 — 4. Catalogue qf Books foe Juvenile and Abtjlt Reading. Committees will be aided in selecting books for District, Town, and Circulating Libraries, by consulting the Catalogue of the Pawcatuck library, on page 429 — 548. Although the author of this treatise is responsible generally for this selection, which was made for a village library, and for all classes, of readers, yet there are several volumes in the catalogue which were the donations of individuals, and others which were purchased because bound up with sets, the mass of which were unexceptionable. For a School Library,, many of these volumes would be deemed unsuitable. care of school-houses. 391 Rules for the Care and Preservation of School-Houses. The following provisions are included among the Regulations for the Government of Teachers and Pupils of Public Schools, adopted by School Committees in most of the towns of Rhode Island: For Teachers: There shall be a recess of at least fifteen minutes in the middle of every half day ; but the primary schools may have a recess of ten minutes every hour : at the discretion of the teacher. It shall be the duty of teachers to see that fires are made, in cold weather, in their respective school-rooms, at a seasonable hour to render them warm and comfortable by school time ; to take care that their rooms are properly swept and dusted; and that a due regard to neatness and order is observed, both in and around the school-house. As pure air of a proper temperature is indispensable to health and comfort, teachers cannot be too careful in giving attention to these things. If the room has no ventilator, the doors and windows should be opened before and after school, to permit a free and healthful circulation of air; and the temperature should be regulated by a thermometer suspended, five or six feet from the floor, in such a position as to indicate as near as possible the average temperature, and should be kept about 65 degrees Fahrenheit. The teachers shall take care that the school-houses, tables, desks, and appa- ratus in the same, and all the public property entrusted to their charge, be not cut, scratched, marked, or injured and defaced in any manner whatever. And it shall be the duty of the teachers to give prompt notice to one or more of the trustees, of any repairs that may be needed. For Pupils : Every pupil who shall, accidentally or otherwise, injure any school property, whether fences, gates, trees or shrubs, or any building or any part thereof; or break any window glass, or injure or destroy any instrument, apparatus or fur- niture belonging to the school, shall be liable to pay all damages. Every pupil who shall any where, on or around the school premises, use or write any profane or unchaste language, or shall draw any obscene pictures or representations, or cut, mark, or otherwise intentionally deface any school fur- niture or buildings, or any property whatsoever belonging to the school estate, shall be punished in proportion to the nature and extent of the offence, and shall be liable to the action of the civil law. No scholar of either sex shall be permitted to enter any part of the yard or buildings appropriated to the other, without the teacher's permission. Smoking and chewing tobacco in the school-house or upon the school prem- ises, are strictly prohibited. The scholars shall pass through the streets on their way to and from school in an orderly and becoming manner; shall clean the mud and dirt from their feet on entering the school-room: and take their seats in a quiet and respectful manner, as soon as convenient after the first bell rings; and shall take proper care that their books, desks, and the floor around them, are kept clean and in good order. It is expected that all the scholars who enjoy the advantages of public schools, will give proper attention to the cleanliness of their persons, and the neatness and decency of their clothes — not only for the moral effect of the habit of neat- ness and order, but that the pupils may be at all times prepared, both in con- duct and external appearance — to receive their friends and visitors in a respect- able manner; and to render the school-room pleasant, comfortable and happy for teachers and scholars. In the " Regulations of the Public Schools in the city of Providence" it is made the duty " of the principal teacher in each school-house, for the compensation allowed by the Committee, to employ some suitable person to make the fires in the same when necessary, and to see that this import- ant work is properly and economically done ;" also " for the compensation gg2 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. allowed, to employ some suitable person to sweep the room and its entries daily, and dust the blinds, seats, desks, and other furniture in the same, and to clean the same once a quarter, and to see that this work is neatly and properly done." The teachers must also " take care that the school-houses, the appara- tus in the same, and all the public property entrusted to their charge, be not defaced, pr otherwise injured by the scholars, and to give prompt notice to the Superintendant of any repairs and supplies that may be needed." Practical Suggestions respecting Ventilation, Fires, Sweep- ing and Dusting. The following suggestions are taken from the Manual of the System of Discipline and Instruction for the Schools of the Ptsblic School Society of New York: VENTILATION. Strict attention should be paid to all the means provided for temperature and ventilation. During the season of fires, the thermometer should be watched, — and the ventilating flues, windows, doors, and stoves, should be constantly at- tended to, — and every precaution taken, to give as pure an atmosphere to the school-room, as circumstances will allow. This is not only necessary, for a proper and free exercise of the physical powers, — but it will be found greatly to influence every mental exercise; for, both will partake of either languor, or vigor, according as ventilation is neglected, or duly attended to. In warm weather, the upper sashes should be down during school hours, and allowed to remain open about four inches during the night, — except, that on occasion of a storm, the windows against which it beats, may be closed. In winter, except- ing when the weather is exceedingly eold and piereing, it may be of advantage to have two or more of the upper sashes down about, an inch during the night; but these as well as the doors should be closed before kindling the fires. Two or more of the upper sashes should be drawn down at the end of the first half hour after opening school, — and again, for a short time at each successive half hour, — and whenever the thermometer rises to 70 degrees. At all seasons, the windows and doors should be thrown wide open for a few minutes during each recess, while the scholars are in the yard. The teacher should be careful to require all the scholars to go out, except such as may reasonably be excused on account of infirmity or sickness; and even these should be required to change their places, and to exercise themselves by walking to and fro in the school-room. At all seasons, at the close of school, all the doors and windows should be opened for a few minutes, in order that a pure atmosphere may be admitted and retained during the noon-time recess, or at night. A thermometrical diary must be kept during the winter season, and the temperature of the room noted at the opening, middle, and close, of each daily session. Further directions on this point are given in the instructions for making fires. The window-blinds and curtains are for the purpose of guarding against the sunshine, or observa- tion from without. They should, therefore, be so managed, as only to exclude the direct rays of the sun, and kept. open or shut accordingly. When required as a screen from observation, they should extend no farther than necessary for that purpose. Attention to these rules will give an air of cheerfulness within, so congenial to the young. It is important that this fact be impressed on all — that air, and light, are grand essentials in a school-room : let the first be freely admitted, and the second never causelessly excluded. FIRES. The ashes should be taken from the stoves in the morning only, leaving a layer of one inch in depth : then to proceed to bru'ld with the materials after the following manner: Place one large stick on each side; in the space between them, place the kindling wood ; and above it, the small wood, somewhat cross- "wise ; then, set fire to the kindling, and close the stove door. See that the CARE OF SCHOOL-HOUSES. 393 draught is cleared of ashes, or other obstructions ; and that the dampers are properly adjusted; (these are generally so arranged as to open the draught when the handle is parallel with the pipe). If the materials have been laid ac- cording tc the foregoing directions, the combustion will be free. Should the temperature of the room be as low as 40°, fill the stove with wood. Under or- dinary circumstances, in thirty-five minutes the' temperature will be raised to 60 degrees, — at which point it should certainly be, at the time of opening school ; when the stove may be supplied with one or two large sticks. At all times, be- fore supplying wood, draw forward the brands and coals with the fire-hook. If there should be too much fire, open the stove door, and if necessary, turn the damper, — or, what may be better for economy, effectually close the draft at the stove door with ashes. By attention to all these directions,* the temperature may be maintained, the wood entirely consumed, and the thermometer stand at 60 degrees, at the close of the school ; which is desirable in cold weather, so as not to subject the pupils to too sudden a change of temperature on going into the open air. The evaporating pan should be kept clean, and filled with water when in use. In damp rooms it is not needed, — nor in damp weather : — but it should be emptied; and wiped dry, before it is set aside. DUSTING AND SWEEPING. For a large room, or one department of a Public School building, six brooms will -be foimd sufficient to be in use. When half worn, they will serve for sweeping the yard; and when well worn down in that service, will still be use- ful for scrubbing, with water or sand; and, if properly used by the sweepers, will be evenly worn to the last. Before sweeping, pull down the upper sashes, and raise the under ones. Let the sweepers be arranged, one to each passage between the desks, — and, beginning at the windward side, sweep the dirt before them, till it is carried forward to the opposite side of the room. The broom should rest square on the floor, and, with the motion used in raking hay, should be drawn towards the sweeper, without flirting it outwards, or upwards, which raises unnecessary dust, and wears the broom irregularly. The dirt, when taken up, should be carried into the middle of the street. The dusting is to be done in the same regular manner, allowing a suitable interval after sweeping. If at noon, dusting should be done shortly before school time; if at night, dust the next morning. In out-door sweeping, the same rule is to be followed — the sweepers going in ranks, and sweeping from the windward. Let the scrubbing be done by a similar method. When once acquainted with these methodical plans, the cleaners will do the work, not only more effectually, but with more satisfaction and ease to themselves — and being a part of domestic economy, it will be, so far, an advantage to understand how to do it well. Although not strictly within the design of this work, but as closely con- nected with habits of neatness and order, we insert from the Manual quo- ted above, the following directions for delivering, holding, and returning a book. The Manual is soon to be enlarged, and well deserves a place in every teacher's library, although it has special reference to the organization and system of instruction adopted in the schools of the Public School Society. * From a return recently made out respecting the quantity and cost of fuel used in the dif- ferent schools of the Public School Society, it appears that the average cost of wood for a house like No. 17, (plans and description of which maybe seen on p. 100,) having 13 stoves, including cartage, sawing, carrying in and piling, is $160. The lowest cost is $141, and the highest, $200. In a Primary house, (like that described on page 103,) having four stoves, the average cost is $33 ; the highest being $40, and the lowest $25. The difference in the cost is mainly to be attributed to the difference in the care and oversight of the fire by the teacher. With a view of correcting the evil, the committee having charge of this business have pre- pared a table which exhibits at one view the quantity of wood furnished to each school, so as to enable every teacher to compare himself with every other in this particular. The cost of heating a Primary building of the same size, by wood in a furnace, is $75, and of Ward school building, of the same size as No. 17, by coal in a furnace, is $260. 394 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Book Manual. 2. 3. The pupil should stand erect, — his heels near together, — toes turn- ed out, — and his eyes directed to the face of the person speaking to him. Figure one represents the Book Monitor with a pile of books across his left arm, with the backs from him, and with the top of the page to the right hand. Figure two represents the Book Monitor, with the right hand hands the book to the Pupil, who receives it in his right hand, with the back of the book to the left ; and then passes it into the left hand, where it is held with the back upwards, and with the thumb ex- tended at an angle of forty-five degrees with the edge of the book, (as in figure 2,) until a further order is given. BOOK MANUAL. 395 Figure three — When the page is given out, the book is turned by the thumb on the side ; and, while held with both hands, is turned with the back downwards, with the thumbs meeting across the leaves, at a point judged to be nearest the place to be found. On opening the book, the left hand slides down to the bottom, and thence to the middle, where the thumb and little finger are made to press on the two opposite pages. If the Pupil should have thus lit upon the page sought for, he lets fall the right hand by the side, and his position is that of Fig. 3. Figure four — But, if he has opened short of the page required, the thumb of the right hand is to be placed near the upper corner of the page, as seen in Fig. 4 ; while the forefinger lifts the leaves to bring into view the number of the page. If he finds that he has not raised enough, the forefinger and thumb hold those already raised, while the second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them within the grasp of the thumb and finger. When the page required is found, all the fingers are to be passed under the leaves, and the whole turned at once. Should the Pupil, on the contrary, have opened too far, and be .obliged to turn back, he places the right thumb, in like manner, on the left-hand page, and the leaves are lifted as before described. Figure five — Should the book be old, or so large as to be weari- some to hold, the right hand may sustain the left, as seen in Fig. 5. Figure six and seven — While reading, as the eye rises to the top of the right-hand page, the right hand is brought to the position seen in Fig. 4 ; and, with the forefinger under the leaf, the hand is slid down to the lower corner, and retained there during the reading of this page, as seen in Fig. 6. This also is the position in which the book is to be held when about to be closed ; in doing which, the left hand, being carried up to the side, supports the book firmly and un- moved, while the right hand turns the part it supports over on the left thumb, as seen in Fig. 7. The thumb will then be drawn out from between the leaves, and placed on the cover ; when the right hand will fall by the side, as seen in Fig. 2. Figure eight — But, if the reading has ended, the right hand re- tains the book, and the left hand falls by the side, as seen in Fig. 8. The book will now be in a position to be handed to the Book Monitor; who receives it in his right hand, and places it. on his left arm, with the back towards his body. The books are now in the most suitable situation for being passed to the shelves or drawers, where, without being crowded, they should be placed with uniformity and care. In conclusion, it may be proper to remark, that however trivial these minute directions may appear to some minds, it will be found on experience, that books thus treated, may be made to last double the time that they will do, under the usual management in schools. Nor is the attainment of a correct and graceful mode of handling a book, the only benefit received by the pupil. The use of this man- ual is calculated to beget a love of order and propriety, and disposes him more readily to adopt the habit generally, of doing things in a methodical and systematic manner. 396 school architecture. Regulations of Chauncy-Hall School, Boston. The following Regulations of one of the hest conducted Private Schools for Boys in New England, will furnish useful hints to teachers in framing regulations for their own schools, especially in reference to the good be- havior of the pupils, and to the care of the school-room, furniture, &c. REQUISITION. Boys are required to be punctual at school. To scrape their feet on the scraper, and to wipe them on every mat they pass over on their way to the hall. To hang their hats, caps, coats, &c, on the hooks appropriated to them re- spectively, by loops prepared for the purpose. To bow gracefully and respectfully on entering and leaving the hall, and any recitation room when a teacher is present. To take their places on entering the hall. To make no unnecessary noise within the walls of the building, at any time of night or day. To keep their persons, clothes, and shoes clean. To carry and bring their books for study, in a satchel. To quit the neighborhood of the school in a quiet and orderly manner, im- mediately after dismissal. To bring notes for absence, dated, and signed by persons authorized to do so, and stating the duration of the absence ; also, notes for tardiness, and for occa- sions when pupils are wanted at home before the regular hour of dismissal. To study lessons at home, except when inconvenient to the family — in such cases to bring a certificate of the fact in writing. To present a pen by the feather end; a knife, by its handle; a book, the right side upward to be read by the person receiving it. To bow on presenting or receiving any thing. To stand while speaking to a teacher. To keep all books clean, and the contents of desks neatly arranged. To deposite in desks all books (except writing books,) slates, pencils, rulers, &c, before dismissal. To give notice through the school Post Office, of all books, slates, &c, missing. To pick up hats, caps, coats, pens, slips, books, &c, found on the floor, and put them in their appropriate places. To replace lost keys, books, &c, belonging to the school, and make good all damage done by them. To write all requests on their slates, and wait until called. To close desks and fasten them before quitting school for the session. To raise the hand as a request to speak across the hall or any recitation room To show two fingers when a pen is wanted. To put all refuse paper, stumps of pens, &c, in the dust box. To be accountable for the condition of the floor nearest their own seats. To fill all vacant time with ciphering, as a general occupation; and to give notice to the teacher, before dismissal, in case of omitting the exercise wholly on any day. To be particularly vigilant, when no teacher is in the hall. To promote as far as possible, the happiness, comfort, and improvement oi others. To follow every class-mate while reading, and correct all errors discovered in pronunciation, emphasis, or inflection. To point the fore finger of the left hand, at each letter or figure of the slip 01 copy, while writing, and the feather of the pen towards the right shoulder. To keep the writing book square in front. To rest the body on the left arm, while spelling, and keep the eye directed towards their own slates. To sit erectly against the back of the chairs, during the singing lessons, an# to direct their attention to the instructor. REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY-HALL SCHOOL. 39,7 Transferrers to show reports finished as early in the week as 3 o'clock on Tuesday, P.M. PROHIBITIONS. Boys are forbidden to buy or sell, borrow or lend, give, take, or exchange, any thing, except fruit or other eatables, without the teacher's permission. To read any book in school except such as contain the reading lesson of his class. To have in his possession at school any book without the teacher's knowledge. To throw pens, paper, or any thing whatever on the floor, or out at a window or door. To go out to play with his class when he has had a deviation. To spit on the floor. To climb on any fence, railing, ladder, &c, about the school-house. To scrawl on, blot, or mark slips. To mark, cut, scratch, chalk, or otherwise disfigure, injure, or defile, any por- tion of the building or any thing connected with it. To take out an inkstand, meddle with the contents of another's^ desk, or un- necessarily open or shut his own. To write without using a card and wiper. To quit school without having finished his copy. To use a knife, except on the conditions prescribed. To remove class lists from their depositories. To meddle with ink unnecessarily. To study home lessons in school hours. To leave the hall at any time without leave. To pass noisily, or upon the run, from one room to another, or through the entries. To visit the office, furnace room, or any closet or teacher's room, except in class, without a written permit. To play at paw paw any where, or any game within the building. To play in the play-ground before school. To leave whittlings or other rubbish in the play-ground, on the side-walk, or around the building. To go out of the play-ground in school hours. To carry out his pen on his ear. To use any profane or indelicate language. To nick-name any person. To press his knees, in sitting, against a form. To leave his seat for any purpose, but to receive class instruction. To go home, when deficient, without having answered to his name. To indulge in eating or drinking in school. To go out in class, after having been out singly ; or going out singly, to linger below to play. To waste school hours by unnecessary talking, laughing, playing, idling, standing up, turning round, teazing, or otherwise calling off the attention of another boy. To throw stones, snow-balls, or other missiles about the neighborhood of the school. To bring bats, hockey sticks, bows and arrows, or other dangerous play-things to school. To visit a privy in company with any one. To strike, kick, push, or otherwise annoy his associates or others. In fine, to do any thing that the law of love forbids — that law which requires us To do to others as we would think it right that they should do to us. These regulations are not stated according to their relative importance, but as they have been adopted or called to mind. They are intended to meet gen- eral circumstances, but may be waived in cases of necessity, by special permis- sion, obtained in the prescribed mode. In a Lecture, on Courtesy, delivered before the American Institute of Instruction at Boston, in August, 1840, Mr. Thayer, the Principal of the Chauncy Hall School, introduced the above regulat : ons as the topics of 393 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. his discourse. We extract portions of this admirable lecture, which may be found entire in the annual volume of the American Institute, published in 1842, and in the Massachusetts Common School Journal, Vol. II, for 1840. Scraping the feel at Hie door, and wiping them on the mats. This should be insisted on as one of the most obvious items in the code of cleanliness. It is not only indispensable to the decent appearance of a school room, but, if neglected, a large quantity of soil is carried in on the feet, which, in the course of the day, is ground to powder, and a liberal portion inhaled at the nostrils, and otherwise deposited in the system, to its serious detriment. Besides, if the habit of neg- lecting this at school is indulged, it is practiced elsewhere ; and the child, en- tering whatever place he may, shop, store, kitchen, or drawing room, carries along with him his usual complement of mud and dirt ; and the unscraped and unwiped feet are welcome nowheie, among persons a single grade above the quadruped race. I may be told, it is a matter little attended to by many adult persons of both sexes. To which I would reply, in the language of Polonius, " 'T is true — 't is pity ; And pity 't is — 't is true." But this, instead of being an argument in favor of the non-observance of the wholesome rule in our schools, only points more emphatically to the duty of teachers in relation to it; for when, unless during the school-days, are such habits to be corrected, and better ones established! I am fully aware of the difficulty of carrying rules like this into execution, even among children of double the age of those that form the schools of some who hear me; and do not forget how much this difficulty is increased by the tender age, and consequently greater thoughtlessness, of most of the pupils of the schools usually taught by females; but still, much may be done by proclaiming the rule, and placing at the school entrance one of the elder scholars, to remind the others of it, and see that it is observed, until the cleanly habit be established. In the school above alluded to, the rule has grown into so general observance, that the discovery of mud on the stairs or entry leads immediately to the inquiry, whether any stranger has been in. For, though few carry the habit with them, all are so trained by daily drilling, that it soon becomes as difficult to neglect it, as it was at first to regard it. Hanging up on the hooks, caps, outer garments, cf-c, by loops. It is not every school that is provided with hooks or pegs for children's caps, garments, &c. All, however, should be so provided with as much certainty as seats are fur- nished to sit upon. It not only encourages the parents to send the children in comfortable trim, but induces the children to take better care of their things, especially if a particular hook or peg be assigned to each individual pupil. It is one step in the system of order, so essential to the well-being of those des- tined to live among fellow-men. If dependent on the attention of mothers at home, I am aware that many children would often be destitute of the loops spoken of; but the children themselves could supply these, under the teacher's supervision ; for I understand the use of the needle is taught, in many schools, to the younger pupils of both sexes, and has been found a very satisfactory mode of filling up time, which, among the junior classes, would otherwise be devoted to idleness. The next in order is, on keeping clean the person, clothes, and shoes. This, I am aware, must cost the teacher a great deal of labor to enforce; for if sent from home in a clean condition, the chances are more than two to one, that, on reaching school, a new ablution will be necessary. And in how many families this business of ablution is rarely attended to at all, with any fidelity ; and as to clean clothes and shoes, if insisted on, the answer might he in some such pleasant and laconic language as this : " He ought to be thankful that he can get any clothes, without all this fuss, as if he were dressing for a wedding or a coronation !" Still, the rule is a good one, and should be enforced, as far as prac- ticable. Water can at least be had; and if a child seems a stranger to its ap- plication, ofte or two of the elder scholars should be sent out, as is the practice in some European schools, to introduce it to him, and aid him in using it. And if you can arouse him to feel some pride in keeping his dress and person clean, REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY HALL SCHOOL. 399 and his shoes well polished, or at least, in keeping them free of mud, jou teach him a lesson of self-respect, lhat may prove his temporal salvation, and bring him to be, when out of school, instead of the squalid vagrant, a companion of pilferers and refugees from justice, the incipient worthy member of society, and perhaps a benefactor of his race. It is amazing to reflect how very slight a circumstance in the life of a human being, in the early stages, sometimes casts him on that tide, which leads to glory or to infamy ! Some one of note has said, that *' he considers cleanliness as next to godli- ness ;" and I have been accustomed to look upon one, thoroughly clean in the outward man, as rfecessarily possessing a clean heart, a pure spirit. Whether it may be adopted as a rule of judgment or not, need not now be decided. The claims of cleanliness are, without considering the deduction as infallible, too commanding to be resisted, and should ever be maintained. The fourth relates to quitting the neighborhood of the school, on being dis- missed. This is desirable for the safety of the children ; it removes them to some extent, from temptation, and aids in the fulfillment of the reasonable ex- pectations of parents, that their children will be at home at the appointed hour. It is a practical lesson in punctuality, which, as the young come into life, will be found of great service to them. It may be ranked with behavior, and con- sidered as among those things which constitute the character of a good child." It is especially due to the families residing in the vicinity of the school. Do what you may to prevent annoyance, it is scarcely possible for a large school to be an agreeable neighbor to families within its hearing. They are subject to its petty disturbances, in all states of health and sickness, in trouble and in. joy; and are surely entitled to the relief afforded by dismissal and sending the children to their homes. Shouting, screaming, and yelling, should be prohibited, and the children directed to go away in. a quiet and orderly manner. Surely, every principle of courtesy, of kindness, and good neighborhood, demands it, and should not demand in vain. Who has not waited with the operations of some of the senses suspended, for the periodical abatement of an intolerable nuisance, and felt, in due time, all the joy of the anticipated relief"? " Every boy to be accountable for the condition of the floor nearest his seat ;" that is. he is not to allow any thing, whether valuable or not, to lie on the floor, and, consequently, every thing contemplated in the preceding rule, as far as any individual's vicinity is concerned, is taken care of. and all worthless articles likewise removed. This making committee-men of all the pupils must have a very good effect on the condition of the school room, and promote that neatness and order, which are above recommended. The next rule requires the pupils to be particularly quiet and diligent, when the teacher is called out of the room. This I regard as of very great conse- quence ; for it involves a sentiment of magnanimity, which it should be the aim of all guardians of the young to implant, to develop, and to cherish. Children often infringe school regulations, and much is to be overlooked in them, espe- cially when at a very tender age. Their little minds are scarcely able to en- tertain, for a long time together, the influence of many rules, except under the excitement of great hope or fear; and when the teacher is present, they often unconsciously offend, and should be judged with clemency; but when left as their own keepers, they should be early made to understand how discourteous, how dishonorable, how base, it is to transgress the laws of the school. Each should vie with each in good example, and thus convince the instructor, that confidence reposed in them can never be abused. The last item, under the head of Requisitions, is this : " To promote, as far as possible, the happiness, comfort, and improvement, of others." If to the few exclusively moral and religious obligations, those of courtesy be added, this re- quisition cannot fail of being observed. I say, exclusively or strictly moral, be- cause the notion of courtesy hardly enters the mind, when we speak of moral conduct; and yet, in nearly all the minor points, and in most which affect the happiness of others, in our ordinary intercourse with them, apart from the trans- actions of business, it is courtesy that influences us most. It maybe denomina- ted the benevolence of behavior. Aware I am that a hypocrite may be courteous : and hypocrisy in a child is inexpressibly loathsome. But hypocrisy is not a necessary attendant on courtesy. One may be as courteous as Lafayette, and yet as pure and upright as Washington. If, then, school-boys are kind-hearted 400 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. and friendly to their mates, and evince it towards them in theii manners, they will, by their example as well as by their words, fulfill the injunction of the rule. The " Prohibitions" are in the same spirit as the requisitions, and seem to be much the same in substance, although thrown into a negative form of speech. The first is in these words : " No boy to throw pens, paper, or any thing what- ever, on the floor, or out at a window or door." This refers to a voluntary act of the pupil, — the rule requiring boys to pick up whatever is found on the floor to those accidental scatterings, for which one would not be culpable. The pro- hibition is founded on that necessity for order and neatness, which must ever be maintained in a well-conducted institution, to whatever object, worthy of atten- tion, it may be devoted. And this is urged thus repeatedly, because of the in- effable importance of first s'eps. Begin right, should be the motto and rallying word of every nursery and every school. Spitting on the floor. This topic I would willingly avoid, but fidelity to my charge forbids it. The practice, disgusting as it is, is too prevalent in many ot the families that furnish pupils, for your schools, to be overlooked, or winked out of sight ; and if the children could carry home new notions in regard to it, I am sure you would have furnished a good lesson to their parents. The habits of large portions of society demand a reform. It is futile to ex- pect any general amendment in those who have grown old in given practices ; but with the children, those whose habits are, to a great extent, yet unformed; much may be done. And although the counteracting influences of home mili- tate against your wholesome requisitions, happy is it for us, that a goodly por- tion of New England respect for teachers still remains, to give authority and weight to your well-founded and reasonable rules. In many, if not in most, families, of our own countrymen, the fact that the ' school-ma'am' said so, is sufficient to make the rule promulgated binding on the parents; the mother, es- pecially, will exert her authority and influence on the teacher's side ; and if the teacher possesses the qualities of judgment, discretion, a proper consideration for the circumstances of the families to which her children belong, to guide her in the adoption of her regulations, she will be able to exert a power for good, within the sphere of her daily duties, which will continue to be felt and acknow- ledged, long after she shall have rendered her final account. Marking, cutting, scratching, chalking, on the school-house, fence, walls, <^c, are forbidden, as connected with much that is low, corrupting," and injurious to the property and rights of others. They are the beginnings in that course of de- basing follies and vices, for which the idle, the ignorant, and profane, are most remarkable ; the first steps in that course of degradation and impurity, by which the community is disgraced, and the streams of social intercourse polluted. You mark the track of its subjects as you would the trail of a savage maraud- ing party, by its foul deeds and revolting exploits ; as you would the path of the boa constrictor, in its filthy slime, which tells that man's deadly enemy is abroad. And we are called on, by every consideration of duty, to ourselves, to our off- spring, and to our race, to arm against this tremendous evil, this spiritual bohon upas, which threatens so wide-spread a moral death. We cannot escape the evidences of this, which assail us on every hand, some- times on the very walls of our school-houses and churches ; but especially in places removed from public view, where the most schocking obscenity of lan- guage is displayed, to poison the youthful mind, illustrated by emblems, which, in the words of one who deeply mourns with us over the existence of this mon- strous evil, this desolating curse, "would make a heathen blush!" These fright- ful assaults on decency demand reform. The deep, low murmur of insulted humanity will, I doubt not, unless this evil be checked, ascend to the tribunal of Eternal Purity, and invoke the malediction of our Judge, which may yet be displayed in the blasting of our fair land, like another Sodom ! To avert so deplorable a catastrophe, let the thousands of the good and virtuous in youi midst, formed into one indomitable phalanx, take the noble stand which belongs to them, and never abandon it, till the enemy be forever vanquished ; forevei banished from the now polluted, but ever to be cherished, land of the Pilgrims ! By these practices, the mind acquires such a hankering after, and morbid relish for mischief, that no tree, or shrubbery, or flowers, or public embellish- ments, or exhibitions of art or taste, however beautiful or expensive, are sacred from the marring or destructive touch. A sensibility to the beautiful needs to oe cultivated among us ; and mav easily be done with the young, if a propei REGULATIONS OF CHAUNCY-HALL SCHOOL. 401 and sincere value be placed upon it by ourselves, and the children see that our admiration is a reality. It exists much more generally in continental Europe, than in our own country. There, the decorations of public walks, parks, and gardens ; the galleries of the arts, and the magnificent structures which adorn their cities, are looked at, enjoyed, admired, by all classes; and rarely, indeed, is the Vandal hand of mischief or destruction found to desecrate these monu- ments of a nation's refinement. But how is it with us 1 No sooner has the artist given the last touch to the fluted column, than some barbarian urchin chips off a wedge of it, in wanton sport. How often is our indignation excited by the painter's boy, who, as he passes the newly-erected dwelling or recently- painted wall, daubs it with his black paint-brush, for yards in length, as he saunters heedlessly along. And what more common, in almost all public build- ings, in cupolas, observatories, &c, especially, for persons, apprehensive of be- ing forgotten by posterity, than to cut out their names or their initials, as if this were their only road to immortality ! The use of knives is the thing next prohibited. In mere primary schools, this rule, and the one last mentioned, would find, perhaps, little to do. Some, how- ever, there are, I doubt not, even in such schools, who suffer from the too free use of knives, as their forms, desks, or benches, could testify. Nothing is more fascinating to a boy than a knife. And what pleasure can there be in possess- ing a knife, if one may not use if? Hence the trouble occasioned by the instru- ment. He early learns in imitation of his ciders if not his betters, that wood was made to be cut. and that the mission of a knife is. to do the work. ' This topic can hardly be thought out of place, b}'- those who will look into the recitation-rooms of almost any of our colleges, where many a dunce, un- worthy of any degree, soon, by his dexterity in this department, lays claim to that of master of the art, — of hacking ; " and has his claim allowed." I have already adverted to the whittling propensities of our people ; but, with your permission, I will add a remark or two, with a view to placing this naiion- al peculiarity in a stronger light. So proverbial have we become, among for- eigners, in this respect, that, if a Yankee is to be represented on the stage, you find him with a jackknife in one hand, and in the other a huge bit of pine tim- ber, becoming every moment smaller, by r his diligent handiwork. If he is talk- ing, arguing, or, more appropriately, if he is driving a bargain, you find him plying this, his wonted trade, with all the energy and dexterity of a beaver; and, as it was once said of an English advocate, that he could never plead, without a piece of packthread in his hands, so the Yankee would lose half his thrift, unless the knife and wood were concomitants of his chaffering. But the habit is of evil tendency, and ought to be checked. He indulges in it without discrimination, upon whatever is cut-able ; and, worse than the white ant, which saws down and carries away whole human habitations, when they have become deserted, the whittling Yankee would hack your dwelling in present occupation, until he rendered you houseless. Let the mischief be checked betimes ; do it at school ; showing, at the same time, the uselessness, the folly, and the annoy- ing nature, of the habit. It is not merely at home, among our own people, that it is practiced by us ; but we carry it with us wherever we go, and, even among strangers, establish our New England identity by it. The spirit of the school rules at which we have glanced, should be carried into every family. It is not enough to present the summary at which we have arrived ; we should also insist on minor particulars, by words and actions, not at school only, but at home, where great familiarity produces influences unfa- vorable to the exercise of courtesy, — such as the closingof all doors, especially in cold weather; the doing of it gently, without slamming ; moving quietly over the floor ; abstaining from shouting, whistling, boisterous plays, wearing the hat in the house, &c. Just in proportion as such habits ean be secured by your labors, will you bring down upon your heads the blessing of mothers, worn by care, by sickness, and the rudeness of their offspring. Powerless themselves, to produce a reformation, their gratitude to you .will be sincere and heartfelt. Children should be taught to take leave of their parents and friends, on going to school, and to offer the friendly salute and kind inquiry, on returning home. Nothing tends more to strengthen the silken cords of family affection, than these little acts of courtesy; and their influence on the observer is highly fa- vorable to benevolent feeling. If these points are attended tcr in our families, they will not fail of being carried into company, where they are always a coin of sterling value. 26 402 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. Dedicatory Exercises. The opening of a new school-house is an occasion which well deserves a public and joyful commemoration. Out of it are to be the issues- of life to the community in the midst of which it stands, and like the river seen in the vision of the prophet, which nourished all along its banks trees whose leaves were for the healing of the nations, the well-spring of all its influences should be a spot consecrated by religion. In prayer, and in praise to the Giver of all good, and the Author of all being, — in song, and hymn and anthem, and in addresses, from those whose position in society will command the highest respect for any object in whose behalf they may speak, and in the presence of all classes of the community, of pupils, and teachers, of fathers and mothers, of the old and young, — the school- house should be set apart to the sacred purpose of the physical, intellec- tual and moral culture of the children who will be gathered within its walls. We rejoice to see that these occasions are thus improved, ancLthat so many of our most distinguished teachers, scholars and statesmen take part in the exercises. We have before us a large number'of addresses, at once eloquent and practical, which have been delivered at the opening of new school-houses, and we shall select a few, not for their superiority to the rest, but as specimens of the manner in which topics appropriate to the occasion are introduced, and as fitting testimony to the importance of School Architecture. School Celebration at Salem, Mass. On the first of March, 1842, the occasion of occupying several new school-houses, was marked by a variety of interesting exercises, an ac- count of which will be found in the Common School Journal for that year. We copy the addresses of Mr. George B. Emerson, and of G. F. Thayer. Mr. Emerson said, — "I congratulate you, my young friends, on this happy event. This pleasant day is like a smile of Heaven upon this occasion ; and I believe Heaven always smiles on events like this. Many of us whom you see here have come from a distance, on the invitation of your excellent friend the Mayor, to show the interest which we feel in you. and in what has been done here for your improvement. We have taken great pleasure in look- ing over the buildings prepared for your use, the admirable arrangements and apparatus, so much superior to what is usually enjoyed by children in your position. We have been pleased to hear of the faithful teachers that are provided for you, and the excellent plan of your studies, and the excellent regulations. Your fathers and friends have spared no pains to furnish you with all the best means and opportunities for learning. They now look to you to do your part. All that they have done will be of no avail, unless you are excited to exert yourselves, — to prove yourselves worthy of these great advantages. I was gratified, in looking over the regulations, to see the course marked out for you, — to*see the stress laid upon the great substantials of a good education,— to see the prominent place given to that most useful art, that DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM. 4Q3 most graceful accomplishment, reading. You cannot, my young friends, realize the great and manifold advantages of gaining, now, in the begin- ning of your life, familiarly and perfectly, the single power of reading distinctly, naturally, intelligently, with taste and interest, — and of acquir- ing a Love for reading. There is no situation in life, in which it will not prove to you a source of the purest pleasure and highest improvement. For many years, and many times in a year, I have passed by the shop of a diligent, industrious mechanic, whom I have often seen busy at his trade, with his arms bare, hard at work. His industry and steadiness have been successful, and he has gained a competency. But he still re- mains wisely devoted to his trade. During the day, you may see him at his work, or chatting with his neighbors. At night, he sits down in his parlor, by his quiet fireside, and enjoys the company of his friends. And he has the most extraordinary collection of friends that any man in New England can boast of William H. Prescott goes out from Boston, and talks with him about Ferdinand and Isabella. Washington Irving comes from New York, and tells him the story of the wars of Grenada, and the adventurous voyage of Columbus, or the Legend of Sleepy Hollow, or the tale of the Broken Heart. George Bancroft sits down with him, and points out on a map, the colonies and settlements of America, their cir- cumstances and fates, and gives him the early history of liberty. Jared Sparks comes down from Cambridge, and reads to him the letters of Washington', and makes his heart glow with the heroic deeds of that god- like man for the cause of his country. Or, if he is in the mood for poetry, ' his neighbor Washington Allston, the great painter, steps in and tells him a story, — and nobody tells a story so well, — or repeats to him lines of poetry. Bryant comes, with his sweet wood-notes, which he learnt among the green hills of Berkshire. And Richard H. Dana, father and .son, come, the one to repeat grave, heart-stirring poetry, the other to speak of his froo years before the mast. Or. if this mechanic is in a spec- ulative mood. Professor Hitchcock comes to talk to him of all the changes that have befallen the soil of Massachusetts, since the flood and before ; or Professor Espy tries to show him how to predict a storm. Nor is his acquaintance confined to his own country. In his graver hours, he sends for Sir John Herschel from across the ocean, and he comes and sits down and discourses eloquently upon the wonders of the vast creation, — of all the worlds that are poured upon our sight by the glory of a starry night. Nor is it across the stormy ocean of blue waves alone that his friends come to visit him ; but across the darker and wider ocean of time, come the wise and the good, the eloquent and the witty, and sit down by his table, and discourse with him as long as he wishes to listen. That-eloquent blind old man of Scio, with beard descending to his girdle, still blind, but still eloquent, sits down with him ; and, as he sang almost three thousand years ago among the Grecian isles, sings the war of Troy or the wan- derings of the sage Ulysses. The poet of the human heart comes from the banks of Avon, and the poet of Paradise from his small garden-house in Westminster ; Burns from his cottage on the Ayr, and Scott from his dwelling by the Tweed ; — and, any time these three years past, may have been seen by his fireside a man who ought to be a hero with school- boys, for no one ever so felt for them ; a man whom so many of your neighbors in Boston lately strove in vain to see, — Charles Dickens. In the midst of such friends, our friend the leather-dresser lives a happy and respected life, not less respected, and far more happy, than if an uneasy ambition had made him a representative in Congress, or a governor of a State ; and the more respected and happy that he disdains not to labor daily in his honorable calling. My young friends, this is no fancy sketch. Many who hear me know as well as I do, Thomas Dowse, the leather-dresser of Cambridgeport, £04 DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM. and many have seen his choice and beautiful library. But I suppose there is no one here who knows a neighbor of his, who had in his early years the same advantages, but who did not improve them ; — who never gained this love of reading, and who now, in consequence, instead of liv- ing this happy and desirable life, wastes his evenings in low company at taverns, or dozes them away by his own fire. Which of these lives will you choose to lead 1 They are both before you. Some of you, perhaps, are looking forward to the life of a farmer. — a very happy life, if it be well spent. On the southern side of a gently sloping hill in Natick, not far from the place where may be still standing the last wigwam of the tribe of Indians of that name, in a comfortable farm-house, lives a man whom I sometimes go to see. I find him with his farmer's frock on, sometimes at the plough-tail, sometimes handling the hoe or the axe ; and I never shake his hand, hardened by honorable toil, without wishing that I could harden my own poor hands by his sidf in the same respectable employment. I go out to look with him at trees and to talk about them ; for he is a lover of trees, and so am I ; and he is> not unwilling, when I come, to leave his work for a stroll in the woods. He long ago learnt the language of plants, and they have told him their history and their uses. He. again, is a reader, and has collected about him a set of friends, not so numerous as our friend Dowse, nor of just the same character, but a goodly number of very entertaining and instructive ones ; and he finds time every day to enjoy their company. * His winter evenings he spends with them, and in repeating experiments which the chemists and philosophers have made. He leads a happy life. Time never hangs heavy on his hands. For such a man we have an involun- tary respect. On the other side of Boston, downs by the coast, lived, a few years ago,, a farmer of a far different character. He had been what is called fortu- nate in business, and had a beautiful farm and garden in the country, and a house in town. Chancing to pass by his place, some four or five years ago, I stopped to see him. And I could not but congratulate him on hav- ing so delightful a place to spend his summers in. But he frankly con- fessed that he was heartily tired of it, and that lie longed to go back to Boston. I found that he knew nothing about his trees, of which he had many fine ones, — for it was an old place he had bought, — nor of the plants- in his garden. He had no books, and no taste for them. His time hung like a burden on him. He enjoyed neither his leisure nor his wealth. It would have been a blessing to him. if he could have been obliged to ex- change places with his hired men, and dig in his garden for his gardener, or plough the field for his ploughman. He went from country to town and from town to country, and died, at last, weary and sick of life. Yet he was a kind man, and might have been a happy one but for a single misfortune ; he had not learned to enjoy reading. The love of reading is a blessing in any pursuit, in any course of life ; — not less to the merchant and sailor than to the mechanic and farmer. What was it but a love of reading which made of a merchant's apprentice, a man whom many of you have seen and all have heard of, the truly great and learned Bowditch'? Our friends the young ladies may not think this which I have said exactly suited to them. But to you, my young friends, even more than to your brothers, it is important now to acquire a talent for reading well, and a taste for reading. I say more important, for, looking forward to the future, you will need it more than they. They are more independent of this resource- They have their shops, and farms, and counting-houses to go to. They are daily on change. They go abroad on the ocean. The sphere of woman, her place of honor, is home, her own fireside, the eares of her own family. A well-educated woman is a sun in this sphere^ DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM. 4Q5 shedding around her the light of intelligence, the warmth of love and happiness. And by a well-educated woman I do not mean merely one who has ac- quired ancient, and loreign languages, or curious or striking accomplish- ments. I mean a woman who, having left school with a firmly-fixed love of reading, has employed the golden leisure of her youth in reading the best English books, such as shall prepare her for her duties. All the best books ever written are in English, either original or translated', and in this richest and best literature of the world she may find enough to pre- pare her for all the duties and relations of life. The mere talent of read- ing well, simply, gracefully, — what a beautiful accomplishment it is in woman ! How many weary and otherwise heavy hours have I had charmed into pleasure by this talent in a female friend. But I speak of the higher acquisition, the natural and usual consequence of this, a taste for reading. This will give a woman a world of resources. It gives her the oracles of God. These will be ever near her ; — nearest to her hand when she wakes, and last from her hand when she retires t© sleep. And what stores of wisdom, for this world and for a higher, will she gain from this volume! This will enable her to form her &\vn char- acter and the hearts of her children. Almost every distinguished man has confessed his obligations to his mother. To her is committed the whole formation of the character, — mind, heart, and body, at the most important period of life. How necessary, then, is it that she should pos- sess a knowledge of the laws of the body and the mind 1 and how can she get it but by reading ? If you gain only this, what an unspeakable Messing will your education be to you ! I need not, my young friends, speak of the other acquisitions you may make. — of writing, which places friends in the remotest parts of the world tside by side, — or of calculation, the very basis of justice and honesty. The acquisitions you may make will depend chiefly on yourselves. You will find your teachers ready to lead you on to higher studies when- ever you are prepared to go. These excellent establishments are emphatically yours. They are raised for your good ; and, as we your seniors pass away, — and in a few years we shall have passed, — these buildings will become your property, and your children will fill the seats you now occupy. Consider them yours, then, to enjoy and profit by, but not yours to waste. Let it be your pride to preserve them uninjured, unmarred by the mischievous knives and pencils of vulgar children. Unite for this purpose. Consider an injury done to these buildings as an injury done to yourselves. There is another thing which will depend on you, of more importance than any I have spoken of. I mean the tone of character which shall prevail in these schools. Your teachers will be happy to treat you as high-minded and generous children. Show that you can be so treated 4 that you are such. Let me congratulate you upon the happy auspices of the name of him under whom, with the zealous co-operation of enlightened and patriotic associates, this momentous change in your school system has been effected, — a name which is borne by the oldest and best school in New Hampshire, and by one of the oldest and best in Massachusetts. It will depend upon you, my friends, to make the schools of Salem, equally, or still more distinguished, among those of the State.'" Mr. Thayer said, — Children : I did not expect that I should have the privilege of address- ing you, on this most joyful occasion ; for it was not till I met your re- t^pected Mayor, an hour ago, at the beautiful school-house we have juei 406 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. left, that I received an invitation to do so. You will not, therefore, antici- pate a studied discourse, or any thing particularly interesting. Devoted, however, as my life is, and has long been, to the instruction and guidance of the young in no inconsiderable numbers, I shall, without further pre- face, imagine myself in the midst of my own school, and talk familiarly to you as I would, and do, to them. And allow me to add my congratulations to those of your other friends, for the ample, beautiful, and convenient arrangements that have been made for you, in the school-houses of this city; and especially in the new one we have just examined. I can assure you, it is superior in almost every respect to any public school-house in New England, if not in the United States. It, with others in the city, has cost your fathers and friends a great deal of money, which they have cheerfully expended as a means of making you wise and good. But you have incurred a great debt to them, which you can never repay while you are children, but must endeavor to do it to your children, when you shall become men and women, and take the place of your parents in the world. But before that period, you can do something. Now, immediately on entering upon the enjoyment of the precious privileges extended to you, you can acknowl- edge, the debt, evince the gratitude you feel, not by words, but deeds ; — by, (to use an expression well understood by all children,) ' being good? Yes, — by ' being good and doing good ;' — by obedience to parents and teachers ; by kindness to brothers and sisters, and all your young friends and companions; by fidelity in duty, at home and at school ; by the prac- tice of honesty and truth at all times ; by refraining from the use of pro- fane and indecent language ; by keeping the mind and heart free from every thing impure. These are the means in your own hands. Fail not to use them ; and although they will in fact be merely an acknowledg- ment of your obligation for the boon you possess, your friends will con- sider themselves well repaid for all they have done for you. It is from such conduct that the teacher's, as well as the father's, richest reward and highest satisfaction are derived. To see the beloved objects of our care and instruction appreciating our labors, and improving in all that is good and useful, under our management, affords the greatest happiness, lightens the heavy load of toil, relieves the aching head, and revives the fainting spirit. There is, however, one great danger to which you, — to which all the young, — are especially exposed. I mean the influence of bad example. Example is omnipotent. Its force is irresistible to most minds. We are all swayed more or less, by others. Others are swayed by us. And this process is continually going on, even though we are entirely unconscious of it ourselves. Hence we see the importance of choosing good com- panions, and flying from the bad. Unless this is done, it will be in vain for your friends to give you wise counsel, or for you to form good resolu- tions. ' Who can touch pitch and be clean V You will resemble those with whom you associate. You will catch their words, their manners, their habits. Are they pure, you will be pure. Are they depraved, they will corrupt you. Be it a rule with you. then, to avoid those who are ad- dicted to practices that you would be unwilling your most respected friends should know, and regulate your own conduct by the same standard. I would particularly caution you against beginnings. It is the first step that is the dangerous one ; since it is obvious that, if you were to ascend the highest mountain, it could only be done by a step at a time, and if the first were not taken, the summit could never be reached. But, one suc- cessfully accomplished, the next follows as a matter of course. And equally and fatally sure is the downward track to crime and misery ! If we suffer ourselves to be drawn in that direction, what human power can DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT SALEM. 407 save us from destruction ? This clanger, too, is increased by the feeling of security we indulge, when we say, ' It is only a little thing.; we shall never commit any great fault ;' — not remembering that nothing stands still in life, in character, any more than in the material universe. We must be going forward or backward ; up, towards improvement and glory, — or down, towards infamy and woe ! Every thing accumulates, according to its kind ; though it begins small, like the snowball you hold in your hand, it becomes, as you roll it on the ground before you. larger at every revolution, till, at last, it is beyond your power to move it at all. I will illustrate this by a sad case which has recently occurred in Bos- ton. But first, I wish to interest you in something of an agreeable nature, in connection with the faithful performance of duty. I have spoken of some things that you should do, to show your sense of the benefits which have been conferred upon you, and I • should like to dwell on each one of them separately ; but I shall have time only to speak of one. It is-, however, among the most important. I allude to speaking the truth, — the most substantial foundation of moral character. It has in- numerable advantages, one of which is strikingly exhibited in the fol- lowing story : — Petrarch, an eminent Italian poet, who lived about five hundred years ago, secured the confidence and friendship of Cardinal Colonna, in whose family he resided in his youth, by his candor and strict regard to truth. A violent quarrel had occurred in the family of this nobleman, which was carried so far, that resort was had to arms. The cardinal wished to know the foundation of the affair ; and, calling all hie people before him, he required each one to bind himself by a solemn oath, on the Gospels, to declare the whole truth. None were exempt. Even the cardinal's brother submitted to it. Petrarch, in his turn, presenting himself to take the oath, the cardinal closed the book, and said, ' As far you, Petrarch, your word is sufficient.*'' What more delightful reward could have been presented to the feelings of the noble youth than this, from his friend, his master, and one of the highest dignitaries of the church '? Nothing but the peaceful whispers of his own conscience, or the approbation of his Maker, could have given him more heart-felt satisfaction. Who among you would not be a Petrarch ? and, in this respect, which of you could not 1 While, then, I would hold up for imitation this beautiful example, I would present a contrast as a warning to you. There is now confined in the Boston jail a boy of fourteen years of age, who, for the previous six years, had been sinking deeper and deeper into vice and crime, until last October, when he was convicted, and sentenced to two years' confinement within the cold damp cell of a gloomy prison, for aggravated theft. In his own written account of his life, which I have seen, he says that he began his wretched course by playing truant from school. His second step was lying, to conceal it. Idle, and destitute of any fixed purpose, he fell in company with others, guilty like himself, of whom he learned to steal, and to use indecent and profane language. He sought the worst boys he could find. He became a gambler, a frequenter of the circus and the theatre, and engaged in various other corrupt and sinful practices. At length, becoming bold in his dishonesty, he robbed the post-office of letters containing very considerable sums of money, and was soon detected and condemned. If you were to visit that abode of misery, you might often see the boy's broken-hearted mother, weeping, and sobbing, and groaning, at the iron grating of his solitary cell, as if she would sink on the flinty floor, and die ! ' And all this,' (to use the boy's own words,) 'comes from playing truant!' Look, then, my young friends, on these two pictures, — both taken from life. — and tell me which you like best ; and which of the two characters 408 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. you propose to imitate. Will you be young Petrarchs, or will you adopt the course of the unfortunate boy in Boston jail 1 They are both before you. If you would be like the former, begin right. Resist temptation to wrong-doing, with all your might. Let no one entice you from the way which conscience points out. This precept is applicable to all, — to both sexes and every age. Let me, then, I pray you, when I shall inquire, hereafter, respecting the habits and characters of the children of the Public Schools of Salem, have the satisfaction to hear, that the instructions of this occasion made an impres- sion on their minds favorable to truth and duty, which subsequent time could never efface. Dedication of the New School-house in Pawtucket, October 31, 1846 Address of President Wayland, of Brown University. Ladies and Gentlemen, There is something deeply interesting, both to the philanthropist and to the political economist, in the appearance of such a village as this, the abode of wealth, civilization and refinement. ' We find ourselves, as we look upon it, unconsciously reverting to the period, not very remote, when this whole region was a desert. Thick forests covered all these hills, and pressed down even to the water's brink. This river rushed over its rocky bed, or tumbled down its precipitous ledges, unnoticed by the eye of civilized man. A few savages from time to time, erected their transient wigwams upon its banks, as the season of hunting or fishing attracted them, and they alone disputed the claim of the beasts of the forest to this beautiful domain. The products of all this region were a scanty and pre- carious pasturage for game, a few canoe loads of fish, and, it may be, a few hundred pounds of venison. Whatever else the earth produced, fell and perished ungathered. Age after age, beheld this annual waste. Here was the earth with all its capabilities. Here were the waters with all their unexpended powers. But here was no man whose intellect had been instructed in the laws of nature. Here was neither continuous in- dustry, nor even frugal forethought. Hence there could be no progress. All things continued as they were from the beginning of the creation. About two hundred years since, the first civilized man cast his eyes over this beautiful landscape. He brought with him the arts and the science of the older world, and a new era commenced in the history of that part of our country, since known as Rhode Island. The labors of agriculture soon began to work their magic changes. The forest was felled, the soil was tilled, and, in the place of the precarious products of the uncultivated field, rich harvests of grain waved over these plains. The beasts of the forest retired, and the animals given by the Creator to aid us in our toil, occupied their place. Instead of the graceful deer, the clumsy moose, the prowling wolf and the ravenous panther, these fields were covered with the lowing herds, the bleating sheep, the labori- ous ox, and the horse, in all latitudes the faithful servant of man. This was a great and glorious transformation. From the moment that a civilized man first thrust his spade into this earth, or here yoked his oxen to the plough, the sleep of ages was broken, and the reign of pro- gress commenced. From this moment the darkness had begun to pass away, and the sun was dispersing that night, which, since the deluge, ad brooded over this land. From that auspicious beginning, all the means of happiness that the eye beholds, have proceeded. Acre after DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 499 acre has been reclaimed from barrenness. Every variety of product has been tried, in order to ascertain which would be produced by the earth most kindly. The smoky wigwam gave place to the log house, and this in turn, to the convenient farm-house, or th'e stately mansion. And thus another portion of the earth was added to the area of Anglo-Saxon civili- zation. But still the river, to which all the distinctive prosperity of this region owes its origin, ran, as it ever had ran, to utter waste. This mighty and most productive means of wealth, remained wholly unemployed. A mine richer than that of gold, was yet unwrought. It was a mine of me- chanical power, instead of metallic treasure, and let me add, a mine of incalculably greater value. At last it was discovered, that this little river, falling over its innumerable ledges, could do the labor of many thousand men. An accomplished manufacturer,* from England, whose name has made this village one of the most renowned spots in our coun- try, came among us, and applied the power of this water-fall to the spin- ning and weaving of cotton. Who can measure the results of this one grand experiment? We hear of battles and sieges, of the defeat of armies, the capture of towns, the destruction of fleets; but what achieve- ment of war was ever of such importance to a people, as that which was accomplished, when that wheel made its first revolution, and the first thread of cotton was here, in this very village, spun by water power 1 From this moment may be dated the commencement of general manu- factures in this country, and that, of cotton in particular. From that mo- ment, every fall of water throughout our land became a most valuable possession. From that moment, this noble natural agent began, every- where, to fabricate garments for our people. From that moment all the labor, of every age, throughout New England, could be profitably em- ployed. From that moment it was certain that capital to any amount could readily find investment. The rich proceeds of one manufactory laid the foundations of a similar one by the side of it. As one branch of manufactures began to supply the demand of the nation, another branch was established. Thus we are every year adding millions to this form of investment, and employing additional thousands of hands in this mode of industry. We are. entering into generous and successful rivalry with the nations of Europe. Already many of our cottons are preferred to theirs in the markets of the world. Soon, other branches of our man- ufactures will be brought to equal perfection. Nay, I anticipate the time when we, in this country, under a system of generous reciprocity, shall supply the continent and England herself with all those articles, for the fabrication of which we have special advantages. But this chain of events by no means ceases here. Year after year every branch of manufactures is increasing its means, and distributing the proceeds of its labor over every part of our land. Wherever a fabric is sent, it is exchanged, in some form, for the productions of that region in which it is consumed. The common means for accomplishing these mutual and increasing exchanges, soon became utterly inadequate ; more efficient modes of transportation must, from necessity, be invented. The business of the country could not be carried on without them. Our man- ufacturing prosperity, while it creates the necessity for internal improve- ments, also supplies the means for constructing them. The annual gains of manufacturing- capital are next invested in canals and railroads, and thus the means of transporting these fabrics at the least cost, are at once * Mr. Slater has even a higher claim to the gratitude and veneration of this country, than that which he derives from the introduction of the cotton manufacture. He established in JPawtucket the first Sunday School that was ever opened in America; and for some tim« sustained it wholly at his own expense. 410 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. provided. Here is, then, another mode created, of advantageous invest- ment. By means of internal improvement, the market of every producer is indefinitely extended, he also receives a fair remuneration for this very investment, by which his market is thus extended, and, at the same time the consumer receives whatever he purchases at a cheaper rate and in greater perfection. Thus, as we always observe, under the government of God, a real benefit to one is a benefit to all. And hence we learn, that to attempt to secure exclusive advantages to ourselves, is always abor lost. Nothing can be a real benefit to us, that is not a real benefit also to our neighbors. And the illustration of all that I have said, is manifest every where around us. We behold how every other art has clustered around the art of transforming cotton into clothing. We see how one establishment has been the seed that has produced a multitude of those that resemble it. You see how manufactures have given rise to internal improvements ; how the spindle has cut through the mountains, and filled up the valleys and graded the road, and stretched from city to city the iron rail. You see how loth these inseparable friends are to be parted from each other. The region of manufactures is the region of railroads. And you per- ceive, as the iron road that passes through this village, pursues its way toward the west, how it winds along through the valley of the Black- stone, greeting every village and waking every hamlet to renewed ac- tivity. All this you readily perceive. You must be astonished yourselves, when you reflect upon the amount of capital which a single life time has added to the resources of this village, and the country in its immediate vicinity. But while we exult in the large measure of prosperity with which a bountiful Providence has endowed us, it may not be uninstruc- tive to inquire, in what ways have these blessings been improved? Has it ever occurred to you, that almost all this capital has been invested in procuring for ourselves, the means of physical happiness? We erect houses, and we render them spacious, warm, and commodious. We furnish them with every means of physical luxury. We spread carpets for our feet. , We stretch ourselves on couches of down. We temper the at- mosphere at our will. We clothe ourselves with vestments wrought in every clime, and by people of every hue and language. We vary our dress with every fashion. We load our tables with luxuries imported fr°m the tropics or the poles; we vex sea and land for new viands to stim- ulate our palates, already saturated with abundance. We please our- selves with every form of equipage, and tax the ingenuity of every arti- san, that we may be enabled to roll from place to place without the fa- tigue of motion. But why need I proceed to specify any further. We all perceive, on the least reflection, that it is in expenditures of this land, that almost all the expenses of living are incurred. But if this be true, must there not be some grievous error in the prin- ciples of our conduct? Can this be a wise mode of expenditure for intel- ligent and immortal beings ? In all that I have here recited, is there any thing in which, on principle, we have excelled, ( excuse the homeliness of the illustration,) the Beaver that once inhabited these streams? The thoughtful animal expended all the treasures of his intellect or instinct, in rendering his dwelling commodious; and he accomplished it. Have we not done precisely the same thing ? Has not all the expenditure of which I have spoken, been consumed for the convenience of the physical, the perishable, the material ? Might not all this have been done, had we no consciousness of an immortal spirit ? But God has made us immortal. He has given to us a spiritual exist- ence. Each one of us possesses a priceless mind. We are endowed with reason to discover truth, imagination to form conceptions of the beautiful DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 4^ J and the grand, taste to delight in all that is lovely or glorious, and con- science by which we are allied to God the Father of all, and the holy and blessed throughout the universe. It is by the possession of these powers, that man claims precedence over the brute. It is by the cultiva- tion of these, that we have become more powerful than the savage, who once dwelt where we now dwell. It is by the use of these powers, that all the wonders of art have been wrought, which we now behold around us. If such be the fact, it must certainly be true that this, the spiritual part of man, is by far the most deserving of attention, and that, in the cultivation of this portion of our nature, we can in the most appropriate manner invest our capital. But while this is evident, does our practice correspond with these well established principles ? We liberally expend our substance to preserve our bodies in health, and to cultivate in our children the full development of every power, and the outward manifestation of every grace. But do we bestow proportionate labor in developing every spiritual faculty, and protecting the immortal part from the spreading contagion of evil exam- ple, and the wasting results of evil habit ? We expend whatever is ne- cessary in furnishing our tables with every thing that may be desired for the sustentation of Ae body. Where is there the man among us, who would not blush to be considered an illiberal provider for the wants of his household ? but is any man ashamed to confess, that he has made no pro- vision for the spiritual appetites of his children? Who of us would per- mit tainted or unwholesome food to be brought into his house, or placed upon his table? and yet is not intellectual food of the most questionable character, daily read in the houses of many of our most excellent citi- zens? Who is ashamed to declare, that he has no library in his house, or that, he has never taken the pains to inquire whether the books that are read by his family, are useful or deleterious ? But this is not all. We know that the youthful mind is destitute of knowledge, and that it is strongly predisposed to the formation of im- proper habits. Every one knows that a child needs instruction, and that the labor of giving it instruction should be devolved upon those only, who are intellectually and morally qualified to impart it. The parent can rarely do this for himself. The principle of division of labor teaches us, that it can be much more successfully done by some one who will de- vote his whole attention to it. But, now, let us look over our own neigh- borhoods, and observe how very small, until quite lately, has been the amount of capital devoted to the education of our youth. Compare it with almost every other form of investment, and you at once perceive how small is its relative amount. Take, for instance, the railroad which passes within a stone's throw of the place in which we are assembled. Many of you and your fellow citizens, subscribed for its stock. You did wisely. It will, I presume, raise the value of every form of property here. Land will sell for a better price. You will thus become directly connected with the whole of the South, and with the whole of the East and West; and you can, at very little expense of transportation, ex- change productions with the remotest extremities of our country. This is certainly an improvement upon your former means of communication, and you are willing to invest your capital in the effort to secure it. But suppose you had been assessed to an equal amount, in order to provide the means of education ; suppose you had been called upon to subscribe the same sum in aid of an effort to give to the youth of this village the best education in New England, would you not have considered the demand excessive ? Would you have believed that you could possibly have paid it ? Yet, I ask, is not the education of your children as impor- tant an object as the improvement of your means of transportation? Suppose you were to unite in such an effort, would not the amount of 412 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. which I have spoken he sufficient to accomplish the result, the giving to your children the best education in New England. Is it not evident, then, that Ave bestow upon the means of education, an attention very much less than they deserve 1 I have spoken in this manner as though I were addressing you in par- ticular. But this is not what I intend. I speak of the amount of atten- tion which, until lately, has been given to this subject, here in this State, and throughout New England. I know as well as you, that you have not been specially behind hand in this matter. You have always been prepared to do your part, in every effort to improve the condition of education amongst us. I have, however, alluded to these facts and have presented these parallels, that you maybe enabled to judge of the degree in which we have erred, in estimating the proportion of our income which is due to the cause of education. 1 greatly rejoice, however, that indications of decided improvement in this respect, are visible every where around us. In Massachusetts, for several years past, no subject has appealed with greater success to the enlightened public opinion of her citizens. One of her most gifted and eloquent sons has consecrated his life to this noble cause, and the results of his efforts have become every where apparent. Nor have we of Rhode Island been wholly wanting to ourselves in this good work. Although for many years the people were indifferent to their true interests in this re- spect, yet, when they came to its importance, they pursued it with a manly steadfastness and a far-seeing liberality, which would do honor to any community in our country. The school system of Providence is ac- knowledged to be second to none in the land, in excellence and efficiency. The people in all our districts, agricultural and manufacturing, are seek- ing to know the best means of promoting the thorough education of their children; 1 they are building school-houses on the best models that can be presented to them, and are raising money, with annually increasing lib- erality, for the purpose of accomplishing these results most perfectly. It gives me great pleasure. Ladies and Gentlemen of Pawtucket, to be a witness to the enlightened zeal which you have manifested on this sub- ject. From this village, first went forth the impulse which called into existence the most important manufacturing interest in this country. It is meet that as you have taught us how to supply our external, you should teach us how to supply our internal wants. You have taught us how we may clothe our bodies, it is well that you should teach us how to cul- tivate, and strengthen, and ennoble our minds. You have intended to render this school-house a model for your fellow citizens throughout the State. It is a noble and patriotic emulation, and we thank you for it. We hope that, every village and district in the State will imitate your example. I am delighted to observe that, in all your arrangements, you have in this matter acted with wise and thoughtful liberality. Instead of put- ting vour school-house out of sight, in an inconvenient and unheals pus±uon, you have placed it on an eminence, in a desirable locality, and have determined to surround it with ample play-grounds. The building itself is exceedingly pleasing in its external proportions, and forms one of the most agreeable ornaments of your village. You thus associate edu- cation in the mind of the young with every thing gladsome and alluring; while, at the same time, you testily to your children, the importance which you attach to their intellectual cultivation. The apartments of your house are huge and convenient. The desks are constructed upon the most improved models, and the seats seem to me durable and neat, and, at the same time, comfortable to the pupil. Every thing in the school-rooms has the air of finish and completeness. The arrangements for illustration, by the blackboards, are, and I presume DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 413 that those hy every other means will be, ample. With such instructors as you have appointed, seconded by your own zealous and untiring efforts, I have no doubt that this school will be all that you desire to make it, one of the first model schools of New England. But I perceive that your forethought has gone farther. You have de- termined that other habits, besides those of the intellect, shall here receive their appropriate share of attention. You have provided for each scholar an exclusive place for his own hat and outer clothing. You have fur- nished your apartments with convenient wash-rooms, an improvemen which I do not remember to have seen in any other school-house. Thus you have made it necessary for each scholar to cultivate habits of order and cleanliness. In all these respects, I do not see how your arrange- ments could be better made, or how any thing else could reasonably be desired. How delightful an object of contemplation is such a school as this, when faithfully and zealously conducted. Here the slumbering germs of intellect will be quickened into life. Here talent, that would otherwise become torpid from inaction, will be placed upon the course of indefinite improvement. Here, the rough and uncultivated, arrested by the charms of knowledge, and allured by the accents of kindness, will lay aside their harshness, and assume the manners of refinement and good breeding. From hence the lessons of knowledge and the habits of order will be car- ried to many a family, and they will there awaken a whole circle to a higher and purer life. In a word, take the five hundred children, whom this building will accommodate, and suppose them destitute of the know- ledge, the discipline and the manners, which this school will confer ; trace their course through life in all its vicissitudes, and observe the station which each of them must occupy ; and then, suppose these five hundred children imbued with the knowledge which you here are prepared to give, and the habits which you intend to cultivate, and follow them through life, and observe the stations which you have qualified them to occupy; and you have the measure of good which, year after year, you are accom- plishing by the establishment of these means of instruction. Look at the money that it costs. You can calculate it to a single cent, both the prin- cipal investment and the interest which it would yield. But can you esti- mate the intellectual service, and moral advantages which will accrue to you and your children, by this expenditure ? The one is to you as the small dust of the balance. Were it all lost, you would hardly think of it. You would not think it worth while to smile at a man, who should say, Pawtucket is ruined, for it has lost a sum equal to that which all its means of education have cost. But suppose that, what that sum has purchased were lost ; suppose that your schools were shut up, and your whole pop- ulation consigned to ignorance ; that henceforth reading, writing, and all the knowledge which they unfold, should be taught or learned here no more for ever ; then would Pawtucket in reality be ruined. Every virtu- ous and intelligent family would flee from your border, and very soon your name would be an opprobrium to New England. I ask, then, in view of all this, is there any money which you invest, that brings you in so rich a revenue, as that which you devote to the cause of education ? But I ought to apologize for occupying so much larger a portion of }rour time than I intended. I must, however, even now, break off abrupt- y, and give place to others who are much more deserving than myself to be heard on this occasion. I will therefore add but a single suggestion. Let this effort which you have made, be but the first step in your pro- gress. Cultivate enlarged and liberal views of your duties to the young who are coming after you, and of the means that are given you to dis- charge them. A place as large as this, can perfectly well provide for all its youth of both sexes, as good an education as any one can desire, 414 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. What we are capable of doing in this respect, is so little known, that any public spirited and united population, as wealthy as this, can easily place itself in the vanguard in this march of improvement. It is in your power eo to cultivate the mind and manners of your children, that wherever they go, they will take precedence of those of their own age and condition. Your example would excite others to follow in your footsteps. Who can tell how widely you might bless others, while you were laboring to bless yourselves % Are you prepared to enter upon so noble a career of im- provement'? Remarks of Rev Mr. Osgood- Mr. Osgood, of Providence, being called upon by the Chairman of the School Committee, spoke in substance as follows : You will agree with me, friends, in deeming it a happy circumstance, that he, whose position places him at the head of the educational interests of this State, and whose name stands among the highest in the literature of our land, has favored us with his presence upon this occasion, and borne so decided witness to the importance of a far nobler popular educa- tion. After what we have heard, we cannot but recognize the common interests of all friends of sound learning, and rank the school and the uni- versity as helpers in the same good cause. We have met to-day to consecrate this pleasant edifice to the service of popular instruction. Solemn prayer has been offered to the throne of mercy, and honest counsel has been addressed to you. This house is now consecrated as a temple of learning. Do we feel duly the significance of these exercises 1 Do we realize the common responsibility that we as- sume by participating in them ? This afternoon has been spent in mock- ery, unless the parties here represented entertain and carry out serious convictions of duty. Let us feel that in consecrating this house to tiie purposes of education, we consecrate it to the spirit of order. Without good order, education cannot succeed ; and surely all will allow that good order cannot exist without the aid alike of master and scholar, pa.'ent and guardian. Let the teacher have your hearty co-operation in his endeavors to regulate his school. Let him not be left at the mercy of the unreasonable, who will call every act of discipline, tyranny ; or of the quarrelsome, who will re- sent every restraint as a personality. Encourage in yourselves and your children the idea that good order has its foundation in the very nature of things, in the plan of the creation, and the hearts of man. There is or- der in God's works, — in the heavens above, — on the earth beneath. We imitate the divine mind when we strive to do our work in accordance with the best rules, and submit passing impulses and little details to a common standard of right. Let the child be taught to accept this idea, and to see in the order of the school not so much the teacher's will as the law of general good. Let this idea prevail, and a new day will come over our schools. Teachers will be more careful to place their passions under due control, by looking beyond present provocations to permanent principles ; and parents and children will acknowledge the justice of proper discipline, even when its penalties fall upon themselves. Consecrating this house to education, we consecrate it then to the spirit of good order. Akin to order is the spirit of good ao?'Z/.— that love that heightens every task, and cheers every labor. Let us feel that this building is set apart as the abode of good will. In ihe simple beauty of its walls, and the neatness of its arrangements, we see at once that it is intended to be a pleasant place, where the young shall come rather in love than fear. Let every thing be done to carry out this idea, and remove all gloom from the work that here is to go forward. Let the voice of music be heard in the DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT NORTH PROVIDENCE. 4^5 intervals of study, and charm away weariness and discontent. Let courteous manners prevail between scholars and teachers. Let the law of love be .supreme, and the good of each be regarded as the good of all. Let every thing be done to make knowledge attractive, without impairing its solidity. You have declared your principles upon this subject in the very structure of this edifice ; virtually acknowledged the relation of the beautiful to the true, and applied to education that law of attraction that pervades all the plans of Divine Providence. Carry out these principles without fear and without extravagance. Let not your care be given merely to make your dwelling-houses attractive. Let there be no more school-rooms so rude and uncleanly as hardly to be ftt to shelter well-bred cattle. Let children learn neatness, taste, and refinement, along with their alphabet and multiplication table. To good will, under every one of its attractive agencies, this house should be devoted. Thus devoted, it will be a nursery of good works. Utility will go hand in hand with good order and good will. In this community, practical industry is the ruling power; utility is the prevailing standard. See to it that this standard is rightly adjusted, and that we do not confine our idea of usefulness to worldly or material interests. As we hear the sound of the spindle and the anvil, and see the spray of the waterfall, and the smoke of the furnace, let us rejoice at the large measure of enterprise and prosperity that have been granted us. But when we turn away from these things to look upon this house of learning, let us not think as some base souls do, that we have left utility behind, and are dealing only with what is visionary and unsubstantial. Next to the church of God, let us feel that the school-house is the most useful building in the community, and that from it should emanate the knowledge, principles, and habits that are to give life its direction and efficiency. Reckon in your estimate of the best wealth of your city, your schools, and, without them, regard all Other wealth as disgraceful covetousness or mental poverty. Let the idea of utility preside over the direction of this school, and all its studies tend not to fill the memory with loads of words, but to strength- en the mind, and invigorate and regulate the will and all the active powers. Standing as it does in so sacred a seat of manufacturing industry, this house has a peculiar significance. Overlooking this prosperous town, it serves to express a generous creed — to say as if it were : — " We, the people of North Providence, think much of the importance of industry and wealth, but we think that some other things are of still greater import- ance, and however remiss in duty we may have been in time past, we mean to practice upon a more generous system, and this fair temple of learning, standing so far above the factory and workshop, is a substantial testimonial of our determination." It is an interesting fact, that the first movement in this State in behalf of popular education was made, not by professional men, nor by mer- chants, nor any of the classes that might be thought, from their leisure or literature, to advocate the claims z£ sound learning, but by an association ol'mechanics and manufacturers in Providence. I read to-day, with great pleasure, the memorial which this association presented to the Legisla- ture., in the year 1798. I honor those men for that document. But one of the original signers now survives. Who can meet that old man with- out respect? Who will not honor John Howland even more for taking the lead in that memorial, than for having served under Washington at Trenton, and braved death in the battles of the revolution? Peace to his sturdy heart, and many good days yet to that stout Saxoiv frame ! I must cease speaking with these few words as to the good order, good will and good works, to which this house of learning is devoted. May a goo 1 providence watch over it. Imagination cannot but conjecture the 415 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. various scenes of its future history — picture to herself the groups of chil- dren who shall come to enjoy its privileges, and who in due time shall' leave its walls for the pursuits of maturer life. Prophesy is not our gift, except the prophesy that calculates events by purposes and principles. Let this edifice be used faithfully for true purposes and for just principles, and its future history will be a blessed volume in the annai of your town It will tell of generations of noble men and women, who have been educa- ted within these walls. And when this house shall have gone to dust, it will have performed a noble mission, by being the nursery of mental life that cannot die. " Cold in the dust, the perished heart may lie, But that which warmed it once, can never die." DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 4^7 Dedication of the Public High School-House, in Cambridge, Mass. The edifice, which has just been erected (1848,) for the accommoda- tion of the Public High School of the city of Cambridge, is built of brick, two stories high with a basement, and is a substantial, attractive and con- venient school-house, of which the citizens of Cambridge may well feel proud. The cost, including land, furniture and apparatus, is $13,500. The plan of the interior is substantially the same as that of the High School in Hartford. The following account of the Dedication of this house is abridged from the Cambridge Chronicle for June 29, 1848. The services were commenced by the chanting of the Lord's Prayer by the scholars of the school. Alderman Whitney, in behalf of the building committee, transferred the building to the care of the School Committee, through the Mayor of the city, with an appropriate address. After a dedicatory prayer by Rev. N. Hoppin, and another chant, of selections from Proverbs, by the chil- dren, the Mayor addressed remarks to the audience upon the relation of the High School to the other grades of schools, and to the cause of education generally in the city, and on some of the conditions on which the success of this and the other schools depended. Addresses were also made by gentlemen present, in which many pleasing incidents in the his- tory of the public schools, and of the town and city of Cambridge, were narrated, and many valuable suggestions thrown out, by which children, teachers, parents and school officers can profit. We make the following extract from the address of Rev. Mr. Stearns, Chairman of the High School Committee. " At the time of my settlement here as a clergyman in this place, in December, 1831, there were in the town 6 school-houses, 8 school-rooms, 8 teachers and about 400 scholars. At this time, 1848, there are 17 school-houses, 35 rooms, 44 teachers, and 2136 children. During this time, it is true, the population has more than doubled, but the interest taken in the schools, and their progress, has much more than tripled or quadrupled. If at thai period any school committee had seriously proposed the erec-. tion of such a building as this for a High School, they would undoubtedly have been excused from public service the coming year, if not immedi- ately sent to Charlestown as insane. But the spirit of improvement has prevailed, and now we have all needed advantages for making good scholars, who shall be an honor to their parents, and to their generation. But, Mr. Mayor, it cannot be too deeply impressed on the minds of our youth that the means of education, are not education itself. We may have good school-houses, fine libraries, superior collections of philosophi- cal apparatus, and the best of teachers, with miserable scholars. There are means of improvement in creation all around us — good influences ascend to us from the earth and come down to us from the sky. The sun is a teacher, the evening stars impart knowledge, while every flower is eloquent with wisdom. But what intelligence do all these out- ward instructors communicate to the ox who grazes without reflection, or to the horse who eats his provender without thanksgiving 1 Hardly more will books, and maps, and pleasant seats, and air-pumps, and scientific 27 418 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. lectures, do for a doltish mind. The outward may stimulate to improve- ment, but all good action springs from within. There must be in the scholar's own mind a strong desire for knowledge, a spirit aspiring to ex- cellence, a force of moral purpose which no small difficulties can vanquish, or but little which is valuable will be accomplished. Mr. Chairman, we have great hopes from the school now to be organ- ized in this house, — and these teachers, and these parents, and these scholars, must see to it. that we and our fellow citizens are not disap- pointed. This school is intended to carry forward and complete the education of our children — I mean complete it as far as it goes— for education never can be completed. It is a work which extends beyond the school-room into active life, all through time into eternity. It is the destiny of good minds to improve for ever. They will go on rising, expanding, increasing in true wisdom as the endless ages pass along, and their progress will be co-eternal with the eternity of God. We wish to begin right with the young in their earliest years, and to carry them forward in tins school till they are prepared for service and usefulness in society, and the good be- ginnings of immortal advancement are firmly laid. We wish to attend here to the proper development of their faculties, to see that these unfold themselves in just proportions, and that our children are qualified to meet the demands of the age and devote their powers to life's best ends. We establish this school, also, with our schools generally, as a preserv- ative against vice. When I look round, as I do now, upon more than one hundred children fresh as a flower garden in the morning, it seems hardly in good taste, to suggest that any of them may become the vic- tims of evil, and sink in disgrace from society. And yet, it is possible that among these young men and young women too, there may be some one or more who will live to be the objects of public indignation and of self- scorn. God forbid 5 But juvenile depravity has fearfully increased within a few years ! And no one can tell who will be among the next victims. Mr. Chairman, 1 once had a dream — and it was among the most terrible dreams which ever troubled my sleeping imagination. I saw a bright and beautiful boy playing innocently upon the green, suddenly the grass began to move, the earth to undulate till it became water, and the boy went down in an instant, and nothing was left of him but three or four air bubbles on the surface. I awoke in horror, and was troubled all day by this midnight vision. I thought then, and I have ever since thought, that it was a vivid illustration of the course and end of many a youth. They sport thoughtlessly among the green and flowery fields of temptation. They begin to yield, principle gives way, and they go down and are lost as respects character for ever. We wish to render the treach- erous earth under them firmer. We would change it into the hard granite of virtue, we would have them stand on the immovable rock of ages. We hope, also. Mr. Mayor, from this school an advantage to the adult community. The benefits of an institution like this do not terminate with the children. By a reflex influence, they return to the families from which our children come. It is no unheard of thing for a rough, hard, uneducated man to be mellowed and transformed by the influences which his children and his children's children bring home from the churches and the schools. A good school does excite the adult mind ; it awakens in- terest in education, and promotes improvement. If this school fulfills our expectations, it will be to the community a moral and intellectual sun, throwing light into every dwelling. We believe also that it will act happily upon our younger schools. It will be to them an object of hope and honorable ambition. They will take their examples from it — and our little children from the first will be DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 419 aspiring and reaching towards it. But I must stop, for I am impatient, as doubtless you and this assembly must be, for the instructions which are to fall from more eloquent lips than mine. Children, consider how much is depending upon you. Be determined to fix down to hard study, to do right ; and on the first principle of all true wisdom, " Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth." After Mr. Stearns had concluded, a hymn was sung. The Mayor then stated that the President of Harvard College was present, and that he hoped he would favor the company with some remarks." President Everett accepted the invitation, and responded to the call as follows: — May it please your Honor : — Connected as I am with another place of education, of a kind which is commonly regarded as of a higher order, it is precisely in that connection, that I learn to feel and appreciate the importance of good schools. I am not so ignorant of the history of our fathers, as not to know, that the spirit, which founded and fostered Harvard College, is the spirit which has founded and upheld and will continue to support and cherish the schools of New England. I know well, sir, that Universities and Col- leges can neither flourish nor even stand alone. You might as well attempt to build your second and third stories in the air, without a first floor or abasement, as to have collegiate institutions without good schools for preparatory education, and for the diffusion of general information throughout the community. If the day should ever come, which I do not fear in our beloved country, when this general education shall be neg- lected and these preparatory institutions allowed to perish ; — if the day should ever come (of which I have no apprehension) when the schools of New England shall go down, depend upon it, sir, the colleges will go with them, ft will be with them, as it was with the granite warehouses, the day before yesterday in Federal street, in Boston ; if the piers at the foundation give way, the upper stories will come down in one undistin- guished ruin. I anticipate no sueh disaster, Mr. Mayor, though it must be admitted that we live in an age of revolutions, of which every steamer brings us some fresh and astonishing account. But our revolutions are of a more auspicious character, and it occurred to me as 1 was coming down with your worthy associate (Mr. Whitney,) and your respected predecessor (Mr. Green,) to whom we have just listened with so much pleasure, that we were traversing a region, in which a more important revolution com- menced no very long time since, and is still in progress, — far more impor- tant for us and our children, — than any of those which have lately con- vulsed the continent of Europe. I do not now refer to the great politi- cal and historical events of which this neighborhood was the theatre ; of whieh the monuments are in sight from these windows, but to a revolu- tion quiet and silent in its origin and progress, unostentatious in outward manifestations, but imparting greater change and warranting brighter hopes for most of those who hear me, — for our young friends before us, — than any of the most startling events that stare upon us in capitals in the columns of the newspapers, after every arrival from Europe. The Rev- erend Mr. Stearns has beautifully sketched some of the most important features of this peaceful revolution. When I entered college, Mr. Mayor, (and I believe I shall not tell the audience quite how many years ago that is ; you can do it, sir, but I will thank you not to,) there were a few straggling houses, shops, and taverns along the Main street at Cambridgeport. All back of this street to the aorta, and I believe almost all south jf it to the river, — the entire district 420 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. in the centre of which we are now assembled, was in a state of nature, pretty equally divided between barren pasturage, salt-marsh, and what I must admit had no mean attraction for us freshmen, whortleberry swamp. Not one of the high roads had been cut. which now traverse the plain between Main street and the old road to Charlestown. East Cambridge did not exist even in the surveyor's imagination. There was not a church nor a public school east of Dr. Holmes' and Old Cambridge Commor , and if any one had prophesied that- within forty years a population like this would cover the soil, — with its streets and houses, and gardens, its numerous school-houses and churches, its conservatories breathing all the sweets of the tropics, its private libraries equal to the choicest in the land, and all the other appendages of a high civilization, he would have been set down as a visionary indeed. But this change, this revolution has taken place even within the life time of the venerable lady (Mrs. Mer- riam) introduced to us in such a pleasing manner by Mr. Stearns ; and we are assembled this morning to take a respectful notice of what may be called its crowning incident, the opening of a High School in that Frimitive whortleberry swamp. I believe I do not over-state matters when say, that no more important event than this is likely to occur, in the course of the lives of many of those here assembled. As far as our in- terests are concerned, all the revolutions in Europe multiplied tenfold are nothing to it. No, sir, not if the north were again to pour forth its myri- ads on central and southern Europe and break up the existing govern- ments and states into one general wreck, it would not be an article of in- telligence at all so important to us as the opening of a new school. No> my young friends, this is a day which may give an auspicious turn to your whole career in life ; may affect your best interests not merely for time but for eternity. There is certainly nothing in which the rapid progress of the country is more distinctly marked than its schools. It is not merely their multipli- cation in numbers, bat their improvement as places of education. A school forty years ago was a very different affair from what it is now. The meaning of the word is changed. A little reading, writing, and ciphering, a very little grammar ; and for those destined for college, a little Latin and Greek, very indifferently tu.ught. were all we got at a eommon town school in my day. The range was narrow ; the instruc- tion superficial. In our modern school system, taking it as a whole com- posed of its several parts in due gradation, — viz. the primary, the district, and the High School, — the fortunate pupil not only enjoys a very thorough course of instruction in the elementary branches, but gets a good foundation in French, a good preparation for college, if he desires it, according to the present advanced standard of requirement ; a general acquaintance with the applied mathematics, the elements of natural phi- losophy, some suitable information as to the form of government and political system under which we live, and no inconsiderable practice in the noble arts of writing and speaking our mother tongue. It might seem, at first, that this is too wide a circle for a school. But the experience of our well conducted schools has abundantly shown that it is not too extensive. With faithful and competent teachers and wil- ling and hearty learners, all the branches I have named and others I have passed over can be attended to with advantage, between the ages of four and sixteen. Such being the case, our School Committees have done no more than their duty, in prescribing this extensive course and furnishing to master and pupils the means of pursuing it. I cannot tell you, sir, how much I have been gratified at hastily looking into the alcove behind us. As I stepped into it this, morning, Mr. Smith, the intelligent master of the school, pointed out to. me the heautiful electrical machine behind the door DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 4«J1 with the just remark that my venerable predecessor, President Dunster, would not have known what it was. No, sir, nor would the most eminent philosopher in the world before the time of Franklin. Lord Bacon would not have known what it was. nor Sir Isaac Newton. Mr. Smith reminded me of the notion of Cotton Mather (one of the most learned men of his day,) that lightning proceeded from the Prince of the Power of the Air, by which he accounted for the fact that it was so apt to strike the spires of churches. Cotton Mather would have come nearer the truth, if he had called it a shining manifestation of the power and skill, by which the Great Author of the Universe works out some of the mighty miracles of creation and nature. And only think, sir, that these newly discovered mysteries of the material world, unknown to the profoundest sages of elder days, are so effectually brought down to the reach of common schools in our day, that these young friends, before they are finally dis- missed from these walls, will be made acquainted with not a few of the wonderful properties of the subtle element, evolved and condensed by that machine, and which recent science has taught, to be but different forms of one principle, whether it flame across the heavens in the midnight storm, or guide the mariner across the pathless ocean 5— or leap from city to city across the continent as swiftly as the thought of which it is the vehicle ; and which I almost venture to predict,, before some here present shall taste of death, will, by some still more sublime generalization, be identi- fied with the yet hidden principle which thrills through the nerves of ani- mated beings, and binds life to matter, by the ties of sensation. But while you do well, sir, in your High School to make provision for these advanced studies, I know that as long as it remains under your in- struction, the plain elementary branches will not be undervalued. There is perhaps a tendency in that direction in some ©f our modern schools : I venture to hope it will not be encouraged here. I know it is not to be the province of this school to teach the elements; but I am sure you will show that you entertain sound views of their importance. I hold, sir, that to read the English language well, that is with intelligence, feeling, spirit, and effect ; — to write with dispatch, a neat, handsome, legible hand, (for it is after all, a great object in writing to have others able to read what you write,) and to be master of the four rules of arithmetic, so as to dispose at once with accuracy of every question of figures which comes up in practical life : — I say I call this a good education; and if you add the ability to write pure grammatical English, with the help of very few hard Words, I regard it as an excellent education. These are the tools ; you can do much with them, but you are helpless without them. They are the foundation ; and unless you begin with these, all your flashy at- tainments, a little natural philosophy, and a little mental philosophy; a little physiology and a little geology, and all the other ologiesand osophies, are but ostentatious rubbish. There is certainly no country in the world in which so much money is paid for schooling as in ours. This can be proved by figures. I believe there is no country where the common schools are so good. But they may be improved. It is not enough to erect commodious school-houses ; or compensate able teachers, and then leave them, masters and pupils, to themselves. A school is not a clock which you can wind up and then leave it to go of itself. It is an organized living body : it has sensibili- ties ; it craves sympathy. You must not leave the School Committee to do all the work. Your teachers want the active countenance of the whole body of parents, of the whole intelligent community. I am sure you, Mr. Smith, would gladly put up with a little injudicious interference in single cases, if you could have the active sympathies of the whole body of parents to fall back upon indelicate and difficult cases, and to support and cheer you under the burthen of your labors, from day to day. I think 422 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. this matter deserves more attention than it has received ; and if so small a number as thirty parents would agree together, to come to the school, some one of them, each in his turn, but once a month, or rather if but 25 or 26 would do it, it would give your teacher the support and countenance of a parent's presence every day ; at. a cost to each individual of ten or eleven days in the year. Would not the good to be effected be worth the sacrifice 1 I have already spoken too long, Mr. Mayor, and will allude to but one other topic. In most things, as I have said, connected with education, we are incalculably in advance of other days :— in some, perhaps, we have fallen below their standard. I know, sir, old men are apt to make unfa- vorable contrasts between the present time and the past j and if I do not soon begin to place myself in that class, others will do it for me. But I really think that in some things, belonging, perhaps, it will be thought, to the minor morals, the present promising generation of youth might learn something of their grandfathers, if not their fathers. When I first went to a village school, sir, I remember it as yesterday ; — I seem still to hold by one hand for protection, (I was of the valiant age oi~ three years) to an elder sister's apron ; — with the other I grasped my primer, a volume of about two and a half inches in length, which formed then the sum tota? of my library, and which had lost the blue paper cover from one corner 7 (my first misfortune in life ;) I say it was the practice then, as we were trudging along to school, to draw up by the road-side, if a traveller, a stranger, or a person in years, passed along, " and make our manners," as it was called. The little girls courtesied, the boys made a bow; it was not done with much grace, I suppose : bat there was a civility and decency about it, which did the children good, and produced a pleasing impression on those who witnessed it. The age of village chivalry is past, never to return. These manners belong to a forgotten order of things. They are too precise and rigorous for this enlightened age. I sometimes fear the pendulum has swung too far in the opposite extreme. Last winter I was driving into town in a carriage closed behind, but open in front. There was in company with me, the Rev. President Woods, of Bowdoin Col- lege, Maine, and that distinguished philanthropist and excellent citizen, Mr. Amos Lawrence. Well, sir, we happened to pass a school-house just as the boys (to use the common expression) were "let out." I sup- pose the little men had just been taught within doors something about the laws, which regulate the course of projectiles, and determine the curves in which they move. Intent on a practical demonstration, and tempted by the convenient material, I must say they put in motion a quantity ol spherical bodies, in the shape of snow balls, which brought the doctrine • quite home to us wayfarers, and made it wonderful that we got off with no serious inconvenience, which was happily the case. This I thought was an instance of free and easy manners, verging to the opposite ex- treme of the old fashioned courtesy, which I have just described. I am quite sure that the boys of this school would be the last to indulge an ex- periment attended with so much risk to the heads of innocent third persons. Nothing remains, sir, but to add my best wishes for teachers and pu- pils ; — You are both commencing under the happiest auspices. When 1 consider that there is not one of you, my young friends, who does not en- joy gratuitously the opportunity of obtaining a better school education, than we could have bought, Mr. Mayor, when we were boys, with the wealth of the Indies, I cannot but think that each one of you, boys and girls, will be ready to say with grateful hearts, the lines have fallen to me in pleasant places ; yea, I have a goodly heritage. To you, Mr. Smith, we wish entire success. The community looks to you with confidence, to add to your high reputation as an instructor, and DEDICATORY EXERCISES AT CAMBRIDGE. 423 commits to you these its treasures, with the full assurance that, you will be faithful to the trust An- original hymn, written for the occasion, was then sung. At the close of the exercises, the Mayor, as Chairman of the School Committee, transferred the Building and the School to the immediate care of the High School Committee. Mr. Stearns responded in a word, as follows : — Mr. Mayor, in behalf of the High School Committee, I ac- cept this important trust at your hands. We will endeavor faithfully and according to the best of our ability, to perform its duties, the first of which will be to commit the care of the school to Mr. Elbridge Smith, its principal teacher. Mr. Smith, we sometimes say of a remarkably honest man, I would trust him with untold gold. We are about to entrust to you what is of unspeakably more value. If each of these pupils were a million of gold, jthe treasure committed to you would be worth infinitely less than these immortal minds. I speak in the name of every parent here, when I say we have no higher interests than the welfare of our children. If evil befall them— if through a defective education, they should turnout badly, there would be but little left to make life desirable to us. If you so suc- ceed in your good work, that our sons and daughters shall grow up around us, intelligent, respectable, filial and good, j^>u shall have our thanks here, and hereafter. We give you our confidence — Heaven grant you its blessing. Mr. Smith remarked in reply, That it was his sincere intention to receive the important trust, which had been committed to his care, without attempting a reply. But such had been the course of remark as to awaken feelings too strong to be suppressed : and though it might be but an act of rashness for an unpracticed hand to attempt extempore discourse in the presence of distinguished gen- tlemen, he felt called upon to say that he was deeply sensible that, in ac- cepting this trust, he received no sinecure. Without enlarging upon the nature of his duties, or adding aught to what had already been said, he Would simply say that he would perform the duties assigned him to the best of his humble ability. He felt that he should do injustice to his feelings not to return his thanks to the distinguished gentleman who had addressed us, for the sentiments which he had so beautifully and forcibly expressed. He had spoken of what he termed the minor immoralities. Mr. Smith had often had occasion to use the same expressions in enforcing the practice of those civilities of school life to which he had referred. And you, scholars, he remarked, can bear me testimony how often, during the brief period of my connection with you, I have referred you to our distinguished guest as combining in himself those very qualities which he has enjoined upon you. He had felt great pleasure in hearing his feeble instructions seconded by the example and precepts of one of the most gifted scholars of the land. He should have occasion to remember him with gratitude during the re- mainder of his life, for the aid which he. had this day afforded him in the discharge of his duties as a teacher. The children have heard to-day the sentiments of one who has left the high duties of State and diplomacy for the still higher work of instructing New England youth. They should make this day a crisis in their existence. He closed by remarking that in his boyhood, while laboring hard to acquire an education, he became the proud owner of a handsome octavo, entitled " Everett's Orations," — no inconsiderable portion of which he committed to memory. He could not better conclude, than by reciting an extract which this occasion brought fresh to his recollection. " Let the pride of military glory belong to foreign nations : let the refined corrup- tions of the older world attract the traveller to its splendid capitals ; let a fervid sun ripen for others the luxuries of a tropical clime. Let it be ours 424 SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE. to boast that we inherit a land of liberty and light ; .^-«w and the church continue to be the landmarks of the New England village; let the son of New England, whither soever he may wander, leave that behind him which shall make him home-sick for his native land ; let free- dom, and knowledge, and morals, and religion, as they are our birthright, be the birthright of our children to the end of time." The exercises were closed by singing a benediction hymn to the tune of Old Hundred, in which all present joined. The company left reluc- tantly ; having spent three hours so profitably and pleasantly that the time passed unawares. The highest expectations have been raised in regard to the school, and we hope they may be more than realized. We would gladly devote more of our pages to the publication of such addresses as these, but we have already swelled this volume beyond our original plan. Our readers will find in the eighth and ninth volumes of the Massachu- setts Common School Journal, for 1846 and 1847, very full and interesting accounts of the Dedication of the State Normal School-houses at Bridge- water and at Westfield. The addresses of the Hon. Horace Mann, Gov. Briggs, Prof. Sears, Hon. William Bates, and Rev. Dr. Humphrey, are worthy of the widest circulation. Dr. Humphrey's address is an elabo- rate argument in behalf of Normal Schools. ALLEN'S EDUCATION TABLE. 425 Allen's Alphabetical, Spelling, Reading, and arithmetical Table. Allen's Education Table consists of a board or table, along the centre of which are horizontal grooves, or raised ledges forming grooves between them, that connect with perpendicular grooves or compartments on the sides, in which are inserted an assortment of movable blocks, on the face of which are cut the letters of the alphabet, both capitals and small, the nine digits and cipher, and all the usual pauses and signs used in composition and arithmetic. The letters, figures and signs are large, so as to be readily recognized by all the members of a large class, and from even the extremity of a large school- room, and are so assorted and arranged as to be easily slid from the perpendic- ular grooves or compartments into the horizontal grooves, and there combined into syllables, words and sentences, or used in simple arithmetical operations. When the lesson in the alphabet, spelling, reading, composition, or arithmetic, is finished, the blocks can be returned to their appropriate places. The experience of many teachers in schools of different grades, and of many mothers at home, (the God-appointed school for little children, next to which should be ranked the well organized Primary School, with a bright, gentle, affectionate and patient female teacher,) has demonstrated that by accustoming the child, either individually, or in a class, to select letter by letter, and move them from their appropriate case to the centre of the board, and there combin- ing them into syllables and words, a knowledge of the alphabet, and of words, is acquired in a much shorter time and in a much more impressive and agree- able manner, than by any of even the best methods now pursued. All of the advantages derived from the method of dictation, and the use of the slate and blackboard, in teaching children the alphabet, spelling, reading, and the use of capital letters and pauses, as well as the elementary principles of arithmetic, such as numeration, addition, subtraction, &c, can be secured by the introduction of this Table into our Primary and District Schools. Manufactured by Edwin Allen only, Windham, Conn,, who will promptly attend to all orders for them. IMPROVED SCHOOL APPARATUS. LETTER FROM S. W. SETON, Agent of the Public School Society of the City of New York. Mr. Barnard Dear Sir : In your plans for School buildings, I am pleased to find suggested a closet for apparatus. It prompts the wish that in all cases, it may be filled with such as is adapted to the ends always to be had in view, — presenting progressively, distinct ideas of the principles of the sciences intended to be illustrated by it. Among the abundance that is supplied by the shops, — such as meets the wants of Teachers, is, as yet, among the de- siderata of schools. The most that I have seen is too complex for elementary purposes ; — and all of it, nearly useless to com- mon schools, from its liability to get out of order, and the slight- ness of its material. Simplicity, durability, and cheapness, with convenience and facility in using it, — should be the first objects to be secured in its preparation. Designing that it should be often used, and as frequently in the hands of the pupils, as the Teacher. For, undoubtedly, the illustrations by the Teacher, should, in most cases, be repeated by his scholars. If these are given without anything extraneous or perplexing, distinct ideas will be conveyed, and the knowledge thus imparted, becomes a perpetual possession. The complexity of apparatus has greatly retarded its introduction into our Common Schools ; rendering it inconvenient to arrange, and difficult of use. Besides being expensive, — if out of order, Teachers are without the means of repairing it. Thus it is thrown aside with disappointment ; and a most desirable plan of school operation is abandoned, as not worth farther consideration. I am happy to inform you, that there is now a prospect of suitable apparatus being prepared for common schools, with the aid and valuable suggestions of practical and experienced Teachers. It will be durable and cheap, and at the same time well finished. Much of it, especially that for primary instruc- tion, will differ from the usual forms of apparatus for the same purposes. This has sometimes been found necessary for strength, as well as for purposes of clearer illustration. Some of it is already before the public, and has been used in our schools with great success. I subjoin a description of that, and of such as is designed to be added thereto ; — so that such list, with the foregoing thoughts on the subject, may enable the readers of your useful book, to form an estimate of the desira- bleness of procuring it. IMPROVED APPARATUS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS. Geometrical Solids. — Illustrating the elements of form and mensuration, with revolving figures showing the formation of round bodies. Five-inch Globe. — On stand, with fixtures to suspend it by a cord, illustrating its motions separately and together. Numeral Frame. — For illustrating numbers, etc. A Foot Rule — a Yard Measure. — To illustrate their divisions and fractions, etc. A small Sphere. — On axis, with parallels and meridians, etc. Geological Specimens. — Showing the formation of the earth, and their uses in the arts, manufactures, and agriculture. Small Siphon, — Magnet, — Lens, — Pressure Plates. — A Pocket Microscope. A large Prism. Bulb and Tube. — To illustrate expansion by heat and pressure of the atmosphere. A small Glass Pump. A small Map of the World, — United States, — Europe A Card, with the Points of the Compass. A Box loith materials for Object Lessons, or a Knowledge of Common Things, viz : silk, muslin, flannel, cotton and woollen cloth, linen, calico, gingham, oil-cloth, felt, drugget, brick, pot- tery, china, glass, iron, steel, copper, lead, tin, brass, pewter, a type, a ring, a wheel, paper, parchment, leather, morocco, kid, buckskin, a cotton-boll (from the plant), coccoon, hair, wool, hemp, flax, raw silk, wax, resin, isinglass, bean, allspice, clove, coffee, pepper-corn, cinnamon, cocoa, rice, corn, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, a sponge, shell, cards of primary and second- ary colors, etc. APPARATUS FOR ADVANCED SCHOOLS Astronomy. — Orbit and plane, concentric rings, showing nodes and inclination of the planets' orbits, moon's orbit and plane, with earth's orbit, showing nodes, etc., single ball and cord to illustrate nodes ascending and descending. Tellurium, (Earth, Moon, Mercury, and Venus.) Five-inch Globe, with movable horizon, rings of stars, hour circle, etc. Five-inch Globe. — Exhibiting the Zones, etc. Orrery, complete. — On a high standard, with rings of stars and zodiacal signs. A large Microscope. A set of Mechanical Powers. An Electro Magnet. Pneumatic, Chemical, and other apparatus will be added. Ji^A plain gnide to the use of the above will be prepared to accompany the apparatus— appli* cation to be made to Jobiah Holbrook, 140 Grand street, New- York. INDEX. Alcott, Dr. "W. A., Essay and Plan by, 64; quoted, 50. American Institute of Instruction, Prize Essay of, 64 ; Lectures before, 323. Apparatus, provision for, 58 ; import- ance of, 59 ; list of, 273, 325. Arnott, Dr., 50. Atmosphere, constitution of, 45 ; 146. Austin, Henry, plans of school-houses by, 76. B. Book Manual, 294. Backs to seats, 56. Barnard, Henry, extract from Report by, on the school-houses of Con- necticut, 25 ; school-houses in Rhode Island, 30. Bell, Dr., on Ventilation, 45. Bishop, Nathan, report by, on school- houses of Providence, 233. Blackboard, importance of, 59 ; direc- tions for construction, 90, 91, 96, 289. Blackboard movable, plan of, 70. Boston, School system of, 166; Expen- ditures for, 171 ; plan of Primary school-house, 176; plan of Brimmer Grammar school-house in, 114 ; Bowdoin school-house, 206 ; Q.uincy school-house, 208. Boston plan of Ventilation, 145. Boston Primary School Chair, 116. Brimmer, Martin, 66. Bridgewater Normal school-house, plan of, 136. Bryant, Mr., plans of school-houses by, 206, 208, 210. Calcutta, Black Hole of, Stories of, 45. Calisthenic Exercises, 216. Cambridge High school-house, dedi- cation of, 317. Carbonic Acid Gas, nature of, 43. Catalogue of Books of Reference, 288. Centremill, plan of school-house in, 254. Chairs for schools, 120, 200, 201, 205. Churches, Ventilation of, 46 ; plan for, 165. Chilson's Furnace, 154. Clark's, Dr. Henry G., report on ven- tilation, 145. Clark's Ventilating Stove, 155. Clock, 59. Construction, general principles of, 40. Connecticut, condition of school- houses in, 25. Combe, Dr., extract from, 45. Crosby, W. B., extract from Report by, on school-houses in Maine, 29. Crayons, how made, 96. D. Dedication of school-houses, 302. Defects in School Architecture to be avoided, 15. Desks, evils in construction of, 33. Dick, Dr. Thomas, plan of Village School by, 77. Double Fireplace, 51 ; plan of, 70. Dublin Hospital, experiments in ven- tilation in, 44. Dunglinson Dr., quoted, 47. E. Eaton, Horace, Report by, on school- houses in Vermont, 22. Ejecting Ventilators, 156. Eliot School-house, ventilation of, 150. Endicott School-house, ventilation of, 150. Emerson's, Frederick, plan of ventila- tion, 144. Emerson, G. B., remarks by, on school-houses, 66; plans of school- houses by, 72. Errors in School Architecture to be avoided, 39. Essex County Teachers' Association, Extract from Report on School- houses published by, 36. Evaporating Dish, 53. Everett, President, address by, 319. Facher System, plan of school-rooms for, 83. Factories, want of ventilation of, 46. Fireplace, open, admirable for ventila- tion, 51. Franklin fireplace, 51 ; plan of, 70. Free Academy in City of New York 223. INDEX. Fuel, care of, 293. Furnace, advantages of, 52; plan of used in Providence, 250 ; in Boston, 155; in Hartford, 221. G. Gallery, plan of, 95. Glocester, plan of District school- house in, 258. Godwin, George, plan by, 270. Grammar school-house, plan of, in Salem, 108; in Lowell, 112; in Boston, 198, 206, 208; in Providence, 240. Grotto del Carne, near Naples, 42. H. Haddock, Prof, extract from Report by, on the school-houses of New Hampshire, 24. Hanks' Improved Air-Heater, 220. Hartford, plan of Primary School in, 92; Disiict School, 93; High School in, 214. High School-house, plan of, in Mid- dletown, 98; in Lowell, 112; in Providence, 233; in Hartford, 162, 214; in Cambridge, 317. High Schools, Public, consideration re- specting, 225. Hints respecting ventilation, 142. Hosking on ventilation of buildings, 162. Hospitals, ventilation of, 44. House of Commons, ventilation of, 49. Hydrogen, Sulphuretted, 48. Individual System of Instruction, 79. Injecting ventilation, 144, 156. Infant Schools, plan of grounds, &c. for, 85. Ingraham's Primary School Chair, 201. Intermediate School, plan for, 236. K. Kimball's Improved Chair, cut of, 115, 120. Kendall, H. E., plan by, 261. L. Lassaigne, extract from, 145. Le Blanc, 147. Library, arrangements for, 61, 279. Light, general principles to be ob- served in the arrangements for, 41. Little children, school accommoda- tions for, 57. Location of school-houses, general prin- ciples to be observed in the, 40. Lord, A. D., plan of district school- house by, 78. Lowell, plan of High School in, 112. M. Maine, condition of school-houses in, 29. Mann, Horace, extracts from Report by, 15 ; plan for school-room by, 64 ; plan of gradation of schools, 64; extracts from Report respecting Nor- mal schools, 132, 136. Manners, as influenced by school- house arrangements, 21, 298. Massachusetts, condition of school- houses in 1838, and 1846, contrasted. 16. Massachusetts Normal school-houses, 136. Mayhew, Ira, extract from Report by, 31 ; plan of school-houses by, 259. Mats, 26. Millar's Patent Ventilating Stove, 51. Minutes of Committee of Council, 83, 142, 260. Michigan, condition of school-houses in, 31. Mixed Method of Instruction, school- rooms for, 79, 82. Monroe, plan of school-house in, 259. Mott's School Chair, 105. Mott's plan of ventilation, 142. Movable Blackboard, 70, 96. Mutual Method, plans of school rooms on, 79. N. National Society, plan of school-room of, 82. Neatness, habits of, as influenced by want of Mats, Scrapers, &c, 21 ; to be enforced, 300. New Hampshire, condition of school- houses in, 24. New York, condition of school-houses in, 16. New York Public School Society, plan of school-houses belonging to, 100; history of, 109 ; report to on seats without backs, 106. Normal schools, history of, 121 ; in New York, 123; in Massachusetts, 132; school-houses for in Massa- chusetts, 136. O. Octagonal School-house, plan of, by Town and Davis, 73; advantages of, 74. Olmsted's stove, 52. Openings for ventilation, where made. 48. Osgood, Rev. S., remarks by, 314. Oxygen, office of in the air, 43. Palmer's Teacher's Manual, quoted, 51. INDEX. Pawtucket, dedication of new school- house in, 308. Perry, Rev. G. B., Essay by, 36 ; 64. Phillips, Stephen, liberality of, 115. Plans of School-houses, 63; recom- mended by practical teachers and others, 64 ; recently erected, 90. Potter, Prof. Alonzo, strictures by, on the school-houses of the State of New York, 19. Primary schools, importance of, 231. Primary school-houses in New York City, 102; in Salem, 119 ; in Boston, 176 ; in Providence, 233. Privies, ventilation of, 44, 186. Privies, destitution of, in New York, 21. Providence, plans of school-houses in, 258. Providence Furnace, plan of, 258. Putnam Free School-house, 210. a. duincy school-house, plan of, 209. R. Reid, Dr., on ventilation, 147. Renwick, Mr., plan by, 1, 223. Rhode-Island, condition of school- houses in, in 1843, 30 ; in 1845, 31 ; for preservation of school-houses, 291. Roman Cement, 81. Rotary Swing, 86. Rules for the use of Clark's ventila- ting stove, 161. S. Salem, plan of East School-house in, 114; do. of English and Latin High School, 118; dedication of school- houses in, 302. School furniture, improvements in, 201. : School and Schoolmaster,' extracts from, 66. Scraper, absence of, 26. School Architecture, essay on, 5 ; com- mon errors in, 39 ; general princi- ples of, 40. Seats without backs, evils of, 55, 106. Seats and desks, principles of construc- tion, 53 ; plan of, 84, 90, 94, 105, 120, 201, 202, 205. Shrubbery in the yard, 66. Simultaneous method of instruction, 79. Size of school-houses, 40. Smith, Dr. J. V. C, on school seats and desk, 55. , Stearns, Rev. Mr., remarks by, 318. Stoves, open or Franklin, recom- mended, 51. Style in School Architecture, 40, 257, . 261. T. Teacher, arrangement for, in the school-room, 57; apartments for in the school-house, 260. Teacher's Desk, plans for, 272. Thayer, G. F., regulations by, 296; remarks by respecting courtesy, 298; address by at Salem, 306. Teft, T. A., designs for school-houses by, 252, 254, 257. Temperature of school-rooms, princi- ples of, 50 ; uniform, 52, 292. Ventiducts, 167. Ventilation, general principles of, 42. 71, 146; how founded for, by G. B. Emerson, 71 ; by Mr. Town, 75 ; by Minutes of Council, 142; in Salem, 115; in Washington District School- house, 92; in Providence, 236; by Mott, 142 ; in New York, 143 ; by F. Emerson, 144; in Boston, 145; in Hartford High School, 219. Vermont, condition of school-houses in, 22. W. Wales' Patent School Chair, 205. Warren, Dr., quoted, 55. Warren, plan of school-house in, 252. Warming, principles of, 50; by fire- place, 70; by stove, 51; by furnace, 52, 258. Wadsworth, James, liberality of, 66. Washington street District School- house, in Hartford, 93. Wayland, President, address by, 308. Wellington Club-house, ventilation of, 49. Wells, W. H., communication from, 171. Westerly plan of Primary school- house in, 256. Westfield State Normal School-house, 139. Whiting street Primary School-house, 97. Whittling, habits of, to be prevented, 301. Wilderspin plan of infant school- house and grounds, 87. Willesdon school, plan of house for, 271. Windsor, District School-house in, 90. Woodbridge, Dr., quoted, 47. Woodbridge, W. C, plan of stove by 51. Yard, and external arrangements, 62; plans of, 67, 69, 73, 76, 77, 88, 90, 101, 118,209,219,242. Young, Samuel, extract from report by, f