THE STUDY 
 
 History and SocioLoaY. 
 
 BY 
 
 FRANK W. BLACKMAE, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor op History and Sociology in the University ok Kansas. 
 
 L/ 
 
 4&i> 
 
 TOPEKA. 
 
 KANSAS PUBLISHING HOUSE : CLIFFORD 0. BAKEE, STATE PEINTEB. 
 1890. 
 
THE STUDT 
 
 .7" 
 
 History and SociOLoaY. 
 
 BY 
 
 v^r 
 
 FRANK W. BLACKMAR, Ph. D., 
 
 Professor of History and Sociology in the University of Kansas. 
 
 T O P E K A . 
 
 KANSAS PUBLISHING HOUSE : CLIFFORD C. BAKEE, STATE PBINTEK. 
 1890. 
 
Topical Analysis. 
 
 SELECTED REFERENCES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE NATURE OF HISTORY. 
 
 The complex nature of history. 
 
 History as prose narrative. 
 
 Rhetorical history. 
 
 The earliest conception of historj". 
 
 The scientific conception of history. 
 
 The relation of historical study to 
 natural science. 
 
 The philosophic conception of his- 
 tory. 
 
 Historyas the education of humanity. 
 
 History deals with the present as well 
 as the past. 
 
 THE SCOPE OF HISTORY. 
 
 No satisfactory comprehensive defini- 
 tion of history. 
 
 The narration of events. 
 
 History as politics. 
 
 Practical polilics not necessarily in- 
 cluded. 
 
 Comparative politics or institutional 
 history. 
 
 Tlie science of government. 
 
 Comparative jurisprudence. 
 
 Economic politics. 
 
 Comparative religions. 
 
 Anthropology. 
 
 Ethnology. 
 
 Geography and history. 
 
 Chronology a small but essential part 
 of history. 
 
 The philosophy of history. 
 
 Historical criticism. 
 
 Numismatics. 
 
 Sociology as a branch of history. 
 
 Social statistics. 
 
 THE RELATION OF HISTORY TO 
 OTHER SCIENCES. 
 
 The relation to philology. 
 The relation of history to law. 
 
 Art and architecture as aids to the 
 study of history. 
 
 THE PROVINCE AND THE STUDY OF 
 SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 The progress of sociological studies. 
 The general use of the term sociology. 
 The specific use of the term. 
 Analysis of the study of sociology. 
 Sociology as a philosophy of society. 
 Historical and descriptive sociology. 
 Practical or applied sociology. 
 The history of sociology. 
 Suggested course of study. 
 
 METHODS OF WRITING HISTORY. 
 The old style of writing history. 
 The reformed style of writing history. 
 The tendency toward social and eco- 
 nomic life. 
 Specialization in history-writing. 
 
 METHODS OF STUDYING HI.STORY. 
 
 Recent progress in historical instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 The topical method. 
 
 The scientific aspects of the study of 
 history. 
 
 The modern seminary. 
 
 BENEFITS OF HISTORICAL STUDY. 
 
 Excellent study for discipline and 
 culture. 
 
 History deals with man, the greatest 
 study of mankind. 
 
 The study of the historical sciences 
 prepares the student for active life. 
 
 Especial attention to the problems of 
 society necessary. 
 
 A state university should give atten- 
 tion to those branches that espe- 
 cially fit the youth for citizenship. 
 
 THE STUDY OF HISTORY PREPARA- 
 TORY TO ENTRANCE INTO THE 
 UNIVERSITY. 
 
Selected References. 
 
 Adams, C. K. — On methods of Teaching History. 
 Adams, C. K. — Recent Historical worlc in the Colleges and Universi- 
 ties of Europe and America. 
 Adams, H. B. — Special Methods of Historical Study. 
 Adams, H. B. — ^New Methods of Study in History. 
 Allen, W. F. — Grades and Topics in Historical Study. 
 Bernheim, Ernst — Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode. 
 EuRGESS, J. W. — The Methods of Historical Study in Columbia College. 
 Comte, Auguste — The Positive Philosophy. 
 Crocker, J. H. — Problems in American Society. 
 De Greef, Guillaume — Introduction a la Sociologie. 
 Diester\vi<:g, G. — Instruction in History. 
 Droysen, Joh. Gust. — Grundriss der Historick. 
 Ely, R. T. — Introduction to Political Economy. 
 Ely, R. T.^The Past and the Present of Political Economy. 
 Emerton, E. — The Historical Seminary in American Teacliing. 
 Freeman, E. A. — Methods of Historical Study. 
 Flint, Robert — The Philosophy of History. 
 GiDDiNGS, F. H. — Sociology and Political Economy. 
 GiDDiNGS, F. H. — The Province of Sociology. 
 Hall, G. Stanly — Methods of Teacliing and Studying History. 
 LoTZE, Hermann — Microcosmus. 
 LORENZ, Ottoker — Geschichtsvvissenschaft. 
 Maiuienbrkcher, Wilhelm — Geschichte und Politik. 
 Schaeffle, a. E. — Bau und Leben des Socialen Korpers. 
 Small, Albion W. — Introduction to tlie Science of Sociology. 
 Smith, R. M. — Statistics and Economics. 
 Spencer, Herbert — Principles of Sociology. 
 Spencer, Herbert — The Study of Sociology. 
 Ward, Lester F. — Dynamic Sociology. 
 Warner, A. G. — Charities: The Relation of the State, the City, and 
 
 the Individual to Modern Philanthropic Work. 
 Wright, Carroll D. — Statistics in Colleges. 
 
Introduction. 
 
 To the Students and Teachers of History in the State of Kansas: 
 
 When the Regents of the University of Kansas formed 
 the Department of History and Sociology, it may have seemed 
 to some that two irrelevant subjects were linked together; 
 that what was intended for a step in advance was, after all, 
 but a mis-directed innovation ; and that as no other university 
 in the United States had at that time an established chair of 
 this name, it was at least an experiment in classification of 
 studies. But a close analysis of the included subjects will 
 show, not only that History and Sociology are companion 
 studies, but that the action of the Regents was in accordance 
 with the spirit of modern education, and a bold assertion of 
 the progress which historical studies have been making in our 
 best universities during the past few years. Although the 
 historical sciences do not, at present, occupy the prominence 
 in education which their importance properly and rightfully 
 demands, no other group of studies has passed through such 
 great changes during the past twenty years. These changes 
 are to be observed in the grouping of studies, in methods of 
 instruction and study, in a constant determination of historical 
 study toward the life of society, and a strong tendency to 
 make such study a living, serviceable part of every well-regu- 
 lated university — serviceable, not only as a means of culture 
 
 (5) 
 
TJlc Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 and discipline, but in especially fitting the individual for the 
 conduct of social and political life, thus directly benefitting 
 him and the community at large. There is a feeling that the 
 historical sciences must furnish a strong suj)port to govern- 
 ment and administration, and thus demonstrate their imme- 
 diate utility to society, just as in the past the natural sciences 
 have demonstrated their necessity by their immediate relation 
 to the industries of the country. 
 
 In some institutions these changes have been sudden, in 
 others slow and laborious, owing to lack of resources and 
 other obstacles even more formidable. In this respect it may 
 be said that a young, growing institution like our own, with 
 comparatively few resources, yet working in a new field with 
 a special purpose, has an advantage in outlining a policy, over 
 older and wealthier institutions; it has the advantage of the 
 experience of other institutions without the obstructions which 
 essentially arise on account of traditional usage. It may 
 more readily adjust its methods and its course of study to the 
 needs of society. Nor must it' be iuferred that this adjust- 
 ment is a transient affair, pandering to the clamors of popular 
 opinion, for a university must on the one hand be a leader in 
 thought and opinion; on the other, it must supply the de- 
 mands of higher education, both in kind and in quantity. 
 . And especially should a State university strengthen those 
 branches of instruction that directly aid in the general bene- 
 fits of society at large — the welfare of the body politic. In 
 so doing it performs one of its essential functions. 
 
 It will be seen by the following analysis that our own 
 
hitroduction. 
 
 institution in respect to historical study is in the line of 
 progress evinced by the foremost institutions of this country, 
 and as far as the establishment of the courses of study in this 
 department is concerned, it may be said that a possibility has 
 been made for an important work. It will be further observed 
 that the study of history is rapidly tending toward the study 
 of sociology, and that the latter furnishes a strong support 
 and full complement to the former. Having the same field 
 of investigation and the same ultimate ends, they are essen- 
 tially complementary studies, and should work together in the 
 solution of social problems. This new line of work if prop- 
 erly supported in labor-power and materials, will eventually 
 prove most useful to the institution and to the State. 
 
 It is hoped that the following analysis will tend to dispel 
 two erroneous ideas in regard to historical studies: First, that 
 they may as well be carried on outside of the university 
 without especial assistance, as in the university under the 
 direction of experienced instructors; secondly, that the his- 
 torical studies are more easily pursued than other branches of 
 learning, and consequently students enter them for the sake 
 of obtaining their "grades" with little effort. In regard to 
 the first proposition let it be clearly affirmed, that though 
 some persons may obtain a considerable knowledge of history 
 by reading it as they would a novel, for a thorough, system- 
 atic university course there is as much need of wise direction 
 in these branches as in the most complex study in natural 
 science, language, or any other branch of knowledge. In 
 regard to the second point, it has been fully demonstrated that 
 
TJie Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 historical studies furnish ample opportunity for thorough 
 discipline and hard work, for in fact nothing in history of 
 permanent value may be obtained without these. If students 
 have entered this course for the sake of high grades and an 
 easy time, it will not take long to prove their error. Let those 
 who enter here for the sake of high grades rather than for 
 an earnest pursuit of the truth, abandon all hope. But I take 
 it that there are none such. It is to be hoped that the study 
 of history in this institution, of which this department repre- 
 sents only a part, will lose none of its former efficiency, but 
 will continue to develop thoroughness and completeness, and, 
 as heretofore, be supported by earnest, faithful students. 
 
The Study of History and Sociology.* 
 
 THE NATURE OF HISTORY. 
 
 Simple as history may seem iu its popular sense, its nature 
 is really complex, its province wide and its functions various. 
 Consequently it is necessary to devote a little time to the dis- 
 cussion of the meaning of history before entering upon the 
 apparently more practical subject of the methods of historical 
 study. Considering the variety of notions of history as set 
 forth by individuals or inherent in the different methods of 
 treating the subject, it is essential that the student should be 
 well grounded in the real nature and scope of history before 
 entering upon a course of systematic study. And the first 
 and most common notion with which he is likely to meet 
 is that "history is the prose narrative of past events." 
 This is the literary conception of history, and the one most 
 commonly given to those requiring a definition. But this, 
 iu its narrow view, must exclude many phases of history 
 which continually arise as the student proceeds to investigate, 
 for history, like other branches of knowledge, expands with 
 the growth of civilization until no single definition will ex- 
 press its full and varied meaning. There is not only a con- 
 stantly expanding national life, a development of laws 
 
 *This lecture was read before the students of History and Sociology in the Uni- 
 versity of Kansas, January, 1890; since that time it has been somewhat elaborated, 
 and will be used in its present form as an introduction to the courses for the coming 
 academic year. Its intention is to set forth clearly the nature, scope and methods of 
 historical and sociological study and investigation. The pamphlet has been addressed 
 to the teachers and students of the State with an earnest desire to quicken the interest 
 already manifested in the studies of which it treats, and with a hope of enlarging their 
 field of usefulness. 
 
 (9) 
 
lo TJic Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 institutions and social customs that must be recorded, but 
 there is also a subjective development of history consequent 
 upon the accumulation, classiiicatiou and comparison of" ma- 
 terials of which the hhtorij of history is the proper representa- 
 tion. With this view, the simple literary conception itself 
 expands so that it embraces all of the records of man on 
 earth, wdiether of prose, poetry, song, or inscriptions, so long 
 as they are written records. Indeed, it would embrace the 
 testimony which the earth yields of the presence of man ; the 
 relics of mounds and tumuli as well as the life-picture of 
 prehistoric man. Knowledge represents one of the elements 
 of history; and as such the inscriptions on monuments, the 
 arrow-head and the stone ax and the foot-prints on the rocks 
 are historical evidence. The term "history," in this concep- 
 tion, is vast in its inclusions; the natural as well as the polit- 
 ical and social life of the people, even the records of the 
 evolution of culture, fall within its scope. But it is main- 
 tained by those who advocate the strictly literary definition 
 that a })eople has no history until sufficient evidence is given 
 to furnish a prose narrative; that disconnected and independ- 
 ent facts do not represent history. In reply to this, it may 
 be said that isolated facts are the elements of history, and it 
 is the business of the historical student to search out these 
 facts and put them in tiieir proper relation to the national life 
 and the life of humanity in general. The fault is with the 
 term "narrative," which must exclude much that is descrip- 
 tive and comparative. Political science and the history of 
 institutions in their processes are not obliged to put on the 
 shape of a story to be considered as parts of history. His- 
 tory, too, deals with the present as well as the past; wherever 
 man lives and acts, there are the records, and there is history. 
 There is a still narrower sense in which the literary con- 
 ception is taken, in which rhetoric plays an important part: 
 
The Nature of History. 1 1 
 
 it is as if history were the product of the peu aud the imag- 
 ination of mankind, and the historical writer a creative 
 genius writing stories for the sake of the reader, instead of 
 presenting facts for the elucidation of truth. History thus 
 becomes an evolution of mind-force combined with a series 
 of pictures of past events made graphic by the genius of the 
 writer. Those having this view read history as they would 
 a poem or a novel, for the literary and emotional effect. 
 In such minds history poses as an art of expression rather 
 than as an independent branch of human knowledge. The 
 "prose narrative" aud the rhetorical effect may enter into the 
 proper representation of history, but it must be denied that 
 they in any way represent the full and proper notion of history. 
 History, like science, has a scope as wide as nature — one deal- 
 ing with the principles of truth, the other in their application 
 to humanity. But who would think of considering science 
 as embracing what a few persons have found out and written 
 about? Its limits are as broad as nature, and many of its 
 truths are yet to be demonstrated. So, too, the limits of his- 
 tory are as wide as man's contact with nature, aud its truth 
 is being evolved so long as the activity of man continues. 
 History is a universal notion as large as the notion of nature 
 Among the earliest conceptions of history is that of He- 
 rodotus, represented in the oft-quoted ''historia," meaning to 
 learn by investigation. This universal conception may as 
 well have been applied to any other branch of learning as to 
 the records of man, and is in fact especially adapted to mod- 
 ern sciences, of whatsoever kind. The "historia" of the 
 records of man and the "historia" of the records of nature 
 each has its place in the modern university. Applied spe- 
 cifically, this term represents the spirit of modern learn- 
 ing, whether of history, of philosophy, or of science. Yet 
 we find that Herodotus wrote to please the Greeks, and it 
 
12 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 would seem that there was something more in his philosophy 
 than the simple discovery of truth : it must be presented in 
 a pleasing style. We find later writers leaving out of con- 
 sideration the spirit of investigation, and presenting in a 
 graphic manner that part of history which would be pleasing 
 to the people and gratifying to national pride. Thus Livy 
 took what he found without question as to the truth of it, 
 and then elaborated the material in his own way. It is 
 needless to remark that he became a most charming story- 
 teller. History was thus written for its effect — for its pleas- 
 ing surprises and for its moral lessons. It was for a long 
 time purely national, until Polybius made an attempt to 
 make it universal and morally instructive to all nations. 
 
 The modern study of history has adopted all that is best 
 in the old definition. It includes, in its fundamental concep- 
 tion, the two ideas there embodied: knowledge, truth, under- 
 standing on the one hand, and research on the other. These 
 are the moments of historical scieuce. With these funda- 
 mental principles are classification, comparison, and analysis, 
 and these aj)plied to the institutions and the social life of man 
 constitute what are known as the elements of historical sci- 
 ences. It is through its methods of study and presentation 
 that history claims its rightful position as a legitimate science. 
 It has adopted methods of scientific investigation. The sci- 
 entific conception of history presents it in the same light as 
 other branches of science, holding that it is composed of 
 truth, of laws of development, and of classified knowledge. 
 This conception differs somewhat from the ordinary concep- 
 tion of science. While the marks of historical science are, in 
 the main, identical with those of other sciences, there are cer- 
 tain fundamental characteristics which must differentiate the 
 historical sciences from others, as for example the natural, in 
 the exact use of the term science. No doubt that the his- 
 
The Nature of History. 1 3 
 
 torical branches are in the form of developing sciences, but 
 the terra science must admit of a broader signification than 
 formerly; and, indeed, the term science is, after all, a relative 
 one, and changes with each decade. For example : the science 
 now called astronomy is not the science called astronomy of 
 centuries past, though it has changed but little within the 
 past few years. But in fundamental ideas natural science 
 deals with universals, while history deals with particulars. 
 Natural science comes directly in contact with nature for the 
 investigation of its laws, while history must come directly in 
 contact with the records of humanity for its investigation. 
 There is not, however, so much of a distinction as there seems 
 to be in respect to the two processes, for history deals with 
 the present of human action as well as the past, and the ordi- 
 nary student of natural science must spend a large part of 
 his time in studying the records of classified scientific knowl- 
 edge wrought out by others before he comes directly in con- 
 tact with the forces of nature. His laboratory is nature, but 
 he may demonstrate the same laws by the use of the same 
 material that others have employed. The laboratory of the 
 historical student is the records of the past, the accumulated 
 material of the contact of man with nature, and the present 
 living humanity in collective society. But he may not go 
 through the same process with humanity in the discovery of 
 existing laws as does the student with the material of natural 
 science. It is true that the investigation, the observation, the 
 comparison and the classification of knowledge, as well as the 
 derived truth, are there, but the nature of the derived truth is 
 different. But as we observe that history tends more towards 
 sociology, as in fact sociology now functions as an historical 
 science, we must recognize that history is rapidly taking posi- 
 tion as a science which deals with universals; for sociology, 
 while dealing with universal types and factors and represent- 
 
14 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 ing laws of development, Las still the same subject to deal 
 with as history, uamely, human society. Though it may deal 
 with it in a diiferent way and leave the individual to history, 
 it cannot ignore the individual any more than history can 
 ignore the general. Sociology, in dealing with universal 
 types and laws of development, with society- forms, society- 
 building, and society-functions, is a great auxiliary to history, 
 and in turn must look to history for its material on which to 
 operate. In its fundamental characteristics, then, we lind 
 that history in its broadest sense, including all of the so- 
 called historical sciences, tends to be more and more worthy 
 the name of science. 
 
 History in its modern conception includes the collection of 
 materials, the arrangement and classification of the same, and 
 the interpretation of events and their placement in the dif- 
 ferent categories of facts. This further implies a knowledge 
 by investigation, careful analysis, and comparison to show the 
 laws of the development of tiie institutions of a single people, 
 or as far as possible, the laws of the development of human 
 institutions under certain conditions. In these points its 
 correspondence with natural science is clear. Out of the in- 
 terpretation of history has evolved many of the })riuciples of 
 historical science, such as classified knowledge, established 
 principles, and rational methods. And here as elsewhere in 
 the range of science, we recognize method as an essential 
 feature of classification and research. If a student at school 
 studies natural science, the greater part of his time is taken up 
 with the method of procedure, and only so because the method 
 of classification and the method of investigation are after all 
 the chief elements of science; tor science is a process as much 
 as a thing. If science in the objective be considered a system- 
 atized body of truths, it still involves in this capacity an 
 accurate comparison and generalization of facts, and if we con- 
 
The Nature of History. 1 5 
 
 sider it subjectively it becomes a process or a generalizatiou of 
 processes, and treats more of method that of fact. The 
 objects and the nature of history are "to know, to explain and 
 to understand," and in this, science agrees in its objects. In 
 methods the historical process agrees with the scientific " in- 
 vestigating to understand." "DasWesender historischen 
 Methode ist forschend zu verstehen." (Droysen.) 
 
 The philosophic conception of history tends even farther 
 toward placing it on an independent basis. It is a favorite 
 notion of some to represent history as developing continually 
 in human consciousness, and thus to make it entirely subjective ; 
 they hold that history is being made constantly; that it is as 
 much of the past as of the present, and that each individual 
 contributes a part to the general whole. But in regard to this 
 it may be said that, though there is a continuity of thought as 
 well as a continuity of history, and that the "current of human 
 experience" flows on, it is the process of interpretation that is 
 to be referred to human consciousness. Each individual iu 
 his power of thought represents the past as well as the present, 
 and contributes something of life to the general whole of 
 human development. The stamp of individual minds in in- 
 terpretation, instruction and presentation, contributes to the 
 making of history. It is broader than books, broader than 
 literature of the subject; it has the power to expand with the 
 reflective powers of each generation of individuals; "it con- 
 sists in knowledge not in books." This knowledge involves 
 the self-knowledge of humanity; an unfolding panorama of 
 self-consciousness. 
 
 It is this subjective consideration of history that led to the 
 saying that history is the "education of humanity." The 
 individual relation of one person to humanity at large repre- 
 sents the onward movement called progress. The current of 
 human experience is continuous but not uniform; the same 
 
1 6 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 may be said of human development or of the course of hu- 
 man events. The whole course of human progress is the re- 
 sult of the action and the reaction of nature and thought, 
 and the best part of history is a resultant series of judgments 
 that tend to the instruction and elevation of humanity, for 
 "history is the conscience of humanity." Out of the influ- 
 ences of this changing, moving mental development have 
 flowed the means of the education of the race. The deeds of 
 man in relation to general humanity, the efl'ect of his action, 
 in accordance with laws of development, have educated the 
 race. As the irregular line of humanity moves onward 
 through the ages, nations rise and fall and institutions are 
 changed or obliterated ; "there is a quick movement forward 
 here and a long, slow, retarding process there;" A acts on B 
 and B on A and the residual moment of A and B acts on C, 
 and thus the line of progress is small in the midst of great 
 and mighty changes. A few individuals of the sum total of 
 humanity struggle into a higher life while the great mass 
 record change rather than progress, consequently "all degrees 
 and shades of moral barbarism, of mental obtuseness and of 
 piiysical wretchedness, have been found in juxtaposition with 
 cultured refinement of life, clear consciousness of the ends of 
 human existence, and free participation in the benefits of civil 
 order." (Lotze, II, 147.) 
 
 History is being made every day, through us and about us. 
 It is not an antiquarian study even though it deals much with 
 the past, for the best life of the past is our present. The past 
 of which we speak is only the childiiood of our own life of 
 whose progress we boast. To know this life more fully is the 
 object of historical research. It is, therefore, the province of 
 the student of history to observe the best and latest products 
 of social development, as well as the early and immature. It 
 is his duty to inquire into present social and political life, and 
 
TJie Nature of History. 17 
 
 to study present problems aud note how history is being made 
 in the laboratory of the active world. It is the truth, the 
 living truth, that he seeks, and not the "dead past." The 
 senate of Rome survives; the Roman church is in our midst; 
 the Roman municipality is our municipality; the freemen are 
 still assembling as of old; law and government are ancient 
 institutions; civil justice is an evolution; the family is older 
 than Abraham; the present is old, and the past is the record 
 of youth. So does our former life continue into the present, 
 changed somewhat in form and force, but still the same. 
 
 —2 
 
1 8 JJie Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 THE SCOPE OF HISTORY. 
 
 The rauge of history is as wide as the range of science, and 
 the idea of history is as great as the idea of nature. Its funda- 
 mental idea or notion is of universal sco])e. But what are 
 the limitations of history to the student, and what are its 
 legitimate functions, and its proper field ? It embraces some- 
 thing more than the mere relation of events; it represents the 
 study of the records of man in all of their wide significations. 
 It represents the track of progress whether of the past or 
 ])resent. It is a recital of the evolution of man in society 
 and politics. Formerly historians were content to recite the 
 formal declaration of events, and tell of things that happened 
 to men and to states. AVhile this is an essential characteristic 
 of all history, the later historians have taken great care to do 
 more — to recount the political and administrative development 
 of institutions, and they have made a great advance over the 
 old form of recitiug the story of kings, houses, dynasties, and 
 the chront)logy of events. Such is the advance, that every 
 historian recognizes at least that nothing is worthy the name 
 of history which docs not recount in a substantial way the 
 progress of society and the permanent influences that brought 
 about progress. But still the historian is about to enlarge his 
 field by a vast addition of territory. There are so many in- 
 stances in which the political history of a people depends 
 either directly or indirectly on some social or economic move- 
 ment, it seems essential that the historian, or at least the stu- 
 dent of history, should incorporate the permanent influences 
 of industrial society into his own work. In other words, 
 that history must be studied from a social and economic as 
 well as from a political standpoint. The tendency of history 
 
TJie Scope of History, 19 
 
 is to incorporate these new fields under its own name. Not 
 only is this tendency very strong, but the relation of history 
 to many kindred studies is growing stronger, and its vital 
 touch reaches out to many other branches of study. In de- 
 fining its true scope, those branches which it may safely in- 
 corporate into its legitimate work will first be given, and these 
 will be followed by certain auxiliary studies, or those that 
 directly help the study of history, and are more or less inti- 
 mately connected therewith. 
 
 Whatever expansion historical studies may receive, there 
 is one phase which may not be departed from in a general 
 scope of history; that is the simple narration of events as 
 they occur. It matters not what form history may take, 
 whether general or special, it matters not how the investiga- 
 tion is conducted, the recital of simple facts is always under- 
 stood to be an essential of history. The special line of study 
 always presupposes a general knowledge of facts and cor- 
 respondences. History as literature must be considered as 
 the formal basis of operation for the student. It is within this 
 field that the study of bibliography may also come, for it rep- 
 resents the material upon which the student works. The old 
 conception, that history is that which is written and is to be 
 read, must uot be ignored on account of the numerous addi- 
 tious that have been made to the general scope of the science. 
 Macaulay and Gibbon and Montesquieu aud Carlyle are still 
 to be read, but with the idea that this is not a comprehen- 
 sive study of history, but only a means of getting in uiiud the 
 narrative of events, the movement of armies, of nations, and 
 that the study most beneficial is to begin from this point. 
 This branch of history represents a part of historical material, 
 aud consequently must receive great attention. The culture 
 that arises from a perusal of books of this nature is largely 
 
20 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 an infiiieuce upon the tastes of the individual, giving him 
 also a discriminating style. It also cultivates the handling 
 of documents; but this is a question of method rather than 
 a question of a department of history. 
 
 History as Politics. — Freeman, Maurenbrecher and 
 others have laid great stress upon history as politics; and, 
 indeed, liistory has much to do with politics, for thus far its 
 best and greatest field is a study of politics. Political history 
 represents in its best sense the political development of insti- 
 tutions. The definition first given by Freeman, that " History 
 is past Politics and Politics present History," is excellent in 
 its proper sense, but must be taken with some reservation 
 when applied as a complete definition of history. If it is 
 meant that all history is past politics and all politics is pres- 
 ent hidory, we are deceived; but if it is intended to convey the 
 idea that some hidory is past politics and some politics is present 
 history, the question is admitted. But the presentation of 
 history by our best students has made politics so important 
 that the "some history" fills the more important part of the 
 wide range of this great subject. 
 
 If history is to be limited by the iron-clad definition, what 
 then is all of the life of man that is not included in politics? 
 What of law and custom? What of the history of the de- 
 velopment of the family, of society in general ? What of 
 religion, or of art, and of that great branch of learning now 
 coming into use, known as Kulturgeschichte? What of trade 
 and commerce, of philosophy and education, and what of 
 biography? Are these to be excluded from the scope of his- 
 tory? By no means; they form an integral part of history or 
 else bear in jwrt an intimate relation, so that they must at least 
 l)e carefully considered by the historian. At least Kultur- 
 geschiciite and Sociology must claim their especial j^art in this 
 
TJie Scope of History. 21 
 
 great subject. The history of civilization begins before there 
 was a polls and extends until the ■pol'u is only a branch of its 
 vast extent. 
 
 By history as politics we understand it in the best sense; 
 we understand history as the progress of a people in the de- 
 velopment of civil powers and functions. Politics in this 
 sense means comparative study of institutionsaud comparative 
 administration. It includes the history of political develop- 
 ment rather than the process of technical or practical politics. 
 There is no science of practical or technical politics in America. 
 Practical politics is not systematic enough to become a science 
 and not sufficiently creative to be called an art. It is regu- 
 lated by the dynamics of those in power; it is a part of the 
 mechanics of present society, but it has not character sufficient 
 to rate it as a branch of science. Perhaps in that phase of 
 politics called diplomacy it may be elevated to an art. 
 
 Politics then forms a great branch of history, and is a pow- 
 erful auxiliary to all historical study of whatsoever nature. 
 Society may be approached through the state, and this is the 
 most universal conception we have of the constant develop- 
 ment of society on any line. But the state is not all of society 
 nor is its history all of history. Perhaps the study of politi- 
 cal institutions is the best means of approach to the study of 
 history. 
 
 Maurenbrecher holds that the science of history has for its 
 chief feature, political history, which is a relation of the state- 
 life of the people to mankind. The state as a form holds the 
 collected life of a people as its own, and within this form is con- 
 tained not only the political activities of a people but all other 
 activities, and these other activities are deserving of special 
 treatment as branches of history. But what do we under- 
 stand by history as politics ? We mean that branch of history 
 which treats of the constitutional development of a state; of 
 
The Study of History and Sociology 
 
 the history of state-life aud state development; it involves 
 all study and description pertaining to political institutions, 
 and may be the central idea in the study of social institutions. 
 In flict, all history may be approached from a political stand- 
 point. Of a necessity this involves the forms of administra- 
 tion, for it involves not only institutions themselves, but also 
 processes by which these institutions are upheld, and the man- 
 ner in which government is formed and performs its office. 
 The lamiliar branch of learning called comparative politics, 
 as well as the branches of comparative jurisprudence, com- 
 parative administration and comparative institutions, belongs 
 to this subject. As for practical })olities, the methods of pro- 
 cedure and the existing institutions are all that can be studied. 
 The present method, which is termed politics in common lan- 
 guage — which means the process by which one party may 
 obtain and hold office at the expense of the other or of the 
 general public; the process of management so as to elect offi- 
 cers by the will of a few people and not according to the vol- 
 untary will of the whole people — we have nothing to do with, 
 only so far as it brings us face to face with the situation of a 
 "government by the people aud for the people." 
 
 However, there may be a sense in which the term "prac- 
 tical politics" may be applied to the present forms and func- 
 tions of government — to munici})al, state, and federal or 
 national governments, and their actual administration. 
 
 The systematic study of the institutions of various countries 
 and their comparison with each other, has become one of the 
 most prominent features in modern historical courses. With 
 the studies of Niebuhr and Ranke, and the later investiga- 
 tions of Maine, Stubbs, von Maurer, Waitz, Freeman aud 
 others, this new study has risen in importance. It is gen- 
 erally known as Comparative Politics or Institutional His- 
 tory. Of all of the historical studies, perhaps this brings into 
 
The Scope of History. 
 
 action the best play of faculties, and as such represents one of 
 the most useful branches of the entire range. It not only 
 brings into contrast and comparison the institutions of the 
 various countries, but throws light on the development of the 
 race. It shows the contact of one nation with another, and 
 the interchange of customs; it shows in some cases a unity of 
 stock, and establishes a relationship between separate peoples. 
 It brings clearly to the mind the unity and the continuity of 
 history. There is throughout the entire course of this study 
 a demand for the exercise of the judgment, not only as to 
 normal but as to abnormal developments; not only as to how 
 nations have grown, but as to what are the best institutions. 
 It shows how much of our development is natural and how 
 much is arbitrary ; it discriminates between that change which 
 is growth and that which is retrogression or revolution. 
 
 This comparative method has of late been applied to other 
 branches, and we find that comparative administration now 
 enters the lists as one of the most profitable studies in the 
 curriculum. It will be seen that this might be included in 
 one sense under the title of comparative politics, but its 
 importance and specialization in treatment demand that it 
 should be placed under a separate head. Administration 
 treats more specifically of function in contrast with the idea 
 of institutions as existing forms or established character- 
 istics of government. Likewise, it seems that there is a 
 tendency for administration to work more in present politics 
 than in past, although this is not so determined by the nature 
 of the subject. At all events, "Comparative administration 
 is a part of comparative politics. It would be hardly possible 
 without administrative description to convey exact ideas of 
 political action, or even of political conception. A course in 
 institutional history ought to be both elucidative of ideas and 
 descriptive of forms of political action and means of political 
 
24 TJic Study of History afid Sociology. 
 
 organization." It should include, therefore, the form of ad- 
 ministration and the rule of action; consequently a history of 
 the organs of government and political customs or laws 
 should be given. 
 
 The science of government is clearly a historical science, 
 and treats not only of the philosophy of the governmental 
 processes and of applied laws, but of the duties of citizenship. 
 It does not come within the province of this department, only 
 so far as it has purely historical bearings. Perhaps civics or 
 political science would serve to designate this important special 
 branch of study. 
 
 Comparative jurisprudence may become one of the 
 future studies in historical courses. It could be given as a 
 study of historical comparison. It would not be a law study, 
 only so far as it was necessary to treat of legislative acts and 
 judicial decisions, and the development of society as indicated 
 by these. The historical study in law must of a necessity 
 throw great light on general history. The ancient codes as 
 given by Manu, Moses, Solon, Lycurgus, and the Twelve 
 Tables, are the best records of institutional develoi)ment, and 
 a comparative study of these as a special study ought to be 
 included in the proper territory of history. Even the code 
 of the Saxons and Lombards, and other Teutons, might enter 
 into the comparison. This study of the law is historical, and 
 leads directly to fulfill its purpose, namely, to throw light 
 upon institutions. As such it has no direct reference to the 
 modern practice of the law. 
 
 Economic Politics.— One branch of political economy 
 falls directly within the scope of history, and this is what may 
 be termed economic politics, or that part of political economy 
 which has to do with the action of the state concerning eco- 
 nomical development. This has been called "Historico- 
 Political Economy," as treated by the historian. It deals 
 
The Scope of History. 25 
 
 less with economic life as a philosophy, and more with the 
 practical affairs of economic legislation. As such it might 
 assume the German name of "National Economy," only that 
 it would include more than is here intended. There is a 
 Political Economy which deals with the economic life, with 
 labor and capital, but which more properly figures as a branch 
 of general sociology. 
 
 Within the scope of economic politics should be grouped 
 those social and economic movements which have been directly 
 connected with the political changes that have taken place in 
 states. Some of the so-called political institutions have their 
 direct cause of existence, in social or economic movements. 
 The so-called new school, or, what is more explanatory, the 
 ''historical school" of political economists, in contradistinc- 
 tion to the old or "deductive" school, base their operations 
 upon historical conditions rather than upon a priori argu- 
 ments. Consequently, the association of political economy 
 with the study of history has become common. It is true, 
 on the one hand, that the dull science of political economy, 
 that struggles with a priori principles, ideal men, ideal na- 
 tions, and ideal conditions, is released from many of its blun- 
 ders when a careful search into historical conditions is made. 
 On the other hand, there is an industrial history of nations 
 which may be incorporated with the study of history proper, 
 and still allow Political Economy to retain its own province 
 undisturbed. It is this phase of political history which 
 should come under the head of economic politics. The study 
 of Political Economy as a branch of Sociology will be treated 
 of under that heading. 
 
 Religion has always been an important force in society- 
 building, and has an especial influence in the formation of 
 political institutions. So important is it that the student of 
 history must give it especial attention in some form. As its 
 
26 TJic Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 iufiiiencc is great in the formation of primitive society, it is 
 well that some knowledge of the subject in its relation to the 
 family and the tribe should be acquired, although a special 
 study of this would naturally fall within the scope of sociol- 
 ogy proper. The study from this point should be extended to 
 comj)arative religions; their relations to the state and general 
 politics as well as their influence on society, should be clearly 
 shown. The subject must not be dropped until a thorough 
 study is made of the position of the Christian church in the 
 great political movements of modern times. The relation of 
 the Church to the Roman Empire, and its connection with the 
 Holy' Roman Empire, as well as its influence in modern na- 
 tions, particularly those of France, England and Spain, render 
 the subject of such great importance that it should receive es- 
 pecial attention in every grouping of the historical sciences. 
 In all of this work the investigation is not pursued with the 
 purpose of teaching the precepts or doctrines of any religion, 
 but merely to ascertain its effect upon social and political in- 
 stitutions. 
 
 Anthropology as the natural history of man may be in- 
 dispensable to political history, but by its strange contrasts to 
 later developments it furnishes a field for study which in every 
 way tends to bring clearly before the mind the prominence of 
 institutions and their developments. The history of man on 
 earth should begin properly with his earlier recoi'ds, fragmen- 
 tary as they are. But the extended study of Anthropology 
 falls naturally into the group under sociology. It is consid- 
 ered historically, and thus far is a historical study. However 
 it is classified either under sociology or history proper, and 
 this will depend somewhat upon the arrangement of courses 
 in a department. In its nature and purposes it is a sociolog- 
 ical subject; in its method it is historical. 
 
 The researches into the condition of man in his early 
 
TJie Scope of History. 
 
 -/ 
 
 stages, as well as the consideration of man in his later devel- 
 opment, tend to throw liglit upon his historical condition. 
 The primitive culture of man which distinguishes him from 
 the brutes or from other animals is a subject worthy the at- 
 tention of the historian. But the scientist, the sociologist, 
 and the historian meet here on common ground, each working 
 according to his purpose, and each after a certain line of truth 
 which in its nature is largely historic. In its extended sense 
 the study of anthropology treats of the entire man, and con- 
 sequently involves a scientific phase. 
 
 Ethnology or the science of races has been put forth with 
 many different theories. The origin and early history of the 
 separate races have taken much of the historian's attention, 
 though it is far from antiquarian in its effects. Its study has 
 a bearing upon all history. Its questions do not as a rule 
 determine the nature of institutions, but they are determined 
 by the study of institutions. The questions settled by eth- 
 nology are those of a general rather than of a specific nature. 
 But the science that treats of races has a general bearins; on 
 all historical development; even the modern problems are 
 based upon race differences, and many of the greatest move- 
 ments of history have been based on the race problem. How 
 strangely is the race principle shown in the old Hebrew polity 
 in the treatment of the foreigner; the Greek likewise dis- 
 criminated against other races; so, too, did the Roman. In 
 our own country we find the same problems being brought 
 up. A study of the ethnology of the human species must 
 throw light upon both ancient and modern history, or rather 
 upon history, for all history is modern to the student. 
 
 When we find Greek and Roman institutions in our midst, 
 we are inclined to believe that there is but one history, and 
 the "ancient" and "modern" express but different phases of 
 the same continuous development of human institutions. 
 
28 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 Geography. — To kuow history without knowing geogra- 
 phy is to deal with half-kuowledge, or to deal in knowledge 
 without making it tangible. The influence of geography upon 
 the political institutions of different people is clearly marked in 
 everyway. Buckle and Draper have not succeeded in proving 
 all that they have outlined on this subject, but they have cer- 
 tainly shown the influence of environment on the development 
 of a people. By the study of geography in connection with his- 
 tory something more is desired than the study of the boundary 
 of a nation, something more than the mere location of a peo- 
 ple, the tracing of the movement of armies, or of boundary 
 frontiers — although all of these are essential. But the influ- 
 ence of the climate on the life and inherent development of a 
 people; the influence of situation in regard to the ocean, 
 to mountains and to plains — these are the subjects that con- 
 cern us. The influence of winds, of storms, of cold and heat; 
 the possibility of animal life and vegetable productions — all 
 are essential to the making of a nation, as well as the prox- 
 imity to other nations and races. The situation of Greece, 
 a country of islands, a land indented with branches of the 
 ocean, separated into many small valleys and cut off on the 
 north by mountain-chains; with a temperate climate and a 
 productive soil ; these must all be considered in the making 
 of Greece. Even the beginnings of civilization, on the Eu- 
 phrates and the Nile, have great dependence upon the ease 
 with which the soil could be tilled with a bountiful yield. 
 In Rome we find the same striking phenomena: the geo- 
 graphical position, the soil and the climate, have helped to 
 make Rome. In our own country we have lost nothing be- 
 cause an ocean rolls between us and England; nothing of 
 intellectual liberty; nothing of the progress of American in- 
 stitutions; and we have much in our favor that the western 
 boundary of our nation is the wide Pacific. Indeed the his- 
 
The Scope of History. 29 
 
 tory of countries is frequently written in the soil, or on the 
 face of nature. 
 
 Chronology. — Certain misguided persons have sometimes 
 thought that the large part of history is made of chronology, 
 and have studied upon this basis. The use of chronology is 
 indispensable, but it is not history any more than the sur- 
 veyor's chain is land. It is necessary that history be set off 
 by boundary stakes aud divided into fields. It is also neces- 
 sary that each part of history be kept within its own bounds. 
 For this purpose it is necessary to use chronology. Chro- 
 nology is the time-measure, aud consequently the order- 
 measure, of history. Its chief aim is to keep events in their 
 proper line. Considered in itself as an isolated fact, it does 
 not matter whether Columbus discovered America in 11^92 
 or in 1292 ; but in relation to other facts, it is of great 
 importance. The fact that King John signed the Magna 
 Charta in 1215 has nothing in it particularly historical, so 
 far as the date is concerned ; but in comparison with the 
 other events of history, it is essential. To place the Magna 
 Cliarta in the time of William the Conqueror, would create 
 such a confusion in historical affairs as to be entirely irreme- 
 dial; to place it later, is to destroy its force. That is to say, 
 that dates should follow events, and should be learned from 
 them rather than the events from the dates. He who under- 
 stands history will place the facts in historical sequence. Not 
 to be able to do this is not to know history. But this does 
 not imply that every insignificant date should be memorized 
 for itself; in fact, history learned in this way is good for 
 nothing. I mean that the real significance of history is its 
 only claim to be accorded a place in the memory; and the 
 memory, being a rational faculty, will throw off all else, or at 
 least will not be burdened by its weight. 
 
 Philosophy has a close relation to history, especially that 
 
The Si2idy of History and Sociology. 
 
 which has been called the liistoiy of philosophy. Indeed, it 
 has been common with some to treat all history as philos- 
 ophy, after the noted definition which affirms that "history 
 is philosophy teaching by examples." It is not difficult to 
 conceive of history as an inductive philosophy, and as such 
 it conveys the results of human action in moral judgments; 
 but it seems more consistent with our purpose to class it 
 among the sciences, and to philosophize upon human conduct 
 as an especial study. Tiiis is somewhat diffi^reut from the 
 philosophy of history which seeks to explain the causes of 
 human action and their results on general society. This is 
 in part represented by such a treatise as Guizot's History of 
 Civilization, if we consider it as objective and search for the 
 cause and effect of events, and desire to trace the movement 
 of history or the philosophy of progress. Also, Draper bases 
 this philoso[)hy upon the movement of the intellect; and to 
 that extent his history is philosophy. But there is a deeper 
 or more sul)jective consideration of history, which brings it 
 closer to philosophy. It is in the nature of the history of 
 history, and as such deals in the subject as a human philoso- 
 phy. This extreme view, that considers history in the light 
 of philosophy, is best represented by Lotze, in his Microcos- 
 mus. Flint, in his Philosophy of History in Europe, takes 
 middle ground, and truly represents the philosophy of history 
 in its historical, philosophical antl applied phases. As thus 
 presented it should become part of the study of history. An 
 extended philosophy of history will include the history of the 
 philosophy of civilization. 
 
 Hlstokical criticiSxM has for its chief work the examina- 
 tion of evidence. An examination of the sources of history 
 and a critical analysis of the works of authorities are indispen- 
 sable to special study in history. Not only is a wide acquaint- 
 ance with the sources of history obtained by this studv, but 
 
TJie Scope of History. 
 
 the nature of the treatment by different authorities is made 
 clear. The nature of the evidence in each case as well as the 
 kinds of categories of historical evidence, is presented. The 
 value of the classification of sources and authorities according 
 to their merits, cannot be estimated. The student learns to 
 examine the motives which impelled men to write, to under- 
 stand the conditions under which they wrote, and to estimate 
 the genuineness of the sources used. The student thus learns 
 to avoid certain books as false or misleading, and to place 
 great confidence in others. By such critical examination he 
 learns how much credence to place in some of the stories of 
 Livy, and what is the historical significance of Homer. He 
 learns to estimate at their true value Froissart and Gregory 
 of Tours, Froude and Freeman, Ranke and Mommsen, Car- 
 lyle and Thiers. Historical criticism should analyze the style 
 of authors, for this frequently leads to a discrimination of the 
 true merits of their work. A person may write in a charm- 
 ing style, and yet be so careless of the truth that his produc- 
 tions may be almost useless to the special student who rests 
 his work on authenticity. 
 
 Numismatics, or the study of coins, is becoming one of the 
 most interesting and most useful of all of the investigations 
 in original sources of history. The inscriptions on coins, 
 brief as they may be, are to be relied upon, and furnish in 
 many instances a key to the explanation of difficult problems 
 of historical analysis. But there are few institutions that 
 have carried this study to such an extent as to make it a 
 practical department of historical study, and there are ^qss in 
 a situation to furnish collections of material sufficient for au 
 extended research. Perhaps the time will come when it will 
 be a more common branch in historical courses. Certainly it 
 is a useful and interesting branch of instructiou. 
 
 Sociology. — It is not easy to reach a final conclusion re- 
 
The StJidy of History and Sociology. 
 
 spectiug the exact position of sociology in tlie liierarcliy of 
 sciences. That there is a study of sociology wiiich is entitled 
 to a prominent position, most scholars admit; that it is 
 slowly gaining a place in universities, is a fact. But its real 
 position and province have not been finally settled either 
 by a consensus of opinion or by a large experience. It can 
 occupy one of three positions in the category of studies: it 
 may be considered a philosophy, a branch of natural science, 
 or a historical science. The question as to whether it is in- 
 cluded in any one of these as a branch, or whether it main- 
 tains a separate and independent existence, has not been 
 conclusively answered. In its treatment heretofore writers 
 have called it a science, when their own treatment would 
 pronounce it merely a speculative philosophy. In its ideal 
 existence, and an ideal that experience will doubtless reach, 
 it is a science. As such it must be classified as historical 
 or natural, or occupy an independent position. As it recog- 
 nizes social psychology, the individual consciousness of man 
 in society, and the influence of human volition in the de- 
 velopment of the social organism, it cannot be recognized as 
 a natural science, though it may be confessed that the term 
 "natural science" is becoming exceedingly broad in its 
 signification. In a close analysis it may be considered in its 
 specific sense as representing a position intermediate between 
 biology and psychology on the one hand, and the historical 
 sciences on the other. In its relation to the two former 
 studies this is its correct position; but the moment one con- 
 siders man in the aggregation above biology or psychology, 
 he necessarily enters the realm of history in its broadest sense. 
 It would seem that it should be classified as a historical science 
 in a lower position in the hierarchy next to biology, or per- 
 haps psychology. Since the time of Comte, the founder of 
 ideal sociology, there has been a tendency in France to make 
 
TJie Scope of History. 
 
 sociology a purely philosophical study, and to accord it a very 
 promiuent place, makiug history auxiliary to it. 
 
 This seems to be au error as far as history is concerued, 
 for if they are auxiliary studies, history is certainly the prin- 
 cipal and sociology the subordinate in classification. They 
 occupy the same field, consider the same subjects jiwith the 
 same ultimate end, viz., a better understanding of human so- 
 ciety. But in conceding this it must be maintained that 
 sociology has, in a special sense, a specific work to do on its 
 own account which is an important aid to history. It ex- 
 amines the universal elements and changes in different socie- 
 ties; it searches for the uuiv^ersal factors of society-building, 
 the universal types of society forms, and the active functions 
 of the social organism. The chief mark of distinction is that 
 sociology treats of universals, while history treats of indi- 
 viduals. But sociology, while it ignores the individual in 
 society, does not ignore the individual society. In the search 
 for the laws of the creation and control of au individual so- 
 ciety it must deal with a great amount of concrete historical 
 material and use the historical method. That is, sociology is 
 something more than a jihilosophy about the laws of the de- 
 velopment of the organism called society. Its nature and 
 scope, as well as its utility, make it a complement to history 
 seeking to understand the nature of human institutions by a 
 different method of approach. But in specializing universal 
 types, and seeking universal laws, it goes beyond the realm 
 of general history and enters a sphere truly its own. Yet in 
 this particular field it must make use of what history has for- 
 mulated, and is still, so far as study is concerned, in the 
 realm of knowledge and research, the essential forces of 
 history. It is evident that sociology is more closely related to 
 history in its province and methods and aims than to either 
 natural science or philosophy, and therefore must become es- 
 —3 
 
34 TJic Study of His/cny mid Sociology. 
 
 tablished in an independent position or else fall within the 
 classification of the historical sciences. But it must retain for 
 itself its own individual character, its special field, and its 
 own special methods; and with these extend its work farther 
 than history has been accustomed to go in the discovery of 
 universal laws of social development. 
 
 One of the important phases of sociological investigation is 
 the study and use of statistics. Statistics perfoi'm an impor- 
 tant part in all economic and sociological research, and are also 
 a strong support to history. In use they are a universal in- 
 strument, and the knowledge of their use is a science in itself. 
 The province of statistics is to collect and formulate facts and 
 report results in a numerical way. Its great claim to an in- 
 dependent position is found in the special preparation neces- 
 sary to the right use of statistics. No other branch is so 
 useful, and yet none other so misleading in its effects. The 
 labor of weeks may be represented upon a single page, but 
 the proper interpretation of the page requires a wide knowl- 
 edge of the subjects treated, and consummate skill in their 
 combination and deductions. The study of social statistics is 
 indispensable to the thorough and comprehensive study of 
 sociology. 
 
TJie Study of History and Sociology. 35 
 
 THE RELATION OF HISTORY TO CERTAIN OTHER 
 SCIENCES. 
 
 Relation of History to Philology. — History aud phil- 
 ology, as respects both method aud material, represent entirely 
 different fields of action. As auxiliary sciences they are always 
 mutually helpful to each other. Perhaps philology has con- 
 ferred the more important benefit upon history ; but on theother 
 hand, the latter is entirely indispensable to the former. There 
 is a narrow line of contact in which the two sciences exist, 
 aud it is on this margin that they chiefly aid each other. It is 
 the margin where the history of races helps determine the his- 
 tory of language, aud the philology of languages determines 
 the distinction in races. In a more extended view, it is where 
 the lauoruao-e assists in the determination of the nature of in- 
 stitutions, and institutions assist to interpret language. It 
 may be considered that the science of language though deal- 
 ing with a human institution, does not approach so near the 
 activities of the people in its processes as history, but as a 
 formula-maker it accomplishes far-reaching results. As it is, 
 the scientific study of comparative philology has disclosed a 
 closer relationship of the chief races of the earth, and ren- 
 dered great service in the interpretation of some of the prob- 
 lems of institutional history. Perhaps the most striking- 
 example of this is the unquestioned proof obtained by the 
 study of philology that the Aryan nations are all sisters in 
 stock, speech, and institutions. Here philology has derived 
 a formula for the solution of ethnic problems, but it need not 
 go further. It rests here, and returns to the development of 
 language. And as such, it uses the accumulated materials of 
 history for its purpose. But history obtains aud appropriates 
 
6 The Study of History and Sociology 
 
 its chief products. The iuterj^retatioii of tlie famous Rosetta 
 Stone, in 17i)9, ojiened to tlie lio-ht of the world of history 
 the childhood of Egypt. The exploratious iu behalf of 
 the study of language and the interpretations of the tablets 
 and cylinders, especially of oriental countries, have been of 
 unmeasured benelits to accurate history. It now remains for 
 philology to solve the problem of the original seat of the 
 Aryan races, wiiether in Europe or in Asia. 
 
 At all events, the historian does not need to enter the 
 domain of philology as his province, any more than the do- 
 main of natural science, but history must ever acknowledge 
 with a deep sense of gratitude the assistance of jihilology as 
 a means of throwing light upon many difficult problems of 
 the races. As a companion study to history, ])hilology will 
 yield a rich return to the historian. And though he may not 
 become expert nor have knowledge sufficient to determine re- 
 sults, which he may well leave in the hands of the philolo- 
 gian, yet it will give him increased strength and be of great 
 service to have a wide acquaintance with philology, and 
 an indispensable reading knowledge of many languages. But 
 in the j»rocessesof both sciences, history functions as philology 
 as often as |)hilology functions as history, and both on the 
 narrow margin of contact. It is the results of philology that 
 history wants, and cares for nothing else, as it is the use of 
 history in reaching those results that philology cares for, and 
 nothing for society and its laws as such. 
 
 Relation to Law\ — There is an intimate relation between 
 the study of the law and the study of history. In fact, a 
 comprehensive study of the law involves a study of iiistory, 
 and is really a phase of history. By the study of the law iu 
 this sense, I mean something more than that series of readings 
 sufficient to admit a novice to practice at one of our common 
 courts, or even to the supreme courts of the United States. 
 
Relation of History to Certain Other Sciences. 37 
 
 A person may do this and know but little about history. But 
 if a person will take a deep and thorough study of law in 
 its largest sense, he will have laid the foundation of historical 
 study, and will have touched upon the most "instructive part 
 of history." On the other hand, a thorough understanding 
 of the law is not possible without a study of history, and a 
 continued use of the historical method. The principles of 
 law may be learned as the multiplication table, and one may 
 become ftuiailiar with them. But to understand the law 
 thoroughly, one must needs apply himself to research and 
 comparison. On the other hand, the study of history is 
 greatly strengthened by the study of the law, and the products 
 of law study are seen in our best modern historical investi- 
 gations. 
 
 Perhaps the most direct influence in the formation of his- 
 tory is the development of private law through custom. 
 Though less apparent than the origin of law through legisla- 
 tion, or through equity and the decrees of rulers, this part of 
 law touches more directly the vital movements of society, and 
 is along the margin of all political development. A careful 
 historical reading of the laws of the Massachusetts Bay colony 
 will reveal the principal phases of society at that period, which 
 are indispensable to the historian. There may not be an ac- 
 count of the detailed movements of a people, but there is a 
 series of judgments of their social and political life, the written 
 road over which they have come. But the real life of the 
 peo})le is not, after all, discerned without referring to other 
 sources; without determining under what conditions certain 
 laws were enacted, and their effects on society. So, likewise, 
 the study of constitutional law will strengthen constitutional 
 history. The principles of constitutional law may be studied 
 without a great deal of work in historv, but the historical 
 development of constitutional law will be found to yield rich 
 
TJie Study of History and Sociology 
 
 returns to the iovestio-ator. The organic development of 
 states as individuals may be best understood by studying 
 their laws, and the effect of the same on the people. But as 
 constitutions and as laws are growths they have a history, 
 and it is the development of this history that we seek. Again, 
 international law and diplomacy may be called historical 
 studies, for they treat of the movements of nations and the 
 existence of great customs, acknowledged as the laws of na- 
 tions. 
 
 •' Wie das Volk so das Recht, und wie das Recht so das ^olk." 
 
 Art and Architecture show one side of the development 
 of history, and in this respect may be considered as auxiliary to 
 the study of history. Art and architecture not only show by 
 external evidence of the development of the mind, but they also 
 evince the character of the institutions that prevailed at certain 
 periods of life. The history of art should not be neglected 
 in the study of the institutions of the people. Indeed, almost 
 the first difference that greets us in the study of prehistoric 
 man is a difference in art. In fact, in the comparison of any 
 of the nations of antiquity as well as all modern nations, the 
 difference in art in most instances is a sufficient mark to char- 
 acterize species. The commingling of national architecture is 
 an evidence of the contact of the people, and the purity of 
 art may indicate a long separation. By a clear knowledge of 
 the history of the art of a country the life of the people will 
 be made more definite, and be better understood. Art, too, 
 forms one of the sources of the records of human history. It 
 records the position, the character, and the life of a people. 
 The history of art is valuable as a record of events, but more 
 especially is it to be studied as an aid in determining the stage 
 of progress of a people, and the quality of their culture. 
 
TJie Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 THE PROVINCE AND STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY. 
 
 The study of sociology as au iudepeudeut brauch has re- 
 ceived but little attention in American institutions. In fact, 
 its position in the curriculum is indeterminate at present. 
 Work has been done in the acknowledged tield of sociology 
 in some of the principal institutions of America, and a few 
 hav^e entered upon specific studies in this line. But in 
 all of this there is no regularly established method of pro- 
 cedure; in fact, the study has not yet been assigned its proper 
 place in institutions. That it will eventually receive its mer- 
 ited attention, no one can question; but just at present there 
 is not a consensus of opinion as to the scope and the province 
 of sociology, and whether it is a historical study or should 
 have a separate existence. In truth, the writers on sociology 
 do not yet agree touching these main points. The most that 
 has been written is introductory to sociology, or else is only 
 .social philosophy at best. Comte outlined what is termed the 
 science of sociology, but his discussion was nothing but social 
 philosophy; and likewise Spencer made a beginning on the 
 right basis, but in all of his writings we find that social philos- 
 ophy clearly out-runs the scientific method. In the most ex- 
 tensive work yet published on sociology, that by Schiiffle, a 
 vast deal of material is outlined ; but there is evidence on every 
 side of a lack of scientific methods in sociology. 
 
 So, likewise, the w^orks of Leterueau, of De Greef and others 
 deal wath the philosophy of sociology, but do not enter fully 
 into the real conception of the term as the science of society. 
 We are not wanting in opinions, or in conceptions, but we are 
 in need of a true determination of the real position and nature 
 
40 TJic Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 of this study by a geuerally accepted scientific method before 
 we can get much beyond a social philosophy. Lester F. Ward 
 in the " Dynamic Sociology " has given us the best outline 
 of the study that has been produced in America. President 
 Small, of Colby University, has prepared a syllabus on the 
 study of sociology — an Introduction to the Science of Soci- 
 ology — which gives a clear outline of the scope of the work; 
 and Prof. Geddiugs, of Bryn Mawr, has written a paper on 
 the Province of Sociology in which he determines its position. 
 All of these papers and publications, and others not mentioned, 
 show that sociology is struggling for a true position in the 
 hierarchy of studies, and that at present it has made some 
 definite progress in this respect. Prof. P. T. Ely, of Johns 
 Hopkins University, in his text-book on Political Economy, 
 brings that subject where it belongs — more directly into the 
 range of social sciences. But with all of these and other good 
 works, it must be deplored that the subject is not farther ad- 
 vanced toward its ultimate superior position. 
 
 A word must be said about the treatment of what is known 
 as "'social science" in a peculiar way, as if its only province 
 was broken-down and imperfect society; and that sociology 
 has to deal only with social problems, and not with the 
 rational development of human society. It must be ac- 
 knowledged that the value of the study of charities and 
 corrections cannot be overestimated, and that as representa- 
 tive of the position of a certain phase of social disorganization, 
 the study of these is invaluable. These studies represent 
 the outcroppings of society, and just as a ledge in the mount- 
 ains will show by its nature the condition of the original 
 bed, so these parts of disorganized society will show the nature 
 of the true structure. So, also, as it treats chiefly in its scien- 
 tific methods of the reorganization of society, there is an op- 
 
The Province and Study of Sociology. 41 
 
 portunity offered for the applicatiou of the best results of the 
 study of sociology. 
 
 The science of sociology treats iu geaeral of all of those 
 forces which teud to organize, disorganize or reorganize hu- 
 man society. In the treatment of topics, iu its proper sphere, 
 it is not a parasite nor a conglomerate science, but holds a 
 clear and distinct field of reasoning. It is not history, nor 
 religion, nor economics, nor politics, nor ethics, though it is 
 intimately connected with these and dependent upon the ma- 
 terial which they have classified and the laws that they have 
 formulated. Its fundamental principle is that of a distinct 
 organism for society; it treats of universal types and classes, 
 and searches for universal laws. It treats of the evolution of 
 human society. It uses history to determine its ends, and yet 
 is not history. It must treat of the descriptions of this sci- 
 ence, and thus must use historical methods. 
 
 In treating of the study of sociology it is to be noticed that 
 the term may be used in two separate ways, even as biology 
 is thus used : in a general and in a specific way. First, 
 general sociology may include within its scope the study of 
 economic philosophy and the laws of production, distribution, 
 and consumption; it may treat, in other words, of economic 
 life and of the economic organs and functions of society, and 
 thus include the main body of so-called political economy ; it 
 should be termed social economy in distinction from economic 
 politics; it may also include within its scope a system of nat- 
 ural ethics, and may treat of the historic movement of society. 
 It has to do with politics only so far as it shows how political 
 organizations are a natural evolution of society. In govern- 
 ment, administration, and iu religion, in all of these things 
 it must deal with the forces that make organic unity. It may 
 not include within its grasp, as classified knowledge, the his- 
 torical sciences, but rather it is a historical science in its 
 
42 77^1? Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 nature. It may not be a natural science, because it deals with 
 man in his entire relations; it treats of l)oth natural and arti- 
 ficial society. It may not be a j>hilosophy, because that too is 
 limited to the products of the mind alone. It is not a religion, 
 for that treats of belief, of the soul, and of life eternal. If a 
 science at all, it must stand entirely alone, or else be classed 
 with the historical sciences. 
 
 In its specific nature it becomes an intensified branch of 
 history; and as such, by its special consideration and intense 
 existence, goes beyond the range of history aud makes for it- 
 self a distinct field. From a large, loose term, used to denote 
 general sociology, we find it used in a clear and discrimina- 
 ting way to denote a special science with a specific place in 
 the hierarchy of sciences. It finds position between the sci- 
 ences of biology and ])sychology on the one hand and the 
 historical sciences on the other. It is sociogeny and not 
 sociology. This is the truest and best part of the science. 
 
 In the study of sociology I wish to make the following 
 analysis, and to consider what is to be said under these head- 
 ings: I, Social Philosophy; II, Historical and Descriptive 
 Sociology; III, Social Problems; IV, The History of Soci- 
 ology. 
 
 In the consideration of the subject under the first heading, 
 it is desired to treat of the foundation j)rinciples of sociology 
 and what might be determined by an introduction to the 
 science. In this branch of study would be found the differ- 
 ence between dynamical and statical sociology, and a general 
 discussion of the position and province of sociology. It would 
 also treat of the fundamental principles of sociology as well 
 as of its aims and methods. Beyond this it would enter upon 
 the task of determining what forces tend to organize society. 
 It would treat of the relation of sociology to biology and 
 psychology, and the relation of sociology to history. Having 
 
Tlie Province and Study of Sociology. 43 
 
 determiued this, an outline of the subject would be attempted 
 as given in Ward under primary, secondary and tertiary aggre- 
 gation. Thus far the study of social philosophy would open 
 the entire field. 
 
 II. Descriptive and Historical Sociology. — If soci- 
 ology is to do what it pretends to do, if it is to maintain a posi- 
 tion as a science, it must not ignore the historical method. The 
 development of human society is its theme, and all of the 
 philosophy about the development of society will not suffice 
 to render it productive of the benefit that should accrue from 
 its proper study. To study the development of human society 
 without investigating the conditions of society during diiferent 
 stages of its development, is to make a dull, dry and uninvit- 
 ing study — as dull and dry as political economy of the old 
 school, which was based upon ideal nations, ideal conditions, 
 and an ideal man. It is true that sociology searches for gen- 
 eral laws, but it must proceed inductively and not deductively, 
 and this on its own account. It cannot wait for other sciences 
 to formulate knowledge, and then from those formuhv to de- 
 rive certain general laws for the development of society. All 
 we can say about the development of society is that which has 
 already taken place, and that is historic. Starting then with 
 the primitive condition of society — indeed before any society 
 existed — for our historical data, we proceed with the develop- 
 ment of the family. The discussion of the early history of 
 the family will lead to certain well-defined principles control- 
 ling its early government. The different theories should be 
 studied in connection with the historical data. The habits, 
 the customs, the life of primitive man are all subjects of socio- 
 logical study. The development of religious ideas and the 
 tendency and infiuence of religion as well as consanguinity 
 and natural ethics should be met in a studious way. The 
 collected material that has been gathered in historical fields 
 
44 27/t' Study of History ami Sociology. 
 
 and yet formulated for no particular purpose except for in- 
 formation concerning n)an'8 early existence should be taken 
 into account, and principles deduced for the guidance of the 
 development of a single society. Again, different societies 
 should be compared, and if possible general laws deduced for 
 the formation of organic society. Later, the continued de- 
 velopment of the family should be studied for the sake of 
 throwing light upon modern institutions, and the subject of 
 the family should not be laid down until it reaches the mod- 
 ern question of marriage and divorce. Having once com- 
 pleted the study of the formation of the family, the transition 
 from the familv to the state should be made, and this should be 
 followed by a careful study of the origin and develo[)ment of 
 the latter. It would be well to consider the dilferent theories 
 of the state, but the student must base his work as much as 
 possible on what he may find in the development of social in- 
 stitutions by a careful study of the people, their habits, cus- 
 toms and laws. In the entire realm of study the great subjects 
 of religion, natural ethics, the development of justice, the en- 
 tire category of forces which tend to bring man into conscious 
 association with his fellows, should receive thoughtful atten- 
 tion. In the historic consideration of this subject the entire 
 movement of society with its functions and organs must be 
 considered, and as tar as possible general laws deduced. 
 
 It is evident that sociology must be studied both as social 
 dynamics and social statics; consequently, functions and 
 structures both must be observed, for it is impossible to study 
 function without studying structure, and structure must be 
 studied through function. I will admit, however, that in 
 the study of sociology the chief end sought is general laws 
 and principles determining the structure and functions of 
 social organization. But in the study of sociology the stu- 
 dent must have something more tiian the analysis of these 
 
The Province and Study of Sociology. 45 
 
 higher functious and the analysis of this higher classification 
 of laws before him. He must have a faithful, concrete study of 
 historic matter. He must have, in short, descriptive and 
 historical sociology, as well as philosophical sociology. If 
 sociology is to become a fruitful source of study, it must be 
 demonstrated by facts, by classification, comparison and gen- 
 eralization for itself; we must work upon what we find in 
 the historical development of man. 
 
 Practical Sociology, or the treatment of social 
 PROBLEMS. — We must recoo-nize in the rano-e of the historical 
 sciences both social and political institutions, and it is the 
 severance of these two which draws the line of demarkation 
 between the social and the political sciences. The origin and 
 development of a state — its political institutions, its admin- 
 istration and its laws, as such, in their organic functions — is 
 a study of political science; but the development of the state 
 as an organic function of society is a purely sociological ques- 
 tion. The effect, also, of all political laws and institutions 
 upon society as an organism must of a necessity belong to 
 sociology. In the consideration of the study of sociology the 
 most practical part must come from its application to the so- 
 cial problems. Here comes in the study of economic society, 
 both past and present — for indeed sociology recognizes the 
 whole course of man on earth. The standpoint from which to 
 study these questions is that of present problems; but in the 
 study of the present problems, we must again refer to history 
 and see to it that we have an intelligent basis of intpiiry. 
 The inquiry into the marriage and divorce question will be 
 best understood by an understanding of primitive marriage, 
 of the practices of marriage and divorce in the different (;ivil- 
 ized and barbarous nations. Nor should the student be 
 satisfied with a careful study of statistics to determine the 
 situation of marriage and divorce in the different countries, 
 
46 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 and their tendency to increase and diininisli; he should at- 
 tempt to find the causes of evil, and to point out the remedies. 
 The value of historic research in this and all other problems 
 is to avoid wild speculations and to ascertain the real and the 
 future status of society. So, too, for all of the economic 
 questions — for the treatment of the poor, for the treatment 
 of the weak, for the treatment of the criminals — past history 
 of society tells us best, the basis of the present movement. 
 Not that we are to follow the past, but that a study of the 
 past shows us the general trend of society and hel[)s us to see 
 for the future. Under the division of practical sociology 
 must come those subjects usually referred to as "charities and 
 corrections." The im[)ortance of this study cannot be over- 
 estimated in its proper sphere; but to make it cover the en- 
 tire field of social science, as some have tried to do, is as false 
 as it is absurd. The legitimate and the uormal part of society 
 is more worthy of consideration than the abnormal. The 
 subjects of charities and corrections and the studies included 
 in the so-called ''social science" that a great many good peo- 
 ple are throwing much zeal into of late, are too narrow and 
 provincial to cover the field of sociology as represented by 
 the modern university. But the study of charities and cor- 
 rections has some great advantages. First, the subject fur- 
 nishes the means for practical work in sociology, and renders 
 the subject useful to society and to the state. 
 
 These subjects need the prompt attention of the student 
 and the scholar, and as such may assist not only in the reor- 
 ganization of demoralized portions of society, but may suggest 
 protective measures which will tend to strengthen legitimate 
 society. It also furnishes a method of understanding human 
 society. These are object lessons whicli treat of the true 
 nature of sociology in its teleolosjjiiial or artificial nature. 
 Here is the best example for man to exercise his society-form- 
 
The Province and Study of Sociology. 47 
 
 iug power, by forciDg society to euter certain channels and to 
 reform society. Take the individual in prison : by his own 
 act he is no longer a legitimate part of society; he has no 
 place in society; he has no sympathy with the life outside of 
 the prison bars only so far as it furnishes him with a subsist- 
 ence. Is he ever to be brought back into the society which 
 he has left? He may serve out his term, but still he is an 
 alien; he is against society; he becomes a non-producer, a 
 destroyer. He has no part nor lot in the matter of this social 
 world; he is without a place; he is only one individual, and 
 the other one is society. Can he be made to conform to the 
 usage of law and custom ? Can he be returned to a place as 
 the component part of society and as such become its helpful 
 servant? These are the questions for practical or applied so- 
 ciology. 
 
 Take another example, of the person who has practiced 
 pauperism for years, and is in no sense a legitimate member 
 of society. What shall be done with him? Will become 
 back into the active ranks of society, or will he continue to 
 be a parasite, a non-member of legitimate social conditions? 
 The scientific treatment of charities is solving this problem 
 to a certain extent, and will continue to do more in the line 
 of the reorganization of society. But the student in the uni- 
 versity must not be contented to study present phases of so- 
 ciety and to learn how to manipulate modern methods: he 
 must study the historical aspect of the question. He should 
 inquire into the development of pauperism in the Roman 
 world, and the treatment of the pauper class by the Roman 
 government; he should inquire carefully into the condition 
 of the Christian church in respect to this topic, and note well 
 its practices and their results, particularly in its early history 
 and during the Middle Ages, as well as to learn its latter 
 practices and their results. He should study the poor-law of 
 
48 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 England and its results, and examine carefully the origin and 
 development of the modern charity organizations. It is easy 
 to see how history is to subserve all of the ends of the study 
 of practical sociology, and it is through this that the indi- 
 vidual sees clearly the trend of society, and in accordance 
 with this that he must apply his teleological processes. But 
 these are only examples of practical sociology: the questions 
 of race, of labor and capital, in fact all economic processes 
 of distribution, production, and consumption, must be taken 
 into account, and their influences on organic society considered. 
 It is the duty of the student of sociology to find out the rea- 
 son for the existence of certain conditions, and to observe 
 their effects upon organic society, and to give attention to all 
 of the relations between a particular phenomenon and general 
 society, but it is the duty of the statesman to formulate and 
 make the law remedying the evil. 
 
 One more pliase of sociology needs to be mentioned, that of 
 history of sociology. In treating of the philosopiiy of so- 
 ciology one must necessarily speak more or less of different 
 theories held by certain autiiors, but not necessarily to any 
 great extent. The proper place to deal with the history of 
 sociology is after the development of society has been thor- 
 oughly studied. By this I mean the course which the science 
 has thus far taken. In this we examine the ideas on the sub- 
 ject as entertained by the best authorities of different periods 
 from the origin of the science with Comte. The doctrines of 
 Spencer, of Sismondi, of Carey, of Schaflle, of Leterneau, of 
 Ward, of De Greef, and many others, must be examined and 
 criticised. In this the student needs to have all of the train- 
 ing possible, and likewise all of the knowledge possible to un- 
 derstand and criticise the leaders in this science. Such work 
 is possible only to the mature and well-stocked mind. 
 
Tlie Study of History and Sociology. 49 
 
 SUGGESTED COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 The following course of study is iuteuded to be suggestive, 
 rather than complete or final. No course of study can be fol- 
 lowed with a great degree of accuracy, unless it is made for 
 a class of students whose ability is known, and who have un- 
 limited time to give to the work in hand. The following 
 course will be followed as closely as it may be. It will ueces- 
 sarilv be elaborated in some places and curtailed in others. 
 If only a certain amount of time can be given to the study 
 of the subject, then those subjects which are of the most im- 
 portance will be dwelt upon most fully, awaiting the time 
 when the present outline may be enlarged into a comprehen- 
 sive study of sociology : 
 
 I. — Social philosophy, or the philosophy of sociology. 
 
 1. The meaning of sociology. 
 
 2. The scope or province of sociology. 
 
 3. Its position in the hierarchy of sciences. 
 
 4. The relation of sociology to biology. 
 
 5. The relation of sociology to psychology. 
 
 6. The relation of sociology to history. 
 
 7. The economic life as a branch of social life. 
 
 8. The dynamics of sociology. 
 
 9. The statics of sociology. 
 
 10. What is meant by the social organism? 
 
 11. What are the laws of society, or sociological laws ? 
 
 12. The organs and functions of society. 
 
 13. What is understood by social phenomena? 
 
 14. What is meant by ''conscious society"? 
 
 15. The primary factors in society-building. 
 
 16. Analysis of primary, secondary, and tertiary aggre- 
 
 srates. 
 
 -4 
 
50 TJic Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 11. — Historical and descriptive sociology. 
 
 1. A consideratiou of ethnic groups. 
 
 2. Early condition of mankind. 
 
 3. Primitive culture. 
 
 4. The primitive family. 
 
 5. The theories of Morgan, McLennan, and Maine. 
 
 6. The ideas of sex, protection, and force. 
 
 7. Blood-relationship as an organizing force. 
 
 8. Religion as a principle of union and federation. 
 
 (a) Superstition and its influence on the individual. 
 (6) Early form of worship. 
 
 (c) The house- worship among the Aryans. 
 
 (d) The influence of religious customs in framing 
 
 laws. 
 
 (e) The influence of religion in controlling indi- 
 
 vidual motives. 
 (/) Religion as a basis of association. 
 
 9. The condition of the family in various races. 
 
 10. The beginnings of social organization. 
 
 11. The transition from the family to the state. 
 
 {ci\ The patriarchal family. 
 (/>) The formation of the gens, 
 (c) The phratry or curia. 
 ((/) The developed tribe. 
 {e) The polis or city-state. 
 
 12. Historical origin of the state. 
 
 13. The theory of the state: opinions of different i)hi- 
 
 losophers. 
 
 14. The origin of law. 
 
 (a) The sources of law. 
 
 (6) Forces in the development of the law. 
 
 (c) The relation of law to ethics. 
 
Suggested Course of Study. 51 
 
 15. The development of justice. 
 
 («) Origin of justice. 
 
 (/>) The justice of family rulings. 
 
 (c) Tribal justice in its developed condition. 
 
 (f?) The development of the justice of the state. 
 
 (e) The influence of justice on social organization. 
 K). Natural or historical ethics. 
 
 (a) No code of rules in disorganized society. 
 
 (6) Ethical idea arising from consanguinity and 
 proximity. 
 
 (c) The ethics of maternity. 
 
 (cZ) Slow evolution of ethics and justice. 
 
 (g) Christian ethics. 
 
 17. The influence of the accumulation of wealth on social 
 
 life. 
 
 (a) The beginnings of wealth. 
 
 (6) The origin of property : communal, individual. 
 
 (c) Influence on the development of society. 
 
 (cZ) The production, distribution and consumption 
 
 of wealth, 
 (e) General effect of the economic life on social 
 
 organization. 
 
 18. The influence of heredity. 
 
 19. The influence of education. 
 
 (a) The education of experience and tradition. 
 {b) Education as a force in the development of 
 society. 
 
 20. Social intelligence. 
 
 III. — Applied sociology or social problems. 
 
 A partial list of the problems of society that may be treated 
 will be given to show the general outline of the course, although 
 it can in nowise be exhaustive. In the study of these problems 
 the effect of the institutions on society should ever be kept 
 before us, and the general laws of social order derived as far 
 
52 TJie Study of History mid Sociology. 
 
 as it is possible. Tiiese problems should be treated liistori- 
 cally, and their historical study be combined with practical 
 observation in modern society. The following- list will be 
 given without classification, the order followed being that 
 which will suit the convenience of those studying: 
 
 SOCIAL PROBLEMS. 
 
 Charities in general. 
 
 The treatment of the poor by ancient nations, especially 
 
 by the Roman Empire. 
 The treatment of the poor by the Christian Church. 
 History of the English poor-laws. 
 Treatment of the poor by modern benevolent societies. 
 Scientific charities. 
 The race problem. 
 Ancient race difficulties. 
 Modern race problems. 
 The Negro race problem. 
 The treatment and education of the Indians. 
 Prohibition and sumptuary laws. 
 Marriage and divorce. 
 Ancient customs. 
 
 An inquiry into the causes of the |)revalency of divorce. 
 Proposed remedies for checking the evil. 
 The suppression of Mormonisra. 
 Corrections in general. 
 Prison reform and reform schools. 
 The philosophy of correction. 
 The practice of correction in the United States. 
 The social effects of the distribution of wealth. 
 Corporations and co(")peration. 
 Trusts and combinations. 
 The labor problems. 
 The eiirht-hour movement. 
 
Suggested Course of Study. 53 
 
 Factory legislatiou. 
 
 Duties of a muuicipality respecting gas, water, streets, 
 
 and general comfort of the citizens. 
 Scientific sanitation. 
 Education. 
 State education. 
 
 Moral and religious instruction in public schools. 
 Compulsory education. 
 The influence of heredity. 
 The etifect of education in forcing society to move in 
 
 certain lines of development. 
 The })olitical conscience. 
 IV. — The history of sociology. 
 
 The history of sociology is the history of the ideas enter- 
 tained by philosophers at different times ; these ideas, combined 
 and compared, represent the progress of the science since its 
 foundation by Comte. The student of the history of so- 
 ciology needs to have a mature judgment, and to be well 
 grounded in the elements of sociology, before he attempts 
 the analysis of the greatest social philosophers, as their tiieo- 
 ries are not always clear, and the direction they take is not 
 always the correct one. 
 
 Examination of the Positive Philosophy of Auguste 
 
 Comte. 
 The history of the later French school of sociologists. 
 The theories and studies of Herbert Spencer, and the 
 
 progress of sociological studies in England. 
 Carey's system of social science. 
 Dynamical sociology, by Lester F. Ward. 
 The present work of American scholars. 
 The future of sociology iu universities. 
 Ideal societies and Utopias. 
 
 The theories of Plato, Fourier, Saint Simon, Marx, and 
 others. 
 
54 TJic Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 METHODS OF WRITING HISTORY. 
 
 Before euteriug upon the discussion of methods of histor- 
 ical study, it is well to give a little attention to past and 
 present methods of writing history. It is well known that 
 the first type of history-writing was furnished by the Greeks; 
 and after the manner of the Greeks, it was a perfection of 
 art. Herodotus and his followers sought to present a series 
 of pictures representing the deeds of the Greeks. These pict- 
 ures were as complete as those made by the brush of a mod- 
 ern artist, and formed with as much studied effect. The 
 style was uniformly flowing, narrative, sonorous and stately. 
 The Greek method, or the old method, included, besides the 
 beauty and dignity of language, an insight into moral and 
 political affairs. It was national, as it sought to recite 
 the heroic deeds of the Greeks and to recount the national 
 life. Consequently, one of its chief aims was to convey 
 moral and political instruction by means of graphic, weighty, 
 and pleasing representation. In regard to research and a 
 careful weighing of the evidence of sources, the old method 
 was continually careless, and even indifferent. For a long 
 time this indifference continued, and we find among the writ- 
 ers of the Roman period and of the Middle Ages — indeed 
 we might say even in the period of so-called modern history — 
 those who were even less scrupulous as to authority, and were 
 content if they wrote a pleasing narrative, in an elaborate 
 style. Polybius was the first who attempted universal his- 
 tory, and with it he wished to give universal lessons. He 
 held that other nations than his own were worthy of con- 
 sideration, and threw light upon general history. There 
 were always some writers who attempted to collect and pre- 
 
Methods of Writing History. 55 
 
 serve the real records of events, and to these the world owes 
 much. 
 
 This old style of history had to do with events and their 
 presentation, bat with little else. It had no conception of 
 the organic constitution of society, and no understanding of 
 the forces that have wrought history, nor did it take the pains 
 to inquire. With the modern studies in history has come a 
 new style in writing, excellent in many qualities, and still 
 subject to improvement in others. Its foundation principle 
 is research, and a presentation of the truth free and unbiased. 
 While it does not ignore form and correct style of expres- 
 sion, it nevertheless makes this secondary, and it does ignore 
 moral reflections and the teachings of morals by stories. But 
 instead of being preoccupied with the representation of the 
 past by a series of pictures, it searches for the story of the 
 development of society in the great undercurrent of forces 
 that move it. Perhaps it has ignored too much the desir- 
 ability of a pure style. But it has by a division of labor, and by 
 a specialization of historical study in which separate phases 
 of history are discussed, nearly precluded the necessity for 
 artistic perfection. If it is clear, and contains truth in an 
 available form, there is no fear of it becoming oblivious. 
 Statistics well formulated will last as long as the writings of 
 Shakespeare or Homer. So, likewise, the hieroglyphics of 
 the stone of Behistun, by the process of reprint will continue 
 to exist forever on account of the material truth contained. 
 But having said so much, it must be held that there is a happy 
 mean, for true historic representation is an art, and should be 
 so studied. The student whose mind is on fire will read any- 
 thing for the determination of the truth, yet it is the province 
 of the writer to save him time and worry by clearness and 
 beauty of representation. 
 
 The writer should use care about his style in order to make 
 
56 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 it readable and inviting, but should not study embellishments 
 at the expense of the truth. He should beware of that ar- 
 tificial style which makes representation its groundwork. 
 The style of Carlyle deals in phantasies and pictures, awak- 
 ens our interest, presents graphic representations of great 
 facts and great events, but after all it is a picture of Car- 
 lyle that we are studying, a picture of the writer's mind; 
 a systematized process of growling, shouting, orating and phi- 
 losophizing by turns. It is worth reading, but is not good 
 history. It is more like the poetry of history. So, too, in 
 Macaulav we find the weight and dio;nitv of lanffuao;e, a heavy 
 current of word-bearing thought carrying the reader for- 
 ward. Valuable as it is to read as a literary exercise, the 
 student of institutions must look elsewhere for the solution 
 of social problems. To Stubbs, Green, Freeman, Waitz, 
 Von Maurer and others must he go for the true interpretation 
 of history. The later historical writers have brought to light 
 the political institutions of the country, and have thus ful- 
 filled a great need. l>ut there is a strong tendency to become 
 more and more sociological in history-writing, and to take up 
 the economic and the social side of life and ])resent that in 
 full; in other words, to represent all of the forces of society- 
 building, or the work of establishing both political and social 
 institutions. As respects the modern process of writing his- 
 tory, I have said that it is special in its nature. This special- 
 ization has taken many different forms. One writes the 
 political history, another the social, another the religious, and 
 another the constitutional history of a country. Again, a 
 particular period of history may be treated exhaustively, or 
 even one phase of a particular period. The specialization may 
 become more and more minute, until a person writes to de- 
 velop a single idea of a subject. This has given rise to the 
 writing of monographs, a system much in vogue by original 
 
Methods of Writing History. 57 
 
 investigators. The method is vastly superior to the old method 
 of writing conglomerate histories that began with Adam and 
 came halting down the ages. The examination of a particular 
 subject, the examination of the historical materials and the 
 presentation of a concise statement of the essence of a vast 
 cloud of material, is one of the chief features of modern his- 
 torical methods. 
 
The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 METHODS OF STUDYING HISTORY. 
 
 Just as a few \'ears ago everything must be scientific, and 
 just as that idea has predominated in all circles of letters, so 
 the word history is now being used in connection with all of 
 the important branches of study. We hear of the history of 
 science, of historic geology, of the history of language, the 
 history of art, the history of music, and the history of gram- 
 mar, or historical grammar. In other words, the historic 
 method is becoming as prominent in use as the scientific 
 method. As to the exact definition of any precise method 
 being used, it is not safe to use any but that of historic, and 
 that means to investigate the course of development of the 
 subject in hand. Evolution may have scientific processes for 
 its dynamics, but the story it attempts to tell is the history of 
 the development of the earth. But this has arisen largely on 
 account of the direct improvement in the methods of study 
 and teaching of historical sciences in the colleges of America 
 and Europe during the past few years. Such was the con- 
 dition of the study of history in the American college up to 
 a recent period, that the dull, dry conning of the facts of uni- 
 versal history with the chief idea of knowing the facts of the 
 world's history only to forget them, was the recognized process. 
 President Adams tells us that during the first two centuries 
 of the existence of Harvard College, the study of history con- 
 sisted in spending one hour at eight o'clock on Saturday morn- 
 ings in the hearing of compositions and the reciting of history, 
 both ancient and modern. In 1839 a special chair for the 
 study of history was endowed for the college, and yet it was 
 not until 1870 that there was any real change in the method 
 pursued of conning of history. At that time two men 
 
Methods of Studying History. $9 
 
 were employed, where before one man did all of the work. 
 From this time there was rapid improvement. The con- 
 dition in Yale and in Columbia was not much better than that 
 in Harvard ; in Yale the entire services of one man were not 
 required until after 1868, to teach history, and it was not until 
 1877 that another man was put into the field. 
 
 In 1857 President White, of Cornell, instituted the study 
 of history in the University of Michigan, and used the his- 
 toric method employed in Germany with some modifications. 
 This method was adopted in Cornell in 1870, and in Johns 
 Hopkins in 1876, at the commencement of its career. With 
 these beginnings a rapid progress has been made towards the 
 treatment of history from a scientific standpoint. From this 
 time the best institutions of America abandoned the old, 
 dull process of memorizing and forgetting the facts of history 
 without making good use of those facts. But this progress 
 is not equal to the progress made in the old-world institutions 
 in the organization and arrangement of courses and the num- 
 ber of separate fields of study. The methods used are some- 
 what the same. 
 
 Modern methods of historical teaching have for their chief 
 points the systematic work of the student under the intelligent 
 direction of the instructor. The process involves an inves- 
 tigation of materials, a search after the truth, a study of 
 particular phases of historical truth, a comparison and classi- 
 fication of material, and an analysis of results. History is to 
 be studied because it is interesting, and to be followed for the 
 truth it will yield. In all of this the facts of history must not 
 be ignored, nor the careful reading of standard authorities ne- 
 glected. But the instruction works upon the principle that a 
 person engaged in an interesting pursuit of the truth of his- 
 tory will retain by real knowledge of the subject the facts 
 
6o The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 which if learned by rote witliout understanding would soon 
 leave him. 
 
 The topical method is among the modern methods of 
 teaching and study. Even the courses of instruction are 
 made with reference to the great topics of history. One 
 person gives a course of lectures on Greek politics, another 
 on the Eeformation, another on the Renaissance, and still 
 another on the French Revolution. The aim is to select the 
 vital subjects of historical study and lay stress upon them, 
 rather than spend the time in recounting the chronological 
 events of history. But this does not preclude the necessity of 
 the student's reading consecutively the connected histories of 
 countries. Green's History of the English People should be 
 thoroughly read, even though the special study is the con- 
 stitutional history of England. In the practical class-work 
 the topical method is found very useful; the selection of cer- 
 tain subjects, upon which the individual is to be thoroughly 
 prepared as far as his library will permit, is among the best 
 processes of modern teaching. In all historical instruction 
 of the first order, exclusive dependence upon the text-book 
 is never to be practiced. Not tliat text-books are to be 
 discarded; there should be a text-book in every undergrad- 
 uate class; but there is a right and a wrong use of the text- 
 book. It is the text, the outline, and nothing more; it 
 represents the essentials of the subject. The wide range of 
 the subject is the student's field, and the full comprehension 
 of it his real object. Without these there can be but little 
 that is thorough in the work of history. Opportunity should 
 be given for questions, discussions, and the presentation of 
 the work of students as well as that of the instructor. There 
 should be a hearty cooperation among all for the advancement 
 of the subject under discussion. 
 
Methods of Studying History. 6i 
 
 The modern seniiuary furnishes a means of bringing to- 
 gether those most interested and most advanced, for the special 
 study of subjects in history or in political and in social economy. 
 This method, now almost universal in the foremost institu- 
 tions, is of German origin, and constitutes the germ of the 
 modern method. The seminary had its origin with the class 
 tauglit by Leopold von Ranke, and from that time has been 
 greatly improved in Germany, and extensively adopted in 
 America. The seminary represents the historical laboratory, 
 and each meeting should be a clearing-house of the actual work 
 done. The object of the seminary is to develop individual 
 thought and investigation, and to test the same by criticism and 
 discussion. Another beneficial result will be the development 
 in a practical way of the best methods of study. We have lab- 
 oratory work in physics, chemistry, and in most of the natural 
 sciences; if history is to be taught as a scieuce, it must not ig- 
 nore this great meansof investigation. Its work may not always 
 be original, for the word original should be used with much care 
 in its application to any study. It must be sufficiently indi- 
 vidual and independent that the student may verify truth by 
 his own investigratiou, and learn to exercise his own judgment 
 concerning the materials before him. The undergraduate 
 courses in chemistry or physics seldom go beyond this in their 
 laboratory work. The seminary is an association of individ- 
 uals cooperating in the pursuit of historical truth, using sci- 
 entific methods in study, research, and presentation. It should 
 represent the highest and best work of any department or 
 group of departments working on kindred subjects. 
 
 But whatever methods are pursued, it must be kept in mind 
 that there are scientific processes involved, and scientific re- 
 sults must be expected. The chief benefits to be derived 
 from the study of history, or of the different branches of 
 history and sociology, are similar to those of all other sciences. 
 
62 The Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 BENEFITS OF HISTORICAL STUDY. 
 
 There is a moment of power to be gained by an investiga- 
 tion of tlie course of events arising from the "concurrent 
 action of external circumstances and the laws of mental life." 
 As a study for discipline we find the historical sciences giving 
 as good satisfaction as any other branches. President Adams 
 holds truly that the study of history furnishes as ample means 
 for discipline as does that of language or science. It follows 
 from an examination of the subject, that the same training is 
 given as in other sciences — that of classification, investiga- 
 tion and comparison for the sake of reaching a final conclu- 
 sion. If the range of the historical sciences is not as broad 
 as the range of natural sciences, their intimate relations to 
 other branches of human knowledge and to the activities of 
 human society furnish as good material for discipline and 
 culture. But it may be said that historical sciences are not 
 exact, and can therefore never furnish such valuable means of 
 discipline as the study of the rational or empirical sciences. 
 To this it may be said that historical theory changes no more 
 than scientific theory. While the ineffaceable records of early 
 history were being made, modern astronomy was astrology and 
 science was mythology, or had not yet come to light. History 
 is as old as man, and as recent as man. The living current of 
 human thought and human action with which it has to do, is 
 of the present; there is no past; it has come down to us. 
 Then the truths in the historical sciences are as exact as the 
 truths of the natural sciences. If it is said that critical analysis 
 is exploding many of the opinions held by different authorities, 
 or disproving the old records, the same may be said of science; 
 and it gets closer to the truth by this, though it may do no 
 
Benefits of Historical Study. 63 
 
 more than enlarge the bouudary of knowledge and remove 
 the atom a little farther off. Is it possible that we may not 
 obtain as correct knowledge of the conscious association of 
 the atoms of organized society, human beings, which we see 
 with our eyes, whose minds we understand, being images 
 of our own, as the biologist by means of his microscope can 
 obtain of the atom of organic or the chemist of inorganic sub- 
 stance? The biologist searches for life and its conditions, 
 and so does the historian, but in a different way. But the 
 aggregation of the latter is greater than the aggregation of 
 the former, that is, of higher grade. 
 
 History deals after all with man, the greatest study of 
 mankind, and for which all scientific investigation is carried 
 on. Here are the highest ideals of study found in the life of 
 man. The picture is gloomy enough in many respects, but it 
 is after all the highest concern of life, and must therefore 
 beget a true earnestness. The person who pursues it faith- 
 fully must have a deeper sympathy for mankind, and a greater 
 interest in the fate of society. It must likewise deal with 
 the certain and the uncertain in organized society, and the 
 probable and the improbable in the common and the uncom- 
 mon affairs of life; it must examine the distinctions and dif- 
 ferences of evidence, and judge as to the practical affairs of 
 life. Its study tends more than science toward the life of 
 man. 
 
 But is it possible, as is often asserted, to interpret the pres- 
 ent and presage the future by a careful study of the past ? 
 Here, as elsewhere, we must deal in probabilities, for nothing 
 can predict the future; even the most scientific laws may fail 
 to bring certain results on account of being intercepted. Hu- 
 manity is a continuous quantity, and a variable. If it were 
 a uniformly variable quantity, the problems concerning its 
 future would be as easily solved as is the determination of 
 
64 TJie Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 the^ orbit of a planet when the section of the arc is given 
 Human society is an irregular curve, whose turnings are con- 
 stantly made by obstructions and counter forces. Its general 
 trend can be discerned, and that is all. But returning again 
 to the subject of discipline for the conduct of life, is not that 
 the best means of discipline which develops judgment in the 
 affairs of life? Does not the man in the practical affairs of 
 life deal in probal)ilities? And is it not a mere conjecture on 
 his part, of judgment of human action and of circumstances, 
 that must determine his course? Will not a continual study 
 of the judgments of men and society tend to strengthen the 
 basis of one's own judgment ? It is a study of human society 
 as it is, not as it ought to be. One studies relations as they 
 aie, surveys the field of truth and j)robabilities with the prac- 
 tical eye of a business man, and grasps not one fact only, but 
 the continuity of events and their essential relations. 
 
 But the strongest reason to be urgetl lor the study of the 
 historical sciences, is that it prepares the student to deal with 
 the present problems of society, and of the politics of the 
 country. The study of history is something more than the 
 perusal of the story of the past, or more than the bare at- 
 tainment of the facts. A person may be able to recite the 
 contents of historical charts and the epitomes of universal 
 history without having accomplished the object of historical 
 research. The study of history has for its ultimate object a 
 better understanding of the structui'e and functions of present 
 organic society. Its entire tendency in the best sense is so- 
 ciological. The recital of the movements of armies, of the 
 rise and fall of kings, of the changes in government and the 
 growth and decay of nations, is only a means to an end — that 
 of understanding man in society. Tlie customs, the laws, the 
 institutions, and the life of the people as well as their rights 
 and duties, are the chief objects of study. And this study, if 
 
Benefits of Historical Study. 65 
 
 carried on properly, and continuously, cannot fail to inspire the 
 student to do and to act in the administration and legislation 
 of his own country, either as a sovereign or as an agent. All 
 general culture must subserve to give to the town, the com- 
 munity, the state or the nation — indeed, to human society at 
 large — the benefit of individual study and investigation. 
 We feel a natural aversion toward the raiser who hoards his 
 gold, and will use it neither for the benefit of society nor him- 
 self; but there is essentially little difference in the case of 
 a selfish life that hoards knowledge and never uses it for the 
 benefit of those around him. To obtain truth is considered 
 noble, but its proper use is the real test of its value, and there 
 may be as much selfishness manifested in the handling of the 
 truth as in the handling of gold. Our happiness, our misery, 
 our life, our all, are fast becoming dependent upon general 
 society. The happiness of our fellow-beings is our own hap- 
 piness. No one gets an education by his own efforts alone; 
 DO one becomes rich wholly by his own efforts; in each case it 
 is only an ability to seize the opportunities and take advantage 
 of the materials which society offers. The most hopeful signs 
 of educational progress are its tendencies for the education of 
 the whole people: a return of what is obtained to general 
 irood throu<rh a wise and beautiful utility. But in all of this 
 it must be remembered that the chief utility is in character- 
 building. Nothing is to sacrifice character, for indeed self- 
 culture, man-culture, is the highest aim of life. And this 
 recognizes the improvements of society in every way. 
 
 The historical sciences may not be more useful than other 
 branches, but they bring man face to flice with the problems 
 of human society. They acquaint him with its institutions 
 and its methods of government; they prepare him for proper 
 citizenship in a free country; and just now our country is 
 troubled more about proper legislation and proper adminis- 
 
66 T/ie Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 tration than about the accumulation of wealth or the advance 
 of industries. 
 
 Especially is it true that in a state university great atten- 
 tion should be given to the historical sciences. The institu- 
 tion exists for the good of the cotnmunity, not to dole out 
 charity to individuals; it seeks a return, and justly so, for 
 everything it does for the ]>eopIe in the service of individuals 
 as otficers or citizens of the state. As industries develoji and 
 become diversified, so, too, does the government become more 
 com})lex. Meanwhile society becomes more closely bound to- 
 gether. We are more and more dependent upon our fellow- 
 creatures. Xo one becomes rich or great these days by his 
 own efforts, for the lines of society are drawn more closely 
 together. But as the state seeks its own good, it seeks the 
 good of individuals as the benefits to the social organism 
 continue to accrue. 
 
 It is the province of the state to forward those studies that 
 best fit its citizens for service in society — that is, its own 
 service. An in(]uiry into the problems of society, a knowl- 
 edge of the constituent elements of society and their func- 
 tions, and a desire on the part of intelligent people to bear 
 the responsibilities of organized society, are our oidv safe- 
 guards against evils in our midst. 
 
Preparatory Study of History. 67 
 
 THE STUDY OF HISTORY PREPARATORY TO EN- 
 TRANCE TO THE UNIVERSITY. 
 
 The study of history preparatory to entrance to the uni- 
 versity should receive attention at this point. After a consid- 
 eration of the foregoing analysis, it will be more readily 
 understood what is needed in such preparation, and it is better 
 that it be shown in this way than by general or special rules 
 for the government of preparatory work. The two great 
 hindrances to successful preparation for the study of history 
 in the university are the lack of time to prepare and the lack 
 of facilities. There is but a short time to be devoted to the 
 study of history in any of our high schools. It is not possible 
 in this limited time to go over the entire field of history with 
 exactness. The knowledge of facts is essential to the proper 
 study of history, but the great art of the study of history is to 
 know what to do with the facts. A few hints may be of some 
 assistance to those preparing students to enter a university. 
 The first is that it is to be noted that those students who 
 memorize the contents of a text-book much condensed, for the 
 sake of knowing what happened at this particular time regard- 
 ing the history of the nation, are apt to forget the majority of 
 the facts when they are needed for use; and those that they do 
 remember are usually misplaced, or are so hazy as to be useless. 
 The secret of learning history or teaching it to a young person, 
 is to arouse interest of the right sort. For this purpose there 
 must be a wider reading than a single text-book. Enough of 
 the subject-matter must be presented, that the student will 
 remember dates by the sequence of events rather than by a 
 pure effort of the memory. In other words, the memory will 
 claim and hold all that belongs to it or is useful to it if the 
 
68 TJie Study of History and Sociology. 
 
 attention and interest are sufficiently aroused. For this pur- 
 pose careful readinj^ with conversation about the subjects is 
 the better way. Short stories told by the teacher of the im- 
 portant epochs may be made attractive. The various com- 
 pendiums and lists of facts should be avoided as special studies 
 only so far as they assist in summing up the work already 
 accomplished. These should not be ignored in their proj)er 
 use. ]^ut it must be thoroughly impressed that chronology 
 is a small })art of history; it represents the boundary of the 
 survey, the wire fence around a field, but is not the lield. It 
 is worth while to attend to it, but its use must not be mis- 
 applied. Then the study of history to be useful anywhere 
 must rise above the bare desire of the student to receive a high 
 mark from his teacher. Fewer marks and greater interest 
 must be the incentive of all healthful study. A person 
 must rise above the idea of "passing" if he obtains any- 
 thing of [)ermanent value in historical study. A person 
 may be able to pass by cramming a certain amount of his- 
 tory unwillingly, and may pa.s.9, but the history obtained will 
 leave him as quickly as it came. It is practically worthless. 
 The best that can be done, consideriuo; the situation, is to 
 study a text-book with some life in it ; one that suggests the life 
 of the i)eople ; that presents in a pleasing way the history of 
 the institutions of the people; that minimizes dates and mag- 
 nifies the development of society. The teacher has but one 
 rule, namely, to awaken interest and to give wise direction, 
 and, if we have the same interest in it, knowledge will be as 
 readily remembered as the history of our own lives. Then all 
 dates will be as landmarks, and will be stakes set to mark the 
 onward flow of historical truth. Many years ago, in France, 
 it was thought that there was a direct connection between the 
 memory and the cuticle, so that when it was desired that a ^ 
 boy should remember an important fact, the master pro- 
 
Preparatory Study of History. 69 
 
 ceeded to excite his cuticle with a rod. It would scarcely 
 do to follow this rule iu Kausas, but the philosophy is ours : 
 arouse an interest, secure the whole attention, and the memory 
 will act with precision. We know from our own experience 
 that little, unimportant events remain in the mind, while great, 
 important ones pass out. It is because our minds were aroused 
 in the one case and dormant in the other. Give the memory 
 a chance, clear the rubbish away, arouse the attention, and the 
 memory will care for its own work without being goaded or 
 accused of incompetency. 
 
 One thing should be emphasized, namely, that tlic bare 
 memory of facts and events furnishes poor food for the mind. 
 Nothing should be sacrificed to verbal expression, but a 
 knowledge of the truth should be obtained by readings, dis- 
 cussions and recitals, until it takes shape in the student's mind 
 so that he may give his own version. To avoid a sacrifice of 
 substance to form, students should be taught to find out things 
 for themselves. History is a problem, not a story, and the 
 pupil's solution is the one sought ; the teacher may direct and 
 verify. Consequently iu all teaching, it nuist not be forgotten 
 that the object of historical study is to educate, and not to 
 fill the mind with dry, indigestible facts. 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
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