iliiif ■ ' 
 
■ml ' 
 
 
 %'^'aJ'' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'MS'- 
 
 ^°<. 
 
 
 
 fW; ^H^^ 
 
 
 
 "^is'.-< .■«^- 
 
 V^ ' 
 
 
 V 
 
 ts iJ ". ■• .«.' 'd- •'^"^^T-ff- 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 •/- 
 
 
 •-■.< ,^' V -^-a<>' ,. 
 -V ... 'p_ ^y 
 
 
 c^^^ ':^'6<:' 
 
 
 ,^^' 
 
 
 I.r"> 
 
 
 ^■:^^<-,\j 
 
 ^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 ■I o. 
 
 
 ■?S^->' V'^?:"V X'^';!?^-'/ %^^^--^ X':-!»-Y 
 
 ..^ 
 
 \ > 'i' ^ \^ \r 'P^ , ^ 
 
 • ■■/ \ -o-;-/ %■...:.■■/ %•-#■•/ %'^fS^-/ %■-;•; 
 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 By Ai.bkrt Pkrry Brigham and Charlks T. McFariane 
 
 Early History. —\\ hen tlie white man first 
 visited the region which is now the state 
 of New York, he found it covered nearly 
 everywhere with forest. In the forest dwelt 
 Indians, among whom the Iroquois were the 
 most important. They consisted of the Mo- 
 hawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca 
 tribes. Their home was along the plains 
 south of Lake Ontario and extending east- 
 ward past Oneida Lake into the Mohawk \ al- 
 ley ; but their hunters and warriors roamed 
 over a wide area. At their villages they had 
 small clearings where they raised corn, pump- 
 kins, apples, and other products. Nearly 
 5000 Indians are now livmg on small reserva- 
 tions in New York state. 
 
 Henry Hudson's explorations for the Dutch 
 in 1609 led to permanent settlements by the 
 Dutch people, extending from New Amster- 
 dam (later the city of New York) up the 
 Hudson River to Albany, which they called 
 
 E-P 12 Copyright. 1916, 1921. by American Book Company 
 
 Fort Orange, and up the lower Mohawk 
 River. In 1664, a British fleet took posses- 
 sion of the colony ; and thenceforth, except 
 for a short time in 1673-1674, New York 
 remained under English rule, until the thir- 
 teen Colonies declared their independence in 
 1776. 
 
 In the year of Hudson's voyage, a great 
 French explorer, Champlain, coming from 
 the St. Lawrence Valley, sailed up the lake 
 which bears his name. He and other French 
 explorers also visited the regions along the 
 St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario. They 
 built a fort at the mouth of the Niagara 
 River, and sought to control northern and 
 western New "^'ork. Thus the F^nglish came 
 into conflict with the French along the lakes 
 and the St. Lawrence. In the wars that 
 followed the English were finally victorious, 
 so that France ceded its American possessions 
 to Great Britain. 
 
Some Germans, persecuted in their native 
 land, settled in the Mohawk Valley, and as 
 the names Catskill and Yonkers were brought 
 by the Dutch, so Herkimer and Frankfort 
 came from the German settlers. 
 
 English settlers also poured into the state, 
 both from England and from New England. 
 Many of the geographic names in New York 
 are of English origin, — such as Binghamton, 
 Plattsburg, and Rochester 
 
 The state also preserves many Indian 
 names, of which Seneca, Oneida, Mohawk, 
 Chenango, Chemung, Genesee, and Niagara 
 are examples. Other names have been given 
 to towns and counties in honor of American 
 statesmen and men in high official station, 
 — such as Washington, Jefferson, Monroe, 
 Madison, Clinton, Hamilton, and Schuyler. 
 Thus the history of New York is in part 
 recorded in its geographic names. 
 
 g)CI.A608581 
 
 -5 1921 
 
.J-Aa^' 
 
 Map Study, i. in what jiait 
 state of New ^ ork is tlicrc a Dio; 
 jilaiii ? 2. W hat two river valleys form 
 a natural lii<ilnvay from this plain to the 
 Atlantic Ocean r ;,. What fz;reat city is 
 at the Atlantic end of this highway r 
 4. What cit\' is at the eastern end of 
 ]>ake line ? 
 
 5. What iiij;hland re<;ion is north of 
 the ?.Iohawk Ri\er and west of Lake 
 Champlain ? 6. In what part of the 
 state is there another iar<;e highland ? 
 7. What great river valleys reach into 
 the highland of southern New York 
 from Pennsylvania ? 8. W hat river 
 crosses the state and flows into Lake 
 Ontario ? 9. Through how many of 
 these valleys have railroads been con- 
 structed r 
 
 10. What city is near the mouth of the 
 Genesee River ? At the mouth of the 
 Oswego Ri\cr r 11. Name two cities 
 near the junction of the Hudson and 
 Mohawk rivers. 12. In what river val- 
 ey is Bmghamton "'. 
 burg? Watertown .' 13. Name four 
 cities in the valley of the Mohaw^k River. 
 
 14. Using the scale of miles, measure 
 the greatest length of Long Island. 
 15. Measure the distance between Syra- 
 cuse and Rochester. In a railroad time 
 table find tiie distance on the railroad 
 between these two cities. Why the 
 difference : 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Position. — New York is in the northeast- 
 ern part of the United States. What states 
 border it on the east .^ On the south.'' 
 Canada is on the north and west ; what rivers 
 and lakes are on the boundary ? 
 
 The state extends from the Atlantic 
 Ocean at the southeast to the Great Lakes 
 at the northwest. This position between 
 great waterways has promoted the growth of 
 
 population and com- 
 
 merce, from early colonial 
 days to the present time. 
 New York is between 40° 
 30' and 45° north lati- 
 tude. The city of New 
 York is in nearly the 
 same latitude as Madrid, 
 Naples, Constantinople, 
 and Peking. In what 
 longitude is it .'' 
 
 Size. — The total area 
 of New York (not count- 
 ing any part of the Great 
 Lakes) is 49,204 square 
 miles, of which 1550 miles 
 are water surface. The 
 state is nearly si.x times as large as Massa- 
 chusetts, but less than one fifth the size of 
 Texas. It is slightly larger than Pennsyl- 
 vania. From north to south the state ex- 
 tends 312 miles, covering about 4^ degrees of 
 latitude. A railroad journey from the city 
 of New York to Rouses Point takes about 
 95^ hours. From east to west, exclusive of 
 Long Island, the distance is slightly greater, 
 — 326 miles. 
 
 Review. — I. Name the several Iroquois tribes. 
 2. Describe the coming of the Dutch and the 
 English. 3. What was the early name of Albany .' 
 
 4. What parts of New York did the French hold ? 
 
 5. What classes of geographic names are found in 
 New York ? 
 
 6. What are the boundaries of New York ? 
 7. What large foreign cities are in about the same 
 latitude as the city of New York .'' 8. What is 
 the area of the state ? 9. How does its area com- 
 pare with that of Massachusetts ? Of Texas ? 
 
 
 
 • ^.^.'^■'^-'^ 
 
 1 
 
 \i^ 
 
 y 
 
 Comparative areas of Texas, New York, 
 and Massachusetts 
 
 PHYSICAL FEATURES 
 
 Most of Long Island and Staten Island are 
 low, flat, and sandy, like the Atlantic coastal 
 plain farther to the south ; but some parts 
 are hilly with glacial moraines. Eastern New 
 York belongs to the Appalachian Mountains, 
 although the mountains there have been worn 
 down in places almost to sea level. Man- 
 hattan Island and the 
 Hudson region below the 
 Highlands belong to a 
 hilly lowland, often called 
 the Piedmont region. 
 Southern New York from 
 the Catskills westward is 
 part of the Appalachian 
 Plateau. Finally, the 
 Lake Plains in New York 
 are extensive, especially 
 about Lake Ontario. The 
 state has therefore a great 
 variety of surface and 
 soil. This causes great 
 differences in climate, and 
 in the crops that can be 
 grown, in the different parts of the state. 
 
 Atlantic Coast Region. — Long Island, the 
 largest island on either coast of the United 
 States, is a part of New York. As its name 
 suggests, its length, 118 miles, is much greater 
 than its extreme width, about 23 miles. The 
 highest point is but little more than 400 feet in 
 altitude. Most of the island is covered with 
 clay, gravel, and sand deposited by glacial 
 ice and by streams flowing from the ice. 
 Through the middle of the island, from west 
 to east, extends a belt of hills, a terminal 
 moraine of the ice sheet. On the north 
 border is another belt of such hills. Among 
 the hills are many ponds and lakes, such as 
 are commonly found in moraine belts. The 
 south parts of the island are nearly flat, slop- 
 ing gently toward the shore. 
 
 At the eastern end of the island the waters 
 of Gardiners Bav and Peconic Bay reach 
 
GKOCiRAPll^' UF NEW ^URK 
 
 il ;^ 
 
 ^ / ft »■ . \ i « ^ f I » 
 
 I I nit nil 
 
 W^AtLZ^'lUkuh 
 
 Beach at Coney Island 
 
 into the land about 30 miles. Along the 
 northwest shore deep bays penetrate the hilly 
 region to a distance of several miles. On the 
 south shore there are long stretches of quiet 
 water, inclosed between the main island and 
 long bordering barrier beaches. Of these Ja- 
 maica and Great South bays are the largest. 
 The longest of the beaches is Fire Island 
 Beach, on which Fire Island light has been 
 erected. Others, famous as summer resorts, 
 are Coney Island and Rockaway Beach, 
 visited daily during warm weather by many 
 thousands from the great cities. 
 
 On the western end of Long Island are 
 Brooklyn and Queens, two of the boroughs 
 of Greater New York. Many people who 
 carry on business in the great city live in the 
 smaller villages and cities of Long Island, 
 and along the north and the south shores 
 there are many beautiful summer homes. 
 
 Much of the land is cultivated as truck 
 farms or market gardens, and Long Island 
 thus furnishes a large supply of vegetables 
 and fruits for the metropolis. 
 
 Staten Island is much like Long Island in 
 character, and constitutes the borough of 
 Richmond. It is separated from Long Island 
 by a strait called the Narrows. 
 
 At the time Manhattan Island was first 
 settled by white men, its surface was rather 
 irregular. It consisted largely of hard rocks, 
 most of which were but thinly covered with 
 soil. .'\s the great city has spread over the 
 island the smaller irregularities have disap- 
 peared. Minor elevations have been blasted 
 away and minor depressions have been filled. 
 Some larger hills, however, still remain in 
 the northern part of the island, as at Morning- 
 side Heights. 
 
 Most of the waters which surround .Man- 
 hattan are deep enough to permit large ships 
 to approach the numerous wharves along the 
 water fronts. On the New Jersey side of the 
 Hud.son River are other great wharves, some 
 of them lying under the Palisades, a lofty 
 ridge of lava rock running many miles up 
 the ri\er. The steep cliff adjoining the river 
 is exceedingly picturesque. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Looking down the Hudson, in the Highlands 
 
 Mountain and Valley Region of Eastern 
 New York. — Along the eastern border of the 
 state, from Long Island Sound to the head 
 
 North of the Highlands, the Hudson oc- 
 cupies part of a broad valley that reaches 
 from Glens Falls along the Hudson to Kings- 
 ton and Newburgh and along the Wallkill 
 River to the southwest, into northwestern 
 New Jersey. If is a northern continuation 
 of the Great Appalachian Valley which ex- 
 tends from Alabama to Pennsylvania. 
 
 This valley is bordered on the northwesi 
 by a mountain range which enters the statf 
 on the south at Port Jervis. It is a north- 
 eastward continuation of the Appalachian 
 ridges of central Pennsylvania. In southern 
 New York the range is called the Shawan- 
 gunk (pronounced shon'gum) Mountains. 
 
 Adirondack Mountains. — The Adirondack 
 Mountains, like the Highlands of the Hudson. 
 
 of Lake Champlain, is a belt of hills and low are very old. They occupy the greater part 
 
 mountains, which may be called the foothills of northern New York, in a circular area 
 
 of the Berkshires and of the Green Mountains about lOO miles in diameter. The highest 
 
 of New England. They lie mostly east of the mountain in this region, and m the state, is 
 
 Hudson, and are the result of the folding of .Mount Marcy ; its altitude is 5344 feet. The 
 
 ancient rock beds, followed by the wearing ridges and valleys of the Adirondacks have 
 
 away of the rocks by weathering, glaciers, a northeast and southwest direction. The 
 
 and streams. main valleys lie below 2000 feet, and where 
 
 Between Beacon and Peekskill, the Hudson they were obstructed by deposits of glacial 
 
 flows through a gorge cut across an older waste they contain many beautiful lakes and 
 
 mountain belt which crosses the state in a ponds. Among such bodies of water are the 
 
 northeast and southwest direction. This is Saranac Lakes, Lake Placid, Long Lake, the 
 
 the Hudson Highlands, which have an alti- Tupper Lakes, Schroon Lake, the Ausable 
 
 tude of 1500 to 1800 feet. Lakes, and the Fulton chain of lakes. 
 
(JEU(JRAl'in Ol- NhW YORK 
 
 Owing to the altitude, the climate of the 
 •\dirondacks is severe ; the winters are long 
 and the snowfall is heavy. Even the summer 
 days are of modtran- heat, and the summer 
 nights are cool. 
 
 The rocks of the Adirundacks are hard, 
 the soils are thin, and the mountains and 
 valleys alike are covered with forest, chiefly 
 of evergreen trees, such as pine, spruce, and 
 hemlock. Little agriculture can be carried 
 on, and the chief use of the region is for recrea- 
 tion and health. There are thousands of 
 hotels, summer homes, and camps, and the 
 excellent boating, fishing, and hunting attract 
 many visitors in season. 
 
 There is much lumbering in the Adiron- 
 dacks, and there are many sawmills and paper 
 mills in and near this region. In order to 
 preserve the forests from destruction, the 
 state has bought large tracts of Adirondack 
 lands and holds them as a forest reservation. 
 The object is not only to preserve the lumber, 
 but to prevent floods along the Mohawk, 
 Hudson, and other streams. So long as the 
 forests stand, the mosses, leaves, and forest 
 soil absorb the falling rain, and keep it 
 from pouring at once down the streams to 
 overwhelm fields and homes in the lower 
 valleys. 
 
 Plateau Region. West of the Hudson 
 River and north of the Wallkill is the upland 
 known as the Catskill Mountains. It faces 
 the broad Hudson \ alley by a steep slope or 
 
 escarpniLiu, which in its middle and southern 
 parts ranges from 2500 to 4000 feet in altitude. 
 It is a region of many lofty hills and deep 
 valleys and is a part of the highland which 
 extends from eastern New York to Alabama 
 and IS called the Appalachian Plateau. 
 
 North of the Catskills and west of Alban\ . 
 the plateau rises from the Hudson lowland 
 by the Helderberg Escarpment, a bold clitt 
 often called the Helderberg Mountains. The 
 plateau is bordered on the north by hills slop- 
 ing down to the Mohawk and to the plains 
 farther west. In central and western New 
 York the highland averages from 1800 to 
 2000 feet in altitude, with broad, open val- 
 leys several hundred feet deep. 
 
 In the plateau region west of the Catskills, 
 the valleys usually extend in a north and 
 .south direction, and have influenced in a 
 marked way the laying out of roads and 
 railroads. In this region there are manv such 
 well-known lakes as Otsego Lake, and the Lin- 
 ger Lakes, which include .Skaneateles, Owasco, 
 Cayuga, Seneca, Keuka, and Canandaigua. 
 Winds from these bodies of water help to 
 moderate the climate of the bordering lands; 
 they are cool on warm spring days, and warm 
 on cold autumn days. This effect on the 
 weather favors the raising of grapes and other 
 fruits. The pleasures of boating and fishing 
 and the cool breezes from the lakes attract 
 many summer residents to the villages and 
 camps along their shores. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Lake Plains. — At the eastern 
 end of Lake Ontario, along its 
 southern border, and about the 
 east end of Lake Erie is a region 
 of lowlands known as Lake Plains. 
 From Lake Ontario they extend 
 eastward to include the Oneida 
 Lake region, and continue with a 
 breadth of several miles as far east 
 as the city of Rome. Syracuse is 
 on the south edge of the plains. 
 The lowlands reach north in the 
 western parts of Oswego and Jeffer- 
 son counties, and continue along 
 the St. Lawrence River in northern 
 New York. 
 
 At one time the waters of the 
 Ontario basin covered these lowlands from the 
 Niagara region to the neighborhood of Water- 
 town. The St. Lawrence Valley was blocked 
 
 The " Ridge Road," Orleans Count\ 
 
 by glacial ice and the outlet of the lake was 
 at Rome, down the Mohawk Valley. This 
 ancient lake is known as the glacial Lake 
 Iroquois. 
 
 Beginning at the Niagara River, at Lewis- 
 ton, New York, a broad, low, gravel ridge runs 
 along the plains to a point east of Rochester. 
 .\s this ridge was above the swampy surface 
 of the adjoining forests, it was used by early 
 settlers as a roadway, and this highway, thickly 
 dotted with farmhouses, is still known as the 
 Ridge Road, in Niagara, Orleans, Monroe, 
 
 and Wayne counties. This ridge was a barriei 
 beach built in the shallow waters along the 
 south shore of Lake Iroquois. The belt of low- 
 land to the north of it is still covered in many 
 places by the fine silt brought in by streams 
 and deposited on the bottom of the lake. 
 
 A higher plain stretches northward and 
 eastward from Buffalo, and is called the Erie 
 lake plain. Before the time of Lake Iro- 
 quois, it also was covered by lake waters. 
 The Erie plain descends to the Ontario plain 
 by a steep slope known as the Niagara 
 Escarpment. This is the northern edge of 
 hard limestone rocks over which the Niagara 
 River tumbles to make the great falls. 
 
 Glacial Invasion. — In times long ago, called 
 the Glacial Period, all of the mainland of New 
 York, except small areas in Allegany and 
 Cattaraugus counties, was covered with a 
 slowly-moving sheet of ice. The ice flowed 
 across the Adirondacks, the Catskills, and 
 the plateau region farther west, and covered 
 most of northern Pennsylvania. 
 
 This immense glacier pushed along in front 
 of it and under it a vast amount of soil and 
 broken rock. More material of the same sort 
 was carried along with the ice and accumu- 
 lated at the melting margins of the ice sheet. 
 Hills of sandy soil, gravel, and stones, formed 
 
GEUURAIMI^ Ol NKW ^()RK 
 
 III this way, are called moraines. Such hills 
 are found near Rochester, Ithaca, and Cort- 
 land, and at Oriskany Palls and in many 
 other parts of the state. 
 
 Stones frozen m the ice were rubbed 
 over the bed rocks and gradually worn 
 away, forming; a Hne clay in which 
 some worn stones were also mixed. 
 Some of this material, called bowlder 
 clay or till, was packed into valleys 
 over which the ice passed, thus block- 
 ing the channels through which pre- 
 glacial streams had flowed. 
 
 Some of the bowlder clay gathered 
 in hills called drumlins, shaped by the 
 ice pushing over them. In the region 
 between Syracuse and lulton on the 
 east and Rochester on the west, and 
 from Auburn and Geneva to Lake Ontario, 
 there are hundreds of drumlins running north 
 and south and rising from 50 to 1 50 feet 
 above the surrounding plain. 
 
 When the ice finally melted from the sur- 
 face of the state, it left a sheet of stony clay, 
 or till, on most slopes and tops of hills and 
 mountains. But much of the finer muds and 
 sands had been .sorted and spread out on 
 lower lands by the streams that flowed from 
 the melting ice. 
 
 Many of the cobblestones and bowlders re- 
 mained where they were dropped as the ice 
 melted. Almost everywhere the fields of 
 New York show bowlders and cobblestones 
 which are unlike the bed rocks that lie be- 
 neath the soil. Bowlders in western New 
 
 ^()rk may ha\e come troiii Canada (ji 1 10111 
 jiarts of the state north of the locality where 
 they are found. Bowlders on the plateau 
 in central New ^'ork may have come from St. 
 Lawrence County, or from the .Adirondacks 
 or from the Mohawk \'alley. 
 
 Gorges and Waterfalls. — No other state 
 in the east has .so many splendid waterfalls 
 and gorges as New York. At the close of the 
 Glacial Period, the Niagara River plunged 
 over the Niagara Escarpment at Lewiston. 
 Since that time the gorge, now seven miles 
 long, has been cut, the falls retreating slowly 
 to their present position. So wonderful are 
 
 the falls and the gorge that the adjoining 
 ground has been made a state reservation, 
 under the control of the Niagara Commis- 
 sion. 
 
 The other great gorges and falls of the state 
 are also more or less due to the glacial inva- 
 sion. Deposits of glacial waste clogged old 
 valleys and caused the streams to take new 
 courses over rock ledges, and the deep, narro\\ 
 channels then made are not yet old enough 
 to have been broadened by the stream and 
 bv the wasting of the valley sides. Fine 
 examples of such gorges are found along the 
 Genesee from Portage to Mount Morris, 
 and along the same stream at Rochester. 
 Letchworth Park, belonging to the state, is 
 at the upper and middle Portage Falls. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 There are many gorges and waterfalls in the 
 Finger Lake region. Of the gorges Watkins 
 Glen — another state park, at Watkins — is 
 the best known, and is of great beauty. The 
 gorge is in places 300 feet deep, and the small 
 stream that flows through it forms a constant 
 succession of fine cascades and rapids. Near 
 Cayuga Lake is Taghanic Falls, whose height 
 is the greatest in the state, over 200 feet. 
 
 On West Canada Creek is the Trenton 
 gorge, in which are several beautiful falls. 
 The Cohoes Falls are on the lower Mohawk. 
 The Ausable Chasm is a narrow gorge near 
 Lake Champlain. 
 
 Review. — i. What physical regions of the 
 eastern United States are represented in New 
 York t 2. Describe the surface of Long Island. 
 
 3. Name some of the beaches on the south shore. 
 
 4. Describe the surface of Manhattan Island. 
 
 5. Locate and describe the gorge of the Hudson. 
 6. Describe a valley which joins the Hudson 
 Valley at Kingston. 7. Where are the Shawan- 
 gunk Mountains ? 8. Name the highest moun- 
 tain m New York, and give its altitude. 9. What 
 are the chief occupations in the Adirondack region .' 
 10. Why should the Adirondack forests be pre- 
 served ? 
 
 II. Of what great region are the Catskili 
 Mountains a part.? 12. What is the Helderberg 
 Escarpment.' 13. Describe the plateau in central 
 and western New York. 14. What purposes are 
 served by the lakes of the plateau f 
 
 15. Describe the glacial Lake Iroquois. 16. Ex- 
 plain the origin of the " Ridge Road." 17. What 
 is the Niagara Escarpment? 18. What is till.? 
 19. What part of New York has many drum- 
 lins .? How were they shaped ? 20. What gorges 
 and waterfalls are owned bv the state ? 
 
 Lakes. — New York has an 
 exceptional number of large 
 lakes, and most of them are 
 due to the glacial invasion 
 Besides Lake Ontario and 
 Lake Erie, there are such large 
 bodies of water as Chautau- 
 qua, Seneca, Cayuga, and 
 Oneida lakes. Lake Champlain. 
 and Lake George. The Finger 
 Lakes are in old valleys which 
 were deepened and blocked by the ice and 
 its deposits. The same is true of the Adiron- 
 dack Lakes. In all parts of the state are 
 small lakes and ponds, many of which lie or. 
 the uneven surface of the glacial drift. 
 especially where thick morainic accumula- 
 tions are found. 
 
 Drainage. — The student should review the 
 account of rivers and valleys in the early part 
 of the geography. The drainage of the main- 
 land of New York is remarkable for the fact 
 that its waters belong to so many river sys- 
 tems, reaching the ocean by way of the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence, New York Bay, Delaware 
 Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and the Gulf of 
 Mexico. Let us study the different river sys- 
 tems of the state in this order. 
 
 The St. Lawrence Drainage. — A study of 
 the map on page xi shows that more of New 
 York state drains into the St. Lawrence than 
 into any other river system. Several small 
 streams flow into Lake Erie or into Niagara 
 River. The Genesee, the chief river of west- 
 ern New York (p. ii), flows northward across 
 the state to Lake Ontario. The waters of all 
 the Finger Lakes and of Oneida Lake reach 
 Lake Ontario through the Oswego River. The 
 Black River drains a large section of the west- 
 ern Adirondacks and is the most important 
 stream in that part of the state. Like the 
 streams already mentioned, it discharges into 
 Lake Ontario, and as the St. Lawrence River 
 is the outlet of Lake Ontario, the waters from 
 all these streams finally reach the Atlantic 
 through the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The same 
 
geo(;raimiy of new york 
 
 Mohawk (liaiii large 
 areas of tin soutli- 
 ern Adirondacks. On 
 one of the branches, 
 West Canada Creek, at 
 Trenton Falls, is large 
 water power. Power 
 is developed on many 
 other branches, as well 
 as on the Mohawk itself 
 at Little Falls and 
 Cohoes. The Mohawk 
 was navigated by small 
 barges in the early days 
 of the colony, and 'by 
 means of dams and 
 locks it is now used as 
 a section of the Barge 
 Canal. 
 
 The Delazvare Drain- 
 age. — The Delaware 
 River drains a large 
 
 IS true of the drauiage of the northern and part of the rugged and picturesque country 
 northeastern .Adirondacks. The Oswe- of southeastern New York into Delaware 
 gatchie. Grass, Racket, St. Regis, and Bay. Some of its tributaries reach far into 
 Salmon rivers flow into the St. Lawrence, the Catskill Mountains, where their falls and 
 while the Saranac and Ausable rivers and the rapids add greatly to the attractiveness of 
 waters of Lake George reach the main stream summer resorts. 
 
 through Lake Champlain. The Susquehanna Drainage. — The Susque- 
 
 The Hudson Drainage. — The Hudson River hanna River drains a larger area within the 
 
 Drainage basins of New York 
 
 IS the great stream of the southeastern Adiron- 
 dack region. It leaves the mountains a little 
 above Glens Falls and occupies a broad low- 
 
 state than does the Delaware. It rises 
 in Otsego Lake, and leaves the state near the 
 village of Waverly, reaching the sea at the 
 
 land valley to a point below Newburgh, head of Chesapeake Bay. Among its trib- 
 
 thence following the Highland gorge and the utaries are Unadilla Creek and Chenango 
 
 foot of the Palisades. In its upper course River in central New York, and the Chemung 
 
 there are numerous falls and rapids, but River flowing from the west, 
 below Fort Edward there are dams and locks The Allegheny Drainage.— 'Vh^- .Allegheny 
 
 making it part of the Barge Canal, and from River drains parts of Allegany, Cattaraugus, 
 
 Troy to the ocean it is a tidal stream, much and Chautauqua counties in the southwestern 
 
 used as a waterwav. The falls are used for part of the state. Its waters finally reach the 
 
 the development of w^ater power especially Atlantic through the Ohio and Mississippi 
 
 at Corinth, Spier Falls, Glens Falls, and rivers and the GuH of Mexico. Even Chau- 
 
 Mechanicville. Scarcely less important than tauijua Lake and its inlet streams, within a 
 
 the main stream is its great western tributary, few miles of Lake Erie, belong to this drainage 
 
 the Mohawk. The northern branches of the system. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Average temperature in Jariuary 
 
 Average temperature in July 
 
 Climate. — New York is in the track of the 
 great cyclonic movements which cross the 
 country from west to east. The prevaiHng 
 winds are from the west, and the interior of 
 the state has the continental type of climate, 
 with hot summers and cold winters. 
 
 The usual maximum temperatures in July 
 or August are from 80° to 90°, and these, 
 owing to the moisture in the air, or its humidity, 
 give sultry and oppressive weather. More 
 rarely 95° or above marks the summer 
 maximum. 
 
 Throughout the interior of the state, the 
 ground usually has a cover of snow during 
 the winter months. Along the Atlantic 
 coast snows are less frequent, but are occa- 
 sionally very heavy. 
 In the higher plateau 
 regions, temperatures 
 of 20° or 30° below 
 zero may occur once 
 or more during the 
 winter. In the Adi- 
 rondacks, records of 
 40° or 50° below zero 
 are to be expected. 
 In western New York 
 along the Great 
 Lakes, and in south- 
 em New York by the 
 sea, the extremes are 
 
 Average annual rainfall 
 
 more moderate, but the temperatures ranging 
 from 20° down to the zero point are severe 
 on account of the winds on the lakes and 
 on account of the greater humidity by the 
 seashore. 
 
 The annual rainfall varies from about 30 
 to about 55 inches annually according to local- 
 ity. There is thus, in ordinary years, every- 
 where ample rainfall for crops, although in 
 some summers there may be several weeks of 
 serious drouth. The heaviest rains occur on 
 the highest mountains, — the Adirondacks and 
 Catskills. Eastern and southeastern New 
 York have more rain than western New 
 York, because of nearness to the sea ; for the 
 southeast and south winds of the cyclonic 
 storms bring moisture 
 from the ocean. 
 
 The length of the 
 growing period — be- 
 tween the last frost 
 in spring and the first 
 frost in fall — varies 
 from about 130 to 
 about 190 days in 
 different parts of the 
 state. The distribu- 
 tion of crops is much 
 affected by the way 
 different regions vary 
 in temperature. 
 
GEOGRAPin' OK NEW YORK 
 
 The length of the growing season, tlie aver- 
 age temperature, and the average annual 
 rainfall combine to make Long Island, the 
 lower Hudson Valley, and the lake country 
 of western New ^ Ork 
 regions favorable for 
 fruits, wheat, and corn, 
 while the plateau is 
 better suited to grass 
 and oats, and the higher 
 lands of the Catskills 
 and Adirondacks are 
 suitable for little besides 
 forest. 
 
 Soils. — The soils of 
 New York are ncarl\ 
 everywhere of glacial 
 origin. In most of the 
 Adirondack region the 
 soil is thin, and is not 
 of great fertility, and 
 this combined with an 
 unfavorable climate 
 makes that region un- 
 productive. The rocks under the Lake Plains, 
 and under much of the Hudson and Mohawk 
 valleys, are such that the soils which they 
 form are naturally fertile. Ihe plains were 
 also enriched by the fine mud or silt de- 
 posited in the glacial lakes as already 
 described. The soils of the Catskill-Alle- 
 gheny Plateau are largely formed from the 
 underlying sandstone, which produces rather 
 poor soil. This soil, however, especially in 
 the northern parts of the upland, was un- 
 proved by the waste from the more fertile 
 region to the north when tins waste was 
 transported southward by the ue and mingled 
 with the poorer native sod. 
 
 Along the flood plains of the Genesee, 
 .Mohawk, Hudson, Black, and Susquehanna 
 rivers, and many lesser streams, the finer 
 glacial material has been moved, worked 
 over, and deposited by the rivers. When 
 these low flat grounds are properly drained 
 and cultivated they produce abundant 
 
 crops. rile glacial till (p. i\) also usualK 
 gives a fairly good soil. 
 
 Natural Vegetation and Forest Products. 
 In the /\ilir()iulacks the forest consists mainly 
 i)f white pine, spruce, 
 hemlock, and birch. As 
 white pine is very easily 
 worked, it has been for 
 many years a favorite 
 building material, and 
 most of the mature pine 
 has been cut. The rest 
 of the state has a pre- 
 dominance of hardwood 
 trees, mingled with a 
 lesser number of conifer- 
 ous trees. The chief 
 hardwoods are maple, 
 beech, ash, oak, chest- 
 imt, cherry, and hickory. 
 \mong the softer woods, 
 basswood is widely dis- 
 tributed. The state 
 owns about 2,000,000 
 acres of forest in the Adirondacks and the 
 Catskills. In botli of these regions there are 
 large estates or private parks, amounting in 
 all to several hundred thousand acres. Other 
 tracts are held by lumber companies. 
 
 In the less densely settled parts of the state 
 many of the farms still have wood lots, from 
 which the owners get material for fences, 
 firewood, and some coarse lumber. From 
 the sap of the hard maples the farmers make 
 a considerable amount ot maple sirup and 
 maple sugar. 
 
 Much spruce timber is cur in the Adiron- 
 dacks, whence it is carried to the convenient 
 centers of water power on the outskirts of the 
 region and made into wood pulp. In this 
 industry New York has a high rank, but the 
 total amount of lumber cut each year is 
 much smaller than it was fifty years ago. 
 
 Through schools of forestry and by private 
 enterprise efl^orts are being made to reforest 
 some of the less valuable lands of the state. 
 
 ^. Adii 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Animal Life. — Wild life is found in its most 
 conspicuous development in the Adirondacks. 
 Moose and deer are protected by law. Deer 
 may be hunted during a brief season. A single 
 hunter is not permitted to take more than two 
 deer. The law prohibits trapping beaver, 
 which, notwithstanding their abundance in 
 the days of the early fur trader, were for a 
 time in danger of extinction. Black bears 
 are occasionally seen, and a bounty is offered 
 for killing wolves and panthers. 
 
 Hares, rabbits, and squirrels are common 
 m all parts of the state, as are also muskrats 
 and woodchucks. Foxes are not uncommon, 
 and waterfowl and other game birds still oc- 
 cupy the marshes, lakes, and forests. 
 
 There is important oyster fishing off the 
 shores of Long Island. Bluefish and clams 
 are also taken, and shad are caught in the 
 Hudson. In the Great Lakes and other 
 fresh waters of the state, the trout, black 
 bass, pickerel, whitefish, and muskellunge 
 are among the important species. F"ish 
 hatcheries are maintained for restocking the 
 lakes and streams with valuable kinds ot 
 fish. All these forms of wild life, and the 
 song birds as well, are under the care of the 
 State Conservation Commission, and game 
 wardens have been appointed to prevent 
 violations of the game laws. 
 
 Review. — i. What river systems are represented 
 in New York ? 2. Where do the waters of each 
 river system enter the ocean .^ 3. What are the 
 principal rivers of western New York .? 4. What 
 are the main streams in the western Adirondacks .? 
 In the northern Adirondacks.? 5. For what 
 reasons is the Mohawk Valley important ? 
 
 6. What are the minimum temperatures of 
 the plateau region ? Of the Adirondack region ? 
 7. Compare the rainfall of the coast region and 
 of the Great Lake border. 
 
 8. How was the soil of the Lake Plains en- 
 riched ? 9. How was the soil of the plateau 
 improved ? 10. Where are flood-plains ? 
 
 II. What are the leading kinds of hardwood 
 trees in New York ? 12. Describe the regulations 
 for game protection. 13. What commission has 
 charge of these interests ? 
 
 INDUSTRIES 
 
 Agriculture. — When the 13th census was 
 taken in 1910, New York stood eighth among 
 the states of the United States in the value 
 of all farm products. Illinois stood first, 
 followed in order by Iowa, Texas, Ohio. 
 Georgia, Missouri, and Kansas. The most 
 valuable single crop in New York was hay and 
 forage, its value being a little less than two 
 fifths of the total value of the farm products 
 of the state. Cereals were second in value 
 with about one fifth of the total. Vegetables, 
 fruits, and forest products followed in order 
 of importance. 
 
 We have already seen that New York 
 shows great variety in soil, altitude, tempera- 
 
 ture, and rainfall. Such differences have 
 naturally led to great differences in the kind 
 and character of the crops raised. Wheat is 
 confined almost entirely to western New 
 York. Corn is well distributed over the state 
 except in the Adirondack region, but the 
 crop does not compare with that of the states 
 in the corn belt, from Ohio to Kansas. Oats, 
 being hardy, are grown more generally than 
 corn. Of the lesser cereals, some barley and 
 rye are raised ; and New York ranks with 
 Pennsylvania as one of the leading states in 
 the growing of buckwheat. 
 
CJEOCJRAl'HV OF NKW YORK 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ,.y^§^^^ir^0^^$S! 
 
 One dot equals :;,000 tons. 
 The solid bl^iclc areas are 
 formed by Oie closeness of 
 the dots In rccioDS ui create' 
 
 Hay and forage production 
 
 Hav and forage are not only the largest 
 crop, but in this product New York is 
 surpassed by no state but Iowa. This large 
 product makes possible a great dairying in- 
 dustry. At the census of lyio New ^ ork 
 had more dairy cows than any other state, 
 being slightly in advance of Wisconsin and 
 Iowa. The success of this industry depends 
 upon conditions of soil and chmare, aiui 
 upon nearness to market. The cool uplands 
 of the plateau region are well suited to grass. 
 While the climate is not so favorable for ripen- 
 ing grain, corn can almost everywhere be 
 brought to a state of maturity suitable for 
 silage. In this form it serves as a nourishing 
 food for great numbers of cattle throughout 
 the winter months when other green food is 
 not available. 
 
 .\s nearly three fourths of the ten millions 
 of people in New York state live in cities and 
 large villages (census of 191 S), they require 
 enormous supplies of dairy products. Rail- 
 roads whose trains carry fresh milk and cream 
 to the city of New York extend through all 
 central New York to Lake Ontario, and far 
 into western and northern New York. 
 Throughout these dairying regions the farm- 
 ers may be seen early in the morning carrying 
 the milk to some near-by milk station, where 
 it is cooled and then shipped in refrigerator 
 cars to New 'V'ork or some other city. 
 
 
 One (lot equals 
 
 ^i#?^ 
 
 /■^^^-l.^ 
 
 Number of dairy cows 
 
 In nearly every dairy district, but more 
 especially in regions at some distance from 
 the larger cities, creameries and cheese fac- 
 tories abound. This is true of the high 
 plateau region of southwestern New York, 
 and of the belt of lowland between the 
 Adirondacks and the Canadian boundary. 
 Various factories are devoted to the manu- 
 facture of condensed milk, milk powder, and 
 other dairy products. 
 
 In recent years much attention has been 
 given to rearing the best breeds of stock, and 
 both state and federal authorities prevent as 
 far as possible the spread of tuberculosis 
 among cattle. Animals affected by the foot 
 and mouth disease are slaughtered and buried 
 to prevent the spread of that dreaded plague. 
 
 In the rearing of sheep and swine New York 
 does not take high rank. In the value of 
 poultry, however, the census figures show 
 that New York was exceeded by only five 
 states. Here, as in dairying, however, the 
 trade is chiefly local, as the cities make large 
 demands. 
 
 In the production of fruits New- York is 
 second only to California. Small fruits are 
 grown in all parts of the state except the 
 Adirondacks, the Catskills, and the plateau 
 of southwestern New York. Orchard fruits 
 are raised everywhere in the state except in 
 the central Adirondacks. They are especially 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Production of orchard fruits 
 
 abundant on the Lake Plains of western New- 
 York and in the Hudson Valley. South of 
 Lake Ontario is a belt of apple, pear, and 
 peach orchards, unequaled m any other 
 part of our country. New York has regions 
 well fitted in climate and soil for the raising 
 of grapes. Chief of these is the Chautauqua 
 " grape belt," bordering Lake Erie in the 
 southwest corner of the state and extending 
 into Pennsylvania. In this region many 
 grapes are used in the manufacture of unfer- 
 mented grape juice. Ne.xt is the Finger 
 Lake region, particularly about Lake Keuka, 
 andcenteringin the region around Hammonds- 
 port. In this district there Is a large grape 
 juice industry. Some grapes are raised also 
 in the Hudson Valley. 
 
 New York is the leading state in the produc- 
 tion of potatoes. Western New York and 
 Long Island are the regions of the largest 
 potato production. Miscellaneous vegetables 
 are also important, especially in Long Island, 
 where large quantities are grown for the New 
 ^'ork market, and in Monroe and Erie 
 counties, for the supply of Rochester and 
 Buffalo. Large crops of onions are raised 
 in Orange, Wayne, and Madison counties. 
 Fhe canning of fruits and vegetables has also 
 become an important industry. 
 
 Among special crops may be named the 
 hops grown in central New ^'ork, mainly in 
 
 One dot equals l.OOO.OOO 
 pounds. The solid black 
 termed by the 
 
 Production of grapes 
 
 Otsego, Schoharie, Oneida, Madison, and 
 Montgomery counties. Peas and beans are 
 raised mainly in northern and western New 
 York, and in the counties bordering Lake 
 Ontario and the f inger Lakes. Some tobacco 
 is raised in central and southern New York ; 
 Onondaga and Chemung are the leading 
 counties in that crop. Hothouse and nursery 
 products are grown in and near the greater 
 cities, and the nursery farms about Roches- 
 ter, Geneva, and Dansville are among the 
 most extensive in the United States. 
 
 Review. — i. What is the rank of New York in 
 farm products ? 2. What state rivals New York 
 in producing hay and forage? 3. How are dairy 
 supplies furnished to the city of New York : 
 
 Potato production 
 
GE(x;RAnl^ of nkw ^ork 
 
 4. Where are creameries and cheese 
 factories numerous ? v What regions 
 in the state raise much orchard fruit ? 
 6. What regions of New ^'ork arc 
 favorable for grapes? 7. In what 
 parts of the state are hops grown ? 
 Peas and beans? Tobacco? Nursery 
 products ? 
 
 Water Resources. — When the 
 population of a country increases, 
 well waters are in danger of pollu- 
 tion, and the wells are gradually 
 abandoned. As a result all the 
 large cities and villages of the state, 
 and many smaller ones, now have 
 public water supply. In order to suppl\ 
 water for the city of New ^'ork immense 
 dams and reservoirs were constructed in 
 Westchester and Ulster counties, many miles 
 from the great city. Some cities and villages 
 draw their water supply from large streams, 
 but many rivers have become impure 
 through sewage and the waste from manu- 
 facturing plants. City water supplies, there- 
 fore, are generally drawn from lakes, or from 
 reservoirs fed by small streams in forests or 
 farming districts, where all possible safeguards 
 against pollution have been taken. Thus the 
 city of Utica receives water from reservoirs 
 in the neighboring hills, and 
 from the West Canada Creek, 
 an Adirondack stream; Syra- 
 cuse derives its supply from 
 Skaneateles Lake, Rochester 
 from Hemlock Lake, and 
 Buffalo from Lake Erie at 
 the head of the Niagara 
 River. 
 
 Few^ states are so well 
 provided with water power 
 as New York. The greatest 
 single water power in the 
 state is at Niagara Falls, 
 where several plants are situ- 
 ated. Here electric power is 
 developed on a large scale. 
 
 Dvnamos in a Ni 
 
 and transmitted to Buffalo and to other cities 
 and villages. Ihe waters of the Genesee 
 River at Rochester have long been used foi 
 power. Throughout the plateau and Fingei 
 Lake region many waterfalls are suited to 
 this purpose, and many streams flowing from 
 the Adirondack region provide power foi 
 large mills and factories. 
 
 Mineral Resources. — Of the mineral re- 
 sources of the state, the most widely distrib- 
 uted are the building stones. Granite is 
 quarried in the Highlands of the Hudson, in 
 some parts of the Adirondacks, and on 
 Grindstone Island in the St. Lawrence River. 
 
 Limestone is found in the 
 
 Hudson and Mohawk val- 
 le\s, near Trenton Falls, at 
 ( )riskany Falls, in the hills 
 south of Syracuse, and in 
 the vicinity of Lockport, 
 Niagara Falls, and Buffalo. 
 Several public buildings in 
 Syracuse are constructed of 
 Onondaga limestone. Mar- 
 ble, which is a changed 
 linu-stone, is quarried at 
 (>ou\erneur in St. Lawrence 
 C()unr\, and at Tiickahoe, 
 near the city of New ^'ork. 
 Much ordinary limestone is 
 " burned,"' that is, it is highK 
 
 powrr pl.'iin 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 heated and changed into quicklime. A cer- 
 tain kind of limestone is called hydraulic 
 limestone because when burned and ground 
 it becomes a cement that " sets " under water. 
 Limestone of this kind is quarried near Kings- 
 ton and near Syracuse. 
 
 Sandstone occurs in many parts ot the 
 state. The Potsdam sandstone of northern 
 New York is a very hard, reddish rock, and 
 a valuable building stone. The Medina 
 
 the place of the natural limestone cement, 
 and plants for its manufacture are found at 
 several points, as on Cayuga Lake near 
 Ithaca, at Jamesville near Syracuse, at 
 Howe Cave in Schoharie County, and at 
 Hudson and Catskill. 
 
 Clay is used in many parts of the state for 
 making brick, drain tile, and sewer pipe 
 The largest beds are along the Hudson, and 
 in this valley there has grown up one of the 
 greatest brick-making industries in the world. 
 The bricks are readily transported in scows 
 to New York and other cities. 
 
 Gypsum occurs in Cayuga County and m 
 some other parts of central and western New 
 York. It is used for fertilizer and for making 
 wall plaster. 
 
 New York is one of the most important 
 states in the production of salt. Before the 
 coming of the white man, the Iroquois Indians 
 found salt springs where Syracuse now is, and 
 they made salt by evaporating the brine. 
 In 1880, a boring in western New York 
 revealed the fact that there are beds of rock 
 salt far below the surface. These beds are 
 now reached by wells, into which water is 
 poured to dissolve the salt. The brine is then 
 
 sandstone, quarried in Orleans County, is 
 
 a brownstone used as a building stone and pumped out and the water is evaporated to 
 for paving blocks. Another sandstone used 
 in building is the bluestone of western 
 New York and of Chenango and neighbor- 
 ing counties. The flagstone of Ulster, 
 Delaware, and Greene counties is quarried 
 in large, thin slabs for various uses. A 
 coarser rock of the same nature, called 
 conglomerate or grit, is quarried in Ulster 
 Count}'. 
 
 In Washington County, as in the neighbor- 
 ing part of Vermont, slate is quarried and is 
 used for roofing and ornamental work, and for 
 school blackboards. 
 
 Portland cement is made of limestone and secure the salt. Shafts have also been sunk, 
 clay. The clay may be taken from uncon- so that the salt may be mmed m blocks, 
 solidated clay beds of glacial origin, or from Silver Springs, Warsaw, Retsof, CuylerviUe. 
 more ancient clay rocks, known as shales. Watkins, and Ithaca are localities known for 
 This manufactured cement has largely taken the salt industry. 
 
CKOtJRAl'in OF NLW ^()RK 
 
 The city of Olean is in the 
 mulsr ot a petroleum region 
 whicli extends into New 
 ^Ork from the larger oil 
 fields of western Pennsyl- 
 vania, riiousantls of petro- 
 leum wells ha\e heen bored 
 in Cattaraugus and Allegany 
 counties, and this region still 
 continues to furnish a con- 
 siderable amount of oil. Re- 
 lated to petroleum is natural 
 gas, which occurs in paying 
 quantities in the oil region, 
 also in several other counties 
 of western and central New 
 York. 
 
 Graphite is mined near Lake George, and 
 much talc, used with pulp in making paper, 
 is found in St. Lawrence County. 
 
 There are important deposits ot magnetite, 
 a pure kind of iron ore, in the eastern Adiron- 
 dacks on the borders of Lake Champlain. 
 Red hematite, another imn ore, is found in 
 Oneida and Wa\ne couinus : some of it is 
 ground for making a coarse kiiul of led paint. 
 
 Review. — i. Why do cities seek \v;irer supply 
 from ink.es and the headwaters of rivers ? 
 2. Describe the largest water power in the state. 
 S. What other regions have much water power? 
 
 4. Where is granite found ? Sandstone ? 
 Marble.? Slate? 5. Where are the largest clay 
 deposits in the state ? 6. What use is made of 
 this clay ? 7. By what methods is salt obtained ? 
 8. What part of the state produces petroleum ? 
 Natural gas ? 9. Where are deposits of iron ore 
 found ? 
 
 Manufacture. — The total value of all manu- 
 factures in the state of New York, at the 
 census of 1914, was nearly four billion dollars. 
 No other state reached this figure. In like 
 manner the city of New York led all other 
 cities, producing a value of more than two 
 billion dollars. 
 
 New York has been the first state in the 
 value of its manufactures since 1S25, the date 
 of the opening of the Erie Canal. Through 
 
 the completion of this great transportation 
 route, the popuiarion of the state grew 
 rapidly, the farm produce was increased, the 
 cities were enlarged, and business and com- 
 merce centered more and more in the Lmpire 
 State, and in its greatest city. Of 265 kinds 
 of manufactures on which the United States 
 census makes reports, 243 are represented in 
 this state, and 217 in the city of New York. 
 
 New York stands first not only in total 
 value but also in a number of special kinds ot 
 manufactured goods. Among these is men's 
 clothing, in which the product is more than 
 twice that of any other state ; also women's 
 clothing, with about nine times the value of 
 that of any other state. The state also leads 
 in printing and book making, baking products, 
 sugar refining, tobacco manufactures, milli- 
 nery goods, fur goods, pianos and organs, 
 confectionery, copper, tin, and sheet iron 
 products, paint and varnish, patent medicines, 
 and man}- other manufactures. In all the in- 
 dustries named in this paragraph, the city of 
 New York is far in the lead among the cities 
 of the state and of the country. 
 
 Among the other important manufactures 
 in which the state leads, are hosiery and knit 
 goods, paper, chemicals, electrical machinery 
 and supplies, and carpets and rugs. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Packing room of a Buffalo flour mill 
 
 slaughtering and meat packing. No one of 
 these industries falls below $100,000,000 in 
 the state, and the two clothing industries 
 taken together produce an annual value of 
 nearly $600,000,000. The only industry of 
 these five for which the state affords much 
 raw material is printing and publishing. The 
 material is largely paper, and a very large 
 share of the newspaper stock is manufactured 
 in the pulp and paper mills of the Adirondack 
 region. 
 
 For the other four industries the state 
 provides little material. The clothing indus- 
 tries use cotton, wool, flax, and silk goods as 
 well as furs, feathers, and a variety of metallic 
 and other substances for buttons, buckles, 
 New York state is second to Minnesota in and various ornaments. Practically all of 
 flour and gristmill products. Although it is these materials come from other states or 
 far from the great grain fields of the west, the other countries. In like manner, most of the 
 railways and the ships on the Great Lakes 
 bring enough grain to the New York mills 
 to make this possible. As the greater num- 
 ber of people live in the east, the largest 
 markets are in the east, and there is some- 
 times economy in bringing the grain near to 
 the market where flour is in demand, before 
 it is manufactured. 
 
 In like manner. New ^'ork ranks next to 
 Illinois and Kansas in meat packing, although 
 the state produces but few of the cattle and 
 swine that supply its meat-packing establish- 
 ments. In this industry, the city ot New 
 York ranks next after Chicago and Kansas 
 City. New York state also ranks high in the 
 production of butter, cheese, and condensed animals which are the raw material of meat 
 milk, reaching more than half the product of packing are brought from states farther west. 
 Wisconsin, the leading state. In foundry and Most of the iron and steel also, for foundry 
 machine shop products the state of New York and machine-shop work, is made in Penn- 
 is second to Pennsylvania and Ohio, and the sylvania and other states, the principal excep- 
 city is next to Chicago. The state takes third tion being the product of furnaces near 
 place in the manufacture of automobiles, and Buffalo and in the region about Lake Cham- 
 second in that of boots and shoes. plain. Thus it is not the presence of raw 
 The five leading industries of New "S'ork, materials, but facilities for transportation and 
 both state and city, are: women's cloth- for marketing the products, that have de- 
 ing, men's clothing, printing and publishing, veloped the largest of New York's manufac- 
 foundrv and machine-shop products, and turing industries. 
 
CKOCiRAPin OK NKW YORK 
 
 The clotliin^ product of New ^'ork is nearly 
 one half of the total for the United States. 
 This means that the state not only clothes 
 most of Its own people, iiut its marketing 
 facilities enable it to supply the people of 
 many other stares. In the same manner, the 
 machine shops rake the steel from other 
 states, make agricultural imiilements, t\ pe- 
 writers, gas machines, gas and water meters, 
 hardware, iron pipe, plumbers' supplies, heat- 
 ing apparatus, structural iron, and many other 
 things, and sell them in all the markets of 
 the world. 
 
 Another example of raw material hioiight 
 to New ^ oik tor manufacture is lumber. 
 New York toiiiuiU cut much lumber from 
 its forests, but the supply has decreased, and 
 at the present rime about twenty states draw 
 a larger product from their forests than does 
 New York. But this state, nevertheless, 
 supplies three fifths as much as Washington, 
 the leading state in this industry, in tin 
 value of the things made out of lumber. 
 
 A further case of this kind is found m the 
 grinding of corn, buckwheat, and oats. Of 
 these three grains. New \'ork leads only in 
 the production of buckwheat, and is eleventh 
 in the raising of oats, and twenty-fifth in the 
 throwing of corn. Yet she holds first place 
 HI milling all three. 
 
 Se\eral manutactuiing industries of New 
 York are localized or concentrated in a single 
 city, or a group of neighboring cities. Nearlj' 
 one third of the hosiery and knit goods, in- 
 cluding knit undergarments, hose, sweaters, 
 knit gloNes and mittens, hoods, and scarfs, 
 produced in this countrx', are made in the 
 state of New ^ oi k. C'ohoes is the center of 
 this industry, where it began in 1832, with the 
 invention by a local manufacturer of a power 
 knitting machine. The falls of the Mohawk 
 at that place lia\e furnished the necessary 
 power. Otiier large mills are found at Am- 
 sterdam, Little Kails, Utica, and other cities 
 and villages in the Mohawk Valley. 
 
 The making of collars, cuffs, and shirts is 
 localized in the city of Troy, which now makes 
 about nine tenths of all the goods of this kind 
 made in our country. Glens Falls is also a 
 center for this industry. As in the case of 
 knir goods, the raw materials must all be 
 imported, and there is no geographic reason 
 wh\ these special industries should have 
 developed in these particular localities. A 
 favorable start was made many years ago, 
 skilled labor developed, markets were estab- 
 lished, such places as Cohoes and Troy gained 
 a reputation for their products, and the busi- 
 ness has thus centered itself more and more 
 in these cities. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 The same influences led to the location and 
 development of the leather glove and mitten 
 industry. New York makes about 60 per 
 cent of the product in 
 the country. Fulton 
 County has about two 
 fifths of the glove fac- 
 tories of the United 
 States and makes 
 more than half the 
 gloves and mittens, 
 on the basis of value. 
 The industry is cen- 
 tered mainly in the 
 two neighboring cities 
 of Gloversville and 
 Johnstown, in which the making of gloves 
 and mittens is the chief industry. The skins 
 must all be brought from remote regions, 
 and the coal for power is brought from 
 Pennsylvania. Much of the labor, however, 
 is hand labor, and these cities are known 
 everywhere for the quality of the work. 
 
 Many industries are concentrated in the 
 city of New York. For example, this city 
 produces about 60 per cent of the country's 
 millinery and lace goods, and 70 per cent of 
 the country's fur goods and women's clothing. 
 The refining of sugar is a large industry in 
 the borough of Brooklyn, as is also the 
 roasting and grinding of spices and coffee. 
 
 Among manufacturing industries which are 
 based on raw materials produced in the state. 
 
 1 
 
 
 M^m 
 
 ml 
 
 
 
 [^^^ 
 
 
 Amip' 'i^.^ s Vl^cl^^ 
 
 rall^. JBIbi 
 
 
 iln'^t^fl^ wB 
 
 pps 
 
 
 HHp^ 
 
 I'^-iM--^ 
 
 
 Sewing room in a glove factory, 
 
 Glovcrsv.lk 
 
 the making of butter and cheese has been 
 
 studied under the head of Agriculture. 
 
 Another kind of manufacture which uses 
 home products is can- 
 ning and preserving. 
 There are nearly 800 
 establishments of this 
 kind in New York, 
 canning fresh vege- 
 tables and fruits, and 
 making pickles, pre- 
 serves, and sauces 
 Beans, corn, peas, 
 pumpkins, squashes, 
 and tomatoes are tht 
 chief vegetables used. 
 
 and the fruits consist of apples, pears. 
 
 peaches, plums, cherries, and berries. 
 
 Review. — I. Give the value of manufactures in 
 the state, according to the last census. 2. Name 
 several kinds of manufactures in which the 
 state stood first ; several in which the city of 
 New York stood first. 3. What five manufac- 
 turing industries each put out products exceeding 
 in value $100,000,000 ? 4. How does New York 
 rank in the production of lumber, and in the 
 manufacture of lumber.'' 5. Give an account 
 of the concentration of the knit-goods in- 
 dustry. 6. What are the centers of glove mak- 
 ing .'' 7. What industry is concentrated in Troy .' 
 What industries in the city of New York ? 
 
 Transportation Routes. — The most impor- 
 tant route in the state leads from the city of 
 New York up the Hudson River to Albany, 
 westward to Schenectady on the Mohawk 
 River, through the Mohawk Valley to Utica 
 and Rome, and across the Lake Plains to 
 Niagara and Buffalo. In this distance of 
 about 450 miles from the ocean to the lakes, 
 the only considerable railroad grade is found 
 for a short distance west of Albany. The 
 divide between the Mohawk and Ontario 
 basins is passed at Rome, at an altitude of 
 about 450 feet. This route is followed 
 by the New York Central lines, by the 
 Erie branch of the New York State Barge 
 Canal, and bv a series of state roads. 
 
CKOCRAIMH' Ol- NKW \()\iK 
 
 In the early days people and 
 goods were transported up tin- 
 Hudson by boats. 1 he goods wen 
 then carried across the divitli 
 between Albany and Schenectad\ 
 on the Mohawk River. Thence 
 the passage was by boat up the 
 river to the Oneida Carrying Place, 
 where Rome now is. More than 
 i hundred years ago, settlers 
 passed into central and western 
 New York by this route. From 
 the carrying place at Rome, boats 
 were again used down Wood Creek, 
 and through the Oneida and 
 Oswego rivers to Oswego. From the junc- 
 tion of the Oneida and Seneca rivers the 
 route by the Seneca River led westward n> 
 \uburn, Geneva, and Canandaigua. 
 
 Very early in the history of the state a small 
 canal, equipped with locks, was dug to avoid 
 the rapids at Little Falls. A canal was also 
 Jug at the Oneida Carrying Place, and a high- 
 way beginning by the Mohawk Ri\er at 
 Utica, known as the Genesee Road, was built 
 through the forest, westward to Auburn and 
 Geneva. Over this road a multitude of settlers 
 went into western New \'ork and on to Ohio. 
 
 The long journey by boat on the rivers, or 
 by w'agon on new roads, made traffic between 
 western New York and the Hudson Valley 
 tedious and expensive. Farmers could not 
 afford to send their grain and fruit to Albany 
 and New York, where it was needed, and there 
 arose an agitation in favor of a canal to join 
 Lake Erie and the Hudson River. The 
 project was taken up by De Witt Clinton, 
 governor of New York, and in 1S17 the work 
 began near Rome. The canal was completed 
 in 1825. Navigation was begun with an 
 elaborate celebration, and the event was for 
 that time quite as important as the opening 
 of a transcontinental railway to-day. 
 
 As a consequence, the produce of western 
 New"h'ork could be profitably marketed in the 
 east, and settlers rushed westward to take 
 
 advantage of rich and cheap lands, and to 
 build new homes in western New York, in 
 Ohio, and on the western prairies. 
 
 Later, a railway was built from Albany to 
 Schenectady, — the first in the state, — and 
 still later sections were completed between 
 Schenectady and Utica, between Syracuse 
 and Auburn, between Utica and Syracuse, 
 and finally, by the addition of other links, a 
 series of roads joined the city of New York 
 and Buffalo. These roads were made into 
 one system — the New York Central — in 
 1869. 
 
 Some years afterward the West Shore Rail- 
 road was built, and as it was finally leased 
 by the New York Central Lines, the last- 
 named system now has four tracks leading 
 from New York to Albany, and six from 
 Albany to Buffalo. 
 
 Other trunk railways, running for long 
 distances through our state, extend from the 
 city of New York westward. One of the first 
 railroads of New York was the New York 
 Lake Erie and \\ estern, passing through Port 
 Jervis, Binghamton, Elmira, and Hornell, to 
 Dunkirk and the west, and from Hornell ovei 
 the Poitage Gorge of the Genesee River to 
 Buffalo. The Delaware Lackawanna and 
 Western Railroad, entering the state from 
 Pennsylvania, extends from Binghamton to 
 Utica, from Binghamtf)n to Syracuse and 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Oswego, and from Binghamton 
 to Buffalo. The New York 
 Ontario and Western Railway 
 crosses mountain and plateau 
 from New York, by way of the 
 cities of Middletown, Norwich, 
 and Oneida, connecting at 
 Oswego with the Rome Water- 
 town and Ogdensburg division 
 of the New York Central Lines, 
 for the west and north. The 
 Lehigh Valley and Pennsyl- 
 vania railroads run across cen- 
 tral and western New York to 
 ports on Lake Erie and Lake 
 Ontario. All the railroads above described, 
 except the New York Central Lines, carry 
 immense amounts of coal into New York 
 and to lake ports for Canada. 
 
 The Erie and the Delaware Lackawanna 
 and Western railroads take advantage of the 
 Susquehanna and Chemung valleys, which 
 offer a great east and west route in south- 
 ern New York. Between this route and that 
 of the New York Central Lines, many valleys 
 cut through the plateau in a north and south 
 direction. Many of these valleys are uti- 
 lized by railroads, including the Unadilla, 
 Chenango, Cayuga, Seneca, and Genesee 
 valleys. 
 
 Another great natural route extends up the 
 Hudson Valley, across the divide near Fort 
 Edward and through the Champlain Valley 
 to Montreal. This route from Albany, Troy, 
 and Schenectady northward is followed by 
 the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, which 
 also reaches from Albany to Binghamton, and 
 to the coal district of northeastern Pennsyl- 
 vania. Several branches of the New York 
 Central Lines serve the region west and 
 north of the Adirondacks, and several rail- 
 roads penetrate the Adirondack region. 
 
 After the Erie Canal was finished, several 
 other canals were constructed, but some of 
 them were later abandoned. A canal that 
 is still maintained connects Rome with the 
 
 Canals of New York 
 
 Black River Valley, by way of Boonville. 
 The other canals still maintained by the state 
 have been enlarged or reconstructed as parts 
 of the Barge Canal system. 
 
 The New York State Barge Canal is by far 
 the largest and most important piece of canal 
 construction ever undertaken by any state. 
 The navigable waterways thus provided are 
 approximately 540 miles in length, and large 
 and deep enough for barges of 1000 tons each. 
 Several lakes, and several canalized rivers, 
 are included in the system, as shown by 
 the map above. On the map, trace routes 
 from Troy to Buffalo, and to Whitehall ; 
 from Oswego to Syracuse, to Ithaca, and to 
 Watkins. 
 
 During recent years the state has built 
 many good roads, joining the larger cities and 
 villages, and furnishing outlets for the produce 
 of the farmers. The need of good roads for 
 rural delivery of mails, and for automobile 
 traffic, has been influential in developing this 
 form of transportation facilities. 
 
 Electric railways have also been extensively 
 built in recent years, not only for the con- 
 venience of cities and their suburbs, but as 
 interurban roads which join many of the 
 larger cities and towns of the state. These 
 roads are most largely developed between 
 Albany and Buffalo, as parallels to sections 
 of the New York Central Lines. 
 
CKOCRAlMh Ol NKW ^ORK 
 
 1 he city of New \ oik staiitls as tlu wisniii 
 terminus ot the most traveled ot all oeiaii 
 routes between the United States and hurope. 
 It is also one of the principal ports tor the 
 extensive coastinn traffic which follows our 
 shores from Maine to the (lulf ol Mexico. 
 Buffalo is the eastern terminus of much ot 
 the Great Lake trafHc, and there is local 
 traffic on Lake Ontario from Oswego, Roches- 
 ter, and other New' ^'ork ports, to Toronto 
 and K.iii<;sron m Canada. 
 
 Review. — i. What is the leading transporta- 
 tion route in the state? 2. What large cities 
 are on this route? 3. How was Mohawk naviga- 
 tion first improved ? 4. \\ here was the (ieiiesee 
 Road ? 5. (live an account of the making of the 
 Erie Canal. 6. When was the tirst railway built 
 in the state ? What points did it join ? 7. (live 
 the names and routes of the trunk railroads lead- 
 ing westward through the state. S. What canals 
 are included in the Barge Canal system ? 9. (nve 
 an account of the extension of good roads. 
 10. What is the importance of HufFalo. in drear 
 Lake traffic ? 
 
 POPUL.XriON 
 
 Distribution of Population. At the time 
 of the United States Census of 1920 the popu- 
 lation of New York averaged 211 persons for 
 each square mile. Only four other states 
 have a greater density of population than 
 this; namely, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, 
 New |erse\', and Connecticut. 
 
 Density of population in New York by counties. iy.;ij 
 
 I he ma|) nil I his page gives the tleiisity ot 
 jiopulation hy counties. The regions having 
 a ilensity of 100 or more include all the coun- 
 ties from Orange to the eastern end ol Long 
 Island. Kach of the other counties of this 
 density, such as Onondaga, .Monroe, aiul 
 I'.rie, contains one or more large cities and 
 villages. rhe only county that averages less 
 than 3 people per square nnle is Hamilton, 
 which is whollv in the Adirondack region of 
 mountains and torest. In ndirlurn New 
 \ ork, adjoining or near Hamilton County, 
 several counties, Warren, Essex, Clinton, 
 Franklin, St. Lawrence, Lewis, and Herki- 
 mer, have each a density between 17 and 44. 
 Kvery one of these counties has some rich 
 lands and flourishing villages, but each also 
 extends over large areas ot Adirondack forest. 
 Similar densities are found in Allegany, 
 Schuyler. Chenango, Delaware. Schoharie, 
 and Sullivan counties, which have few large 
 villages and whose uplands are largely de- 
 voted to the dairying industry. Interme- 
 diate m density, 50 to lOO, are counties 
 having rich farms, with some large villages 
 and small cities. Examples in this group are 
 Jefferson, Wayne, Orleans. Genesee, Steuben, 
 Madison, Ontario, and I Ister counties. 
 
 On the whole, the densest populations ot 
 New York are on Long Island, in the Hud- 
 son and Mohawk valleys, on the Lake Plains, 
 and on the flood plains of the Susquehanna 
 and Chemung rivers. In other words, the 
 regions ot lower altitude and milder chmate, 
 of rich soils and good transportation facilities, 
 support the most people. 
 
 The cities and large villages are growing in 
 pnpulation faster than the country districts. 
 \i rhe time of the 1920 census 82.7 per cent of 
 all the people of the state lived in cities or in 
 \ illages having a population of 2500 or more. 
 
 Ihe state, in 1910, had about 2.750,000 in- 
 habitants who were born in foreign lands, or 
 somewhat more than one fourth of the whole 
 population. Most of the foreign-born li\e in 
 the cities. 
 
The metropolitan district including northeastexn New Jersey and southeastern New York 
 
GE(X;RAl'li^' ()| NKW \i)\<K 
 
 Rural counties such as Allegany, SttLilx.ii, 
 Cortland, Chenango, and Greene have from 
 5 to lO per cent of foreign-born, in compari- 
 son with New York, Monroe, and Krie, in 
 which there are 35 to 60 per cent. 
 
 riie total population of New ^'ork m 1900 
 was 7,268,894. In 1910 it was 9,113,614, 
 showing an increase of nearly two million. 
 The population in 1920, according to tin- 
 census of that year, was 10,384,829. 
 
 Cities. — Fifty-nine centers of population 
 are incorporated as cities. 1 hese range in 
 population from less than 5000 to 5,000,000. 
 Only si.x fall below a population of 10,000. 
 Six exceed 100,000, and eleven have more 
 than 50,000 people. Some places of 10,000 to 
 15,000 population retain the village form 
 of government ; namel\% Ossining, Peekskill, 
 and Port Chester. The sections following 
 give information concerning the cities of the 
 state, and also concerning many of the larger 
 villages. 
 
 City of New York. — Founded as New 
 Amsterdam by the Dutch colonists, the settle- 
 ment was at Hrst a small village at the south 
 end of Manhattan Island, in the vicinity of 
 the present Battery Park. At the cio.se of 
 the nineteenth century, the city covered all 
 Manhattan Island, and extended into the 
 mainland. Brooklyn had been added to the 
 greater city in 1S98, as had also some other 
 parts of Long Island, and the whole of Staten 
 Island. Thus " Greater New "^'ork " con- 
 sists of five boroughs, Manhattan, Brooklyn, 
 Queens, Richmond, and the Bronx. It in- 
 cludes a land area of about 300 square miles 
 and from north to south extends more than 
 thirty miles. 
 
 The borough of Manhattan consists of 
 Manhattan Island and a few small islands 
 in the adjacent waters. Manhattan Island 
 is 13^ miles long, and its greatest width is 
 2\ miles. It rises to an altitude of 238 feet, 
 at Washington Heights in the north, and 
 consists mainly of ancient hard rocks, which 
 have made expensive excavations necessary 
 
 in establishing street grades and providing 
 for basements and subways. 
 
 On the west of Manhattan Island is the 
 Hud.son, often called locally the North River. 
 On the south is New 'h'ork Bay, on the east 
 is the Fast River, — a strait joining New 
 "*l'ork Bay and Fong Island Sound, and 
 on the north are other straits called Harlem 
 River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek. All these 
 are tidal waters, so that the entire border 
 of the island is reached by ships of greater 
 or less draught. The largest ships dock on 
 the west side of the island and on the New 
 Jersey side of the Hudson. This vast net- 
 work of tidal waters, well protected from 
 violent storms, affords one of the finest 
 harbors in the world. Nor onl\ are harbor 
 facilities most unusual, but the tidal waters 
 extend up the Hudson 150 miles, to Troy, and 
 many large passenger and freight steamers 
 make use of this great natural highway. 
 A little be\ond Albany the Mohawk Valley 
 affords an open route to the west. New 
 York therefore stands at a gateway of the 
 rich interior of the United States, while on 
 the east the Atlantic Ocean furnishes a high- 
 way to the great commercial nations of 
 Europe. Ihis admirable location is the chief 
 reason for New \'ork's great growth and its 
 vast industries and commerce. 
 
 As old New York was in the southern part 
 of Manhattan, it is there, as in many old 
 cities, that we find the greatest congestion, 
 with somewhat narrow, irregular streets. 
 The entire central and northern parts of the 
 borough are laid out in quadrangular blocks, 
 with the avenues running nearly north and 
 south, and numbered streets crossing at right 
 angles, from the East River to the Hudson 
 River. The great artery of traffic is Broad- 
 wa\ , which runs northward from Battery 
 Park, cutting diagonally several of the ave- 
 nues. It is the best-known cit\' street in the 
 Western Hemisphere, and is bordered by 
 business houses, churches, hotels, theaters, 
 apartment houses, and residences. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Lower Broadway has many tall office 
 buildings, or " skyscrapers," in which are 
 found the offices of great corporations and 
 of many lawyers. Running east from this 
 part of Broadway is Wall Street, on which 
 are the New York Stock Exchange, the 
 United States Subtreasury, and some of the 
 largest banks and other financial houses. 
 Many parts of lower Manhattan are occupied 
 by wholesale houses and by factories. Es- 
 tablishments for particular kinds of goods, 
 such as leather, hardware, or jewelry, gather 
 in groups in certain districts. The retail 
 trades extend from about Eighth Street 
 northward toward Central Park, on Broad- 
 way, Fifth Avenue, and Sixth Avenue, and 
 the streets that cross these. In recent 
 years some large business houses have re- 
 moved from Sixth Avenue and Broadway to 
 Fifth Avenue, in which business is gradually 
 displacing fine residences as far north as 
 Central Park. The great residence districts 
 now are about Central Park, on both the 
 east and the west side, and farther north on 
 the streets lying near the Hudson River. 
 
 On either side of the retail business section, 
 particularly on the " East Side," great num- 
 bers of people live in apartments. Here 
 many foreign-born from almost all countries 
 of the world have made their home. 
 
 On or near Broadway, between Thirtieth 
 Street and Fiftieth Street, are many of the 
 
 chief theaters and larger hotels of the city. 
 Among the leading public institutions are 
 the City Library at Fifth Avenue and Forty- 
 second Street, the Metropolitan Museum of 
 Art and the American Museum of Natural 
 History, both in Central Park, and the Botani- 
 cal and Zoological gardens, which are in the 
 borough of the Bronx. The city is well 
 equipped with schools and colleges, and is the 
 seat of three great universities, Columbia in 
 Manhattan, Fordham in the Bronx, and 
 New York University with colleges in both 
 boroughs. 
 
 Since many of the people of New York live 
 in apartment houses, five, ten, or even fifteen 
 stories high, there is great need of public 
 parks, of which there are about fifty. Chief 
 of these in Manhattan is Central Park, ex- 
 tending north from Fifty-ninth Street about 
 2w miles. Other large parks are Prospect 
 Park in Brooklyn, and Van Cortlandt, Bronx, 
 and Pelham Bay Parks in the Bronx. The 
 smaller parks, however, are of great service 
 because accessible to the homes of the poor, 
 who find in them rest, pure air, and sunshine. 
 
 New York is the greatest manufacturing 
 city in the world. Its chief industries have 
 been described under the head of Manufac- 
 ture. As measured in value of products 
 about two thirds of the manufacturing in- 
 dustries of the city are located in the borough 
 of Manhattan. 
 
CECX;RAlMi\ OK NKW YORK 
 
 The borough of Brooklyn hes 
 across the East River from lower 
 Manhattan and is a vast city in 
 itself. It has large commerce anil 
 great manufacturing establish- 
 ments, and here many people who 
 carry on business in Manhattan 
 have their homes. The same is 
 true of the borough of Oueens, 
 which takes in Long Island Cit\ 
 and other centers of population. 
 The borough of Richmond includes 
 the whole of Staten Island, and 
 therefore includes much land stdl 
 used for farms and gardens. I he 
 Bronx also is in the mam a resi- 
 dential section for people who carr\' on busi- 
 ness in Manhattan; but it has some piano 
 and other factories of its own. 
 
 As has already been pointed out, the more 
 important business, theater, and factory dis- 
 tricts of the great city are in the lower and 
 middle parts of the long and narrow Man- 
 hattan Island. Ihere each business day an 
 enormous number of people are at work, 
 most of whom live in the northern and 
 middle parts of the island, in the other 
 boroughs, or in the near-by villages of New 
 York and New Jersey. During the day and 
 evening other thousands visit the trade and 
 theater districts of Manhattan on business or 
 for pleasure. The problem of moving hun- 
 dreds of thousands of people into and out of 
 the city and from place to place within its 
 limits is one of great difficulty. In the rush 
 hours just before the opening of the business 
 day every passenger route leading into the 
 business district is crowded to the utmost. 
 At the close of the business day it is the 
 trains, cars, and ferries moving away from 
 the business district that are overcrowded. 
 
 In the borough of Manhattan the chief 
 lines of transportation run north and south. 
 These include (i) many lines of surface electric 
 cars running on Broadway and the avenues, 
 with numerous cross-town lines, (2) elevated 
 
 railways built above tiie level of the street 
 and supported on great iron trestles, and (3) 
 a system of subways where the railway 
 tracks are laki under the streets. A part of 
 the subway system is still under construc- 
 tion. Ihe subways connect by tunnels 
 under the river beds with New Jersey and 
 with the borough of Brooklyn ; and by a 
 bridge and a tunnel with the Bronx. There 
 are elevated railways also in the boroughs ot 
 Brooklyn, Queens, and the Bronx, connecting 
 with Manhattan. 
 
 The surface cars will pick up or leave passen- 
 gers at any street corner on signal, but on 
 the elevated railroads and the subways there 
 are regular passenger stations. On all of the 
 railway lines entering the city there are nu- 
 merous suburban trains. Passengers on these 
 trains arc carried to and from the stations 
 within the city or on the New Jersey shore. 
 From the New Jersey terminals passengers 
 may reach Manhattan by ferry or by tunnel. 
 
 The chief lines handling this suburban 
 traffic are the Long Island Railroad, the New 
 York New Haven and Hartford Railroad, the 
 New \ ork Central and Hudson River Rail- 
 road, the Pennsylvania Railroad, the Erie 
 Railroad, the Delaware Lackawanna and 
 Western Railroad, the Lehigh Valley Rail- 
 road, the Baltimore and Ohio, and the New 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 York Ontario and Western Railway. The 
 Long Island Railroad runs suburban trains to 
 the boroughs, cities, and villages of Long 
 Island. The New York New Haven and 
 Hartford and the New York Central conduct 
 most of the suburban traffic of southern 
 New York and Connecticut. The other lines 
 have a large traffic between New York and 
 the cities and villages of northern New Jersey. 
 
 Two railway stations on Manhattan Island 
 are of enormous size, magnificent construction, 
 and cost millions of dollars each. These are 
 the Grand Central on East Forty-second 
 Street, and the Pennsylvania Station at 
 Thirty-second Street and Seventh Avenue. 
 The Pennsylvania trains reach that station 
 by a tunnel under the Hudson River. There 
 is a tunnel under the East River, so that all 
 Long Island is joined to the mainland in its 
 railway connections, and the trains on this 
 line use the Pennsylvania station. 
 
 Several bridges, including the earliest or 
 Brooklyn Bridge, now extend across East 
 River. Steamboats and electric cars carry 
 great numbers of excursionists to resorts on 
 Long Island, and to places on the New Jersey 
 shore. Regular lines of steamers, in the ice- 
 free season, ply the Hudson River to Albany 
 and Troy and intermediate cities. 
 
 North and northeast of the city of New 
 York are Yonkers, Mt. Vernon, White Plains, 
 New Rochelle, Mamaroneck, Rye, and Port 
 Chester. East of New York are Glen Cove, 
 
 Rockville Center, Hempstead, and Freeport. 
 Many people who live in these and other 
 suburbs carry on business in New York. 
 
 Cities and Villages of the Hudson Valley. — 
 Adjoining New York, on the east bank of 
 the Hudson, is Yonkers. In population this 
 city is the sixth in the state. Many of its 
 residents work in the metropolis, but it is 
 also a manufacturing city. In its factories, 
 carpets, rugs, and fur felt hats are made. 
 It has great sugar refineries, machine shops, 
 elevator works, and factories for rubber 
 goods. 
 
 Smaller communities, as we go north on the 
 east side of the Hudson, are : Hastings-on- 
 Hudson ; Irvington, once the home of Wash- 
 ington Irving, the author; and Tarrytown, 
 scene of Irving's Legend of Sleepy Hollow, 
 where there are several private schools. At 
 Ossining is Sing Sing prison, the largest insti- 
 tution of the kind in the state. Peekskill 
 village is larger than many of our cities, and 
 is a center of schools and of manufacturing 
 industries. 
 
 On the west side of the river opposite 
 Tarrytown is Nyack. A little farther north is 
 Haverstraw, near which there are extensive 
 beds of clay used in making bricks. Here 
 are made many of the bricks used in the 
 buildings of Greater New York. 
 
 In the Highlands, at West Point on the 
 west side of the gorge of the Hudson, is the 
 United States Military Academy. Newburgh, 
 
GEOCJRAPin' OK NKVV YORK 
 
 The water front cf Albany. Tlie Capitol 
 
 a few miles north of the Highlands, was the 
 headquarters of the American army during a 
 part of the Rcv-olutionary War. Irs indus- 
 tries mckide the making of nun's clorhinfi, 
 lawn mowers, and boats. Beacon is a manu- 
 factunng city on the east bank of the Hudson. 
 Poughkeepsie, farther north, is the seat of 
 \ assar College, one of the oldest and largest of 
 colleges for women. In Poughkeepsie are fac- 
 tories for making horseshoes and dairy, poul- 
 try, and apiary supplies. At this point there 
 IS a railroad bridge across the Hudson, the 
 only bridge crossing the river below Albany. 
 Kingston is on the west bank of the Hudson, 
 where the Wallkill River joins the larger 
 stream. Through the Wallkill Valley, Penn- 
 
 sylvania coal is brought to the cities and 
 villages of the Hudson \ alle\'. Kingston is 
 a point of departure for Catskill Mountain 
 tourists. In the Wallkill Valley is Middle- 
 town, with car shops and manufactures of 
 leather goods and condensed milk. Walden 
 also is in the Wallkill \'alle\'. On the west 
 
 bank of the Hudson are Saugerties and Cats- 
 kill. From the latter place a railway enters 
 the Catskill Mountain region. 
 
 Hudson, on the east side of the river, is a 
 center for knit goods, and at this point a 
 branch of the Boston and Albany Railroad 
 reaches the Hudson. 
 
 On both banks of rlu- Hudson, a little 
 below the mouth of the Mohawk, there is an 
 almost continuous settlement for about ten 
 miles, made up of four cities with several 
 intermediate villages. The cities are Albany 
 and Watervliet on the west, Rensselaer and 
 Troy on the east. 
 
 In colonial days, Albany was one of the 
 most important trading posts in America 
 It has been the state capital since 1797. The 
 Capitol building, a large and costly structure, 
 overlooks the city and the river for many 
 miles. The Education Building, recently 
 erected, contains the offices of the Education 
 Department of the state, the State Geological 
 offices and collections, and the historical 
 riuiseum and the State Library. Albany is 
 the seat of the State College for Teachers, 
 and IS the center ol main industries and of a 
 large retail and wholesale trade. On the 
 opposite side of the river there are factories 
 and workshops at Rensselaer. 
 
 Troy is an important industrial center. 
 Its manufactures include shirts, collars and 
 cuffs, and knit goods. The city also has steel 
 works, rolling mills, and foundries, and is 
 the seat of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti- 
 tute. Watervliet, opposite Troy, is the seat 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 of a United States Arsenal and of lumber and 
 woolen industries. From Albany and Troy 
 trunk lines of railroad lead to New York, 
 Montreal, Boston, and Chicago. 
 
 Mechanicville, on the west bank of the 
 Hudson, has ample water power and mills 
 for the manufacture of paper and knit goods. 
 The principal industry of Hoosick Falls is the 
 manufacture of harvesting machmery. 
 
 Saratoga Springs is situated on a plain a few 
 miles west of the Hudson River. Here are 
 the best-known mineral springs of America. 
 In order to protect and preserve these waters, 
 the principal springs and surroundmg grounds 
 have been acquired by the state, and are 
 managed in the public interest by a state 
 commission. A few miles above Mechanic- 
 ville and not far from Saratoga Springs are 
 Bemis Heights, where the battle of Saratoga 
 was fought in 1777. 
 
 Hudson Falls is a seat of lumber and paper 
 industries and of stone quarrying. Glens 
 Falls has collar and cuff factories and lumber 
 and paper mills. 
 
 Cities and Villages of the Mohawk Valley. 
 — There are many cities and villages on and 
 near the banks of the Mohawk River. 
 
 Near its junction with the Hudson, the 
 Mohawk falls 70 feet, thus furnishing a splen- 
 did water power and making possible the man- 
 
 ufacturing city of Cohoes, the lead- 
 ing center for knit goods in the state. 
 Schenectady was built on the 
 broad flood plains bordering the 
 river at the point which was the 
 downstream terminus of naviga- 
 tion. Its two great industries, the 
 making of locomotives and es- 
 pecially the manufacture of elec- 
 trical machmery and appliances, 
 have caused a very rapid growth 
 in population. Schenectady is the 
 seat of Union College, the oldest 
 in the state except Columbia. 
 
 Amsterdam began to develop as 
 a place of manufacture by reason of 
 its water power, but its industries have become 
 so large that the power now used is chiefly de- 
 rived from coal. Carpets, knit goods, brooms, 
 and linseed oil are the leading manufactures. 
 A few miles northwest of Amsterdam, and 
 a short distance from the Adirondack border, 
 are Gloversville and Johnstown, whose great 
 glove industries have already been described. 
 Little Falls has large water power, as the river 
 descends about 40 feet at this point. Knit 
 goods form the leading industry, and the place 
 has long been a market for dairy products. 
 Between Little Falls and Utica are Herkimer, 
 where roll-top desks are made, and Ilion, with 
 factories for making typewriters and firearms. 
 Utica is the most important railroad center 
 in the Mohawk region. Besides the main 
 line from east to west, two routes lead into 
 the plateau region, and three railway lines 
 lead to northern New York, by way of the 
 Ontario lake plains and the western Adiron- 
 dacks. The city is the center of a rich farm- 
 ing region, and has some of the largest cotton 
 and woolen mills in the state. The making 
 of clothing and knit goods and of foundry 
 and machine shop products are also large 
 industries. Utica is a leading cheese market. 
 Rome, on the old Oneida Carrying Place, 
 has manufactures of brass and copper, of 
 locomotives, knit goods, and canned goods. 
 
CKOCRAI'in Ol- NKW ^ORK 
 
 Review. — i. \Vh;it Is the clt-nsiry i>t popiiLiruin 
 ill New ^'ork. ? 2. What is thi- ilinsity of pop- 
 ulation in your own county : 3. Where are rhe 
 densest populations in the state? 4. How ni;in\ 
 cities are there in Xew \ ork ? 
 
 5. W'hat are the horoughs of Cireater New ^'ork .' 
 6. Ciive iength, width, and altitude of the island 
 of Manhattan. 7. What geographic conditions 
 have favored the growth of the cit\ of New \'ork ? 
 8. In what parr of the city is thi' wholesale track- 
 centered ? rhe retail trade ? <>• Name sonu- 
 of its public institutions. 10. Name its chief 
 methods of transportation. 11. Under wli.it 
 waters have subways been bmlt ? 
 
 12. Ciive location and nidusrries of ^Onkers; 
 ofNewburgh; of Hudson. 13. What institution 
 is at West Point? .'^t Poughkeepsie ? 14. W'hat 
 are the two principal buildings ot .-Xlbaiiy r 
 15. What are the main industries of iroy ? Of 
 Cohoes ? Of Cdens Falls ? 16. What cities are on 
 the Mohawk River? 17. What are the mam in- 
 dustries of each ? 
 
 Cities and Villages of the Lake Plains. 
 On the lowlands near the (ireat Lakes are 
 many cities, includinji three which, after New- 
 "N'ork, are rhe largest in the state. These 
 are Biitt'alo, Rochester, and Syracuse. The 
 two chief reasons for their growth are, — 
 first, they are on one of the great natural 
 transportation routes leading from the sea- 
 board to the west, and .second, they are sur- 
 rounded h\ wide areas of productive soil. 
 
 Oneida is on the south edge of the plain, 
 at the opening of a valley which leads through 
 the plateau to Ringhamton. It is a thriving 
 city, with several manufacturing industries. 
 Near it, on the southeast, is Sherrill, the 
 smallest city in the state. 
 
 Syracuse also is on the south edge of the 
 plain, and its streets and buildings extend 
 
 up rhe northern slopes ot the plateau. lor- 
 merly its main industr\' was the making of 
 salt from brines obtained b\- boring. Now its 
 growth IS due to other causes. It is on a 
 spur of the I?arge Canal, and has railway 
 connections in all directions. Among its 
 more important manufactures are automo- 
 biles, iron and steel products, food stuffs, 
 typewriters, and men's clothing. The city 
 is the seat of Syracuse University. Near 
 Syracuse is the large village of Solvay, where 
 great quantities of soda ash, sodium bicar- 
 bonate, and other chemical products are 
 made. 
 
 Fulton, on the Oswego River, has excellent 
 water power and manufactures woolen goods, 
 firearms, and paper. Oswego, situated where 
 the Oswego River enters Lake Ontario, is on 
 the site of what was an important fort in 
 colonial days. The leading industries are the 
 making of matches, starch, and woolen goods, 
 and the manufacture of boilers. It has a 
 good harbor, and ships large amounts of coal. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 Making cameras, Rochester 
 
 Auburn, on the outlet of Owasco Lake, is 
 one of the older cities of western New York. 
 Its manufactures are chiefly agricultural im- 
 plements, shoes, cordage, and twine. Seneca 
 Falls is a large village on the outlet of Seneca 
 Lake; it has manufactures of hydraulic ma- 
 chinery. The city of Geneva is at the foot 
 of Seneca Lake. It has nurseries and various 
 manufactures, and is the seat of Hobart 
 College and of the State Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station. Penn Yan is at the foot of 
 Keuka Lake, and Canandaigua is at the foot 
 ')f the lake bearing the same name. Newark 
 and Lyons are on the main line of railroad 
 between Syracuse and Rochester. 
 
 Rochester lies on both sides of the Genesee 
 River a few miles from its mouth, and in- 
 cludes the lake port formerh' known as the 
 village of Charlotte. Through this port, 
 much trade is carried on with Toronto and 
 other places in Canada. Rochester is on a 
 branch of the Barge Canal and has several 
 lines of railway. It is in the midst of a most 
 fertile region. Ever since tlie early days, 
 when western New York was the wheat cen- 
 ter of the United States, there have been large 
 rtouring mills at Rochester, where the falls 
 of the Genesee River furnish much water 
 power. The leading manufactures at the 
 present time are men's clothing, shoes, and 
 photographic apparatus, in which industry 
 Rochester leads the world. There are, how 
 ever, many other industries, and the city has 
 
 more than 1200 industrial plants. 
 About Rochester are some of the 
 largest nursery establishments in the 
 United States, for ornamental trees, 
 fruit trees, vegetable and flower 
 seeds, and bulbs. The city has 
 attractive streets and homes and 
 is the seat of the Mechanics' Insti- 
 tute and the University of Rochester 
 Batavia is midway between Roch- 
 ester and Buffalo. Its main industry 
 is the making of agricultural imple- 
 ments. Medina and Albion are large 
 villages in Orleans County, in the midst ot 
 a rich farming and fruit-raising region. At 
 Albion are extensive quarries. Lockport is 
 a manufacturing city, whose largest industry 
 is flour and grist milling. 
 
 Buffalo, in 1910, ranked tenth in population 
 among the cities of the United States, but 
 ninth in the value of its manufactured prod- 
 ucts. It is very natural that a great city 
 should grow up at the foot of Lake Erie 
 Between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario naviga- 
 tion is interrupted by the rapids and falls of 
 Niagara. Buffalo is therefore the eastern 
 terminus of most of the Great Lakes traffic 
 from Chicago, Milwaukee, Duluth, Detroit, 
 and many other lake ports. It is the point 
 where the products of the west are transferred 
 from lake ships to the railways or canal. 
 Trunk lines of railways reach out in all direc- 
 tions. Buffalo handles immense quantities 
 of flour and wheat as well as other grains. 
 
 A lake steamer at Buffalo 
 
(;K()c;R.\i»in- of nkw ^ork 
 
 Many largf elevators liave 
 been Iniilr on the lake front 
 to take care of the transfer 
 of grain from ship to car or 
 barge. liesiik-s grain, there 
 IS a vast trartic in won, coal, 
 and oil. Coal is reaclil\' ac- 
 cessible from PennsN Kama, 
 and is brought to Buffalo for 
 local use and for shipment up 
 the lakes. The city is near extensive oil and Adjoining Buffalo, but under a charter of 
 
 natural gas regions, and has the advantage of its own, is the city of Lackawanna, which 
 electrical power transmitted from Niagara has grown up in recent years as a steel 
 Falls. This power is used for lighting the making city, using coal from Pennsylvania. 
 
 city, for street railways, and 
 for manufacturing purposes. 
 Buffalo is an important mar- 
 ket for lumlier, live stock, 
 and fish. 
 
 Buffalo has more than 
 1750 manufacturing estab- 
 lishments. The chief indus- 
 tries are slaughtering and 
 meat packing, foundry and 
 machine shop products, and 
 rtour and gristmill products. 
 Copper smelting and refin- 
 ing, and the making of auto- 
 mobiles, linseed oil, candles, 
 and wax, form other large 
 industries. In Buffalo are 
 
 and iron ore from the Lake 
 Superior region. Several 
 thousand men are employed 
 111 this industry. Between 
 Buffalo and Niagara Falls 
 are the cities of Tonawanda 
 and North Tonawanda. The 
 latter is an important lum- 
 ber market. Niagara Falls 
 has become an important 
 center, not only because of 
 the attraction of the great 
 falls and the fact that several 
 trunk lines of railway cross 
 the river at this point, but 
 because of the electrical 
 power developed here. It 
 
 the University of Buffalo, a state normal has become a great center for the manufac- 
 school, and other educational institutions, ture of chemicals, prepared foods, wood pulp, 
 
 paper, and abrasive materials. Near Niagara 
 Falls is Niagara University. F,ast of Buffalo 
 are the villages of Depew and Lancaster, with 
 shops and factories. 
 
 On the narrow lake plain southwest ot 
 Buffalo, in Chautauqua County, are Fredonia 
 and Dunkirk. In the former is one of the 
 state normal schools and in the latter there 
 are railroad shops and locomotive works. 
 
 Cities and Villages of the Plateau. — In 
 the western part of the plateau is Jamestown, 
 a citv on the outlet of Chautauqua Fake. It 
 has manufactures of worsteds and of wooden 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 and metal furniture. On the shores of the 
 lake are the Chautauqua Assembly grounds, 
 the headquarters of a widely known move- 
 ment for popular education. Salamanca is a 
 railroad center, with car shops and manufac- 
 tures of lumber. Olean is in the oil region, 
 and its leading industry is the refining of 
 petroleum. Perry has manufactures of knit 
 goods, and Wellsville is the principal village 
 of Allegany County. Homell has large car 
 shops, and Coming has railroad shops and 
 glass factories. 
 
 Elmira is a large city and important railway 
 center on the Chemung River. Am.ong its 
 leading industries are the making of fire 
 engines and of automobile parts. This city 
 is the seat of Elmira College and 
 also the State Reformatory. East 
 of Elmira are Waverly and Owego, 
 with shops and factories. 
 
 The largest city in the plateau 
 is Binghamton, situated at the 
 junction of the Susquehanna and 
 Chenango rivers. It has ample 
 railroad facilities, and a large retail 
 and wholesale trade. Binghamton 
 has large manufactures of tobacco. 
 Near the city, on the Susquehanna 
 River, are Johnson City and Endi- 
 cott. At both these places are 
 large shoe factories. 
 
 Ithaca is magnificently situated 
 at the head of Cayuga Lake, and 
 is the seat of Cornell University 
 Cortland has manufactures of iron 
 and steel, including wire and rolling 
 mill products, and is the seat of a 
 state normal school. Norwich is a 
 trading center for a large dairying 
 region between Utica and Bing- 
 hamton. Oneonta has large rail- 
 road shops and is the seat of a 
 state normal school. Port Jervis 
 on the Delaware River, is in the 
 Appalachian valley southeast of 
 the plateau. It has several kinds 
 of manufactures. 
 
 Cities and Villages of Northern New York. — 
 Watertown is the largest city in the northern 
 part of the state. Important water power is 
 here supplied by the Black River, and foundry 
 and machine shop work and pulp and paper 
 making are the leading industries. 
 
 Ogdensburg, in St. Lawrence County, is 
 next to Watertown in population. Its chiel 
 interests are in grain, lumber, and manufac- 
 tures of lumber. Gouverneur, Potsdam, and 
 Massena are important villages in St. 
 Lawrence County. Potsdam is the seat of 
 a state normal school. Massena has water 
 power, and here are located the largest alu- 
 minum works in the LInited States. 
 
 H^ 
 
 
 n 
 
 '^f^^ 
 \:^\ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 Rolling cigars, Binghamton 
 
(;E0GRAP1I^■ OF NEW YORK 
 
 Lowville is rhc county seat and 
 leaclinj; \ illage of Lewis County, and 
 Malone is the county seat and chief 
 center of business in Franklin County. 
 Plattsburg is on Lake Cliainphiin. It 
 is the seat of a state normal school, 
 and has lumber interests. A little 
 south of this cit}' is the meeting place 
 of the Catholic Summer School of 
 .America. Whitehall is at the head of 
 Lake Champlain, and is the northern 
 terminus of the Champlain branch of 
 the Barge Canal. The largest village 
 m the midst of the Adirondacks is 
 Saranac Lake, a health resort. 
 
 Review. — I. What advantage of location ha.s 
 
 iyracuse 
 
 What are the leachns; industrit-.s 
 
 of Syracuse .'' 3. What three 
 cities are each on or near 
 the foot of one of the 
 Finger Lakes ? 4. What 
 transportation facilities has 
 Oswego ? 5. Where is the- 
 State Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station .? 6. What 
 are the chief industries of 
 Rochester .'' 7. What cities 
 are in Niagara County ? 
 
 8. What rank among 
 .American cities has Buffalo 
 in population ? In manu- 
 factures ? 9. What condi- 
 tions promote the commerce 
 of Buffalo .' ID. What are 
 the leading interests of 
 Niagara Falls ? Of North 
 Tonavvanda ? Of Lockport .' 
 
 II. What are the industries of Jamestown .^ Of 
 Olean .'' Of Corning.'' 12. State the location of 
 Elmira ; of Binghamton. 13. What university is 
 at Ithaca? 14. Locate Cortland; Norwich; 
 Oneonta. 15. What are the leading industries 
 of Watertown ? Of Ogdensburg ? 
 
 Government. — The chief executive of the 
 
 consists of two houses,- the Senate, with 51 
 members elected for two years, and the As- 
 sembly, with 1 50 members elected for one 
 year. There are depart- 
 ments of Public Works. 
 Hanking, Insurance, Fac- 
 tory Inspection, and E.x- 
 cisc. Iwo Public Service 
 Commissions, one for 
 Cireater New York, the 
 other for the rest of the 
 state, have supervision of 
 railways and of such utili- 
 ties as the telegraph and 
 telephone service. Vari- 
 ous commissions care foi 
 public reservations in the 
 Adirondacks, at Saratoga 
 Springs, Niagara Falls, 
 and elsewhere. 
 The Court of Appeals is the highest state 
 court. Below it are man}- divisions and parts 
 of the Supreme Court, with more than lOC 
 judges. Lower courts are provided for coun- 
 ties, cities, and towns. 
 
 The state is divided into 62 counties. 
 Each countv, except those in Greater New 
 
 state is the Governor, who holds office for York, is divided into towns, or townships, 
 
 two years. Other state officers are: the Many of the cities, however, do not form 
 
 Lieutenant Governor, the Secretary of State, part of any town. Each county, town, city, 
 
 the Attorney-General, and the State Engi- and village has a government of its own, 
 
 neer. The legislature, or lawmaking body, with powers fixed by the state government. 
 
GEOGRAPHY OF NEW YORK 
 
 The chief officers of the county are the 
 )udge, the district attorney, the county clerk, 
 the sheriflF, and the coroners. Each county 
 has a capital called the county seat. Here 
 are the county court, the sheriff's office, and 
 the jail, and the office of the county clerk. 
 The chief officer of each town is a supervisor ; 
 and the town supervisors, with others chosen 
 by cities, make up the Board of Supervisors 
 which is the legislative body of the county. 
 The chief officers of a city are the mayor and 
 the council or board of aldermen. 
 
 Each voter must have been a citizen of the 
 United States for ninety days, and must 
 have resided one year in the state, four 
 months in the county, and 30 days in the 
 election district. 
 
 Charities and Penal Institutions. — Twelve 
 commissioners constitute the State Board of 
 Charities. They are appointed by the Gover- 
 nor, with the confirmation of the Senate, and 
 hold office for eight years. A large number 
 of charitable and reformatory institutions are 
 supported partly or wholly by the state and 
 its various subdivisions. The Board of Chari- 
 ties has oversight of these institutions and 
 carries on regular visitations. Among the 
 kinds of people thus cared for are juvenile 
 delinquents, the feeble-minded, orphans, the 
 blind, the deaf and dumb, crippled and de- 
 formed children, and the aged. Among the 
 
 institutions under the care of this 
 board are industrial schools, 
 soldiers' and sailors' homes, county 
 almshouses, and hospitals for tu- 
 berculosis patients. 
 
 Several state prisons and re- 
 formatories receive convicts whose 
 sentence is for a period of more 
 than one year. Various peniten- 
 tiaries in the state receive those 
 convicted of minor offenses and 
 sentenced for short periods. Hos- 
 pitals for the insane are in the care 
 of the Board of Lunacy. 
 
 Education. — The educational 
 work of the state is in the charge of the 
 University of the State of New York. 
 This is not a university in the sense of 
 being a localized school. Its powers are 
 committed to twelve persons called Regents 
 who meet in Albany. They are elected by 
 the legislature. Their presiding officer is 
 styled the Chancellor of the University, and 
 they appoint the Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion, who has under his special charge the 
 rural schools, the elementary and high 
 schools of the villages and cities, and the 
 state normal schools. 
 
 The state is divided into a large number of 
 districts, in each of which an officer called the 
 district superintendent is responsible for the 
 rural schools. In the larger villages and cities, 
 a superintendent of schools is the chief execu- 
 tive officer. Education is compulsory for all 
 children between the ages of eight and sixteen 
 The State College for Teachers is at Albany, 
 and there are also state normal schools located 
 at Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland, Fredonia. 
 Geneseo, New Paltz, Oneonta, Oswego, 
 Plattsburg, and Potsdam. Some of the large 
 cities maintain similar institutions; thus in 
 Greater New York are Hunter College, and 
 the New York, Brooklyn, and Jamaica Train- 
 ing Schools for Teachers. 
 
 The higher schools are the universities, 
 colleges, and technical schools. Many of 
 
GE(X^RAPII^' Ol \K\V >()RK 
 
 J] 
 
 > Uiiii 
 
 ^iiv 
 
 « College 
 
 * Technical schoo 
 
 • NoriiMl scliool 
 
 The higher educational institutions of New York 
 
 these have grown up under the patronage ot 
 rehgious denominations, but are now classed 
 as non-sectarian because no rehgious con- 
 ditions are enforced and faculty and students 
 are representative of many chuichcs. ( )n rhi 
 other hand, there are many 
 institutions under Cathohc 
 control, including Fordham 
 University in the city of 
 New York, Niagara Univer- 
 sity near Niagara Falls, and 
 colleges at New Rochelle, 
 in New York (Mt. St. Vin- 
 cent, Manhattan, Brooklyn, 
 St. Francis, and St. John's), 
 in Buffalo (Canisius and 
 D'Youville), and at Allegany 
 in Cattaraugus County (St. 
 Bonaventure's). 
 
 The oldest of the higher 
 educational institutions of 
 the state is Columbia Uni- 
 versity, in the city of New 
 York, founded in 1754. It has the largest 
 enrollment of all American universities. Af- 
 filiated with Columbia are Barnard College 
 for women, and Teachers College. 
 
 Other large universities, each with thousands 
 of students, are New York University in the 
 city of New York ; Cornell University at 
 Ithaca, on a splendid site overlooking Cayuga 
 
 Lake; ami Svracuse I nixersiry 111 S\racuse. 
 Smaller universities are those of Buffalo, of 
 Rochester, of .'\lfred in Allegany Countv, 
 Colgate Unisersity at Hamilton in Madison 
 County, St. Lawrence University- at Canton 
 in St. Lawrence County, and I nion Univer- 
 sity, including I nion College at Schenectady, 
 and professional colleges at Albany. 
 
 The New York State College of Agriculture 
 is at Cornell University, and the State College 
 of Forestry is at Syracuse University. Besides 
 the many other schools and colleges which 
 belong to the universities, there are some in- 
 dependent colleges, as Adelphi in Brooklyn, 
 Hamilton at Clinton in Oneida County, and 
 Hobart at Geneva ; and some independent 
 technical schools, as Pratt Institute and the 
 Polytechnic Institute in Brooklyn, the Mili- 
 tary Academy at West Point, the Rensselaer 
 Polytechnic Institute at Iroy, the Clark- 
 son Memorial School of Tech- 
 nology at Potsdam, and the 
 Mechanics' Institute at Roch- 
 ester. The College of the 
 City of New York, in Man- 
 hattan borough, is a large 
 college supported by the city. 
 Colleges for women include 
 Klmira College at Elmira, 
 Wells College at Aurora on 
 Cayuga Lake, and Vassar 
 College — one of the oldest 
 and most widely known in 
 the country — at Pough- 
 keepsie. 
 
 Review. — I. What are tht 
 priiuipal state officers ? 2. What 
 is the duty of the Public Service 
 Commissions? 3. How many counties in New 
 York ? 4. What institutions are found in each 
 county seat ? 5. What are the conditions which 
 qualify voters in this state.'' 6. What are the 
 (luries of the State Board of Charities ? 
 
 7. What is the University of the State of New 
 'V'ork ? S. What normal school is nearest your 
 home.'' 9. Locate four colleges for women; two 
 large universities; two technical schools. 
 
COUNTIES OF NEW YORK — AREA AND POPULATION, 1920 
 
 Sq. 
 Albany . . . 
 Allegany. - 
 Bronx .... 
 Broome. . . 
 Cattaraugus 
 Cayuga. . . 
 Chautauqua 
 Chemung . 
 Chenango. 
 Clinton. . . 
 Columbia . 
 Cortland. . 
 Delaware . 
 Dutchess. . 
 
 Erie 
 
 Essex 
 
 Miles 
 527 
 
 1,047 
 42 
 705 
 
 1.343 
 703 
 
 1,069 
 407 
 894 
 
 1,049 
 644 
 503 
 
 1,449 
 806 
 
 1,034 
 
 1,836 
 
 POPULMION- 
 
 186,106 
 
 36,842 
 
 732,016 
 
 113,610 
 
 71.323 
 
 65,221 
 
 115,348 
 
 65,872 
 
 34,969 
 
 43,898 
 
 38,930 
 
 29,625 
 
 42,774 
 
 91.747 
 
 634,588 
 
 31,871 
 
 Sq. Miles 
 
 Franklin.. 1,678 
 
 Fulton. . . . 516 
 
 Genesee . . 496 
 
 Greene . . . 643 
 
 Hamilton . 1,700 
 
 Herkimer . 1,459 
 
 Jefterson. . 1,274 
 
 Kings .... 70 
 
 Lewis .... 1,270 
 
 Livingston 631 
 
 Madison. . 650 
 
 Monroe. . . 663 
 Montgomery 398 
 
 Nassau . . . 274 
 
 New York 21 
 
 Niagara . . 522 
 
 43.541 
 44.927 
 37.976 
 25.796 
 3.970 
 64,962 
 82,250 
 2,022,262 
 23,704 
 36,830 
 39,535 
 
 352,034 
 57.928 
 
 125.727 
 2,284,103 
 
 118,705 
 
 Oneida 
 Onondaga 
 Ontario. 
 Orange 
 
 Orleans. 
 Oswego , 
 Otsego . 
 Putnam 
 Queens 
 Rensselaer 
 Richmond 
 Rockland . 183 
 St. Lawrence 2,701 
 Saratoga. . 823 
 Schenectady 206 
 Schoharie 642 
 
 Sq. Miles Population I 
 1,250 
 
 649 
 
 834 
 396 
 966 
 1,009 
 233 
 105 
 663 
 
 182,485 
 241.465 
 52,652 
 119,844 
 28,619 
 71.045 
 46,200 
 10,802 
 466,811 
 113,129 
 115.959 
 45.548 
 88,121 
 60,029 
 109,363 
 21,303 
 
 Schuyler . 
 Seneca. . . . 
 Steuben. . . 
 Suffolk... 
 Sullivan . . 
 Tioga... . . 
 Tompkins. 
 Ulster. . . . 
 Warren, . . 
 Washington 
 Wayne . . . 
 Westchester 
 Wyoming 
 Yates 
 
 336 
 336 
 
 1,401 
 924 
 
 1,002 
 520 
 476 
 
 1,140 
 879 
 837 
 599 
 44S 
 601 
 343 
 
 Population 
 13,098 
 24.735 
 80,627 
 
 110,241 
 33.163 
 24,212 
 35.285 
 74.979 
 31.673 
 44,888 
 48,827 
 
 344,086 
 30,077 
 16,641 
 
 Total... 47,654 10,384,829 
 
 CITIES OF NEW YORK— POPULATION, 1920 
 
 .Mbany 
 
 .Amsterdam . . 
 
 .'\uburn 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Beacon 
 
 Binghamton 
 Buffalo. .. . . 
 Canandaigua. 
 
 Cohoes 
 
 Corning 
 
 Cortland 
 
 Dunkirk. . 
 Elmira. . , . . 
 
 Fulton 
 
 Geneva 
 
 113.344 
 33.524 
 36,192 
 
 13.541 
 10,996 
 66,Soo 
 506,775 
 7.356 
 22,987 
 15,820 
 13.294 
 19,336 
 45.393 
 13.043 
 14.648 
 
 Glen Cove 
 
 Glens Falls 
 
 Ghtversville. . . , 
 
 Hornell 
 
 Hudson 
 
 Ithaca 
 
 Jamestown. . . . 
 
 Johnstown 
 
 Kingston 
 
 Lackawanna. . . 
 
 Little Falls 
 
 Lockport 
 
 Mechanicville. . 
 Middletown . . . 
 Mount Vernon. 
 
 8,664 
 16,638 
 22,075 
 15.025 
 11.745 
 17.004 
 38,917 
 10,908 
 26,688 
 17.918 
 13,029 
 21,308 
 
 8,i66 
 18,420 
 42.726 
 
 Newburgh .... 
 New Rochelle. 
 
 New York 5 
 
 Niagara Falls. . . . 
 North Tonawanda 
 
 Norwich 
 
 Ogdensburg 
 
 Olean 
 
 Oneida 
 
 Oneonta 
 
 Oswego 
 
 Plattsburg 
 
 Port Jervis 
 
 Poughkeepsie. . . . 
 Rensselaer 
 
 30,366 
 36,213 
 ,620,048 
 50,760 
 15,482 
 8,268 
 14,609 
 20,506 
 10,541 
 11,582 
 23,626 
 10,909 
 10,171 
 35,000 
 10,82? 
 
 Rochester 
 
 Rome 
 
 Saratoga Springs 
 
 Salamanca 
 
 Schenectady. . . . 
 
 Sherrill 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Tonawanda 
 
 Troy 
 
 Utica 
 
 Watertown 
 
 Watervliet 
 
 White Plains... 
 Yonkers 
 
 295.750 
 26,341 
 13.181 
 9,276 
 88,723 
 1,761 
 
 171,717 
 10,068 
 72,013 
 94,156 
 31.285 
 16,073 
 21,031 
 
 100,176 
 
 VILLAGES OF 2500 OR MORE — POPULATION, 1920 
 
 Village 
 
 Albion 
 
 Amityville .... 
 
 Avon 
 
 Babylon 
 
 Baldwinsville . 
 Ballston Spa. . . 
 
 Bath 
 
 Brockport 
 
 Bronxville . . . 
 
 Canastota 
 
 Canton 
 
 Carthage 
 
 Catskill 
 
 Cedarhurst . . . . 
 
 Clyde 
 
 Cooperstown , . . 
 
 Chatham 
 
 Corinth 
 
 Dansville 
 
 Depew 
 
 Dobbs Ferry. . . 
 
 Dolgeville 
 
 East .'\urora. . . 
 
 East Rochester. 
 
 East Syracuse . 
 
 EUenville 
 
 Elmira Heights 
 
 Endicott 
 
 Fairport 
 
 Falconer 
 
 Fort Edward . . 
 
 Fort Plain 
 
 Frankfort 
 
 Fredonia 
 
 Freeport 
 
 Goshen 
 
 Gouverneur. . . . 
 
 County 
 Orleans 
 Suffolk 
 Livingston 
 Suffolk 
 Onondaga 
 Saratoga 
 Steuben 
 Monroe 
 Westchester 
 Madison 
 St. Lawrence 
 Jefferson 
 Greene 
 Nassau 
 Wayne 
 Otsego 
 Columbia 
 Saratoga 
 Livingston 
 Erie 
 Westchester 
 
 Population 
 4,683 
 3,265 
 2,585 
 2,523 
 3,685 
 4,103 
 
 4.795 
 2,930 
 
 3.055 
 3.995 
 2,631 
 4.320 
 4.728 
 2,838 
 2,528 
 2,725 
 2,710 
 2,576 
 4,681 
 5,850 
 4,401 
 
 Fulton & Herk. 3,448 
 
 Erie 
 
 Monroe 
 
 Onondaga 
 
 Ulster 
 
 Chemung 
 
 Broome 
 
 Monroe 
 
 Chautauqua 
 
 Washington 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 Herkimer 
 
 Chautauqua 
 
 Nassau 
 
 Orange 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 3.703 
 3,901 
 4,106 
 3.116 
 4,188 
 9,500 
 4,626 
 2,742 
 3.871 
 2,747 
 4,198 
 6,051 
 8,599 
 2,843 
 4.143 
 
 Gowanda 
 
 Granville 
 
 Green Island. . . 
 
 Greenport 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 Hastings-on- 
 
 Hudson 
 
 Haverstraw. . . . 
 Hempstead ... 
 
 Herkimer 
 
 Highland Falls. 
 Hoosick Falls. . 
 Hudson Falls. . 
 
 Ilion 
 
 Irvington 
 
 Johnson City. . 
 
 Kenmore 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 La Salle 
 
 Lawrence 
 
 LeRoy 
 
 Lowville 
 
 Lynbrook 
 
 Lyons 
 
 Malone 
 
 Mamaroneck . . 
 
 Massena 
 
 Medina 
 
 Mineola 
 
 Mohawk 
 
 Mt. Kisco 
 
 Mt. Morris. . . . 
 
 Newark 
 
 North Tarrytown 
 
 Nyack 
 
 Ossining 
 
 Owego 
 
 County 
 Cat. & Erie 
 Washington 
 Albany 
 Suffolk 
 Erie 
 
 Population 
 2,673 
 3.024 
 4.411 
 3,122 
 3.185 
 
 W^estchester 
 
 Rockland 
 
 Nassau 
 
 Herkimer 
 
 Orange 
 
 Rensselaer 
 
 Washington 
 
 Herkimer 
 
 Westchester 
 
 Broome 
 
 Erie 
 
 Erie 
 
 Niagara 
 
 Nassau 
 
 Genesee 
 
 Lewis 
 
 Nassau 
 
 Wayne 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Westchester 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Nassau 
 
 Herkimer 
 
 Westchester 
 
 Livingston 
 
 Wayne 
 
 Westchester 
 
 Rockland 
 
 Westchester 
 
 Tioga 
 
 5.526 
 5.226 
 6,382 
 
 io,4S3 
 2,588 
 4,896 
 5.761 
 
 10,169 
 2,701 
 8,587 
 3,160 
 6,059 
 
 3,813 
 2,861 
 4,203 
 3,127 
 4.367 
 4.253 
 7.556 
 6,276 
 
 5,993 
 6,011 
 3,016 
 2,919 
 3,901 
 3.312 
 6,964 
 5.927 
 4.444 
 10,739 
 4.147 
 
 Village 
 
 Patchogue 
 
 Peekskill 
 
 Penn Yan 
 
 Perry 
 
 Pleasantville . 
 Port Chester 
 
 Potsdam 
 
 Rockville Center 
 
 Rye 
 
 Sag Harbor. 
 Saranac Lake. 
 
 Saugerties 
 
 Scarsdale 
 
 Scotia 
 
 Seneca Falls . . . 
 
 Sidney 
 
 Silver Creek. . . 
 
 Solvay 
 
 Southampton . . 
 Spring Valley. . 
 
 Suffern 
 
 Tarrytown .... 
 
 Tuckahoe 
 
 Tupper Lake . . 
 
 Union 
 
 Walden 
 
 Walton 
 
 Wappingers Falls 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 Waterford 
 
 Waterloo 
 
 Watkins 
 
 Waverly 
 
 Wellsville 
 
 Westfield 
 
 Whitehall 
 
 Whitesboro. . . 
 
 County Population 
 
 Suffolk 4,031 
 
 Westchester 15,868 
 
 Yates 5,215 
 
 Wyoming 4,717 
 
 Westchester 3,590 
 
 Westchester 16,573 
 
 St. Lawrence 4,039 
 
 Nassau 6,262 
 
 Westchester 5,308 
 
 Suffolk 2,993 
 Essex & Frank. 5,174 
 
 Ulster 4.013 
 
 Westchester 3,506 
 
 Schenectady 4,358 
 
 Seneca 6,389 
 
 Delaware 2,670 
 
 Chautauqua 3,260 
 
 Onondaga 7.352 
 
 Suffolk 2,635 
 
 Rockland 4,428 
 
 Rockland 3,154 
 
 Westchester 5,807 
 
 Westchester 3,509 
 
 Franklin 2,508 
 
 Broome 3,303 
 
 Orange 5,493 
 
 Delaware 3,598 
 
 Dutchess 3,235 
 
 Wyoming 3,622 
 
 Saratoga 2,637 
 
 Seneca 3,8o9' 
 
 Schuyler 2,785 
 
 Tioga 5.270 
 
 Allegany 5,046 
 
 Chautauqua 3,413 
 
 Washington 5,258 
 
 Oneida 3,038 
 
 t^^^v u^ i 'i»^\ 
 
^% w^ /% w /% w 
 
 •^^0^ 
 .•^°* 
 
 
 -^•^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
o^^^r. 
 
 
 
 0" 
 
 .'y^V. "^.^^ 
 
 y .%; ^'. -^ , V 
 
 > • v' ■::.' !;,•:., '^ ^^■ 
 
 .<!:-.'- >. 
 
 
 ,->' 
 
 ^^" % 
 
 
 
 <.'y ^:- 
 
 :^.:-'%o^ 
 
 . v->. 
 
 - S:.;.V^ > 
 
 .,-1 q., 
 
 
 'X: 
 
 i'J'/ 
 
 
 ..^^ 
 
 
 \^^ 
 
 . ... , ^ 
 
 
 c^ 
 
 ^> 
 
 ./^S^ 
 
 .v-^. 
 
 
 .0- 
 
 
 
 .HO, 
 
 
 
 ^, 
 
 '^". 
 
 •■<'^ ^^^ 
 
 -^^0* 
 
 ^°^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .< o^ 
 
 c- 
 
 
 
 
 ,0-^ 
 
 
 0' 
 
 ov^^:^^^ 
 
 
 ,,Ho., 
 
 'o V 
 
 
 
 ■0' 
 
 ■■u 
 
 *^ ,0. = .% ••' ^^ ^-f: ■•' -v^ < 
 
 o V-" 
 
 
 iV 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 0' 
 .Ho^, 
 
 
 o V 
 ,0. 
 
 ■■m'-\y--^-%^y-^- 
 
 
 D08BSBR0S 
 
 ■* • • • "■ .0 O - o , . • A > 
 
 <- 
 
 
 .v>- 
 
 
 AUGUSTINE 
 
 • - • TLA, 
 
 O V- 
 
 -^■^ 
 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 -> 
 
 
 
 'b V" 
 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 012 609 503 A 
 
 pllf 
 
 JiilllnBjIilli 
 
 muhimiMm'f.