l\W Kwm™t Hb • :«tt*A;..v> I ■ ■ ■ ■ !£K9a MSA! i&y ■ jEtttf ** OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY FOR JUNIOR CLASSES IN SCHOOLS ; OR, A FIRST BOOK FOR PUPILS PREPARING FOR PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. BY ROBERT ROSS, LECTURER OK HISTORY, NORMAL COLLEGE, CHELTENHAM. NINETY-SIXTH THOUSAND. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. [PRICE TWO SHILLINGS A.ND SIXPENCE.] Wl- ? -T, I'fiXT-BOOKS FOR MIDDLE CLASS EXAMINATIONS [Entered at Stationer*' ilaU.i BY THE SAME AUTHOR. In crown &vo., Revised Edition, price 5s. Qd. cloth, A MANUAL OF ENGLISH HISTORY, for Senior Classes in Scnools; or, a Second Book for Pupils preparing lor Public Examinations. This work contains, besides the ordinary narrative of event*, about fifty panes of closeh printed matter, in the shape ot Biographical and other Notes, neces- sary for examinees, but not to be ibuud in any other school history. "Mr. Ross's object has been to put into the hands of all who seek, especially with a view to its reproduction at examination, a knowledge of English History which shall be full, accurate, and compact. To secure this object, ail has been done which labor.ous, painstaking energy, an impartial judgment, and a very large practical experience of the real wants of learners could contribute ; and the result is a thoroughly sound and good Manual. . . . The notes and illustrations throughout are thoroughly well done, and add greatly to the value of the Manual. The subjects have been well chosen, and a great deal oi learning has been condensed iu their treatment."— Papers for the Schoolmaster. " Sucli a work could only be produced by one thoroughly up in the subject, and to whom care and pains were no barriers. As a practical Text-book for the s'udent, it is exactly adapied to his wants, and from exp- rieuce we can affirm that he wili find in it all his studies may require. The a; rangeinent is excellent, and the style easy and vigorous." — Englis/i Journal of Education. "A very noticeable trait in this volume is the notes and illustrations. Thes* have been carefully selected Irom very many historical wi iters. The plan of the book, and indeed its execution also, seem both very good." — Education** Times. " The best Text-book of English History for a student who wisbei to get up * good stock of information in a short time." — The Pupil Teach*?. / Vtf ±9 PREFACE. So long as English History was used in schools merely as ii reading lesson, there was little to complain of, in the usual run of school books on tlxat subject, except their incorrectness. But under the pressure of various kinds of public examinations, English History is now becoming a subject of study in all good schools, and a demand is made for another description of manuals. In constructing a school history for young students, the writer has kept in view two points — correctness in the subject-matter, and method in the arrangement. Few points, in connexion with education in this country, are more remarkable than the fact that nearly i the whole of our present text-books on English History are notoiiously incorrect. The old fables about Alfred's being taught to read by his step-mother Judith, his in- stitution of trial by jury, his division of England into counties, &c, scarcely ever fail to be repeated, together with innumerable other facts equally veracious. The proof of this statement may be seen at length, in an able article on " School Histories of England," in the Gentle- man's Magazine for March and June, 1859. In preparing the present " Outlines," great care has been taken, ai-d. only reliable authorities consulted; neither has any matter been introduced which will not be serviceable as the foundation of a more extended course of reading. iv PREFACE. With regai d to the method, th6 object has been to group the main facts of our history, and present them to the learner in broad outline. It is only in this way that a clear and connected view of the leading events can be obtained, and a fair chance given to the pupil of retaining what he has gone over ; unless, indeed, there be given to him sufficient time to draw out the outlines for himself from the larger histories, a process which pays well, provided a proper superintendence keeps the pupil in a right course. June, 1860. PKEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. The present edition of the " Outlines " differs from th<3 first, only in the correction of some typographical errors, and the addition of a series of questions for written exa- minations. It is gratifying to the author that a large edition should have been disposed of in a few months, and his thanks are due to those teachers who h>we done Him so much honour. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. British Period. Avw The Ancient Britons. Civil, Religious, and Social Insti- tutions of the Britons — Employments of the Britons ,«, 1 Roman Period. The Romans in Britain. Caesar's two invasions — Subjuga- tion of Britain by the Romans — Improvements consequent on the Roman Conquest — Roman government in Britain — Invasions of Roman Britain — The Romaus abandon Britain S Saxon Period. Thb Saxon Conquest. Britain after its desertion by the Romans — Formation of the Saxon kingdoms — What be- came of the Ancient Britons ? 9 The Saxon Heptarchy. The Saxon Bretwaldas : Ella, Ceaw- lin, Ethelbert, Redwald, Edwin, Oswald, and Oswy — Introduction of Christianity — The three dominant Saxon States: Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex 12 The Anglo-Saxon Kingdom. Egbert 800 : Ethelwulf 837 : Ethelbald858 : Ethelbert 8G0 : Ethelred 866 : Alfred the Great 871: Edward the Elder 901: Athelstan 925: Edmund 940 : Edred 946 : Edwy 955 : Edgar 958 : Edward the Martyr 975 : Ethelred the Unready 978 : Edmund Ironside 1016 — Three Danish kings rule in England: Canute 1016:'Harold Harefootl035: Hardicanute 1040— The Saxon dynasty restored: Edward the Confessor 1042 : Harold 1066 16 Political and Religious Institutions of the Saxons 28 The Norman Period. William I. (1066). Submission of the Saxon authorities — Com- pletion of the Conquest — Results of the Norman Conquest — Wars in France S3 William II. (1087). Disputes with his brother Robert — In- vasions by the Scotch and Welsh— Rapacity of the king $* Vi ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS Pagi Hkney I. (1100). "Robert despoiled of his kingdom and duchy — Prince "William drowned — Settlement of the investiture dispute 41 Stephen (1135V Usurpation of the throne — Scotch invade England— Civil "War — The contest renewed by prince Henry.,.. 44 Social Life in the Norman Period.. 47 The Plantagenet Period. Henry II. (1154). Henry's extensive dominions — Constitutions of Clarendon — Assassination of Becket — Conquest of Ire- land — Rebellion of Henry's sons 4'd Richard I. (1189). Preparations for the Crusade — Richard's Crusading expedition — England during Richard's absence — War with France 54 John (1199). Loss of the French provinces — John's quarrel with pope Innocent — War with France — Magna Charta obtained — War with the Barons 57 Henry III. (1216). Regency of Pembroke and De Burgh — Disputes with Scotland, Wales, and France — Henry's un- satisfactory government — Barons' war: the first House of Commons — Reaction in favour of. Henry 62 Edward I. (1272). Reduction of Wales — Wars with Scotland — War with France 67 Edward II. (1307). First insurrection of the barons — War with Scotland — Second insurrection of the barons — Ed- ward deposed and murdered 71 Edward III. (1327). Minority of the King— War with Scot- land—Edward attempts to conquer France — Loss of the English possessions in France 7^ Richard 11.(1377). Popular insurrection — Misgovernment — Deposition o€ Richard 78 Social Life iu the Plantagenet Period •. „., 82 The Lancastrian Period. tlBXRY IV. (1399). War with Scotland — Rebellion of Owen Glendower — War with France — Persecution of the Lol- lards •*• S-i Henry V. (1413). Persecution of the Lollards — War witD France 67 HurKT VI. (1422). Loss of France— Cade's insurrection — ^Vars of the Roses .., 89 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. VlS The Yorkist Period. Paai Edward IV. (1461). Civil war continued — Deposition and restoration of Edward 92 Edward V. and Richard III. (M83). Deposition of Edward — The troubled reign of Richard 94 Social life in the Lancastrian and Yorkist Period 90 The Tudor Period. '.Ienry VII. (1485). Henry's title to the crown — Lambert Simnel's insurrection— War with France — Perkin War- beck's insurrection 98 Henry VIII. (1509). First war with France and Scotland — Cardinal Wolsey — Second war with France and Scotland — Henry divorces Catherine — Reformation in England — Third war with Scotland and France 102 Edward VI. (1547). War with Scotland — Progress of the Re- formation — Popular insurrections — Fall of the Protector Somerset 109 Mary (1553). The usurpation of Lady Jane Grey — Restora- tion of Romanism — Wyatt's insurrection — The Marian Persecution — War with France 113 Elizabeth (1558). Difficulties at the accession — Completion of the Reformation — Mary of Scots — Many Catholic plots in favour of Mary — The Spanish Armada — Irish Rebellion 116 Social Life in the Tudor Period 124 The Stuart Period. James I. (1603). Main and Bye plots — Hampton Court con- ference — Gunpowder plot — Growing power of the Com- mons — The King's favourites — Founding of Colonies ... 127 Charles I. (1625). Contentions with his first Parliaments — War with Spain and France— Charles rules absolutely — The Scotch Covenant — Meeting of the Long Parliament — The Irish Rebellion — Rupture between Charles and his parliament — The Civil War — Trial and execution of the King 138 Commonwealth (1649). Republicanism established — Reduc- tion of Ireland and Scotland — First Dutch war— Protec- torate of Oliver and Richard Cromwell — Anarchy and Restoration 145 (•2ARLE8 II. (1660). Settlement of the nation — Second Dutch war — The plague and fire — Triple alliance and treaty or* &q**& — Third Dutch war — Popish clots— Political plots 151 Vlll ANALITILAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. Paqt James II. (1685). Insurrections of Argyle and Monmoutn — Attempt to establish Romanism — The Revolution of 1688 — The Interregnum 160 William III. (1689). Completion of the Revolution — Reduc- tion of Ireland — Affairs of Scotland : the Darien Scheme — Opposition to William's government — Warwith France — Second act of settlement 165 Anne (1702). Union of Scotland — The strife of political parties — War of the Spanish succession .... 172 Social life in the Stuart Period ......w........ 178 The Hanoverian Period. George I. (1714). General discontent — Rebellion in favour of the Old Pretender — The South Sea Bub We — Foreign affairs: War with Spain 183 George II. (1727). Walpole's administration — War with Spain — War of the Austrian succession — Rebellion in favour of the Young Pretender — Seven Years' War — Affairs in India 18c George III. (1760). End of the Seven Years' War— Affair of John Wilkes — American war of independence — Gordon Riots — The French Revolution — The war of the French Revolution —Irish Rebellion : Union with England — Re- newal of the war with France — The Peninsular war — Indian affairs 19( George IV. (1820). Distress of the nation — Concessions to the Dissenters — Foreign affairs IV. William IV. (1830). The Reform Bill— Measures of the Re- formed parliament — Foreign affairs 22' Victoria (1837). Disturbances by the Chartists and others — O'Connell and the repeal of the Union— Removal of trade restrictions — Rebellion in Canada — War in Syria — Indian affairs— Russian War — Rebellion in India 22 Social life in the Hanoverian Period 23 The British Constitution ~ 23 Chronology « 22 Examination Qvesxion* -. 2 C . THE ANCIENT BRITONS. Che Ancient Britons were of the Celtic race, but when they \t came into this island no one knows, though some writers ert that Britain was peopled about 1055 B.C., and that the and was then full of bears, wolves, beavers, and a peculiai id of wild cattle. It is, however, certain that the island was labited several centuries before the Christian era, and that the loenicians traded here for tin. Our information of a more finite character commences only about half a century before 3 birth of Christ, and is derived mostly from the writings of lius Csesar, a Roman general. That we have no previous story is not a great loss, for the Britons existed only as small bes, and in a state of enmity one with another. It will, never - eless, afford some interest to know what was the condition the inhabitants of this island when they first came under the «ervation of men of a superior civilization. J/^ I. Civil Institutions of the Britons. At the time of Caesar's invasion, there existed more than forty dis- inct tribes, each under the authority of one or more chiefs, who in | ime of war commanded the armed men of the tribe, but in peace vere themselves mostly under the control of the priests. The mass I »f the people existed in a condition of serfdom, grievouslv oppressed l>y the two privileged classes — the druids and the knights. Of the \ribes, the principal were the Kegni, which included the modern Dun ties of Surrey and Sussex ; Cantii, Kent; Trinobantes, Essex and liddlesex; Cassii, Herts, Bedford, and Bucks; Iceni, Suffolk, Nor- )lk, Cambridge, and Huntingdon ; Silures, South Wales ; and the 3rigantes, north of the Humber, To the north of the latter were he Maetae, and beyo&d them the Caledonians, a people noted for heir ferocity. ^ II. Religious Institutions of the Britons. Tbe religion -c£ the Britons was that of Druidism, and its worship jomlucted in graves of oak, that tree, on account of its strength anut as the heights were covered , with armed men, he turned asido and sought a flat coast wher I he could make a landing/TTr is he found in the level stranc J where the town of toeal now stinds ; some antiquarians.^ how- ever, think the landing was ma de to the westward of Dover, the/ discipline of the Romans pre- made thflir submission and sent in host- e Roman transports on shore, the natives, and one of the legions met j with severe puriishmtojt ; a/kind of submission having Dee]a Img Opposition was offered, but i vailed, and the chiei. ] ages. A storm, which drove I gave fresh courage fi OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. made a second time, the perplexed general sailed tor Gaul Having been absent less than a month. • // In the next year Caesar landed ut the^ame place with much greater forces. The natives retired, and uniting themselves under Cassivelaunus, chief of the Cassii, anno} T ed the Romans by attacking them at different points. After a time the British confederacy broke up, and the invader, without much difficulty, crossed the Thames, and had the honor of capturing the rude fortress of the Cassii, somewhere near where St. Alban's now stands. The Trinobantes had already submitted, and wheL Cassivelaunus made his submission, the great Roman general embarked his army, having taken nothing by his campaign but a few hostages and a promise of tribute. II. Subjugation of Britain by the Romans. A.D. 43-84. Caesar, after retiring from Britain, found employment in com- pleting the conquest of Gaul, and then in the struggles going on in Italy. Indeed, for 97 years the Romans, either from the un- settled sUie of their own affairs or from the indisposition of the emperors, made no further movement against this island. An appeal, so it is said, of Beric, an expelled British chief, induced Claudius to send (43) Aulus Plautius to Britain. Under him served Vespasian and his son Titus, " destined to be the instru- ments of God's vengeance against the stubborn people of Israel." The Britons were found no easy conquest, though Claudius came in person to receive the submission of some of the tribes, for when Plautius was recalled in 50, he had done little more than reduce the district south of the Thames. Ostorius Scapula, a man of good ability, succeeded to the command, and after driving back the Britons, protected the dis- trict already won by drawing a line of forts from the Nen to the Severn. Having made Camalodunum (Colchester?) a colony, he crossed to the west, to give battle to the Silures, commanded by Caractacus. Victory attended the Romans, and the brave chief,throughtreachery,becameaprisonerandwassentto Rome. On his arrival there he expressed surprise that a people with such palaces should fight for the hovels of Britain; Claudius generously gave him his liberty. Aulus Didius next commanded (53 — 57) ; he did nothing but settle the quarrels of the Brigantes. Veranius, wto succeeded him, was not more fortunate. Suetonius Paulinus, the next governor (58 — 62), was one of the most distinguished of the im- perial generals. His first effort was to destroy the Druids, whose influence it was thought kept up the opposition of the natives. The priests had retired to A nglesea, to which island the THE B0MAN8 IN BRITAIN. Romans made their approach. A hostile army lined the shores , amongst the troops were women with streaming hair, bearing torches, running up and down like furies. The Romans crossed the Strait, defeated the enemy, burnt the Druids in their own fires, and cut down their sacred groves. Meanwhile the Iceni had broken out in revolt, for Boadicea, the queen, and her daughters had been grossly outraged ; being joined by the Trinobantes, Camalodunum, London, and Verulamium were destroyed, as was also one of the legions. It is said that in these cities 70,000 persons were slaughtered. Paulinus, having gathered up his forces, took post in a situation with natural defences. The Britons rushed upon the enemy with tumul- tuous cries, but were beaten back and routed with such terrible slaughter that 80,000 were slain. Boadicea ended her mis- fortunes by poisoning herself. The governors who next suc- ceeded pursued a conciliatory policy. Petilius recommenced aggression, and from 70 to 75 was engaged in reducing the Brigantes ; his successor, Frontinus (75 — 78), had the honour of subjugating the Silures. It was reserved for Julius Agricola (78 — 84), a man equally eminent for his abilities as a soldier and statesman, to complete a conquest which, by its slow progress, had brought some dis- credit on the Roman arms. First subduing the tribes of North Wales, he pushed on step by step till in 81 he bridled the north of Scotland by a chain of forts from the Forth to the Clyde. Proposing in 84 to cross the Grampians, he was met by a native army of 30,000 men under Galgacus, a Caledonian chief; a bloody battle followed, in which the Romans slew 10,000 of the enemy. This was the last stand made by the Britons. III. Improvements consequent on the Roman Conquest- Agricola, to tame the inhabitants, adopted the policy of draw- ing them into towns, and assisting them to build temples, houses, and places of public resort. He caused the sons of the chief men to be carefully instructed in science and literature, and created a taste for the Roman dress and dissolute amusements. I All this innovation was by the inexperienced styled polite- ness and humanity, when it was indeed part of their bond- age ;" so writes a Roman historian. Each successive governor carried on the improvements commenced by Agricola. Next to the splendid cities that sprung up in well-chosen localities* were the unequalled roads which the Romans constructec to unite the principal points in the several provinces. Such irerethe Waiting Street, leading from Kent, by way of London py\d St. Albans, to Carnarvon : the Ikenild Street from D OUTLINES Of ENGLISH HISTORY. iit. David's, by way of Birmingham and York, to Tynemuuth : the Ei~min Street from Southampton to St. David's: and the Foss Way from Cornwall to Lincoln, perhaps to Caithness. In the neighbourhood of these roads their cities were planted. The open country of the best districts became dotted with splendid mansions having all the appliances of Roman civiliza- tion. Agriculture partook of the- general improvement, and before the Romans abandoned the island it had become a large corn -growing country, able to export in immense quantities. Indirectly the Romans introduced the inestimable boon 01 Christianity ; the exact manner is unknown, though opinion inclines most to its being the work of Christian soldiers serving in the legions. The general belief is that it found its way here before the conquest was completed ; but little light, however, rests upon the subject till we arrive at the fourth century. In the tenth or Diocletian persecution (303-5) suffered St. Alban, a native serving in. the Roman army ; confessing himself a Christian, he was first put to the torture, and then beheaded near Verulamium. On the spct where he suffered, Offa cf Mercia afterwards erected the nuble abbey of St, Alban's. IV, Roman Government in Britain. At first Britain was a separate province of the empire and governed by a propraetor, who was the supreme civil governor and commander of the army. Subordinate to the prefect, but responsible only to the emperor, was the procurator, or quaestor, who collected the revenue, derived from a poll-tax, a tax on funerals and legacies and on the sale of goods, a tenth of the produce of the mines, and a certain proportion of corn, hay, and cattle. In the time of Constantino (306 — 337) we find Britain divided into five provinces : — Britannia Prima, the district south of the Thames ; Britannia Secunda, answering to the modern principality of Wales ; Flavia Ccesariensis, the district betweeu the Thames and Humber ; Maxima Ccesariensis } from the Hurnber to the wall of Severus ; and Valentia, from the wall of Severus to the Forth and Clyde. Over the first three were praesides, or presidents ; over the two latter oonsu'.ares, or men of consular rank. One supreme civil officer, under the title of Vicarius, regulated the entire administration, and was himself subordinate to the Prefect of Gaul. All military aff'-ur.-? were under the direction of three chief officers : — the Count of the Saxon Shore, who had charge of the coasts from the Humber to Cornwall ; the Duke of Britain, who commanded north of tnb Humber ; and the Count of Britain, to whom were subject the remain :3£ parts of the island. THE ROMANS IN BRITAIN. 1 In the towns, there was to a certain extent an independent jurisdiction. Of the 92 cities which grew up in Britain, the names of 33 have been preserved. Because of their various pri- vileges, they were ranked in four classes : Municipia (2), Verulam and York ; the inhabitants of which enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizenship, of choosing their own magistrates, and enacting their own laws : Colonice (9), Richborough, London, Colchester, Bath, Gloucester, Caerleon, Chester, Lincoln, and Cambridge ; these colonies were settlements of Roman veterans, to whom was granted a part of the conquered lands ; each colony adopted the same customs as the parent city, and was governed by the same laws: Jus Latii (10), or cities possessing the Latian right. Castor, Catterick, Slack in Longwood, Ribchester, Carlisle, Cirencester, Old Sarum, Dunbarton, Perth, and Inverness ; thes6 cities had the choice of their own magistrates, who having served one year, could claim thefreedom of Rome; and the Stipendiaries (12J, Caer-Gwent, Winchester, Caistor, (near Norwich), Caer- Segont (near Carnarvon). Carmarthen, Leicester, Canterbury, Dorchester, Exeter, Riechester, Vindonum (in Hants), and Rochester. These distinctions were gradually abolished, and all the towns enjoyed the civitas, or rights of Roman citizenship. V. Invasions of Roman Britain. The extreme north of the island, having never been reduced, sent out swarms of men who made continual inroads into the Roman provinces, and brought over the emperors themselves on several occasions to give them battle. The first wall, or line of forts, erected by Agricola, was soon broken through, and much booty carried off. Hadrian, the emperor, after driving the bar- barians back, ordered the erection of a second wall (121) from the Solway to the Tyne, consisting of an earthen vallum and deep ditch ; along its length (60 miles) were many forts and watch-towers. On a revolt of the Maetas and Brigantes, the propraetor Lollius Urbicus, after their subjugation, drove back the Caledonians to their mountains, and raised a third wall (139) on the site of Agricola's line ; from the reigning emperor, this was called the Wall of Antoninus. Fresh inroads brought over the emperor Severus, who carried his legions to the extreme north of Britain, and on his return raised & fourth wall (211), or more pro- perly strengthened the existing wall of Hadrian. After this, the Picts and Scots, the former denoting the Maetae, and the latter a people from Ireland, who had established a supremacy over the Caledonians, gave more trouble than before, for the love of plun der inflamed their courage, and brought them even as far south as London, from which they were driven by Theodosius (368>. 8 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH H18TOBY. But so long as the Roman dominion Continued, so long did tl northern barbarians continue to infest south Britain. Roman Britain had other enemies, who came by sea — tr Saxons, which name included the tribes on the coast, from tr. mouth of the Rhine to the Baltic. It is not known how earl they began their ravages, it is however certain that they wei serious, by the erection of a line of forts along the eastern coas of Britain, and the appointment of a great military officer calk the Count of the Saxon Shore. A powerful fleet was placed : the adjoining seas, and Carausius put in command. For makir a gain of his office, Maximian, the emperor, ordered him to I put to death : thereupon the admiral sailed for Britain, and 6 up for one of the emperors. His reign (287 — 294) ended in h being assassinated by his minister, who succeeded to the place » his master. Constantius now came to reside in Britain (299- 306) ; on his death at York, he was succeeded by his son Co: stantine, who at the end of six years was called away to ent upon the contest, which ended in his becoming the sole emperc VI. The Romans abandon Britain— 409. The Roman empire had been for some time in a state of d cay, partly from internal corruption, and partly from the growii power of the barbarians. Under the celebrated Alaric, tl Goths Vandals, and Alans poured down into Italy, and tl Roman legions were called away to defend the very heart of tl empire. Rome nevertheless fell in 409, and in the year f ollowin Honorius the emperor, by letter, instructed the states of Brita to provide for their own safety. When the Romans left th island, it was very different from its condition when they cam Forests had been thinned, lanas drained, rivers embanked, ai noble roadways constructed ; many cities anci towns had grow up full of splendid edifices, and the best parts of the count] were studded with noble mansions. But the advantage wi to the Roman rather than the Briton ; the country was mac to serve the avarice of the ruler, but derived little benel itself from the rule. ' * I think," writes Kemble, "we cann< entertain the least doubt that the condition of the British abor gines was from the first one of oppression, and was to the vei last a mere downward progress from misery to misery. Bi such a system as this — ruinous to the conquered, and benefici; even to the conquerors only as long as they couid maintain t law of force — had no inherent vitality. It rested upon a criir — a sin which in no time or region has the providence of tl Almighty blessed — the degradation of one class on pretext ( benefiting another. And as the sin, so also was th* retribution THE SAXON CONQDE8T. THE SAXON CONQUEST. 449-600. 1. Britain after its desertion by the Romans. After the Romans had left this island, the several municipalities became so many separate commonwealths under provincial governors, till the inroads of the Picts and Scots led to con- federations headed, as is said, some by British, others by Roman chiefs. Party strife followed, from which they suffered more than from foreign enemies. Pelagiup,, a native of Wales, pro- mulgating his notions with respect to original sin and man T s perfectibility, introduced further discord. It was under this combination of untoward circumstances th at Vortigern, the most powerful of the British chiefs, did what the emperors had often done — employ mercenaries to aid him in fighting his battles. It may be observed here that the materials for this part of our history are not of the most reliable kind, and that the stories of Vortigern, Hengist, Horsa,and others whofigure so prominently, are by our best historians taken to be mere traditions. II. Formation of the Saxon Kingdoms. When the Saxons are spoken of, it is necessary to bear in mind that the name appears to have denoted a confederacy of tribes, Thus the expeditions that came successively to this island, with the purpose of reducing it, are all called Saxons, though there were at least three tribes included in that name — Jutes, Angles, and Saxons. As they all came from nearly the same district, bordering on the north of the Elbe, it is not probable that there were any strongly marked differences between one tribe and the other. 1. Kent founded by Hengist, 455. Whether by accident or design the chroniclers are not agreed, but at the very time that Vortigern, king of Kent, was in council with the othei chiefs to devise means against the common enemy, Hengist anc* Horsa appeared oft' the coast in three ships, containing 300 men. They were at once engaged to act against the Picts, and in a short time the land was cleared of these troub'esome barbarians. More Jutes came over, and brought with them the blue-eyed Rowena, daughter of Hengist; she won the affections of the British king and became his wife. After a time, the Saxons, by their numbers, became burdensome to their employers; a quarrel ensued, they declared that they would not give up the Isle of Thanet, and that if supplies were withheld they would plunder to them. Battles ensued, in ODe of which Horsft was slain ; B fv outlines of English history. Hengist then left the island for a time. Returning, he claimed the kingdom of Vortigern, his son-in-law; for Vortimer,theson of Vortigern, who had usurped the throne of Kent, was now dead. Hengist gained his point, by treachery it is said, and dying in 488 left his kingdom to Esc, his son. 2. Sussex founded by Ella, 477. Ella with his three sons came over in three ships, and landing at Cymensore, in the Isle of Selsea, defeated the Britons and drove them into the Forest of Andreade, at that time covering nearly 4,000 square miles. It was not till 491 that the Saxons, strengthened by fresh arrivals, undertook to capture Andredes-Cester, the pric* cipal city. After much difficulty the place was taken, and every soul put to the sword. 3. Wessex founded by Cerdic, 495. This expedition landed at Cerdic-shore (in the Isle of Wight), but for five years met with little success. Being reinforced by Porta, who brought two ships into Portsmouth, the Saxons fought many battles with Natanleod, king of the district, but it was not till he was slain several years after, that Cerdic made good his position. He then united his son Cynric with him in the government. Wessex did not attain its full dimensions till the reign of Ceaw- lin, the son of Cynric. 4. Essex founded by Erke^wine, 527. While these struggles were going on in the west, a new Saxon kingdom was founded by Erkenwine, though under what circumstances there is no record. It gradually stretched itself westward, and gave origin to another small state known as Middlesex, which con- tained in it the city of London. These petty kingdoms rarely enjoyed any political independence, being mostly tributary to the adjoining kings. 5. Bernicia founded by Ida, 547. The Angles, though the last of the three tribes to come over, appeared in larger bodies than the others had done. It is, indeed, stated that they emigrated in such numbers as to leave scarcely any behind in the parts whence they came. Ida and his twelve sons headed the expedition which landed at Flamborough Head ; after many battles this chief subdued the Britons, and fixed his residence at Bamborough. This kingdom reached ultimately from the Forth to the Tyne, and retained its British name Bryneich Latinised into Bernicia. 6. Deira founded by Ella, 560. Ella, one of the allien shieftains who had fought under Ida, fell off when Ida died, and svith several followers set out to win a kingdom for themselves, w biob they did by reducing the district south of the Tees. Th is formed the kingdom of Deira, eo oalled from its British name, THE SAXON CONQUEST. 11 Deytyr ; it extended from the Tees to the Humber. Many year9 ot rivalry were put an end to in 617, when Deira and Bernicia were united into one kingdom, under the name of Northumbrian by Edwin, the son of Ella. 7. East Anglia founded by Uffa, 571. So early as th8 jommeneement of the century, notice is taken of the Angles appearing in what are now the eastern counties. At a latei date they poured over in large numbers, divided into two tribes — the North-folk and the South-folk. Further than this nothing is known. 8. Mercia founded by Cridda, 586. Creoda, or Cridda, was the leader of a band of Angles, who left Deira with the pur- pose of winning a new settlement. Of its formation we only know that it was by slow degrees that the adventurers won their way into the heart of Britain, and that it was Penda, the grandson of Cridda, who first separated it from the dominion of the Northern Angles. In this district a larger number of Britons was permitted to remain than in the other kingdoms; they ultimately formed an integral part of the Mercian people. III. What became of the Ancient Britons P Many writers agree that so long as it was a struggle of life and death, the Saxons carried on a war of extermination, but that as the necessity was less felt, the natives were spared to labour en the soil. On the other side it is maintained that if any considerable number nad been spared, evidence of it would appear in our language. Part of the Britons retained possession of Strathclyde and Cumbria, extending from Dunbarton to the southern borders of Lancashire, andseparated from the Northum- brians by the British Apennines. Another mass continued in possession of Damnonia, or Devon, with its dependency, Corn- wall, which counties the Saxons called West Wales. Many subsequently fled beyond sea to Armorica. The noblest, however, maintained themselves in Cambria, or Wales, and though their country was more than once overrun by the Anglo-Saxons and Mercians, they held their independence for many centuries. A recent writer (Creasy) supposes that all the men of the con- quered districts were exterminated or expelled, but that the women became the wives of the conquerors. " This hypothesis also accounts for the difference which undoubtedly exists between ourselves and the modern Germans, both in physical and mental characteristics. The English preserves the independence of mind, the probity, the steadiness, the domestic virtues, and the love of order which marked our German forefathers; while from Uie Celtic element of our nation we derive a greater degree of 12 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY energy and enterprise, of versatility, and practical readiness than are to be found in the modern populations of purely Teutonic origin." THE SAXON HEPTARCHY. The term Heptarchy is a misnomer, but having been long in use to designate this part of Anglo-Saxon history, it is not easy to displace it. Some have employed the term Octarchy, though this term is not more correct than the other, for there were not eight kingdoms for any lengthened period, any more than there were seven. Originally there were nine kingdoms founded ; — Kent by the Jutes ; Sussex, Wessex, Essex, and Middlesex by the Saxons ; and Bernicia, Deira, East Anglia, and Mercia by the Angles. But Essex and Middlesex mostly followed the for- tunes of Kent, and Bernicia and Deira became one under the name of Northumbria (617). And if the history of the several ecates be tracked down, the number of independent kingdoms will be found continually varying, till at the close of the seventh century they are reduced to three. I. The Saxon Bretwaldas. For a period of 200 years after the completion of the Saxon conquest, the history of this country presents little worthy of record. But some few sovereigns during that period have obtained notoriety by being styled Bretwaldas, though what the precise meaning of that term may be has not yet been settled. One says it means the ruler or emperor of Britain, holding the other kings in some kind of inferiority ; another, that it means simply a war-king. Other interpretations are equally difficult of application. 1. Ella of Sussex. 491 — 510. When this dignity was conferred on or assumed by Ella, it is difficult to conceive, for Sussex was the least considerable of the Saxon states, and Ella has scarcely obtained the notice of our ancient chroniclers. This kingdom was reduced by Ceawlin. and annexed to Wessex. 2. Ceawlin of Wessex. 560—593. The first battle that occurred between the Anglo-Saxon sovereigns was occasioned by the ambition of Ethelbert of Kent, who led uis forces against Ceawlin, and met with severe defeat. After this success the West Saxon king added Sussex to his dominions, and won large accessions of territory from the Britons of the west. A civil war drove him from his kingdom, and gave his Uuo;ie to Ceolric, his nephew. THE SAXON HEPTARCHY. ] 3 3. Ethelbert of Kent. 560—616. This reTCTi to distin- guished for its ill-fated expedition against Wessex, and the introduction of Christianity, which will be treated of sepa- rately. 4. Redwald of East Anglia. 599—620. Of this king it is recorded that being persuaded by Ethelbert to adopt the Christian religion, and meeting with opposition from his wife and people, he resolved the difficulty by setting up in the same temple, sicle by side, the statue of Woden and an altar to the God *f the Christians. Redwald is also celebrated for the generous assistance he afforded to Edwin, the son of Ella, whom he had the pleasure of placing on the throne of Northumbria. 5. Edwin of Northumbria. 617 — 633. Edwin when he married Edelburga, daughter of Ethelbert of Kent, allowed her the free exercise of her religion, though himself a pagan. Pau- linus, the priest who accompanied the princess, attempted the conversion of the king, but without success till Edwin, escaping the hands of an assassin, and winning a battle against Cwichelm of Wessex, consented to adopt the new faith, supposing it met the approval of his council. In this assembly, Coin* the chief priest advocated change, on the ground that the existing religion had not proved very profitable to himself. He was supported by one of the thanes, who argued that their religion taught them nothing of futurity, which Christianity prof essedto do. It being decided to abandon heathenism, Coifi was the first to attack the heathen temple at Godmundham. Edwin and his thanes were baptised (627), and York fixed upon as the residence of the metropolitan of the north. Six years afterwards, Edwin fell at Hatfield Chase in battle against Penda of Mercia and Cad- walladar, a British chief. 6. Oswald of Northumbria. 634 — 642. Oswald the son of Ethelfrith,whom Redwald slew on the banks of the Idel (617), now became king ; giving battle to Cadwalladar, that chief was slain and his army annihilated. After restoring the Christian religion, from which the Northumbrians had apostatised, befell by the hand of Penda, who swept the country as far as J3am- borough. 7. Oswy of Northumbria. 642 — 670. Oswy was the brother of Oswald and son-in-law of Edwin. Penda again ravaged Northumbria, but peace followed for a time on the marriage of that king's son Peada with Alchfleda, the daughtei of Oswy ; this marriage led to the introduction of Christianity into Mercia. But Penda was soon again in the field, first against East Anglia andthen Northumbria. This time fortune favoured the latter, for Penda and twenty -eight allied chiefs fell in the 14 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. battle of Winwidfield, near Leeds (655). Religious disputes occupied the latter part of this reign; the king at length decided in favour of the institutions of St. Peter, thereby discarding those of St. Columba, which had prevailed in North uinbria, in conse- quence of the conversion of that country having been principally effected by monks from Scotland. At the death of Oswy there remained but three independent kingdoms in Saxon England — Wessex,Mercia, and North umbria. Kings continued to rule in the other states, though oniy ad vassals of their more powerful neighbours. II. Introduction of Christianity— 597. Before Gregory the Great had reached the papal chair he saw, in the slave market at Rome, some children with ruddy cheeks, blue eyes, and long hair, the latter at that time a mark of noble birth. U4 To what nation do these poor boys belong? ' was the question put by Gregory to the dealer. ' They are Angles, Father.' * Well may they be so called, for they are as comely as angels ; and would that, like angels, they might become che- rubim in heaven ! But from which of the many provinces in Britain dc tiny come?' 'From Deira, Father.' 'Indeed,' con- tinued Gregoi j, speaking in Latin, L De ird Dei liberandi sunt? — From the wrath of God they are to be delivered. And when, on asking the name of their king, he was told it was Ella, or Alia, he added that Allelujah — praise ye the Lord— ought to be sung in his dominions." When this worthy father of the church became pope, he despatched Augustine with 40 associates to con- vert the pagans in Britain . The cause of these missionary priests was served by the fact that Ethelbert's wife, Bertha, daughter of Charibert, king of Paris, was a Christian. The king of Ken' refused for a while to abandon the rites of heathenism, though "he gave permission to his people to do so. In no long time the king and 10,000 of his subjects were baptised ; and Augustine, on becoming bishop of Canterbury, conferred the episcopal dignity on Justus, who became bishop of Rochester, and on Mellitus, who took charge of the see of London. As Gregory had subjected all the bishops in Britain to Augu - ;ine, the primate attempted to establish his authority over the British bishops, whom he met in conrerence a: Aust-on-Severn Augustine made three demands — that tne bruonssnouia ooserve the Roman computation of Easter, should adopt the Roman rite in the administration of baptism, and should join with the Roman priests in preaching to the Saxons. Offended by the Laugh t' THE BAX0N HEPTARCH*. 15 demeanour ofc Augustine, the British prelates refused to submit, and thus there continued to exist two distinct Christian churches in the island. III. The three dominant Saxon States. 1. Northumbria. 670 — 827. Oswy, the last Bretwalda, was Bucceeded by Egfrid his son. His reign was principally dis» tinguished by his quarrel with Wilfred, archbishop of York, ano the first to carry an appeal to Rome. Refusing to receive con- secration from the hands of the bishop of Canterbury, he went to Paris for that purpose. His pompous style of living led to his expulsion from his see ; an appeal to Rome brought over a papal decree in his favour, to which, however, Egfrid paid no regard. Wilfred then sought an asylum in Sussex, and by his labours brought about the conversion of that kingdom (681). When Egfrid fell in battle against the Scots, the throne was filled by his brother Adlfrith,or Alfred the Wise, who for twenty years reigned over the province which his knowledge enlight- ened and his virtues cherished. After one or two more reigns the history of Northumbria exhibits successive instances of treachery and murder to which no other country perhaps can furnish a parallel. Within the lapse of 100 years, fourteen kings had assumed the sceptre ; and yet of all these one only, if one, died in the peaceable possession of royalty. One man, however, illustrated this part of Northumbrian history—the Venerable Bede (673 — 735). Placed at the age of seven in the monastery of Wearmouth, he received a good edu. cation, and entered priests' orders. His whole life was spent in obtaining or imparting knowledge. His own words are, " All my life I spent in that same monastery, giving my whole atten- tion to the study of the Holy Scriptures, and in the intervals between the hours of regular discipline and the duties of singing in the church, I always took pleasure in learning, or teaching, or writing something." After putting the last sentence to his translation of St. John's Gospel, he was placed on the floor of his cell, where he expired, having first repeated the doxology. 2. Mergia. 657—823. After a succession of weak or wicked kings, we come to the celebrated Offa, who having con. solidated his dominion at home, commenced his career as a con- queror. First he subdued Sussex and Kent, and then took from Wesscx all its territory north of the Thames. He afterwards retaliated on the Britons for an inroad made into Mercia, by driving them back beyond the Wye, and planting the district with Anglo-Saxons. To protect his subjects from further an- noyances, he constructed a large trench and rampart 100 miles 15 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. in length, from the estuary of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye, long celebrated under the name of OfiVs dyke. So powerful was this Mercian king, that Charlemagne paid him some attentions. Brihtric of Wessex and Ethelred of Northumbria married his daughters, and Ethelbert of East Anglia sought the hand of another, but was basely assassinated in OfiVs palace, and his kingdom annexed to Mercia. Offa died in 794, and in less than 30 years his kingdom was subjugated by Egbert of Wessex. 3. Wessex. 684—800. The first monarch of note was Cad- walla, who subdued Sussex and the isle of Wight, and ravaged the whole of Kent with fire and sword. Embracing the Christian faith, he set out for Rome to receive baptism at the hands of the pope ; he died a week after his admission into the church. Ina next succeeded (688), who as a warrior was equal, as a legislator superior, to the most celebrated of his predecessors. He added a part of West Wales to his kingdom. At an assembly of the Witan he passed a series of laws, " by which he regulated the administration of justice, fixed the legal compensation for crimes, checked the prevalence of hereditary feuds, placed the conquered Britons under the protection of the state, and exposed and pun- ished the frauds which might be committed in the transfer of merchandise and the cultivation of land." Ina and his wife ended their days at Rome, where he is said to have built a school for the education of his countrymen, with a church and burial- ground for their use ; to support this establishment he imposed the payment of a penny on every family, which was denomi- nated Romescot. After a few unimportant reigns we arrive at Brihtrie, who had married Eadburga, the daughter of Offa, a princess as ambitious and unprincipled as her father. Egbert, also a descendant of Cerdic, had opposed this succession without success ; he then re- tired to the court of Charlemagne, where he resided several years. Eadburga, jealous of her husband's affection for one of his thanes, mixed for the latter a cup of poison, but both the king and his favourite partook of it, and died. This vile woman then withdrew to the Continent, and died a beggar at Pavia. To show its de- testation of this crime, the Witan passed a law depriving the con- sorts of future kings of the style and privileges of royalty. Egbert now (800) returned from France, and took the throne of Wessex without opposition. THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGDOM. 827-1066. By most writers Egbert is counted as the first king of England. This, however, is not strictly correct, though it is stated that this monarch "abolishing the distinction of Saxon and Angle, and all THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGDOM. 11 provincial appellations, commanded the island to be called Eng- land, and procured himself to be crowned and denominated king of England." To this statement it is objected, that till after the time of Alfred the successors of Egbert sign themselves kings of the West Saxons ; that Egbert did not incorporate East Anglia, Mercia, or Northumbria ; that these kingdoms were destroyed by the Danes ; and that Athelstan by destroying the Danish sovereignty became the first monarch of England. 1. Egbert (800—837). The residence of Egbert at the court of France prepared him to wield a sceptre with effect. The example of the emperor taught him the difficult policy of governing the discordant members of a body politic ; and in the wars of the Franks he acquired a military knowledge superior to that of his Anglo-Saxon compeers. After spending a few years in consoli- dating Wessex, he laid waste West Wales ; at a later period he planted his standard in Anglesea. In 823 he tried his strength against Beornwulf , king of Mercia, and defeated him at Elian- dune, near Wilton ; in the same year he secured the submission of Kent, Sussex, Essex, and East Anglia. Four years later he conquered Mercia, but allowed its king Wiglaf to retain the sceptre on payment of an annual tribute. The same year (827) he marched against the Northumbrians, but they met him with the offer of obedience and allegiance. This reign is further noted for the first invasion of the Danes (832), or Northmen, predatory oands from the Baltic or its neighbourhood. Piracy they deemed the most honorable occupa- tion and the best harvest of wealth. Not content to rob and kill these men delighted in wanton cruelty ; infants were torn from the mother's breast, and tossed from the point of one lance to another ; their captives were impaled or crucified on houses and trees ; and towns and villages were given to the flames after an indiscriminate massacre of all the inhabitants. Such were the barbarians who desolated England for two centuries. Single ships had appeared on the coast before, but in this year they came in force and ravaged the Isle of Sheppy, and in the year following 35 ships emptied their crews at Charmouth, and made great slaughter. In 835 a larger fleet came and joined with the people of West Wales, and it was Egbert's last exploit to give them a defeat at Hengeston. 2. Ethelwulf (837 — 858), the son of Egbert, succeeded ; a man carefully educated, and, as some say, originally intended for the Church. In his reign the Danes came in increasing numbers, and there was great slaughter at. London, Canterbury, and Rochester (838). After some respite they returned (851), and took Canterbury and London by storm. Subsequently they were 13 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HI8TOBY. defeated at Ockley, in Surrey. From this time they began to winter in England, staying at first in the Isle of Thanet. In a Witan (855) the king gave by charter the tenth part of his land for the glory of God and his own salvation. M This grant, which is only to be taken as a proof of the personal piety of Ethelwulf, in bestowing a tenth part of his private estate on the Church, is often incorrectly spoken of as if it were the origin of tithes in England." The same year the king, with his son Alfred, made £ pilgrimage to Rome, where he rebuilt the Saxon school, then recently burnt down. On the road he fell in love with Judith, then about 12 years of age, the daughter of Charles the Bald of France ; taking her to wife, an insurrection followed, and he was forced to resign Wessex to Ethelbald his son, and content himself with Kent and its dependent provinces. 3. Ethelbald (858— 860), son of Ethelwulf, succeeded only to Wessex, his brother taking the provinces which the father had held. The only thing marking this reign is the scandalous beha- viour of the king in taking to wife Judith his mother-in law. By the influence of the Church and the murmurs of his people he was induced to dissolve this contract. Returning to France. Judith was put in confinement by her friends, but there she captivated Baldwin the forester, and, escaping in disguise, became his wife. Charles, her father, with some difficulty was persuaded to accept this union ; on doing so he gave his son-in- law all the region between the Scheldt, the Sambre, and the sea, and created him a count of the empire. From Baldwin, first earl of Flanders and Judith, descended Matilda, the wife of William the Conqueror. 4. Ethelbert (860— 866), second son of Ethelwulf, succeeded jo Wessex with the consent of the Witan. The first year of this reign is the date assigned as the commencement of the second Danish invasion. The short respite enjoyed by England was due not to any improvement in the habits of the Danes, but to their being profitably engaged in Gaul. " Paris was burnt, together with many of the principal cities of that country ; so extensive were their operations, that while some of their squadrons as- cended the Scheldt, others passed the Straits of Gibraltar, and sailingup the Mediterranean, had visited the southern shores with their fury." In this reign the barbarians stormed Winchester, but in a battle they were defeated. Another horde landed in Thanet (865), &nd though the men of Kent promised tliem money the army stole away and ravaged the eastern part of the county. 5. Ethelred (866 — 871), third son of Ethelwulf, came to the throne of Wessex, in prejudice of the sons of Ethelbert, which was not, however, contrary to the practice ol the age. Indeed, it vrtt ThE ANGLO-SAXON KLNGDOM. 13 uot a time for children to become kings, for the throne was scarcely tilled before the great confederacy began to arrive. Ac- cording to the chronicles, this formidable invasion was occasioned this way. Ella, king of Northumbria, had caused Regnar Lod- brok, a Danish chief who had became his prisoner, to be cast into a pit full of vipers, by which he was stung to death ; to avenge the fate of their father, lngwar and Ubbo his sons, eight kings, and twenty earls came over at the head of thousands of warriors. Landing in East Anglia (866), they obtained horses, and in the year following made themselves masters of York ; a part of their band settled in Northumbria, and the remainder moving south- ward took possession of Nottingham, which thenceforth became one of the Danish burghs — the others were Derby, Leicester, Lin- coln, Stamford, York, and Chester. In 870, the enemy entered East Anglia, slew Edmund the king, and destroyed Peterborough Abbey. The next year, Ethelred and his brother Alfred fought the Danes at Reading, Ashdown, Basing, and other places, victory following sometimes one side and sometimes the other. Ethelred now dies, as some say, from a wound received in battle. 6. Alfred the Great (871 — 901), the fourth son of Ethel- wulf , was born at Wantage in 849. Of his mother, Osburgha, we know little besides the fact that she was a woman of piety, and devoted all her energies to her household. Ic is uncertain whether she was dead in 856, when her husband married Judith of France, or whether, as some suppose, she was put away to make room for the new favourite. At one time Judith had the credit of teaching Alfred to read ; this notion is now discarded, for beside other objections, it is not probable that a French princess, only a child, and but a short time in England, would undertake the instruction of her step-son in his mother tongue* When but five years of age Alfred, properly accompanied, went to Rome, where Leo IV. bestowed upon him the royal unction ; two years later he made the same journey in company with his tather. In 868 he married Alswitha, of the royal family of Mercia ; at the marriage feast a distressing malady seized the prince, and never wholly left him all his life. The commencement of Alfred's reign opened inauspiciously, for in several battles with the Danes he met with defeat, and in the sequel was forced to buy the heathen out of the kingdom. A new band of adventurers then overran Mercia, and its king Burhred in despair witnorew to Home Wessex was now fated to fall also. Gutnrum creating up his camp at Cambridge, took Wareham, and was bought off by Alfred ; subsequently the 1 »anish chief fixed his residence at Gloucester, and. contrary to the usual practice, resolved au a winter campaigu. Alfred wa-j 29 OUTLINES OF ENGmSH HISTvrtY. nearly surprised in Chippenham (878), and with difficultyescap-ad with a few trusty followers to the Isle of Athelney, a place then inaccessible on account of bogs and inundations. During his five months' residence in this retreat he was joined by many of his followers, who from time to time made excursions into the neighbouring districts to obtain supplies of food and observe the enemy. Whether Alfred himself went in disguise into the camp of the Danes is very doubtful, and so is the story of the burnt cakes. A party of Danes having met with defeat in Devon, Alfred sent out messengers to gather his subjects to battle, which was given at Ethandune (near Westbury) ;"the Danes were defeated in the fcield, and then starved out of their entrenchments. Guthrum submitted, and by treaty the Danes were to hold England north and east of the Thames, Lea, and Ouse, while all to the south of that line should be to Alfred. The principal Danish leaders em- braced Christianity, and then set out for their assigned quarters. No soonerwas Gutlirum disposed of than another band appeared under Hastings, who, after keeping the kingdom in a condition of disquiet for sixteen years, went over sea to the Seine. Meanwhile Alfred was not idle. In that part of Englano which he governed he gave a new organization to the fyrd, or national militia, and a fleet of many hundred vessels was raised, of ships swifter and larger than before. Fifty castles were erected in places fitted to prevent the landing or impede the pro- gress of an enemy. The empire of law was again restored, and the execution of justice rendered strict and regular. Not, how ever, as has been often said, by dividing England into counties, hundreds, and tithings — by forming a body of new laws — or by instituting trial by jury. For these territorial divisions existed before, and Alfred himself says that he made no new laws; trial by jury did not exist in Saxon times, but a system of compurga- tion. Alfred next turned his attention to the instruction of his people, learned men were brought over from foreign countries, schools opened in different places, and all free men of a certain station required to send their children to learn the arts of reading and writing. Few sovereigns have received so large a measure of praise ai Alfred, because few indeed have so well deserved it. Some faults he had, but after the early part of his reign his conduct was ex- emplary. That he saved England from total subjugation by the Danes, is a merit scarcely greater than his restoration of that pari which fell to him to a condition of peace and prosperity. His labours were untiring, yet he mads leisure to improve his own mind, and to become a fair scholar for the age in which he lived. THE ANGL0-8A20N EINGDOtt 21 7. Edward the Elder (901 — 925), son of Alfred, was called to the throne, but for a time opposed by the son of Ethelred, who, with his supporters, met with defeat and death. A fresh horde of Danes was defeated at Wodenslield (910). In conjunction with his sister Ethelfieda, the "Lady of the Mercians," he erected fortresses at Wigmore, Bridgenorth, Stafford, Tamworth, Leicester, Warwick, and many other places; on her death in 920, Mercia was incorporated with Wessex. The latter years oi Edward's reign proved the soundness of his policy ; at several points the Danes tried tboir fortune, but were foiled by the forts When further attempts appeared hopeless, Edward was chosen " for father and lord" by the Danes of East Anglia and North- umbria, the princes of Wales, and subsequently by the king of the Scots, and of the Strath-Clyde Britons. 8. Athelstan (925 — 940), son of Edward, succeeded without dispute to Wessex and Mercia. Northumbria was less compli- ant, but on the death of its king, Athelstan seized that kingdom and added it to Saxon England. The Britons of West Wales he forced beyond the Tamer, and those of Wales proper he com- pelled to keep on the right side of the Wye : the Welsh princes moreover engaged to pay 20 lbs. of gold, 300 lbs. of silver, and 25,000 head of cattle as a yearly tribute. In 937, Anlaff, son of the late king of Northumbria, entered the Humberwith 600 ships full of adventurers, to whom joined themselves the forces of the Scots and Britons. Now was Athelstan's time of trial, and at first it seemed as if fortune had forsaken him, but at the terrible battle of Brunanburgh he came off victorious. The northmen left on the field five sea-kings, seven earls, and many thousand warriors ; this victory confirmed the ascendency of Athelstan, and all the countries, originally conquered and colonized by the different Saxon tribes, became united under the same crown. ik To Athelstan belongs the glory of having established what haf ever since been called the kingdom of England." 9. Edmund the Elder (940—946), second son of Edward came to the throne at the age of eighteen ; his reign was brief anc full of trouble. Anlaff again appeared in Northumbria, and, putting himself at the head of the Danish party, marched south- ward, took Tarn worth, and defeated the king. Negotiations were opened which ended in Edmund's ceding to the Danes the full sovereignty of all England north of Watling-street. Anlaff dying the next year, the Danes were again subjugated ; Cambria was also conquered and given to Malcolm of Scotland, on condition of defending the north against invaders. Edmund ended his career &t a feast at Pucklekirk, where he fell by the hand of an outlaw. 10. Edred (946 — 955), third son of Edward, was chosen King 22 OUTLINES Or ENGLISH HISTORY. in an assembly of prelates and barons, and the vassal princes ai Wales. His first employment was the subjugation of Northum- bria, again in revolt under Eric, a pirate. The Saxon army ravaged the country, and when a new competitor appeared in the person of Anlaff Cuiran, a battle was fought, in which Eric and five kings fell. After desolating a part the whole province was divided into shires, over which officers were placed of the king's appointment. Two celebrated churchmen possessed much in- fluence in this reign, Turketul, grandson of Alfred the Great, and Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury. The latter first rose to notice in the reign of Athelstan, but having fallen into some discredit withdrew from court. In the reign of Edred he be- came the keeper of the king's conscience ; being offered the 6ee of Winchester, he refused, on which St. Peter in a vision bade him not decline hereafter the primacy of England. 11. Edwy (955 — 958), son of Edmund, was chosen to the throne by the Witan. Having married Elgiva, a woman of great personal attractions, he was better pleased with her company on his coronation day than with that of the nobles who caroused in the hall. This gave offence, and Dunstan, first addressing brutal language to the queen and her mother, dragged the king into the presence of the nobles. For this outrage Dunstan was banished. The mcnks then, with Odo the primate at their head, instigated Mercia and Northumbria to revolt, and accept Edgar as their king. Odo next forced the king to abandon his wife ; she was then seized by the primate's soldiers, branded in the face with a red-hot iron, and banished to Ireland. Finding her*way back, Elgiva was seized near Gloucester by Odo's retainers, and being hamstrung, left to die in great misery. Edwy himself soon followed, but whether he died of grief or by the sword is uncer- tain. Meanwhile Dunstan had returned to England, and acted with his party in these transactions. 12. Edgar (958 — 975), second son of Edmund, came to the throne of Wessex in his sixteenth year ; of Mercia and Northum- bria he was already king. This reign was of so peaceful a cha- racter that Edgar received the title of Pacific ; it was, however, owing to the abilities of Dunstan and his co-ministers. That fortunate monk becoming primate, his party put forth all their power, in which they were seconded by the licentious king, to secure the celibacy of the clergy, and drive out from all religious houses the married clergy who refused to separate from their wives. This movement was partly due to the irregularities that had crept into those establishments during the Danish invasions. The principal political event ot the reign was the more perfect consolidation of the several states, and the efficient measurrts THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGDOM. 23 taken to keep the turbulent in awe. Several hundred vessels were kept afloat, and in the summer months the king in person made the circuit of the island. By land he made progiesses^ aolding courts of justice and hearing appeals. The vassal princes were called in at times to till out his train ; on one occa- sion so many as eight, who had resorted to him at Chester, rowed their lord from Chester to the monastery of St. John. 13. Edward the Martyr (975 — 978), son of Edgar, suc- ceeded at the age of fourteen to a disputed thTone, for Elf rid a, Edgar's second wife, claimed it for her son Ethelred. As the Kingdom was divided on the church question, the supporters of the married clergy sided with Elfrida, butDunstan's party proved the stronger. The only point of interest in this reign connects itself with that churchman, whose measures seemed likely to enc 1 in a civil war. No longer in possession of the power to force, he had recourse to miracles. At a synod at Winchester, a voice from the crucifix spoke in his favour, and at a great council at Calne, Dunstan committed his cause to the power of heaven ; thereupon that part of the floor on which his opponents stood gave way, and several of the nobles were killed or maimed. Soon after this, the young king hunting in the neighbourhood of Corf e Castle, where dwelt his mother-in-law, made her a call, and while drinking in the saddle was stabbed in the back by one of her servants. Faint with loss of blood, he fell from his saddle, but one foot hanging in the stirrup, he was dragged along the road and taken up a corpse. 14. Ethelred the Unready (978 — 1016), second son of Edgar, ascended the throne at the age of ten years ; Dunstan crowned the boy witn a curse, which contributed to its own ful- filment. Two years after Ethelred's accession (980) saw the commencement of the third and last Danish invasion, but it was not till eleven years after that the number of the barbarians be- came so formidable as to overbalance the power of resistance, already much weakened by internal dissension. Repeatedly they were* boughtoff with sums of money varying from ten to twenty- four thousand pounds, a hyde of land (120 acres) being purchase- able at that time for five pounds. The year 1002 was memorable for the marriage of the king with Emma of Normandy, and the massacre of all the Danes in the king's dominions, as a punish- ment for their disloyalty, and as a measure of precaution. Whether the massacre included all the resident Danes, cr recent settlers, or only Danish mercenaries, is a point unsettled. Among the slain was Gunhilda, sister of Sweyn of Denmark ; to avenge the death of his sister and countrymen, the King landed in Eng- land, and for four years the kingdom presented f the mournful 24 OUTLINES 0? ENGLISH HISTORY Fpectacleof a nobility divided by faction, treason, and murder; oi a king unequal to the duties of his station ; and of a people the eport of an exasperated and vindictive enemy." Ir_ 1008 the Witan ordered that all landowners be assessed at the rate of one ship for every 310 hydes ; this imposition is the remote origin of the well-known tax of ship money. But all availed nothing in consequence of the treachery of some of the principal nobles ; andThurkill's host ravaged the south of England fo. three years. In 1012, through the treachery of Edric the earl, Canterbury was sacked and 7,000 of its inhabitants slain ; Elphege the pri- mate, refusing to pay a ransom of £3,000, wasbrutally murdered. The contest came to an issue in 1013. Sweyn received at Gainsborough the submission of all the Danes north of Watling Street. Moving his host southward, he issued orders to ravage the open country, pillage the churches, burn the towns, and put every male to the sword. An attempt on London failed ; he then turned off, and having established his head-quarters at Bath, pro- claimed himself king of England, and summoned all the thanes to come in and swear allegiance. Ethelred, abandoned by his people, sent off his wife and children to Normandy, and shortly after found an asylum there himself. Sweyn died within a month from Ethelred's leaving the kingdom. The Witan now consented to the king's return, if he would promise to rule better than before. Canute, who had succeeded his father, re- tired for a while to Denmark, but returning in 1015 found support from the perfidious Edric. Ethelred now dies. 15. Edmund Ironsides (1016), son of Ethelred, was accepted as king by the citizens of London, but the Witan reluctantly ac- knowledged Canute. The Danes immediately carried 300 ships up the Thames, Edmund drew out his forces and defeated the enemy at Brentford ; shortly afterwards he was himself defeated at Assandun, and all the nobility of the English race was there destroyed. Edmund now retired into Gloucestershire, and at a meeting with Canute in the isle of Olney, the two kings agreed to divide the kingdom. The same year Ironsides perished bj assassination. II is sons, Edward and Edmund, were sent first to Sweden and thence to Hungary; the former became the father of Edgar Atheling, Christina, and Margaret, who married Malcolm of Scotland, and thus " the rights of the line of Cerdic were transmitted to Malcolm's progeny, after the conquest ot England." Three Danish kings rule in England. 1016—1042. 16. CANUTE (1016—1035), son of Sweyfi king of Denmark, came into quiet possession of the whole kingdom on the death of Edmund. He took to wife Emma, the widow of Ethelred, and THE ANGLO 8AX-3N KINGDOM. 25 B6 the country became peaceable proved himself a just and bene- ficent prince. To soothe the country, most of the Danish troops were sent home ; and when themisruleof the subordinate magis- trates came to an end, the country enjoyed a quiet unknown for many years before. The fiery spirits among the Saxons he employed in foreign wars ; Godwin, at the head of the Saxons, defeated the Swedes, and another force made a conquest of Nor- way. Both the Cun \brian and Scottish kings found it necessary to acknowledge Can ate as their supe r ior. Becoming a Christian ne made a pilgrimage to Rome, and left everywhere proofs of h is devotion and liberality. On his return he addressed by letter the people of England — " Be it known to you all that I have dedicated my life to the service of God, to govern my kingdoms with equity, and to observe justice in all things. If by the vio- lence or negligence of youth I have violated justice heretofore, it is my intention, by the help of God, to make full compensation." 17. Harold Harefoot (1035 — 1040), son of Canute, obtained the support of the Danish party, but earl Godwin and the West Saxons were for Hardi Canute, the son of Canute by Emma, f By compromise the latter took Wessex, the former the other part of the kingdom. Edward and Alfred, sons of Ethelred, headed an expedition from Normandy, but Emma gave them no count- enance, and the attempt failed. Alfred was afterwards inveigled into England and basely murdered : this crime was laid to Godwin, though upon doubtful evidence. Emma now fled from the kingdom, not without suspicion of being in some way con- nected with this deed. 18. Hardicanute (1040 — 1042), son of Canute, came to the throne by the consent of all parties. His reign was marked by great oppression. Taxes were levied by troops, and the people of Worcester, in an insurrection, putting two of the collectors to death, the whole county was ravaged for four days, and the city given to the flames. Godwin being called upon to clear himself of the murder of Alfred, was acquitted by his peers of any parti- cipation in the deed. Hardicanute died at a feast at Lambeth. The Saxon dynasty restored. 1042—1066. 19. Edward the Confessor (1042—66), son of Ethelred, took the throne, as Edward, son of Edmund Ironsides, was not resident in England. But the choice had little to recommend it, for the king was more a Norman than an Englishman, having resided 27 years in Normandy ; he was moreover of simple mind, if not positively of weak intellect, which occasioned the power or the kingdom to fall into the hands of a few powerful nobles. Of these Godwin held the first place, and his influence was increased c 2(5 0CTLINE8 OF ENGLI8H HISTORY by the marriage of his daughter, Edith the Fair to the king This powerful earl held the government of Wessex, Susses, and Kent ; his son Sweyn, Gloucesterandfourneighbouringcounties; and his son Harold, East Anglia and four counties. Earl Siwaru held from the Humber to the borders of Scotland, and Leof ric f earl of Leicester, governed the northern part of Mercia. One of Edward's first acts was to confiscate his mother's lands and other property, because of her attachment to the Danish party. A less excusable policy was that of bringing over his Norman friends by shoals, and placing them in various public offices — " the language of his court was French, and he had French chaplains, on whom he bestowed bishoprics ; French governors of his castles, and French body-guards." The great influence of the Norman party at court galled the Godwin family more than any other, f*ftd an occasion only was wanted to show their dislike of the king's friends. This happened in 1051. Eustace of Boulogne, the king's brother-in-law, provoked a quarrel at Dover, when many persons were killed on both sides. As this town lay in Godwin's jurisdiction, Edward commanded him to punish the inhabitants by military execution. He re- fused, and gathering his forces, marched to Gloucester, where the king then was to meet his Witan ; but Siward and Leofric brought their forces to assist Edward, and it was agreed that the matter should be settled in London. The result was that the earl and his family found it necessary to quit the kingdom. In the next year they returned in force, and Edward deemed it expedient to accept Godwin's explanations ; the Normans were now outlawed for having given bad advice to the king. A year later the earl died, and Harold took his father's earldom. In 1039 Macbeth murdered Duncan, king of Scotland ; his son Malcolm found an asylum with his uncle Siward, earl of Northumbria. When Macduff, the thane of Fife, headed an in- surrection against the murderer, Malcolm set out to join him, accompanied by his uncle and a great army ; Macbeth was slain, and Malcolm Canmore mounted the throne of his father (1064), In the year following, Siward died, and his earldom was given to Tostig, brother of Harold. A war with Wales led Harold thither with an army (1063) ; the Welsh submitted, and sent in the head of Griffin their prince as a peace-ottering. Trouble came next from the north, where Tostig's unmerciful rule had provoked an insurrection ; the people chose Morcar for their earl, which act of theirs the king confirmed. Harold made an effort to restore his brother, but the Northumbrians decidedly refused to have him ; the expelled earl then svithdrew to Flan- ders to the court of em I Baldwin, whose bister he had marrijd THE AKGLO-BAXON KINGDOM. 27 The Confessor died on twelfth-day eve, and was mteried in the West-Minster, which had been just consecrated. 20. Harold (1066), son of earl Godwin, came to the throne by choice of the Witan, ana as some say, also by the will of Edward. Other claimants there were — Edgar the Atheling, and William the Norman — the former prince feeble in body, and still more feeble in mind. William of Normandy claimed England as a bequest made to him by Edward, a gift which the king was not competent to make, for the crown could be disposed of only by the great council of the nation. No doubt William had long had bib eye on this country, and when Harold, by shipwreck or some other cause, was at his mercy, he made the young Saxon swear to promote his interests in England. Great therefore was William's indignation when he heard that Harold had become king ; a messenger was sent to remind him of his oath, but Harold replied that he was king by the choice of the people, and would defend his crown. In Normandy preparations for an invasion began at cnce, adventurers came in from all parts, incited by the promise of lands, money, benefices, and wives, accordingto their rank and degree. William assigned as reasons for his offensive movement —the bequest made by his cousin, the perjury of Harold, the expulsion of the Normans at the instigation of Godwin, and the massacre of the Danes by Ethelred. The alleged perjury of Harold brought the papal sanction for the conquest of England, which when conquered was to be held as the fief of St. Peter. Meanwhile Harold had to contend with his brother Tostig, who had been incited by William (William and Tostig had mar- ried two sisters) to head an expedition to the north. Aided by Harold Hardrada, king of Norway, the expelled earl defeated Edwin and Morcar near York ; this defeat compelled the king to leave the south to oppose his brother, In a battle at Stamford* bridge (Sept. 25) both Tostig and Hardrada fell, along with thousands of their followers. All this time William was collecting men and ships at the mouth of the Dive; after waiting long foi a fair wind, the expedition sailed from St. Valery (Sept. 26), and arrived at Pevensey (Sept. 28), at which place 60,000 men landed without opposition. As soon as tidings reached Harold at York, he set out with his forces. Reaching London, he was persuuded to wait for reinf orcements,or at least to allow another to lead the army against the enemy, seeing he had given William his oatli. But Harold rejected the advice, and further weakened his forces by sending round a fleet of 700 vessels to cut off the duke's escape. The English encamped (Oct. 13) in one compact mass on an eminence at Senlac, nine miles from Hastings, and, as the story goes, 8[>ent the night in revelling, the Normans occupying theirs 28 0UTLINE8 OF ENGLISH HISTCBY in religious duties. On the morning of the 14th, William divided his army into three bodies, taking charge of the cavalry himself. 41 God help us!" was the cry of the Normans; "The holy rood, the rood of God ! " of the English. Joining battle at nine in the morning, it raged for six hours without any decided advantage on either side. A feigned retreat at length tempted the Saxons to break their close order, and the Norman cavalry severely punished them for their folly. At this period of the battle an arrow pierced Harold in the eye ; shortly after, his brothers Gurth and Leofwin fell by the side of the standard. Without leaders the English broke up and dispersed in the adjoining wood. " It was," observes Turner, "the death of Harold which gave William the sceptre. The force of England was unconquered. A small portion of it only had been exerted ; and if Harold had survived, or any other heii atall competent to the crisis, William would have earned no more from his victory than the privilege of fighting another battle with diminished strength. . . . But it was ordained by the Supreme Director of events that England should no longer remain isolated from the rest of Europe ; but should, for its own benefit and the improvement of mankind, become connected with the affairs of the Continent. The Anglo-Saxon dynasty was therefore terminated ; and a sovereign, with great 'jontinental possessions, was led to the English throne. By the consequences of this revolution England acquired that interest and established that influence in the transactions and fortunes of its neighbours which have continued to the present day, with equal advantages to its inhabitants and to Europe." Political and Religious Institutions of the Saxons. 1. Distinction of Ranks. — First in rank was the king, originally however they were only chieftains of bodies of free men, whose allegiance they could claim in time of war, but over whom they had imperfect control when peace came. The consolidation and exten- sion of the royal power took place at an early period after the Saxons settled in England. The principal prerogatives assigned to the Anglo- Saxon kings are — the summoning and proroguing the Witan, ap- pointing aldermen and other public officers, superintending the ootnage, together with the rights of purveyance, and a right of property in forests, treasure-trove, mines, wrecks, markets, tolls, &c. With respect to the succession, though the Saxons limited the in- heritance of the crown to one royal family, they were not very scrupulous about its devolution upon the nearest heir. The eldest s<;.u of the late king, being of full age and otherwise competent, was the natural successor, but the public security in those times was thought incompatible with a minor king. The contort of the king was at first called queen, but after the crime of Eadburga she was termed the lady. Members Ot the royal family were called ethelinqs. Next iu order were the alderman or carlt. The districts which THE ANGLU-8AX0N KINGDOM. 29 they governed were denominated their shires, and at first much smaller than the present counties. When the West Saxon kings had conquered the neighbouring states, several shires were comprised iu one earldom. The duties of an alderman were — to lead the men of his shire to battle, to preside with the bishop in the county court, and to enforce the execution of justice. Of the fines and rents paid to the king, he usually received one- third. Originally the office was in the gift of the king ; latterly it was claimed as the right of particular families. The word jarl or earl superseded that of alderman from the time of Canute. After the evhelborn or nobles, there were two classes of freemen — > Thanes and Ceorls, the owners and cultivators of land. The thanes vere a numerous and distinguished order of men, divided however into greater and lesser thanes, the former acknowledging no other superior than the king. Five hydes of land was the least that a thane could hold ; having less than that, he sunk to the rank of a ceorl. The ceorl was bound, though not always, to the land which he culti- vated. He was occasionally called upon to bear arms for the public safety ; he was capable of property, and of the privileges which it con- ferred. If he came to possess five hydes of land, with a churfih and mansion of his own, he could claim to rank as a thane, and in like manner if he had sailed thrice to a foreign land with a cargo of his own. So book-learning would raise a ceorl to be a lore thane. At the bottom of the scale were the theoics, thralls, or serfs, a class supposed to have been formed originally of the British, and kept up by those who were born slaves, and such Saxons as were captured in war, or degraded because of their inability to pay the fine for offences committed. They were generally attached to the manor, and sold with the land and cattle. Sometimes they were used as " live money " to purchase or barter goods, their value being rated at four times that of an ox. They might be bound, scourged, or branded at pleasure, and though not allowed to be killed wantonly, only a nominal fine was imposed on the murderer. Owners occasionally manumitted their slaves by presenting them before the proper officer, at the same time giving the theow a sword or lance, and telling him he was at libe?ty to go where he pleased. 2. The Witanagemot or Great Council. — The Witan, or assembly of wise men, met at one of the royal cities, at the festivals of Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, and at any other time or place appointed by the king. It was composed of the king in person, the superior clergy, the earls, and the greater thanes; perhaps some of the inferior classes attended, though not to take part in deliberation. The powers of the Witan are thus enumerated : — They possessed a consultative voice, and right to consider every pubiic act which could be authorised by the king. The Witan deliberated upon the making of new laws; it had the power of making alliances and treaties of peace; of electing the king, of deposing the king if his government was not for the benefit of the people; of regulating ecclesiastical matters; of disposing of what concerned the public lands; of declaring the lands of offenders forfeited ; of acting as a supreme court of justice; and in conjunction with the king, it had the power to levy taxes for the public service, and to raise land and sea forces. 3. Courts por the Administration of Justice.— The lowest oourt was that of " sac and soc," which held pleas and imposed finss 30 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY ^rithin a certain district ; this right was exercised by all the preatct ind some of the leeser thanes. The jurisdiction in some cases ex- tended to all offences, in others they had not this privilege, neither ^ould they punish any tut their own tenants. As they were held in the lord's hall, they were termed hall-motes. The next in order was the kundred-tncte, which met monthly, under the presidency of the alderman or chief officer of the hundred. This court took cognizance of civil and criminal causes within the bounds of the district, but its usefulness was not confined to judicial proceedings. In a period when few possessed the arts of reading and writing, the stability of pecuniary transactions depended much on the honesty and character of,., the witnesses, and the testimony of the hundred court was deemed con- clusive in questions of disputed rights or obligations. Of higher digciity was the shire-mote, which was held twice a year, and presided over by the bishop and alderman, with equal authority. Every grea. landholder was compelled to attend in person or by deputy. The affairs of the church were first attended to, then those of the king, and lastly those of private individuals. 4. Modes of Trial. — In all the courts the judges were the free tenants owing suit to tho court, and subsequently called its peers. In civil causes the oath of the defendant was taken, supported by those of his neighbours; at one time four were thought sufficient, at another, fifty were required. If the prosecution was a criminal one. the person charged might purge himself with his own oath and those of bis compurgators, who swore that they believed his oath to be up- right and clean. But the accused might elect to prove his innocence by the ordeal, or judgment of God. Of the ordeal there were several kinds; — (1) Corsned, or consecrated bread, which, it was believed, would choke a guilty person : (2) Grasping a piece of hot iron and carrying it three paces; the burnt hand was bound up for three days, and if on taking off the bandage no foul marks appeared, the accused was pronounced innocent: or it might be by walking blinded and barefoot over nine red-hot ploughshares : (3) Taking a stone out of a vessel of boiling water, and binding up the hand as before : (4) Binding the accused hand and foot, and throwing him into a pond or river; if he floated he was guilty, for the water was too pure to receive him; if he sunk, he was deemed innocent. 5. Modes of Punishment. — Every injury done to a freeman, either in person or property, could be atoned for by a pecuniary pay- ment. Hence every man had his price, or weregild, — the ceorl, or two-hundred man, 200 shillings; the lesser thane, 600 shillings; the greater thane, 1,200 shillings; the alderman's was twice, an etheling's three times, and a king's six times the were of a royal thane. There was also a bote payable for bodily injury, a mund for disturbing the j;eace, and a wite to the king for every breach of the peace. For offences against the state, or the sovereign, other punishments fol- lowed. Treason against a lord, fighting in the king's hall, coining and other state offences, were deemed deathworthy. Among customary punishments were beheading, burning, drowning, stoning, scourging, branding, and mutilation. tf. Saxon Paganism. — This system, so far as can be gathered, ecsLnowiedged one supreme deity, of whom no visible representation nn^ht be made, but there were many inferior deities who might be symbolized. The Saxon creed embraced the immortality of the soul THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGDOM. 31 £dd a future state of rewards and punishments. Valha!la was th«iv p-'.radise, where heroes indulged in martial sports, feasted cm boiled flesh, and drank beer and mead out of the skulls of their enemies. Niflheim was the abode of evil for bad men and cowards. Of the Saxon gods, the first in rank was Odin, a mighty conqueror, who, having overrun the north of Europe, claimed the honours formerly paid to the supreme Deity. Henceforth Odin, or Wudin, became the chief object of their worship: to him they built temples, offered sacrifices, and dedicated the fourth day of the week. The second in rank was Frea, or Frigga, his wife, from whom we ge+- the name of Friday. In like manner, we have Sunday and Monday from their worship of the sun and moon; Tuesday from Tyr, or Tuisco; ani Saturday from Saeter, a water deity. To the goddess Eastre was devoted an annual festival, since transfered without change of name to a Christian festival. Besides these, there were innumerable deities, arising from their notion that the earth, with all its contents, was ruled by genii, who were entitled to veneration, Little is known of the Saxon priests as oompared with the druids. Their chief priests were carled Drottes, and resided, as is supposed, one in each of the Saxon kingdoms. Generally their priest 3 had none of the honours 01 emoluments of the druids; they were neither legislators nor supreme judges, and were subject to certain disabilities. Social Institutions of the Saxons. 1. Food. The Saxons were great eaters, and had four meals a day. No meeting was held without a feast, and when the Witan met, the king feasted all its members so long as their sittings lasted. Both 6exes sat together at a table covered with a cloth, on which were set platters, bowls, dishes, horns, and knives. Swine's flesh was the most common, but in the months of summer the other classes ate other meats. When the meat was roasted, it was carried round the table on the spit, and each cut for himself, boiled meats were served on a dish. They had broths and soups flavoured with herbs. The nobles ate wheaten bread, the lower classes bread made of barley or beans, rrhich they baked daily for themselves on girdle-plates. In the absence of sugar, honey was eaten. Colewort was the common vegetable. The usual drink was ale, though those who could afford it drank wine and mead. Excessive drinking was a common vice, many had their beer halls and wine chambers, where the cup and harp circulated to a late hour, and, on festive occasions, through suc- cessive days and nights ; even religious houses are charged with drinking into the middle of the night. 2. Clothing. All freemen wore long hair, and beards. The under garment was a linen shirt, or woollen if doing penance, over tfhich was worn a close-fitting tunic of linen or woollen ; kings and nobles wore tunics of silk. This article of dress reached to the knees, had long close sleeves, and was eonfined by a belt. The drawers or breeches were loose and reached the knee. Hosen were of linen, woollen, or leather, laced or bandaged with cross-garters, called shank- guards. Short boots were worn or shoes of leather, or wood, or with eoles of wood. Out of doors a square mantle covered all, fastened at the shoulder. The head was generally bare, though sometimes ccrered with a lonical cap. The lower orders wore the same dress. 32 OUTLINES OF POLISH HISTORY. only made of coarser materials. For military purposes the tunic was covered with rings, and the head with a Phrygian helmet ; the arms in use were a shield, long double-edged sword, pike, dagger, and bill. Females, over the under garment, wore a .'lose- fitting tunic, and fibove this a long loose garment called a gunna : when the 6kirts were ^hort it was called a kirtle. The head-dress ot ail classes was a wrapper of linen or s : lk, covering both head and neuk. Out of do< rs a mantle was worn which flowed to the ground and fastened in front. Gloves were not in use. To adorn the head, curling-irons were in constant use, and among the upper classes, golden bracelets, earrings, and neck crosses were common. 3. Dwellings. The best class was of wood, very low in pitch, thatched with reeds or roofed with shingles ; they had no upper storey, no chimney, and very rarely glass windows, using instead linen screens, horn, lattice, or shutters. A nobleman's house consisted of a series of low buildings, with a hall and chapel ; close by was a hamlet of huts, where dwelt the domestic serfs. The hall was the principal apartment, in which the noble feasted his guests ; it had a fire in the centre and a smoke-hole in the roof. The rude workmanship led to the general use of hangings, or " wall clothing." Mostly they had ground floors, strewed with rushes, and these not often changed. The lower orders dwelt in clay hovels. The Saxons used only as much furniture as was absolutely neces- sary, of clumsy construction, yet with costly ornamentation. The tables were boards or tressels of heavy structure. For seats they had forms, stools, and benches; chairs were used for purposes of state. Nobles used cups and plates of silver : the inferior classes horn, wood, and bone. Clothes and valuables were kept in large chests. Bone and silver candlesticks were in use, but they had no sockets. The Saxons had beds with posts and curtains, but the common bed, even of kings, was a kind of crib or trough filled with straw. The coverlid was a skin or cloak. Men generally slept in the hall upon a mattress. The furniture of the kitchen consisted of ovens, spits, and cauldrons; having no grates, fires were made on the ground, and the pot hung over or stood upon a tripod or trivet. 4. Amusemeicts. The martial sports were running, leaping, riding, wrestling, and fighting. The martial dance was a favorite, in which they moved among the points of swords and lances. In fighting they entered the lists with their arms, and after cutting one another to pieces for sport, ended the game in a feast of jollity. Field sports were common, such as hunting, hawking, and fishing ; the animals hunted were boars, deer, hares, and goats. Every one might hunt his own grounds, but the laws were severe for hunting the king's forests. The domestic sports were dice, at which many staked their money, goods, and persons ; backgammon, jugglers' tricks, darcing, zinging, tumbling, and tossing of koives and balls by gleemcn. Cluid- reu had their trapball, hoops, &c. WILLIAM 1. 33 THE NORMAN KINGS. William I. 1066—1087. Henry I. 1100—1135. William II. 1087—1100. Stephen 1135—1154. WILLIAM I. 1066-1087. The Royal Family. William I. (1027—1087) was the sixth in descent from Rollo, first duke of Normandy, and the only son of Robert, surnamed the Devil. Hi? father dying whilst William was yet a child, he was left to the care of Henry of France. Of his mother, Arlette, we only know that she was the daughter of one oi the ducal officers, and not married to duke Robert ; after his death she married and became the mother of Robert, earl of Mortagne ; Odo, bishop of Bayeux ; and a daughter who married the earl of Albemarle. William, by reason of the turbulence of the Norman barons, was early schooled in the art of war, and, when success had improved his position, his alliance was sought by all the princes round. He was the slave of ambition and avarice, and allowed nothing to stand in the way of the gratification of his passions ; to the forms of religion he paid strict attention, hearing mass daily ; he was moreover a patron of learning and learned men. " It cannot be doubted, that William surpassed all his contemporary rulers in a capacity for command, in war certainly, and probably also in peace. Sagacity, circumspection, foresight, courage, both in forming plans and facing dangers, insight into character, ascendancy over men's minds ; all these qualities he doubtless possessed in a very high degree." The consort of William was Matilda (1031—1083) daughter of Bald- win, earl of Flanders. Her affections fell first on the Saxon, Brihtric, lord of the honor of Gloucester, then employed on an embassy to Flanders, but her love was not returned. William, hearing of her beauty, demanded her in marriage, and after waiting several years without result, rode over and gave Matilda a sound beating. When next he proposed, she replied '* it pleased her well ; " the marriage took place in 1052. Matilda had fine natural talents, improved by careful education, and when she became duchess of Normandy, proved herself a munificent patroness of the arts and learning, and co-operated with her husband in seeking the improvement of the people. On her becoming queen of England, one of her first acts savoured of spite ,* she obtained an order for the perpetual imprisonment of Brihtm and the seizure of his lands for herself. Her foolish partiality for her son Robert led to serious consequences, and a stern reproof from William in these words: — "The woman who deceives her husband, is the destruction of her own house." Her latter years were spent in Normandy acting as regent for her husband, and were so far froroi taing happy that she is said to have died of a broken heart. The children of William were : — Robert, duke of Normandy ■ Richard, killed by a stag in the New Forest ; William who oeeame king ; Henry who became king ; and Adela married to Stephen, count t>f Blois. 34 OCrVi-lNES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. I. Submission of the Saxon authorities. After the battle of Senlac, or Hastings, William held hirastlt in the neighbourhood in expectation of receiving an offer of the crown, and great was his disappointment when he heard that Edgar Atheling had been crowned king in London. Marching to Romney, he massacred the inhabitants for attacking the Norman fleet, and going on to Dover he found the garrison ready to capitulate. As the men of Kent offered no resistance, William moved straight on London, but finding it well defended, he burnt Southwark and then set his troops to ravage the neigh- bouring counties. This policy led to disunion among the Saxons, the earls Edwin and Morcar withdrew, and Stigand the primate 6et the example of submission to the Conqueror. Next came Atheling, then Edwin and Morcar, three bishops, and the princi- pal citizens of London ; at Berkhampstead, William accepted the crown of England, and received the oath of allegiance from the principal Saxons. On Christmas day he was crowned at West- minster, swearing to govern the nation as well as any king that had gone before him. On the same da} r , the Norman soldiers set fire to some houses, and under cover of the confusion plundered the city. Though William was now king of England, he pos- sessed only so much of it as was held by military occupation — that is, east of a line drawn from Norfolk to Hants. II. Completion of the Conquest. 1067—1071. At the commencement of his reign, W 7 illiam sought to win the affections of the English — by continuing the Saxon laws and customs, by renewing to the city of London all its former privi- leges, by ordering his officers of revenue to avoid exactions, by protecting trade, by redressing the grievances of which the people complained, and by treating Edgar Atheling as a friend. In March, 1067, the king embarked for Normandy. During his absence the arrogance and rapacity of his regents drove the people into insurrection; William returned with a determination to crush the English by severe measures. First he moved against Exeter because the citizens had maltreated some Norman mariners, but its inhabitants made so stout a resistance that he granted them favourable terms. Morcar and Edwin now stirred Mp England from Mercia to the borders of Scotland ; the affair wasbadly planned, and they, with Malcolm , who was implicated, sought for pardon. Edgar and his sister fled, and being driven into the Forth by a storm, Malcolm married Margaret the elder sister. In 1069, the north was again in rebellion, headed by Edgar end other exiles from Scotland ; the Norman garrison at Durham WILLIAM I. 3* was put to the sword, and subsequently that of York, numbering 3000 men. William hurried northwards, regained York and dis- persed his followers, with orders to spare neither man nor beast, and to destroy houses and every other thing of value which they could not carry off. This rendered a flourishing pro- vince a desert sixty miles in length. In the west, the Welsh and the men of the border attacked Shrewsbury, this brought William upon them ; they were driven back, and many castles erected all through the border district, and yet the Welsh gave great annoyance during the whole reign Equally troublesome were the exiles who had formed a Camp of Refuge in the isle of Ely, where Hereward a Saxon headed a strong party, and in the fastnesses of the Fens set all William's lieutenants at defiance. It was not till a fleet took post in the Wash, the Fens were enclosed by a land force, and a causeway two miles in length constructed, that this confederacy was broken up. Of those that submitted, some were executed and others mutilated ; Morcar was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and his brother Edwin slain in an attempt to escape ; the fate of Hereward is uncertain. Subsequently, William retaliated on Scotland for a savage inroad which Malcolm had made ; the Scotch king submitted (1072) to become the vassal of England, but whether for the kingdom of Scotland, or merely for the dominions he held in England, is doubtful. Four years later, William's own barons entered into a scheme to deprive him of his kingdom ; the affair was nipt in the bud, but it cost the life of the Saxon Waltheof , son of Si ward the old earl of Northumbria. And again in 1085, Canute, king of Denmark, prepared an expedition of 1,000 vessels to obtain possession of England ; William's good fortune again prevailed, though it put him to the expense of supporting a large army of mercenaries to protect his new dominions. III. Results of the Norman Conquest. Briefly stated, the consequences were — the introduction of a foreign dynasty and nobility ; the transfer, either by grant or force, of nearly all the lands in the kingdom, thereby greatly enriching the Norman soldiers, and reducing the principal Saxons to indigence ; a strife of races which continued for nearly two hundred years ; the perfection of the feudal system, with its train of services and incidents ; the increase of papa} influence, and the power of the clerical estate, by the erection of separate courts for ecclesiastical causes ; the opening up of new relations with the Continent, thus bringing England into contact with a higher civilisation, and extending our commercial transac So OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. cions : and securing to England exemption from further Danish invasions. M England presented the singular spectacle of a native population with a foreign sovereign, a foreign hierarchy, and a foreign nobility — every earl and every powerful vassal of the crown was a Norman. Each of these, to guard against the disaffection of the natives, naturally surrounded himself with foreigners, who alone were the objects of his favour and patron- age ; and thus almost all who aspired to the rank of gentlemen, all who possessed either wealth or authority, were also Normans Individuals who in their own country had been poor and un- known, saw themselves unexpectedly elevated in the scale oi society ; they were astonished at their own good fortunes ; and generally displayed in their conduct all the arrogance of newly acquired power." IV. Wars in France- On William's invasion of England, his eldest son Robert waa invested with the nominal government of Normandy, which duchy he afterwards claimed as his right, and was refused. This made him discontented, and the indignities heaped upon him by his brothers William and Henry increased it. He attempted to seize Rouen, and supported by several Norman barons, declared war against his father ; this movement ended in failure, and Robert became a refugee for five years. The king of France t hen gave him the castle of Gerberoi, from which he ravaged his father's dominions. William in 1079 besieged the castle, and coming into actual combat with his son, w T as unhorsed and wounded ; the siege was raised, and by the influence of Matilda the queen, a reconciliation effected. Philip I. was in dispute with William for thepossession of the city of Mantes, he had in fact seized it, and negotiations were opened for its restoration. But a coarse jest, which Philip made on William's delay, so stung the English king that he entered the French territory and took Mantes. The city was fired, and William's horse treading on the hot embers became restive, the King thereby received a bruise which ended in fever and death. While on his death-bed, he bequeathed Normandy to Robert, recommended William to Lanfranc the primate, as successor to the English throne, and gave to Henry 5000 pounds of silver. Miscellaneous Facts. One of the results growing out of the Norman Conquest, was the alterations which took place in the tenure of land. To the student of English history, this subject is of the first importance, it appears on nearly every page of our annals down to the abolition of feudal tenures in Charles II., so that even an elementary knowledge of our history cannot be obtained, without understanding something of what feudalism wa*. 37 WILLIAM I. The feudal system was one in which an estate called a feud or Jief, was granted on conditions, and not as an estate of absolute and independent ownership. It originated on the continent, and was not unknown in England during the later Saxon period, but it was only after the Con- quest that it was perfected. Between the lord who granted and the vassal who received, a special relationship was established ; the lord undertook to afford protection to his vassal, whilst the vassal put himseJf under the obligations of military service at his own expense, generally for 40 days in the year, also to defend the person and family of his lord, and to attend his lord's courts. The ceremonies in conferring a fief were three : — Homage, as an ex- pression of submission and devotedness, in consideration of lands held of the lord ; this was done bare-headed, ungirt, and kneeling, in which posture the promise of faithful service was made : — Fealty, or the con- firmation of the promise by an oath : — Investment, or the actual convey- ance of the lands constituting the fief. Investiture was of two kinds ; proper, or the actual putting in possession on the ground, which in English law is called " livery of seisin ; " and improper or symbolical, by which the lands were conveyed by the delivery of a wand, a piece of turf, a branch of a tree, &c. Besides the claim of fealty and service, the lord derived other advan- tages fivm an estate granted in fief. These advantages are known as Feudal Incidents — such were aids, reliefs, primer seisin, wardships, marriage, fines, and escheats. A relief was a money or other payment made by one of full age, taking a fief by descent. As the relief was mostly uncertain in its amount, it led to one of the greatest abuses of feudalism ; the Magna Charta settled the amount at about one-fourth of the annual value of the estate. Aids were money payments to the lord on special occasions ; by Magna Charta they were reduced to three — ransoming the lord's person, knighting his eldest son, and marrying his eldest v^aughter. By Edward I., the two latter were fixed at twenty shillings, the former from its nature could not be determined beforehand. These feudal aids originated the modern system of taxation. Primer seisin, or first fruits, was a payment made only by tenants in capite, of one year's profits of the land, and were in addition to the relief. Ward- ship, or guardianship in chivalry, gave to the lord the right to hold the persons and lands of minors, without giving any account of the profits. This right was greatly abused down to the time of the Stuarts. Marriage, or the right of the lord to dispose of his wards in marriage; if they re- fused, he claimed as much as any one would give for the marriage, which was in proportion to the value of the estate, and double if they married without his consent. A Fine was a payment made to obtain the lord's ixmsent to alienate the estate. The king's tenants by 1 Edw. III., were to pay one-third of the annual value. Fscheat was the return of the estate to the lord of the fee, when his vassal died without heirs, or was attainted for treason or felony. The Domesday Book was compiled fey order of the council which met at Gloucester (1085), that there might be a certain record of the tenure ."jf the estates of the kingdom, and of the revenues due to the sovereign. J ustieiaries were appointed to travel through England, and register upon the oaths of the sheriff, lord of the manor, priest of the church, steward of the hundred, and th& bailiff with six villeins of the village — the extent af etieh estate ; its proprietors and tenure ; the quantity of meadow 38 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. pasture, wood, and arable land; with the number of villeins, cattle, &o^ as they stood respectively in (1) the time of Edward the Confessor, (2) when granted by the Conqueror, (3) at the date of the survey This rev cord was completed in 1086, and still exists in the Chapter House at Westminster. With respect to the Curfew Bell, it is often stated that William com- pelled the people of England to put oat their fires and other lights, on the ringing of a bell at sunset in summer, and about eight in winter, as a mark of the servitude of a conquered people. But this ts a mistake, the curfew bell was a law of police which William had previously estab- lished in Normandy. The same law had a place in Scotland and in other European states, being considered necessary on account of the combust- ible material employed in the construction of houses, and the numerous fires in towns and villages. It was continued in England as a police regulation, till after the beginning of the 16th century ; in some parishes the curfew bell is rung at the present day. The formation of the Neto Iforent is usually accounted as one of the greatest of William's acts of oppression. Hume says, " He laid waste the country in Hampshire for an extent of thirty miles, expelled the in- nabitants from their houses, seized their property, even demolished churches and convents, and made the sufferers no compensation for the injury." A modern writer thinks this an exaggerated statement, for there had always been a forest in that district, probably a portion of the great forest of Andreade. " The only fair conclusion seems to be, that finding a rough and thinly peopled tract in the neighbourhood of the old royal seat of Winchester, one too, whose poor soil prevented its making any profitable return to the husbandman, the new king enlarged its bounds, and if here and there a few dwellings or a church opposed an obstacle to the design, we may suppose they were at once demolished." Chronicle. 1067, Battle Abbey founded by order of the Conqueror. 1068, The curfew bell ordered to be rung. 1070, The Feudal system per- fected in England. 1073, Gregory VII, (Hildebrand) endeavours to establish the supremacy of the pope in Christendom. 1079, Formation of the New Forest. 1089, Tower of London founded. 1085, Domesday Book ordered to be compiled. WILLIAM IL 1087-1100. The Royal Family. William II. (1060—1100), the third son of the Conqueror, was surnamed Rufus from his ruddy complexion. Little is known of him before his coming to the throne, and what is known of him subsequently is discreditable. " He seems to have been a violent and tyrannical prince ; a perfidious, encroaching, and dan- gerous neighbour ; an unkind and ungenerous relative." His death is usually attributed to a chance arrow shot by Sir Walter Tyrrel, who is said to have made the best of his way out of the country, and to have travelled as a pilgrim to the Holy Land in expiation for shed- ding blood. But Tyrrel after his return, when he had nothing to fear from stating the truth, made oath that he did not see the king on the day of his death, nor was he indeed in that part of the forest. Some writers attribute his death to a premeditated act, growing out of the intense dislike which existed to so bad a king. William never married. CTILLIAM II. 39 I. Disputes with his Brother Robert. William, without waiting for the death of his father, hastened to England with a letter of recommendation to Lanfranc, who^ calling a council of prelates and barons, secured the election of the red king Odo, on account of his dislike to Lanfranc, headed a party in England in favour of duke Robert ; the castle of Ro- chester he entrusted to Eustace, count of Boulogne, while he Himself took post at Pevensey to await the arrival of the duke from Normandy. Robert was as usual too late in his movements, etnd the insurrection ended in the submission of a part, and the escape of the remainder out of the country. The indolent-character of Robert unfitted him to hold the reins of government, and his duchy soon became a scene of anarchy and violence. The barons garrisoned the castles with their own troops, and levied war on each other, and the duke by his im- providence was too poor to enter upon a contest with them. Of this confusion William took advantage in 1090 ; by means of bribes he obtained possession of the principal castles, and bought off the French king. By the influence of the barons who held lands both in Normandy and England, William consented to end this unnatural war on the following conditions, — that he should retain the Norman forts, giving to his brother an equivalent in England ; that Robert's friendf should receive back their estates; and that the survivor of the two brothers should unite Normandy with England. In 1091 the brothers united ^heir forces to besiege Henry in Mount St. Michael ; on its fall he was permitted to retire almost penniless to Brittany. Robert fared little better, for the king re- fused to fulfil the conditions of the treaty, and renewed the war against him in 1094. The contest ended this time in a way the least expected, for the duke, anxious to join the projected crusade, disposed of his duchy (1096) to his brother for five years, on re- ceiving the sum of 10,000 marks. II. Invasions by the Scotch and Welsh. In the absence of William in Normandy, Malcolm ravaged the northern counties y the king on his return made the Scots submit, and Malcolm do him homage. Anew quarrel led toMalcolrcTa being summoned to Gloucester, to do homage in presence of the English barons ; this he refused, and bringing his troops into Northumberland, he wasted it with fire and sword. He was, how- ever Barprised by Robert Mowbray and slain, together witb 40 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTOiiY Edward his eldest son ; both bodies were buried atTynemouth j Margaret survived the intelligence but four days (1093). The Welsh in 1094 were in general insurrection, the NormaL garrisons were either slaughtered or compelled to retreat into England, and the border districts ravaged. William moved a force against them, though only to be attacked on his flanks and rear ; in this way the royal forces were wasted without result, and after two or three attempts the king was forced to be satisfied with increasing the border castles. III. Rapacity of the King. William's prodigality knew no bounds, and his minister Ralph Flambard, a Norman ecclesiastic, was famous for his devices to obtain money. New offences were created to multiply fines, punishments commuted for pecuniary payments, and a new sur- vey ordered, to raise additional money from lands. Another plan was that of obtaining for the crown the revenues of vacant pre- lacies and abbeys ; their estates were let out to farm by public auction, and in some cases so held for several years, and only then granted to a new prelate on his paying the full value of the preferment. The king at his death had in his hands one arch- bishopric, four bishoprics, and eleven abbeys, all of which had been let out to farm. This conduct to the church w T as one ground t)f the quarrel between the king and Anselm the new primate. For four years William had kept the see of Canterbury, and when it was forced upon Anselm, the tenants were still required to pay their rents into the king's exchequer, and yet the king expected the primate to pay handsomely for his promotion. This matter and the quarrel growing out of the investiture dispute, induced Anselm to retire from the kingdom. Miscellaneous Facts. In this reign commenced the Crusades. The Turks had lately (1076) come into possession of Palestine, and what with their barbarity and the unsettled character of the govern ment, Christian pilgrims could no longer visit the holy places without exposure to insult, robbery, and extortion. Returning to Europe, the pilgrims made loud complaints, and Peter the Hermit, one of the eufferers, preached up a crusade against the infidels. Pope Urban IE. tanctioned the movement, and at meetings at Plaeentia and Clare- wont (1095) obtained the consent of the assembled multitudes. The {irst crusade (1096) was undertaken by an undisciplined rubble, leaded by Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless. The real chivalry of Europe moved subsequently, and when mustered on the plains of Bithynia, numbered 100,000 knights and 600,000 armed men, under Godirey of Bouillon, Robert of Normandy, and others. Antioch was taken after a siege of eight months. Jerusalem afterwards fell, and three days were *pent in the unchristian \rork of slaughtering HENRY I. 41 70,000 Moslems; Godfrey was now (1099) elected king of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. Chronicle. 1097, A stone bridge commenced at London. 1098, Westminster Hall erected by the king for his banqueting chamber. 1100, A part of what had been Godwin's estate overflowed by the seaj now known as the Goodwin Sands, a place full of peril to mariners. HENRY I 1100-1135. Royal Family. Henry I. (1068 — 1135), the youngest son of the Conqueror, was born at Selby, in Yorkshire; his education in book- lore being more extensive than was usual at that period, obtained for him the surname of Beauclerk, or Scholar. In natural abilities he was superior to his brothers, and their jealousy of him led to his being an exile for a time. His reign was one of continuous trouble, and came to a close at Rouen by eating to excess of lampreys; his body was brought to England and interred at Reading, in an abbey of his own foundation. Detestable for his profligacy and ambition, Henry has nevertheless received praise for opening the way for " the refor- mation of the law and the constitution by his re-establishment, partial as it was, of the Saxon laws, and by his charter, the example of that series of subsequent royal concessions, the same in form, though much more extended in amount, which lie at the foundation of the national liberties." The first consort of Henry was Matilda (1079 — 1118), daughter of the Saxon Margaret an'd Malcolm of Scotland, and the only princess of that kingdom who ever shared the throne of England. After the death of her parents in 1093 she was removed to England, and placed in the nunnery of Romsey, of which Christina, her mother's sister, was abbess. MaMlda is highly spoken of, on account of her strict attention to the duties of religion. Her political influence in the kingdom was considerable, and her post as regent, during the long absence of Henry in Normandy, gave her the power to proteot the Saxons and their families from Norman insults. The second consort of Henry was Adelicia, daughter of Godfrey, duke of Brabant. At her marriage in 1121 she was in her eighteenth year; tho age and sour temper of Henry prevented her married life being an agreeable one. After a short widowhood she roamed D' Aldine", the king's cup-bearer, and resided mostly at Arundel Castle, at which place she received the empress Matilda in the reign of Stephen. With the consent of her husband, Adelicia retired to a convent in Flanders, where she resided till her death. The children of Henry were — William, drowned in 1120; and Maud or Matilda, who married (1) Henry V., Emperor of Germanjr, (2) Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, of which marriage cam? Henry II. of England. I. Robert despoiled of his Kingdom and Duchy. The right of the crown was in Robert both by seniority and treaty, but as he was not on the spot Henry became king. At first he was more popular than the preceding Norman kings, foi he was a native of England ; he married Matilda, the niece of Edgar Atheling ; he recalled Anselm.and he granted a charter of l> 42 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. liberties. Robert, in the year after the accession, landed a force at Portsmouth, intending to enforce his right to the crown ; but Anselm contrived a negotiation by which the duke agreed tc resign his claim to England for 3,000 marks a year,andHenry on his pact to cede the castles he held in Normandy, and to pardon those who had favoured his brother's cause. But Henry proved faithless, and proceeding to punish Robert's adherents, the duke came over to beg that his friends might be mercifully dealt with ; but he found his own liberty endangered, and was glad to get safe out of the kingdom, though to do so he had to resign his annual pension. That Robert shortly after gave an asylum to some of his brother's refractory barons afforded a reasonable pretext for Henry to invade Normandy. A bloody battle fought before the walls of Tenchebrai (1106) ended in the unfortunate duke, Edgar Atheling, and others becoming prisoners ; Roberr was sent to England and confined till his death, which took place in Cardiff Castle (1135). When the duke was made a prisoner his son found a refuge in Flanders, of which province William Fitz-Robert became duke, but almost immediately afterwards re- ceived a wound, which ended in death (1128), to the great joy of Henry, who had found in the son a more powerful adversary than ir the father. II. Prince William drowned. 1120 Henry had obtained possessionof Normandy, but a curse seemed to rest upon it, for disturbances within and constant attacks from without compelled the king to spend much of his time in the duchy. One of his most troublesome neighbours was Louis VI. t who espoused the cause of Robert's son, and was indeed ready to do anything to distress the king of England. But he was severely beaten at the battle of Brenville (1119), upon which the pope appeared as a mediator, and Louis consented to receive the homage of William, Henry's son, instead of that of his father. As all opposition seemed now at an end, Henry pet out for England, from which he had been absent four years. His son was to follow in the "White Ship." The prince with his half-brother Richard, and his half-sister Adela, and a host of nobles ai.d knights embarked and set sail, though not before most of the party had become intoxicated. In a little while the ship was wrecked upon a ledge of rocks on the Norman coast, and of 300 on board, only one survived to tell the tale. This proved a heavy dIow to the king, for his only remaining heir was a daughter. Ho at one© proposed Maud as his successor ; the barons, however, much disliked the idea of female government. But by moans of bribes the more powerful opponent* were won over u this schemo, HENRY L 43 and the others made little scruple about giving an oath whic» could easily be set aside. III. Settlement of the Investiture Dispute. 1106. It had been an early custom for the metropolitan, on the con- secration of a bishop, to place in his hands a ring and crosier, af symbols of his spiritual relation to the church, and his pastoral duties. There was also in connection with the feudal system, a symbolical investiture of land, by putting into the hand of the grantee a sceptre or staff — this was the lay investiture, the former was purely ecclesiastical. Charlemagne adopted the practice of granting to prelates both kinds of investiture, and his example was followed till the pontificate of Gregory VII. This pontiff by an edict (1074) forbade the practice, and issued a formal anathema against any prince giving, or prelate receiving, investiture after the mode condemned. The princes of Christen- dom were not forward to give up what they conceived to be an important right, and it was partly in connection with this question of investiture that Anselm had quarrelled with Ruf us ; when he was recalled on the accession of Henry, he yet held out against lay investiture. The king, as soon as he thought himself in safe possession of the throne, attempted to compel the bishop to receive investiture from him, upon which the primate again left the kingdom to obtain from the pope some concessions. Three years later (1106) the dispute ended in a compromise between Henry and Paschal II. ; the king retaining the right of granting investiture of the temporality, having first received fealty and homage, whilst the investiture by ring and crosier was to return to the church. By this arrangement the king retained the right of nominating bishops and abbots. Miscellaneous Facts. The charter of Henry I. is important, if only to show what were the grievances of the nation in the two preceding reigns. It promised — that the king would restore to the church its im- munities, would neither sell nor let to farm vacant benefices, nor retain them in bis own possession, nor tallage their tenants. That the king tvould grant to his tenants in capite, and they were to grant to their tenants, to dispose by will of their personal property ; to dispose of their females in marriage without fee ; to be fined tor offences according to the Saxon laws, and not to be placed at the king's mercy ; to pay cus- tomary reliefs for their lands, and not arbitrary exactions ; that heiresses and widows be not forced to marry, and that wardships of minors anc their lands De committed to the nearest relatives : That the nation be governed by the laws of Edward the Confessor, as amended by the Con- queror ; that no money be levied, but as in Saxon times ; and that the demesne lands of all his military tenants, be exempted from taxes, burdens. &c. Chronicle. 1118, Military and religious order of Knights Templars instituted at Jerusalem. 1121, First Arabian horse introduced £* OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. into Britain. 1124, The Hospitallers of Jerusalem became a military tody, called the Knights of St. John. STEPHEN. 1135-1154. Pjtal Family. Stephen (1105 — 1154) was the third son of Stephen earl of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror. At ar early age he was brought to this country by his uncle Henry, who gave him many valuable estates. His long residence in England enabled him to form, during the lifetime of his uncle, a powerful party among the clergy and nobility, which paved his way to the throne. Dying suddenly er Dover, or Canterbury, he was buried by the side of his wife in the abbey at Faversham. Stephen was courteous alike to high and low, prompt in action and generous to his enemies, but he is chargeable with forget! ulness of his oath to support the cause of his patron's daughter, and with neglecting to execute justice, whereby his subjects suffered the greatest miseries. The consort of Stephen was Matilda (1107 — 1151), daughter of Eustace, count of Boulogne. When Stephen fell into the hands of his enemies at Lincoln, she was in France negotiating the marriage of her son Eustace; on her return, she sought in person the liberty of her husband, but without success. Matilda then headed the Londoners and besieged the empress in Winchester, till she was glad to escape as a fugitive. At the peace, she founded the hospital of St, Catherine by the Tower, and, us some say, the royal abbey at Favert>ham. The virtues of Matilda were many, among which her piety and conjugal affection stood conspicuous. The children of Stephen were :— Eustace, died in 1153: William, earl of Surrey : and Mary, who married Matthew, count of Flandera. I. Usurpation of the Throne. At the death of Henry, though Stephen had sworn to support the cause of Matilda, he put in a claim to the throne, depending on the fact of his being the most popular noble in England ; the great influence of his brother Henry, bishop of Winchester ; and the general aversion felt, both in England and Normandy, to a female sovereign. At his coronation he promised — to maintain the immunities of the Church, to enlarge the liberties of laymen, to put down all injustice and exaction, to allow his barons to build such castles as were necessary for their own security, to give up all the forests formed by his predecessors, and to observe the good and ancient laws and just customs. Meanwhile, Matilda had secured some of the towns in Norman- dy, but the licentious mercenaries of her husband Geoffrey offended the Normans, who thereupon drove them all out of the country. The Norman barons kept up their connection with England, but for years the duchy was torn by contending factions, till eventually Geoffrey reduced it to acknowledge the withont v of his wife Matilda. STEPHEN. 45 II. The Scotch invade England. At home, David of Scotland was the first to move in favour of Matilda. After reducing Carlisle, Alnwick, and Newcastle, he was met by Stephen, near Durham (1136) ; instead of a battle, the two sovereigns concluded a peace, by which Henry, prince of Scotland, received Carlisle, Doucaster,and Huntingdon, on doing homage to the English king. In 1138, David renewed the war, on the ground that Stephen had not given him the earldom of Northumberland, as he had promised. Two inroads, made in the early part of the year, were marked by savage barbarity. Old and young were slaughtered, and only females of birth and beauty spared. Tnese were stript of their clothing, bound with thongs, and driven into Scotland, where they were employed as slaves. Making a third inroad, the Scots reached Yorkshire ; thereupon Thurstan the archbishop prevailed upon the barons to call out their vassals. To arouse the religious feelings of the district a sacred standard wa3 erected upon the framework of a carriage at the top of the pole was a consecrated host, and below floatea the banners of three Saxon saints. The battle of the Standard, was fought near Northallerton ; after a fierce contest the Scots gave way, losing in the fight and subsequent flight 12,000 men. Another inroad in the followingyear came to nothing, on account of the interference of the papal legate ; Stephen was, however, obliged to yield Northumberland. III. Civil War. 1139-1145. Matilda landed in 1139 at Portsmouth with 140 knights, but her main dependence was on the character and influence of her half-brother, Robert of Gloucester. Whilst Robert was away in the west calling out his friends, Matilda became encircled in Arundel Castle ; here she must have been made prisoner but for the generosity of Stephen, who granted her a safe-conduct to join her brother. Many cities declared for the daughter of Henry, the barons, however, professed neutrality. Stephen himself was made aprisoner at Lincoln (1141), and committed a close prisoner to Bristol. Matilda became now the " Lady of England," and orders were issued for her coronation. This, however, never took place, for she alienated her friends by arrogance, inflamed her enemies by fines, and roused the Londoners by the imposition of a heavy tax, as apunishmentfor havingsupported Stephen. The city rose in arms, and the queen saved her liberty by a precipitous flight. Her fortune had avidently failed her ; at Winchester nearly all her friends were killed or made prisoners ; the king of Scotland redeemed himself, but Robert of Gloucester was com- 4ft OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. nutted to prison, till an exchange was made which restored Stephen to liberty. With the release of Gloucester tier affairs improved, and for a time she ruled over the west, but the death of Robert in 1145 forced her to withdraw to Normandy. IV. The contest renewed by Prince Henry. 1152. In 1151, Stephen requested Theobald to crown his son Eustace. This the primate refused to do, on the ground that the king, being ausurper,had no right to transfer the crown to another. This so enraged the king that Theobald found it necessary to retire to the Continent. Henry, the son of Matilda, being now a power- ful prince, took up his own quarrel. Landing at Wareham, he was joined by the friends of his family ; no battle was fought, for Eustace having just died, Stephen consented to treat. The following terms were agreed upon (1153) : — that Stephen should adopt Henry as his son, and heir to the kingdom of England ; that Stephen's son William should be confirmed in all the lands and honours possessed by his father before he became king ; that the earls and barons of both parties should do homage to the leader of their opponents ; that the inhabitants of boroughs and the garrisons of castles should do fealty to Henry ; that tiie commanders of the principal fortresses should give hostages to Henry ; and that the bishops and abbots should swear fealty to Henry, and engage to enforce the treaty by ecclesiastical censures. The year following Stephen died. Miscellaneous Facts. The condition of England during this reign was the worst in our entire history, with the exception of the periods of Danish invasions. Baronial castles covered the country, even abbeys were converted into fortresses, and the occupiers, secure w.thin their walls and moats, set at defiance the restraints of law and justice. The Saxon Chronicle says — " They greatly oppressed the wretched people by making them work at these castles, and when the castles were finished, they filled them with devils and evil men. Then they took those whom they suspected to have any goods, by night and by day, seizing both men and women, and they put them in prison tor their gold and silver, and tortured them with pains unspeakable, tor never were any martyrs tormented as these were. They hung eome up by the feet, and smoked them with foul smoke; some by their thumbs, or by the head, and they hung burning things on their feet. They put a knotted string about their heads, and twisted it till it went into the brain. They put them into dungeons wherein were adders and snakes and toads, and thus wore them out. Some they put into the crucet-house, that is, into a chest that was short and narrow, and not deep, and they put sharp stones in it, and crushed the man therein so that they broke all his limbs. Then was corn dear, and cheese, and butter, for there was none in the land — wretched roenMarved with hunger — 6ome lived on alms \* ho had been erewiiiU rich ivxne fl«*d the country— «ievcr was then* more misery, and never THE NOKMAN PBKIOD. 47 heathen acteo worse than these. The earth bare no corn, you might as well have tilled the sea, for the land was all ruined by such deeds, and it was said openly that Christ and all his saints slept." Towards the end of the reign of Stephen, Vacarius, a lawyer of Bologna, came over to England and read lectures at Oxford, on the canon and civil law. The canon law is a body of Roman ecclesiastical law, relating to such matters as the church has, or pretends to have, the proper jurisdiction over; and compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin fathers, the decrees of general councils, and the decretal opistlea and bulls of the holy see. By the civil law is generally understood the civil or municipal law of the Roman empire, as comprised in the In- stitutes, the Code, the Digest of the emperor Justinian, and the Novel Constitutions of himself and successors. Chronicle. 1146, Tilbury fort erected. 1150, The canon law com » piled by Gratian, a monk of Tuscany. The study of the civil law re- vived about the same time. Social Life in the Norman Period. 1. Food. Though a rude plenty was found in the baronial hall, some- times with much gold and silver plate, the food was often unpalatable, and the mode of eating undignified; for the fingers of the company were thrust into the dishes, or employed in tearing the flesh into convenient morsels. The Normans did not eat such quantities as the Saxons, but were more particular and choice in style, so that cookery became gradually improved. Wheaten bread was eaten only by the higher classes, but a writer says that even at court, bread was set out not kneaded or leav- ened, like lead, full of brand and unbaked. Neither war the wine much too boast of, for it is described as thick, greasy, and tasting of pitch, and sometimes so full of dregs, that the nobles drank with their eyes shut and teeth closed. The Normans gave us a new set of terms for flesh meat, so that whilst animals in the hands of the Saxon hind were called oxen, sheep, swine, &c, when killed for the lord's table, they became beef, mutton, pork, &c. The common people had as before, bread made of rye, oats, and barley, their meat swine's flesh, and drink sour beer oi cider. 2. Clothing. The males usually Trove the tunic, cloak, long tight hose, and shoes or short boots ; gradually the shoes became pointed and, increasing in length, were turned up, and rolled in imitation of scorpion's toils or ram's horns ; at one period these appendages were so long as to require to be supported by a chain from the knee. In Henry I. the sleeves of the tunic became long enough to cover, and hung far below, the hand ; the mantles also grew in length, but Henry II. reintroduced the short oloak, and hence was called Curtmantle. One peculiarity of the Normans was that of shaving the back of the head ; this soon grew into disuse after the Conquest and, in imitation of the Saxon nobles, they cultivated long hair and beards. This gave ofFence to the clergy, who in their sermons constantly recommended the use of razor and scissors ; it is told of a bishop that, after preaching before Henry I., he cropped the king and the whole congregation. Females dressad much as the Saxons had done, only they called the pown a robe, and the veil a couvre-chef, from which we get our word kerchief. The ladies, like the other sex, indulged in long bell-sleeves, 48 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. farming at last such deep loops, that they were actually knotted to keep them off the ground. The couvre-chef grew and was knotted in tha same way. The hair was worn long and plaited in two pigtail braids ; subsequently it was concealed by the kerchief or wimple which, being brought together under the chin, gave all the females the appearance of nuns. 3. Dwellings. In all good buildings the Norman style of archi- tecture became general. Coming, as the Normans did, into a con- quered country, they dwelt mostly in strongholds, with immensely thick walls, and but few windows except in upper storeys. As the Normans cared but little for indoor life, no great additions were made in the shape of furniture. In the hall, or principal apartment, stood a massive table with benches, which was really the chief article to ba found in the house. Carpets there were none, litter of straw or rushes supplied their place ; some estates were held on the tenure of supplying their lord's hall with fresh litter. The lady's bed chamber was the best furnished, and but little was found there — a crib with straw bed, a cupboard, and walls partially covered with tapestry. In palaces the common sleeping place was a bench, or the floor with a rug spread upon it. A bell-shaped utensil, known as the couvre-feu was to be found in most houses, lor the purpose of smothering the fire when necessary, either by day or night. The houses of the poor remained but rude cabins, and contained nothing in the way of fittings; a hearth, iron- pot, pitcher, and platter being nearly all that was to be found within. 4. Amusements. The Normans were fond of out-door sports, partly because they had no comforts at home, their castles or fortified houses furnishing them only with defence and lodgings. Out of door* their chief amusements were the tournament, or mock-fight, and hunt- ing. The first Norman kings forbade the tournament, tearing to trust large numbers together with arms, but in the reign of Stephen the prohibition was disregarded, and they were probably used as occasions to make arrangements against him. By Henry II. they were again put down, and those who desired to show their feats of arms went to the Continent to do so. When the game laws became less restrictive, hunting was followed pretty generally, even the citizens of London had several chases, in which they indulged in this sport. But then hunting at that time was something more than an amusement, for when the very highest lived on salt meat nine months in the year, kings and nobles did not disdain a rabbit hunt when other game was scarce, so that a meal of fresh meat was procured. Cock-fighting was then confined to children, who took to school on Shrove-Tuesday a game bird, and for that day the schoolroom became a cockpit. Indoors they were amused by rude dramatic exhibitions, founded on romantic or passing events, done by itinerating performers. These per- formances, both in language and manner of acting, were in accordance with the licentious character of the age; the clergy therefore endeavoured to supersede them by the introduction of the religious drama. Hence the origin, at a subsequent period, of miracle and mystery plays; the former founded on miracles wrought by conjurors, the latter on Scripture u. cider ts. HENRY II. 49 THE PLANTAGENET KINGS. Henry II, 1154—1189. Edward I., 1272—1307. Richard I., 1189—1199. Edward II., 1307—1327, John, 1199—1216. Edward III., 1327—1377 Henry III., 1216—1272. Richard II., 1377—1399, HENRY II. 1154-1189. Royal Family. Henry II. (1133 — 1189), sometimes styled Fitz- Empress, was the eldest son of Geoffrey PJantagenet, earl of Anjou, and Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England. The family name of Plantagenet was first given to the grandfather of Geoffrey, on account of his wearing in his cap a sprig of broom — in French plante genet. After the reduction of Normandy by his father, Henry was acknow- ledged by the principal nobility as their legitimate duke. In 1142 he came over to England with Robert of Gloucester, and resided in Bristol Castle, his education being superintended by his uncle the earl, who was distinguished for his scholarship. His marriage (1151) with Eleanor put him in possession of Poitou and Guienne, and enabled him to insist upon his right to the English crown. Henry was " a mixture of all qualities, good and bad, naturally arising from a strong intellect, a strong will, and stfong passions." His ambition was great, and he was little scrupulous a*bout the means employed to secure his ends, and yet he was not always vindictive, neither was he incapable of generous feelings. The consort of Henry was Eleanor, daughter of William, duke of Aquitaine. She married Louis VII., her first husband, in 1137 ; ten years afterwards she went with him to the crusades, and by her free- dom of manners gave matter for scandal, and then for divorce. Within six weeks she married Henry Plantagenet. On his part it was a marriage of policy, and Eleanor was not slow to discover that she had no place in her husband's affections, neither was she without spirit to resent it. Hence the story of Rosamond Clifford and Woodstock bower. Though doubt rests on this story, there can be none about her inciting her sons to rebel against their father. Henry found out the secret, and taking advantage of her attempt to escape into France, imprisoned her till his death. During the reign of Richard she sought to keep John true to his allegiance, and when the captivity of the crusading king became known, spared no pains to obtain his release. Eleanor continued to figure as a public character till 1202, she then took the veil and died two years after, at Fontevraud, being then more than eighty years of age, and much improved by the adversities through which she had passed. The children of Henry were, — Henry, died 1183 ; Richard, who became king ; Geoffrey, killed at a tournament (1186), leaving two child- ten, Arthur and Eleanor; John, who became king; Matilda married Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, whose son William was the first duke of Brunswick, and hence ancestor to the present royal family of England; Eleanor married Alphonso of Castile; and Joan marrhd William of Sicily. jO OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. I. Henry's extensive Dominions. The possessions of Henry were of the most ample character. By the treaty with Stephen he possessed England; he inherited Anjou and Touraine from his father; from his mother, Maine and the duchy of Normandy; by his marriage with Eleanor, Guienne, Poitou, Saintonge, Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and the Limousin, besides a claim to Nantes and Toulouse. Nantes was obtained through the skilful diplomacy of the celebrated Becket; Toulouse led to a war with Louis in 1159, to carry on which a mercenary force was employed, and paid for by a scutage of 50s. on each knight's fee. In this expedition none appeared more conspicuous than Becket, who headed 700 knights all in his own pay. Toulouse might have been taken, but it was thought better to end the dispute by compromise. Henry came also into possession of Brittany, for his son Geoffrey married the daughter of the earl, on whose death the king, as guardian, put himself in possession. About one-half of France was uoac held by the English king. II Constitutions of Clarendon. From the time of Dunstan, the power of the clerical estate had been increasing, and greatly so since the Conquest, till by means of their own courts the ecclesiastics had nearly freed themselves from all ordinary restraints. The result was, the clergy became notorious for criminal offences, for which however thc} T could not be brought to justice ; spiritual penalties were inflicted, but for these they cared not. Henry proposed to place the church- men under restraint, and as Becket had always shown himself a ready supporter of his sovereign's views, it was thought that his daring energy would insure to the scheme an undoubted success. Becket after some demur consented to take the primacy (1162), but from the day of his installation he became a changed man, and devoting himself wholly to the duties of his new office, resigned the chancellorship. But most offensive was the rapport he gave to those principles which his royal master desired to overthrow. A clergyman having committed offences of tliG highest order, Henry demanded that the offender should be tried before a lay tribunal. To this Becket objected and gave pro- tection to the criminal, thereupon the king summoned the pre- lates, first at Westminster and then at Clarendon. At the latter place were passed several laws, known as the Constitutions of Clarendon (1104) ; they were sixteen in number, and provided — That ecclesiastic* should no longer be protected by the ecclesiastical courts: That dignified clergy leave not the realm without the king's licence: That laymen be not proceeded against in bishops' courts, bv< HENRY II. 51 church-yards : That church dignitaries be elected in the king's chapel with the king's consent, and do homage and fealty before consecration And that villeins be not ordained without the consent of their lord Becket yielded at first a reluctant assent to the Constitutions and tnen repenting, suspended himself from the functions of his office till he should obtain from the pope absolution from his oath. jSubsequently he tried to engage the other bishops in a confederacy to maintain their privileges. This being more than could be endured, Henry entered upon a series of measures to crush the primate ; for a time no impression was mada, but ultimately Becket in alarm left the kingdom, to place himself under the protection of the pontiff. III. Assassination of Becket. 1170. After more than one attempt at reconciliation had failed, an agreement was come to, Henry promising to restore to Becket and his friends all the possessions which had been taken from them, while the primate, on his part, undertook to remove the sentence of excommunication against the king's ministers, and prevent the publication of an interdict. Becket, setting out on his way to England, had the audacity to send over before him a messenger, to excommunicate three bishops, who at the king's command, had recently crowned prince Henry. The excom- municated prelates made their way to Normandy to demand redress from the king, who, irritated by their representations, ex- claimed — " To what a miserable state am I reduced, when I can- not be at rest in my realm by reason of only one priest ; there is no one to deliver me out of my trouble." Four knights, under- standing the king to desire Becket's death, secretly left the court and hastening to Canterbury, murdered the refractory bishop in his own cathedral. With much difficulty, the king established his innocence of this crime. To obtain absolution for having spoken unadvisedly, he undertook to maintain 200 knights for a year in Palestine ; to serve in person against the infidels for three years, if the pope required it ; to restore all lands and possessions oelonging to the friends of the archbishop ; and to abolish such customs hostile to the liberties of the church as had beeu introduced since his accession. 52 OUTLINES 0* ENGLISH HISTORY. IV. Conquest of Ireland. Daring the Norman period, the connexion between England and Ireland had been very slight, and that little was kept up by means of the Ostmen or Danes, who had possession of some of the seaports. Henry on his accession resolved to reduce Ireland, as indeed the Conqueror had intended, but full employment else- where prevented him. Adrian, the English pope, was requested to sanction this measure, as the king desired to extend the bounds of the church. By a bull (1155), a grant of Ireland was made to Henry, who was exhorted to extirpate vice, and make the natives pay yearly to the see of Rome a penny from every house. Continental affairs now came in the way, and the project was put aside for the present. Ireland at that time was not one kingdom, but five — Leinster, Desmond or South funster, Thomond or North Munster, Connaught, and Ulster, and these petty king- doms had always some quarrel on hand. There was one now, for Dermot, king of Leinster, had carried off the wife of Ruarc, a chief of Leitrim ; a confederacy of the princes compelled the offender to leave the country. He sought the presence of Henry, then in Aquitaine, and offered to hold his crown as the vassal of the English king, if he would assist him to regain it. Henry was not in circumstances to do so, but gave him permission to enlist adventurers in his service. Returning to Bristol, Dermot made terms with Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, offering to give the earl his daughter Eva, and declare him heir of Leinster. Others were engaged on liberal terms, and in 1169 a force of knights landed in Ireland, and restored Dermot to his kingdom. This prince now aimed at the subjugation of the other kingdoms, and with the assistance of Strongbow, Dublin was reduced (1170) ; further proceedings were stayed by an order from Henry that all his subjects should return. Henry was jealous of their success, and Strongbow found it necessary to surrender all his possessions to the king, receiving back only such as his master chose to give, and these he was to hold as the king's tenant. Henry in person headed an expedition which landed at Waterford (1171) ; the neighbouring princes made their submission, and were astonished at the sump- tuous entertainments which their new sovereign gave them at Dublin, where he spent his Christmas. Before the king left in 1172, the Irish bishops, in synod at Cashel, signed a formaJ recognition of Henry's authority. Although spoken of as a conquest, it should be understood, that Henry added nothing to what had been won by the adven- turers and that a part of their conquest was won baGk by the HENRY II. 53 natives. In this way, whilst the kings of England were called lords of Ireland, their authority for centuries extended only to a limited district in the east, so far as might be controlled by Dublin and other fortified towns. V. Rebellion of Henry's Sons. Prompted by the vindictiveness of Eleanor, who sought to punish the infidelities of her husband, the sons of Henry at- tempted to snatch away portions of his dominions. Prince Henry demanded (1173) to be put in immediatepossessionof Normandy, Anjou, and Maine, and was backed by the kings of France and Scotland, and the earl of Flanders. Henry, having hired 20,000 mercenaries, carried on a war against this confederacy, which included all his sons except John, with varying success, till in 1174 it seemed as if he must submit to the overwhelming ar- rangements of his enemies. Depressed in spirit by reason of the rebellion of his children and the treachery of his barons, and not altogether superior to the superstition of the age, the king walked into Canterbury with bare and bleeding feet, and after being lashed on his naked shoulders by 80 ecclesiastics, spent the night by the side of Becket's tomb, in fasting and prayer. A fever followed, and before he recovered, the news reached him that William the Lion had been made prisoner near Alnwick. Within three weeks the Scots were out of the kingdom, and the barons had made their submission. Losing no time, Henry carried his army to Normandy, and met with such success that the confederates sued for peace. By the treaty of Falaise (1174), the Scotch king received his liberty on submitting to become Henry's vassal, and to give several fortresses in Scotland as security . After eight years respite, the sons of Henry again formed a confederacy against their father (1183), which ended in his being forced to accept from the French king humiliating conditions of peace (1189). Henry never held up his head again, and, being removed to Chinon, died it a raging fever, exclaiming u Cursed be the day on which I was born, and cursed of God the children I leave behind me!" Miscellaneous Facts. The Norman Conquest did not abolish, though it modified, the judicial institutions of the Anglo- Saxons ; hence the manor, hundred, and county coarts continued to exercise their ancient powers, subject to the control of the king's court. This latter court (Curia Regis) was composed of the prelates, earls, barons, and principal officers of state ; ordinarily, its judges were the chief justiciary, chancellor, treasurer, and other great officers. For pur- poses of convenience this court became distributed, and thus were originated the Court of Exchequer in the reign of Henry I. th# Court of King's Bench in Henry II., and of Common Pleas in f>4 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HIST0R7. Kichard I. Out of the Exchequer Court grew the institution of Justices in ~Eyre, or itinerating justices, at first intended to check and punish the frauds committed at a distance from the court. At the council of .Northampton (1176), the kingdom was divided into six circuits, and three justices assigned to each, with instructions to do all things of right and ju&tice which belonged to the king, where the property was not great; to try malefactors cf all descriptions; and to take care of the profits of the crown, as escheats, wardships, and the like. Another institution, that of Trial by Grand Assize, had its origin in this reign. In cases of writ of right, or suit for the recovery of land, the tenant had now the alternative of deciding it by wager of battle, or by grand assize, that is, of being tried by four knights, summoned by the sheriff, and twelve more selected by them, forming altogether the 16 recognitors as they were called, by whose verdict the cause was determined. This was indeed the second stage of trial by jury, the first being that of jurators, or compurgators. The system of recognitors became the foundation of the present grand jury. This kind of trial was known as "trial by the country," and distinguished from " trial by peers," which was a trial by co-v^ssals. The second or petty jury came in about the time of Henry III., in connection wit> the abolition of ordeals. In consequence of the distance of some of Henry's possessions, tne feudal service for forty days was found useless in some cases. Wher an army was wanted in 1159, for service in the South of France, thft king dispensed with the personal service of his vassals, and accepted in its stead a pecuniary payment under the name of Scutage, or escuage. This arrangement was the first great blow to the feudal system. Chronicle. 1159, Introduction of scutage. 1160, Bills of ex- change invented by the Jews. 1176, England divided into circuits for the better administration of justice. 1177, Glass begins to be used in private houses; its use before had been confined to churches and palaces. 1181, The usa of the magnet in connection with navi- gation mentioned. RICHARD I. 1189-1199. Royal Family. Kichard I. (1157—1199) son of Henrv II., was, before his father's death, duke of Aquitaine, and one of the leading spirits in the unnatural rebellion against his father. For his courage and great muscular power, he was surnamed Coeur de Lion ; these qualiti* s made him a terror to his opponents in the East. Kichard was full of uncontrolled passion, carrying him at one time to extremes of violence and licentiousness, and at another to acts of extraordinary generosity and disinterestedness. But the evil seemed to outweigh the good, for as a son he was rebellious, as a husband faithless, and as a kins? thoroughly indifferent to the welfare of his subjects. The consort of Kichard was B'-rengaria, daughter of Sancho, king of Navarre. Her personal attractions won the heart of Kichard at Pampluna, but it was not till he was at Cyprus on his way to Pales- line, that the marriage took place. "When the crusade was over, she returned to Europe with the fleet, and was at Kome when tidings reached her oi l>*r hasbnad's imprisonment. For some tnue she lived RICHARD I 5£ apart from her husband, on account of his profligacy, but a reeoncilia tion was effected before his death. After that event she fixed hei residence at Mans, and at Espan in its neighbourhood built an abbey, to which she retired till her death about 1230. Berengaria is celebrated for her virtues, and for being queen of England, but never in England By Ins wife, Richard left no children. I. Preparations for the Crusade. No sooner was the coronation over than measures were taken for the government of the kingdom during the king's absence. Longchamp, bishop of Ely, and Pudsey, the justiciary, were ap- pointed regents. To provide funds, the crown lands, honours, and offices were put up for public sale ; presents extorted from the new dignitaries of the church ; the earldom of Northumber- land sold for £10,000 to the bishop of Durham ;. and for the same sum the right of superiority over the crown of Scotland. Richard had no shame in all this, but said he would sell London if he could find a chapman. But worse than all was the plunder and murder of the Jews, commenced on the day of the coronation, and carried on by the people for months in the provinces. At York, 500 of this despised race with their families took refuge in the castle, where, being besieged, they first cut the throats of their wives and children, and then stabbed themselves. IL Richard's Crusading Expedition. In the winter of 1190, Richard with his French allies wintered in Sicily, where a quanel grew up between him and Philip of France, because the English had pillaged the city of Messina, to revenge themselves on Tancred, king of Sicily, who had kept back the dower of Joan, sister of Richard, and wife of the late king; a further cause of offence was found in the English king's abandoning the sister of Philip in favour of Berengaria. Leav- ing Sicily, Richard reduced Cyprus on his way to Palestine When he arrived at Acre he found that city still holding out, though the siege had been going on for two years ; the opera* tions being now pressed on with vigour, the garrison in a short time accepted terms of capitulation. Philip now returned on the plea of ill health, having first sworn not to invade the dominions of the king of England. After performing several prodigies of valour, Richard was under the necessity of seeking an armistice, which was granted by Saladin, the leader of the enemy ; thus terminated a career of more glory to the English king than of advantage to the cause he had undertaken. The king set out for Europe in a single vessel, and landed at Aquileia, intending to travel in disguise, for he had offended Leopold, duke of Austria, by turning his soldiers out of Acre on 56 0UTLINE8 OF ENGLISH HISTORY. account of their indolence. In a little while Richard became a prisoner to the very man he most feared, and was by him sold for £60,000 to Henry the Emperor, by whom he was closely im- prisoned. The story of his discovery by Blondell, the minstrel, may be taken as a piece of romancing. All Christendom pro- fessed to be scandal 'oed by this ignominious treatment of the champion of the Cross. In 1193, Richard appeared before a Diet to clear himself of the following charges, — that in league with TaDcred he had opposed the right of the emperor to Sicily; that he had unjustly seized Cyprus ; that he had employed assassins to murder Conrad, marquis of Montferrat ; and that he had insulted the German nation at the siege of Acre. Hia defence moving the Diet, his chains were struck off, and a treaty opened for his ransom, which was set at 100,000 marks. In the early part of 1194 the king landed at Sandwich, after an absence of four years. III. England during Richard's Absence. Longchamp, after the departure of the king, soon became the sole regent, and, being papal legate, held the chief power in Church and State. He exercised a most despotic authority, oppressing laity and clergy by constant exactions, and thus filled the country with those who had cause to wish his removal. This prince John undertook, and Longcbanip by a council was condemned to lose his office of justiciary, and resign all the royal castles but three ; thereupon he escaped to the Continent. The power of the kingdom now fell to John and his party. No sooner was it known that Richard had been made a prisoner, than this unnatural brother entered into an arrangement with Philip of France, resigning to him a part of Normandy, and doing homage for the remainder of the English possessions on the Continent. In England, he raised an army to support his claim to the throne ; but the return of Richard was fatal to hia plans. At a council held at Nottingham, John was accused, but forgiven at the intercession of his mother. IV. War with France. 1194-1199. Philip had already obtained possession of several fortresses in Normandy, Richard therefore lost no time in crossing over with a force ; Philip being defeated at Fretval, withdrew from Nor- mandy, Touraine, and Maine. For want of funds, neither monarch carried on the war vigorously, but it was not till the French were again defeated at Gisors (1198) that a truce was concluded. While carrying on this war, England was subjected to ej actions by which it was reduced to poverty from sea to 60fe JOHN. 57 So great was the discontent in London, that William Fitzosbert, or Longbeard, who became its mouthpiece, had at one time as many as 50,000 followers ready to obey his orders. His arrest and the interference of the Church prevented a general insurrection in the capital. VVithin a few months of the truce, Richard became involved in a petty quarrel with the viscount of Limoges, on whose estate a treasure had been discovered, a part of which he offered to satisfy the king, but he demanded the whole and met with a refusal. The king besieged him in his castle at Chalus. and received a wound in his shoulder of which he died. Miscellaneous Facts. At one time it was thought that a code of maritime laws, known as the Laws of Oleron, was compiled by Richard ; subsequent inquiries have shown that this was a mistake. It is, however, true that Richard did publish some severe regulations for the E reservation of order in his fleet. If any man killed another on board, e was to be fastened to the dead body, and so thrown overboard; if the crime were committed on shore, to be bound to the corpse, and buried with it. He who drew blood from another by a wilful blow, or struck at him with his weapon, was to lose his hand. A thief was to be shaven or shorn, boiling pitch poured on his head, and the feathers of a pillow shaken over it, as a mark whereby he might be known ; and he was then to be turned ashore on the first land at which the ship might touch. Cheonicle. 1190, The order of Teutonic Knights instituted in Palestine. 1198, At the battle of Gisors, the parole of the day given by Richard was " Bieu et mon droit " (God and my right) ; this became subsequently the motto of the royal arms of England. JOHN. 1199-1216. Royal Family. John (1166 — 1216), the youngest son of Henry ) I., was betrothed at the age of ten to Joan or Hadwisa, granddaughter of the celebrated Robert, earl of Gloucester. At an early age he held the nominal office of lord of Ireland, but not holding any fiefs as his brothers did, he obtained the name of Sansterre, or Lackland. Because of his youth, he was not involved in the earlier rebellions of Henry's sons, though later he hesitated not to make one of the rebels. His excessive cruelty is established by many facts; one must suffice here. Geoffrey, archdeacon of Norwich, because he had retired from nis seat of exchequer, was arrested and imprisoned ; to keep him warm, John sent a cope of lead,, in which he ordei id him to be wrapped so as to leave his head free; thus enclosed lie was starved to death. In every way John's conduct was execrable; he rebelled against a father whose favourite ' he was, he plotted to deprive his brother of his dominions, he procured the death of his nephew, he lost the nourishing provinces of France, he subjected England to the see of Rome, and in addition he inflicted the deepest disgrace on many families by his licentiousness, and ravaged large districts of his own dominions. The consort of John k'&s Isabella (1185 — 1246), daughter of Ajmcr, 08 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH H1S.0UY. eount of Angouleme. In early life she had been espoused to Hugfh count la Marcbe, who being robbed of h's betrothed, contributed to the loss of Normandy. John and Isabella did not agree, and for three years he confined her in a chamber of Gloucester Abbey. After John's deata she retired to her native city, and married her former lover. Her >econd marriage was also unhappy, she became depraved, and wai ultimately compelled to assume the veil. The children of John were : Jlenry, who became king ; Richard, earl of Cornwall, elected king of the Romans (1257) ; Joan, married Alexander II. of Scotland : Eleanor, married (1) William, earl of Pem^ broke ; (2) Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester : and Isabel, married Frederick II., emperor of Germany. I. Loss of the French Provinces. 1204. On the death of Richard, Arthur (son of Geoffrey, elder brother to John) was proclaimed in Anjou, Maine, and Touraine. Philip, under cover of asserting Arthur's rights, resolved to accomplish now what the prowess of the Lion-hearted king had prevented his doing before. In 1202, John bribed the French to desert the interest of Arthur, but his folly in taking away Isabella from the count la Marche roused another enemy, who appealing to Philip, induced that monarch to renew hostilities in 1204. In an at- tempt to besiege the king's mother in the castle of Mirabeau, it so happened that Arthur of Brittany became a prisoner. John sent him off to Falaise, whence he was removed to Rouen, and soon after disappeared ; that he was murdered all agree, but whether by the hands of the king, or a paid assassin, is uncertain. John was publicly charged with the crime, and called upon by Philip his superior lord to prove his innocence, before his peers of France. As he refused to obey the summons, the following judgment was pronounced : — Whereas John, duke of Normandy, in violation of his oath to Philip his lord, had m ordered the son of his elder brother, a homager of the crown of France, and near kinsman to the king, and had perpetrated the crime within the seigniory of France, he was found guilty of felony and treason, and was adjudged to forfeit all the lands which he held by homage. Almost immediately the whole of the English possessions in France, Guienne excepted, was re-annexed to the French crown. In 1206 ? John landed an army at Rochelle, but besides reducing the castle of Montauban and burning Angers, nothing was done II. John's Quarrel with Pope Innocent. On the death of Hubert the primate, the monks of Christ Churcii Canterbury, elected Reginald their sub-prior as his suc- cessor ^1205), and sent him off to obtain the pope's approbation. The king, when this was known, ordered the monks to elect John de Grey, bithop of Norwich ; he also was despatched to liome. JOHN. £9 Innocent set aside the first election because uncanonically made, and the second, because mado when the see was not empty. Stephen Langton, an Englishman of eminent learning, was now elected by the pope's mandate., by such of the monks of Canter- bury as were then at Rome. On hearing this, John put himself in a rage, drope the sinning monks out of the kingdom, and de- clared that Langton should never enter England as primate. As Innocent could not soothe the irritated king, he resolved to punish him by putting his kingdom under an interdict (1208), by which the churches were closed, and the sacraments suspended, except to infants and the dying. John's anger was now extreme, the bishops fled, and the clergy were aRoweJonly a reasonable sup- port out of their incomes ; the king kept most of the lands for his own profit, and in many cases sold off all the cattle from their estates. It is worth notice, that whilst under the ban of the church, John met with his greatest political successes. He had summoned William of Scotland to meet him at Lincoln, and do him homage, and engage not to marry his son Alexander without the consent of the king of England, his liege lord. In 1207, William pro- posing to break the pledge, John again summoned him to answer for his presumption, upon which the Scotch monarch made his peace, by sending his two daughters to be disposed of in marriage and subsequently Alexander, the heir of Scotland, was placed in the keeping of the English monarch. In 1210, the king crossed to Ireland with a large army, to reduce the lawless English chief- tains, who were frequently at war with each other. After accomplishing this purpose, the English province was divided into counties, the English laws established, and the government in« trusted to Grey, bishop of Norwich. The next year, the king led an army into Wales, and received the submission of Llewellyn, with 28 hostages, of noble families, as a security for the tran- quillity of the marches. When Innocent found the interdict ineffective, he published a bull of excommunication, but the ports were so closely watched that it could not be introduced into England. Influenced by the English prelates and the obstinacy of the king, the pope absolved (1212) John's vassals from their oaths of fealty, and called upon Christian princes and barons to dethrone the excommunicated monarch. Philip of France readily undertook an engagement that so exactly suited his views. Aware of his danger, John sent an envoy to propitiate the Roman pontiff, and Pandulf in ecu sequence came to England to accept the king's submission. Meanwhile John had not been idle, the Cinque Ports' fleet being ordered out, captuied many of the French shipSj besides ravaging the coasts of 60 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. France, and burning Barfleur, Dieppe, and other piaces. On Barbara Down was assembled an army of 60,000 men, but of this host there were few on whose fidelity he could depend. Pandulf, after alarming the fears of John, obtained from him these stipu- lation? : — that Langton should be received as primate; that all exiles be restored to their land and offices ; and that all prisoners on account of the late quarrel be liberated. The legate on hit part promised that when these conditions were fulfilled, the inter- dict and excommunication should be revoked. Subsequently, deputies met (1213) in the Templars' Church, Dover, when an instrument was signed by the king and fourteen of the nobility to (he effect — that John, as an atonement for his offences, of his own free will and with the consent of the barons, granted to the pope and his successors the kingdoms of England and Ireland, tc be holden hereafter of the bishops of Rome in fee, by the annuaj rent of 1000 marks. The oath of fealty to the pope was then taken, and John reconciled to the Iloly See. III. War with France. When it was known to Philip that a reconciliation had taken place between John and the pope, he was full of indignation, and proposed to embark for England notwithstanding. The earl of Flanders objected, upon which the French resolved to annex that province. In aid of the earl, John sent over a fleet of 500 sail, which came upon Philip's fleet at Damme (1213) and gained a decisive victory, making prizes of 300 ships laden with stores. The French now withdrew from Flanders. John, elated with his success, carried the war into Philip's dominions, but the allied army was defeated by Philip at Bouvine (1214), which put an end to the hopes of the English king, and forced him to beg a truce for five years. IV. Magna Charta obtained. 1215. General discontent existed among the barons because of the oppressive rule of John, so much so indeed that many of them had refused to follow him to the Continent. Meetings were held successively at St. Albans, St. Paul's, and Bury St. Edmund'?, and a resolution come to, to demand the observance of the laws granted by Henry I. The king at first refused to comply, and placed himself under the piofection of the pope, who, in his support, sent a letter to Langton, hinting that he had been a orincipal mover in the sedition, and that henceforth he was to exert all bis authority to promote harmony between the king and his barons. Bat the barons had made up their minds, and fathering a force proclaimed themselves the army of God and his JOHN 61 holy Church, and elected Fitz- Walter as their leader. Ats sooii as London was occupied by the barons, John intimated his willingness to grant their demands. The contending parties met (June 15, 1215) at Rurnymede ; on one side appeared Fitz* Walter and the majority of the English nobles, on the other tn« king, eight bishops, and fifteen gentlemen. With great reluctance the king signed the celebrated Magna CJiarta; its prinoipal clauses were, — 1. Eelating to the Chubch. That the church should possess all its privileges inviolate, especially freedom of election to benefices. 2. Relating to the Barons. That reliefs be limited to a fixed sum, according to the rank of the tenant: That aids be demanded only in the three cases — knighthood of the oldest son, marriage of the eldest daughter, and the ransom of the king's person; in every other case neither aid nor scutage to be imposed but with the consent of the council : That guardians in chivalry may not waste the estate, nor marry the heir during .minority ; nor to their disparagement, nor compel widows to marry : That the forest law be mitigated : and that whatever privileges the king grants his vassals, they in like manner shall grant to theirs. 3. Relating to Traders. That London and other towns retain their ancient privileges : That there be one weight and measure throughout the realm : and that freedom of commerce be granted to foreign merchants. 4. Relating to Freemen Generally. That right or justice be not sold, or refused or delayed: That no freeman be impiisoned, or lose his freehold, or free customs, or be outlawed, or otherwise punished, but by the judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land; That no person be fined to his utter rum, but only according to his offence, and means of payment, and that no man be deprived of hid instruments jf labor: That all men may travel out of the kingdom, and return when they please: That a man may make what Tvill h-3 pleases, and, dying without one, the law shall make one for him : and that the Court of Common Pleas shall no longer follow the king's person, but be held in some certain place, and be open to all. V. War with the Barons. In making such great concessions, John acted without sin- cerity, for he immediately took measures to regain his sovereign authorit}'. Two deputations were sent off, one to traverse Flanders and other countries, to hire mercenaries at any price; the other, to go to Rome to obtain the powerful aid of the pontiff. Auxiliaries came to England in great numbers ; and Innocent annulled the Charter, on the ground that as England was now a tief of the Holy See, the king had no power to- grant away the rights of the crown. John now put part of his force to ravag-e the counties north and east of London, and with the remainder proceeded himself to the north of England, burning castle", towns, and villages on the road ; then, because Alexander ha 1 sided with the borons, he entered Scotland and gave II ad- 62 OUTLINES OF ENGLI8H HISiORY. dington, Dunbar, and Berwick to the flames. The barona eh at up in London made an oilier of the crown of England to Louis the dauphin ; French auxiliaries now poured into England, and tne desertion of John's mercenaries seemed to make his cause desperate. A reaction however soon set in, from a growing jealousy of Louis, who had already made grants of English earl- doms to his followers. With an increasing force, John deter- mined to move again to the north, but in crossing the Wash, the returning tide swept away his baggage. Anxiety or poison threw the king into a fever, and in a week he died at Newark, Thence his body was conveyed to Worcester for interment. Miscellaneous Facts. The Magna Charta was really a renewal of the charter of Henry I., in a more complete and precise form ; it contained 72 clauses, but these when the charter was renewed by Henry III. were reduced to 37, by reconstructing some of the articles, and striking out those of temporary interest. English monarchs ever looked upon it as an encroachment on their sovereign preroga- tives, wrung from their imbecile predecessor ; the people however saw in it the expression of their just rights. Henoe there was evasion on one hand, and on the other, a continued struggle to maintain its in- tegrity. It was solemnly ratified by successive sovereigns more than 30 times, but n*ost of the ratifications were purchased by subsidies. Cheonicle. 1199, About this time coats of arms became here- ditary. 1200, Chimneys came into occasional use. 1204, The Inqui- sition established by Innocent III. 1209, First stone bridge at London completed. HENRY III. 1216-1272. Royal Family. Henry III. (1206—1272) was the eldest son of John ; be came to the throne in his tenth year, and was committed to the keeping of Peter de Eoches, bishop of Winchester. His reign proved very unpopular, to whicb hie marriage greatly contributed, for it introduced many foreigners into the kingdom who exercised a bad influence over the weak mind of Henry, and led him to gratify their rapacity to the injury of his own subjects. For nearly seven years the barons deprived him of the government, and it was only regained by the superior energy of his son Edward. Henry was emi- nently unfit for the kingly offic*, particularly so in a turbulent period; he possessed neither talent nor courage ; his very gentleness was almost a vice, when nothing but energy of character could save the nation fr^>m the miseries ofanarchy. By some writers he has been accounted a good man and religious, but he was capable of great in- sincerity and perfectly regardless <>F his oath. The consort of Henry was Eleanor (1222 — 1291) daughter of Ray- mond, count of Provence. The marriage took place when she was but fourteen, having then an imperfect education, an unformed judgment, and the character of a spoiled child. Peter of Savoy, her uncle, and many other foreigners, were brought into the kingdom, taking both the influence and emoluments to which the English had et prior claim. Besides, she invited ovei damsels from Provence, end the king married them to the young nobles of England of whom he 3ENRY III. 63 had the wardship. So great was the dislike of thte English to her, that on more than one occasion she was grossly insulted. After the death of her husband, she retired to the nunnery at Amesbury, wher* ehe died, leaving behind her the character of being the most unpopulai queen England ever saw. The children of Henry were : — Edward, who became king ; Edmund, #arl of Lancaster; Margaret, married Alexander III. of Scotland; and Beatrice, married John duke of Brittany. I. Regency of Pembroke and De Burgh. At the death of John, the royal family was at Gloucester, in which city Henry was crowned. Being but a boy, the regency fell to the earl of Pembroke, the marshal. A great council met immediately at Bristol, and the Magna Charta was revised and confirmed. It was fortunate that the proceedings of Louis had made the English suspicious of his intentions, and indignant at the honors which he had bestowed on his foreign retainers. Many therefore returned to their allegiance, and Louis found himself obliged to raise the siege of Dover. At Lincoln (1217), the barons' army met with defeat at the hands of Pembroke ; this victory was called the " Fair of Lincoln," on account of the conquerors being enrichsd with a goodly spoil. Louis was now shut up in London, and his fleet bearing reinforcements being defeated by Hubert de Burgh, he accepted terms and left the country. Some of the barons however held out in their castles till the death of the Protector in 1218. The chief power was now entrusted to de Burgh the justiciary, who found in the refractory barons more than ordinary difficul- ties, which were further increased by the evil influence of Peter de Roches, the custodian of the king. This forced Hubert to employ in some cases great severity ; thus a foreigner held Bed- ford castle in spite of the king who invested it in person ; when the place was taken, no less than 80 persons were ordered to be hanged- In 1230, Henry made an unsuccessful attempt on France, the blame fell on Hubert who was in bad esteem, for having used his power to enrich himself with lands and ward- ships. He took sanctuary but was dragged forth, and stripped 9f all except his patrimonial inheritance. From this time the king becomes responsible for the government. II. Disputes with Scotland, Wales, and France. Alexander II. of Scotland made a demand for the three north- ern counties as his undoubted inheritance ; in reply, Henry con- tended that the homage done to him and his father was forthe kingdom of Scotland. On the accession of Alexander III. Henry claimed homage, and again when tne Scotch king came to York (1251) to marry Margaret, Henry's daughter ; Alexander however 64 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. evaded the demand by urging that he came to England to many a wife and not to treat on matters of state. The Scots beina offended separated the young queen from her husband and placec her in confinement, from which she was released by an armeti force, and Henry as the feudal superior then formed a new regency. Throughout the reign there were hostilities carried on against the Welsh, on account of the frequency of their predatory in- cursions. Sometimes a force vras led into the Principality, at other times treaties were made, but the end was always the same. The march country " was rendered almost a desert, the people fell by the sword, castles and towns were burnt, the woods felled, and the flocks and herds annihilated." Louis,theFrench prince, when he resigned England to Henry, promised to obtain for him the restoration of the provinces in France taken from John. But when he came to the throne (1223), he republished the sentence of forfeiture against Henry's father, and entered upon a part of what had remained in possession of the English. Richard, the king's brother, re-established our power in Guienne. The minority of Louis IX. seemed to offer a favorable opportunity, and Henry carried an army over to St. Malo (1230), but wasting his time in foolish display and pas times, the campaign ended only in damaging the reputation of the king. This war ended in a truce. In 1242, Henry made another campaign in France, the armies met at Taillebourg and, the English being outnumbered, saved themselves by flight. Within two days Henry was defeated at Saintonge, and in his flight abandoned his military chest to the enemy. This war also ended in a truce. III. Henry's unsatisfactory Government. Henry, it is said, had grown up with a persuasion that the English barons were leagued to strip the crown of its lawful pre- rogatives, he therefore confided in the fidelity of foreigners. Without doubt lie much disliked the charter, but when in want of money in 1253, the barons wrung from him its solemn con- firmation. On this occasion the archbishop of Canterbury, in Westminster abbey, denounced excommunication against ail vio- lates of the Magna Charta, Charter of Forests, or privileges of the church ; thereupon all who held lighted torches threw them down, " On being extinguished they gave forth a stench, and all exclaimed, Thus perish and stink in hell all who incur this sen- tence ! The king with his hand on his breast, said. So lielp me, God, all these things will I faithfully observe, as I am a man, a Christian, a knight, and a crowned and anointed kiiiir " U3N3Y III. 65 Great dissatisfaction existed among the English barons on ac- count of the shoals of foreigners which came to England, and, by the influence of the queen, were quartered in some form upon the nation ; but they procured the largest measure of nate on account of their becoming, nearly altogether, the advisers of the king. A further cause of dissatisfaction grew out of the sanction which Henry gave to the papal exactions, and although they fell principally on the clergy, it was nevertheless true that the country was impoverished thereby. It is said that, within the space of a few years, the papal agents in London took from the clergy a sum equivalent to fifteen millions of modern money. And it was a further grievance that by papal provisions, the best benefices in England were held by non-resident Italians. IV. Barons' war : the first House of Commons. 1235. The prodigality, the exactions, the cowardice, the king's par- tiality to foreigners, all conspired to make him generally hated by the nation, and when, by the acceptance of Sicily for his son, he had involved himself in pecuniary obligations to an unpre- cedented extent, the barons appeared at the council at West- minster, and demanded that the powers of the government should be delegated to a committee of barons and prelates. At the u Mad Parliament" which met at Oxford (1258), a committee of reform was appointed, the most influential member of which was Simon de Montf ort, earl of Leicester, a foreigner and brother-in- law of the king. The reformers soon displaced the principal crown and other officers, by which measure they deprived the king of the means of resistance. To secure the regeneration of the country, it was ordaiued: — that four knights should be choser by the freeholders in each country, to inquire and lay before par- liament the injuries done in their respective counties under the king's government : that the freeholders of each county should annually appoint a new sherilf : that all the sheriffs, with the treasurer, chancellor, and justiciary, should render their accounts annually : and that parliament should meet three times a year. Henry, as the reformers proved more careful o^ their own interests than those of the nation, took again upon himself the government. This led the barons to collect their forces, and ravage the estates of all those who sided with the king. Both parties now agreed to refer the Provisions of Oxford to the arbi- tration of Louis ; his award was against the barons, on the ground that the Provisions were subversive of royal authority War was now renewed and, at the battle of Lewes (1264), the king's forces met with defeat ; he himself and hin brother Richard were made captive. By a treaty called the •' Mise of Lewaa," 06 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH rflSTORY. it was agreed that all the prisoners should be set at liberty ; that prince Edward and his cousin Henry should be hostages for the peaceable conduct of the king ; and that the matters in dispute should be settled by the parliament, or by arbitration. The parliament that met (Jan. 28, 1265) was remarkable for the introduction of anew element — representatives from the cities and boroughs; hence the House of Commons dates from this time. It was professedly called to consider upon what terms a release could be granted to the two princes Edward and Henry ; Edward was allowed to be in the company of his father, upon condition that the county of Chester and other fiefs were ceded to Leicester. This parliament enacted — that the charters and ordinances should be observed ; that Leicester should not be questioned for his past conduct ; that should the earl or his as- sociates be aggrieved by the king, their vassals should be released from their oaths of fealty ; that prince Edward should not quit the realm for three years ; &c. V. Reaction in favour of Henry. The poficy of Leicester in calling up representatives from the people, while it attached to him the lower ranks, lost the regard of those who saw in this innovation the decline of their order. The earl moreover was too ambitious and arrogant to live long on terms of amity with those who deemed themselves his equals. Jealousies grew up, and when the earl of Gloucester fell off, many joined him, and when prince Edward made his escape from his keepers, the royalist party soon became respectable in numbers. Leicester, then at Hereford, called out the king's military tenauts ; nor was the other party idle, for the city of Gloucester was taken, the bridge over the Severn broken down, and the boats destroyed. Defeat met the earl's son coming to his aid, at Kenil worth, and the father was slain a few days later, at the battle of Evesham (1265). No great resistance was offered after this. By the " Dictum of Kenilworth," the supporters of Leicester were divided into three classes, and made to pay a fine varying from one to seven years' value of their estates. The kingdom had, by 1269, settled down into comparative quiet, and prince Edward took the opportunity to join the crusade under St. Louis. Miscellaneous Facts. When the Great Charter **as revised in 1217. the cIhuscs relating to forests were thrown into a -epar ate form, and eailed the Charter of Forests. It was deemed then of infinite jnportance, because of its mitigating the severity of the old forest laws. It was ordained that no man should thenceforth lose either K3e or limb for huntrng deer ; but if a man wa.GUSH HISTORY. age was three times that of the bride. To the English she proved accept- able by restr-.r.i.ncr the violent temper of her husband. After Edward's death she resided principally at Marlborough Castle. The children of Edward by Eleanor were: — Edward, who became kin?: Eleanor married Henry Duke of Bar: Joan of Acre, married (1) Gilbert, Earl of Gloucester, (2) Ralph Monthermer: Margaret married John, Duke of Brabant : Mary, who took the veil : and Ehzabeth married (1) John, Count of Holland, (2) Humphrey, Earl of Hereford. By his wife Margaret were : Thomas, Earl of Norfolk and Earl Marshal : and Edmund, Earl of Kent, whose daughter Joan became the wife of Edward the Black Prince. I. Reduction of Wales. At the time of his father's death, Edward was on his way home from Palestine, but he did not land in England till 1274, having spent the intervening time in attention to affairs connected with his dominions on the Continent. One of the first things demanding his attention in England was the refusal oi Llewellyn to do homage, and though a safe-conduct was off ered he yet evaded the demand. Thereupon the parliament (1276) declared the Welsh prince to have forfeited his lands. In the year following, active measures were taken against him, in which David, the brother of Llewellyn, took part. Crossing the Dee, Edward took the castles of Flint and Rhuddlan, and shut up the enemy in the mountains of Snowdon ; in a few w T eeks the prince submitted and promising to do homage, the king delivered to him his bride, Eleanor de Montfort, who had been Edward's prisoner two years. The Welsh soon grew dissatisfied because their ancient usages were replaced by English law, and Llewellyn and David had each their separate grievances. The marches were again filled with swarms of Welsh, who wasted the country with fire and sword, and inflicted on the inhabitants all kinds of barbarity. A strong army marched against them (1282). Llewellyn was surprised near Builth, and fell in a hand-to-hand combat : his head being forwarded to London was fixed en the Tower. The death of this prince ended the independence of Wales ; all the chiefs but David made their submission, and he at the end nf six months was delivered up by his countrymen, and executed as a traitor. For more than a year, Edward resided in Wales. To overawe the Welsh, he built many new castles and repaired the old ones, and as a further security he planted English in several towns. The English law in criminal cases was made obligatory, and the march district divided into counties and hundreds, with sheriffs and coroners. The story of the massacre of the bards is a poetical fiction EDWARD I. $? II. Wars with Scotland. The death of Alexander III. caused the crown of Scotland to dsseend to Margaret, the " Maid of Norway," a child but three years of age, who died at the Orkneys on her way to her inherit- ance. Of several claimants to the throne, three only were thought important — Balliol, Bruce, and Hastings, — all descended from David of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion. To settle this dispute an appeal was made to Edward, who awarded the kingdom of Scotland (1292) to Balliol, on the ground of his descent from the elder branch of the family, taking, however, from him homage for u himself and his heirs and the whole kingdom of Scotland." But the new king soon found his condition of vas- salage intolerable, for his subjects appealed to Edward when they thought themselves aggrieved, and Balliol was forced to appear at Westminster to answer. With the consent of the barons ne resolved to throw off the yoke, upon which Edward carried Berwick "by assault (1296), when 7,000 perished in the massacre. Pushing forward, the earl de Warrenne fought a battle near Dunbar, in which the Scots lost 15,000 men. The principal places in Scotland now submitted, and Balliol, after giving an in- strument of renunciation, was permitted to retire to Normandy. ' De Warrenne became the guardian of the kingdom, and English- men filled all the principal offices. The regalia and crowning stone were removed to London. From 1297 to 1304 was carried on what is called the "Scottish war of Independence." Sir William Wallace, an outlaw, being ■joined by others of the same class, commenced the attempt while Edward was on the Continent. A battle fought near Stirling (1297) gave the victory to the insurgent party ; 5,000 of the English perished. After strengthening the garrisons the English withdrew, with Wallace in pursuit across the borders. Edward was soon home, and, at the head of his army, defeated the Scots at Falkirk (1298), 30,000 of the enemy perishing. Wallace again betook himself to the forests, and only reappeared shortly before his capture in 1305. The Scots yet held out, and it was not till 1304 that a treaty was concluded between Edward ano Comyn, one of the guardians of Scotland. Scotland was now considered as a conquered country. In 1305 the war was renewed by Robert Bruce, the grandson of the competitor, who though in the confidence of Edward, haa resolved to stake everything to secure the independence of his country. In a few months he was crowned at Scone, to the no small indignation of his former master. Fortune, however, failed aim for a while, and he was forced to take refuge in the island of 70 0UTL1NE8 OF ENGLISU HISTORY. Rathlin ; the wife, daughter, and two sisters became prisoners to the English, and to conmlete his misfortunes, his two brothers were captured and ordered for execution. Edward was about to make another campaign in Scotland, when death seized him at Burgh-upon- Sands. III. War with France. The war with France grew out of a quarrel between two sailors, an Englishman and a Norman, in which the latter was killed (1293). This led to a maritime war, carried on without national authority, the Normans beingassistedby the French and Genoese, and the English by the sailors of Ireland and Gascony. Fleets numbering a hundred or two of vessels engaged in battle, or plun- dered the coast towns of the opposite party. An engagement in which the enemy lost 200 ships so enraged Philip that he re- solved to exact redress from Edward, as duke of Aquitaine, whom he therefore summoned to appear at Paris and make answer. Edmund, the king's brother, was sent over to negotiate, but his simplicity was fatal to his cause, for the French king obtained from him (1294) the surrender of Guienne for forty days, on the pretence that he only desired to save his honour. But at the expiration of that time Philip refused to restore the province, and subsequently declared it forfeited, for default of Edward's appearance. As soon as the affairs of Wales and Scotland per- mitted (1297), Edward collected two armies, one for Guienne, the other for Flanders ; his principal officers, however, refused to go, on account of the great exactions which had been levied contrary to right. The king embarked, nevertheless, but during his ab- sence he found it necessary to confirm the two charters. Ed- ward's campaign in Flanders proved useless, and ended in a truce for two years. The demand at home both for money and troops effectually prevented the recovery of Guienne by force of arms. A plan of reconciliation proposed by thepope proved more successful. The king was to marry Margaret, sister of Philip, and Edward his son to be affianced to Isabel, the daughter of the same monarch. These arrangements were effected in 1299, but the duchy was not restored till 1303. Miscellaneous Facts. Under the feudal system the lord of a fee had certain rights of service and profit, such as knight-service, wards, reliefs, escheats, and the like. But when the estate passed into the hands of a corporate body, the lord lost the whole of his expecta- tions, for a corporation has perpetual continuance aod succession. A.nd besides, as alienation of lands to corporate bodies increased, it traa observed that the feudal services ordained for the defence of the XDWARD II. 71 kingdom, were every day visibly withdrawn, and that the circulation ul landed property from man to man began to stagnate. It is indeed Baid, that to avoid the burden of military service, it was not unusual to make feigr dd grants of land to the church. To prevent this irre* gularity, a h.ortmain Act was passed (1279), by which it was for. bidden to religious persons, or any other, by any means, art, or con trivftnce, to appropriate lands or tenements, so that they come inir» mortmain in any way, under penalty and forfeiture of the same. In 1279, or as some say 1295, there were called up to the nations i synod, representatives of the lower clergy. From this time the Con- vocation, or clerical parliament, consisted of two houses. In the upper house sit the bishops and archbishops ; in the lower, the deana, ftrchdsacons, and proctors, to represent the cathedral and working clergy. At certain periods of our history this institution exerted considerable influence, but its power has greatly declined — (1) by statute of Henry VI II., which deprived it of the power of performing any act without the king's licence ; (2) by the private arrangement between archbishop S4ieldon and Lord Clarendon (1664), that the clergy should no longer tax themselves in convocation; (3) by its practical annihila- tion in 1717. Edward dealt severely with the Jews, several hundred he executed, and in 1287 imprisoned the entire race, to be released on payment of £12,000. In 1290 he ordered every Jew to leave the kingdom in two months, under penalty of death. It was not till the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell that they returned to England, though then without any formal sanction. Chronicle. 1281, Notice taken of a trade in coal from Newcastle; it began to be used in London by brewers and other trades. 1299, Spectacles said to be invented by a monk of Pisa. 1300, Improvement of the mariner's compass by Flavio Gioia, of Amalfi. EDWARD II. 1307-1327. Royal Family. Edward II. (1284—1327), son of Edward I., oecame heir apparent a few months after his birth, by the death of his elder brother. In 1297, when his father went to Flanders, he wis left as regent of the kingdom; three years later we find him leading a division of the army in the Scotch campaign. Under the influence of Gaveston his conduct was most unprincely. By his love of sensual gratification, by his placing the government of the kingdom in the hands of unworthy favourites, and by hl*> efforts to set himself above the constitution, he proved himself to be both a bad man and a bad king, though he did not deserve the terrible fate that befell him. The consort of Edward was Isabella (1295 — 1357), daughter of Philip IV. of France. She was betrothed at the age of five years, and married when she was but thirteen. Her troubles began as soon as she landed in England, for Edward showed more affection for Gaveston thin for his brine; in writing to he? father she declared herself the most wretched of wives. The disturbance in the government brought her into contact with Eoger Mortimer, from which time her character became depraved. Mortimer having escaped to France, the queen on pretence of making peace between her brother the French king, &nd Sdward, followed him. Her connection with Aior timer gave rise tc '/2 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH BISTORT. co much scandal, that her brother ordered her to quit nig dominions After residing a time in Hainault she came to England, and the de- position and death of her husband followed. Her son, Edward III., committed her to Castle Risings, in Norfolk, where she was confined twenty-seven years. " Since the days of the fair and false Elfrida. no Eileen of England has left so dark a stain on the annals of femaie {•eyalty as the consort of Edward II." The children of Edward were — Edward, who became king. John, earl of Cornwall ; Eleanor, married Beynald, count of Gueldres ; and J oan, married David II. of Scotland. I. First insurrection of the Barons, From childhood, Piers de Gaveston, son of a gentleman of Guienne, bad been the constant companion of Edward, but his influence was so corrupting that the late king, before his death, made him leave the kingdom. But the first thing done by the new monarch was to recall his favourite and create him earl of Cornwall. The barons in parliament demanded his immediate banishment, and the king so far complied as to send him out of the country to undertake the government of Ireland. Soon, how- ever, he was recalled, and proving more insolent than ever, the barons obliged the king to consent to the appointment of a com mittee of ordainers (1310), with authority to regulate the king's household, and redress the grievances of the nation. Gaveston was again banished, with the understanding that if found here- after in the king's dominions, he should be treated as the enemy of the nation. After residing a few months in Flanders, he was once more recalled by his foolish master ; the barons now took up arms, and appointed Thomas, earl of Lancaster, their leader. Gaveston, being shut up in Scarborough, was compelled to sur- render (1312) ; the earl of Warwick, whom he had insulted, made himself master of his person, and the favourite was exe- cuted on Blacklow Hill. Edward was full of indignation, but his circumstances compelled him to grant a general amnesty. II. War with Scotland. When Edward I. died, Bruce was slowly makinghimself master f>f Scotland, and while the new king was engaged in disputes with his barons, his success became so great, tnat Stirling was almost the only fortress remaining in possession of the English, and this the governor had consented to surrender, if not relieved by a given time. To relieve the garrison, an expedition, said to numuer 100,000 men, moved from England, and reached the be- leaguered fortress with only a few hours of the time to spare. Br uce'fi army mustered 30,000 picked men, pooled in a position of advantage, vvitn a reserve of 15,000 camp followers in the rear. EDWARD II. 73 Battle was joined early in the morning, but the English were soon thrown into confusion, by reason of the ground having been honeycombed all over, by pits dug out and then tilled with brush- wood and covered with sod. A charge in line made by Bruce drove the English off the ground, and Edward pursued by a pany of horse never halted till he reached Dunbar, where he embarked for England. The battle of Bannockbum CI 3 14) secured the independence of Scotland, and enabled Bruce to obtain by exchange his wife and other relatives, who had been prisoners in England eight years. The success of the Scots encouraged the Irish to attempt to win their independence, and a correspondence was opened with Bruce to secure his aid. Edward, brother of the Scotch king, carried over a force, and after defeating the English, was crowned king of Ulster (1315). Robert then went over with a numerous army, and ravaged the country round Dublin, but the natives were disunited among themselves, and their cause received a fatal Mow in the death of Edward Bruce, who fell in battle, near Dun- dalk (1318). After their return to Scotland, many forays were made by the Scots into England ; the country was ravaged with- out opposition, and many towns given to the flames. A truce (1323) put an end to a war which had occasioned intense misery to the border districts of both countries for twenty yearg. III. Second insurrection of the Barons. Edward had taken to himself & fcocond favourite in the person of Hugh de Spenser, to whom he gave in marriage a daughter ox the earl of Gloucester, which brought him into collision with the lord-marchers. These lords united in defence of their rights, and with a force of 10,000 men ravaged the lands of the favourite, and overawing the parliament, obtained an act banishing the De Sperjsers, father and son, on the ground that they had usurped the royal power and advised unconstitutional measures. Within three months they were recalled, and hostile forces again took the field. At Borobridge (1322) the confederates met with defeat, and the earl of Lancaster their leader, having surrendered, was conducted to Pontefract and his head struck off. This success proved the ruin of Edward, for he became more tyrannical than before, and his favourite more arrogant. Amongthose imprisoned for their part in the insurrection was Roger Mortimer, lord of Wigmore ; having made his escape to France, he contrived tc draw over Prince Edward and his mother, on pretence of settling the dispute with respect to Guienne. The queen now gave her- self into the hands of the lord of Wigmore, and having raised a force of 2,000 men, landed at Orwell with the intention, as a pro- 74 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY clarnation stated, of freeing the people of England froa fhe, tyranny of De Spenser. As Isabella advanced towards the capital Edward with his favourites hastened to the marches of Wales. The queen pushed on and captured Bristol, defended by the elder De Spenser (1326) ; the old earl, ninety years of age, was exe- cuted and his body thrown to the dogs. His .son became a pri- soner within a month, and, being tried at Hereford, was hung on a gallows fifty feet high. IV. Edward deposed and murdered. In this last movement the king appeared utterly forsaken. He attempted to rouse the Welsh, and failing to do so, took ship- ping for the Isle of Lundy. Contrary winds obliged him to land in South Wales, and his necessities to hide in the neighbourhood of Neath. Here he fell into the hands of his enemies, by whom he was sent to Kenilworth. A parliament decided that Edwan 7 the prince should be declared king, for that his father was un- worthy because of his indolence, incapacity, the loss of Scotland, oppression of the church, and cruelty to his barons. A resigna- tion having been forced from the unfortunate monarch, a procla- mation issued to the effect that Sir Edward, late king of England, of his own good-will, and with the advice and consent of his par- liament, had put himself out of the government, and had granted and willed it to Sir Edward, his eldest son and heir. From Kenilworth the deposed king was removed successively to Ccrfe Bristol, and Berkeley. Fears began to be entertained by th« queen's party of a reaction, occasioned by the growth of a general feeling against Isabella's scandalous connection with Mortimer ; Edward's fate was now determined on. One night the inmates of Berkeley Castle were aroused by horrible shrieks from the king's apartment ; the next morning his dead body was exhibited for public inspection. The features were much distorted, but no marks of violence appeared ; report said that he had been mur- dered by thrusting a red-hot iron into his bowels. No investiga- tion took place, and the body was conveyed for interment to the abbey church, Gloucester. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1307, Philip of France suppressed the order of Knights Templars, on the ground of their apostasy, profligacy, idolatry, and heresv. Having done so inglorious a deed nimself, he persuaded Edward, his son-in-law, to do the same. On the same day (1312) the whole order was seized in England and Ire- land, and put in safe custody. Twelve years later, a statute passed placing their lands and tenements in the hands of the o; ,r er of St. John, or Knights Hospitallers, by whom they were retained till the Reformation. The great house of the Templars in Londcii tell 1A} th-j law students in the rei^n of Edward UL EDWARD III. 75 Chbowicle. 1307, Bills of exchange now used 'm England. 1316, The burning of coal in London declared to be an intolerable nuisance 1319, Invention of paper made of rags ; it was made of cotton about 1000 ; it is said to have been invented in China B.C. 170. EDWARD III. 1327-1377. Royal Family. Edward III. (1312 — 1377) was the eldest son of Edward II. In his thirteenth year he proceeded to Paris to do homage to his uncle Charles for the duchy of Ghiienne. Whilst on the Continent his mother arranged for his marriage with Philippa ; both the mother and son then sailed for England, and Edward, within a month, was declared guardian of the kingdom. " The domestic go- vernment of this prince is really more admirable than his foreign victories; and England enjoyed, by the prudence and vigour ot his administration, a larger interval of domestic peace and tranquillity than she had been blessed with in any former period, or than sbe ex- perienced for many ages after. He gained the affections of the great, vet curbed their licentiousness : He made them feel his power, with- out their daring, or even being inclined to murmur at it. His affable and obliging behaviour, his munificence and generosity, made them submit with pleasure to his dominion; his valour and conduct madb them successful in most of their enterprises ; and their unquiet spirits, directed against a public enemy, had no leisure to breed those dis- turbances to which they were naturally so much inclined, and which the frame of the government seemed so much to authori e. This was the chief benefit which resulted from Edward's victories and conquests." The consort of Edward was Philippa, daughter of William, count of Hainault. The marriage took place at York (1327), the king being then engaged on the Scotch borders. As soon as Edward had taken the power into his own hands, we find Philippa busy setting up a manufac- tory at Norwich for superior cloths, and inviting skilful Flemings over to work in it. While her husband was winning the batile of Cressy, she raised a force by which a victory was won at Neville's Cross. She was not in the battle, but rode to the field and slept on it the same night. Immediately afterwards the queen embarked for Calais, and at its sur- render is said to have saved the forfeited lives of the citizens. Keturning to England, she devoted her attention to the coal mines on her estates in Tynedale; from that time the c al trade grew rapidly. This good queen died in 1369, after a long illness, and with her ended the good name oi Edward, for his court, before so virtuous, became the scene of strife ana folly. The children of Edward were— Edward, the Black Prince : William of Hatfieid, died young : Lionel, duke of Clarence : John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster: Edmund, duke of York: Thomas, aukc of Cxlou* tester : and live daughters. I. Minority of the King. As Edward was a minor, the government fell to a regency, and the king's person to the care of the earl of Lancaster, brother of the earl executed at Pontef ract. The real power, however, rested '6 0DTL1NE8 OF ENGLISH H18TUR1. in the hands of Isabella and Mortimer, now the earl of March, •3 ut the queen's paramour soon became more unpopular than ever for the Scots, after insulting the nation obtained peace nearly on their own terms — that the Scottish prisoners should be released, the Scottish regalia given up, the claim of feudal superiority re- nounced, and the sister of Edward be married to David, son of Robert Bruce. Much offended at these concessions and the arrogant tone ct the favourite, the earls of Lancaster and Kent iieaded a confederacy against him ; it proved a failure, and led to the execution of Kent, the kiag's uncle (1330). Edward, dis- pleased at his dependent position, sought the assistance of lord Montacute ; Mortimer was seized in Nottingham Castle, and the next morning a proclamation announced that the king had taken the government into his own hands. The earl of March wa.i condemned by the parliament for illegally exercising the royai power, and executed at Tyburn ; the queen was sent off a pri- soner to Castle Risings. II. War with Scotland. Soon after the treaty of peace Robert Bruce died, leaving the throne to David II., a youth in his seventh year. At that peace it was agreed that the lands which were held in Scotland by English nobles should be restored; as this was not done, Edward, 6on of John Balliol, and several others resolved (1332) to appeal to the sword. With a force of 3,000 men, Balliol won his way to the throne in little more than a mo^th ; in another month he was driven from his kingdom. Edward had already concluded a secret treaty with Balliol, who promised on his part to acknow- ledge the feudal superiority of the English king ; and when the Scots renewed their inroads into England, hostilities were com rnenced against them. During the siege of Berwick the Scots received a severe defeat at Halidon Hill (1333) ; as the result of this battle Berwick sui rendered, David fled to France, and Balliol again became king of Scotland. In the next year Balliol was once more a fugitive, for his supporters were oilended at his having ceded the southern counties of Scotland to England. In 1335, Edward ravaged Scotland, but the cause of his nominee was but little aided thereby. After an indecisive warfare foi some years, E^lliol retired in despair, and David returned to hit* throne (1341). It was fortunate for Scotland that Ed ward's ambition had been turned off in the direction of France, for this caused the strength of England to be employed on the Continent. III. Edward's attempt to conquer France. In 1328 died Charles IV. of France, and, as there was no male EDWARD III. 77 heir, Edward put in a claim in right of his mother, the sister of Charles. This claim was disallowed by the States of France, en the ground that by the Salic law females could not take tfie throne ; Philip of Valois therefore became king, and Edward con- sented to do him homage for Guienne. But when Philip gave an asylum to David of Scotland and furnished assistance to his ad- herents, Edward resolved to renew his claim and, assuming the title of king of France (1337), concluded alliances with several continental princes. Hostilities were first commenced from the side of Flanders (1339), but with little success, because of the coolness of the allies. In the next year, the English attacked the French fleet at Sluys, and rarely has a naval victory been more complete or more sanguinary : 230 ships were taken, and nearly all the remainder destroyed ; of the English there fell 4,000 men, of the French 20,000. By land nothing was done, for the mercenaries would not fight without pay, and Edward had none to give them. During the years 1342 — 3, a dispute with regard to the succession to Brittany, opened the way for Edward to carry into that part of France an army of 12,000 men, but here again nothing was done. The earl of Derby however won a great victory in Guienne, whereby nearly a whole French army was annihilated. In 1346, the king sailed from Southampton with a numerous army and effected a landing at La Hogue. Pushing up into the interior he threatened Paris, and when no French force appeared he would have crossed the Seine, but found all the bridges de- stroyed. At length a ford was found, and the English were crossed over in face of a strong force of the enemy. After a day's respite, Edward marshalled his slender army of less than 10,000 men, which was all he had to oppose the 100,000 coming against him. The battle of Cressy had scarcely begun before the French fell into confusion, which lost them the day ancj 30,000 men, besides many persons of distinction. Among the latter was John, king of Bohemia, whose armorial ensign of three ostrich feathers and the motto "Ich dien" (I serve) was assumed by the prince of Wales, who on that day had so greatly dis- tinguished himself. In less than a month after this famous victory, another was won at Neville's Cross, fox David of Scot- land, in alliance with France, had entered England with 30,000 men and committed great devastation. In this battle, David and many of his nobles were made prisoners, and half his army siain. After the victory of Cressy, Edward had gone on to Calais, which he blockaded by sea and land, but the governor turning out all useless mouths, kept the place for eleven months, &nd then, there being no hope of its being relieved, it was sur- 78 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HIST0R7. rendered (1347). Most of the natives were expelled, and the place repeopled by English colonists ; Calais grew to be acele. brated mart for the sale of English merchandise, and was so when retaken by the French in 1558. Partly by reason of a truce and partly by the Black 1 fen.th, which carried off no small part of the people, there were no further hostilities till 1355, when the Black Prinoe with an array of 60,000 men ravaged the south of France, destroying in seven weeks 500 cities, towns, and villages. In 1356, another desolat- ing expedition overran the fertile provinces of the central parts of France. On his retreat, John the French king confronted the prince, five miles from Poitiers, with a force of 60,000 men, about four times the number of the English. The French were again utterly defeated, and their king made prisoner. John was brought to England, and negotiations opened for a peace. The French refusing to ratify the treaty, Edward carried over another large army (1359), and marched from Calais to Rheims and thence to Paris, the suburbs of which he burnt. This led to fur- ther negotiations, and the peace of Bretigny (1360), by which Edward was to renounce all claims to Normandy and the crown of France, receiving on his part the full sovereignty of Guienne and Calais, and three million gold crowns as a ransom for the French king. The money was not paid, and John died in Eug- 'and. IV. Loss of the English possessions in France. The Black Prince, now prince of Aquitaine, governed his province with ability till, in an evil hour, he undertook to restore Pedro the Cruel to the throne of Castile, from which he had been expelled. Entering Spain, he defeated the enemy at Navarette (1367), but the tyrant whose cause he had espoused refused to pay the cost of the mercenaries, and the prince found himself compelled to tax his province to raise funds. Oppressed in this way, the Gascons appealed to Charles of France, who thereupon summoned Edward to make answer. On his refusal, hostilities recommenced, and the prince, after butchering the inhabitants of Limoges for admitting a French garrison, returned home tc die. One conquest followed another, till of all our possessions »n France, there only remained Calais, Bayonne, and Bordeaux, Miscellaneous Facts. It had Ions: been the practice of the pontiffs to make "provisions'* to many of the best benefices in Eng- land, to the injury of the proper patrons and the kingdom generally. Hence in this reign it was urged, that livings were given to clergy- men out of the kingdom, who knew not the English language, and the wealth of the English church was made to support those who were unfriendly to it. To put an end to the abuse, the Siatuto cj RICHARD II. 79 Promsirs passed (1344), forbidding any person to bring info the realm, or receive, or execute provisions, reservations, or letters of any other description, contrary to the rights of the king or his subjects. In the next year an act was passed to enforce the observance of this statute, by forbidding any appeals being made from the judgment of the king's courts to those of the pope. Another improvement of th* j reign was the Statute of Treasons (1352), deemed so great a boon that the parliament which passed it was called the " blessed parliament." It limited treason to seven offences, of which the three principal were — compassing the death of the king, levying war within the »*ealm, and aiding the king's foreign enemies. Chronicle. 1331, Flemish cloth-weavers settle at Norwich. i336, Flemish linen-weavers settle in London. 1346, Cannon siid to be first used at the battle of Cressy. 1349, Order of the Garter in- stituted bv Edward III. First appearance in England of the Black Death. 1350, Glazed windows and chimneys came into more general use. 1358, Society of Merchant Adventurers formed. 1362, French language superseded by the English in all law pleadings. 1368, A striking clock set up at Westminster. 1377, Castle of Windsor rebuilt in tins reign. RICHARD II. 1377-1399. Royal Family. Richard of Bordeaux (1366 — 1400) was the son of Edward the Black Prince and Joan of Kent. On the death of his father in 1376 he was created prince of Wales : the next year he came to the throne. A council of regency governed, from which the three royal uncles were excluded, and such was the character of Richard, that it was not till he had reached his 23rd year that he entered upon the government himself. His reign proved an unhappy one, more perhaps from the violence of the times than from his own misconduct. Hume says, "He appears to have been a weak prince and unfit for government, less for want of natural parts and capacity, thin of solid judgment and a good education. He was violent in temper; profuse in his expense; fond of idle show and magnificence; devoted to favourites; and addicted to pleasures." How he ended his miserable life is disputed; according to one account he was starved, another says he was assassinated in Pontefract Castle, while a third asserts that he made his escape to Scotland. Thf> first consort of Richard was Anne of Bohemia. She married in 1382, and interceding with her husband for those concerned in the insurrection, obtained from the people the title of " good queen Anne." Ladies, however, remembered her best as having introduced horned head-dresses, the modern metal pin, and side saddles. 4.nne and her husband's mother were both protectors of WicklifFe, and it was her attendants that carried the reformer's works to John Huss in Bohemia. Anne died of the pestilence (1394) greatly regretted by the English, to whom she had endeared herself by softening the re- sentments of the kin sf. Hie second consert of .Richard was Isabella ef Valois, daughter ol Charles VI. of France. She was married (1396) when a mere child, fjid left a widow at the age of twelve. Returning to France, she married Charles, duke of Orleans, and died 1409. Richard left no 5hildren SO OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. I. Popular insurrection. 1381. The war with France and Scotland which still went on, com- pelled the government to levy a capitation tax in 1379, ranging from a shilling upwards, according to the rank of the individual. This being found insufficient, a poll-tax was granted of a shilling per head on all persons above the age of fifteen There was in- justice in this, for it made no distinction between the rich and the poor. It is moreover certain that at this period there was a general feeling of discontent among the villein class, both in this country and on the Continent, and it only wanted an occasion, such as this tax afforded, to lead to a popular outbreak. An in- tolerable insult offered to the daughter of Wat the Tyler, of Dartford, brought death to the tax collector who gave the pro- vocation, and led to a general rising in the south and east, to the number of 100,000. The insurgents to the number of 10,000 entering London, destroyed the Savoy palace, broke open the prisons, and slew many persons of good estate, but plundering was strictly forbidden. The } 7 oung king met them at Mile- end and promised to grant their demands : — the abolition of slavery, the reduction of the rent of land to fourpence an acre, liberty to buy and sell in fairs and market towns, and a general pardon for past offences These being granted, most of the insurgents retired to their homes, but Tyler's party, either dissatisfied or doubtful of the king's sincerity, broke into the Tower. On the day following, Richard again met the insurgents, when Tyler was 6truck to the ground by Walworth the mayor, and killed. The insurrection was now quelled, but the charters were revoked and many hundreds executed. II. Misgovernment. Before the king came into power he entered Scotland, and as a measure of retaliation burnt Edinburgh and other cities (1385). The next year Lancaster, who had married a daughter of Pedro •■.he cruel, carried an army to the Peninsula to enforce his claim to the throne of Castile ; the expedition ended in Lancaster's giving his daughter in marriage to Henry, prince of Asturias, the heir of Castile. In 1388 the Scots were again in England, and defeated by the Pereies at Otterbuim ; this is sometimes called the battle of Chevy Chase. Richard was now approaching man- hood, and the bad features of his character began to appear Governed almost entirely by two favourites, De la Fole, earl of Suffolk, and De Vere, created duke of Ireland, dissatisfaction prevailed, and the parliament obliged tbe king to dismiss the former and allow him to be impeached. Immediately after. tLe RICHARD II. 81 King was deprived of all power, by the formation of a council of regeacy, with the duke of Gloucester at its head. This he resented, and forming a party, a battle was fought at Radcot (1387), which resulted in the ascendancy of the opposition, and a charge of treason against the king's favourite. In 1.389, Richard was again in power, and for a few years there was comparative tranquillity. But the king's marriage with a French princess in 1396, threw everything into disorder, for, whilst the nation felt disgraced by the cession of some towns to France, Richard felt emboldened to take revenge on those who formed the opposition. Gloucester was suddenly arrested and sent over to Calais, ^vd, as he was reported dead immediately afcr, it is supposed iiiat he was assassinated. The earl of Arundel was executed, the archbishop of Canterbury banished, the earl of Warwick imprisoned for life, and many others con- demned to fines and imprisonment. Two only of his principal opponents remained, Hereford, the son of Lancaster, and the duke of Norfolk. These persons having talked over their chance of punishment, Norfolk was accused by Hereford of slandering the king ; this the duke denied, and the cause was referred to the judgment of wager of battle. When the parties met at Coventry, the king forbade the combat, and banished Hereford for ten years and Norfolk for life. Richard now raised money by forced loans, made the judges dispense the law after his own will, and placed seventeen counties out of the pale of the law that he might reap a harvest of lines. III. Deposition of Richard. When Hereford was banished, he received a promise from the king that he should not be deprived of his father's estates, but on the death of the duke of Lancaster in 1399, Richard seized them into his own hands. Hereford, by the death of his father now duke of Lancaster, set outfor England, and landing at Ravenspur, was joined by the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland, and other barons, till in a short time his force amounted to 60,000 men. The king was in Ireland, whither he had gone to avenge the death of Mortimer, earl of March, who had fallen in a skirmish with the natives. Lancaster, as the patience of the nation was exhausted, found no one to dispute his progress, indeed he gave out that he only sought to recover his estate. London received him with delight, and York, the regent of the kingdom, went over to the usurper with his forces. After some delay, Richard landed with a part of his army in Wales, but his men deserted him ; in disguise he proceeded to Conway, from 82 OUTLINES OF KNOL18H HISTORY. which place he was enticed, under pretence of a conference wfth his cousin of Lancaster. On the way he was made a prisoner, and, after a meeting with Henry, conducted to London, where a parliament voted his deposition, on the ground of tyranny and misgover nruent. The usurper then rose and pronounced these words : " In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I, Henry of Lancaster, claim this realm of England." Both houses admitted his claim, and thus broke the law of succession, for the right was in the descendants of Lionel, duke of Clarence. Miscellaneous Facts. For the purpose of curbing the papal power in this kingdom, and more effectually preventing any evasion of the statute of provisors, was an act passed (1393) called the Statute of Praemunire which enacted, that " whoever procures at Rome, any translations, processes, excommunications, bulls, instruments, or other things, which touch the king, against him, his crown, and realm, and all persons aiding and assisting therein, shall be put out of the king's protection, their lands and goods forfeited to the king's use, and they shall be attached by their bodies to answer to the kine." Subsequemly a praemunire has been applied to offences of a very different nature. In the latter part of the preceding reign there grew up, principally through the influence of John Wickliffe (1324 — 84), a sect known as Lollards. The movement commenced at Oxford, where Wickliffe attacked first the Mendicants, and subsequently the extravagant authority of the papal power. Many ot his disciples, called " poor priests," travelled the country to spread the doctrines of t'leir master, and to recommend the perusal of the Word of God in the vulgar tongue, for W T ickliffe had also translated the Scriptures into English, regarding them most properly as the foundation of truth, and the only source of authority in matters of religion. Why his followers were called Lollards is uncertain, though the general opinion is, that the term is connected with lullen, to sing with a subdued voice. Chronicle. 1380, The translation of the Bible into English by Wickliffe. 1381, The English peasantry demand the abolition of villenage. 1390, First navigation act, requiring English merchants to freight only in English ships. Social life in the Plantagenet Period. 1. Food. But few changes mark this period. The principal feature noticed is the extraordinary outlay of the greater barons for meat and drink. This was occasioned by the growing custom of the principal men gathering round their tables large numbers of retainers, and in the rivalry which ensued, the knight endeavoured to outshine the baron, the baron the earl, and the earl the king. Both Edward II. end III. sought by sumptuary I&wf to restrain this extravagance, but they were generally disregarded. At the marriage banquet of Richard, earl of Cornwall (1243), 30,000 dishes were served up, and in the following century an abbot of St. Augustine set 3,000 before hie guests. Thoma3, earl of Lancaster, grandson of Henry III., ex- pended in one year 22,000 lbs. of silver in housekeeping ; of wine alone, his household consumed in the same period 371 pipes. Richard 11., it is said, entertained 10,000 persons daily at his tables and such JfclCHARD II. 83 cmbouuaed hospitality wag thought to he necessary, as a means of keeping armies of retainers together. The poor man's diet remained as before. 2. Dress. No important change took place in male costume till the time of Edward II., when its style was greatly changed. The loose tunic now gave way for a close-fitting jacket, which reached to the hips, and was confined by a belt ; the sleeves were generally terminated at the elbow, from which depended tippets which, in- creasing in length, ultimately reached the ground. Snort laced-boots were worn, and on the head a capuchin, or hood, of divers shapes, ending in a liripipe or long tail. But most remarkable was the intro- duction of particoloured dress. The same person appeared with one half the hood and tunic, one hose, and one shoe, of a colour strongly opposed to the other ; the satirists said, the red side of a gentle- man gave them the idea of his having been half roasted, or that he and his dress were afflicted by St. Anthony's fire. Flemish beavers appear in this period, and for a time were worn over the hood. Lay- lawyers begin now to practise, and, not having the tonsure, distinguish themselves by wearing the coif, or close hood, first of linen, then of silk. Down to the reign of Edward II. the female dresses had uncom- monly long trains, which trailed far behind in the dirt. The trains were now cut off and the skirts made as scant as sacks, so that the ladies found some difficulty in walking. Over the robe a short jacket was worn, and a cap Jike those of males covered the nead. Altogether the dress was compact in appearance, and at a distance barely dis. tinguished from that of the other sex. The long plaited tails of the preceding period were coiled up round the head, and enclosed in a golden caul of network. This improvement was neutralized by the ugly wimple, or gorget, a piece of linen or other fabric wound round the throat and chin, and pinned up to the ears. Aprons begin to appear under the name of lap-cloths; and sarcenet and gauze are introduced, the former made by the Saracens, the latter manufactured at Gaza. 3. Dwellings. The building of baronial castles received a check, on the accession of Henry II., by an enactment that no residences should be fortified without licence from the Crown. From the time of Henry III. some trifling conveniences began to grow up, either in or about the keep; thus that monarch ordered for his danghter-in- law, Eleanor of Castile, that an apartment should be fitted up in the castle of Guildford, with a hearth, chimney, and wardrobe, and par- ticularly specified that the windows should be glazed. These im- provements were carried on more extensively by Edward I. and hie successors, by which the feudal fortress began to unite something of the magnificence and comfort of the modern palace. Manorial houses were still embattled, and enclosed by a moat. The hall was still the most remarkable feature, but as yet without chimneys, the smoke spending itself in the lofty roof, or escaping through the latticed windows. Town houses were characterized by high gables and latticed windows. In the houses of the poor there was no change But little change took place in the furniture of this period. The tables were still on tressels, and chairs used only for state purposes. 4. Amusements. The latter part of this period was that of the tu^hest chivalry. Passages at wms were frequent, and held by pro- 84 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. clamation before barons* castles. Sometimes a band of knights challenged all comers. At the head of this class stood the Tourna- ment^ held only on speoial occasions, as coronations, royal marriages, national victories, and the like. They lasted for several days, and heralds were sent into all lands to invite good knights and true to be present. No one but the worthy could engage, and some days pre- viously each candidate hung his shield in the next church ; if any taint were discovered, he was forbidden to enter the li*ts. A space was properly enclosed, and each person sworn to honourable conduct, failing which he was driven off the ground with staves. The two parties entered the enclosure by opposite gates. After arranging themselves, the heralds cried, " To achievements; " they then closed their visors, couched their spears, and awaited the trumpet sound to charge. Of fighting, there were two kinds : the simplest wao the joust, an encounter of single knights ; the second was the melee, or pell-mell engagement, in which two groups engaged with battle-axe^ swords, maces, and daggers. Wounds were given many and deep ; tha fallen knights were drugged off by their pages. At the close of each day the heralds proclaimed who were distinguished. Besides this, the successful received rewards at the hands ** il ie ladies, occupied ac honourable \ lace at the banquet, and had their vniour sung by minstrels Out-of-door sports were cour&ing and falconry, which were largely partaken of by ladies and the clergy. Indoors were draughts and chess, tricks of jugglers, jesters, minstrels, and glee-singers. The pooi had their mummings, quoits, foot and handball, and at Christmas the feast of fools, in which the churl became a bishop, the buffoon a cardinal, and the mob priests ; possession was taken of the churches, and the service parodied in a shameful manner. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Henry IV., 1399—1413. Henry V., 1413—1422, Henry VI., 1422—1461. HENRY IV. 1399-1413. Royal Family. Henry IV. of Bolingbroke (1366—1413) was the son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. In his youth he served against the Mohammedans in Barbary, and in the Baltic against the pagans. His bold and enterprising character made Kicharri regard him with jealousy, and take the occasion which presented itself to banish him from the kingdom. Th^ popularity of Henry was loot 90on after his accession, and his reign proved not less unhappy to himself than to his subjects. "Numerous plots were formed against his life, and most barbarously punished; his parliaments remonstrated Tehemently on his bad government; his finances were throughout his reign in a deplorable condition ; his grout friends the Perries abandoned him ; the Welsh foiled his attacks in person, and the Irish very nearly threw off the English yoke." He has the further discredit of punishing the Lollards alter having been their patron. The consort of Henry was Joanna, daughter of Charles of Navarre HENRY IV. 85 Joanna, at the time of her marriage with Henry (1403), was the widow of John, duke of Brittany, who had left her recent of his du«hy. This marriage was unpopular in England, as she consulted the interests of Brittany more than those of England, and brought many foreigners *nto the kingdom. After the death of her husband, Joanna was regent uf England while Henry V. was fighting in France. Many sorrows now came upon her ; her son the duke of Brittany fought against Henry, several of her near relatives fell at Agincourt, and others were brought to England as prisoners. Shortly after, she was arrested on the charge of sorcery, deprived of all her property, and confined in Pevensey castle till the king's death in 1422. J oanna survived 15 years longer, and was buried at Canterbury. The children of Henry were all by his first wife Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford — Henry, who became king; Thomas, duke of Clarence: John, duke of Bedford : Humphrey, duke of Ciloucester : Blanche, married Louis, elector palatine : and Philippa, married Eric of Denmark. L War with Scotland. As Robert of Scotland refused to recognise Henry as king, he gathered an army and marched to Leith without opposition ; there he awaited the arrival of the enemy, till, having consumed all their provisions, the English were compelled to retire. In 1402 the Scots, under earl Douglas, to the number of 10,000, crossed the borders, but were defeated at Romildon by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur ; 800 fell on the field, and many prisoners were made, including Douglas and several of the nobility. No other event of importance occurred except the capture of prince James (1405) while on his way to France, to escape the schemes of his uncle, the duke of Albany ; he was detained a prisoner in England till 1424. II. Rebellion of Owen Glendower. Glendower, the great-grandson of the last native prince of Wales (Llewellyn), had been in the service of Richard II. ; after the dej?i-sition of his master he returned to Wales, and was soon in dispute with lord Grey, who had seized some of his lands. Gathering a force he invaded the marches, made prisoner Six Edmund Mortimer, and, after taking several castles, assumed the title of prince of W r ales. His success brought him friends, for the Percies were alienated from Henry on account of his refusing to ransom Mortimer, whose sister was the wife of Hotspur. A confederacy was formed and joined by Dougias and a body of Scottish knights ; Mortimer made himself a party to it, by marryin^ the daughter of Glendower. Hotspur marching his forces to effect a junction with the Welsh prince was intercepted at Shrewsbury (1403) ; in the battle which ensued 5,000 of the insurgents foil, nd Hotspur with them. The confederacy wa* 86 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. broken, but Wales with the aid of France held out, and though several formidable armies were led against the principality, it did not submit till the next reign. The earl of Northumberland, a party to the movement in favour of Wales, contrived to excuse himself, but in 1405 he engaged in a new conspiracy, and was forced to withdraw to Scotland. The other leaders were less fortunate, for archbishop Scrope and the earl of Nottingham lost their heads. Northumberland made another effort (1408), and met with defeat and death at Bramham Moor, near Tadcaster III. War with France. The king of France alleged that the deposition of Richard put an end to the truce between the two countries, so that without a formal declaration of war French squadrons swept most of our commerce from the seas. On several occasions the French in- sulted our coasts and burnt our towns. The English fitted out privateers to retaliate, and the channel became a constant scene of petty warfare. When Charles VI. sunk into a state of imbe cility, the power of the government became a point of contest between the dukes of Orleans and Burgundy. At first Henry supported the latter, who, by means of a body of English troops captured Paris (1411). In the year following Henry changed his policy and supported the party of Orleans, but no sooner did a reconciliation take place between the rival dukes, than they turned their arms against the English, who having first ravaged Normandy, withdrew to Guienne. IV. Persecution of the Lollards. Henry, being a usurper, found it to be his interest to con- ciliate the clergy. To do so an act was passed (1401), which forbade any one preaching without a licence from the bishop, and ordered that persons accused of heretical opinions should be tried by the bishop of the diocese, upon whose certificate of heresy they were to be handed over to the sheriff to be burned 1 1? the same year, William Sawtre, a London clergyman, for professing to worship Christ rather than the cross on which he died, was burned in Smithfield. A tailor, by name John Badby, was executed in the same place (1410), for denying the doctrine ^f transubstantiation. The persecution does not appear to have stopped the spread of Lollardism, for in the next reign so many were the offenders, that only the principal were com- mitted to the flames, the lesser delinquents being subjected to whipping or imprisonment. Miscellaneous Facts. This ivi£n was distinguished for tho in- creasing power of the House of Commons, as seen m its claiming th# HENRY V. [ft exclusive right of originating money bills ; of discussing public affairs without being interfered with on the part of the king; of freedom from arrest from the day they left their homes to attend parliament till they reached home after its close ; and of being protected from undue returns of elections being made by sheriffs in the interest ol the court. Chronicle. 1401, Commencement of persecution for dissent from the church of Koine. 1405, Execution of Scrope, archbishop of York, the first instance in England of capital punishment being in- dicted on a bishop. 1407, A plague carried off 30,000 persons in London. HENRY V. 1413-1422. Royal Family. Henry V. (1388-1422), the son of Henry IV., was born at Monmouth and educated at Queen's College, Oxford. On his father's accession he was created prince of Wales, and employed in the military operations against the Principality ; subsequently he held there the office of Lieutenant. The fact that before he came to the throne he was so fully employed, seems to discountenance the stories which are told of his early excesses. After his accession, u bis abilities appeared equally in the cabinet and in the field ; the boldness of his enterprises was no less remarkable than his personal valour in conducting them. He had the talent of attaching his friends by affability, and of gaining his enemies by address and clemency; and his care in maintaining justice in his civil administration, and pre- serving discipline in his armies, made some amends to both nations for the calamities inseparable from those wars in which his short reign was almost entirely occupied." He died at Vincennes of an unknown malady, and was brought to England for interment. The consort of Henry was Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. of France. The marriage took place in 1420 at Troyes; two days after, the royal pair set out to conduct a siege. Having given birth, at Windsor, to a son, she rejoined her husband in France ; in three months he died, leaving her a widow in her 1st year. Some twelve months later she contracted a secret marriage with Owen Tudor, a Welsh soldier, on duty at Windsor. Of this union came three sons —Edmund, Jasper, and Owen. Edmund was created earl of Rich- mond, and died at the age of twenty, leaving by his wife, the heiress of Somerset, an infant afterwards Henry VII : Jasper, the second son, was made earl of Pembroke : the third son died a monk. Henry leit but one child, Henry, who beoame king. I. Persecution of the Lollards. It is believed that the king himself was disinclined to per- secution till it was strongly urged upon him that the Lollards were unfriendly to the government and to the rights of property. He now not only gave way, but permitted Sir John Oldcastle. caHed in right of his wife lord Cobliam, and one of his intimate friends, to be put on his trial for heresy. This religious reformer was condemned to the Barnes, but contrived to escape from the Tower and pouJ 1 nowhere be found. The knight is accused o/ Bfc OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. being at the head of a conspiracy against the king, and it was thought to favour the accusation, that a party of Lollards was discovered in St. Giles's-tields at midnight. About thirty of theni were executed, though they denied that their meeting had auy reference to political matters. Oldeastle kept close in Wales till 1418, when he was apprehended and executed by being suspended in chains over a tire. II. War with France. Charles of France was imbecile, and a struggle between the houses of Orleans and Burgundy divided the kingdom. The opportunity seemed to Henry too favourable to be lost ; he tnerefore demanded — the restoration of all the possessions the English held in France in the time of John ; the hand of the king's daughter in marriage ; and a dower with her of two million crowns. To this it was answered, that the French government was willing to restore the duchy of Aquitaine, to ^rant him the princess and a dower of 800,000 crowns. As this did not satisfy the ambition of Henry, he revived the claim of Edward III., and commenced preparations for enforcing it. In 1415 the king joined his army at Portsmouth, but his de- parture was delayed by a conspiracy in favour of the earl of March, for their part in which the earl of Cambridge and others were executed. In August the king sailed with 30,000 men ; on landing the siege of Harfleur was formed, and in five weeks the place became his. But it was dearly purchased, for a dysen- tery had carried off more than half his men ; as nothing further could be attempted, he set out with the remainder towards Calais. On the plains of Agincourt the French stopped his way and a battle ensued, which ended in victory to the English. The French, who were more than six times the English in number, lost 10,000 men, the English 1,600. After the battle, Henry moved on to Calais and thence to London, having com- pleted the campaign in little more than three months. In 1417 Henry made a second campaign in Fiance, at the head of a larger army than before. Caen was taken by storm and eacfced, this induced several towns near to send in their submis- bion. In the next year Rouen capitulated after a four months' siege. Negotiations now opened led to the peace of Troye6 (1420)> oy which it was agreed — that Henry should marry Catherine, bo regent during the lifetime of Charles, and at his death be the possessor of the crown and kingdom of Fiance. Al'ter his mar- riage the king returned to England with his bride, but in a few months was recalled to France, for his brother, the duke of Clare&ce, had met with defeat and death at the battle of Beavy HENRY VI. 89 (1421), where he encountered the troops of the dauphfn, aided by the Scotch under the earl of Buchan. Having achieved^ some further successes, Henry was smitten with disease, and died at the moment when his ambrtion was about to be fully realised. Miscellaneous Facts. The army of Henry was to be paid at the following rates :— a duke 13s. 4d. per day ; an earl 6s. 8d. ; a baron ar banneret 4s. ; a knight 2s. ; an esquire Is. ; and an archer 6d. For prizes the following conditions were to be observed: — All prisoners were to belong to the captors ; but if they were kings, princes, or per- sons holding high commands, they were to belong to the crown, ov payment of a reasonable recompence to the captors. Booty takei. was to be divided into three parts ; two for the men, and of the re- maining third, the leader took two parts, and the king one. Chronicle. 1415, London first lighted at night with lanterns, 1416, Herrings cured after the Dutch fashion, first sold in London. 1419, Third mayoralty of the renowned Sir Richard "Whittington. HENRY VI. 1422-1461. Boyax Family. Henry VI. (1421—1471), the son of Henry V., was an infant not quite nine months old at the death of his father ; the government was therefore committed to Humphrey, duke of Glou- cester, the duke of Bedford being charged with the conduct of affairs in France. The care of the royal person fell to Richard, earl oi Warwick, and cardinal Beaufort, the king's great-uncle. The young kiag was crowned at Paris in 1431, and married to Margaret of Anjou in 1445. Being of weak mind, the king is scarcely accountable lor the course of affairs ; his queen and her favourite ministers, Suffolk and Somerset, ruled the nation, and produced that general dissatisfaction which ended in the downfall of the king. The death ot Henry is by some attributed to the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. : by others to grief occasioned by the capture of his wife and the murder of his son at Tewkesbury. The consort of Henry was Margaret, daughter of Rend, duke of Anjou. At the time of her marriage with Henry she was but fifteen, and full of beauty, wit, and masculine energy. Almost from the first she was unpopular in England, and misfortune attended both her friends and enemies. Before the birth of her only child her husband oeeame insane, and the unfortunate condition of affairs that followed was attributed to her influence. Becoming a prisoner at the battle of Tewkesbury, she endured five years' captivity, and was then released on the payment of a ransom by Louis of France. Margaret ended her days (1482) in the neighbourhood of Angers, after years oi sxcessive grief. Henry had but one child, Edward, married, the year before he was killed, to Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick. I. Loss of France. Only a few weeks after the death of Henry V., Charles VI , died ; the infant Henry was therefore proclaimed king of France, according to the stipulation in the treaty of Troyes. Bedford, (W) OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. equal in abilities to his brother, supported the English interests with much success, subsequently the cause of the dauphin, who on the death of his father had assumed the title of Charles VIL, was strengthened by the defection of some of the allies. In 1425 Salisbury defeated the French and their Scotch allies at Crevant, and in the next year Bedford won another victory at Vemeuil. In 1428, the English, proposing to carry the war south of the Loire, invested Orleans. Salisbury was killed, but the siege bid fair to end successfully, when the English were foiled by the agency of a peasant girl of Domremy, by name Joan of Arc. This girl professed to be inspired by God to aid the dauphin and see him crowned at Rheirns. Her first success was the relief of Orleans, not more to the surprise of the inhabitants than to the consternation of the English, who believing her to be a sor- ceress, became disheartened and raised the siege. Success now attended Charles, and he was actually crowned at Rheims as Joan had foretold. In 1430 this extraordinary girl was made prisoner in a sortie from Compeigne, and being tried by the ecclesiastics, was burnt alive at Rouen as a witch. The cause of the English was now on the decline, the duke of Burgundy fell off, on account of a private quarrel with Bedford, and espoused the interests of the dauphin. Moreover the disputes in England, between the duke of Gloucester and cardinal Beaufort, prevented proper supplies being afforded. After the death of Bedford (1435) a succession of English regents acted in France ; some successes there were, but one province after another was lost till in 1453 nothing remained to the English but Calais. II. Cade's insurrection. 1450. During the long minority of Henry, affairs in England were in a very unsatisfactory condition, owing to the wars in France and the contentions between the duke of Gloucester and cardinal Beaufort. And the general discontent was increased oy a grant of Anjou and Maine to the queen's father, and by the reverse of fortune which fell upon our affairs in France. In 1447 Gloucester died, or \vas assassinated ; in two months Beaufort followed him, leaving the earl of Suffolk the real master of the kingdom. In 1450 the earl was impeached and banished, but his enemies seized him at sea and struck off his head. Rumours circulated that the king proposed to punish the men of Kent for this out- rage, and as the people were already on the point of rising against the government, Jack Cade, an Irish adventurer who as- sumed the name of Mortimer, unfurled the standard and was soon at thehead of 20,000 men. Encamping on Blackheath.two papers were sent to the king, in one the insurgents complained — HENRY VL 9l that the king had alienated the revenues of the crown ; that he allowed men of low raak to be his counsellors and to oppress his subjects ; that the sheriffs and other officers were guilty of in- tolerable extortions ; and that numerous impediments prevented the administration of justice. In the other paper they prayed — that the relations of Suffolk be banished, and the principal nobles of the land admitted to the king's councils ; and that the mur- derers of Gloucester, and those who had occasioned the loss of France, be brought to justice. A royal force sent out against Cade met with defeat at Seven oaks, the insurgent leader now entered London and executed some obnoxious persons. On promise of pardon the insurgents retired to their homes ; Cade was subsequently killed, and some of his followers executed. III. Wars of the Roses, As no heir was yet born to Henry, the people naturally turned their attention to Richard, duke of York, the son of Anne, heiress of the house of Lionel, duke of Clarence. In 1449, York was appointed lieutenant of Ireland, and his friends began to make open mention of his claim to the crown ; and after the sup- pression of Cade's insurrection, that claim was made in the par- liament. The duke, too confident, took up arms (1452) on pretence of opposing Somerset, now the chief minister ; this attempt failed, and the duke for a time suffered imprisonment. When the king became insane in 1453, Somerset was deprived, and York appointed protector, but on the king's recovery two years after, the duke was put out of office and Somerset restored. The duke of York now took up arms, and in a battle fought at St. Albans (1455) his rival fell, and victory declared for the Yorkists ; at the close of the year the king again fell ill, and the duke became protector a second time, though only for three months. In 1459 an attempt to assassinate the earl of Warwick, one of York's supporters, led to a renewal of hostilities. In a battle fought at Blore-heath, lord Audley fell and the Lancas- trians were defeated ; a month later the opposing forces met at Ludlow, but the defection of a part of the Yorkists compelled the duke tc retire to Ireland. As the parliament attainted the principal Yorkists, they again appeared in arms and defeated the royal foices at Northampton (1460), when the king was made prisoner, and the queen compelled to flee to Scotland. In the same year, the queen with an army from the north defeated York at Wakefield ; the duke, his son, and several others lost their lives, either in the battle or by the executioner. Edward, the youn£ duke of York, was soon in thefield, and defeated Pembroke \t Mortimer's Cross (1461) ; Owen Tudor and several other pri- 92 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORT. eoners were beheaded, and Pembroke with hisnephew. afterwards Iienry VII., escaped and lived in exile many years. In the same year was fought the second battle of St. Albans, in which the Yorkists were defeated, but Margaret's troops, for ravaging the country, were refused admittance into London. Edward, how- ever, entered the capital, and having made his claim in the presence of the peers, prelates, and citizens, was proclaimed king. Miscellaneous Facts. In the wars of this reign gunpowder was in constant use. From the guns and culverins were thrown stone balls of more than two feet in diameter, or balls made of lead. Each gun was worked by a master gunner, with varlets under him, together with masons and carpenters. By statute, the sheriffs were ordered no longer to admit the votes of ail who came to an election for members of parliament, but to examine them upon oath, and to exclude those who did net reside in the county, and possess within it a free tenement of the yearly value of forty shillings, after the deduction of all charges. Chronicle. 1430, Portable or hand firearms invented by the Lucquese. 1436, John Guttenburg invented metal types. 1440, John Coster prints from wooden blocks. 1453, Fall of Constantinople, and the end of the Eastern, or Greek empire, which forces a great number of the Greek literati to take refuge in Italy. 1458, Engraving on copper invented by a goldsmith of Florence. HOUSE OF YORK. Edwabd IV., 1461—1483. Edward V., 1483. Eichard III. 1483—1485. EDWARD IV. 1461-1483. Kotax Family. Edward IV. (1441 — 1483) was the son of Richard, duke of York, who m the preceding reign had claimed the throne, as the representative of Lionel, duke of Clarence, whose heiress had mar- ried into the house of York. So far as hereditary right went, the descendants of Lionel had claim before those of John of Lancaster, but the parliament had settled the question in favour of the Lancas trians sixty years before. The same authority now declared the Lancastrians usurpers, and Edward the rightful king. Few princes have been more cruel and licentious than Edward and much money was drawn from his subjects to minister to his personal pleasures. The consort of Edward was Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Wood- nlle, afterwards earl Rivers, and Jacquetta, widow of the duke of Bedford. At the time of her marriage with Edward she was a widow, her husband, John Gray, having been slain at the battle of St. Albans. As her husband was a Lancastrian, his estates were for- feited; Elizabeth begged of the kingf their restoration, and he, being won by her modest and delicate beauty, offered her his hand. This marriage was unpopular, on account of the rapid advancement of her friends to posts of honour and influence. The party in opposition slew her lather and brother, and charged her mether with witchcraft. EDWARD 17. 93 Whilst the king was a refugee in Holland, Elizabeth and her familj were forced to shelter in the sanctuary at Westminster. After the death of her husband she took sanctuary again, and being starved out, was reduced to the rank of a private person. On the accession of Henry Bhe rose to better fortune. Her death took place in 1492, at the convent of Bermondsey. The children of Edward were — Edward, who became king! Richard duke of York : Elizabeth, married to Henry VII., and other daughters. I. Civil war continued. No sooner was Edward king than he found it necessary to march to the north, where the Lancastrians mustered in great force. The armies met at Towton (1461), and so sanguinary was the contest, that nearly 40,000 were left on the field. Henry and his consort escaped to Scotland ; subsequently the latter obtained assistance, and marching into England met with defeat at Hex- ham (1464). Henry went into hiding in Lancashire, there he was betrayed and sent to the Tower ; Margaret and her son with- drew to Flanders ; of the prisoners, many were executed and their estates confiscated to the king. It was now that Edward made public his marriage with Elizabeth Woodville. II. Deposition and restoration of Edward. As the relatives of the queen rose to rank and influence, the earl of Warwick became offended, and, it is said, fomented the insurrection of the people of the north. The insurgents de- feated the royal forces at Edgecote, near Banbury (1469), on which occasion the queen's father and brother were put to death. In the following year, Warwick and Clarence his son-in-law were denounced as traitors, and, escaping to France, entered into an arrangement with Margaret, by the treaty of Amboise, to the effect that Warwick's daughter should marry prince Edward, and that the earl should undertake to restore Henry VI. On War- wick's landing in England, so many joined his standard that Edward embarked at Lynn for Flanders, leaving his dominions in the hands of the king-maker. Henry was now brought from the Tower, but the government rested in Warwick as Protector Within six months, Edward with a small force landed at Ra- venspur, and was immediately joined by numerous partisans. London readily received him, so Edward was again king, and Henry replaced in the Tower. Warwick marching on the capital was met and defeated at Barnet (1471) ; in this battle the king- maker lost his life. On the same day, Margaret landed at Wey- mouth, and set out for Wales, where she expected to be joined by a numerous force. Edward overtook her at Tewkesbury, in the battle which ensued her force was completely defeated, her ton 94 OUTLINES OF ENGLiSH falSTORY. and many others put to death, and herself made a prisoner. On the king's return to the capital the dead body of the unfortu- nate Henry was publicly exhibited, and a report circulated that he had been found dead. After the battle of Tewkesbury, the reign is barren of im- portant events. Edward, who could not forget the treachery of his brother, the duke of Clarence, obtained his conviction for high treason : in a few days he was found dead in the Tower and report said he had been drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine Miscellaneous Facts. This reign is distinguished for the intro- duction of the art of printing into England by William Caxton, a native of Kent, but who as a merchant had resided several years in the Low Countries, where he acquired and practised the new art. Returning to England in 1474, he set up a press in the Almonry at Westminster, from which he sent forth more than sixty works. The following singular piece of legislation is not the only one of its kind — no man or woman under the estate of a lord to wear cloth of gold, or cloth wrought with gold, or furs of sables; no person under the estate of a knight to wear velvet, or silk like to velvet or satin, or furs of ermine ; no yeoman to wear stuffing in his doublet, but only the lining; and no one under the estate of a lord to wear gown, jacket, or cloak, which did not reach to his thighs, or shoes with pikes above two inches in length. The purpose of this law was to prevent the impoverishing of the realm by sending money into strange countries in exchange for articles of luxury. Ckkokicle. 1461, Incorporation of the company of barber sur- geons. 1473, Royal chapel built at Windsor. 1474, Printing intro- duced into England by William Caxton. EDWARD V., 1483; and RICHARD III., 1483-1485. Royal Family. Edward V. (1470—1483), the son of Edward IV.' was born in the Sanctuary, Westminster, during the exile of his father. He came to the throne at the death of Edward IV., and, after being a nominal sovereign for less than three months, was with his brother Richard, duke of York, disposed of, but whether murdered b y Richard III. has never been determined. In 1674, whilst digging in the Tower, a chest was found containing the bones of two youths, ap parently about the age of the princes ; it was taken for granted that thfci y were the remains of Edward and his brother, and therefore received interment in Westminster Abbey. Richard III. (1450 — 1485), son of Richard, duke of York, was by his brother Edward IV. created duke of Gloucester, and placed in many important offices. To him is attributed the murder of Henry VI., and it is certain that he took a leading part in the destruction of his brother, the duke of Clarence. After the death of Edward IV. he ordered the execution of lord Hastings and others, and is moreover charged with procuring the death of his two nephews. Y'et he was not unpopular, and many good laws were passed in his short reign. The consort of Richard was Anne, daughter of Warwick the king- maker. In ber 17th year she married Edward, son of Henry VI., and KDWARD IV. AND R1C1IARD Hi. U6 Was Tnth him when he was murdered at Tewkesbury. Anne was then put out of the way under the direction of the duke of Clarence, who sought to koep her out of the hands of his brother of Gloucester. After some time she was discovered acting as a menial servant in London, and forced to marry Richard. Under the constant apprehension tha* her husband would remove her, to enable him to wed Elizabeth of York, her health gave way, and she died a few months before the king fell at Bosworth. I. Deposition of Edward. On the death of Edward IV. the party in opposition to the Woodville family secured the appointment of Gloucester as Pro- tector of England. The young king was seized while on his way from Ludlow, his place of residence, and his principal supporters sent to Pontef ract and executed. Meanwhile the queen and her other children had taken shelter in the Sanctuary. Lord Hast- ings, suspecting, as is supposed, the designs of Richard, was seized while at the council in the Tower, and beheaded. From this time the duke's designs became apparent. He obtained pos- session of the person of the young duke of York, and he directed a Dr. Shaw, in a sermon preached at St. Paul's Cross, to throw doubt on the legitimacy of his brother's children. Two days subsequently, he with a feigned reluctance consented to take the crown, a petition from several nobles and gentlemen having re. quested him to do so. II. The troubled reign of Richard III. In a few months after Richard's accession, plots began to form against him, the first headed by the duke of Buckingham, one of his former supporters. The object proposed was to place Henry, earl of Richmond, on the throne, on the condition of his marry- ing Elizabeth of York ; this arrangement, 3t was thought, would effectually end the rivalry of the two houses, and secure the quiet of the kingdom. But Buckingham was first delayed l»y the flood- ing of the Severn, and then betrayed by some of his dependants; his life was forfeited, and his followers compelled to go into hid- ing, or escape to Brittany. The earl of Richmond attempted a landing in Dorset (1483), but the state of the weather made it prudent to retire to Norm an dy. In 1485 the queen died and Richard made proposals to unite himself to Elizabeth of York, this made Richmond hasten his preparations for another expedi- tion. Sailing from Harfleur (Aug. 1), he reached Milf ord H aven (Aug. 7) ; in his march through Wales he gathered but few ac cessions, so that when he read ed Shrewsbury his force numbered only 4,000 men. Meantime tne king had collected a numerous pjrmy at Leicester, but a part of it was tainted ; indeed, it would y»5 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORT. have been madness in Henry to think of giving battle, had ht not been assured of treason in the king's camp. At Bosworth the Stanleys fought on Henry's side, and Northumberland held his troops neutral. Eichard fell, and his crown was placed on the head of Richmond, with shouts of " Long live king Henry!" The dead body of Richard was conveyed to Leicester, and in- terred in the Greyfriars monastery. Miscellaneous Facts. " Brief and troubled as was the period of Richard's rule, several matters justly considered as of great importance at the present day date from it. The statutes of his parliament are the first that were drawn up in the English language, as they were also the first that were printed ; the office of consul, so necessary to the interests of merchants and travellers abroad, was established by him ; and that great engine of modern convenience, the post office, is based on a system of couriers established by him for the rapid transmission of intelligence, during his campaigns in Scotland in 1481-2." Chronicle. 1483. The population of England stated at 4,600,000. Statutes first printed. Post horses and stages first established. 1484, The sweating sickness appears first in England. Social life in the Lancastrian and Yorkist Period. 1. Food. Among the better classes, the two meals introduced at the Conquest had now increased to four ; breakfast at seven, dinner at ten, supper at four, and livery (a meal taken in bed) between eight and nine. The meals were of a substantial character ; thus an earl and his countess had for breakfast during Lent — a loaf, two manchetts (rolls of be3t flour), two quarts of beer and wine, two pieces of salt fish, six dried herrings, and four white herrings, or a dish of sprats; when not fish days, boiled mutton or beef took its place. For the livery there were served — two manchetts, a loaf of bread, gallon of beer, and a quart of wine, the latter warmed and spiced. These two meals were private, the public meal was the dinner. Then the hall tables were covered to pro- fusion with flesh, fish, and fowl. At the head of the table sat the lord on a raised dais, his friends and retainers sat above or below the salt, according to rank. The food was still eaten with the fingers, and the drink handed round in wooden or pewter vessels. This meal usually lasted three hours, the pauses being filled up with harpers, tumblers, and jugglers. Feastings were of extraordinary magnitude; thus when George Neville, brother of Warwick, the king-maker, was inducted intc his office as archbishop of York, his feast contained of solids, 104 oxen. 6 wild bulls, 1,000 sheep, 304 calves, and as many swine, 2,000 pigs, 600 stags, and 204 kids ; of fowls and birds, wild and tame, there were 22,512. Besides there were mountains of fish, pasties, tarts, Ac; the bread and pastry consumed 300 quarters of wheat. In the shape of drinks were used 300 tuns of ale and 100 tuns of wine. 2. Dress. The changes in male costume during the 15th century were not many. Edward IV. introduced the short jacket, and in the same reign commenced the practice of slitting the doublet, to show the fine linen «hirt ^ene*th ; this led to the slashing and puffing in LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST PERIOD. 97 the next century. This period saw also a kind of cap for gentlemen, with a yard-long tippet pendent from the side; as also clogs with high heels and long peaks. Edward IV. renewed the sumptuary law, fixing the cost of clothing an agricultural servant at 3s. 4d., and so upwards for all the other classes. Females now wore their hair in large blocks on each cheek. There came in also the horned head-dress, formed by two curved wires passing above the head; over these horns was thrown a light veiL When this passed away, steeple caps were worn as high as chimney-pots. Trains were now wholly discarded, and the narrow skirts trimmed with fur. 3. Dwellings. The old castles were still kept up, but no new ones built. Castellated mansions date from the middle of the 15th century^ in which the details of domestic architecture blend with towers and turrets. The use of bricks was now reintroduced. In some cases the town houses of the nobility were built of stone, but the greater number of wood framing merely, filled in with plaster. Their immense extent may be gathered from the fact that the earl of Warwick could lodge 600 men in his house in Warwick-lane. The yeomen and peasants still dwelt in rude structures of wattles and clay, without chimneys, and rarely with a window. Everything in the shape of furniture was poor and rude. Beds were rare, tables and seats clumsy, glass windows very scarce, and the fittings of doors and windows quite open, by which a plentiful supply of air was admitted. In the 14th century, hangings had been partly superseded by the practice of painting the walls with historical and Scripture subjects ; in the 15th, a return was made to the more comfortable mode of tapestry, which being mostly made at Arras, was so cailed. 4. Amusements. The sports of the gentry continued as in the preceding period, with an exception or two. Tournaments declined, as there was more than a reasonable amount of real fighting to be done ; and running, wrestling, and throwing spears, were thought better fitted for the poorer classes than for their superiors. The outdoor amusements of the poor were little altered, except that there was more of quarter-staff and archery, the former was more than five feet in length, and came to be skilfully used by the English. Edward IV. enforced archery, ordering that every Englishman should have a long- bow of his own height, that in every township butts should be set up, and that every one should practise on feast days, on penalty of a halfpenny. Within doors, the principal amusements were religious and secular plays. The secular plays were mostly extemporized by itinerant buffoons, who performed in courtyards, or the kitchens of hostelries. The religion plays were either miracles or mysteries. The latter came to be the most common, and consisted of either a portion of sacred history, or the entire from the creation to the judgment. At first theas sacred dramas were performed in churches, by the priests, and theiy assistants, clothed in their proper vestments. An exhibition of ihis kind which took place in London (1409) included the greater part of the sacred history, and was eight days in acting; most of the nobility and gentry of the realm attended. The manner in which the represen- tations were performed must have been injurious to public morals, The stage consisted of three platforms of different heights. On thi OO OUTLINES OF ENGLISH EISTOAY. highest sat & representation of the 8uoreme Being, surrounded by angels; on :he second, saints and glorified men; on the third, the actors. On one side of the lowest platform was a pit lepresenting th-a mouth of hell whence issued shrieks, fire, and smoke. This yielded the favourite part of the amusement, for out of it came forth troops of merry devils, who kept the audience in a roar of laughter by their buffoonery, and the treatment they gave such as fell into their hands. Later, th6 profanity was lessened by the removal of the two higher stages, and moralities were substituted for mysteries. These, r.fter the Reformation, gave way to the regular drama. HOUSE OF TUDOR. Henry VII., 1485—1509. Edward VI., 1547—1553. Henry VILL, 1509—1547. Mary, 1553— 15o3. Elizabeth, 1558—1603, HENRY VIL 1485-1509, Royal Family. Henry, son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, duke of Somerset, was born in Pembroke Castle (1456) ; his father dying the same year, he was committed to the care of his uncle Jasper, earl of Pembroke. After the battle of Tewkesbury (1471), he was removed from this country to Brittany, where he was joined by the friends of his house. Henry pos- sessed both ability and courage, and his reign was one of advantage to England, but he foolishly provoked insurrections by his hatred of the house of York, and wronged his subjects by extortions to satisfy hia avarice. He died of consumption at Richmond, and was interred in the beautiful chapel at Westminster which bears his name. The consort of Henry, Elizabeth of York, the daughter of Edward IV., was born at Westminster in 1466. Her early life was not without frial, for on the death of her father, she, her mother, and relatives Deing forced to take shelter in a sanctuary, were starved into a surrender. After refusing the hand of Richard 111., she was held as a kind of prisoner at Sneriff Hutton, from which place Henry ordered her removal. In January 1486 she became the wife of the king, and was crowned after the battle of Stoke. Henry appears to have proved himself a tolerably kind husband, notwithstanding what has been said to the contrary. After many years of sickness and self-denial, Elizabeth died (1503) in the Tower, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The children of Henry were — Arthur, prince of Waleij, married Catherine of Arragon, and died 1502: Henry, who became king: Margaret, married (I) James IV. of Scotland, (2) Doc^-las, earl of Angus, (3) Stuart, lord Methven: and Mary, married [\) Louis XII. of if ranee, (2) Charles Brandon, duke of Sullolk. I. Henry's title to the crown, Through his mother Margaret, Uenry was descended from HEKRY YIL 99 John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III. ; this descent constituted his chief claim to the crown of England, but there was a fatal objection to it, for it was an illegitimate stock. His second claim was that of conquest, but all parties objected to its being put forward. A third claim there was, growing out of his proposed marriage with Elizabeth, the heiress of the house of York, and much as Henry disliked it, it formed after all the only one of real value. For in consideration of this union of the representatives of the houses of York and Lancaster, the parliament agreed that the crown of England should rest and abide in the king and his lawful heirs. II. Lambert Simnel's insurrection. 1487. Had Henry acted wisely he would have sought to heal the deadly rivalry that existed between the two factions ; instead of doing so, he exasperated the Yorkists by his marked aversion to that party. The consequence was, lord Lovell and others headed an insurrection against him (1486) ; it was soon put down, but a more formidable insurrection appeared in the next year. Lambert Simnel, a youth under the tutelage of Simons, a priest, landed in Ireland, where he represented himself as the earl of Warwick (son of the duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV.). As the Irish were friendly to the Yorkists, the impostor was favourably received, and through the influence of the lord deputy crowned at Dublin as Edward VI. Henry, on receiving the news, brought out the real earl from his prison, and ordered him to be led through the streets of London. But this did not stay the movement, the earl of Lincoln, nephew of Edward IV., lord Lovell, and 2,000 soldiers, supplied by the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., joined the insur- gents. Leaving Ireland, the forces landed at Furness, and moved in the direction of Newark. Henry gave them battle at Stoke, in which about half the insurgents were slain, together with most of the leaders. Simnel being made a prisoner, was placed in the king's kitchen ; the princip.il persons implicated in the insurrection were punished by heavy fines* III. War with France. 1492. Brittany, the last of the great independent fiefs of France, had been for years in a state of anarchy, and having given offence to France was attacked ; thereupon the old duke, the same that had afforded an asylum to Henry, besought aid from England. The English king sent over a force, though without any intention of acting against France. At this juncture the old duke died, leav- jag Anne his daughter heiress to the duchy. In 1490 she con- IW OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. eented to espouse Maximilian, king of the Romans ; upon this Charles VIII. of France entered Brittany with an army, and having shut up the princess in the city of Rennes, informed net that she must either be his wife or his prisoner. Anne chose the former. Henry was displeased to find he had been outwitted, and first levying a benevolence on his subjects, he carried over a force of 26,000 men, and sat down before Boulogne. But this was all a sham, for in a few days a treaty was concluded between the kings of France and England at Estaples, by which Henry agreed to withdraw his forces, on the promise of a payment of £149,000. Thus the king made profit upon his subjects for the war, and upon his enemies for the peace. IV. Perkin Warbeck's insurrection. During the dispute between Henry and Charles, a youth whos6 real name is said to have been Perkin Warbeck, the son of a Fleming, but who called himself Richard, duke of York (brother of Edward V.), landed at Cork, whjre he was favourably received. Before he had been long in Ireland, Charles of France invited him to his court, and treated him as if he were a real duke : his object was to compel Henry to conclude the treaty of Estaples ; when that was done, Perkin was sent off as being of no further use. Margaret of Burgundy afforded him an asylum, and professing to believe that he was her nephew, called him " the White Rose of England." As some of the English gave credence to his story, Henry became alarmed, and sent over Sir Robert Clifford to make inquiries. In consequence of his report, several persons were executed for favouring the impostor, and among others Sir William Stanle}', who had saved Henry's life at Bosworth. To procure the dismissal of the pretender from Flanders, Henry suspended the commerce between the two countries. Warbeck now with a band of followers landed at Deal (1495), but was beaten off with the loss of nearly 200 men ; he then went to Ireland, and besieged Waterford with as little success. Returning to Flanders, he was compelled to leave that country in 1496, and after failing to interest the people of Cork in his favour, set sail for Scotland. James IV. received him with favour, and gave him lady Catherine Gordon, his kinswoman. in marriage ; with the assistance of the Scots he entered England and ravaged the country without mercy. This inroad gave Henry an excuse for demanding a tabsidy which the Cornish men refused to pay, on the ground that the people of the north were bound to defend the country against the Scots. Some 16,000 of the insurgents ;set out to petition the king, and being joined by lord Audley, uade their way in hostiie HENRY VII 101 array to Blackheath. Being defeated at Deptford (1497), the ringleaders were executed, and the common people that survived sent home. Meanwhile the Scots had made a second inroad, which was followed by a truce between the two countries. Warbeck, being now obliged to quit Scotland, repaired first to Ireland, and thence, by invitation, sailed to Whitsand Bay, near Penzance. With 3,000 that joined his banner, he laid siege to Exeter ; despairing of success, he deserted his followers to take sanctuary at Beaulieu. On promise of pardon the pretender surrendered, but subsequently attempting to escape from his keepers, he was committed to prison. In 1499 both Warbeck and the unfortunate earl of Warwick were executed on the charge of attempting to seize the Tower. Miscellaneous Facts. The whole of this reign was characterized by extortion, whereby Henry gratified his avarice and his hatred of the house of York. Two lawyers, Empson and Dudley, found full employ- ment in fleecing the people of England ; at the death of Henry there was money in his coffers to the amount of nearly two millions. The payment of the fines levied was enforced by an institution reconstructed in this reign, called the Star Chamber. This court took cognizance of offences by maintenance, liveries, and retainers ; untrue returns of sheriffs; taking money by juries; and great riots and unlawful assemblies. Considering the condition of the country on the accession of Henry, this court wan useful in some points, though it soon grew to be tyrannical ; it had not the power of life and death, but could tine men to their ruin. As it was the policy of Henry to reduce the overgrown power of the nobles, he strictly enforced the old "statutes of livery," which made it unlawful to keep any liveried retainers, except those who were employed in the household. Before this reign some of the peers had kept thousands of men in their pay, to be in readiness to fight out their quarrels. But Henry would no longer allow this, he even fined his friend the earl of Oxford 15,000 marks for breaking this law. The power of the nobles was further reduced by the action of the " statute of fines," which made a surer way for the alienation of their estates ; much land now passed into the hands of wealthy commoners. Both these changes led to the increase of the class of free labourers, and thus helped in the decline of villenage, which from this time went rapidly to decay. Society was improved by restricting the " benefit of clergy; " from this time persons not in orders, who were admitted to the privilege, Jpere branded on the thumb, so as to prevent their escaping justice a second time. It was in this reign that maritime discovery proved so eminently suc- cessful. In 1492, Christopher Columbus, a Genoese, in the service of Spain, discovered the West Indies ; in 1498 he discovered the main land of America. Meanwhile Vasco de Grama had doubled the Cape of Good Hope (1497), and opened up a new route to India, which brought the lucrative trade of the East within reach of the nations of Western Europe. Henry was not altogether unmindful of commerce, for he incorporated an old company, wader the ntune of Af srchant Adventurers. 102 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTOBF He also patronized Sebastian Cabot, a merchant of Bristol, who made a voyage of discovery, and fell in with Newfoundland, and in 1497 coasted down the sea-board of North America. Chronicle. 1486, Henry institutes a body-guard of fifty men. known as Yeomen of the Guard. 1489, Maps and sea-charts brough. to England by the brother of Columbus. 1505, The right of Sanctuary timited, so Uiat persons could not benefit by it a second time. HENRY VIII. 1509-1547. Royal Family. Henry, son of Henry VII., was born at Green- wich, 1491. In his first year he was created duke of York. He received a learned education, his father, so it is said, designing him tor the archbishopric of Canterbury. The death of his brother in 1502 made him prince of Wales. Raised to the throne in his nineteenth year, he became at once popular, partly for his handsome person and jovial manners, and partly from the joy of the people at being released from trhe oppressive rule of his father. During his reign he distinguished himself by much interference in continental affairs, and at home by the harshness of his government. On religious grounds he executed both those who favoured and those who opposed the Reformation; and such was the rigour of his general government that 72,000 persons were exe* cuted during his reign. His private character was of the worst kind. " Yet with all his vices, he was the instrument of good to posterity, . . . for his hand overthrew the power which had long denied to England a Bible and Service-book in the common tongue, and had endeavoured to render the word of God of none effect by its traditions." Henry died at Westminster of a complication of painful diseases, and was interred at Windsor. The consorts of Henry were — (1) Catherine of Arragon (1485 — 1536), daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. She married first prince Arthur, who died fi>e months after; the young widow then removed to Croydon. Within six weeks from the accession of Henry he married his brother's widow, though some of the council thought it improper. For many years they lived happily together, but as her personal charms wore away, Henry professed to entertain scruples about the legality of their union. After a process which lasted six years, she was divorced and her title changed to that of princess dowager of Wales. Three years later she died at Kimbolton, and was buried in Peterborough Abbey. Catherine was characterized by firmness, sweetness of temper, and deep piety. (2) A.nne Boleyn (1501 — 1536), daughter of Sir Thomas Boieyn, and niece of the duke of Norfolk. When about thirteen she became maid of h( nour to Mary Tudor, who married Louis XII. ; after the return of Mary to England, Anne remained behind, and acquired in the French court a levity of manner, which at first gave pleasure to Henry, but in th^ end proved her ruin. At the end of five years' courtship the king married her (1533), before the divorce of Catherine had been pro- nounced. WheR Henry's affections fell on Jane Seymour he opened his ear to the accusations of slander; the queen was sent off to the Tower, and beheaded on a false charge of unfaithfulness. Anne was favourable to the Reformation, and aided the circulation of the Scriptures, but she was also ambitious, and unfeeling in some respects to the unfor- tunate Catherine. HENRY VIII. lOH (3) Jane Seymour, the daughter of Sir John Seymour. Of her youth and education we know little, except that she resided a time in France. Becoming maid of honour to Anne Boleyn, she secured the affections of the king, whom she married the morning after the ex ecu* tion of her mistress. Her coronation was delayed because of the pesti« lence, and never took place. She died in 1537, thirteen days after th« birth of her son (Edward VI.), and was buried at Windsor, having been married but eighteen months. The character of Jane is thought to have been affected by her French training, for she supplanted her predecespp* without any appearance of feeling. (4) Anne of Cleves, the daughter of John, duke of Cleves. His eldest sister had married the elector of Saxony, the champion of the Reformation, and Anne was recommended to Henry by Cromwell, with the hope that the union would strengthen the Protestant interest* Landing at Deal, she went on to Rochester, where she m« t Henry ; he at once disliked her, and to add to their embarrassment Anne spoke no English, and Henry no Dutch. The king nevertheless put " his neck into the yoke " (1540) ; in six months he obtained from the parliament a dissolution of the marriage. She was allowed a pension, and lived friendly with the court till her death at Chelsea (1557). Anne was generally beloved, and is spoken of as patient, charitable, and religious. (5) Catherine Howard, the daughter of lord Howard, and niece of the duke of Norfolk. Her mother dying young, Catherine was com- mitted to the care of the duchess of Norfolk, who allowed her to asso- ciate with the servants ; and though it became known that an impropei intimacy existed, her relative took no effective measures to stop it, Gardiner brought her into contact with Henry, who, much pleased with the little lady, appointed her maid of honour to Anne of Cleves. "Wifciin a few days of the divorce of her mistress, Henry married her (1540). Reports of her early indiscretions were soon in circulation, and though for a time the king refused to notice them, he at length ordered all parties to be arrested. In 1542 the parliament passed a bill of attainder against the queen and her confederates ; she confessed her guilt, and suffered with the others the extreme penalty. (6) Catherine Parr (1513— 1548), the daughter of Sir Thomas Parr. She was born in Kendal Castle, and instructed in the ancient and modern languages. Her first husband, lord Borough, left her a widow at fifteen. Five years after she married lord Latimer, who died in 1543. About this time she embraced the reformed religion, and her house became the resort of Cranmer, Latimer, and others. Sir Thomas Seymour now wooed her, but Henry demanded her hand, and she was forced to submit, Her position as the consort of the king was one of peril, for Henry had become a savage in temper, and Gardiner made an attempt to arrest her for heresy. When Henry died she gave her hand to Seymour, by whom she was barbarously treated. Her death took place at Sudeley Castle. The children of Henry were — Mary, by Catherine of Arragon; Elizabeth, by Anne Boleyn ; and Edward, by Jane Seymour. I. First war with France and Scotland. 1512—1514. Henry was drawn into this war by Ferdinand, his father-in law. Julius the pope had in 1508 formed the league of Cambraj 104 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. for the purpose of recovering some church lands from the Venetians ; having succeeded, he proposed to himself to clear Italy of the French. For this purpose a " holy league " was formed (1510), which included Maximilian, Ferdinand, and Henry. The English king was persuaded to demand of Louis the possessions which this country formerly held in Guienne, this being refused, war was declared. By the advice of Ferdinand, ac English army under the Marquis of Dorset landed in Guipuscoa (1512), where it was tc have been joined by a Spanish force, and an advance made into France. But the wily Ferdinand em- ployed the favorable opportunity to conquer Navarre, and Dorset after waiting six months found he had been duped, there- upon the expedition returned greatly diminished by disease. In the same year Sir Edward Howard ravaged the French coast, and fought a drawn battle off the coast of Bretagne. Howard fell the year after, in an attempt to destroy the French fleet, near Brest. In 1513, Henry with 25,000 men crossed over and sat down before Terouenne. The French attempting to relieve it were shamefully defeated, for by reason of a panic, 10,000 French cavalry ran from a few hundred English and German horse; this affair at Guienegate is known as the " battle of the spurs." Terouenne now surrendered, as did also Tournay, of which place Henry appointed Wolsey bishop. While these events were transpiring, James of Scotland, listening to the envoys from France, marched a large army into England, and after some success was met by the earl of Surrey, at the head of the English. At Fiodden Field a terrible battle was fought, in which there fell of the Scots 10,000 men, together with king James and the chief of the Scottish nobility. For this victory Surrey was created duke of Norfolk, his son lord Howard sue ceeding to his father's title. In 1514, the French burnt Brighton and ravaged the coast of Sussex. Peace immediately followed, Louis agreeing that the English should keep Tournay ; that he would pay to Henry a million crowns ; and that he would marry Mary, the sister of Henry. Three months after the marriage Louis died, and his widow married Charles Brandon, duke of Suffolk. II. Cardinal Wolsey. From this time Wolsey became the prime mover in the affairs of this country. Born at Ipswich in 1471, of wealthy parents, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, by his talents he soon rose to offices of trust. After being employed by Henry VII., he was retained by the son, and, holding many high offices in the HENRY VIII. 1C5 church besides being chancellor, appeared for several years to dispose of the affairs of Europe almost at his pleasure. His talentf or intrigue soon found full employment. Francis, the new king of France, proposing to invade Italy, Leo the pope made Wolsey a cardinal to secure his interest ; and Francis by means of a bribe secured the same interest in favour of a new treaty. But his importance appeared more fully after the death of Maxi- milian in 1519, for the kings of France and Spain became competitors for the imperial crown, and when it was decided in favour of Charles, both parties in prospect of hostilities made their court to Wolsey. Meetings took place between Charles and Henry, and subsequently between Henry and Francis, the latter in 1520, near to Guisnes ; from the gorgeous display, the place of meeting was called "the Field of the Cloth of Gold." The great object, it is said, which the cardinal aimed at was the preservation of the balance of power between France and Austria ; but there is little doubt about his attention to his own interest in all this. III. Second war with France and Scotland. Charles the emperor desiring to regain Burgundy, had secured the interest of Wolsey by some promise of aiding him to obtain the papal tiara. And as Henry thought he had a claim on the crown of France, he was easily persuaded to join his nephew ; war was therefore declared (1522), and an army under Surrey sent over to ravage the north of France. In 1523 another army under Suffolk desolated the country up to the vicinity of Paris. The Scots incited by Francis made large preparations forcrossing the borders, but the regent Albany delayed, and Surrey entering Scotland devastated the marches and burnt Jedburgh ; Albany now withdrew to Fiance, and a truce was concluded (1523) which lasted eighteen years. In the same year pope Adrian died, and as Wolsey proved an unsuccessful candidate, nis zeal for the cause of the emperor began to cool. In 1525 Francis, defeated at Pavia, became a prisoner to Charles ; it was now proposed to invade France with a large force, but the English resisted tne attempt to levy a subsidy without consent of parliament. Nego- tiations were then opened with France and an alliance concluded f 1526), which gave offence to the emperor. IV. Henry divorces Catherine. It is not certain when Henry first entertained scruples with regard to his marriage with the widow of Arthur. So early as 1524 he is said to have separated from her, but it was not till three years after, that he applied to the pope ; a commission was thereupon granted to cardinals Wolsey and Campegius, who held iOQ OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. their court in London. But before anything could be concluded the cause was removed to Rome ; Henry laid theblame on Wolsey, and his ruin quickly followed. He was ordered to resign the great seal, and, being indicted for breach of the statute of prae- munire, was sentenced to lose his property and be imprisoned during the royal pleasure. In the next year, the cardinal was pardoned, and, for a time, discharged his duties as bishop of York ; but being arrested for high treason, died at Leicester (1530) on his way to London. It was in connection with this divorce case, that the celebrated Thomas Cranmer comes into notice. Cran- mer was born (1489) at Aslacton, in Nottingham, and educated at Jesus College, Cambridge. Happening to pass an evening with Gardiner, the king's secretary, at the time when the divorce was the topic of the day, he gave as his opinion, that the matter rested upon the true interpretation of Scripture, and was one to be decided by learned men, and not by the authority of the pope. Henry caught at the idea, and pleased with the originator of it, promoted him in 1533 to the see of Canterbury. In the same year the new primate held a court at Dunstable, and pronounced the marriage of Catherine null, because contrary to the will of God. jS V. The Reformation in England. 1534. Owing to the many abuses in connection with the papal church, there had grown up a general desire in Christendom for a refor- mation. After the failure of more formal attempts, it was com- menced in 1517 by Martin Luther, a German monk, who waa moved thereto by the scandalous way in which indulgences were publicly sold. Henry, in defence of the church, wrote a book on the Seven Sacraments (1521), in opposition to the views of Luther, for which pope Leo conferred on him the title of " Defender of the Faith." Nevertheless the king, because pope Clement would not grant a divorce, severed the connexion between this country and the papal see. In 1534 the parliament, acting with Henry, set aside the papal power in England, and forbade the pay- ment of firstfruits to Rome ; the payment of Peter-pence was abolished, appeals to Rome no longer allowed, and arrangements made which transferred the appointment of bishops from the pope to the king, now the head of the English church. To the majority the change was satisfactory, but some much disliked it ; among others were Fisher, bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, a man of high station and eminent abilities ; for denying the king's spiritual supremacy they were executed (15^5). The regular clergy were those who made the strongest opposition ; this decided the f ato of the monasteries. Thomas HENRY VIII. 107 Uromwell, a man of low origin but good abilities, wno had ^ >een WoJsey's solicitor, was appointed vicar-general, and at once com- menced a visitation of the religious houses. Many of them were reported corrupt, as undoubtedly they were, and their dissolution resolved upon. In 1535 — 6 all the smaller houses were closed, and three years after, the larger ones, an excuse being found f oi doing so in the insurrection of the northern counties, called the 4 Pilgrimage of Grace." The number of religious houses sup- pressed was about 1000, and their annual value £160,000, a sum equal to nearly a million and a half of modern money. The proceeds of this spoliation were thus distributed : — six new sees were created, Bristol, Gloucester, Peterborough, Chester, Oxford, and Westminster ; fifteen new chapters were founded : two coHeges, Trinity at Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford ; besides some grammar schools and hospitals. A portion went to pensioning the monks, and another part to the improvemen of Dover harbour, and the erection of castles at Deal, W aimer, Sandown, and Southsea. But the great bulk of the church pro- perty was granted to favourites, or gambled away by the king The immediate result of this large transfer of property was unfavourable, for numbers of persons were deprived of the means of subsistence and became vagrants : insurrections took place, and severe laws against vagrancy followed. ^^ In 1536 Cromwell ordered every parson to cause a Bible tc be set up in the choir, for the perusal of the people ; some restraint was subsequently put on this practice, for great num bers collected round the Bible-stand, and in the end a wordy warfare grew up which proved inconvenient. The Scriptures were also read in the public services of the church, and in both these ways a considerable amount of truth was circulated among the people. In this reign no less than four versions j j£ the Bible made their appearance — Qoverdale's in JL535, Matthew's in 1537, Cranmer's in 1559, and Tavemer's in the same year ; TjnjJaT ^Tesi im en t had appeared in 152& It was not till near the close of the reign that the Litany and a few prayers were published in the vulgar tongue. Henry's notions of a church reform extended little beyond a change in the headship of the church, and what appeared neces- sary to support that change ; hence the Reformation in this reign is sometimes said to have been poHtical rather than j?cclesiasticaL_ With respect to the doctrine of the church, Henry had his own views ; these were embodied in the "JSix. Articles" of 1539. which contained really the main points of the "Romish creed — such were tran substantiation, single communion, celibacy of the clergy, vows ofTcEastity, private masselCancl 108 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. auricular confession. The act which acquired assent to these doctrines was called, because of its severity, " The Bloody Statute," and "The Whip with Six Strings ;" so many refused compliance, that the Eomish party felt afraid to enforce the penalties, which in some cases was death. VI. Third war with Scotland and France. (Several causes conspired to make a breach between Henry and James V. of Scotland. The former had sought to persuade his nephew to imitate his example, and throw off the yoke of Rome : to this James would not consent. Further, he gave himself up to French influence and married two wives from France ; and in 1542 the Scots crossed the borders and made many gentle- men "prisoners. The duke of Norfolk entered Scotland and retaliated. James then sent an army of 10,000 m en into Eng- land, but his subjects proved refractory, as well from dislike of the king's measures as because of his placing a favourite in command of the army. A party of English horse appearing, the Scots fled with the loss of their artillery and 1,000 men ; this affair is known as the Rout of Solw ay. James was so vexed at this disaster that he shut himself up and shortly died (15421 leaving as his successor an infant daughter, Mary, only a week old. Henry opened negotiations, and a treaty was concluded by which Mary of Scots was to marry Prince Edward. But when cardinal Beaton came into power, the treaty was broken, and the next year (1544) Hertford captured and burnt Edinburgh and Leith, and devastated the surrounding country. The same leadeFpTundered the south of S cotland in the year following.. The war with France was partly on account of the encourage- ment given to the Scots, and partly to please the emperor Charles, who was again on good terms with Henry. The English king at the head of 30,000 men sat down before Bou- logne (1544), and in two months received its surrender. Nothing further was done, for Charles concluded a separate peace, and left his ally to back out of the war as he best could. Boulogne the English retained though with difficulty, for the French had become bold enough to insult Portsmouth, where they sunk the Mary Rose with 700 men. In 1546 a treaty was agreed to between Henry and Francis, by which Boulogne was to be restored in eight years, the French paying two million crowns ; a peace with the Scots was provided for in the same treaty. Miscellaneous Facts. The almost despotic power wielded by Henry forms a marked feature of this reign. Several circumstances tended to this result : — The Wars of the Koses had greatly reduced the peerage, and the new creations would necessarily b« for the court the dissolution of the monasteries deprived twenty abuuis cud twc EDWARD VI 10t) priors of their floats in the house of peers, that is, the peerage was lessened by about one- third, and these perhaps the most independent personages in the house : the Reformation made Henry the head of the English church : and the commons, no longer supported by the upper house, showed themselves, in nearly everything, obsequious to the king's will. So abject was the parliament, that it enacted that the king's proclamations should be obeyed as if they were law, and that the kingr might dispose of the crown according to his pleasure. In 1536, Wales was incorporated into England. At this time there were 141 independent lordships, from which the king's writs were excluded ; the lords professed to administer justice, but men escaped from one lordship to another, and purchased immunities. It was therefore enacted that the whole of Wales be incorporated with Eng- land ; that all the natives should have the same rights ; that the custom of gavel-kind should cease ; that justice should be administered only by the king's officers ; and that the different shires, with one borough in each, should return members to parliament. In this reign (1542) Ireland became a kingdom, and an attempt was made to conciliate the natives, and reduce the English colonists to rule. At the accession of Henry, his authority comprised only the principal seaports, and a half of the counties of Louth, Westmeath, Dublin, Xildare, and Wexford ; the remainder of the island was under the government of sixty chieftains of Irish, and thirty of English origin. The result was much the same as in Wales, the chieftains would not allow the king's courts* to be held in their districts, and crimes were mostly compounded for by the payment of a fine. Henry contrived to win over the leaders, who acknowledged his spiritual supremacy and accepted a peerage at his hands. Henry is usually considered as the founder of the Royal Navy. He was the last sovereign to hire foreign vessels in time of war; dock- yards were founded at Woolwich, Deptford, and Portsmouth ; a board of admiralty was instituted, and a Navy office, and the service placed for the first time on a distinct footing. The navy in 1546 comprised 68 vessels, of about 12,000 tons, and carrying 8,000 seamen. Chronicle. 1512, Benefit of clergy taken from murderers and felons. The Trinity House established for the encouragement of na- vigation. 1618, College of Physicians instituted at the instance of Dr. Linacre. 1521, Bows and arrows begin to be disused by the English. Muskets invented by the Spaniards. 1522, the first work of arithmetic printed in England ; written by Tonstal, bishop of Dur- ham. 1524, Hops introduced into England from the Netherlands. 1529, Six princes and fourteen imperial cities protest against Mie decree of the second Diet of Spires, which prohibited further changes in religion ; this originated the term Protestants. 1535, the whole of the Bible translated into English by Tyndal and Coverdale 1536, Parochial registers of births, deaths, and marriages established by Thomas Cromwell. 1539, Cranmer's Bible ordered to be kept and read in the churches. 1543, The exhibition of mysteries and morali- ties prohibited by law. 1545, Rate of interest fixed at ten per cent. EDWAEDVL 1547-1553. Royal Family. Edw&ffd, the spn of Henry VIII. and Jane Sej &our was born at Hac ( 3&taro Court in 1537, and educated by Dr 110 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HI8T0R7. Cooke and Mr. Cheke, under whose instructions he became learned beyond his years. Being but ten years of age at the death of his father, the government vested, according to the will of Henry, in mx- teen executors; one of this number, Edward Seymour, earl of Hert- ford, was elected president; he became also guardian of his nephew and lord protector of all his realms. Under the higher title of duke of Somerset, he governed the kingdom till overthrown by his rival the earl of Warwick. Two months after the execution of his unckj Edward fell ill with the small-pox, and when he recovered from that disease, others made their appearance; he gradually sunk and died ftt Greenwich. Much has been written both good and bad about thii youthful king, more indeed than was warranted, for he was not six- teen when he died, and hence bis character not fully developed. We therefore may not attribute to him the good work of the Reformation, nor on the other hand ought the execution of his uncles and others to be charged to him. The principal acts of his reign were due to his councillors, and not to himself. It is however in his favor, that he showed a reverence for sacred things, and ordered that provision should be made for the sick and destitute poor. I. War with Scotland. In 1543, Henry had concluded a treaty with the Scots, in which it was agreed that Edward should Marry Mary, the daughter of James V. Cardinal Beaton had set this arrangement aside, but as some of the Scotch reformers were favourable to the idea, a new treaty was concluded by which they engaged to do their best to forward the marriage. As soon as the treaty became known, the forces of Scotland were called out to repel the English. Somerset thereupon crossed the Tweed with 20,000 men, and defeating the Scots at Pinkie (1547), in which battle 10,000 of the enemy fell, he made himself master of Leith. In less than a week, to the surprise of every one, the Protector returned into England ; the intrigues of his brother, lord Seymour, is thought to account for this movement. The places which the English had taken fell, the next year, into the hands of the Scotch, or were abandoned, and the young queen Mary was sent to France, where she subsequently married the dauphin. In 1550 a peace was concluded with France and Scotland, the former having entered into the quarrel ; Boulogne was surrendered to the French, and the English gave up their claim to the marriage of Edward with Mary. II. Progress of the Reformation. Under Somerset and Cranmer the Reformation was carried on vigorously. The " Six Articles" were repealed; imagesremoved from churches; thecommunion directed to be administered in both Kinds ; a Prayer Book compiled, and an Act of Umformity(1549) passed toenforceitsuse; tha marriage of priests alio wed, chantries EDWARD VI. ill suppressed, and a book of homilies and the forty -two Articles published, setting forth the doctrines held by the English re- formers. Moreover, an English Bible and a copy of Erasmus's Commentary on the Gospels were commanded to be placed in every chnrch, and a second Prayer Book issued by authority (1552), being a revision of the first, with the assistance of Bucet and other foreign Protestants. The main body of the people are said to have been favourable to these changes, there was never- theless considerable opposition from Gardiner and other bishops, and some also from the common people, who found in the new state of things something unfavourable to their interests. Even of those who promoted the movement, some were actuated by impure motives, and caused much grief to Cranmer, on account of their eagerness for the property of the suppressed chantries ; it was with difficulty that a portion of it could be preserved to be appropriated to the founding of schools. It is to be regretted that the reformers descended to persecution ; they may, however, be excused in part, for more than another century passed away before the subject of religious toleration was understood. Still only two persons were burnt in this reign, Joan Bocher, of Kent, for holding peculiar opinions on the incarnation of Christ ; and George Van Parre, a Dutch surgeon, for denying our Lord's divinity. III. Popular insurrections. Several causes conspired to produce a movement among the poorer classes. The rapid decline of feudal ism had thrown more free labour into the market than couldfindimmediate employment, and this at a time when the demand was less than usual, and food at a high price. The demand for labour was less, for the new proprietors converted much of the land into pasture, which was found to be more profitable, on account of the increasing demand for wool, and so rapacious were they that they illegally enclosed a part of the common lands. And to increase the general distress, the persons formerly employed or supported by the religious houses were for the most part houseless, and, as there was no poor-law, obliged to depend upon alms. The country therefore swarmed with vagrants. To put a stop to vagrancy, laws of the utmost severity were passed, by which persons begging without a licence were adjudged to be whipped, branded, lose one of their ears, be made slaves for life, or hanged, the penalty depending apon the number of convictions. But no law could appease their hunger, and the houseless monks, of whom there were great num- bers, easily persuaded them that their sufferings resulted from the religious changes. In 1549 risings took place in many counties, 112 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISIORV the most formidable in Cornwall, Devon, and Norfolk. In the former counties, a demand was made for the restoration of the ancient liturgy ; Exeter was besieged by the insurgents, but lord Russell put them to flight and executed their ringleaders. The rising in Norfolk was of a more serious character. Here 20,000 men, headed by Ket, a wealthy tanner, demanded the destruction of enclosures and the removal of evil counsellors. An army sent against them met with defeat, but a second under the earl of Warwick dispersed the insurgents with great slaughter ; Ket and other leaders were executed. Out of these insurrections grew the appointment of lord-lieutenants of counties, with authority to levy men, and lead them against the enemies of the king. IV. Fall of the Protector Somerset. Fronrthe commencement of the reign Somerset had many enemies ; some disliked him because of his ambition, others be- cause of Jhis zeal for the Reformation ; at a later period his J rapacity gave general offence. His brother, lord Seymour, a man o? ambitious and violent temper, was the first to cabal against him ; on a charge of treasonable designs, Seymour was attainted and executed (1549). In the same year Warwick headed a party against the Protector, who had given additional offence by H appearing to sanction ihe demand of the common people against enclosures, i He had moreover taken to himself more than 200 manors, and had demolished several religious edifices to obtain a site and materials for his new palace in the Strand. His enemies charged him with conspiring against their lives ; on making his submission and givinghis daughter in marriage to Warwick's son, he was readmitted to the council. But it served him not, for in 1551 he was seized and committed, on the charge of designing to seize the Tower and great seal, and to deprive Warwick and other councillors of their liberty ; being found guilty of the latter he was beheaded. Warwick, now duke of Northumberland, from this time had supreme control in the kingdom, and though a Catholic at heart, found it necessary to fall in with the Reformation. As soon as the health of Edward began to give way he commenced his in- trigues to alter the succession, which he was able to accomplish by working on the young king's fears with respect to the new religion. Mary and Elizabeth were therefore set asid*), and the succession settled on Lady Jane Grey (a descendant of Mary, the younger sister of Henry VIII.), who had married Warwick's son, Dudley. Much opposition was made to this change, but Edward commanded it and it was done. Within about a fortnight the young king died. tfA£?. 113 Miscellaneous Facts. In 1553 an expedition of three ihips sailed from England, under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby, to discover a norh-east passage to India. Off the North Cape the fleet was scattered by a storm. Captain Challoner with one ship found his way into the White Sea, and wintered at Archangel ; this led in the next reign to the opening of commercial relations with Russia. The other two ships were blown upon the coast of Nova Zembla, where the crews all perished. Cheonicle. 1547, Vagabonds ordered to be branded, and for ab- sconding to be reduced to perpetual slavery. 1552, Crowns and half- crowns first coined. Christ's Hospital founded. 1553, Bridewell given to the citizens of London for the correction of the idle and destitute, St. Thomas's Hospital re-founded. MARY. 1553-1558. Royal Family. Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII. and Cathe- rine of Arragon, was born at Greenwich, 1516. At the age of six ye^rs she was affianced to Charles V., but it came to nothing on account of the divorce of her mother; her father tried to dispose of her to other princes, though to no purpose. Her mother's disgrace tended to sour her mind, for she was not only declared to be illegiti- mate, but forced to acknowledge that the marriage was unlawful. During the reign of her brother she endured much persecution, be- cause of her attachment to the old faith : her servants and chaplains were imprisoned, and it was proposed to deal sharply with Mary her- self. The attempt to deprive her of the throne tended still further to influence her against the reforming party ; it is not therefore a matter of surprise that she listened to her advisers, and dealt severely with her enemies. In 1554 she gave her hand to Philip of Spain; the marriage provoked an insurrection, and resulted in much misery to Mary herself, for though she doted on her husband, he treated her with neglect, and then left the kingdom. Her constitution, never strong, declined after her accession, and the unfortunate character of her reign increased her melancholy; she died at St. James's and was in- terred in Westminster Abbey. The foul blot on Mary's character was the sanction she gave to the barbarous persecution of the Pro- testants ; it is only fair, however, to add that this mode of dealing with persons holding opposite religious opinions was common at that period. Of her personal piety few have doubted, and ofiier charities there are many records. Lady Jane Grey, the daughter of Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset, and Frances, daughter of Mary, sister of Henry VIII., was born in 1537, and became early distinguished for her proficiency in several languages and various branches of philosophy. For political reasons she was married to lord Guildford Dudley, fourth son of Northum- berland. Having been forced to assume the crown, she was, on the accession of Mary, adjudged guilty of high treason, but not executed till 1554, after Wyatt's insurrection had seemed to make it necessary. Her deep piety and calm submission to her fate have won the admi- ration of posterity. 114 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTOBY. I. The usurpation of Lady Jane Grey. The death of Edward was kept secret for two days, with the nope of being able to obtain possession of Mary's person ; she. however, heard the news, and betook herself to the castle of Framlingham in Suffolk. Lady Jane was proclaimed queen, but so great was the unpopularity of her father-in-law, that even liia friends deserted him to join Mary ; and though he headed a foice against the rightful sovereign, his cause appeared so des- ecrate that he retreated to Cambridge and proclaimed the daugh- ter of Henry. There was now no further opposition, the " thirteen days of Lady Jane " (July 6 — 19) being ended by the proclamation of her rival. Northumberland and others were executed ; and Lady Jane, her husband, Cranmer, and several more, committed to the Tower on a charge of high treaaon. II. Restoration of Romanism. Mary, as soon as she entered London/liberated Gardiner," Bonner, and Tunstall, three catholic bishops who had been com- mitted in the previous reign ; to the mayor of London the queen said " she meant not to compel or strain men's consciences." I The laws respecting religion passed in the reign of Edward were annulled, and the form of divine service as in the last year of Henry VIII. re-established. "All the married clergy were expelled or separated from their wives., and*>the protestant bishops de- prived of their sees. Many of the reformers fled to the conti- nent, where a part of them imbibed the views of Calvin, and on their return laid the foundation of the Puritan party. In 1554 cardinal Pole arrived in England, and on the parliament's ex- pressing sorrow for the nation's defection from the church of Rome, granted absolution to both houses, and took off all spiritual censures from the realm. The queen now surrendered to the cardinal the church lands in possession of the crown, as she did also tenths and first-fruits. It should be mentioned, that to prevent opposition to these changes by the principal persons in the kingdom, Gardiner had procured a papal bull confirming to the present possessors all the church property which had been transferred in the two preceding reigns. III. Wyatt's insurrection. 1554. When it was known that Mary had resolved to marry Philip of Spain, the nation generally became apprehensive of evil, for Philip was a bigoted catholic, and the kingdom of England, it was thought, might become a province of Spain A party there- fore allied themselves to prevent it, af to* head of which were MARY, 115 the duke of Suffolk, Sir Thomas Wyatt, and Sir Peter Carew The affair being badly arranged, proved a failure. Wyatt only had a measure of success, for he managed to get into London, but there he found himself entrapped, and compelled to surrender. This insurrection formed an excuse for the immediate execution of Jl.ady Jane and her husband ; there suffered also her_father thcTduke of Suffolk, Grey her uncle, Wyatt, and about fifty of the prisoners. JEH^ahiath, the queen's sister, being thoughTto be concerned in this rebellious project, was sent to the Tower ; after remaining there two months she was removed to Wood- stock as her place of confinement. IV. The Marian persecution. It is uncertain with whom this terrible persecution originated. By some it is attributed to the queen, by others to Gardiner ; at the time, Philip was looked upon as the chief instigator, and Gardinerand Bonner merely as his tools. The persecution began in January, 1555, by calling before the court in which Gardiner presided, Hooper the deprived bishop of Gloucester, Rogers a prebendary of St. Paul's, Saunders . rector of Allkallows, and Taylor rector of Had lei gh in Suffolk. Refusing to acknowledge the doctrine of transubstantiation or the supremacy of the pope, they were condemned as obstinate heretics. Rogers was burnt in Smithfield, Hooper suffered before his own cathedral, Saunders at Coventry, and Taylor at Hadleigh. After this commencement, the work was carried on principally by the bishop of London, who for his severity obtained the name of " bloody Bonner." At Oxford a court sat on Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer ; the two latter were condemned, and burnt near Balliol College. At the stake Latimer exclaimed, " Be of good courage, Master Ridley ; we shall this day, by GocTs grace, light in England such a candle as I trust shall never be put out." Cranmer was remanded, and working on the natural timidity of his character, his enemies forced from him a kind of recantation ; he was nevertheless ordered for execution, which took place at Oxford (March 21, 1556), but not before he had publicly confessed his fault ; when in the fire he gave the hand which had signed the paper to the flames first, exclaiming, " This hand hath offended." The perse, cution went on till the end of the reign, consuming in its firea nearly 300 persons ; besides these there were many who perished, in prison by torture or hard usage. , jS V. War with France. 1557—1558. ^ One of the articles la the marriage treaty between Mary and Philip provided that this nation should not go to war with France 116 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. in the cause of Spain. Philip eDdeavoured to persuade his queen to disregard this article, but could not succeed till Stafford and other refugees fitted out a force in France, and, laricfing in York- shire, seized Scarborough Castle. Six weeks after, war was de- clared, and 8,000 men sent over to join the Spanish army ; the allies beat the French in the battle of St. Quentin. In the winter the duke of Guise invested Calais, which being insufficiently garrisoned, surrendered to the French, after being in our posses- sion for more than two centuries. The discontent of the English was only equalled by the grief of the queen, who declared that after her death Calais would be found written on her heart. Miscellaneous Facts. At the commencement of this reign it was thought necessary for the parliament to declare the regal power to be vested in the queen as fully as in the kings her predecessors ; some doubt of this had been expressed, as Mary was the first queen regnani of England. About the year 1555 coaches are said to have first ap- peared in England ; ladies before this time rode in litters, or on horse* back behind their squires, as indeed they did for some time after. Chronicle. 1555, German Steel-yard Company revived, at the in« stance of the emperor. Russian Company incorporated. 1557, First commercial treaty with Russia. Great scarcity in England ; wheat up to 53s. a quarter, after the harvest it fell to 5s. ELIZABETH. 1558-1603- Royal Family. Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn, was born at Greenwich in 1533. In her third year she lost her mother and was declared illegitimate. Her education, how- iver, was not neglected ; the mornings were given to the Scriptures, then language and science, followed by music, the remainder of the day to needlework. After the death of her father she received some attentions from Sir Thomas Seymour, who continued his suit till ar- rested for treason. On the death of Edward she joined herself to her sister's party, and escorted her into London with a thousand horse. Within a month the sisters differed, Elizabeth refusing to attend mass, though she expressed a willingness to receive instruction. Wyatt's insurrection placed her in a critical position, for her name had been freely used ; when summoned to give an account of herself she pleaded illness, but officers were sent to fetch her. By the Spanish party capital punishment was proposed, but Gardiner interfered and she was com- mitted to the Tower. Thence she was removed to Woodstock and closely guarded by soldiers ; after a time she was permitted to reside at Hatfield. During this period of her life Elizabeth displayed much shrewdneee. but was not without some blame in the affair of Seymour, and in the movement of Wyatt. As a queen, Elizabeth attained high honours, the Reformation re* ceived its completion, and England became the head of the Protestant Hates. The country during her reign rapidly improved, and gave an darnest of its industrial and maritime greatness. A part of this im- provement may be attributed to the energetic character of the queen, hut more undoubtedly to tks wlsdora of her counsellors. Still her ELIZABETH. 117 reign was full of inquietude, to the queen on account of the numerous plots against her government and her life, and to tne people because of the arbitrary character of many of the proceedings of the govern- ment. Elizabeth was learned, but her tastes were coarse ; she was a maiden queen, but her court was dissolute; and though a monarch 9f a constitutional government, her sway was marked by much that was despotic. A much better woman than her enemies describe her, she nevertheless possessed fewer virtues than are attributed to her by ber friends. I. Difficulties at the accession. Though by greater part of the nation the accession of Eliza- beth was hailed with joy, there were many circumstances whieh rendered her position one of difficulty, and which in fact gave a tone to the entire reign. The Catholics generally looked upon her as illegitimate, and the crown as belonging of right to Mary of Scots ; the reigning pope refused to acknowledge her title, and Philip of Spain intimated that his friendship depended on her union with the Catholic church. Because of the countenance 6he gave to the new religion, the entire body of bishops agreed not to assist at the coronation ; at length Oglethorpe, bishop of Carlisle, was induced to separate himself from his brethren, and the queen was crowned at Westminster. The king of France too, decided against her claims, and induced Mary of Scots, his daughter-in-law, to assume the style and arms of queen of Eng- land. There was moreover a war existing with France and Scotland, and, what in those days was deemed most alarming, 2 debt of about four millions. As Elizabeth had enough to engage her attention at home, she wisely concluded treaties of peace with both countries ; by the treaty of Cambray (1559), Calais remained in the hands of the French ; by that with Scotland, the queen agreed to afford neither aid nor asylum to the Scot- tish rebels. II. Completion of the Reformation. Immediately on the accession of Elizabeth, Edward's Service- book came into use in several places. By proclamation the eleva- tion of the host was forbidden, and liberty granted for the use m English of the Lord's Prayer, Creed, Ten Commandments, and Litany. When the parliament met in 1559, the spiritual supre- macy of the crown was restored, and all foreign power repugnani thereto abolished ; and religious matters generally brought intc t,he condition they were in before the accession of Mary. First- fruits and tenths fell again to the crown, and Edward's second vService-book was confirmed with some alterations. The bishops refusing to take the oath of supremacy were deprived, with the exception of tw:> ; altogether only about 200 of the clergy. 118 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. including dignitaries, refused to conform. In this reign the article* were revised and reduced in number to thirty-nine; the catechism also was revised, and a second book of Homilies published. These changes were not made without some opposition, many of those who conformed did so insincerely; but besides these there were two great classes of dissenters — the Catholics and Puritans, from both of which there was resistance all the reign througn. For eleven years most of the Romanists continued their connection with the National Church, but after the failure of the northern rebellion, pope Pius excommunicated Elizabeth (1570) andforbade allegiance to her. From this time the Roman Catholics became a distinct dissenting community, and involved in plots against the government. As they feared a lack of priests, Catholic seminaries were opened at Douay, Rheims, Rome, and other places, from which men were sent from time to time to England, to keep alive the ancient faith. The trouble given to the government led ultimately to great severity. A fine of twenty pounds a month was imposed for non-attendance at the parish church, as also foi privately celebrating the mass. Any one reconciling, or being reconciled to the church of Rome, incurred the penalty of high treason, and the same punishment was denounced against all Jesuits and priests found in the kingdom. During the reign about 200 Catholics suffered death for treasonable practices, besides many who were put to the rack or otherwise punished. Of those who fled to the continent in the reign of Mary, many went to Geneva, and from the school of Calvin brought back with them extreme views relating to public worship. Because of their professing to seek a purer form of worship, they obtained the name of Puritans. This party objected to clerical vestments, Kneeling at the sacrament, sign of the cross in baptism, us^ of sponsors, the ring in marriage, government by bishops, organs, and chanting. About the year 1566 they began to meet in private houses ; four years later they were formed Jnto_a^separate party by Thomas Cartwright, professor of divinityatCambridge. Numbers of the clergy adopted these views, and being ejected from the church, set up places of worship in which theyconductec divine service after the new model. Ultimately there were de- nounced against these separatists the severest penalties — fines, banishment, and death. Many fled to Holland, and of those that remained, some were mutilated and otlers executed. III. Mary of Scots. Mary, at the accession of Elizabeth, had recently married Francis the dauphin of France, who became king in 1559. Mary of Guise, widow oi James V., governed Scotland, which at that ELIZABETH. US time, was in an uneasy condition by reason of the progress of the Reformation under John Knox. The " Lords of the Congre- gation," as the nobles who headed the movement were termed, so alarmed the regent that she sought assistance from France ; to support the Protestant party, Elizabeth rendered them aid *ecretk», and when Francis became king, concluded a ireaty oi ?nutual defence with the Scotch reformers. Elizabeth has been accused of fomenting the quarrels of a neighbouring state for un- worthy purposes, but to her councillors it seemed necessary, for if the French were allowed to establish themselves in Scotland, it required no great penetration to discern their next step. By the assistance of English forces the French were compelled to shut themselves up in Leith, and subsequently to surrender. The treaty of Edinburgh (1560) which followed, stipulated that the French should return home, and that Mary should renounce her pretensions to the English crown, which she refused to do. The Scotch parliament now found itself strong enough to establish the reformed religion. Francis died in December, 1 560, and Mary disliking her mother- in-law, Catherine de Medicis, returned to Scotland in 1561. Four years after, she married her cousin lord Darnley, a man of handsome exterior, but violent in his passions and implacable in his resentments. His bad qualities soon snowea tnemseives. Mary had made Rizzio, a Piedmontese, her private secretary, be- cause of his knowledge of the French language ; Darnley became jealous of him, and formed a party to tear him from the queen's side and put him to death. This act extinguished Mary's love, though she became so far reconciled as to attend on her husband when ill of the small-pox at Glasgow. Being removed to the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, Darnley was placed in a solitary house, known as the Kirk of Field ; in a few days the house was blown up with gunpowder (1567), and the dead body of Darnley found at a distance, but whether killed by the explosion or other- wise is disputed^ Public report charged the earl of Both well with the deed, and the earl of Lennox, father of the murdered noble, commenced proceedings against him ; but as Both well ap- peared on the day of trial with 5,000 attendants, Lennox dare not appear, and could only by proxy make a protest. As no charge was made, the accused earl was acquitted. Within a month Mary upon a show of force gave her hand to the profligate Both- well, whom she had createddukeof Orkney. A confederacy w T as immediately formed against her. Both parties gathered forces, which met at Carberry Hill ; Mary's cause appearing hopeless, she surrendered and was imprisoned in Lochleven castle. Both- weli made his escape, but was seized at sea as apirate. and died 120 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. a prisoner in Denmark. In prison, Mary consented to surrender the crown to her infant son ; the regency fell to Murray her ille- gitimate brother. After an imprisonment of ten months, Mary effected her escape, and was soon at the head of 6,000 men ; being defeated at Langside (1568), she fled to England. A difficulty now presented itself to the English government. If Elizabeth gave her countenance, it would be said she thought lightly of those heavy crimes alleged against the fugitive queeu, and if she allowed her to depart, the Catholics might rally rouna her and place her on the throne of England. It was therefore determined to place Mary under restraint at Bolton castle, and open a conference at York, to give her an opportunity of clearing herself. The commissioners met, and the charges and counter- charges of Mary and the Scottish government were brought forward ; the evidence against Mary proved inconclusive, and the conference being removed to London, it was resolved by the English council that Elizabeth could not safely release the accused till her innocence was better established. Sne theref we remained a prisoner, first at Tutbury, and, after one or two removals, at Sheffield castle (1570—1584). IV. Many Catholic plots in favour of Mary. While these events were transpiring in England, others fell out on the continent, in which this country could but be deeply in- terested, for it seemed that a great struggle must ensue before England could count on retaining the reformed faith. A meeting at Bayonne (1565) between Catherine of France and the duke of Alva, gave rise to a rumour that France and Spain had entered into a league for the entire suppression of Protestantism through- out Europe, and the atrocities that followed seemed to confirm it. The hope of bringing back England to the Catholic faith de- pended mainly on the deposition of Elizabeth and the accession of Mary, hence her partisans at home were encouraged by the Catholic powers abroad. The first movementin her favour (1569), headed by the earls of Westmoreland and Cumberland, did little more than set up the mass in a few places ; on the appearance of the royal forces the leaders escaped to Scotland, but their followers were severely punished. In 1571 the duke of Norfolk, who was not unconnected with the insurrection of the northern earls, was arrested on the charge of compassing the death of his sovereign by seeking to marry the Queen of Scots, and by soliciting foreign powers to invade the realm. Being found guilty he was executed In the following year. The next movement of importance was in 1584. A Jesuit captured at sea, had in hiB possession a paper of heads of a plan ELIZABETH. 121 for a Spanish invasion and the deposition or death of Elizabeth, This produced a greater impression, as only a month or two before, the prince of Orange had been removed out of the way by assassination. Several persons were subsequently executed for conspiring against the life of the queen. In 1586 a soldier of Philip's forces formed a design to kill Elizabeth, which was ap- proved of by two Catholic priests ; in this scheme Babington and several other gentlemen joined : being discovered, the whole were executed. As Mary appeared to have been a party to this plot, she was brought to trial before a commission which sat at Fotheringay, to which place she had been removed in 1586. Having first objected to the competency of the court to try an independent sovereign, she consented to plead. Her letters to Babington and others proved that she was cognizant of the pro- jected invasion, but she solemnly denied conspiring against the life of Elizabeth. The court condemned her " as having com- passed divers matters tending to the hurt, death, and destruction " of the person of queen Elizabeth. How far Mary had given co untenance to a scheme for the assassination of the queen is a point quite as much controverted as the guilty knowledge she is said to have had of Darnley's death. It was some months after the sentence had been pronounced, before Elizabeth could be persuaded to sign the warrant for execution. She did so at length with reluctance, though her counsellors argued " that the life of one Scottish and titular queen ought not to weigh down the safety of all England." The execution took place at Fotheringay (Feb. 8, 1587) ; her body was interred at Peterborough, but re- moved to Westminster by her son James I. V. The Spanish Armada. 1588. As both France and Spain had been favourable to Mary's cause, but more particularly the latter, Elizabeth felt little scruple in aiding the Protestants of both countries. In France, after some promise of success, the Protestant party came to an accommodation with their oppressors. But the calm proved deceitful, for two years later (1572) the principal leaders were inveigled to Paris, and there butchered : the same atrocity was committed in the provinces. Altogether more than 30,000 Huguenots or French Protestants fell in the massacre o.f St. Bartholomew, as this great assassination scheme was called To the eternal disgrace of the reigning pope,medala werestruck, and thanksgivings offered upon the occasion. u The monstrous crime, howsver, injured the cause it was intended to serve, as it proved to the Protestants of all countries, that their safety could onLy be fcund in a closer union than they had hitherto main- 1 122 OUTLINES OP ENGLISH HISTORY. tained ; accordingly they looked to Elizabeth as their protectress and her aid rendered the triumph of Romanism impossible." To crush the revolted Protestants in the Netherlands, Philip of Spain sent the duke of Alva, whose savagenature found ample gratification in putting to death nearly 100,000 persons. These proceedings led to a second revolt. Several of the provinces threw off the Spanish yoke, proclaimed William of Orange stadt- Lolder, and by a treaty of union at Utrecht (1579), laid the foundation of the Dutch Republic. After the assassination ol William (1584), Elizabeth entered into a new treaty with the infant state, agreeing to furnish 6,000 men, en receiving it pledge the towns of Flushing, Rammekins, and Brill. It was while serving with this force that the celebrated Sir Philip Sydney lost his life at the siege of Zutphen (1586). In the year preceding, Drake had taken the cities of St. Domingo and Car thagena, returning from his expedition with much treasure. All this was more than Philip could tamely submit to. He had already made some preparations to conquer England, from this time they went on with renewed vigour. All the ports of his extensive dominions — Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Sicily, were in full activity ; in addition, vessels and stores were procured from Denmark and the Hanse towns. In 1587, Drake was sent to the coast of Spain, and at Cadiz destroyed a hundred vessels ; this with the difficulty Philip found in obtaining money delayed the expedition another year. Confident of success, the Spanish armament was called "The Invincible Armada; all things being ready, it sailed from the Tagus May 29,1588. The armada consisted of about 130 ships, 11,000 seamen, and 20,000 soldiers, under the command of the duke of Medina Sidonia. To oppose this formidable array, the English mustered about 140 ships, of which nearly the whole were vessels supplied by the seaports, and 15,000 men. The disparity of force is best seen in the number of guns, for whilst the Spaniards carried about 3200, the English had little more than 800. Besides the fleet, Elizabeth raised three armies, one of 30,000 to move where occasion might require, another of 20,000 distributed along the southern coast, and a third of about the same number stationed at Tilbury. Meeting with a storm off Finisterre, the armada put back to refit, and report said it would not make the attempt till the ensuing year. It, however, again put to sea and appeared off the Lizard (July 19). When the news was brought, the English fleet was at Plymouth ; it at once put to sea under the command of lord Howard of Effingham, assisted by Drake, Frobisher, and Hawkins. The Spanish ships had the advantage of size and i&Jtery, but the English were better seamen, and their smaller ELIZABETH. 123 vessels could be more readily handled. Skirmishes took place on the 21st, 23rd, and 25th, which all ended in some advantage to the English. On the 27th the armada anchored off Calais, where 30,000 additional soldiers were to be put on board ; the expedition was then to cross to the English coast and effect a landing. But before any part of this arrangement could be carried out, tire ships were sent in among the Spanish fleet which caused ths Spaniards to cut their cables ; several went ashore upon the shoals, and others fell into the hands of the English. The duke of Parma now refused to send off his troops, and it was therefore determined that the expedition should return home. This they attempted by sailing northward so as to round Scotland ; the English pursued as far asthe Orkneys and captured several vessels. A great storm did the rest, for so many were wrecked on the coast of Norway, Scotland, and Ireland, that when the remnant reached home, it was found that 80 large ships had been lost, and 20,000 men. After this the English annoyed the Spanish coast, and in 1596 lord Howard and the earl of Essex plunderd Cadis, whereby the Spaniards are said to have sustained a loss of four millions of money. VI. The Irish rebellion. The Irish had many reasons for discontent, the best lands were in the hands of the English, and the undertakers by whom they were managed treated the native Irish with much contempt ; there was moreover the matter of religion, for the Irish would not accept the reformed faith. Encouraged by the Catholic states, they were turbulent all through the reign. One of the principal leaders was Shan O'Neal, earl of Desmond whose estates were partitioned among the English, Sir Waiter Raleigh and the poet Spenser being in the number. At a subsequent period Philip of Spain aided the Irish with men and money, in retaliation for Elizabeth's interference with the Netherlands. In 1598 Hugh O'Neal, nephew of Shan, whom Elizabeth had made earl of Tyrone, with the hope of attaching him to her government, ap- peared at the head of a formidable rebellion. Nearly the wholo of the natives rose and inflicted on the English settlers a terrible vengeance ; in an attempt against them the English suffered defeat at Blackwater. To deal effectively with this savage out- break, Essex, the queen's favourite, was placed at the head of a large army. The earl wasted his time and forces in petty expe- ditions, and instead of crushing Tyrone, contented himself with negotiation. Elizabeth was indignant, and Essex, fearful of tho consequences, quitted Ireland to make his paace with the queen, Being ordered to temporary confinement, and deprived of the 124 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. monopoly of sweet wines, the foolish earl got up a conspiracy (1601) to seize his royal mistress; it proved an utter failure, and ended in his execution as a traitor. Lord Mouu tjoy, his successor in Ireland, put down the rebellion in one campaign, and though a Spanish expedition of 45 ships arrived at Kinsale, it was only to capitulate to the English. The rebellion was now extin- guished, and O'Neal pardoned but deprived of part of his lands. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1559, when the headship of the English church was restored to the sovereign, a new institution, known as the High Commission Court, was established. Its powers included all matters relating to the church. Like the Star Chamber it had its uses, but both institutions grew to be instruments of tyranny, and were abolished in 1641. In this reign indications are given of the growth of towns, which was probably due to the increase of manufacturing industry. There is no doubt about the increase of trade in London, for in 1569 the founda- tion was laid of toe Royal Exchange for the use of merchants. Many refugees, driven from their natives countries by the troubles of the times, settled in England, the best of the workmen in the Metropolis. Prom various causes London grew so fast as to alarm the authorities, who therefore issued a proclamation forbidding the erection of any new buildings, for that there was lack of room to wakj and sport, increased danger of plague and fire, besides the trouble of governing so great a multitude. London was then about one-four teeuth of its present size. The poor in this reign gave considerable trouble, and several laws passed to put down vagrancy, they however proving ineffective, a general statute was enacted (1601) which amended and embodied the provisions of all preceding statutes on the same subject. Chronicle. 1562, Hawkins employs three ships for transporting slaves from Guinea; this was the first attempt of the English to engage in that infamous traffic. 1556, The Trinity House empowered to erect and maintain beacons and sea-marks ; to remove any steeples, trees, or other sea-marks rendered punishable by a fine of £100. 1584, First attempt of the English to found a colony ; it was promoted by Sir Walter Raleigh, and named Virginia in honour of the queen. About this time potatoes and tobacco introduced into this country from America, but whether by Raleigh, Drake, or Hawkins, is uncertain. 1569, The stocking-frame invented by the Rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge ; before this time people wore cloth hose. 1598, The Bodleian Library founded at Oxford by Sir Thomas Boaley. 1600, East India Company incor- porated. 1601, The celebrated poor-law of Elizabeth passed. Social Life in the Tudor Period. 1. Food. Among the higher classes the hours of meals were eight, twelve, and six, when they partook of solid joints oi beef and mutton, bread, and copious draughts of ale. Even court ladies commenced and ended the day with broiled steaks and flagons of ale, or sometimes a beaker of wine. Both bread and meat were still presented on the point of a knife, and, in the absence of forks, the fingers were freely used. Although plenty generally prevailed, there were then many privations which would now be thougut to be intolerable. For the greater part of THE TUDOR PERIOD. l25 the year, the fcesh meat was salt, as the general curing time wui autumn, and, till the next midsummer, there were no means of fattening rattle for want of pasture. Those who lived by the sea could have the luxury of fresh fish, but the inhabitants of the inland districts only salt fish, except what could be had from the stevys. The diet of the poor consisted of rye and barley bread, butter-milk, bacon, and a few pot herbs. In years of scarcity, and they were rather frequent, their bread was made of beans, peas, or oats, and when these were not to be had, such herbs and roots as could be got. Fresh meat they rarely had, but in Lent they had salt fish. At bridals and merry- makings each guest brought one or more dishes, and thus a feast was provided. 2. Clothing. Males of the middle class wore the doublet or jacket, fastened round the waist with a belt, a short cloak, low caps or nigh sugar-loaf hats, and a sword. The higher class was distinguished by a scarlet cloak, and gold hat-band and feather. Leather small- clothes and tunics continued to be worn by the lower grades. The sixteenth century was noted for the slashing style — large gashes, through which the fine linen was puffed out : to keep the sides of the slit from opening too far, they were tied with points. Gentlemen wore frills and ruffs, but they were not attached to the linen till the next century. Of the dress of females, the most conspicuous feature was the fardingale or hoop for spreading the skirts, and the enormous ruff of linen or cambric, which led to the introduction of starch. These ruffs grew at last so high, that Elizabeth ordered persons to be stationed about London, to cut down those that exceeded a given height. A waiscoat, similar to that of males, obtained patronage for a time, as did also detached sleeves that could be worn with any dress. The head-dresses were various, some wore a cap like a soup plate, but the most common was the miniver, or triangulr.r cap. Cloth hose gave way to stockings knitted of silk or wool ; silk stockings were however so much a rarity as to be deemed a fitting present to queen Elizabeth. Mary of Scots wore blue worsted stockings at her execution. Both sexes carried pocket looking-glasses, the ladies carrying theirs in their girdles, or set in their fans of ostrich feathers. It is amusing to learn that Elizabeth regulated the making of pins by act of parliament, which made it imperative that in future pins should have points and heads. The age of sumptuary laws was not quite extinct. In the reign of Mary, it was enacted that unless persons had a regular income of twenty pounds a year, they should not wear " any manner of silk in or upon their hat, bonnet, nightcap, girdle, hose, shoes, scabbard, or spur-leathers, on pain of three months' imprisonment, and a fine of ten pounds for every day's wearing contrary to the tenour of this act." 3. Dwellings. The residence of the nobility underwent great change in this period. Feudalism had now passed away and with it th s castellated architecture, and the first attempt to soften down the mer e fortress mav be said to have originated what is called the Tudor style. Among the chief characteristics of thia kind of structure were its quad- rangular shape, with open enclosed courts, large halls, open corrid.orj with galleries above, groups of turrets, many high gables, ornam ental groups of chimneys, immense surfaces of windows, and large lofty oriels. The gateways still retained much of their castellated form and propor- 126 0UTLINE8 OF ENGLISH HISTORY. tions. In the latter part of the period, the Italian 8ty»e became intej- mixed with the remains of the Gothic, and is known as the Elizabethan style. On Eccount of the rude finish of the interior walls, it was still a common practice to hang tapestry, and not unfrequently upon a separate framework of wood set up for that purpose. The great hall became now appropriated to its modern use, that of a mere entrance, and the Italian mode of placing the principal apartment on the upper floor, led to the enlargement and decoration of the staircase, henceforth a main feature in noble houses. The town buildings still retained the construction that marked the middle ages, that of overhanging storeys, which indeed lasted as long as wooden buildings continued, and the majority was such to the end of the period. Glass windows were uncommon, and where used at all, they were fixed in the frame, so that the only ventilation was through the chinks of the building; this it is said led to the frequent attacks of the sweating sickness. Holinshed, who wrote in the time ot Elizabeth, says that in most of the country towns, there were but two or three chimneys ; the fire was usually made against the wall, and the smoke left to find its way out through the door, latticed window, er hole in the roof. In the rural districts, the houses were still built of " sticks and mud," and many of the farm houses united house, offices, and stable, under one roof. In all cases the furniture remained of the most simple character. Even rooms of state were matted, and ordinary rooms in palaces covered with rushes ; carpets they had, but they were mostly employed for covering tables. Forms and stools were used in noble nouses more than chairs. A nobleman's bedroom is described as containing a turn-up bedstead, one chair, three boxes for clothes, and window curtains. The chamber of Henry VIII. contained a pair of cupboards, a stool, two andirons, a pair of tongs, firepan, and a steel mirror. Furniture was in general so scarce, that the nobles carried it about with them, even to their glass windows. At the commencement of the period, the people slept on a straw pallet, or on mats with a log for a pillow; when a man rose to a flock bed and a sack of chaff for a billow, he thought himself as well lodged as a lord. Things improved during the reign of Elizabeth, for then some substantial yeoman could boast of pewter plates in lieu of trenchers, and in a few cases a feather bed. 4. Amubemekts. The Mysteries of the 15th century were now succeeded by the Moralities, in which the virtues and vices were re- presented by allegorical characters. The Reformation ended such representations, and led to the introduction of the modern drama. At first the performances took place in large wooden booths, with but anperfect costumes; this soon improved, and regularly built theatreG began to appear. In the reign of Elizabeth, the performances usually commenced at one o'clock, and were announced by the hoisting of e flag. The best of the audience paid sixpence and sat upon stools or the stage ; gentlemen's servants stood behind to supply their masters with pipes and tobacco. The common people in the pit also smoked and drank ale. No woman as yet took part in the performance, their part fell to boys. The other amusements were still of a barbarous character. Bear and bull baiting delighted all classes : Elizabeth continued a devotee to this sport to her old age. Ladies hunted, and if in at the conclusion of the JAME8 I. 127 sport, a knife was presented to one of them, that she might cut the deer's throat with her own hand. Horse-racing now commenced as a regular amusement, and gambling became so extensive as to call for special enactment to put it down. Tobacco was no sooner introduced than smoking became a regular pastime, everybody smoked, judges on the bench and criminals on the scaffold ; ladies also addicted themselves to the same practice. Tlr- rapid increase of town population led to the building out of the old tilt yards, shooting butts, village greens, and other places of out-door recreation. That class of healthy amusement there- fore declined, and a foundation was laid for tavern tippling, and other unhealthy practices. 6. Travelling, lew persons travelled much, except those of the higher classes and men on business. Those who rode did so on horse- back, for wheel carriages were impracticable from the state of the roads ; females, even queens, rode on a pillion behind their servants. So little communication was there between the different parts of the country, that Henry VII. going to Bath, paid a special messenger to go on before, to ascertain whether there was any sickness in that city. In the reign of Mary, a kind of riding waggon was introduced, but as it had no springs, ladies preferred the pillion. In 1564, a coach with springs was introduced by a Dutchman, whom the queen made her coachman. Some people said it was a crab-shell brought from China, others that it was one of the pagan temples in which cannibals worshipped the devil. It however came into use, so far as the roads would permit. It is evi- dent from what has been said, that the means of intercommunication between friends were very limited, it was even more so than appears, for no regular means for the transit of letters appear till the time of the Stuarts. Letters could only be forwarded by special messengers, or by a chance opportunity. HOUSE OP STUART. James I. 1603—1625. Chables II. 1660—1685. Charles 1. 1625—1649. James II. 1685—1688. Common wealth. 1649—1660, William III. 1689—1702. Anne 1702—1714. JAMES I. 1603-1625. Kotal Family. James I. (1603—1625), the son of Mary of Scots by her second husband, lord Darnley, was crowned king of Scotland id 1567 ; in his twelfth year he took the government into his cwn hands, at the request of the council. In 1585, he entered into alliance with Elizabeth, receiving from England a pension of £5,000 a year; the execution of his mother did not interfere with this relationship, for though he talked largely he did nothing else. Such was the turbulence of the Scottish nobles during this period, that two attempts were macL* to seize the king's person, one called the Eaid of Ruthven proved successful, and J ames was held a prisoner at large for ten months. His accession to the throne of England was upon the whole of advantage to the people, for under his W3ak government the foundation was laid for 128 G&TLINE8 OF ENGLISH HISTOR1. the succsssful reassertion of public liberties. " His capacity was con- siderable, but fitter to discourse on general maxims than to conduet any intricate business: his intentions were just, but more adapted to the conduct of private life than to the government of kingdoms. Awkward in his person and ungainly in his manners, he was ill- qualified to command respect : partial and undiscerning in his affections, he was little fitted to acquire general love. ,, The consort of James, Anne of Denmark (1575 — 1619), daughter of Frederick II,, was married by proxy in 1589, but, being driven to Nor- way by a storm, James made a voyage to bring his bride to Scotland. Her gaiety gave the king some uneasiness, whilst the improvement she wrought in the court offended the nobles, who had been accus- tomed to treat with insult the ladies about the palace. On the acces- sion of her husband to the English throne, she was allowed £6,376 p, year, to which was afterwards added £3,000 more, for her extrava- gance made her always in debt. Generally she took little part in public affairs, and the latter part of her life was spent in privacy, on account of the long illno3S that preceded her death. Anne, in educa- tion and intelligence, ranks below most English queens, and she is said to have been further characterised by excess of petulance and frivolity. The children of James were — Henry Frederick, died 1612 ; Charles, who became king j and Elizabeth, married Frederick, Elector Palatine. I. Main and Bye plots, 1603. The Main Plot was in favour of Arabella Stuart, who like James was descended from Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. Perhaps there was no serious intention to place Arabella on the throne, but the proximity of her descent furnished a plausible pretext for certain men whom James had offended, to disturb the govern- ment. Such were Raleigh, the lords Cobham and Grey, and the earl of Northumberland, all of whom had something to complain of in connection with the new sovereign. At the same time there was on foot a Bye Plot, or an arrangementbetweensome Puritans and Catholics to seize the person of the king, and force from him a larger measure of religious tolerance. These two conspiracies became mixed together and the leaders of both seized, so soon as the matter was revealed by one of the party. Three of the Bye conspirators suffered death, and others were banished ; Cobham, Grey, and Raleigh, though condemned to death, were spared the extreme penalty, but committed to perpetual imprisonment. II. Hampton Court conference. 1604. The Puritans had in the previous reign occasioned mud trouble to the government; they not only refused to accept the Reforma- tion as settled by the authorities, but thought it their duty to do battle against existing institutions, principally by means of the press. So intemperate were some of their publications, tbatth J JAMES I. 129 government prosecuted, and in some cases brought the offending Earties to the scaffold ; many suffered heavy penalties, and others jft the country altogether. Under these circumstances the Puritans looked forward with pleasure to the accession of James, in the hope of obtaining from him considerable concessions ; in- deed, they felt sure of them, as James had been bred a Presbyterian and had made some promises to their party. A petition was pre- pared, called the Millenary Petition, embodying the principal points on which they sought change : — " (1) Objections to the church service : (2) Pluralities, non-residence, and unpreaching ministers : (3) The better maintenance of the parochial clergy, which might be effected by restoring to them the greater part of ecclesiastical impropriations, and a sixth or seventh of all the lay ones : (4) The redress of church discipline." To consider these complaints, a conference was held at Hamp- ton Court Palace, at which were present representatives of the Established Church and the Puritan party. After three meetings, the following results were agreed upon ; — some slight alterations in the Book of Common Prayer; an addition to the Catechism, of the part respecting the sacraments ; that baptism should be ad- ministered only by a lawful minister ; that no part of the Apocry- pha repugnant to Scripture should be read ; that the number of judges in the High Commission Court should be limited ; and that a new translation of the Bible should be made. With these results the Puritans felt much dissatisfied, and greatly blamed their representatives for not having done justice to their cause. III. Gunpowder plot. 1605. All through the reign of Elizabeth the Catholics had endured great persecution, not so much for their religion as for the part they took in politics. Looking upon Mary of Scots as the rightful claimant to the throne, and on that account suffering both in their persons and property, they anticipated relief from the hands of James. But he found himself under the necessity of proceed- ing against them with increased severity, this so provoked some of the more violent that they entered into a conspiracy to blow up the king and parliament. For this purpose, Catesby, Winter, Fawkes, and several others banded themselves together by oath to accomplish what they had undertaken. A cellar under the House of Lords was hired, and thirty-six barrels of gunpowder with other combustibles deposited there. As the time drew on, one or more of the conspirators, desiring to save their friends from destruction, sent them warning ; a message of this kind to lord Montea-cdfi was the occasion of the discovery of the whole affair 330 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. On the cellar being searched, Guy Fawkee was found with big dark lantern and the train ready laid. As soon as it was known that the secret had been betrayed, the conspirators in town started off for Dunchurch, thence they travelled with all speed to Holbeach, where being set upon by the sheriffs, some were injured by the explosion of their own gunpowder, others were shot down, and some contrived to es- cape. But the principal conspirators were soon in the hands of the officers, and executed as traitors. Out of this affair grew an insurrection in 1607. The estates of Tresham and others were granted to favourites, and the new proprietors encroached od the common lands ; the people not finding redress took on them- selves to level the fences. This movement was not suppressed till many persons had been slain by the soldiers, and others taken prisoners. IV. Growing power of the Commons. No point in the reign is more important than this, for it was really the commencement of that struggle which ended in the death of Charles I. During the time of the Tudors, the house of commons appeared as though it had lost its ancient power ; this was owing to several causes — that the peerage was almost a new creation, that the house of commons was principally filled with the creatures of the court, and that the Tudor sovereigns were possessed of great personal vigour. It is true, however, that towards the close of the reign of Elizabeth the lower house began to show signs of returning life, and it is also true that James, by his pretensions to absolute sovereignty, tended to provoke re- sistance. M He told his parliament, that as it was blasphemy to question what the Almighty could do by His power, so it was sedition to inquire what a king could do by virtue of his prero gative." On the question of the prerogative there was a quarrel in his very first parliament, and his majesty was told by the fepeaker that " new laws could not be instituted, nor imperfect laws reformed, nor inconvenient laws abrogated, by any other »>ower than that of the high court of parliament." Towards the end of the reign the commons presented a petition against the growth of popery, and hinted their dislike that prince Charles should marry a papist. James expressed his high displeasure that ti ey should have meddled with what concerned his government : thereupon the commons entered upon their journals a protest, in which they claimed the right of "freedom of speech to propound, treat, reason, and bring to conclusion any affairs concerning the king, state, and defence of the realm " The king, in a passion. ;ames i. 131 *3Dt for the journals, and tore out the protest with his own hands, in the presence of the council. Another cause of difference between the king and the commons arose out of the matter of revenue. Subsidies and fifteenths yielded less than they had done, and the want of thrift in the king made the public income appear less than it really was. In con- sequence of his disagreements with his parliaments, James obtained less in a legal way than he might have done ; to make up the deficiency, he was driven to expedients that tended to in- crease his unpopularity. It was on this account that so great an outcry was raised about the grievances of purveyance and ward- ships, which though not illegal were unduly pressed on the people. Monopolies were increased, and additional duties laid, by procla- mation, on nearly every article of foreign commerce. Peerages, honours, and places were sold for money, and yet the public servants were often unpaid and obliged to support themselves by bribes and peculations. All through the reign, it was evident that the commons could no longer be controlled as they had been, for they complained unceasingly of these abuses of the govern- ment. They revived the exercise of their privilege of impeaching public offenders before the house of lords ; one case was that of the celebrated lord Bacon for bribery. In the last parliament James found himself compelled to give way, and consent to the abolition of all monopolies as contrary to the laws of the realm V. The King's favourites. In nothing is the weakness of James's character so fully shown, as in his placing himself so completely in the hands of unworthy favourites. First came Robert Carr, the page of a Scotch noble. Falling by accident under the notice of the king, he schooled and then knighted him ; subsequently he was made lord-treasurer and chamberlain, and created viscount Rochester and earl of Somerset. Though without experience or capacity for business, he acted for a time as prime minister. In the height of his fame, he married the divorced wife of the earl of Essex, and with her contrived the murder of Overbury his secretary, for having opposed their union. For this atrocious crime all the parties were condemned, but James spared the principals whilst he executed the accomplices. The next favourite was George Villiers, better known as the duke of Buckingham. The son of a Leicestershire knight, he had the good fortune to attract the notice of James, who in a few years passed him through the various degrees of the peerage, to be the first noble in the land. His power over the king became absolute. In opposition to the wishes of his royal master, he earned off Prince Charles to Spain, to woo in person the 132 0UTLINE8 OF ENGLISH HISTORY. Infanta ; a freak which not only failed in its purpose, but dis- gusted both the Spanish and English nations, and led to a war. All the principal offices of state were filled with the creatures of. this favourite, and the subsequent troubles of the nation must be attributed in part to ais folly. V£. Founding of colonies. In the early part of this reign, the flight of the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel from Ireland, and the failure of O'Dogherty's revolt, put about two million acres at the disposal of the crown. It was therefore proposed to carry out the scheme commenced in the raignof Elizabeth, that of apportioning the land to English settlers, in parcels not exceeding 2,000 acres. In this way colonies of English and Scotch were planted in Ulster, Munster, and other parts of Ireland. That country was further advantaged in this reign, by putting down the old Brehon law, by which every kind of crime could be atoned for by a fine, and the customs of gavelkind and tanistry, which made landed property so un- certain in its tenure, that no one cared to improve it. Prnglish colonies were also planted in North America. Sir Walter Raleigh had made the attempt in the previous reign, but without success. In 1607, about a hundred Englishmen landed on the peninsula of Jamestown, in Chesapeake Bay ; more fortu- nate than their predecessors they established themselves, and towards the end of the reign were reinforced at the rate of a thousand a year. In 1620, a second colony was founded by a party of puritan refugees from Holland, who had sought in that country a reli- gious toleration, which they did not find in their own. Embark- ing at Leyden in two small vessels, they found themselves under the necessity of putting into Plymouth, and dismissing the smaller one as unseaworthy. The remaining vessel, the May- flower, carried over a hundred persons, including women and children. In memory of the kindness received at Plymouth, the Pilgrim Fathers, as these emigrants are called, named tkeir first settlement New Plymouth. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1604, commissioners were appointed tc treat with the Scots for a union between the two kingdoms ; nothing came of it, for the people of Scotland thought a union would imply their subjection to the English, and the English disliked the idea, from a fear that their country would be devoured by the poor and hungry Scots. For his connexion with the Main Plot, Raleigh had been committed to the Tower. After thirteen years confinement, he was released te take charge of an expedition to Guiana, where it was thought a gold mine would be found. The expedition proved a failure, and the un- fortunate Sir Walter was executed ir 1618, on the oround of his former CHARLES 1. 133 conviction. James is said to have sanctioned this cruel procedure, in order to forward the marriage between prince Charles and the Infanta. In this reign commenced the celebrated "Thirty Years' War" (1618 — 1648), which originated in Frederic, the son-in-law of James, having accepted the crown of Bohemia from the rebels. Instead of gaining 9 kingdom, he lost his electorate. The English generally desired to give him assistance, but James would not consent till the last year of his reign, when about 12,000 men were raised and placed under count Mansfeldt ; nothing came of this expedition but the loss of half the men Cj the time they reached the Continent. Chronicle. 1611, The present authorised version of the Bible completed. 1612, The English, by permission of the Great Mogul, establish factories at Surat and other places. 1619, Dr. Hervey pub- lished his discovery of the circulation of the blood. Lord Dudley attempts to smelt irol> with coal, but the works are destroyed by a mob. 1621, The manufacture of broad silk and cotton introduced about mis time. Licenses first granted to public houses. 1622, First news- paper published — " The News of the Present Week." 1624, Interest reduced from ten to eight per >eut. CHARLES I. 1625-1649. Eotal Family. Charles I., (1600—1649) the son of James L and Anne of Denmark, was born at Dunfermline. In 1612, he became heir apparent by the death of his elder brother Henry. His progress in general learning, especially theology, gave great satisfaction to his father. After the power of Buckingham was established, Charles sub- mitted himself principally to his influence, which proved eminently in- jurious as well to the nation as to the prince. Hume thus characterises the unfortunate Charles. " His beneficent disposition was clouded by a manner not very gracious; his virtue was tinctured with superstition; his good sense was disfigured by a deference to persons of a capacity inferior to his own; and his moderate temper exempted him not from haste and precipitate resolutions. He deserves the epithet of a good rather than of a great man ; and was more fitted to rule in a regular established government, than either to give way to the encroach men f ,s of a popular assembly, or finally to subdue their pretensions." The consort of Charles was Henrietta Maria (1609 — 1669), daughter of Henry IV. of France. The year after her birth, her father fell by the hand of Eavaillac. Her remaining parent, Mary de Medici, was an mperious, violent, and vindictive woman, and of all persons " the worst calculated to train a future queen-consort for England, and the sorrows of her daughter in future life, doubtless were aggravated by the foolish notions of the infallibility of sovereigns, which had been instilled into Her young mind." Charles first saw her when on his way to Spain to wed the Infanta, and, on the failure of the Spanish match, made Henrietta an offer of his hand. The marriage took place at Canterbury (June 13, 1625), and proved th . cause of many of the king's troubles, ^or some of his most unwise measures are said to have been forced upon him, by the violent spirit of his queen. To the puritan party, the marriage treaty gave much offence, because it stipulated for lenity towards iihe Romanists. On the breaking out of the civil war, ths 134 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. queen went to the Continent to procure aid and the materials of van In 1643, she landed at Burlington, and in the year following, having given birth to her youngest daughter at Exeter, she fled to France. After the execution of her husband, she married Jermyn, earl of St. Albans, and subsequently to the Restoration, resided for a time at Somerset House. Her death took place at St. Columbe, near Paris. The children of Charles were: — Charles, who became king ; Mary, married William prince of Orange, by whom she became the mother of William III. of England ; James, who became king ; Elizabeth, died at Oarisbrooke Castle ; Henry, duke of G loucester, died 1660; and Henrietta Maria, married Philip, duke of Orleans. I. Contentions with his first parliaments. 1625 — 1629. In the commons, two parties had become clearly developed, the court party in favour of the kingly prerogatives, the country party in favour of the liberties of the people, nor was it long before occasion offered to try their strength. The king, just married to apapist, asked for money, they replied by presenting a M pious petition " praying him to put into immediate execution all the existing laws against Catholic recusants and missionaries. Instead of £700,000 which the king demanded, they voted £140,000, and a grant of tonnage and poundage for one year only ; and instead of a grant for a war with Spain, they proposed to inquire into the conduct of Buckingham, who had been the cause of the war. To save his favourite, Charles dissolved his first parliament. Having prevented Coke, Wentwo th,and other leading men of the country party being elected, C'iarles met his second parlia- ment (1626). Its first measure was to appoint committees to inquire into the grievances of th'3 nation. As the result, reso- lutions passed — to enact severer la wa against papists, to complain of moneys being levied without consent of parliament, and to impeach Buckingham of high crimes and misdemeanours. The king forbade them to question his servants, they proceeded not- withstanding, and the parliament was dissolved # In want of money to fit out a second expedition to Roehelle, Charles was forced to call a third parliament (1628). The com- mons promised to grant five subsidies, but they were to be paid only on condition of the king's granting them something in re- turn. Their demands were four, and embodied in what is known as the Petition of Right ; — (1) That no man hereafter be com- pelled to pay any moneys to the state, without common consent by act of parliament : (2) That no person be imprisoned for re- fusing the same, nor any freeman be imprisoned without any cauBe showed, to which he might make answer: (3) That soldiers CHARLES r. 135 and marines be not billeted in the houses of the people : (4) That commissions be no more issued for punishing by the summary process of martial law. Charles after some evasion gave hb assent When the parliament met in the next year, the Commons spoke strongly against the countenance given to Romanism, and the le rying of tonnage and poundage without their consent. For a disorderly protest against these proceedings, the king dis- solved his third parliament. II. War with Spain and France. War against Spain was declared in 1624 without any ground, except the pique of Buckingham, and the hatred of the English to a Catholic country. In 1625, an expedition of nearly a hun- dred vessels, carrying 10,000 soldiers, sailed to capture Cadiz ; a landing was made and many hundred men lost, but no advantage gained, which gave occasion to much popular outcry. No further attempt was made, and a peace followed in 1630. The war with France was also attributed to Buckingham, who having given great offence by his behaviour at the French court, revenged himself on Richelieu the minister, by a war on pretence of aiding the persecuted Protestants. In 1627, the duke sailed with a hundred vessels and 7,000 land forces to relieve Rochelle, but the inhabitants would not admit him into the harbour, for they were not informed of his purpose. He then turned aside to the isle of Rhe, and lost about one half his men without accom- plishing anything. A second expedition in 1 628, under the earl of Denbigh/attempted nothing. Buckingham proposed to head the third expedition himself, and was at Portsmouth with that intent, when he was assassinated by John Felton, an officer whom the duke had slighted. The expedition sailed under the earl of Lindsey, but nothing was done, and Rochelle surrendered to Richelieu after losing two-thirds of its inhabitants. A peace in 1630 ended a war which was entered into without necessity, and conducted without glory. III. Charles rules absolutely. 1629—1640. When Charles dissolved his third parliament, he had made up his mind to govern without one. Some of the popular leaders tie had won over, such wcio Sir Thomas Wentworth, Saville, Digges, Littleton, and Nov ; others were imprisoned or put to heavy fines. Submitting himself to the guidance of Wentworth end bishop Laud, Charles set at defiance what were considered tiie proper limits of sovereign prerogative. For centuries it had been illegal to take the subjects' money without consent of par* lieinent, and Charles had in 1628 confirmed this right, now bew- 136 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HlS'iOBI. ever no method of raising money was to be disputed. Tonnage and poundage were levied, and if any person refused to pay, his goods were seized and sold. Compositions and fines were im- posed, under an old law, on all who had neglected to receive knighthood ; titles of land were called in question, and many of the nobles extravagantly fined ; and so were those persons who had built new houses in London. The system of monopolies was revived, and extended to salt, soap, coals, wine, leather, beer, iiquors, red-herrings, butter, linen, and many other articles. Another mode of increasing the revenue was that of levying money to furnish ships for the public service (1634). At first the assessment was only on the seaport towns, but in the next year it was extended to inland places. The people murmured at this imposition, and the judges were called upon (1636) to give their opinion ; this they did, declaring it lawful when the good and safety of the kingdom made it necessary, and of that necessity the king was the sole judge. John Hampden, a gentleman of Buckinghamshire, refused to pay, and being proceeded against, his cause was discussed during twelve days ; seven of the judges decided that the king could require an inland county to furnish 6hips, or a sum of money by way of commutation. Hampden lost his cause, but the arguments in his favour, and the division oi the judges, did infinite disservice to the crown. Men from this time began to see that their entire liberties were in jeopardy. But it was not only that the people were illegally deprived of their property, they were equally unhappy with respect to their personal liberties. The king's commissioners turned into a com - modity the severity of the j udges. For n ot paying what they did not owe, men were put in prison ; they were released on paying a portion of the amount, according to their fortunes. If discon- tent appeared general in any county royal troop3 were sent there, whom the inhabitants were bound to board and lodge. But worst of all was the tyranny exercised by the courts of Star Chamber and High Commission, for the better support of the extraordinary ways of raising a revenue, and to protect the king's agents. The council, by proclamations, enjoined the people what was not enjoined by law, and any breach of these proclamations was punished by very heavy fines and imprisonments. If meu gave serious offence to the court, cruel and unusual punishments were inflicted. For example, Dr. Leighton, for his book entitled 11 Zion's Plea against Prelacy," was publicly whipped, his ears cut off, his nostrils slit, and his cheeks branded with the letters SS, to denote that he was a sower of sedition. In like manner Prynne and others, for writings which reflected on the prelates, lost their ears, were fined, and ordered to be imprisoned for life. CHARLK8 1B7 IV. The Scotch Covenant. 1638 When Charles visited Scotland in 1633, he was accompanied by Laud, upon whose services the king counted in connexi on with his scheme for introducing a Liturgy into the Scotch Kirk . The attempt was not then made. The Service-book compiled for use m Scotland, corresponded very nearly to that of the church of England, and where it differed it indicated a nearer approach to Uie Romish Liturgy, the whole blame of which fell on Laud, though he denied that he was chargeable therewith. When the day came for its use (1637), the people were prepared for resist- ance, as the character of the book had become generally known. The first reading was followed by groans, hisses, and shouts of " Down with the priest of Baal ! A pope, a pope ! Antichrist I &c. ; " stools, sticks, stones, and dirt were thrown at the officiat- ing ministers, they were even maltreated by the mob when they reached the street. The new service was suspended, for which the authorities fell under the royal censure, and were moreover ordered to enforce its use. A petition presented against its use proving ineffective, the petitioners formed " Four Tables," or committees, and then proceeded to frame the National Covenant (1638), by which nearly the whole of the Scotch nation bound themselves to defend the true religion — that is, to resist every innovation on Presbyterianism. An Assembly which met at Glasgow abolished the liturgy, ordinal, canons, and High Com- mission Court. To put down this resistance to authority, Charles in 1639 col- lected an army of 20,000 men ; the Scotch placed an equal number under the command of Leslie, an officer of repute who had served in the German wars. When the armies came into presence in the neighbourhood of Berwick, the ki^g opened a negotiation by which it was agreed that both armies should be disbanded, and a general assembly and parliament summoned to compose all dif- ferences. This arrangement is known as the " Pacification oi Berwick." The general assembly when it met abolished Episco pacy and the service-book, and the parliament went still further. Thereupon Charles called for the assistance of Wentworth, and in council it was resolved that the king be advised to call a par. liament, Charles's fourth parliament met April, 1640, and pro- ceeded first to inquire into innovations in religion, invasions of private property, and breaches of privilege of parliament. As the king wanted immediate supplies and not the discussion of grievances, he dissolved the parliament before it had sat three weeks, this led to its being called the " Short Parliament." A second Army of 20,000 men was now raised, but Leslie crossed 18H OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HI8T0BV the Tweed with a larger force and, routing the English at New burn, took possession of Newcastle. The English fell back to York, where Charles met a " Great Council of Peers," having first ordered writs to issue for a new parliament. It was left to the peers to raise money for present necessities, and to make terms with the Scots. The latter was done by the " Treaty of Ripon" which, leaving the points in dispute to be settled by tha parliaments of the two countries, provided for the support of the Scotch army till affairs should be definitely arranged. V. Meeting of the Long Parliament. 1640. This celebrated parliament met in November, and was not Snail} 7 dissolved till 1660, hence its name. The commons lost nc time in concerting measures for the re-establishment of public liberty. Prynne and other victims of tho Star Chamber and Commission Court were ordered to be released and compensated. Within three weeks of their meeting, Wentworth, now earl of Strafford, was committed to the tower, whither archbishop Laud soon followed him ; others of the king's ministers fled from the country. But the religious zeal of the commons appeared most conspicuous, Catholicism they said was eating into the vitals of the country and must be extirpated. Hence they compelled the king to order the removal of all Catholics from the court and army, to disarm all recusants, and to banish all priests from the kingdom. And of their own authority the commons ordered "the defacing, demolishing, and quite taking away of all images, altars, or tables turned altar-wise, crucifixes, superstitious pic- tures, monuments, and reliques of idolatry, out of all churches and chapels " This order, executed in many cases by ignorant men, led to the destruction of valuable monuments, from the stupid notion that tomb effigies, monumental brasses, and figures in glass, were objects of idolatry. The year 1641 was marked by great changes. £ n act passed which provided for a new parliament at least oner m three years. The earl of Strafford, impeached for treason against the liberties of the people, was executed on Tower Hill (May '/). Ts gratify the Scotch, £300,000 was voted as "friendly assistance and re- lief/' a phrase which was better understood subsequently. The courts of Star Chamber and High Commission »ver9 abolished, and the Stannary and Forest courts regulate Thirteen bishops, for their share in the canons of 1640, were impeached, and thus kept awav from parliament. In the next session, being insulted on their way to the house, twelve of their uumber signed aprotesl against all laws, orders, votes, &c, passed during their enforced abseuce. for which act of theirs they were committed to the Tower. CHARLES I. 139 Meanwhile Charles paid a visit to Scotland, and on the meetiug of the Scotch parliament (Aug. 17) confirmed the recent pro- ceedings against the bishops, and ordained that the parliament Biiould meet once in three years. He moreover took into favour the very men who had been most active in the late insurrections , Leslie he created earl of Leven, to Argyle the leader of the Covenanters he gave the higher title of marquis, and many others received promotion in the peerage and were put into offices of state. VI. The Irish rebellion. 1641. Wentworth, who had been deputy in Ireland since 1633, had given great offence to all parties. He defrauded the Catholics and landowners of concessions granted to them by the king, and for which grant they had actually paid money. The Irish Church lie had wronged by imposing on it the English Articles. But the great grievance was the forfeiture of the lands of Connaught, on pretence that they belonged of right to the crown. His go- vernment generally partook too much of tyranny. " He set up the authority of the executive government over that of the courts of law. He permitted no person to leave the island without his license. He established vast monopolies for his own private benefit. He imposed taxes arbitrarily. He levied them by military force." But more than all this, the mass of the people were Romanists, and condemned to suffer from the many penal Vaws against them It is not therefore surprising that they took Advantage of the disturbed condition of England, and as both the English and Scotcli had obtained concessions from the king, they resolved to unite for the same purpose. Roger Moore, O'Neal and others headed the movement. The first attempt was to cap- ture Dublin (Oct. 23, 1641) ; this scheme was betrayed, and 30,000 men, now rendered desperate by failure, commenced a savage massacre which spread all over the country, and ended in the slaughter of more than 40,000 Protestants. " Eager tc avenge in a day ages of outrage and misery, they with a proud joy committed excesses which struck their ancient masters with 1 orror and dismay." In consequence of the subsequent troubles in England, it was several years before this war was extinguished. VII. Rupture between Charles and his parliament. 1642. The proceedings of the parliament in its first year were ener- getic in the redress of public grievances, in some cases violent, but not more so than might have been expected from a reactionary movement. When the Houses met again, they were startled first 140 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH rilBTORY. oy news of the events in Ireland, and next by the hearty recep- tion given to the king by the citizens of London, on his ret uria from the north. Professing to doubt the king's sincerity in making the late concessions, the commons published a paper called The Remonstrance, setting forth at length every grievance since the commencement of the reign, and praying the king to employ only such counsellors and ministers as might enjoy the confidence of the parliament. Its purpose evidently was to in- crease the prevailing dissatisfaction, and this it accomplished, fo* the Cavaliers and Roundheads, as the partisans of the court and parliament were called, began to assemble about the palace, and daily skirmishes took place. It was now that the twelve bishops protested and were sent to the Tower. Four days after, lord Kimbolton, with Hollis, Hampden, Pym, Haslerig, and Strode, the most distinguished leaders of the country party, were im- peached by order of the king. As the lords made some delay, Charles went in person to seize them in the house ; they escaped, and the king retired covered with confusion. He now quitted Whitehall for Hampton, and in a few days his queen embarked at Dover for Holland. Both parties began to prepare for war, though negotiations still went on. The final rupture was on the question of the militia, or in other words the command of the armed forces of the kingdom ; the commons demanded it, but the king refused and withdrew to York. Whilst there further pro- positions were made : — that the parliament should have the ap- proval of the king's ministers, council, and judges ; the regulating of the education and marriage of the royal children ; the disposal of the militia, and the approval of all commanders of forts ; and the reform of the church. No agreement being come to, the parliament chargedaCommittee of Safety with the public defence, and ordered an army to be raised * for the defence of the king and parliament." VIII. The Civil War. 1642-1648. As soon as the parliament had decided to appeal to the sword the fleet was committed to the earl of Warwick, and the land forces to the earl of Essex. This party found its chief support in London, the town populations, and the yeomen of the country ; on the other side range dthree-fourths of the nobility and principal gentry with tneir retainers. After an unsuccessful attempt to obtain possession of Hull, Charles set up his standard at Not- tingham (Aug. 22), which act was deemed equivalent to a decla- ration of hostilities. The royal army was placed under the vommand of the earl of Lindsey. Blood was first drawn iu a cavalry skirmish at Powich bridge (Sei)t 23), the king's head- CHARLES I. 14J quarters being then at Shrewsbury . Essex remaining inactive at Worcester, the king moved his army witn the intention of march- irg on London. The parliamentary army followed, and a battle was fought at Edgehill (Oct. 23), in which 4,000 men are said to have fallen ; neither party could claim a victory. After this, Rupert, the nephew of Charles, engaged the enemy at Brentford, (Nov. 12), in the hope of getting into London, but was foiled in the attempt. In the early part of 1643, a negotiation for peace was carried on at Oxford, without result; and the queen landed at Burlington, with supplies of men and arms. Essex opened the campaign with the siege of Reading, which surrendered in ten days. About two months after, his outposts were beaten at Chinnor by Ru- pert's horse, and on the following morning Hampden trying to stop the passageof the royalists in Chalgrove-field (June 18), was mortally wounded. Meanwhile Waller the poet and other per- sons were found embarked in a plot to admit the king's forces into London ; two of the conspirators were hanged, the others imprisoned. The cause of the parliament seemed on the decline, for their forces were beaten successively at Stratton (May 16), Aiherton Moor (June 30), Lansdown (July 5), and at Round way Down (July 13). Ail the principal towns of the west fell to the royalists, even Bristol surrendered after a siege of only three days ; Gloucester held out, and Charles formed its siege. To save that city, Essex was despatched with 12,000 men ; on his reaching Prestbury Hills, the royalists fired their huts and re- tired. Charles moved towards London, and Essex followed. The two armies came into contact at Newbury (Sept. 20) ; the battle raged all day, and 2,000 men fell ; on the side of the king there fell lord Falkland, " the glory of the royalist party." In the meantime, negotiations had being going on between the parliamentarians and the Scots, which after a promise was made of reforming the Church of England, ended in the Covenant being sanctioned by both houses of parliament (Sept. 18), and ordered to be taken by all persons in office. This compact was called The Solemn League and Covenant. By the league, or civil art, the Scots undertook to supply 21,000 men, to be kept in pay y the English. In the same year the Assembly of Divines com- menced its sittings at Westminster. Its purpose was to promote uniformity of worship in the two countries, which meant the substitution of Presbyterianism for Episcopacy. In 1644 fortune favoured the parliament. Towards the end of tha preceding year, Ormond, the king's lieutenant in Ireland, sent over five regiments to the assistance of his master. At first thev met with success, but Fairfax the younger defeated them I 142 OUTLINED OF ENGLISH HISTORY. at Nantwich (Jan. 25) ; among the prisoners was cclonel Mont, who afterwards figured at the restoration. This success was balanced however by the defeat of general Waller at Cropredy- Bridye (June 29). The Scotch army according to agreement, entered England, and joining their forces with those of Fairfax, shut up the marquis of Newcastle in York ; Manchester and hie 'lieutenant, Cromwell, brought to their aid a third army. To relieve the capital of the north, Charles ordered his nephew to hasten to Yorkshire. On his arrival, the parliamentarians raised the siege, and a battle followed at Marston Moor (July 2), in which the royalists were utterly routed, chiefly by Cromwell and his " Ironsides" ; 4,000 were buried on the field. This victory ruined the royal cause in the north. In the west it was more fortunate, for Essex allowed himself to be shut up in Lostwithiel, and his infantry was forced to capitulate to the king. In the same month, the king's cause brightened in Scotland under Montrose, who won the battle of Tippermuir, and obtained pos- session of Aberdeen, which endured a sack of three da} r s. The campaign closed with the indecisive battle oiNewbui^y (Oct. 27). In the early part of this year (1644) Charles attempted z. counter parliament at Oxford without result. From March to November. Laud's trial was going on; the old man was eventually attainted for designing to subvert the subjects' liberties and re- ligion. His execution took place in January, 1645. At the commencement of 1645, another attempt was made at negotiation ; commissioners met at Uxbridge, but nothing was concluded. A more important matter was the Self-denying Ordinance which passed in April ; its object was to remove from commands in the army certain officers who were supposed to be lukewarm in the cause. Essex and others now resigned their commissions, but Cromwell and a few more were continued as exceptional cases. The entire army had been new modelled to secure a majority of Independents,and entrusted to the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax, with Cromwell at the head of the cavalry. After some successes on both sides, the two armies fought at Naseby (June 14) ; this battle ruined the royal cause. Besides the slain, 5,000 prisoners were left on the field, with an immense number of arms, and, what was worse than all, the king's private cabinet of papers and letters. Some of these were published to prove the insincerity of the king. Fairfax now reduced the west, while Charles, attempting to relieve Chester was defeated at Rowton Moor (Sept. 24). Montrose still in the field, gave the Covenanters a terrible defeat at Kilsyth (Aug. 15), but was him- self completely routed at Philiphaugh (Sept. 13). In 1C4G Fairfax having extinguished tl e royal cause in the CHARLES I. 143 west, formed the siege of Oxford ; the king fearing lest he should become a prisoner, stole out in the night and, after much hesita- tion, took refuge with the Scotch army, near Newark. Here he found himself little else than a prisoner, and the English parlia- ment, in doubt of the intentions of the Scots, ordered them to be watched. Thereupon, Leven retired with the king to New. castle, at which place propositions for agreement were again offered, but rejected by Charles. By an arrangement now made with the Scots, they were to withdraw from England on the parliament's guaranteeing a payment of £400,000, to cover the moneys due to the Scotch army, half before they left England, and the remainder in two years. The person of Charles was voted to be in the parliament. On the 30th of January, 1647, the first moiety of the money being paid, Charles was transferred to the English commissioners, the Scottish parliament having first given its full consent for de- livering up the king, in order to strengthen the peace between the two kingdoms. The king was removed to llolmby. No sooner was the first civil war ended, than a struggle for supre- macy commenced between the parliament and the army. The latter proceeded to mutiny, and a detachment of horse, under cornet Joyce, carried off the king to Newmarket (June 4). It was now a contest between the Presbyterians and Independents ; at the head of the Jatterwas Cromwell, whose energy of character gave his party the victory. Proposals from the army were made to Charles, he refused them in the belief that the growing struggle between the two parties would enable him to give iaw to both. Removed to Hampton Court (Aug. 16), the king had for a time a iarge measure of liberty and the company of his friends, but the rise of the Levellers, or ultra-republicans, brought a change. Cromwell, who would have made terms with the king, found him- self suspected, and therefore obliged to make his peace with the army; in December a general reconciliation took place, of which ■:he king's ruin was the condition. Meanwhile Charles, in fear of uesigns on his life, had made his escape from Hampton (Nov. 12), in two days he took up his abode in Carisbrooke castle. Here ;erms were again offered to him, both by the parliament and the Scotch commissioners; the latter were successful on promise oi a Scotch army to restore the king, the former he rejected. In 1648, the royalists made another effort in favour of their sovereign, and met with partial success, but were ultimately de- feated in Wales, at Maidstone, and Colchester. The Scots fared no better, for though they reached Preston they met with defeat and were compelled to retire across the borders. During the em- ployment of the army in putting down the second civil war the 144 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORF. parliament sent commissioners to Newport to treat with tne kujg i and terms were concluded. But the army, dissatisfied with what had been done, carried off the king to Hurst castle (Nov. 30), and on the 6th of December, colonel Pride " purged " the house of eommons of the leading Presbyterians. The house now con- sisted of only fifty Independents, and is subsequently known as the " Rump Parliament." Charles was removed to Windsor (Dec. 22), and his impeachment resolved on by the Rump. IX. Trial and execution of the king. 1649. On the 1st of January, the committee appointed for that pur- pose reported that " Charles Stuart, for accomplishing of his designs, and for the protecting of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices, to the same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present parliament and the people therein represented." The lords rejected the charge of treason, but there were only twelve peers present in the house. Thereupon the commons voted : That the commons of England in parliamentassembled,dodeclare thatthe people are. under God, the origin of all just power, and that what they declare law is so, although the consent of king or peers be not had thereto. For the trial of the king, a High Court of Justice was erected, to consist of 135 commissioners, and presided over by Bradshaw, a lawyer. The trial lasted from the 20th to the 27th, but on nc day was there more than half the commissioners present. Charles conducted himself with dignity, he refused to acknowledge tho authority of the court, and protested against its proceedings; the court nevertheless adjudged him u as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of this nation, to be put to death by severing his head from his body." Charles passed the 28th in pious conference withbishop Juxon, and on the29th took farewell of his two children, the princess Elizabeth and the duke of Gloucester. The day following he walked from St. James's to Whitehall, and after spending some time in devotional ex- ercises, was beheaded on a scaffold erected for that purpose. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1633, the Book of Sports was again published, by which the people were encouraged, by roval proclama- tion, to devote a part of the Lord's Day to dancing, archery, May- poles, Whit sun -ales, &c. (Treat offence was taken at this attempt to revive the practice of Sunday sports, not only by the Puritans but by many churchmen ; indeed some clergymen refused to read the pro- clamation. In 1637, a proclamation issued to stop the emigration of Puritans to America, henceforth no one could quit the country — v/ithout a license from the privy council or the justices, without having first taken the oaths of allegiance and suprenmcv, and without the testimony of their parish minister a/ to cuuforuniy in ecclesiastical THE COMMON WEALTH, 145 matters. It was during the civil war, that the parliament introduce into this country a new mode of revenue — the excise, whljh proved ao fruitful, that it was retained after the Restoration, and became d permanent institution. The student of this period of our history would have reached a wrong conclusion, did he suppose that the parliament men were models of what constitutional rulers ought to be. It is a fact which should not be lost sight of, that these very men, who brought the country into a civil war rather than submit to arbitrary rule, were most arbitrary themselves in the exercise of that power which they had snatched from the hands of others. In direct violation of the Petition of Right, they made numberless forced levies of horses and men; gave powers to their generals to press men into their service; passed a most tyrannical ordinance to repress disorders in printing ; and after imprisoning by mere arbitrary votes, any who ventured to present addresses that were distasteful, they passed a rigid law against tumultuous petitioning, the very means by which their own power had Veen established. From the very first, heavy weekly assessments were levied, and a little later an excise was set, which reached most of the necessaries of daily lite. Chkonicle. 1625, Barbadoes colonised, the first English settle- ment in the West Indies. Hackney coaches made their appearance in the streets of London. 1632, Settlement of Roman Catholics in Mary- land by Lord Baltimore. 1635, Establishment of a post-office for the conveyance of letters to Scotland, and a few of the principal towns in England. 1641, Pendulums applied to clocks. 1643, English build Fort St. George at Madras. Barometer invented by Torricelli, a Floren- tine. 1649, George Fox, the founder of the Quakers, begins to preach. Brass-making introduced into England. THE COMMONWEALTH. 1649-1660. Oliver Ceomwell (1599 — 1658) the son of Robert Cromwell, a member of Parliament in the reign of Elizabeth, was born at Hunting- don, and educated partly at the grammar school of his native town, and partly at Sydney College, Camb/idge. After studying the law for a time, he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Bourchier, and retired to a grazing farm at St. Ives, where he became a leading man among the Puritans. In the third parliament of Charles I., Crom- wtll sat for Huntingdon, and in the parliaments of 1640, for Cam- bridge. Rude both in his appearance and speech, he nevertheless soon attained to fame by the energy of his character. In 1642, he became captain of a troop of horse raised in his own district. By his exertions he greatly improved the efficiency of the parliamentary forces, and by his skill rose to a generalship, and subsequently to possess greater influence than any other person in the kingdom. Reaching the height of his ambition, he found it more difficult to rule than to fight. Hence his home government proved as unsatis- factory to the nation, as his foreign policy proved the energy of his character, and the power of England. His last years were full of inquietude, and ended by an ague. His body, after resting in Westminster Abbey till 1661. was then disinterred to be hung on Tyburn gallows. 146 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH I11STOK1 Richard Csomwell (1626 — 1712) the second son of Oliver, was born at Huntingdon and for a time studied law at Lincoln'? Inc. A.8 soon as he married, he gave himself up entirely to rural pursuit* from which his father, when he became Protector, called him away tc sit in his parliaments, and to be first lord of trade and navigation. Though raised to the Protectorate, it soon became evident that he wad not the man, he therefore did wisely in retiring. After the Resto- ration, he resided abroad twenty years ; and on his return he fixed his residence at Cheshunt, where he spent the remainder of his life in sfict privacy. I. Republicanism established. No sooner was Charles dead than proclamation wao made de- claring it treason to give any one the title of king. In about a month the commons voted the house of lords useless and dangerous ; and that the office of king being unnecessary, burden- some, and dangerous, was therefore abolished. The supreme authority now rested in the representatives of the people, that is, in the Rump of about fifty members. The executive was entrusted to a Council of State of 38 persons, with Bradshaw for president and Milton the poet for foreign secretary. Its functions included the government at home ; the navy and army ; the superin- tendence of trade ; and the negotiation of treaties with foreign powers. To meet the expenses of the government, a revenue was raised from monthly assessments ; an excise on beer, spirits, &c. ; tonnage and poundage ; and from fines and compositions drawn from royalists and Catholics. The average annual revenue during the Commonwealth was more than double what it had been in the reign of Charles. Much discontent showed itself, but the power of the sword could not be resisted. II. Reduction of Ireland and Scotland. 1649—1651. Ireland, after the rebellion of 1641, wasfor sometime in perfect confusion, and the civil war in England prevented a sufficient force being sent over to re-establish a central government. Hence there were the Catholic confederation, the Protestant party, the king's party under Ormond, not to name any others, for at the death of Charles there were five armies in Ireland, acting independently of each other. In August, 1649, Cromwell lauded at Dublin with 12,000 men ; Ormond's defeat at Ratlunines had taken place a foitnight before. The general opened his cam- paign with the siege of Drogheda, which fell (Sept. 12), and the whole of the garrison, nearly 3,000, was put to the sword. The iike befell Wexford (Oct. 9), on which Cork and other places submitted. In 1650, Cromwell was in the field with 20,000 men, &iid obtained possession ri Kilkenny and Clonmel, he was nov* _ THE COMMONWEALTH. 147 recalled, and left Ireton his son-in-law to complete the wort.. This was not done till after a ti t'teen months siege of Limerick* which capitulated (Sept. 1651), the garrison and inhabitants to have their lives and property. Ireton died, and the settlement of Ireland fell to Fleetwood and Henry Cromwell. Scotland, indignant at the execution of the king, proclaimed bis son as Charles II., on condition, however, that he should be- come a party to the League and Covenant. Disliking this con- dition, he sanctioned Montrose in an attempt to raise the Scotch royalists ; the attempt failed, the leader was hung, and Charles agreed to sign the covenants. The English government having decided on war, Cromwell crossed the Tweed with 16,000 men. Advancing through a deserted country, he found the Scotch army, under the younger Leslie, entrenched in the neighbourhood of the capital. From their fortified position the Scots could not oe enticed, till sickness in the English army had made Cromwell withdraw to Dunbar. The Scots followed, and enclosing the English, rendered their position perilous in the extreme ; Leslie would have waited his opportunity, but the clergy insisted that the time was come. And so it was, for in the battle of Dunbar (Sept.3, 1650), the Scots lost 3,000 in slain and 10,000 in prisoners, besides their military stores, and the country south of the Forth. In 1651 Charles was crowned at Scone, and Cromwell crossed the Forth to attack his army ; this movement left the south clear, and the young king marched at once into England, hoping to rally round him a large body of Royalists, but in this he ex perienced disappointment. At Worcester he was brought to 3 stand, and his army completely routed by Cromwell (Sept. 3) ; 3,000 royalists fell in this battle, and of the prisoners many hundreds were disposed of for slaves in the colonies. Charles escaped, and after wandering about in disguise for six weeks, embarked at Shoreham for France. Monk completed the reduction of Scotland, after which no authority was permitted to exist but that derived from the English parliament. In 1654 Cromwell incorporated the two countries. III. First Dutch war. 1652—1654, William the stadtholderhad married the daughter of Charles L, "ind was moreover of somewhat despotic tendency ; he therefore disliked the proceedings of the English parliament, and when its envoy, Dr. Dorislaus, was assassinated, the Dutch allowed the murderers to escape. William died in 1650, but the new authority in Holland proved to be equally averse to any alliance with the English, and treated St. John and Strickland, the ambassadors, with much contempt. Besides, the Dutch locked v» T ith great 14# 0UTLINE8 OF ENGLISH HISTORY. jealousy on the increase of the English commerce, and as we wen jealous of them and passed a Navigation Act to their injury, it was natural that a war should follow. Hostilities commenced by an English commodore firing on a Dutch vessel in the Downs, for not saluting the English flag. Soon after, Blake fought the Dutch off Dover (May 19), and took two ships. Admirals Blake and Penn again defeated them in the Downs (Sept. 28), but as a set-off, Van Tromp with a fleet of 90 sail came upon Blake who had only 37, and beat him neaT the Goodwin Sands (Nov. 28). This victory intoxicated the Dutch, and Van Tromp cruised in the English Channel with a oroom at his mast-head, to signify that he would sweep the English from their own seas. In 1653, Blake engaged the enemy off Portland (Feb. 18) ; a running fight followed for three days, aLvi the Dutch lost 40 vessels. Off the North Foreland (June 2), a battle for two days ended in Tromp's losing 21 sail and 1,300 prisoners. The next battle began off the Texel (July 29), and lasted three days ; the enemy lost 20 ships and 6,000 men. This ended the war, for the Dutch had lost 1,200 ships, and spent more money than in their twenty years' war with Spain. The war concluded by the Treaty of Westminster (April 5, 1654), by which the Dutch promised to give no countenance to English royalists, to pay the usual honours to the flag of the Commonwealth, and to pay certain demands made on them by English merchants. IV. Protectorate of Oliver and Richard Cromwell, 1653-1659. The republicans had not made themselves many friends, but rather the reverse, on account of the strong liking the leaders showed for the emoluments of office. Being moreover afraid of the army, the house proposed its reduction, which Cromwell and his party were determined to resist, on the ground that there was no other guarantee for public liberty. The Rump showing some spirit in the matter, Cromwell took a company of musketeers tr the house, and after censuring the members for their selfish Hess, turned them out and locked the door. To quiet the country, a new parliament was called of men "faithful, fearing God, and hatingcovetou8nes8; ,, from one of it* members this assembly obtained the name of The Barebone.s Par- liament. Thesemenwerenotignorantbutfanatical, and proposed so many striking changes, that all classes of the community were roused. Oneof Cromwell's friends proposed, as their proceedings were unsatisfactory, they should resign their power. They did so, and a council of officers constituted Cruni well Lord Protector THE COMMONWEALTH. 149 bf the Commonwealth., on condition that he should rule according to the Instrument of Government* which provided — that there should be a parliament every three years, to sit not less than five months, that 400 members should be returned for England, and 30 each for Scotland and Ireland ; that the executive be in the Protector and a council ; that laws be made and taxes im» posed only by parliament ; that there be an army of 30,000 men ; and that all religionists be protected except prelatists, papists, and those who taught licentiousness. The Protector called a parliament in 1654, but it proved refractory, and was therefore dismissed at the end of five months ; a second was called in the next year, which proposed some changes in the government. According to the new scheme contained in The Bumble Petition and Advice, the Protector had thepowertonominate a successor; a house of peers was to be constituted, the first nomination to be in the Protector ; and before it was amended, the Petition sug- gested that Cromwell should assume a higher title. This he was ready to do, but so many of his supporters objected, that he contented himself with a solemn inauguration in Westminster Hall, under hisformerdesignation. The two houses met in 1658, and a quarrel growing up about the power of the upper house, Cromwell found it necessary to dissolve them. Meanwhile the Protector governed the country as best he could, but there were so many parties, so much dissatisfaction, and so many conspiracies against the government, that it could be carried on only by considerable severity. Men were imprisoned contrary to law, and many sold for slaves in the plantations. In 1655 the country was actually divided into districts, each commanded by a major-general with almost unlimited power. In his foreign re- lations Cromwell was more fortunate. The Dutch were humbled, and Louis of France sought his alliance against Spain. The veterans who served with the French brought victory to the alliance, and according to the conditions, Dunkirk after its cap- ture was handed over to the English. In the Mediterranean, the pirates were taught to respect the English flag, and the duke of Savoy induced to put a stop to the persecution of the Protestant Vaudois. War was declared against Spain in 1655, and Jamaica captured by Penn and Venables ; in the next year the heroic Blake destroyed the fleet of treasure-ships at Santa Cruz. Richard Cromwell succeeded his father (Sept. 3, 1658), and was immediately attacked by his own relatives, who despised him because he was not a soldier. A parliament was called in the hope that it would curb the spirit of the army, but it proved refractory, and the insurgent officers compelled Richard to dis- solve it The Cabal of Wallingford House possessed now tha 160 OUTLINES 0* ENGLISH HISTOR/. mipreme power, and Richard formally resigned his office (Ma? 25, 16o9). V. Anarchy and Restoration, 1659—1660. Before Richard had actually resigned, Fleetwood, his brother- in-law and the head of the Cubal, having come to an agreement 9/ith the republican party, recalled the Rump parliament (May 7). The army proposed to itself to rule through the parliament, but the house would not submit, and therefore lost the support of the military. Encouraged by these dissensions, the royalists at- tempted a rising ; Sir George Booth surprised Chester, but the insurgents were soon defeated by general Lambert at Nantwich (Aug. 19). The parliament continuing unmanageable, Lambert cleared the house (Oct. 13). Much discontent followed, and Monk, commander of the forces in Scotland, after sounding his officers, resolved to march to London. Admiral Lawron, the commander of thefieet, sailed up theThames and declared agkinst the Cabal. Under these circumstances, the Rump again met (Dec. 26), and received the support of Monk when he reached London. The capital too declared for a full and free parliament ; Monk therefore joined his fortune with that of the citizens, and under all these influences, the secluded members of the long parliament again took their seats (Feb. 21, 1660). Every one seemed mad with joy, for a fear had grown up that a new civil war would break out between Cromwell's rival generals. The parliament acted with vigour, and Monkwas'madecommander-in- chief. All this while, no one could guess the part Monk pro- posed to play, perhaps he had not determined himself. The long parliament now dissolved itself after an existence of more than nineteen years. Before another met, Monk began to throw rff the mask ; negotiations were opened with Charles, and measures taken to secure his return. The Convention Parliament met (April 25), and shortly after, Grenville presentedhimself with aconciliatory letter from Charles, enclosing a paper known as the Declaration of Breda, by which Charles promised — to grant a free and general pardon to all per- sons who should submit within forty days, excepting such as the parliament should except ; to allow liberty to tender consciences for difference of opinion in matters of religion, which do not dis. turb the peace of the kingdom ; to leave the settlement of dis- puted estates to be determined by parliament ; and to pay all officers and men of Monk's forces their arrears, and receive them into the royal service. Theseconditions being favourably received, the Convention voted that the exiled king be invited to come and rcteive the crown. Charles lo6t xio time, and embarking in the GHAJXIS3 n. l6l ghips sent for him, landed at Dover (May 25), and entered London (May 29) amidst universal rejoicings. Miscellaneous Facts. One of the laws of the Barebone's parlia- ment made marriage a civil contract, to be solemnized by the justices of the peace, the parties having first had their banns published three tmw at church, or in the market-place. This act was ratified in 1656, but the parties were then permitted to adopt the accustomed rites of religion, if they preferred them. In 1655 the Jews petitioned for readmission inWi England; the subject was several times before the council, but though Cromwell was favourable to it, he could not carry the council with him. It appears, however, that numbers of that nation came over, and that in 1657 tney had a burying- ground of their own. The commonwealth-men, though they had complained so muJi of a want of religious tolerance, were not very tolerant themselves. One of their own party, a Jamea Naylor, an army officer, for holding certain religious fancies, was whipped, pilloried, branded, his tongue bored ihrou^h with a red-hot iron, and then committed to perpetual imprisonment. And this barbarous punishment, equalling those of the Star Chamber, was not ordered by 9 council board, but by the house of parliament, after days of mature deliberation. Chbojsticle. 1652, A coffee-house opened in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill, by the servant of a Turkey merchant ; they became common in a few years. 1654. Invention of the air-pump by Otto de Guericke; improved in 1657 by Robert Boyle. 1658, Watches first made in ling- land. CHARLES II. 1660-1685. Rotax Family. Charles II. (1630—1685), son of Charles I., was born at St. James's Palace, and shortly after his birth declared prince of Wales. When the civil war broke out, he appears as captain of a troop of horse; two years later, he was appointed general of the western counties. In 1646 he joined his mother at Paris ; withdrawing shortly after to the Hague, he resided there till the murder of Dr. Dorislaus. After staying a while at Paris and Jersey, he retired to Breda, where he accepted the conditions offered by the Scots and became their king. The battle of Worcester made him again a refugee, residing sometimes at Paris, at others at Bruges or Brussels, but wherever it was, his court was a constant scene of drunkenness and debauchery. Returning to England in 1660, he was heartily received, but men eventually grew tired of a king who thought more of his pleasures than his duties. 'Too indolent to attend to the affairs of his people, he sacrificed every- thing to his vicious indulgences, and stooped *o the greatest humiliations and practised the most scandalous dishonest} to procure means for riot and extravagance and while he pretended to join in the fears of his subjects as to the designs of the Romanists, and agreed to severe laws to restrain them, was himself a member of their community, and actively engaged in schemes to subvert the constitution loth in Church and State." The consort of Charles, Catherine (1638—1705), was the daughter of John, iuke of Broganza, and who subsequently became king of Por- tugal. Educated in s convent, she had led a life of seclusion up to the 152 0CTUNE8 OF ENGLISH HISTORY. time of her marriage. Charles inclined to the match, on account cf the dowry of £500.000, together with the settlements of Tangier and Bom- bay, and a free trade for the English to India and the Brazils. Catherine landed at Portsmouth and was married in 1662. Her life aa the wife of Charles was most miserable, she wap not only neglected for others, but had forced on her the king's mistresses as part of her household. And being a Catholic, she was subject to further trials, for during the heats of the popish plots, an accusation was laid against the queen herself, and some of her servants executed. After the death of Charles she resided at Somerset House till 1692; returning then to Portugal, she became for a time the regent. It is to the praise of Catherine that ■he bore the indignities heaped upon her with much patience, and maintained an unblemished fame in one of the most corrupt courts of Europe. By his wife Charles left no children, but many by his mistresses — such were the dukes of Monmouth, Grafton, St. Albans, and Richmond, all of them ancestors of existing noble houses. Besides those named there were several others. I. Settlement of the nation. At the Restoration much required to be done to bring order out of the confusion into which nearly every part of the consti- tution had been thrown during twenty years of disorder. To prevent future disputes in the matter of revenue, this question received immediate attention. The public revenue was set at £1,200,000, and instead of the old feudal revenues derived from tenure by knight service, the excise was made a permanent tax. From this time the clergy no longer taxed themselves in convo- cation, but were included among the laity so far as taxation was concerned ; this arrangement tended to lessen the influence and authority of the Convocation as a separate estate of the realm. It was found more difficult to settle the question of the landed property which had changed hands during the late troubles. Charles had promised that just satisfaction should be given by the parliament, but that assembly was thwarted and concluded nothing, so that the parties were left to the common course of law. Ultimately, the crown, the church, and the dispossessed royalists reclaimed their property, and the holders were ousted, not being able to show a satisfactory title. The royalists, who had pold a part or the whole of their estates, were obliged to take the results of their own act. Before the parliament separated, it agreed to the punishment of the regicides. Twenty-nine were tried and condemned, though only ten suffered the extreme penalty. By order of the houses, the dead bodies of Cromwell, Bradshaw, and lieton were disinterred and hung at Tyburn. The Convention parliament was dissolved Dec. 29. The second long parliament met (May 8, 1661), and was found to consist nearly altogether af royalists. Its first business wrs CHARLES n. 153 the settlement of the church question, this was done by a series cf acts, which were deemed necessary to put the Establishment on a proper footing, and curb the party in opposition to it. First came the Corporation Act (1661), designed to break the power of all classes of dissenters in the cities and boroughs. It provided— that no person could be a member of a corporation, anless within twelve months he had taken the sacrament accord- ing to the rites of the Church of England ; and abjured the league and covenant, and the lawfulness of taking up arms against the king; and shall take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy For the purpose of making the Liturgy more acceptable to dis- sentients, a conference of churchmen and puritans was held at the Savoy palace (1661), but the time was consumed in fruitless discussions, and it was left for the Convocation to make some alterations. This being done, the new parliament passed the A ct of Uniformity (1662), which required — that henceforth all minis- ters should use the amended Book of Common Prayer, and that all persons enjoying any ecclesiastical benefice should publicly declare their assent to the same, and their approval of everything contained in it, by reading before their congregations a certain formula to that effect, on some Lord's day before the feast of St. Bartholomew (Aug. 24) next, on pain, of deprivation ; it further required of all ministers of the church episcopal ordi- nation, the oath of canonical obedience, the abjuration of the league and covenant and the lawfulness of arming against the king. About 2,000 incumbents resigned their livings rather than comply ; they were subsequently known as Nonconformists. The nonconforming ministers opening separate places of wor- ship gave occasion to the Conventicle Act (1664), rendered neces- sary, as was said, by persons under pretence of tender consciences meeting to foment insurrections. The act provided— that all persons above sixteen years of age present at such meetings, where five individuals besides the family should be assembled, should for the first offence be fined £5 or be imprisoned ; for the second £10 or imprisonment ; and for the third, £100 or trans- portation for seven years. A second Conventicle Act, in 1670 reduced the penalty on hearers, but inflicted a fine on preachers! and those who lent their houses for such purposes. During the plague some of the nonconforming ministers filled the vacant pulpits in London, and as they were said to have em- ployed the opportunity to disseminate sedition, there was passed ^Five-Mile 4c* (1665). This act forbade nonconforming mini* ters coming within five miles of any town sending members to parliament, or of any village in which they had ever ministered under penalty of £40, and six months' im prisonment in addition, 1 154 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HI8TORT. if they refused to take the oath of non-resistance. It also forbade their keeping a school. In Scotland an obsequious parliament annulled all the pro- ceedings of the parliaments which had sat during the preceding twenty-eight years. Episcopacy was restored, Argyle and others executed, and Sharpe, the agent of the Scotch kirk, made arch- bishop of St. Andrew's. A foundation was thus laid for the disturbed state of Scotland for many years to come. In Ireland, episcopacy was restored, and the church lands reclaimed. An attempt made to settle the landed property proved the more difficult, by reason of the immense grants made to the duke of York and others. Ultimately, the possessors agreed to relinquish one-third, still the majority never regained theic rights. II. Second Dutch war. 1664—1667. The principal causes which brought on this war — were the in- terference of the Dutch with the gains of the African Company, of which the duke of York was the governor; the non-fulfilment of the treaty of 1654 ; the dislike that Charles had to the repub- licans of Holland ; and as is said, that, the king might have the opportunity of filching a portion of the money granted to carry on the war. Hostilities commenced on the coast of Africa, where Sir Robert Holmes captured Goree and other Dutch stations ; then sailing to America he reduced the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam (1664), changing its name to that of New York. De Ruyter, in retaliation, sailed to the West Indies and took twenty sail of English ; the English fleets meanwhile 6wept the Channel, and brought in 130 Dutch traders. In 1665, the English with ninety-eight sail under the duke of York, blockaded the Dutch coasts for a month. Being driven off by a storm, Opdam came out with 113 ships, and a battle wa6 fought in Solebay, off Lowestoffe (June 3), in whicb Opdam perished, and the enemy lost 18 ships and 7,000 men. This great victory was obtained just when the plague had begun to put forth its strength. In 1666 the Dutch secured the aid of France, though it proved of no great service to them. In consequence of a false report, the English fleet was divided, Rupert taking a part to meet the French, who were said to be coming up tne channel, whilst Sionk, now earl of Albemarle, sailed out of the Downs with the remainder. To his surprise, he found De Ruyter and De Witt with eighty sail at the back of the Goodwin Sands (June I). The battle raged for four days, and Monk's division would have CHARLES II. 155 3een annihilated, but for the timely arrival of Rupert ; both Darties drew off under cover of a mist, the English having lost 10 3hips and 1,700 men, the Dutch 1,800 men. Both fleets met again off the North Foreland (July 25), the English were victors, the Dutch losing 20 ships and 4,000 men. An attack was now made on the Dutch coasts, and 150 ships burnt at Schelling. The lost to the Dutch was a million sterling ; within a month, the English lost seven times that amount by the Fire of London. In 1667 the English nation was disgraced, and the Dutch revenged for the insult at Schelling. Money was scarce, so the large ships were laid up in the hope of a speedy peace. Negoti- ations were opened at Breda (May 14), though the Dutch would not agree to an armistice. All the while, preparations were mak- ing to insult the English coasts, and when ready De Ruyter sailed for the Nore. Dividing his fleet he entered the Medway with a part, and having destroyed the fort at Sheerness, advanced to Chatham, where he burnt several ships of war, and a valuable magazine of stores (June 12). The other division entered the Thames, but were compelled to retire before they had reached Gravesend. The second Dutch war ended by the Treaty of Breda (July 21), by which the English and Dutch agreed to remain in their present condition, each retaining what it possessed. The treaty with France gave up Nova Scotia to thatcountry on receiving Antigua, Montserrat, and St. Kitts. The treaty with Denmark, which had become a party to the quarrel, simply restored friendly relations. III. The plague and fire. 1665—1666. The great plague did not excite public alarm till the month of April, when its ravages in St. Giles's induced the council to direct measures to be taken. It soon spread, and a continuous stream of population flowed out of London to the neighbouring districts. When in its full tide, every house containing the plague was marked with a red cross, a foot long, on the door, and no person allowed egress for a month. The dead were gathered in carts, and shot into plague pits. Up to September the deaths increarsed, they then reached upwards of a thousand a day. Coal fires lighted in the streets, and the strong winds that set in, cooled and purified the sir, and from this time the deaths decreased. After London wasclear,it raged in different parts of the country. In the metropolis there perished more than 100,000 persons. On the 2nd of September in the following year a fire broke out at a baker's shop in Pudding-lane, where the Monument now -stands ; and as the houses were then built mostly of wood, with pitched roof s, and narrow thoroughfares, the fire spread rapidly. 156 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY, Unfortunately, there raged a strong east wind, and as no water could be obtained, the fire had the mastery for three days and was subdued only when the wind abated, and many gaps had been made in the re-mainingbuildings, with gunpowder. Two-thirds of London were left in ruins, covering a surface of 436 acres, and 200,000 persons compelled to lie out in the fields. The fire de- stroyed St. Paul's Cathedral, 88 churches, the Royal Exchange, and many other public buildings, together with 13.200 dwelling- houses. By an act passed, no timber building could be again erected, the overhanging storeys therefore disappeared ■ this and the increased width of the streets so improved the healthiness of London that the plague never returned. At first this calamity was ascribed to the Catholics, and so it was stated on the Monu- ment, but there appearing no foundation for the charge, the inscription has been removed. IV. Triple alliance and treaty of Dover. 1668—1670 So great was the public indignation at the insult offered to tho nation in the Med way, that Charles, perhaps not unwillingly, allowed Hyde, earl of Clarendon, to be sacrificed. Clarendon during his administration pleased no party, and without being a bad minister, was unfitted for the peculiar character of the times. A new ministry was now formed, known as the Cabal, because the initials of the principal members formed that word — Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. These men by theirtrucklingpolicy, and adesign to render thekingindependent of parliament, earned for themselves perpetual infamy. The first measure of this ministry seemed, however, to augur well. In 1668 they concluded the Triple Alliance,, so called from the union of England, Holland, and Sweden, with the purpose of checking the con quests of France in Flanders, which bid fair to ewallow dp that country. Louis pretended a right to Flanders, in be- half of his wife Maria Theresa, a daughter of Spain, but was willing to exchange his conquests for Luxemburg, or Franche- oomte, which Spain would not submit to. Much as the Dutch dis- liked the proceedings of the French, it required all the tact of Sir William Temple to persuade them to enter into alliance with Charles, their personal enemy. Louis now gave way, and by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) obtained Lille, Tournay, and otner places in the Spanish Netherlands. T he vast expenditure during the Dutch war, together with iha trinsr's extravagance, led to a bill appointing commissioners of publfo accounts. This irave offence to the king, and Buckingham undertook to negotiate terms on which Louis would grant t'nr English monarch pecuniary assistance. Henrietta, duchess oi CHARLES U. 157 Orleans, met her brother, the king, at Dover (1670), and a treaty was concluded, which bound Charles, at a convenient time, pub- licly to profess himself a Catholic, and then to join in a war against Holland ; Louis on his part engaging to pay a certian sum of money, and aid Charles with an armed force in case of an insurrection in England. Of the conquests to be made in Holland, England was to receive as her share, Walcheren, Sluys, and Cadsand. V. Third Dutch war. 1672-1674. For this war, Charles assigned the following reasons . — the un- willingness of the Dutch to regulate the trade of the two nations in India ; the detention of English traders in Surinam ; their re- fusal to honour the English flag ; and their insults to him per- sonally by medals and defamatory publications. The real cause is to be found in the treaty of Dover. Before hostilities commenced, two events occurred requiring notice. The king suspended, for twelve months, the payment of the moneys advanced to the government, on the security of the public revenue. This put into his hands £1,300,000, but it ruined many bankers, and shook the commercial credit of the nation. The second event was equally disgraceful. An attempt was made to seize the Levant fleet in its passage up the Channel ; the Dutch, however, had their suspicions, and beat off admiral Holmes. War being now declared, a battle was fought in Southwold Bay (May 28) ; the English suffered severely, but when a reinforcement came in, De Ruyter withdrew. In Holland, a French army of 100,000 men advanced to the vicinity of Amsterdam, but the courage of the Dutch rose with their danger, the dykes were cut, the young prince of Orange elected stadtholder, and the two De Witts barbarously murdered in the excitement of a revolution. In 1673, the English parliament, jealous of the alliance with Catholic France, and having some suspicions of a confederacy against Protestants, passed the Test Act, which drove the duke of York and Lord Clifford from office, and otherwise made it appear that the existing war had their disapprobation. In this year, Rupert put to sea with 90 sail, and three actions were fought off the Dutch coasts, but nothing was done of much moment. The third Dutch war ended by the Treaty of Westminster (1674), by which the Dutch consented k) honour the English flag Detween Cape Finisterre and Van Staten ; to allow the English settlers in Surinam to sell their effects and retire ; to refer the disputes of the traders to ladia to arbitration ; and to pay Charles £200,000 in lieu of all claims, excepting those relating to India. 158 OUTLINES OJf ENGLISH HISTORX. On the Continent the war went on till 1678, when it was con duded by the peace of Nimeguen, Louis obtaining Frauche- comte* and sixteen fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands. VI. Popish plots. 1678. A jealonsy of Romanism was nothing new at this time, for from the reign of James there had been a continual outcry against il, and endeavours by the legislature to put its professors under further restrictions. So prevalent was this feeling that the Fire of London was ascribed to them, and the last peace was brought about mainly from the general feeling of the country being against an alliance with Louis, a catholic prince. Indeed, during the war, the anti-popery party passed the Test Act, by which several public officers were compelled to retire. The feeling was increased jus* now, on account of some rumours as to the real character of the treaty of Dover, and the fact that the duke of York had publicly avowed his conversion to popery. It was therefore no difficult task to persuade the people of the existence of a plot to establish Romanism in this country. A man of infamous character, Titus Oates, undertook this work, and, by his lies, influenced the nation till it was blinded with passion. Dr. Tonge, a clergyman, co- operated with Oates, and Bedloe and others followed in a track which brought notoriety and good pay. Some circumstances seemed at first to corroborate the depositions of the plot-makers. A paper was discovered which spoke of subduing the pestilential neresy of the three kingdoms, and Sir E. Godfrey, the magistrate who took Oates' depositions, was shortly afterwards found mur- dered. So great did the panic become, and so confident was Oates of public support, that he actually appeared at the bar of the Commons to impeach Catherine, queen of England. Many innocent persons met their death on the scaffold, for being parties to these imaginary plots ; among the number was the venerable viscount St&ttbrd. During the heats of this period were passed the Papists' Dis- abling Bill (1678), so called because it disabled papists from sitting in parliament ; and the celebrated Habeas Corpus Act (1679) which provided that a prisoner, except committed foi treason or felony, might be removed by a writ of Habeas Corpus, and his case heard by one of the judges: That keepers not making due returns, not delivering a copy of the warrant of committal, or shifting the custody of aprisoner without authority, should be fined £100 : That no person delivered by Habeas Corpus be recommitted for the same offence : That persons com- mitted for treason or felony, if not indicted in the second term CHARLES II. 153 be discharged : That writs of Habeas Corpus shall itru into the Channel Islands, and all privileged places : and That nc inhabitant of England be imprisoned beyond sea. During the same period, the two great political parties obtained the names of Addressers and Abhorrers, on account of one addressing the crown in favour of a parliament to prevent the ascendency of popery, while the other prof essed its abhorrence of the petitioners. These names were soon changed for Whig and Tory ; the former derived from the Scotch Presbyterians, the latter from the popish outlaws in Ireland. VII. Political plots. 1683. Ashley, now earl of Shaftesbury, had been conspicuous in the matter of the Popish plots, and in an endeavour to pass a Bill of Exclusion, to prevent the duke of York coming to the throne. Charles deprived him of his office, and commenced a course of arbitrary rule ; Shaftesbury was even indicted for suborning per- sons to give false testimony against the queen, the duke of York, and others. The king, moreover, feeling that the tide had turned, attacked the charters of corporate towns, and placed in the new corporations men friendly to the court. This provoked schemes for restoring the liberties of the people. Shaftesbury, after plotting with Rumbold, Walcot, and other men of desperate for- tunes, retired to Holland and died. His tools, however, proposed to themselves to assassinate the king as he passed RumbokTs farm, called the Rye House. Another party, composed of Whig leaders — Monmouth, Essex, Grey , Russell, Sydney, and Hampden — was also engaged in a scheme for a simultaneous rising in London, the Whig counties, and Scotland, in order to force a change in the government. The plots became in a measure connected, and 'though the Whig leaders rejected the idea of assassination, they were held to be privy to it. When the conspiracy was discovered, Monmouth and others fl^d, but Russell, Sydney, Howard, and Essex were taken. The two former were executed, Howard t urned approver, and Essex committed suicide. From this time to the end of the reign Charles ruled absolutely. Miscellaneous Facts. The establishment of episcopacy m Scotland led to many disturbances and much persecution. The Covenanters, as the Presbyterians were called, withdrew from their parish churches, and took to open air meetings. In 1666, a body of 1,100 marched on Edinburgh, and were defeated at the Pentland Hills; many were executed, and many put to the torture of the thumbikins or the boot. In 1679, fercbbishop Sharpe, who had de- gerted his party, was foully murdered, upon which the government declared attendance on field conventicles treason ; this brought out iLie Ovenfanters in force, but they met with defeat at Botfandi-bridg*. 160 OJTLINES OF ENGLISH HJ8TA31 The duke of York became now the regent of Scotland, and employs^ the notorious Graham of Claverhouse to dragoon those who refused to renounce the Covenant; this he is accused of doing with cold- blooded and 6avage barbarity. In consequence of the growing conviction of a tendency to Popery lit court, there was passed in 1673 the Test Act, which enacted — thiii aLl persons, holding civil or military offices, should take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy; receive the sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England; and subscribe a declaration against the doctrine of transubstantiation. Chronicle. 1G60, Commencement of a standing army in England. 1662, Royal Society incorporated by charter. 1063, Guineas first eoined in England ; so called from bein^ made of gold brought from Guinea by the African Company. Toll-gates set up. 1668, Bombay granted to the East India Company. 1669, Tea comes into moderate use. Flying coaches started, to do fifty miles a day. 1673, Plate glass first cast in England by Venetians ; some say in the time of Charles I. 1676, Royal Observatory founded at Greenwich. 1681, A penny post established in London. 1682, Chelsea Hospital founded for old soldiers, JAMES II. 1685-1689. Royal Family. James II. (1633—1701), the son of Charles I., was born at St James's Palace, and immediately declared duke of York. In 1646 the surrender of Oxford placed him in the hands of fche parliament ; two years later he escaped in female attire from his keepers, and reached Middleburg in safety. Residing till 1653 at Paris, he then received a command in the French army, but when Cromwell made a treaty with Louis, the duke entered the Spanish service. At the Restoration, his brother made him lord high admira!, and in tb«* same year he married Anne, daughter of Clarendon. On his escape from Rochester, Louis received him with favour, and down to the peace of Ryswick, afforded him aid in the various attempts made to recover his dominions. In 1701, he died of apoplexy at St-. Ger mains, where he held his court. James, in many respects, was a better man than his brother, yet he was a bad king : like Charles, ho attempted to subvert the constitution of this country, and like all hi3 race, he had no sympathy with popular institutions. Even Huma 9ays " the people were justifiable in their resistance of him." The first wife of James was Anne Hyde (1638 — 1671), daughter of Clarendon. The marriage was privately contracted &t Breda in 1659, and it is to the credit of James, that in the face of much opposition, ho publicly avowed it after the fortunes of his family had brightened. Towards the end of her short life Anne embraced the Catholic faith " She was a kind and generous friend, but a severe enemy.' ; The queen consort of James was Mary Beatrice (1658 — 1718), daughter of Alphonso, duke of Modena. Landing at Dover, she war there married (1673), and began almost immediately to enter upon a course of misfortunes. Her childi^n died, a»d her husband, hated by the nation, was forced to quit the country. When he became king, he soon goaded the people into rebellion. Both James and his con« b< rt were charged with an attempt to impose on the natiou a eupp"- JAKES II. iSl aititious son. After the revolution the troubles of Mary truck in- creased, and more so from the time of her husband's death, for she frees afflicted and often short of money, besides the annoyance sha endured from the perpetual quarrels of the Jacobites. After thirty years of exile, during which she exhibited unusual patience, death ended a life of uncommon misfortunes. The children of James by Anne Hyde were : — Mary and Anne, T7ho both became queens of England Bv his second wife, Mary C'Este :— James Francis Edward (1688—1765), called the Old Pre- tender. By his mistresses: — James Eitzjames, duke of Berwick, and jthers. I. Insurrections of Argyll and Monmouth. 1685. James at the commencement of his reign, received a more cordial welcome from thepeoplethan might have been anticipated, principally on account of his speech to the council, and the opinion entertained of his truthfulness. To the council he said. " I shall make it my endeavour to preserve the government, both in church and state, as it is now by law established." But almost immediately, suspicions were awakened by the king's attending mass : n state, and expecting the officers of his court to enter the chapei with him. During the late reign numbers of persons, both from England and Scotland, had fled to the continent for safety. Now that James, a catholic, had become king, the refugees persuaded themselves of success, in an attempt to over- throw the government. Two expeditions were therefore fitted out in Holland, one to be headed by the earl of Argyle, the other by the duke of Monmouth. Argyle landed in Scotland in May. Few persons joined him, and, falling into the hands of the royal troops, he was conveyed to Edinburgh and executed (June 30). Monmouth landed (June 11) with a few followers at Lyme in Dorset, where a proclamation was read to the effect that he ap- peared in arms, "for the defence and vindication of theprotestant religion, and the laws, rights, and privileges of England." About 3000 of the common people having joined him, he marched to Taunton, and there received from the nonconformists a stand of colours and a Bible. Thence he advanced to Keynsham with the hope of securing Bristol, but the royal forces beginning to gathei around him, he retreated and met with a complete defeat at Sedgemoor (July 6), a thousand of the rebels being left dead on the field. Before the battle ended, Monmouth was in full flight for the Mendip Hills, he then turned off towards the New Forest, and was captured lying in a ditch (July 8). On the 15th he was beheaded on Tower Hill, having been attainted soon after his {an ding. So easily were both these movements crushed, that James a oosition would have been strengthened thereby, but fc^r the 162 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORf. cruelties that followed. Colonel Kirk put a hundred tc death by martial law, then followed the infamous judge Jeffreys, at the head of a commission. In the principal towns of the tainteo district, upwards of 300 persons were put to death, and nearly & thousand were disposed of, as slaves for the Plantations. To Btrike terror into the people, the heads and limbs of those executed were affixed in public places, even in the streets and on church doors. II. Attempt to re-establish Romanism. No sooner had these insurrections been put down than James threw off the mask, and proposed to remove those parts of the constitution which stood in the way of his design. The Habeas Corpus Act took from the government the power of arbitrary imprisonment, the want of a standing army prevented the king from coercing his subjects, and the Test Act kept out of the army catholic officers, upon whom he could most depend. These points must therefore undergo alteration, and because the parliament made objections, it was dismissed in anger. It was perhaps fortunate for England that just at this time, large numbers of French protestants took refuge in this country, and by their tales of suffering awakened the English people to the intolerant spirit of catholic princes. James fanned the flame by granting dis- pensations to some of the clergy to absent themselves from their clerical duties ; by forbidding the clergy to preach against Romanism ; by erecting an ecclesiastical court, similar to what had been abolished in 1641 ; by encouraging fraternities of monks to settle in London ; by publishing (1687), in Scotland and England, a declaration for liberty of conscience ; and by forming an army on Hounslow Heath, of which most of the officers were Romanists. But most impolitic of all was the direct attack which the king made on the two universities. To the vice-chancellor of Cam- bridge, Dr. Peachell, a mandatory letter was sent (1687) to admit a Benedictine monk to an academical degree, without the usual oaths. The Doctor refused compliance, and by the commission court was deprived of his office, and suspended from the master- ship of Magdalene College. At Oxford, the president of Mag- dalene College having died, a mandatory letter issued for the fellows to elect Anthony Farmer, a bad man, and report said an apostate. On their refusal, Parker, bishop of Oxford, was re- commended, but they had already elected Dr. Hough, a man o£ eminent virtue. For their obstinacy, James ejected the fellows from their college; this affair earned for the king the enmity of the great body of the clergy. In the same year, the parliament JAMES II. J 63 was dissolved, and an endeavour made to pack a new one, eo ac to secure members favourable to the measures of the court. The designs of the king were by this time so transparent, that several of the nobility opened communications with William, prince of Orange. In 1688, a second declaration of indulgence appeared (April 27) ; it was substantially the same as the first, but appended to it was a statement, that the king was immutably fixed in his pur* pose and would not give way. An order in council issued, rx)mmandii»g it to be read in all churches, this the clergy objected to do, and seven of the bishops (Sancroft, Lloyd, Turner, Lake, Ken, White, and Trelawny) signed a petition, praying the king that the clergy might be excused. Unwisely, James resented this interference, and charged the petitioners with rebellion. His temper was further inflamed, when it appeared that the great majority of the clergy had refused to read the declaration. The bishops were committed to the Tower, on the charge of publishing a seditious libel, but on being brought before the King's Bench, they were acquitted (June 30). While this was going on, a son (James the Old Pretender) was born to the king (June 10); the people however generally believed that no son had been born, and that it was merely a trick of the Romanists. III. The Revolution of 1688. The prosecution of the bishops, and the birth of an heir to the throne, determined the leading whigs to promote a change in the government. Danby, Devonshire, Shrewsbury, and others pledged themselves to support the prince of Orange, if he would cross over with an army. Large preparations began at once in Holland, of which James was duly informed ; at first he refused iiis belief, and only woke up to his actual position when too late. He then set to work to undo some of his most violent acts, but to no purpose, for William made good his landing at Torbay, (Nov. 5), with an army of 15,000 men. James gathered an army at Salisbury, but one officer after another deserted him, till he knew not where to place his confidence. Finding his case hope- less, he first sent off his wife and child, and then fled himself. In all this great movement there was no fighting, indeed no one seemed to care for the cause of the falling king, so completely nad he lost the support of all classes of the people in little more i than three years. On the other side there was an abundance of j enthusiasm, persons of distinction repaired to William's camp fit Exeter, Danby seized the city of York, and the governor of Plymouth declared for the prince. Never was a revolution so 164 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH U1STORY. quietly effected, and rarely has there been so clear a case top resistance to the constituted authorities. IV. The Interregnum. The interregnum includes the period from the day when James tied from London (Dec. 11), to the acceptance of the crown by William and Mary (Feb. 13, 1689). As soon as the king's flight Was known the peers met at Guildhall, and took upon themselves to provide for the public safety. After William's arrival in London, a nondescript meeting was held to advise what should be done ; there were present about seventy peers, such members of Charles II.'s parliaments as were then in London, together with. thelord-mayor, aldermen and fifty of the citizens. Thisassembly recommended that the prince should charge himself with the government, and call a Convention to settle the affairs of th6 nation. The convention parliament met (Jan. 22, 1689), and resolved that James, having endeavoured to subvert the consti- tution, and having withdrawn from the kingdom, had thereby abdicated the government ; and that it was inconsistent with the safety and welfare of the Protestant religion, to be governed by a popish prince. After a long discussion, it was further resolved that the prince and princess of Orange be king and queen of England. These resolutions were embodied in the Act of Settle- ment, which provided — that the government should be in William and Mary conjointly, and in the survivor; then in the children of Mary ; then in the princess Anne, and her children ; and then in the children of William ; and that any future sovereign being reconciled to Kome, or marrying a papist, shall be thereby ex- cludedfrom the throne, and the crown and government descend to the next Protestant heir. To prevent further disputes, the convention parliament passed also the celebrated Declaration of Rights (1689), which, after enumerating certain grievances which the natien had of late endured, set forth what were deemed the ancient rights of the people. 1 1 declared as illegal the suspending, or dispensing with laws or their execution ; the erection of high commission courts ; levying money without consent of parliament; punishing those who petition the king ; and keeping a standing army. It also claimed as rights, that protestants may havearmsf or their defence; that elections and speech in parliament ought to be free ; that excessive fines and punishments ought not to be inflicted ; that jurors in trials for high treason ought to be freeholders; and that there ought to be frequent parliaments. On accepting these con- ditions, the crown of England was tendered to William and Mary, Miscellaneous iJYcis. Tho revocation of the Edict of Nantci WILLIAM TTI. 165 was an event which had a twofold relation to England. The edict was ongmaay granted by Henry IV. (1598), as a charter of rights to the French protestants, but Louis XIV. resolved that there should 6e no protestants in France. After failing to convert them te Romanism, he despoiled them of their privileges by the revocation o* the edict (1685), and forbade the exercise of the reformed religion. Although forbidden to emigrate, 100,000 families escaped from France, and transferred their industry to Germany, England, ana Holland. Coming to England at a time when men saw cause to fear for their protestantism, the refugees exercised considerable influence in de- termining the course of events ; they further brought with them improved processes in several kinds of manufactures, especially that of 6ilk. Chronicle. 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his " Principia," or exposition of the new theory of the universe. The Jesuits open a poor school at the Savoy. 1688, A charity school opened at West- minster; the example soon followed at Lambeth, St. Botolph's, and other places. WILLIAM III. 1689-1702. Royal Family. William III. (1650—1702), was the son of William II., prince of Orange, by Mary the daughter of Charles I, On the death of his father (1650), the stadtholdership remained vacant, and was subsequently abolished by the republican party, headed by the two De Witts. But when Louis made his inroad into Holland (1672), the De Witts were murdered, and William mada stadtholder; in two campaigns he drove the French across the boundary. In 1677 he married his cousin Mary of England. At this period he had formed two designs, which he kept always before him so long as he lived — to reduce the tyrannical power of Louis, and to secure the liberties of protestants. This led him to form the league of Augsburg, and so, it is said, to accept the invitation to England, in order that this country might be joined to the protestant interest. William was not a man to be loved, yet he must ever be regarded aa the instrument by which England was delivered from civil tyranny and religious persecution. The consort of William was Mary (1662 — 94), daughter of James II. by Anne Hyde. Mary, after her father's conversion to Romanism, was placed under the care of Compton, bishop of London. Her marriage to the prince of Orange did not bring much felicity, William was of a cold nature, perhaps unfaithful as a husband, and at one time it was thought that death would deprive him of his consort, When Mary came to England, her conduct gave occasion for remark, as there was an air of gaiety about her, which under the circumstances was thought unbecoming in the daughter of James II. Under the anxieties of government, her health gave way, and a violent attack of small-pox carried her off. The bitterness of the Jacobites against her appears from the text which one of them took on the occasion of her death ; " Go, see now this cursed woman, and bury her, for she is £ king's daughter." No children were left by either William or Mary. L Completion of the revolution. The Convention being declared a proper parliament, it em- 166 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. ployed itself in settling such matters as so complete a change of government seemed to make necessary. The first measure pressed on its attention related to the army. A Scotch regiment ordered to Holland, set out for Scotland ; thereupon a Mutiny Act passed to provide for the existence of a standing army, on the ground of its being necessary for the safety of the kingdom, the defence of our dominions, and the preservation of the balance of power in Europe ; and further, the act provided for the government of an arm ed force, by giving power to a court-martial to punish military offences. The next point was the settlement of the revenue. Up to this reign the entire of the public income passed into the hands of the sovereign, and much of it was known to have been misapplied. It was now arranged that the sum of £1,200,000 should be voted yearly, one half for the civil list, the other for the public defence. This method of appropriating the public moneye was subsequently much improved upon. In consequence of the system of appropriating the supplies year by year, and the annual enactment of the mutiny bill, it has become an absolute necessity that the parliament should meet every year. To give religious liberty to nonconformists, there was passed a Toleration Act (1689), by which it was enacted — that none of the existing penalties be enforced against such dissenters as shall take the oaths of allegiance, and subscribe the declaration against popery; that the ministers of dissenting congregations shall subscribe the Articles, with certain exceptions ; that no conventicles be held with locked doors; that meeting-houses be registered, and pro- tected from insult ; that dissenters be not excused from tithes or from the offices of constable, churchwarden, or overseer; and that no part of this toleration be extended to papists, or such as deny the Trinity. The Revolution in Scotland took place at the same time as in England, but was not quite so complete. A Convention declared Miat James had, for violating the laws and liberties of the nation forfeited the crown; thereupon it was resolved that William ana Mary be invited to fill the vacant throne, subject to the condi- tions of inheritance contained in a "Claim of Right." Dundee offered some resistance, but he was slain at Killiecrankie (July 27, 1689). By the end of the year, all Scotland had submitted to the new state of things, some few of the Highlanders excepted. To purchase their submission, the earl of Breadalbane had been entrusted with a large sum of money; this potent influence and the threat of punishment by fire and sword brought in all the heads of cians by the end of December, 1691. There was, how- ever, one exception, that of the head of the Macdonalds of Srlencoe, and ne was but a day or two behind the time allowed. WILLIAM III. 167 Breadalbane and Dalrymple, two of the worst men in Scotland, made an occasion of Macdonald's delay to procure from William an order for the destruction of the whole tribe. This order was aavagely executed by the military (Feb., 1692), much to the re- proach of the king who had given it his sanction. II. Reduction of Ireland. Ireland beingmostlypapistheldonitsallegiance to James, who by the assistance of Louis was enabled to land at Kinsale (March, 1689), with men and arms. Tyrconnel had 10,000 men ready to place at his master's disposal. After holding a parliament in Dublin, the king marched his forces northwards to reduce the protestants of Ulster. Londonderry endured a siege for foui months, during which time both parties suffered so much, that there was lost on each side about 8,000 men. The starving in- habitants were then relieved by sea, and the siege raised. In August, Schomberg landed at Carrickfergus with 16,000 men ; after mastering Belfast and other places, he was brought to a stand by the Irish army, and entrenching himself for the winter in the lowlands near Dundalk, thousands of his troops died. William went over in 1690, and found himself at the head of 36,000 men ; with these he set out against James, who retired to the Boyne and there waited for battle. On the 1st of July, William crossed that river, and with little loss, except Schomberg, defeated his rival. James after the battle travelled to Waterford and embarked for France. The south of Ireland soon submitted, but the west held out till the next year. Ginckle, the successor of Schomberg, then defeated the Irish at Aghrim (July 12), in which battle 5,000 of the enemy fell. Limerick shortly afterwards submitted on the following conditions, known as the Treaty of Limerick : — that the Irish who should submit to William should have secured to them their estates, and all the rights they held in the reign of Charles II. ; that such as chose might remove out of Ireland , that the Roman Catholics should enjoy such liberty in the exer- cise of their religion, as in the reign of Charles II. ; and that a parliament should be summoned to procure for them further security. In virtue of this treaty ,] 4,000 Irish soldiers entered the service of Louis, and were known subsequently as the Irish Brigade. When the promised parliament met in 1695, so far irom confirming the treaty, it placed the catholics under the severest laws — no papist could be a teacher in a school, a guar- dian, or solicitor; neither was it permitted for a catholic to marry I a protestant, or take land by descent or otherwise : and f urthei 168 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY all the regular clergy were banished, and priests required to be registered. III. Affairs of Scotland— the Darien scheme. In 1695 the Scottish parliament passed a bill to further a Echeme, for the settlement of two colonies on the Isthmus of Darien, by means of which it was proposed to conduct a trade with the two Indies. No sooner was the project understood / tnan the East India Company and the Dutch merchants petitioned against it, and a remonstrance was presented to the king by the English parliament. William now found it necessary to disowr. the Darien Company. The Scotch, however, who anticipated great gains, resolved to proceed, and 1,200 men, besides women and children, sailed from Leith in 1698. Having reached the " promised land," it soon appeared that Paterson, the projector of the scheme, had misunderstood the geography of the district, and that the transit of goods across the isthmus could not be ac- complished. The settlers broke down in health, their provisions failed them, and at the end of eight months, the greater part having died, the remainder abandoned the place. Others suc- ceeded them in the attempt, but discountenanced by England and attacked by the Spaniards, they were compelled to surrender themselves prisoners. As those who had subscribed towards the expense of the Darien scheme anticipated large profits, their dis- appointment and resentment knew no bounds. It was indeed the bitter feelings arising out of this affair that occasioned the Scotch parliament to pass in 1704 the famous Act of Security, to provide for the severance of the two kingdoms unless there should be secured to the Scotch certain commercial privileges. IV. Opposition to William's government. Although WilliamhadrescuedEnglandfromciviland religious tyranny, he was not a popular king. This was partly due to hie coldness of manner, his foreign extraction, and his partiality to foreign favourites, but more to the general state of the nation. No sooner did he rill the place of James than it seemed as if the leaders of the Revolution repented of what they had done. Several of them actuall) carried on a correspondence with the exiled monarch, and betrayed the councils of the nation. Eight of the bishops and many of the clergy refused to take the new oaths of allegiance, and thus obtained for themselves the name of non* jurors. In the parliament there appeared little disposition to favour the new sovereign, for the grants were made annual, and the system of appropriation more strictly enforced; and no sooner wae peace restored than the land forces were reduced and Wil- WILLIAM III. 169 liam's foreign auxiliaries ordered to be disbanded. Grants of lands in Ireland to his favourites were resumed, and Portland and other of his ministers impeached, for lending themselves too readily to serve their master's foreign policy. " His whole reign was harassed with intrigues of faction and plans of insurrection at home ; and his life and throne were assailed from abroad with tase plots of assassination by the adherents of James II." V. War with France. 1689—1697. In consequence of the ambition of Louis XIV., and his known antipathy to protestantism, the continental princes had confede- rated in the League of Augsburg (1686), for the purpose of mutual protection. As Louis supported the cause of James II.. William, when he became king, had little difficulty in persuading the English to join in a war against France. The causes were thus stated : — that the French had made war on the allies of England ; had encroached upon the Newfoundland fishery ; had occupied by force a part of our American territory ; had made depredations on the English at sea ; had disputed the right of the English flag; and had sent aid to the rebels in Ireland. In 1690, Marlborough, in command of the British auxiliaries, crossed to take part in the war. In this campaign the Dutch were defeated at Flewrus (July 4), losing 5,000 killed and 4,000 prisoners. At sea, the English and Dutch fleets, numbering to- gether 56 ships, were defeated by the French fleet of 80 vessels oft Beachy Head (June 30). Torrington, the English commander, retreated to the Thames, leaving the Channel in possession of th^ French : the admiral was tried and acquitted, but afterwards d^ missed from the service. In 1691, the allies, in congress at the Hague, resolved on em- ploying 220,000 men ; Savoy now joined the confederacy. The campaign produced no battle, and as soon as Mons capitulated to the French, William returned to England. In 1692, Louis collected a large fleet to make a descent on England, the Jacobites undertaking to make a movement at the same time. But the conspiracy was discovered, and Marlborough and many others being committed to prison, the aifaix came to nothing. Not so, however, with the French expedition, for Tour- ville put to sea with 63 ships ; the combined English and Dutch fleet numbered 99 sail, under admiral Russell. The battle of La Bogue (May 19 — 22) ensued, and ended in a loss to the French of 25 ships ; the English lost none, and yet Russell was charged with not having done his best. On the continent, William at- tacked die French at Steinhirh (Aug. 3) j a severe battle followed, M 170 OUTLINES OF KNGLlSfl HISTORY". in which the allies lost 5,000 in killed, besides many prisoners, colours, and guns. In 1693 the French fleet captured or destroyed, in the neigh- bourhood of St. Vincent, about 80 ships of the Smyrna fleet, thereby inflicting a loss on the English merchants of a million sterling. On the continent, the French savagely ravaged the Palatinate (May), and defeated William at Lander. (July 29) ; this battle ended in a loss on either side of 9,000 in killed and wounded, besides a further loss to the allies of 70 pieces of artillery and many standaKL-3. In 1694 the English bombarded the coast towns of France, and nearly destroyed Dieppe and Havre. An attempt to destroy the arsenal at Brest, cost the English 700 soldiers ; its failure is attributed to the treachery of Marlborough. Eussell kept the French fleet inactive, by blockading it in Toulon. On the con- tinent the campaign was one merely of marches and counter- marches. In 1695 the towns of St. Malo, Dunkirk, and Calais wen bombarded. On the continent, William succeeded in capturing Namur (Sept. 1), but its reduction cost the allies 12,000 men Meanwhile Louis sent one of his generals to bombard Brussels, in retaliation for the bombardment of his coast towns. In forty-eight hours, 1,500 houses, besides churches and othe r public buildings, were laid in ruins. In 1696 the French towns again suffered a bombardment On the continent nothing was done but the destruction of a magazine of ammunition and military stores, for both sovereigns had nearly exhausted the wealth of their subjects. This war with France ended in the Treaty of Ryswick (Sept.. 1697), by which it was agreed — that Louis should not disturb the king of England in his possessions or kingdom ; that neithei monarch should countenance any conspiracies against the other; that free commerce be restored ; that commissioners meet in London to settle the Hudson Bay dispute ; and that in case of rupture, six months' notice be given to the subjects of each power, to remove their effects. VI. Second Act of Settlement. 1701. The death of the duke of Gloucester, only surviving 6on ot Anne, made necessary a second Act of Settlement. Its principa> provisions were — that the succession should be in Sophia of Hanover, and her heirs, being protestants ; that the sovereign of England be in communion with the church of England ; that tha nation be not involved in war on account of any foreign dominion not belonging to England without consent of parliament ; that WILLIAM III. ]71 the sovereign shall not go abroad without consent of parliament that members of the privy council sign such resolutions as thej consent to ; that no foreigner, even though naturalized, be i privy councillor, a member of parliament, or enjoy any office or place of trust, or receive grants from the crown; that no person holding office or pension at the pleasure of the crown, be capable of serving as a member of the commons; that the judges be re- moveable only upon the address of both houses of parliament ; and that no pardon under the great seal be pleadable to an im- peachment by the commons in parliament. Two or three of these clauses were repealed in the reigns of Anne and George I. This settlement set aside the claims of the prince of Wales, the duchess of Savoy (daughter of Henrietta the daughter of Charles I.), and several of the Palatine family, who had abjured the reformed faith. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1694, was passed the Triennial Act' which provided that a new parliament should he called every third year. Before this time parliaments were called, and continued in existence at the pleasure of the sovereign. The act of 1694 was superseded by a septennial act in 1716. In 1696, a Treason Sill passed, to define what was treason, and to provide for the accused better opportunities for defending himself. This it did by allowing the person accused to have a copy of the indictment before the trial ; by requiring two witnesses to the same treason; by refusing to admit evidence of any act not named in the indictment ; and by requiring indictments to be laid within three years of the alleged treason. In 1697 commenced the National Debt, for which the following causes have been assigned— the inadequacy of the taxes to meet the expenses of the state, and the reluctance of the new government to impose more: the expenses of the Revolution itself, and the reduction of Ireland: the recoinage, which cost in loss and expense two and a half millions ; and the French war, which was carried on at an enormous outlay, and at the same tim? greatly injured the commerce of England. In 1698, William and Louis agreed to the first Partition Treaty, the object of which was to divide the dominions of Spain among the Dauphin of France, the Archduke of Austria, and the Electoral Prince of Bavaria. The death of the Electoral Prince rendered necessary a second Partition Treaty (1700), but the intrigues of Louis ?btained Spain for his grandson Philip ; this led to the formation of a second Grand Alliance (1701), and the war of the Spanish succession in the reign of Anne. Chronicle. 1692. Establishment of the Society for the Eeformation it Manners. 1693, The moveable bayonet first used by the French, in PiedmDnt. 1694, The Bank of E^land established. 1695, Liberty of the press acknowledged. 1696, Ureenwich Hospital founded as an asylum for seamen. First Eddystone lighthouse begun. 1697, Captain Savery constructs a steam engine for raising water. The national debt commenced, by tormmg into one fund all the moneys ow^'ng by the government. First union workhouse established for the parishes of Bnoiol. 1698, Fort William founded, about which grew 172 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. »p the city of Calcutta. Establishment of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. 1701, Establishment of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts. ANNE. 1702-1714. .Royal Family. Anne (1664 — 1714) was the second daughter oi James II. by Anne Hyde. In consequence of her ill health, she resided during part of her childhood in France, first with her grand mother and then with her aunt. When her father married Mary of Modena, her education was entrusted to Compton, bishop of London, but as she had the excuse of weak eyes, her books were much neglected. George, afterwards king of England, made an offer for her hand without success : in 1683 she was married to prince George of Denmark. Anne, like her husband, deserted the cause of her father, and threw herself into the hands of the revolutionary party. After the accession of William, estrangement took place between the sisters, and it was only after the death of Mary, that she was friendly with the court. On her accession to the throne, her weakness of character led to dependence upon favourites, lady Marlborough first, then Mrs. Masham. md through these ladies the whigs and tories contrived to carry on thei" .ntrigues, and influence public affairs in England and on the continent. Without the vigour of mind necessary for her station she must nevertheless have possessed some virtues to have obtained the title of " good Queen Anne." Nearly the whoie of her children died in infancy, the duke of Gloucester was an exception, and he died before he was twelve years of age. I. Union of Scotland. 1707. Immediately on the accession of Anne, the Scotch parliament gave signs of dissatisfaction with the existing relations between the two countries. Commissioners met (1702) to consider of a union, but as the English would not agree to maintain the rights and privileges of the Darien Company, or, as it was more properly called, the Company tradingto Africa and the Indies, no progress was made. The Scotch parliament therefore passed in 1703 an Act of Security, which provided that after the death of Anne, "the same person should be incapable of holding the crowns of both kingdoms, unless the Scottish people were admitted to share with the English the full benefits of trade and navigation," and further, that to support their claims, the whole of the men in Scotland, capable of bearing arms, should be trained to their use. Ihis bill the queen refused to sanction, and so indignant was the English parliament, that an English act of security passed in 1704, providing — that so long as the succession to the crowm of Scotland remained unsettled, the natives of that country should oot enjoy the privileges of Englishmen, nor be allowed to export into England cattle or linen, or import arms into Scotland. So threatening did affairs in Scotland becorre, that the queen found ANNS. 173 It expedient to pass the Scotch Act of Security In 1705, the question of a union was again introduced into the Scotch parlia- ment. Commissioners were appointed to proceed to London tc> discuss the terms which when agreed upon proved offensive to nearly all parties in Scotland, and yet by means of promises and bribes, opposition was disarmed and the bill passed. In the English parliament long discussions took place, the bill howevei passed by a large majority (1707), to take effect on the 1st of May. The principal terms of the union were : — That the two kingdoms should form one under the name of Great Britain: That the succession should be m Sophia and her protestant heirs: That there be free intercommunication of trade, navigation, and all other rights and privileges, except otherwise agreed to : That the customs and duties be the same in both: That except in what otherwise agreed to, Scotland should have the full exercise of her own laws and customs : That Scotland be represented in the parliament of Great Britain by sixteen peers, to be elected out of, and by their own body, and forty-five commoners for the counties and boroughs : That Scotch peers take rank next after the English peers of the likr orders and degrees : and that the Kirk of Scotland retain its form ot worship, and its presbyterian government and discipline. II. The strife of political parties. Ever since the Revolution, party feeling had run high ; the tories indignant that their doctrine of passive obedience had been treated so contemptuously, and the whigsthat so much resistance should be offered to the change which had taken place. The accession of Anne tended to make things worse, and her reign is therefore eminently distinguished for the strife of parties ; it i3 indeed said that its bitterness hastened the queen's death. Al- though Anne had taken part with the whigs against her father, she nevertheless hated that party, which she looked upon as republicans, and enemies to the Church of England. In her first parliament, the memory of the late king was insulted by a vote / which implied that he had sacrificed the national honour ; ther6 was also an attempt made to pass an Occasional Conformity Bill. As it was no secret that the royal favour rested on the tory side, the enemies of the whigs took courage, and churchmen entered the lists *?#2\nst them. Dr. Sacheverell, rector of St. Saviour's, Southwark,inasermonpreachedbeforethemayorandcorporation of London, took occasion to inveigh against thatoleration act and dissenters ; he also spoke of the Revolution as an unrighteous change, and declared the Church cf England in danger. For having done so the Doctor was impeached, and tried in West- minster Hall (1710) ; being found guilty he was suspended for three veais. During the time ^f trial, the metropolis was full of 174 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. excitement ; the mob plundered the houses of dissenters, and aestroyeti several of their ineeting-houses. From all parts of the country came up addresses to the queen in favour of the tenets held by Sacheverell. Anne took advantage of this feeling and rid herself of all the whigs, Marlborough being the only person of note who retained his post. In the new parliament (1710), the tcries were in the ascendant, and Marlborough was first refused a vote of thanks and then charged with peculation, the queen thereupon dismissed him from all his employments. It is not so very remarkable that a reaction should have set in against the whigs, for from the time of the Revolution the English had been taxed more than ever before. [t may be no^ced that this change in the ministry, and the sub- sequent change in the foreign policy of this country, were brought about by a squabble between two of the queen's female favourites. So long as the duchess of Marlborough was the favourite, the whigs maintained their influence, and the war went on against Louis, but when Mrs. Masham, the tool of the tories, supplanted the duchess, the whigs fell and overtures were opened for a peace. The last great contest between the whigs and tories took place in 1714, when it was supposed that the protestant succession was in danger. Bolingbroke andHarley,nowearlof Oxford, intriguing vO bring in the Pretender, were defeated in their purpose only by the prompt and energetic action of the whigs. And it so hap- pened that these two ministers quarrelled between themselves, and the queen, offended with Oxford, dismissed him from office. Three days after, before Bolingbroke's plans were ripe, the queen was struck with death ; a council met, and at its request Shrews- bury became lord-treasurer. Effective measures were at once taken, which rendered the Jacobite faction powerless, and pro- bably saved the nation from a civil war. III. War of the Spanish succession. 1702—1713. It was seen in the preceding reign that two schemes, embodied in the Partition Treaties, had been agreed upon between William and Louis, for disposing of the dominions of Charles II. of Spain, who was without any immediate heirs. When Charlee lied in 1700, it appeared, that under French influence, he had willed the entire monarchy to Philip, duke of Anjou, the grandson of Louis. This led to the formation of a Grand Alliance to support the claims of the archduke Charles to the throne of Spain, in accord- ance with the second partition treaty. The alliance included England, Austria, and Holland, and subsequently the Empire, Portugal, and Savoy. Tn 1702. Mailborough at the head of thf allies, captured \ rz- ANNE 175 ieo, t{,nremoude,Stevenswaert,and Liege. The duke of Orrnona, in command of 14,000 men and 50 ships of the line, made &h attack on Cadiz (Aug. 15) and miserably failed. Admiral Rooke more fortunate, found his way into Vigo harbour, in which the Spanish galleons under French convoy had sought shelter : his bravery was rewarded by the capture of 10 ships of war, several galleons, and seven million pieces of eight. In 1703, Marlborough captured Bonn, Huy, and Limberg. Portugal in this year joined the allies, in consideration of the Methven treaty, by which our woollens were to be admitted into x'ortugal, the English agreeing to admit port wines at one-third Jess duty than the wines of France. In 1704, as Vienna was threatened by the Bavarians, Marl- borough pushed on to succour the emperor, and at Schellmgberg (July 2) defeated the French and Bavarians, killing of the enemy more than 7,000 men, the allies losing 2,000 killed. After a large French reinforcement under Tallard had joined the enemy there was fought the famous battle of Blenheim (Aug. 13), in which the enemy lost 35,000 men, the allies 12,000; more than 100 pieces of artillery, 200 colours, and the baggage of the army fell to the victors. This victory saved the emperor, and gave him possession of Bavaria. Meanwhile Booke with some of the aiiied troops under the prince of Hesse Darmstadt, had captured Gibraltar (July 23) with the loss of only about 100 men. After this, the admiral sailed into the Mediterranean, and off Malaga (Aug. 13) so severely handled the French fleet that they did not venture another engagement during the war. In 1705, Marlborough reduced some places in the Netherlands but fought no battle on account of the backwardness of the allien. The earl of Peterborough withbut6,000men contrived to capture the fortified city of Barcelona (Oct. 4), which led to the fall of most of the places in Catalonia. }n 1706, Marlborough defeated Villeroy at Ramillies (May 12); tne allies lost 3,000 men, the French 8,000, besides 7,000 prisoners, ttieir baggage and artillery, and 80 colours. This victory was attended with the immediate conquest of Brabant. In Spain, i he allies, under the earl of Gal way, were for a time in possession of Madrid, but the advance of Philip and the duke of Berwick compelled the earl to retire. In Piedmont the French hao formed the siege of Turin, but prince Eugene coming to its relief, defeated (Sept 7)theenemy,of whom 5,000 were slain, and nearly as many made prisoners. Louis, discouraged, offered to cede to the archduke either Spain and the West Indies, or Milan, > Naples, and Sicily ; the offer was rejected through the influence of England 1/6 OUTT.liiKS OF ENGLISH HISTOBY Lil707,Marlborougrrscampaignwasunproductive. In Spain *he allies were most unfortunate, for oiAlmanza (April 14) Ber. wick was victor, killing 5,000 men ; the remainder, about 10,000, were forced to surrender for want of provisions. From the side of Italy, Eugene and the duke of Savoy, at the head cf 30,000 men, crossed into France to make an attempt on Toulon. It proved too well fortified to be forced, so after the English fleet had by a cannonade destroyed some of the ships and mostpait of the city, the allies retreated without molestation. In 1708, to create a diversion, Louis put the Pretender on board a small fleet, to carry a force to Scotland, but admiral Byng arrived at the Forth in time to prevent a landing. Marl- borough fought another greatbattleat Oudenarde (July 11), with a loss to the allies of 2,000 men, to the French of 3,000,and 7,000 prisoners, besides 100 colours. Siege was now laid to Lille, which capitulated, though not till the allies had lost 12,000 men ; the French now abandoned all the fortified places they held in Flanders. During the siege there happened the most brilliant exploit in the whole war. General Webb, with 6,000 men in charge of a convoy of 800 waggons from Ostend, was attacked at Wyendale (Sept. 28) by 24,000 ; the action lasted two hours when the French were beaten off, leaving 6,000 dead on the field, the allies lost 900. In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake re- duced Sardinia, and general Stanhope, Minorca. In the West Indies, commodore Wager took some Spanish galleons; his own share of prize-money amounted to £100,000. In 1709, Louis, on account of the distressed condition of his subjects, again made overtures for peace, declaring his willingness to give up everything, if the allies would allow his grandson to retain Naples ; the offer was not accepted. In June, Marlborough and Eugene captured Tournay, and proposing to lay 6iege to Mons, a battle was brought on at Malplaquet (Sept. 11). After seven hours' fighting the French retreated, having lost 10,000 men; the loss on the side of the allies was 18,000. Mons ca- pitulated in October. In 1710, another effort was made at negotiation, and commis. sioners met at Gertruydenberg, but nothing could be determined Marlborough captured Douay and Bethune, but no battle was fought, for the duke was said to be distracted by the news from home. In Spain, Philip lost the battles of Almanara (July 27). and Saragossa (Aug 20) ; at the latter he had 5,000 killed, be- sides a further loss of 7,000 prisoners and all his artillery. Bin fortune turned in December, Stanhope was under the necessity of surrendering with 5,000 men, at Brihuega ; and a few days after, Siaremberg suffered defeat at Villa Viciosa. AflNE. 177 In 1711, Marlborough forced the lines which the French had deemed impregnable, and took Bouchain. The unpromising state of affairs in Spain led Charles to leave that country ; in October he was elected Emperor. An expedition against Quebec^ commanded by Hill, Mrs. Masham's brother, ended in disaster*. During this year, the *jries were engaged in negotiating a peace with France. In 1712, Ormond, who had superseded Marlborough, refused to act on the offensive, and was shortly after ordered to separate his troops from those of the allies; this paralysed the movements of the confederated forces, and enabled the French to achieve 30ine successes. So early as January, plenipotentiaries met at Utrecht, and peace was resolved on, though the treaty was not signed till the next year. Austria and the Empire stood out till 1714. By the Treaty of Utrecht, (1713), France engaged to acknow ledge the Protestant succession of the House of Hanover ; that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united; that the fortifications of Dunkirk be demolished; and that Hudson's Bay, Nova Scotia, and the islands of St. Christophers and Newfound- land belong to the English. Spain agreed to cede to the English, Minorcaand Gibraltar; and subsequently that the English should have the Assiento, or contract for supplying Spanish America with negroes ; to cede to the Emperor, Naples, Milan, Sardinia, and the Spanish Netherlands ; and to cede Sicily to the duke of Savoy. By a Barrier Treaty, the Dutch obtained the right of garrisoning certain places in the Spanish Netherlands, for the orotection of their own frontiers. Miscellaneous Facts. In 1703, happened the great storm, by which twelve ships of war, and a large number of merchant vessels were lost: the damage done in London was reckoned at a million sterling, and at Bristol £200,000. In 1704, a bill passed to enable the queen to alienate the first-fruits and tenths, for the purpose of aug- menting the stipends of the poorer clergy; this fund is known as Queen Anne's Bounty. When the tories came into power in 1710, they passed a Property Qualification Biii, which it was supposed would give increased strength to the landed interests ; henceforth all members for counties were required to have a real estate in land of £600 a year, and members for borough* a real estate in land of £300 a year. (This law was repealed in 1858.) Chbonicle. 1703, Methven or port-wine treaty with Portugal. 1709, First daily newspaper published — " The Daily Courant." 1710, Fifty churches ordered to be built in and near London, for which purpose a duty on coal was granted. A. general post-office established i for all the British Dominions. South Sea Company established. 1713, Newcomen's atmospheric steam-engine invented. Leans at in terest reduced to five per cent. f78 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTOB7. Social life in the Stuart Period. 1. "Food. During this important period of our history £?<-f*»l changes took place in the matter of food, principally on account of the increase of wealth, and improvements in agriculture. Wheaten bread was more largely consumed than ever before, though still th6 poor and the servants of the nobility ate bread made of barley, rye, or oats. This was particularly true of the northern counties, where even country squires made their pie-crust ot oaten or barley meal, except at Christmas. The vegetables in ordinary use were onions* leeks, carrots, and radishes ; in the early part of this period, potat !>e* sold for two shillings a pound, and cauliflowers eighteen pence each, but towards its close they became much more plentiful. Less salt jieat began now to be eaten, for the introduction of clover and turnips provided fresh meat all the year round. Beer was the ordinary be- verage among the lower classes. Coffee was first sold in London in 1652, and within twenty years tea came into use. At first they were sold as a cold liquid, without sugar or milk, an excise being paid on coffee of four pence a gallon, and on tea double that sum. The time of meals had undergone little change. The breakfast continued to be of bread and meat, washed down with draughts of ale or wine; at noon came a dinner of solid joints ; in the afternoon a cold collation ; and an early hot supper finished the day. The table service was still of the simplest kind; dishes, platters, and mugs forming nearly the whole. ThG upper classes used plate, the middle pewter, and the lower bowls and trenchers of wood. All our apparatus of cups, saucers, china, and highly finished crockery was then nearly unknown; the only earthenware they had was of a coarse description, known as Delft-ware. An important addition was made to the furniture of the table by the introduction of forks, which, though not unknown before, were rarely in use before the seventeenth century. 2. Clothing. In the reign of James, the dress of gentlemen was much as before, only the doublet and trunk-hose were much paddel with tow and bran. A new costume appeared in the time of Charles, known as the V andyke dress. It consisted of a doublet of silk, satin, or velvet, with large, loose, slashed sleeves ; the collar was covered by a band of the richest point lace; a short cloak carelessly worn covered one shoulder; the long Dutch trunk-hcse with petticoat fall ending in a fringe, or many dozen points, met the top of the wide boots also fringed with lace. The hat was a broad-brimmed Flemish beaver with a rich band and plume of feathers. The hair was worn long, ano the beard terminated in a peak; the fops wore love-locks tied at the end with ribbons. During the Puritan ascendency, great plainness of attire was affectcd> sad-coloured garments took the place of the gay dresses ot the cavaliera That party was further distinguished by the old bi^b-crowned hat plain collar, and close-cropped hair. After the Restoration, tht small-clothes were worn full and loose, ending in ruffles of lace? the doublet grew longer and was made loose like a modern sack ; the collar gave place to a cravat tied in a knot, the ends hanging down 5quaie; but the most remarkable change was the introduction or the tag. From the time of the Revolution, petticoat breeches gave way for tijrhts with long hose drawn up over them; Iod.jj; waistcoats cam« TEE STUART PERIOD. 179 mto fashion; wigs increased in size: the wide brims of the hats were turned up; small Geneva bands came into use; and rosettes on the shoes were superseded by the buckle or broad tie. No change toob place in the dress of the working classes. Females wore in the reign of James the enormous fardingale of Elizabeth ; ruffs and collars divided the fashion, both being stiffened with wires or yellow starch. In the reign of Charles they were replaced l by the elegant falling collar edged with lace J the fardingale also gave i place to flowing skirts and long trains; bodices were still peaked and laced up the front, though slightly open to display a stomacher of satin; the sleeves were large and slashed, terminating at the wrist with a cuff of pointed lace. The Puritan party and the lower orders retained the old hood and high-crowned hat, and were jtherwise distinguished by plain attire and sober colours. After the Restoration, the dress was not greatly changed, only less slashed and trimmed, and worn indecently low. When gentlemen took to wigs, ladies began to use powder to obtain white locks. In the reign of William and Mary, skirts of dresses were looped back to display the rich under- clothing: the sleeves were tight to the elbow, and turned back with a large cuff; and long gloves and lace ruffles covered the lower part of the arm. But most remarkable was the erection of *he hair into a tower ; this was done by combing and building it up s till it reached the height of nearly two feet, and then ornamenting ii with tiers of ribbons and lace. The tower fell in the next reign, and curls came again into use; the old fardingale reappeared under the name of a hoop-petticoat ; scarlet stockings became common, as did also black patches as symbols of party politics. 3. Dwellings. Among the nobility the process, which began in the Tudor period, went on and a style of buildings was patronised naving no relation whatever to the old feudal structures, hence the reign of James is said to divide the ancient and modern styles. The houses erected for country gentlemen were not very different from i those of a later date, only they were less compact, and had widt> passages and large closets. Stairs which before time were in some corner, came now to be put in a prominent placs. High gables and pointed roofs were yet common, but a general improvement appeared in the workmanship. A great change took place in town architecture, though not before a change was required. Even in London the greater part of the houses were of lath and plaster, or of framed wood-work with brick filling the interstices, and rising with projecting storeys till they almost closed upon each other at the top. This mode of construction kept out the sun, and effectually prevented good ventila- tion, which at that time was the more necessary as sewers were unknown, and filth and garbage of all descriptions thrown into the streets. The fire of London, great as was the calamity, proved of ultimate advantage, for the legislature ordered that in future all the houses in the capital should be built of brick or stone. The materials employed compelled the disuse ot the overhanging storey s y and the streets of London had more sunlight and more air. This improvement was gradually adopted in the provinces. The only change in the dwellings of the poor, was the partial introduction of small lead-lights in the place of opened or latticed windows. In the matter of furniture great improvement was made. In the preceding period, it was so scarce that noblemen carried bed and 130 OUTL1NE8 OF ENGLISH HI8TOBY. bedding and many other articles about with them, even to the furniture of the kitchen and glass windows, but now tbis necessity no longer existed. The improvement was in part due to the introduction of new woods, more particularly mahogany, which soon superseded all others, as it was found that its beauty increased by use and age. Tapestry began to give way to hangings of paper and leather. Carpets were coming more into use, though only for state or bed-rooms. In 1660 oil-cloth was advertised for sale in London. 4. Amusements. The decline of the old active out-door amuse- ments, which commenced in the reign of Elizabeth, went on rapidly. Both James and Charles endeavoured to revive them, by the publication of the Book of Sports, but these efforts were fruitless, for the spirit of the age was against them. The ordinary sports of the poor appear, from James's proclamation, to have been dancing, archery, leaping, vaulting, May-games, Whitsun-ales, morris dances, and setting up of May-poles; the games prohibited on Sundays were the baiting of bulls and bears, interludes, and bowling. Fairs were popular, but characterised by profaneness and vice. Bear-gardens were not uncommon, and theatres appear to have been numerous, in London there were five companies when the civil war commenced. By an ordinance of the Long Parliament all theatres were closed, but at the Restoration they were more crowded than ever, and rendered more attractive by the introduction of movable scenery, and female performers, whose parts had hitherto been taken by boys. Among the upper classes the vice of gambling became common, and led to the ruin of many ancient families; their other amusements were hunting, racing, rowing- matches, tennis, and skating, and both sexes patronised the low exhibitions of bear-baiting and cock-fighting. 6. Travelling. The means of intercommunication were much improved during the Stuart period. For the purpose of making roads more passable, turnpikes, or toll-gates, were set up in a few places in 1663, it was not however till long after that they became general. Still the roads were making slow improvement, for alter the Restoration, stage coaches became common in the immediate neighbourhood of London, and in 1669, there started flying coaches, which undertook to run fifty miles a day in summer and thirty in winter. It was at the latter season, that the want of really good roads was felt. A continuance of wet weather made some of the roads absolutely impassable, and others to be traversed only with the greatest difficulty ; frequently gentlemen's carriages were set fast, and could not be released without the aid of a team from the next farm. Waggons for the transport of goods began to appear, though pack- horses were still in many parts the only means of transit. For those who could not travel, it was a great advantage that a post-office ?vaa established (1635), which before the period cloeed appears to haia become a fchrivm^ institution. GEORGE I. 181 HOUSE OP HANOVER. George I. 1714—1727. George IV. 1820—1830 George II. 1727—1760. William IV. 1830—1837 George III. 1760—1820. Victoria 1837— GEORGE I. 1714-1727. Royal Family. George I. (1660—1727) the son of Sophia, grand- daughter of James L, and the elector of Hanover, came to the throne of England by virtue of the second Act of Settlement. He had succeeded t . the electorate of his father in 1698, and during the war of the SpanisJ Succession, had command for a time of the imperial forces against France. " A fair share of the courage and obstinacy of his race, steadiness to his engagements and his friendships, and considerable sagacity in the management of affairs were the marked qualities in the character of this king. He was to the end of life, however, in all his views and notions, and in his conduct, much more elector of Hanover than king of Engand; and his excessive anxiety about not merely the safety but the extension of his hereditary dominions, undoubtedly helped to involve this country in the net of continental politics to an extent not known before." The king died of apoplexy in his carriage, near Osnabruck, and was buried at Hanover, to which place he was then travelling. The consort of George wa3 Sophia Dorothea (1666 — 1726) daughter of George, duke of Zell ; the marriage was one of convenience, for the purpose of reuniting the dominions of the family. Sophia was beautiful and accomplished, but her indiscretion brought disgrace and embittered the remainder of her life. On a charge, never proved and generally disbelieved, of an intrigue with count Konigsmark, a Swede, she was immured in the castle of Ahlen from 1694 till her death. During the whole of her long imprisonment, she never failed to take the sacrament weekly, and to make at the altar, every time she did so, a solemn protestation of her innocence. When her husband became king of England, a proposal for reconciliation made by some influential persons was indignantly rejected by Sophia in these words : — " If I am guilty, I am not worthy to be your queen ; if I am innocent, your king is not worthy to be my husband." The children of George I. were : — George, who became king ; and Sophia Dorothea, married Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, afterwards king of Prussia. I, General discontent. Nothing could have been more gratifying to the friends of ih« Hanoverian dynasty than the hearty demonstrations in all parts of England, on the occasion of the proclamation of the new king. But the Jacobite parties soon recovered from the panic into which they had fallen, at the unexpected death of Anne, and the measures of the new government furnish eel them vitU a plausible 182 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY pretext for disturbing the public peace. It was not unnatural for the king to surround himself with wmg ministers, for though the whole tory party did not hold Jacobite principles, it is certain that many of them did so. Riots broke out in several parts of the kingdom, the cry was raised of the church in danger, and men shouted, " Down with the whigs, Sacheverell for ever." The mob inflamed with zeal for their ecclesiastical establishment assembled in large numbers and destroyed meeting houses, and insulted the sectarians. Things grew worse after the impeach- nient of Oxford, Bolingbroke, and other tories for their part in the treaty of Utrecht, and the king felt himself necessitated to give his sanction to the Riot Act (July 171 5), which provided that if any tw T elve persons unlawfully assembled to the dis- turbance of the peace, and any one justice shall command them by proclamation to disperse ; if they contemn his orders, and continue together for one hour afterwards, such contempt shai) be felony without benefit of clergy. II. Rebellion in favour of the Old Pretender. 1715-1716. Ormond and Bolingbroke, to avoid the consequences of an im- peachment fled to France, and gave a flattering report of the Jacobite interest in England ; but Louis XIV. happening to die at this juncture, no aid could be procured from that quarter. Notwithstanding, as assistance had been promised, and the death of the French king could not be foreseen, the Jacobites, confident of large support, resolved to move in rebellion against the Hano- verian king. The earl of Mar, having first advised with the adherents of the Pretender, raised the royal standard at Braemar (Sept. 6), and proclaimed James VIII. Soon after, 10,000 men joined him and he became master of Scotland north of the Forth, but he was kept in chock by an inferior force under the duke of Argyle. In England, Mr. Forster and the earl of Derwentwater headed the Jacobites of the north, who were strengthened by tha arrival of part of Mar's force. After proclaiming the Pretender in several towns, they were shut up in Preston, and the whole party, about 1,400, forced to capitulate (Nov. 13). On the same day was foughtthe battle of Sheriff-muir,T\e&\' Dumblane ; though victory rested with neither party, Argyle had the advantage, for Mar commenced a retreat which led many of his men to desert. The Pretender landed at Peterhead (Dec. 22). After a stay of about six weeks, as it was most evident that the movement had tailed, he and Mar embarked for F; unce, leaving the army to dis- perse itself. Although so many prisoners were made, less than thirty were executed ; amongst them was the earl of Derwent- water, whose forfeited estates were settled on Greenwich Hospital GEOKGE I. 183 An important change in the constitution grew out of this rebellion. According to the statute of 1694, a new parliament was to be called every third year, but with " a rebellion scarcely quelled, an invasion still threatened, parties in the highest degree exasperated, a government becoming unpopular even from its unavoidable measures of defence," it was judged expedient to extend by a Septennial Act (May 7, 1716) the duration of par- liament to seven years. The Jacobites continued troublesome all through this reign, [n 1722, in full confidence of general support, they entered intc a project for seizing the Tower, the Bank of England, and other public buildings, and proclaiming the Pretender in different parts of the kingdom. Though this scheme came to nothing, Layer a barrister suffered death for enlisting men for the Pretender's service ; and Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, was condemned by a bill of pains and penalties to be deprived and banished, for being a party to the plot. III. The South Sea Bubble. 1720, In 1710 a company was formed for trading to the South Seas, principallythroughtheinfluenceof Robert Harley, who promised ihe subscribers the monopoly of trade to Spanish America. But when this question was settled by the treaty of Utrecht, Spain refused to allow more than the A ssiento, by which the English were permitted to carry into the colonies 4,800 negroes annually, and one ship of merchandise, and this trade was suppressed in 1718, on account of our interfering with Spain in the Mediter- ranean. The Company flourished, nevertheless, and what with its wealth, and the respectability of its corporation, came to be con- sidered the rival of the Bank of England. In 1720 this company, at the suggestion of Sir John Blunt, one of the directors, offered to the government £7,500,000 for the irredeemable annuities which had been granted in the last two reigns. The offer wa*» accepted, and the annuitants were left at liberty to retain their government securities, or exchange them for South Sea Stock. So promising, however, were the affairs of the Company held to be, that most of the annuitants made an immediate exchange. The directors now called for new subscriptions, and money came in by millions ; to fan the flame, it was rumoured that Gibraltar and Port Mahon were to be exchanged for a part of Peru ; the stocks now rose to a 1,000, and a resolution passed that a yearly dividend should be paid of fifty per cent. In this state of public delusion, all kinds of projects sprung up, and men snd women from royalty downward flocked to Change Alley in fciich numbers, that tables with clerks were get in the streets. la 184 OUTLINED OF ENGLISH HISTORY. three months public confidence abated, and stock began to fall with rapidity ; a panic ensued, the bubble burst, and thousands were reduced to beggary. A severe punishment fell on the di- rectors of the Company, and it required ail the skill of Sir Robert Walpole to restore the national credit. IV. Foreign affairs— war with Spain. George, to enlarge his continental dominions, had purchased the secularized bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, which Den- mark had taken from Sweden, for £150,000 and a pledge to protect the seller from the vengeance of Charles XII. In ful- filment of this condition, an English fleet was sent to the Baltic, and Charles, indignant at the conduct of the king of England, proposed to aid the Pretender. Meanwhile (1717), a treaty was concluded between England, France, and Holland, hence called the Triple Alliance, the main object of which was to uphold the treaty of Utrecht, which acknowledged the Pro- testant succession of the house of Hanover, but the death of Charles of Sweden, at the siege of Fredericshall (1718), pat an end to all fear from that quarter. Another treaty was made (1718) between England, Austria, France, and Holland, known as the Quadruple Alliance. This also had for its object the upholding of the treaty of Utrecht, for cardinal Alberoni, the chief minister in Spain, was taking mea- sures to recover what that country had lost by the treaty. Sar- dinia he had already taken, and he now proposed to send an armament to Sicily. To prevent the conquest of that island, admiral Byng was despatched to the Mediterranean, and in a battle fought off Cape Passaro (^ug. 11, 1718), the Spaniards lost fifteen of their ships. In revenge for this interference, the cardinal fitted out an expedition to assist the Pretender. Arriving off Finisterre, the fleet was dispersed by a storm, two frigates only reached Scotland. There the Spaniards, together with the Highlanders that joined them, made up a force of about 2,000 men ; the insurgents met with defeat at Glenshiels (1719), on tvhich the Highlanders fled, and the Spaniards to the number of 300 surrendered. In the same year the English took possession of Vigo, where they found a large quantity of military stores, and 6ome shipping. As Spain suffered loss on all sides, Philip gave way, and, dismissing Alberoni, concluded a peace (1720), by which that country agreed to renounce all claims on the French crown, and to evacuate Sicily and Sardinia. In the last part of this reign the sovereigns of Austria and Spain entered into close alliance by the treaty of Vienna. The former bad already given offenca to England and Holland, by GEORGE li. 185 establishing at Ostend an East India Company, and it was suspected there were secret articles between the two powers to demand the restoration of Gibraltar and Minorca, which indeed proved to be so. To counteract this alliance, George concluded l at Hanover (1725), an alliance with France and Prussia, which was soon afterwards joined by Denmark. Kussia inclined to Vienna, so Wager sailed to the Baltic with a squadron to keep the Russians in check. In the same year (1726), admiral Hosiei was sent to blockade Porto Bello, where he and most of his men died off with fever. In the next year, Spain expended a large army in an attempt to reduce Gibraltar. The emperor now made overtures for peace, and preliminaries were signed at Paris 1 1727), by which he agreed to suspend the trade to India for sever, years. Philip of Spain refused to join in this treaty, lut in 1799 he came to terms by the treaty of Seville, by which tne Assienn. was confirmed to the South Sea Company, the English agreeing to the succession of the Infant Don Carlos to Parma and Tus- cany ; the question of the restoration of Gibraltar was passed over in silence. Miscellaneous Facts. From the time of the Revolution, the Convocation of the clerical estate was distinguished for its want of temper, and an almost continual dispute between the upper and low^r house. In the reign of George it acquired further notoriety by the Bangorian controversy, which originated in a sermon by Dr. Hoadley, bishop of Bangor, tending as was said, to subvert all government and discipline in the church. To put an end to these dissensions the fovernment prorogued thve Convocation (1717), and it has never since een permitted to meet for business till the reign of Victoria. In 1718 was repealed the Schism Act of Anne, which provided that no person should be allowed to teach in a school or family without having first subscribed the declaration to conform to the Church of England, and obtained a licence from the bishop of the diocese, and had also subscribed the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. Cheonicle. 1721 Guy's Hospital founded by Thomas Guy, a boekseller. Inoculation for the small-pox introduced into England from Turkey, by Lady Mary Wortley Montague. 1725, The order if Knights of the Bath re-established by the king. 1726, A charter of ncorporation granted to the East India Company, foi the three towns of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, GEORGE II. 1727-1760. Royal Family. George II. (1683—1760), the son of George I., was born at Hanover, and in 1706 created duke of Cambridge, though ]ie never set foot in England till his father's accession. In 1717 the prince quarrelled with his father, and was excluded from court for three years, as were also all such peers and others as should keep on friendly terms with him. A reconciliation took place ; but it was not cordiul in its character. "In his sentiments and politics George II. N i*36 OUTLINES OF ENGLIbri HISTORf. ^as as much a German as his father, and he persevered throughout his reign in the same system of interference in the affairs of the continent, professedly with the object of maintaining the balance oi power, but really with an especial view to the preservation of the hereditary possessions of his family. Both morallv and intellectually his character seems to have very much resembled that of his father; he is said to have been somewhat passionate, but open, straight for ward* and placable, though apt to entertain antipathies of considerable obstinacy, as well as steady in his attachment to tho-e who had once attracted his regard." He died of rupture of the heart, at Kensington, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The consort of George IT. was Caroline Wilhelmina (1683 — 1737), daughter of John, mnrgrave of Brandenburg Anspach. In consequence of the death of her father she was brought up at Berlin, under the care of her aunt Sophia, the sister of Ge- IPO OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. f eated the royalists under Cope at Preston pans (Sept. 21 ) Thfb success gave kira possession of Scotland, and brought in many adherents. In full confidence of being joined by large numbers of Jaco- bites, the prince entered England with about5,000men ; Carlisle surrendered in three days (Nov. 16). Marching forward by way of Lancaster and Manchester, Derby was reached (Dec. 4), but 30,000 men were gathering round the Scots, and reluctantly Charles submitted to turn his back on London, just at the time when the friends of his house were on their way to join him. Nor was the retreat less extraordinary than the advance, an affair near Penrith was the only check they met with, and the Esk was crossed Dec. 20th. After levying a fine on the whig city ot Glasgow, the Pretender proceeded to invest Stirling, and when General Hawley approached for the purpose of relieving it, he met with a disgraceful defeat at Falkirk (Jan. 17). The duke of Cumberland now appeared in the field, and completely routed the rebels at Culloden (April 16) ; the victory was however disgraced by the unnecessary cruelty that followed it. From the date of this battle to Sept. 20, Charles was a fugitive, and passed through adventures of the most romantic character he then succeeded in escaping to the continent, where he led a dissolute life till his death at Rome in 1788. Of those engaged in the rebellion of '45 more than eighty suffered death, including the Lords Kilmarnock, Balmerino,and Lovat, and large numbers were transported. Several acts afterwards passed having for their object, the breaking down of the highland clanships, and the introduction of an improved civilization. V. Seven Years' War. 1756-1763. Several causes, since the signing of the treaty of Aix la Chapelle,had tended to estrange England and France ; the latter was especially jealous of us in the colonies. In India the settlers of the two nations were frequently in dispute, and in America constantly so. The French were offended that we had founded the town of Halifax, to which, after the peace of 1748, many officers and soJdiers had gone. Then there were boundary dis- putes, and an attempt to exclude the English from the lucrative fur trade with the Indians; thisthey proposed to do by drawing a line of forts from Niagara to theirsettlementsontheMississippi. A6 this would inflict loss on the colonists, they took measures in 1754 to stop the progress of the French, and it is worth notiGe r that one of the first expeditions which the colonists sent against them was headed by George Washington, afterwards so famous \r the war ot icdepe/idence. In the next year, other hostilities GEORGE II. l9l fallowed though war was not yet declared. Admiral Boscawen attacked a French fleet and captured two liners ; in America, general Braddock and 700 men were killed in operating against Fort Duquesne on the Ohio. As there could be no longer any doubt about war, the king, afraid of his electorate, made alliances with Russia, Hesse-Cassel, and subsequently with Prussia. France allied herself with Ler old enemy, Austria. In 1756 admiral Byng was despatched to relieve Minorca. which the French were endeavouring to reduce. But Byng's tieet was poorly fitted and ill manned, and in an action with the enemy did not show so bold a front as might have been expected of it ; the result was the loss of the island. Great indignation was felt in England at this event, the blame of which did not altogether belong to the admiral ; he was, however, condemned for not having done his utmost, and shot on the quarter deck of the Monarch in Portsmouth harbour. In this year occurred the black-hole tragedy at Calcutta, the particulars of which will be related in connection with Indian affairs. In 1757 the English again met with bad fortune. An ex- pedition against Rochefort failed through the want of a good understanding between the naval and military commanders. In Germany, our ally Frederic of Prussia met with defeat, after which the French had no difficulty in shutting up the duke of Cumberland, and forcing him to agree to the convention of Closter- Seven, by which 30.000 men were disbanded. In this year the ministry was reconstructed, and though Newcastle was the nominal head, the elder Pitt was the ruling spirit ; from this time the result of his vigorous counsels became most striking in the conduct of the war. In 1758, Senegal and Goree were captured from the French. A like success followed our efforts in America, where Amherst and Boscawen took Louisberg, the capital of Cape Breton, and Prince Edward's Island ; and Forbes took Fort Duquesne, the lame of which hechan^ edto Pittsburg. But Abercrombie failed in an attempt on the forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. At home a large expedition destroyed at St. Malo three ships of war and more than a hundred other vessels, besides a great quantity of navai stores. Later in the year the forts and basin at CJier- bourg were destroyed, but a second attempt on St, Malo ended in a loss of 1,000 men. In 1759 an uncommon success attended our arms. Boscawen captured two French ships of war in Lagos Bay, and Hawke, a gale of wind blowing, attacked the French fleet in Quiberon Bay 'Nov. 20) ; a part he took or sunk, and the remainder was lost oi driven up the Vilaine. This important victory put an end to al! 192 OUTLINES CF ENGLISH HISTOfcY. fear of French invasion, and prevented that nation from doing anything more at sea during the war. Prussia, our ally, was lesa fortunate. Frederic nevertheless won a great victory at Minden (Aug. 1), where the French would have been entirely destroyed but for the misconduct of lord George Sackvilie, the commander of most of the allied cavalry. In America, Pitt proposed the conquest of Canada. His pro- ject included four distinct lines of operation, three of them to end at Quebec, where the combined forces were to operate together The first, commanded by Amherst, was to reduce Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and then descend the St. Lawrence ; the second, under Prideaux, was to reduce Fort Niagara ; the third, under Stanwix, was to move against the line of communication between Lake Erie and Fort Duquesne ; and the fourth, under Wolfe, to move from England. The first three accomplished their purpose, but neither Amherst nor Johnson, who had succeeded Prideaux, was able to arrive in time to act in concert against Quebec. Wolfe carried over with him about 8,000 men and a fleet of 42 sail in- cluding frigates. With incredible difficulty he contrived to place his men on the heights of Abraham, and on the next day received the attack of the French under Montcalm, the governor of Quebec. Fortune favoured the English, but Wolfe fell (Sept. 13) at the moment of victory. Montcalm too fell mortally wounded. Tiie garrison capitulated, and Quebec became an English possession. In the West Indies, Guadaloupe yielded to an English force. In 1760 the tide of success rolled on. The forces which were intended to act with Wolfe, entering Canada, gathered round Montreal, under Amherst as commander-in-chief, upon which tha French capitulated (Sept. 8) and were sent home, leaving th3 English in possession of the entire province of Canada. VI. Affairs in India. The Mogul empire in India was already on the decline, when a finishing stroke was put to it by Nadir Shah, a robber chieftain who had raised himself to the Persian throne. Entering India in 1739, he defeated the Mogul and took Delhi ; on retiring to ais own dominions he carried off treasure estimated at eighty millions in value. The Mogul remained, but his army wai destroyed, his treasury empty, and his sources of revenue nearh annihilated. In this state of disorganization the rajahs and eoubahs, though professing themselves dependent, ceased to pay any real obedience to the throne of Delhi. The empire indeed crumbled away. Bengal became the domain of one, and Mysore of another, the nizam held the district bet ween Calcutta and Madras, and every year saw the formation of sovereign states out of a QEOKGE II. 193 i>ait of the empire. While these changes were going on, the French and English were rivals, the former having settlements at Pondicherry and Chinsura. During the war of the Austrian S uccession, hostilities broke out between them, and Labordonnais, the governor of the Mauritius, brought a force which captured Madras (1746), which English settlement was held by the French till 1749. From this period there appeared a design on the part of the French to found a European empire in India, an idea first started by Dupleix, the governor of Pondicherry. And it so fell out, that the course of events was favourable for the attempt, for in 1748 the nizam died, and there appeared two claimants for the succession. At the same time a struggle was going on in the Carnatic between two competitors for dominion. Dupleix allied himself with the pretenders, and for a time his ability and good fortune prevailed everywhere. He was declared governor of thirty millions of natives, put in command of the cavalry, obtained for the French the privilege of mintage, and for himself no small part of the hoarded treasure. The French exultingly set up their flags close to the boundary hedge of Madras, and it was evident even to the natives that English interests in India were on the verge of ruin. From this point of degradation we were raised, and India won for the English, by an obscure youth — Robert Clive. When a lad, Clive gave so much trouble and so little promise, that his father sent him out as a writer to Madras ; there his health be- came indifferent, melancholy followed, and twice he attempted suicide. He first threw aside the pen when Labordonnais cap- tured i>Jadras, but was forced to resume it when peace came. Wow when the success of Dupleix perilled the very existence of an English settlement in Southern India, Clive came forward and entered upon his career of victory. The only ally left to the English was besieged in Trichinopoly ; Clive proposed to save him by the capture of Arcot, and this he effected in 1751 with a force of only 500 men, 300 of whom were sepoys. Having taken post in the citadel, with a force reduced to 320 men, he beat ofl an army of 10,000. From this time the English power rose on the ruins of that of France. Among the fragments broken off from the Mogul empire waa that under the rajah of Bengal and Bahar, who boasted of ruling a population of thirty millions. Aliverdah Khan the rajah died in 1756, and was succeeded by Dowlah his grandson, a man ot brutal passions, and who bated the English as much as his pre- decessor respected them. Picking a quarrel with the settlers at Calcutta, he was not long before he attemptod the reduction of 194 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. that city. Most of the residents, including the governor and military officers, fled, leaving Mr. Holwell, a civil servant of the Company ; and nearly 200 men to shift for themselves. Fort William was lost in two days, thereupon the surajah's guards thrust the remaining 145 Englishmen and one woman into the Black Hole, or military prison, a room only 18 ft. by 14 ft., with Iwo small windows. It was the hottest season of the year, and many were suffering from recent wounds, ooon they became frantic from intense thirst, and stifled for want of air ; in the struggle that ensued to get near the windows, all the weakest were trampled down. Gradually all contest and noise ceased, but it was the silence of exhaustion and death ; when morning came but twenty-three remained alive. Calcutta was sacked, and an edict declared that no Englishman should again presume to set foot within the province. When this disaster happened, Clive was at Fort St. David, of which he had been appointed the governor. As soon as tidings came, an expedition was prepared at Madras, of 200 Europeans and 1,500 sepoys, and the command given to the hero of Arcot. Calcutta was retaken without the loss of a single life ; proceed- ing up the river, Hoogly was taken from the surajah, and Chan- dernagore from the French. Nor was this all, for Clive had re- solved to dethrone the cause of all this trouble, and for this purpose secured the aid of Meer Jaffier, the commander-in-chief of the nabob's troops. The plot was blown before matters were ripe, so Clive resolved to stake all on a battle, though his entire force was but 3,000 men, of which two-thirds were sepoys, and ten guns. On the other side, the nabob brought 50,000 men into the field, but the battle is not always to the strong, for he was ruinously defeated at Plassey (1757), and shortly a^ter assas- sinated by one of his own subjects. Meer Jaffier became now the nabob of Bengal, and paid to the English as compensation money nearly three millions sterling. After some further suc- cesses over the Circars and the Dutch, Clive returned to England, where he received an Irish peerage, and obtained a seat in the Commons. Miscellaneous Facts. Id this reign was founded (1739) tlmf body of dissenters known as Methodists. This section of religionists had its origin at Oxford, where several students, including John and Charles Wesley, Hervey, the author of the well-known " Meditations," and Whitfield, leading a stricter lifp than was usual, obtained the de- risive name of Methodists. After being for a time missionaries in the new settlement at Georgia, the two Wesleys returned to England and commenced preaching in the open air; Whitfield also did the same. In this way they gathered round them many converts from \}\a lower classes, which were first formed into societies by the older GEORGE II. 13a Wesley But as Whitfield held the Calvinistic doctrine of predesti- nation, he separated from his friends, and thus were formed two sections, known as the Calvinistic Methodists and the Arminian Methodists. That field preaching proved so successful is attributed *o a want of energy in the Establishment, and the fact that in many places the population had overgrown the existing provision for its spiritual wants. Writing on this subject, lord Mahon remarks: — " In the reign of George the First, the reflecting few could perceive that the Church of England, though pure as ever in doctrine, was impaired in energy, and must have either help or opposition to stir it. That impulse was in a great measure given by the Methodists. The clergy caught their spirit, but refined it from their alloy of enthu- siasm. The discipline of the Church was gradually revived, and its deficiencies supplied. Every year the Establishment rose higher and bigher in efficiency and usefulness; and it has checked and arrested :he progress of the Methodists, not so much by their faults as by iti merits." Till this reign the English had retained the Old Style, in which the error had grown to eleven days; a bill was therefore passed for the Ite» formation of the Calendar. It was enacted that the year should hence- forth commence on the 1st of January, and not as before on the 25th of March, and that eleven days should be suppressed. This was carried into effect in 1752. by taking out eleven days, and calling the 2nd of September the 14th. Hitherto the law of marriage had been so loose, that unions could be formed in England with more facility than subsequently at Gretna Green. No notice or publication of banns was looked for, and the ceremony might be performed at any time or in any place, without consent of parents, or any other preliminary condition. This facility led to young heirs and heiresses, scarcely more than infants, being inveigled into improper matches, and there were ever ready degraded clergymen to perform the ceremony in cellars, in garrets, or in ale- houses, to the scandal of religion and the ruin of families. To stop so great an evil it was enacted — that banns should be published in the parish church for three successive Sundays; that no licence be granted to a minor; that the power of granting a special licence for performing a marriage at any place or hour be reserved to the arch- bishop ; that any marriage contrary to this act be null and void; and that the person solemnizing it be liable to transportation for seven years. Chronicle. 1730, Fahrenheit's thermometer invented. 1731, Hadley's quadrant invented. It is enacted that English be used ir ?ourts of law instead of Latin. 1732, Georgia founded by the bene- volent general Oglethorp. 1735, Harrison constructs his first time- piece; his fourth chronometer is used at sea in 1764, and he receives a reward of £20,000. 1738, First patent for spinning by rollers ; from this event is dated the commencement of the second period of cotton- spinning, i.e., by machinery. 1741, Military Academy founded ati Woolwich. 1746, The electrical apparatus known by the name of the Leyden jar, or phial, invented. College of Surgeons founded. 1750, Halifax in Nova Scotia founded. 1752, Franklin invents the lightning conductor. 1753, The British Museum established in Mon- tague House. 1758, Brindlev commences the JBridgewater canal. 1759 196 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. First improvement of the stocking loom — the " Derby rihs," by Jedediah Strut*. GEORGE III. 1760-1820. Royal Family. George III. (1738—1820) was the eldest son of Frederic, prince of Wales : his father died suddenly in 1751, in which year his son George succeeded to his title. During his youth the prince was kept in great privacy, to preserve him from the fashionable profligacy of the day. His political education was much neglected, tor lord Bute, who reigned supreme in the household of the dowager princess, was from mere ignorance of the subject a very unfit director of the political studies of the prince, nor were any of his coadjutors or subordinates much more competent. In the earlier part of his reign the king had an attack of illness which proved a predisposition to insanity ; in 1810 this terrible visitation settled on him in a permanent form, and his son George became Prince Regent for the remainder of the reign. George III. "had no pretensions to any superior penetration or vigour of understanding, but he possessed rather more than the ordinary endowment of practical tact and skill in the management both of affairs and men. He was perfectly master of all the proprieties of his station, which never, at least on important occasions, lost any of its respectability or authority during his occupation of it. . . The decorum of his private character also was of much service to him, as well as probably efficacious in no slight degree in giving a higher tone to the public manners, and in making the domestic virtues fashion* able, even in the circles where they are most apt to be treated with neglect. It ought not, moreover, to be omitted, that with whatever narrowness of view, consequent upon his training and his position, George III. may be chargeable, he was — what many influential persons of his time were not — an avowed friend to the diffusion of education." The consort of George III. was Charlotte Sophia (1744r— 1818) the daughter of Charles Frederic, prince of Mecklenburg- Strelitz. The attention of George was first drawn to her by a letter which she had written to the king of Prussia, and which that monarch sent over to the king of England as a miracle of good sense and patriotism. Having privately satisfied himself that the reports of her intelligence were correct, the king married her in 1761, Charlotte being then in hei seventeenth year. In person she was diminutive and plain, with a temper neither very pliable nor forgiving, yet she was possessed of strong sense and great prudence. Her manners were not engaging, and this may partly account for her not being generally popular, though as a wife and. a mother her conduct was exemplary. Her domestic habits and simplicity of tastes led both her and her consort to live much in seclusion, with few attendants and no visitors. SLe constantly opposed every kind of immorality and vice, and her court was more irreproachable than any other in Europe. It is said that she expended upwards of £5,000 annually in works of benevolence. Mai kg of her favour were given to Mrs. Trimmer, Hannah More, and other female authors, whose writings wero directed to moral and religious im- provement. The children of George III. were, -George Augustue Frederic whs GEORGE JII 197 became king: Frederic, duke of York: William HeDry, duke of Clarence, who became king: Charlotte Augusta Matilda, married Frederic, king of Wurtemburg : Edward, duke of Kent : Augusta Sophia : Elizabeth, married Frederic, landgrave of Hesse-Homburg : Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland : Augustus Frederic, duke of Sussex • Adolphus Frederic, duke of Cambridge: Mary, married her cousin William, duke of Gloucester: Sophia Octavius, died young: Alfred died young : and Amelia. I. End of the Seven Years' War. In 17bl the English captured Dominica in the West Indies, and Belleisle on the coast of Brittany ; the latter cost many men in its reduction, but its conquest was thought desirable, in order to obtain more favourable terms in a treaty then negotiating with France ; the truth was, Pitt proposed to offer Belleisle for tho restoration of Minorca. France objected, being engaged at that time in negotiations with the Bourbon kingof Spain to form a " Family Compact ; " having done so, such demands were made for the two countries, that the English would negotiate no longer. Pitt, made aware of the true character of this compact, and that Spain was making warlike preparations, proposed an immediate declaration of war against that country ; to this the council would not agree, and the minister resigned. Lord Bute became now orime minister. In 1762 the new minister was compelled to declare war against Spain (Jan. 4). That country, because Portugal would not join in her policy, sent an armed force and captured several Portuguese towns. English forces were despatched to the aid of our old ally, and the Spaniards driven back beyond the frontiers. In the west Indies, Rodney and Monckton took Martinico (Feb. 18) from the French ; the dependent isies, Grenada, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent, subsequently surrendered to the English. The next effort was against Havanna; this also was successful ; it capitulated (Aug. 13) and yielded to the captors, in treasure and merchandise, the sumof three millions sterling. A likesuccess attended our arms in the East, where Manilla was captured (Oct. 6), and the sum of four million dollars received as ransom for property. About the same time an English squadron captured the Acapulco galleon, valued at three million dollars ; and another, captured off St. Vincent, was found to have on board treasure to the amount of nearly one million sterling. In November, preliminaries of peace were signed at Fontainebleau. This war ended by the Treaty of Paris (Feb. 10, 1763), by which France ceded to England, Canada, Nova Scotia, Gape Breton, Tobago;Dominica, St. Vincent, and Grenada, also Senegal in Africa ; but the French were to have a right jf tishery on the 198 OUTLINES OF ENOLISH HISTORY. banks of Newfoundland, and the isletsof St. Pierre and Miquelon as fishing stations. In Europe, Minora* was to be exchanged for Belleisle. Spain agreed to cede Florida to England, and the right >f cutting logwood in Honduras ; and by a private conventioE France agreed to give Louisiana to Spain in compensation for Florida. Peace was subsequeLtly made between Prussia and A istria by the treaty of Hubertsberg, Silesia being confirmed td tii3 former country. II. The affair of John Wilkes. Bute, a comparative stranger in England,but a favourite with the king, had been the principal promoter of the peace, which was held to be far less advantageous to this country than our success entitled us to. The blame fell on the minister, and the king in his speech having spoken of the peace as alike honourable to the crown and beneficial to the people, Wilkes, a member of parlia- ment and editor of a paper called the '''North Briton," assailed the speech in a bitter and scurrilous manner. Bute had just re- tired from office, but his successor, George Grenville, resolved to prosecute Wilkes for libel. A general warrant, that is a warrant not specifying the names of the parties, was issued, and Wilkea being apprehended was committed to the Tower. Brought to Westminster Hall by habeas corpus, the chief justice released him as he was a member of parliament. Proceeding against the secretary of state for illegally arresting him, he obtained £1,000 damages, and a declaration from the chief justice that general warrants are unconstitutional and illegal. And yet the com- mons ordered his paper to be burned by the common hangman, andsubsequently expelled Wilkes from their house (1764). After residing abroad for a time, Wilkes returned in 1768 and was elected for Middlesex; being rejected by the house, he was re- elected, though only to be again refused admittance. These pro- ceedings were thought to encroach on public liberty, and the cry "Wilkes and Liberty" resounded throughout the kingdom. Tumults arose, and several lives were lost. In 1769 he pro- ceeded against lord Halifax for the seizure of his papers, and obtained £4,000 damages. In the next year he submitted to give a bond for good behaviour; from this time he rose successively *to the highest office in the city, and at a later date to a seat again In the commons. III. The American War of Independence. 1775—1783. The Seven Years' War, which had been carried on principally for the protection of our American colonies, had entailed great additional burdens on the mother country ; it was therefore to b* GEORGii 1IL 199 expected that on the return of peace some attention should be paid to the matter of revenue. In order to check the prevalence of smuggling, both at home and in America, ships of war were stationed on the coast ; this the colonists resented, because of the greatness of their gains by the illicit traffic carried on with the West Indies and the Spanish settlements. Moreover Grenville, in 1764, imposed duties on several articles of American trade,and at the same time proposed a resolution that it would be proper to charge the colonists with stamp duties, the same as in England. In 1765 that minister procured the passing of the stamp act. When this was known in America, popular demonstrationsagainst the measure took place, and most of the provincial assemblies passed resolutions, denying the right of the mother country to tax them without their own consent. This year Grenville, not being able to agree with the king, gave place to the marquis of Rockingham, who in 1766 repealed the stamp act of his prede- cessor. His administration, however, fell through, and was suc- ceeded by one under the leadership of the elder Pitt, now created earl of Chatham ; in consequence of Pitt's continued illness, the duke of Grafton took his place. In 1767 the English parliament passed a bill for levying import duties in America, on glass, paper, painters' colours, and tea ; these the colonists resolved not to pay, and formed associations for abstaining from their use. In 1770, Grafton losing his supporters resigned, and was succeeded by lord North, who procured the repeal of the taxes of 1767, with the exception of that of tea. Dissatisfaction continued to ripen in America, and various indi- cations appeared of the coming struggle, but it was not till 1773 that any serious outbreak occurred. In that year three ships laden with tea, that had entered the port of Boston, were boarded by a number of persons disguised as Mohawk Indians, who flung the tea loose into the sea, to the value of £18,000. The news of this outrage led the Eritish parliament to pass a bill closing the port of Boston, and another which provided that henceforth the council of Massachusetts should be appointed by the crown, and not elected by the people. Thereupon, that colony with eleven others, agreed to send delegates to Philadelphia, where being mel they resolved to cut off all commercial intercourse with England till the obnoxious statutes were repealed. They also drew up a Declaration of Rights, claiming for themselves all the liberties of Englishmen. Both sides now prepared for an appeal to arms. In 1775 hostilities began by the affair at Lexington (April 19), which happened this way. The colonists having collected military stores at Concord, general Gage, the governor of Boston, sent out a force to destroy them. On the road they found a body of 200 OUTMNES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. militia under arras, a skirmish took place and lives were lost. Pressing on, the royal troops destroyed the stores that had not been removed, but on their return they were incessantly fired upon by the militia, and lost in killed and wounded about 250 men. This success put heart into the colonists, and many thou- sand men were drawn together in the neighbourhood of Boston ; they even occupied the peninsula of Charlestown, and threw up entrenchments on Breed's Hill, which commanded the town. An attack made on this position cost the English a thousand men in killed and wounded. This action is erroneously called, from a neighbouring height, the battle of Bunker's Hill (June 17}. Mean- while the " glorious victory of Lexington," for so the Americans etyled it, had led to an expedition under the command of Mont- gomery and Arnold. Having first made themselves masters of forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, they passed into Canada, but contrary to their expectations, the Canadians gave them neither sympathy nor succour. Montreal fell, but an attack made on Quebec failed (Dec. 31), involving the loss of Montgomery and many of his men. The Americans nevertheless blockaded Quebec till the middle of the following year, when they were driven out of the province with considerable loss. In 1776, general Howe, who had succeeded Gage, found the blockade so close that he must quit Boston or starve ; he retired to Halifax, a movement which left New York to fall into the hands of Washington, the commander-in-chief of the rebel army. The colonies in congress now issued (July 4), a formal Declara- tion of Independence, on the ground that whenever any form of government becomes destructive to thelife, liberty, and happiness of the governed, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and that as they had suffered repeated injuries and usurpations from the king of Great Britain, they solemnly declared that the United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- pendent states. In July, Howe with krge reinforcements from home moved southward to obtain possession of New York. A landing was made on Long Island, and Washington defeated at Brooklyn (Aug. 27), which put New York into the hands of the royalists. The affair at Trenton, at which Washington took dearly a thousand Hessians prisoners, closed the year. In 1777, Washington made a second stealthy inroad on the English troops at Princeton (Jan. 2), and besides killing 100 men, carried off 300 prisoners. Howe, after much loss of time, embarked his troops and sailed up the Chesapeak. Washington tooK post to save Philadelphia, and a battle was fought at Brandy- urine (Sept. 11); fifteen days after, the capital of the insurgent colonies was occupied by the royal troops. This success wu2 GEORGE 111. 201 more than balanced by the disgrace which befell the English arma elsewhere. A plan had been proposed to open up a direct com- munication between Canada and New York, and 7,000 men placed under general Burgoyne to effect this purpose. This force was to move from Canada, whilst Clinton was to move from New York to co-operate. Burgoyne marched from Crown Point in June, and reaching Ticonderoga, the Americans drew off in the night. Pushing on through a rugged country, he was confronted at Stillwater (Sept. 19) ; victory declared for neither side, but the loss of men and want of provisions led the English to retreat to Saratoga, Here Burgoyne was soon surrounded and com- pelled to surrender his force, about 6,000 men, prisoners. Clin- ton, after much delay, had moved on to the support of the army from Canada, but retired on hearing of its fate. In 1778 the war became more involved, for Burgoyne's defeat decided the French, who had not forgiven us the conquest of Canada, to enter into the quarrel. That government therefore agreed (Jan. 6), to a treaty of alliance with the United States, and having intimated that such was the fact, withdrew their ambas- sador from London. This step on the part of France tended to increase the anxieties of the English ministry, and the more so as individuals in both houses of parliament began to urge the expe- diency of purchasing peace, by acknowledging the independence of the revolted colonies. It was to resist the duke of Richmond, who advocated such a step, that the earl of Chatham, ill as he was, went to the house and solemnly protested against the dis- memberment of the monarchy. In attempting to speak a second time he was seized with a fit and fell on the ground ; in about a month the " great commoner " expired. Lord North, not un- willing to oiler terms of reconciliation, passed through the houses- two bills, one repealing the duty on tea, and declaring that for the future England would not impose any duty, tax, or assess- ment whatever in any of the American colonies, except such as should be expedient for the regulation of commerce ; the other, appointing commissioners with sufficient powers to treat with the solonists. But it was too late, the terms were not listened to, and the commissioners returned to England. Howenad passed the winter in Philadelphia in frivolous amusements, and his successor Clinton had no sooner taken command than he received orders to evacuate the place and concentrate his forces at New York. Nor did he move any too soon, for a French fleet appeared at the mouth of the Delaware with a reinforcement of troops from Toulon. Nearer home, admiral Keppel engaged the French flee4 off Ushant (July 27) ; its barren results, arising from some bad feeling among the officers, raised an outosy throughout the country. 202 OUTLINES OF ENOLI8H HISTORY In 1779, our perplexities were further increased by Spain join- ing the league against us, on the ground of various insults and interruptions to her trade. Spain undoubtedly wanted tack Gibraltar, hence she began operations against that fortress (June 21) ; the siege was continued till the peace, the rock being all that while gallantly defended by general Elliot. In America, there were some skirmishes and burnings, but no event of much importance. In 1780, England had her difficulties further increased by the Gordon riots, the particulars of which will be related separately, and by the armed neutrality of the northern powers. Our fleets kept the seas with varying success, Rodney defeated the Spanish fleet off St. Vincent (Jan. 16), but on the other hand the Spaniards captured about sixty of our rich merchantmen. This was a fair game, the great difficulty was with the neutral nations, who took advantage of existing hostilities to drive a profitable trade with our enemies. Thus a Dutch convoy fell into our hands- laden with military stores for France and Spain ; in like mannei the Spaniards took two Russian vessels freighted with corn for Gibraltar. The empress Catherine thereupon issued a declara- tion to the effect, that free ships make free goods, that contra- band articles are only such as a treaty stipulates, and that blockades, to be acknowledged, must be effective. This became the basis of the armed neutrality, or an alliance to support these claims, if necessary, by force of arms. Towards the end of the year, evidence appeared that the Dutch were forming an alliance with our revolted colonies, and war wa* therefore declared against that state. In America, general Clinton captured Charleston (May 12), but die event of most interest was that in which Arnold and Andre were concerned. The former was one of the American generals, who having been reproved by Washington for pecu- lation, thought to revenge himself by giving up his post, the fortress of West Point, to the English. Major Andre*, of the British service, was appointed to carry on the negotiation, un- fortunately he was seized by some militia-men, and hung as a spy ; Arnold made good his escape to the English quarters. In 1781 Rodney captured the Dutch island of St. Eustatia ^Feb. 5), taking in the bay 150 merchantmen and six ships of war, and property on shore valued at three millions sterling. In America, small battles were fought with varying success, till a French fleet entered theChesapeak, when Cornwallis found him- self compelled to surrender at York-town (Oct. 19). with his force of r i\CH^j men. This ei.cied the Americar war. so tar as mil'tary operations were concerned. In Europe. lidiaii il Parker.in chargi GEORGE HI. 203 of a convoy trom the Baltic, fought the Dutch, near the Dogger, hink (Aug. 5); the honour of the day was divided, for both fleeti were thoroughly disabled ; the enemy, as soon as they could refit sailed for the Texel, and Parker was not in a condition to oppose them. In 1782,Minorca,whichhadbeenunderattack fromacombined French and Spanish force, capitulated (Feb. 5). The bad suc- cess of the war led to a resolution by the Commons in favour of peace. North now resigned his place to the marquis of Rocking- ham, who dying in the course of the year, was succeeded by lord Shelburne. Though now resolved on peace, we were not without some success. In the West Indies, Rodney severely defeated the French fleet, under De Grasse, off' Ghiadaloupe (April 12) ; the enemy's ships being full of troops, the slaughter was im- mense, 3,000 slain and 6,000 wounded. Gibraltar had been under siege since 1779, this year it was certainly to be taken by the aid of bomb-proof floating batteries, but the red-hot shot from the garrison destroyed them in one day (Sept. 13). Of the enemy, 16,000 perished, and many more would have done so but for the humanity of the English. The siege nominally continued till the peace. The negotiations for peace, which had begun in the preceding year, were brought to a close with the several powers in 1783, on terms sufficiently humiliating for England. By the Treaty of Versailles we guaranteed to the American colonists the inde- pendence of the United States, with the right of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland. To France we granted a share of the Newfoundland fishery, and the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon ; and undertook to restore Tobago and St. Luck in the West Indies, in return for Dominica Grenada, and other islands : in the East Indies we were to restore Chandernagore, Pondicherry, and other possessions ; and further, we were to give up our claim for the dismantling of Dunkirk. To Spain we were to give up Minorca and both the Floridas, but to have from that power the right of cutting logwood in Honduras. To Holland we restored all her possessions except Negapatam. Besides the heavy burdens borne by the people at the time, this war added £100,000,000 to our national debt. IV. The Gordon riots. 1780. / a address from the Catholic body led to a repeal in 1778 of certain penal laws of long standing. Such were the punishment of popish pnestb as -felons or traitors ; the forfeitures by popish heirs educated abroad, the power given to a son or nearest re- lation, being a protestant, Of t*&ing possession of a father's or 204 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTOItY other relation's estate ; and the depriving papists of the power of acquiring landed property. The protestante in alarm formed associations to endeavour to procure ths repeal of the recent act. In London, the anti-catholic party was under the guidance of the half-insane lord George Gordon, who called a gathering in Bt. George's Fields, to give force to the petition he was about pre- senting to parliament. As many as 60,000 persons met, and walked in procession to Palace Yard ; the prayer of the petition being rejected, the mob gave way to violence. The catholic chapels of the ambassadors were destroyed, and the prisons forced and then set on fire. Matters grew worse, for the mob took to pillage, and when men had become maddened with drink, no less than thirty fires were to be seen blazing at one time. For fiva days the rabble had possession of London, then the king in council ordered out the military, and quiet was restored, though not till nearly 500 persons had been killed or wounded. Several of the ringleaders perished on the scaffold, but lord Gordon the prime mover was acquitted, the charge of high treason not being sustainable. V. The French Revolution. 1789. For many years France had been in an unsatisfactory condition The nobles were divided among themselves, the Church had lost most of its influence over the people, and much of the literature was impure and infidel in its character. Moreover, the burden of taxation fell principally on the poorer classes, and had been much increased by the recent wars ; indeed, the financial difficulty was felt to be overwhelming. New ideas of public rights and the equality of man began to be diffused, and the French government in the blindness of passion took up the cause of our rebel colo- nists. The French who took part in this quarrel could but feel that their case was manifold worse than that of the English colonists. Ideas picked up in America were brought back to France, and spreading with rapidity, gave birth to great results- In 1787 the parliament of Paris refused to register some ne\* taxes, the quarrel grew, and after the assembly of the Notables and the States-General, a National Assembly was formed (1789), and the French Revolution begun. It was in this year, that the mob destroyed the Bastille, or state prison ; formed the national guard out of the citizens of Paris ; and adopted the tricolor as the national flag. Throughout France there were great excesses committed, which led to the emigration of the nobles. The abolition of nobility, corporation, tithes, &c, followed. In October a banquet at Versailles, at which there was an outburst of loyal enthusiasm, led an armod rabble to murder the guard, GfcORGE III. 206 Rnd remove the royal family to Paris. In the following year a new constitution was promulgated, France divided into depart- ments, church property confiscated, and a system of assi gnats (a kind of paper money) adopted. The year 1791 was marked by an unsuccessful attempt on the part of Louis XVI. to escape out of the country, the growth of the Jacobin club of ultra' revo- lutionists, the treaty of Pilnitz between the emperor of Germany and the king of Prussia to join their forces to deliver the king of France, and the opening of the new Assembly. In 1792 France declared war against Austria, the Swiss guards were massacred at the Tuileries, and the rcyal family conveyed prisoners to the Temple ; at the head of this stage of the movement were Danton, Marat, and Robespierre. A revolutionary tribunal was now erected, and 5,000 massacred in the prisons of Paris. The estab- lishment of a National Convention followed, and France became a republic. The defeat of the Austrians led to the annexation of Flanders to France ; subsequently Savoy and Nice were also annexed. VI. The War of the French Revolution. 1793—1802. At first, this movement in France met with favour in England, being looked upon simply as the effort of a brave but oppressed people to shake off the results of a government radically bad. But a reaction set in, when it was found that the French were guilty of such horrible excesses, and apparently intent upon the establishment of a system of licentiousness. The immediate cause, however, which led the English to enter upon this war was the issue (1792) of two decrees by the French Convention ; one de- claring, u they would grant fraternity and succour to every people disposed to recover their liberty ; " the other, "that in all countries conquered by the Republic, liberty, equality, and the sovereignty of the people should be secured, with the suppression of nobility and all exclusive privileges, of all existing taxes, and all constituted authorities." These decrees led to the rapid spread of Jacobinism in England, and with the opening of the Scheldt for navigation contrary to existing treaties, were thought to make warnecessary in self-defence. And when the execution of Louis was known, the French ambassador was ordered to leave England (Jan. 24, 1793) ; on the 1st of February, the French Convention declared war against the king of Great Britain. In 1793 the course of events in France became terrific in the Highest degree. Both Louis XVI. and his wife Maria Antoinette were guillotined. A civil war in Vendee brought on ine royalists the most unheard of cruelties. In one month, 15,000 persons perished at Nantes alone ; the total number of victims in that 206 ATTUNES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. place during the reign of Terror exceeded 30,000. This cruelty was only surpassed by their impiety, the Christian religion was abolished and the churches closed, and a loose female enthroned in Notre Dame, to represent the goddess of reason. An English urmy under the Duke of York captured Valenciennes (July 28), but our success did not go further. In the South of France, Toulon was held by the royalists supported by admiral Hood ; it was however soon invested by an army of 40,000 republicans, amongst whom was Napoleon Buonaparte, then a young artillery officer. The town becoming untenable, the English withdrew, carrying with them 15,000 refugees, though not till they had destroyed twenty, three ships of war. In 1794 England was so disturbed by the growth of revo lutionary societies, that the habeas corpus was suspended six months, and Home Tooke and others tried for high treason. Things improved in France, by an end being put to the reign of terror, and the execution of Robespierre and his party ; daring the period that now ends, not less than a million victims had been sacrificed. In Poland, Kosciusko raised the national standard, the movement was crushed by Suwarrow, who took Warsaw and put 20,000 to death ; Poland soon after ceased to be a nation. By sea the English fleet under Howe defeated the French oft Brest (June 1), capturing twelve ships of the line. By land we were less successful, for the loss of the battle of Muremonrt/i (Oct. 2), forced the allies to withdraw from Flanders, and the British troops to make a long retreat amidst the rigours of a most severe winter. After resting awhile at Osnaburg, they embarked for England in the next spring. In 1795 the French set up aaother new constitution — a Directory ci five, with a council of ancients and a council of five hundred ; an insurrection growing out of this change was ex- tinguished by Buonaparte's mowing down the mob of Paris with grape-shot. The allies were weakened this year by the secession of Prussia and Spain, and Holland was no longer with us, for the French had overrun that country, and the Stadtholder be- came a refugee in England. War being now declared against Holland, the Cape of Good Hope was captured (Sept. 16). In 1796 Buonaparte, now commander-in-chief in Italy, forces the bridge of Lodi, gains many battles, and takes Mantua. Spain, by the treaty of Ildefonso, formed an alliance with Fiance and declaied war against England. The English captured Ceylou and Malacca in the East, and several islands belonging to the French and Dutch in the West Indies. At the close of the year. Hoche sailed from Brest with thirty -three ships of war and 2S000 troops for the invasion of Ireland, but a storm scattered OLORGE III. 207 the fleet, and that part which reached its destination could not effect a landing. In 1797 the French had much success. Napoleon crossed the Alps, and threatening Vienna, compelled the Austrians, first to a suspension of arms, and then to the peace of Campo Formio, by which France obtained Flanders, Venice at the same time being ceded to Austria. This year was marked by two naval victories on the part of the English. Admiral Jervis, aided by Nelson and Collingwood, defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent (Feb. 14), and admiral Duncan the Dutch fleet off Camperdovm (Oct. 1 1). Otherwise this was a year of great trial for England, party spirit raged with intense violence, Ireland was unsettled, public burdens so great and public credit so low, that the Three per Cents fell to fifty-one, and an invasion panic produced such a run upon the banks, that the bank of England was reduced to pay in sixpences, and by an ordsr in council subsequently sus- pended cash payments altogether. Even worse than all this was the mutiny of the seamen, first in the Channel fleet and then at the Nore, the latter headed by an intelligent seaman named Parker. The men complained of the low rate of pay, unequal distribution of prize-money, and severity of the discipline. These grievances being remedied, the ships one by one returned to their duty ; Parker and other ringleaders suffered death, the other mutineers received pardon. In 1798 the French took possession of Rome, and established the Roman Republic; other republics were formed in Italy. In May, Napoleon sailed with a large armament from Toulon, and having obtained possession of Malta (June 11) through the treachery of the knights of St. John, to whom it belonged, passed on to Egypt with the ulterior design of deprivingusof our Indian possessions. Alexandria fell into his hands, and the celebrated Mameluke cavalry were defeated at the battle of the pyramids (July 21). Nelson in command of a fleet followed the French, whom he defeated at Aboukir bay (Aug. 1), after a battle which lasted through the night. The French lost in the battle of the Nile all their ships except four, and more than 8,000 men in killed and wounded; for this victory Neison received a peerage. }n this year Minorca was taken by general Stuart. The Irish rebellion of 1798 will receive .a separate notice. In 1799, Europe, encouraged by the victory of the Nile, formed a second coalition against France, which included England, Ger* many, Russia, and other states. Napoleon, cut off from Europe, made an attempt to reduce Syria. Entering that country in February, he successively reduced El Arish, Gaza, and Jaffa, and won the battle of Mount Tabor * bat after besieging Acre for T A& CUTL1NE8 OF ENGLISH HICTOtU. sixty days lie was compelled to retreat, principally through (hd gallant conduct of Sir Sydney Smith and a few British seamen. After his return to Egypt, he defeated the Turks at Aboukir in July, and in the next month embarked for France, then in a state of anarchy and disgrace, by reason of the defeat of her army in Italy by the Russians under Suwarrow, and the contempt into which the Directory had fallen. Through Napoleon's influence the Directory was abolished, and replaced by three consuls, of whom he held the first place. Only a moderate degree of succesa attended the English arms this year. It is true that Nelson was instrumental in taking Naples, and that Duncan obtained posses- sion of the Dutch tleet, but the Helder expedition under the duke of York, after a barren victory or two, proved a failure, and the duke found himself forced to enter into a convention with the French, for the embarkation of the British troops. In 1800, the French had again much success. Napoleon crossed the Great St. Bernard and reconquered Italy, winning the battles of Montebello and Marengo; this led to a peace with Austria at Luneville. In Germany, Moreau won thebattle of Hohenlinden. The only noticeable success of the English was the reduction of Malta (Sept. 5), after a blockade of two years. Not only were we left alone in the contest,but the northern powers again entered into an agreement to re-establish the armed neutrality, for pro- tecting the commerce of neutral vessels. In 1801 were united the parliaments of England and Ireland, and William Pitt retired from office because the king would not consent to certain concessions to the Irish catholics, or more pro- bably that he might not stand in the way of peace. Addington succeeded to the place of Pitt. Generally this year was one of success to the English. Abercrombie with the troops from Malta moved on to Egypt, where he defeated the French at Alexandria (March 21) ; by convention, the French surrendered Cairo and Alexandria, and were carried back to Europe. To break up the maritime confederacy of the north, admirals Parker and Nelson carried a fleet into the Baltic ; the latter undertook the bombard- ment of Copenhagen (April 2) ; after severe loss on both sides the Danes submitted to an armistice. In Russia, a conspiracy carried off the emperor Paul, and produced a change of policy; the maritime confederacy was now abandoned. Napoleon, engaged in a project for the invasion of England, collected a numerous flotilla of gun-boatsand other small craft at Boulogne. A power- ful armament under lord Nelson, sent to destroy it, proved a failure (Aug. 15), on account of the vessels being securely chained together, and under the protection of the batteries on shore. Meanwhile negotiations were being carried on for settling * GEOttGE III. 209 peace, and preliminary articles signed at London in October, 1801 In 1802 a definite peace, between England on one side and France, Spain, and Holland on the other, was concluded by the Treaty of Amiens (March 25). England agreed to give up all her colonial conquests except Ceylon and Trinidad ; to restore Egypt to the Porte, Malta to the knights of St. John, and the Cape of Good Hope to Holland ; France on her part agreed to evacuate the Boman and Neapolitan dominions, to guarantee the integrity of Portugal, to recognise the Ionian Islands as a republic, and to compensate the house of Orange for the loss or Holland. VII. Irish Rebellion, 1798 ; Union with England, 1801. As early as the middle of the century, signs of a movement began to appear in Ireland. Jn 1759 the Catholics as a body presented an address to the lord lieutenant, which not being un- favourably received, gave that party hope for the future. A few years later, popular outrages commenced, chiefly by the Whiteboys, as they were called, from wearing frocks over their clothes. During the war with the American colonists, and the absence of troops from Ireland, many volunteers were embodied ; taking advantage of these circumstances, meetings were held at which they passed resolutions, to retrieve the independence of their legislature, and secure enlarged commercial privileges. The volunteer corps were dissolved in 1783, but the movement went on, and in 1784 a national congress held at Dublin petitioned for parliamentary reform. This the king was unwilling to grant, and the British merchants stood in the way of enlarging their com- mercial rights. The French revolution inspired the Irish with new hopes, and in 1791 was formed an association called the u United Irishmen," to obtain a complete reform of the legisla- ture. As the government felt some alarm, it gave permission to catholics to marry protestanc-s. to educate their own children, and to practise at the bar, but forbade any more meetings of the United Irishmen. But they were already in correspondence with the French government, which agreed to aid them with large forces ; this was the object of the expedition under Hoche in 1796, and in the year following another attempt would have been made but for the opportune defeat of the Dutch fleet by Duncan. It was at this period that the protestants known as the Orange party organized a yeomanry force ; and in 1797 the country wa& put under military law, for secret societies existed everywhere. When it war found they could not count on French assistance, the Irish resolved to make trial without it. and the 23rd May, 1798, was the day fixed for the rising. The project becoming 2 1 V OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY known to the government, many of the leaders were arrested, yet risings took place in several parts, but the principal gathering was in Wexford. General Lake, at the head of a large force, attacked the insurgents upon Vinegar Hill (June 20), and gave them a complete defeat. Two months after, about 900 French landed at Killala ; a force being sent against them, they yielded them- selves as prisoners of war. It now became evident to the English government that something must be done with or for Ireland, a union was therefore determined upon. To this the Irish generally had a strong dislike, but the Irish parliament proved pliable and the thing was effected. The Union Bill provided that on January 1, 1801, Great Britain and Ireland should be united by the name of the United Kingdom if Great Britain»and Ireland : that the succession to the crown continue as before limited: that there be one parliament, to which Ireland should send four lords spiritual by rotation of sessions, and twenty-eight lords temporal, elected for life, and a hundred commoners: that the churches of England and Ireland be united into one prorestant episcopal church, with the same doctrines and worship : that the subjects of both kingdoms be entitled to the same privileges with regard to trade and navigation : and that the laws and courts of each kingdom remain the same, subject to such alterations as the imperial parliament may think necessary." From this time the cross of St. Patrick was combined with those of 8t. George and St. Andrew in the union flag, and th^ title of king of France omitted from the titles pertaining to the jrown of Great Britain and Ireland. VIII. Renewal of the war with France. 1803—1815. The short peace proved buta breathing- time, for it soon became evident that Napoleon was not a man to consider himself bound by a treaty. Nevertheless he complained that the English had not fulfilled the conditions, for they were still in possession of Malta, Egypt, and the Cape. To this it was replied that the knights had been despoiled of their property, and therefore could not keep Malta if it were put into their hands, and that the English were not disposed to give up these places so long as France continued to occupy Switzerland and Holland. Napoleon further complained of the attacks upon him by the English press, and of our affording an asylum to the Bourbons and their fol- lowers. To the former complaint, answer was made that in England the press was free, and could only be proceeded against by due course of law ; to the latter, that the laws of England gave no power to expel them. Napoleon resolved on war, and meanly ordered the arrest of above 10,000 English, then on pleasure in France, the majority of whom did not recover their liberty till the peace came. GEORGE ill. 211 In 1803 the French occupied Hanover, Bremen, and Hamburg, and pushed themselves into Italy. Immense preparations oegan foi the invasion of England. Every port from Brest to the Texel waa on the alert to push on some kind of craft to Boulogne, at which place 150,000 men were to embark to cross the Channel. Abroad, the English captured St. Lucia and Tobago from the French, and from the Dutch, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice. In 1804 Napoleon was proclaimed Emperor, and crowned by the pope. All his efforts were now concentrated on i is projected invasion. To secure the safe passage of the army of invasion across the Channel. He proposed that the several squadrons in French and iSpanish ports should form a junction in the West Indies ; then returning, the combined fleet was to raise the blockade of Kochefort and Brest, and with this increased force he calculated on being able to defy any fleet which the English might bring against him. This scheme was spoiled by Sir Robert Calder in the next year. Nelson again attacked the flotilla at Boulogne, but with as little success as before. By treaty, Spain had undertaken to pay an annual subsidy to France of nearly three millions sterling, England remonstrated and then ordered the seizure of the Spanish treasure ships. Spain now declared war against us. In this year Pitt again assumed the reins ot government. In 1805 the energy of Pitt organized a third coalition against France, which included Russia, Austria, and Sweden. Napoleon'e scheme of invasion began now to develop itself. The combined French and Spanish fleets sailed for the West Indies, whither Nelson when he learnt their route followed them, but they were already on their return to Europe. Calder was cruising off Finisterre, and though he had little more than half the force, attacked the enemy (July 22) and captured two Spanish ships. Villeneuve, the French admiral, took shelter in Cadiz, and thus to the mortification of Napo- leon completely thwarted the invasion scheme. As a consequence, the army of invasion broke up suddenly in September, and commenced its march to the Rhine. Nelson by this time was at the head of the blockading squadron before Cadiz, and Villdneuve after some hesitation came out with thirty- three sail of the line. Having hoisted his memorable signal, " England expects every man to do his duty," Nelson bore down on the enemy in two lines, containing together twenty-seven sail of the line, himself m the Victory leading one, and Collingwood in the Royai Sovereign ieading the other. In the battla of Trafalgar (Oct. 21 y the enemy J':st Id ships and 20,000 prisoners? a glorious victory was won, but it :ost the life of the gallant Nelson, and 1,690 British in killed and .• ounded The news was, however received by the nation with unbounded joy, fr,i it put an end to all fears of invasiLn, and was indeed the ruin of the enemy's navy, and consequently the last naval battle during the war. More fortunate by land, the French secured the surrender of 30,000 Austrians at Ulm s and Napoleon defeated the Austrians and Russians at Austerlits (Dec. 2), in which battle the allies lost 30,000 men. The peace of Presburg followed, by which France obtained Venice and the Tyrol. In 1806 Pitt died, worn out by the excitement of political life, and was succeeded by lord Glenville, of whose ministry Fox was the leading member, till the closing part of the year, when he followed his rival to the grave. Our euci esses this year were not great. The Cap* 212 0UTLINS8 OF ENGLISH HISTORY tf Good Hope was captired (Jan. 8), the French were defeated at Maida (July 4) by Sir John Stuart, and Buenos Ayres taken by Beresford, though shortly afterwards it was retaken by the Spaniards. Napoleon still revelled in success, his brother Joseph was declared king of Naples, and Louis, another brother, king of Holland. The Confederation of the Rhine was formed, with Napoleon its protector, the old empire being dissolved, and the title of emperor of Germany renounced by Francis of Austria. A quarrel with Prussia led to the battle of Jena (Oct. 14), in which the Prussians lost 20,000 on the field, and the same number as prisoners. This victory put Berlin into the hands of Napoleon. From this city he issued the celebrated Berlin decrees, the object of which was the annihilation of British commerce. In 1807 Napoleon abated nothing of his ambition. Proceeding against the Russians, he first fought the indecisive battle of Eylau, and a few months later won the victory of Friedland (June 14), in which battle his opponents lost 17,000 men. The treaty of Tilsit followed. Russia fell off from the English interest, and Prussia lost half of her dominions; a part of them was erected into the kingdom of Westphalia, and given to Jerome Buonaparte. The French emperor now turned his ambition in another direction, and by a treaty with Spain made arrangements for dividing Portugal. A French force entered Lisbon, and the royal family of Portugal embarked for the Brazils, At the close of the year Napoleon issued the Milan decrees, which made more stringent than betore the prohibition of all commercial intercourse with Britain, in order to exclude her commerce from the harbours of all the continental states. A partial success attended the arms of England. Monte Video was captured (Feb. 3), but an attempt to recover Buenos Ayres miserably failed. As Turkey had declared war against Russia, then our ally, Sir James Duckworth was sent against Constantinople to create a diversion. The Dardanelles were passed (Feb. 19) without much loss, but the admiral suffered himself to be amused by a show of negotiation, the Turks meanwhile putting the capital in a state of defence. Duckworth was now obliged to retreat, and lost 260 men in repassing the straits. In pursuit of the same policy a British force landed in Egypt; Alexandria and Damietta fell into our hands, but Rosetta held out; a party of our troops being made prisoners, we agreed to a convention by which the English evacuated Egypt immediately. By the secret articles of the peace of Tilsit, Denmark was to place her fleet at the disposal of France. To prevent this, England sent a powerful armament to demand the surrender of the Danish fleet, with the promise of its restoration when peace came. This proposal being rejected by the Danes, Copenhagen was invested, and ultimately the fleet brought off. In this year a new ministry was formed, with the duke of Portland at its head. The Peninsular War. 1808—1813. In 1808 Napoleon displaced Ferdinand of Spain, and promoted hit brother Joseph to that kingdom, Murat taking his place at Naples, The Spanish people greatly disliking this change rose against the French, and alter many excesses, issued u declaration of w*r against GEORGE III. 213 France. Assistance was readily granted by the English government) and an expedition of 10,000 men, then at Cork and about to sail fol South America, was put under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley for service in the Peninsula. The English army landed in Mondegc Bay (July 30), and defeated the French at Bolica (Aug. 17), and again at Vtmeira (Aug. 21) ; Sir Arthur was now superseded, and by the convention of Cintra, the whole of the French troops evacuated Portugal. In 1809 success begins to dawn upon our land forces, though the tommencement of the year was most unpromising. Sir John Moore, who had taken command of the army in Portugal, advanced into Spain depending upon considerable support from the Spaniards. But he was disappointed, and soon found that 50,000 French, under Soult, were moving against him. A disastrous retreat through Gallicia ended in a Aerce battle at Corunna (Jan. 16), which, though it brought victory brought also the death of Moore. The English embarked in transports and left the French in possession. A new coalition including England, Austria, Spain, and Portugal, was soon broken by the defeat of the Austrians at Landshut, Eckmuhl, and Wagram, and there followed the peace of Vienna, by which France acquired additional territory. In the Peninsula, Wellesley, again at the head of our forces, crossed the Douro (May 12) and sat down in Oporto to the dinner prepared for Soult, who had made a hasty retreat. Marching into Spain, he defeated Victor at Talavera (J uly 27) : in this brilliant action the French lost 10,000 men, the English 6,000. But this victory was balanced by the failure of the Walcheren expedition, under the earl of Chatham. This armament; designed for an attack on Antwerp, consisted of nearly 200 armed vessels and 30,000 troops; but stopping on the road to take Flushing gave time for the assembling of a large body of troops, and the improve- ment of the defences of the city. The design on Antwerp had therefore to be abandoned and the forces brought home, but this was not done till 7,000 men had perished of the marsh fever. In this year the death of Portland opened the way for Mr. Percival to become prime minister. In 1810 a bond was formed between France and Austria, by the marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa, Josephine, his first wife, sub- mitting to be divorced to open the way. The peace with Austria enabled the French emperor to fill the Peninsula with troops, intended to drive the British into the sea. Massena, at the head of 80,000 men* entered Portugal, and was encountered by Wellington at JBusaco (Sept. 27) ; in this action the French lost 5,000 men. The British fell back within the celebrated lines of Torres Vedras, whither the French could not follow; Massena, to save his army from starving, was fore d to retreat. In foreign parts, Guadaloupe, Amboyna, Bourbon, and the Mauritius were taken by the English. The king in this year became permanently insane, and George, prince of Wales, the regent of the kingdom. In 1811 the success of the English became more striking. The French under Victor were defeated by Graham at Barrosa (March 5), and under Massena by Wellington at Fuentes d'Onoro (May 3). A few days later, Beresford defeated Soult at Albuera (May 16), thfc most desperate and bloody battle in the whole war; in four hours the French lost 8,000 men, and the allies 7,000. In August Batavia capi- 214 OUTLINES OF ENGLi&E UlSTOBf . tulated to the British, and in the next month Java foHowed thp example. In 1812 Wellington captured Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19) and Badajos (April 6), the latter at the expense of 5.000 in killed and wounded. Marching into Spain, the English won a great victory at Salamanca (July 22) over Marmont : in this battle the French lost 14,000 m c n. This opened the way to Madrid, but Wellington was •gain obliged to retreat, on account of th3 forces gathering against him, *nd the little dependence to be placed on the Spanish auxiliaries. I'his year was specially memorable for the great expedition which Napoleon projected against Russia. With such an army as Europe had never seen before, the emperor set out and crossed the Niemen m June. After defeating the Russians at Smolensk and at Borodino (Sept. 7), in the latter battle nearly 100,000 men fell, the French entered Moscow, but in a few days it became evident that the Russian' had fired the city. As nine-tenths of Moscow were destroyed by thi flames, the French were under the necessity of commencing a disastrous retreat. Thousands perished of cold and hunger, and more by the hands of the Russian troops which hung upon their flanks ; in this memorable expedition there perished of the French forces nearly half a million of men. In England, Lord Liverpool became prime minister, Perceval having been assassinated by a discontented man. The war with America which commenced this year will be noticed separately. In 1813 commenced what is called the Resurrection of Germany. Russia combined with Prussia and Sweden, and the Hanse towns joined them, but Napoleon beat their forces at Lutzen (May 2), when the allies lost 15,000 men, the French 13.000. Subsequently the Austrians joined •he coalition, and the French were decisively beaten at Leipsic (Oct. 16), the allies losing 42,000 men, the French 60,000. In the Peninsula, Wellington won the battle of Yittoria (June 21), and defeated Soult in the battles of the Pyrenees in July. St. Sebastian and Pampeluna now fell to the English. In October, Wellington carried his army into France, and defeated Soult at the Nivelle. In 1814 Wellington defeated the French at Ortkes (Feb. 27) and at Toulouse (April 10). The allied armies from Germany having entered France alter more than one battle out- manoeuvred Napoleon and obtamed possession of Paris. The emperor navmg abdicated and retired to the island of Elba, the Bourbon king, Louis XVIII., took the throne. A treaty was concluded (May 30), known as the first treaty of Paris, and a congress opened at Vienna (Nov. 3) for settling the details. In ] 815 the rejoicingf of Europe were fated to be disturbed. Na- poleon, believing that the Bourbons were still unpopular with the French, made his escape, and landing in France (March 1), was every- where received with acclamations. The troops passed over to him, and Louis left the kingdom. A great coalition was immediately formed, and troops gathered on the northern frontier ; against these Napoleon resolved io strike toe first blow. The Prussians under Blucher were defeated at Zdgny (Jure 16) ; the same day Wellington defeated marshal Ney at Quatre-Bras. On hearing of the defeat of the Prussians, the Snglish fell back to Waterloo, whither they were followed by Napoleon. Battle was given (June 18), and victory rested with the allies, thr' . GEORGE IV. 219 in tine next year. 1783, The first balloon makes its ascent from Paris. 1784, Mail coaches first begin to run. 1785, The power-loom in- vented by Cartwright. Steam first applied to cotton-spinning. 1788 First settlement of the English in Australia, at Botany Bay. 1792, First application of coal ga3 to the purposes of illumination. 1796, Vaccination introduced by Dr. Jenner. 1800, The Voltaic or gal- vanic pile invented by Volta of Pavia. 1801, First act of parliament for a railroad — between Wandsworth and Croydon. 1802, A steam- boat tried upon the Clyde. 1804, The locomotive steam-engine first tried on the railroad at Merthyr Tydvil. 1807, Gas first used in the streets of London. 1810, First regularly organized savings-bank instituted. 1811, The Luddites destroy machinery in Nottingham and other places. Trading in slaves made a punishable offence. 1812, Stnamboat begins to ply on the Clyde, the first in Europe. 1814, •Sream applied to printing in the " Times " office. 1815, The first steamboat appears on the Thames. GEORGE IV. 1820-1830. Royal Family. George IV. (1762—1830) was the eldest son of George III. and Charlotte Sophia. Though early advanced to honours f,ud appointments, his parent kept him in a state of pupilage and exclusion till he was nearly eighteen. From the time of his ap- pearance in public he threw off all restraint, consorted with fashion- able and gay companions, and indulged himself in various kinds of extravagance and dissipation. On more than one occasion the parliament was called upon to clear off the pecuniary difficulties of this unthrifty prmce. The attack of insanity which visited his parent in 1810 led to his being appointed Prince Begent, so that from that period he was virtually king. It is said of George IV. that he had an amiable disposition, a highly cultivated mind, and the most perfect manners, but it is no less true that he was profligate, and capable of great unkindness, and that he left behind him a name as disreputable as that of his father was the contrary. The wife of George IV. was Caroline (1768—1821), the daughter of Charles, duke of Brunswick, and Augusta, the sister of George III. She is spoken of as a spoilt child, full of life, not wanting in ready wit, but thoroughly deficient in judgment. Her marriage to the Prince of Wales took place in 1795, and was to her the commence- ment of many sorrows. The young pair soon quarrelled, and the birth of a child (1796) brought no return of affection. After living undei the same roof some months longer without speaking to each other, Caroline retired, first to Charlton and then to Blackheath. Charged with impropriety of conduct, a royal commission issued in 1806 to inquire into the allegations ; she was acquitted of the main charges, though deemed guilty of conduct unbecoming her station. In 1815 she left England, and resided for the next few years on the continent, giving during this period additional evidence of her want of a proper use of self-respect. On the accession of her husband she returned to England to claim her rights as queen ; this was met by a bill of pains and penalties, which, however, the ministers thought it expe- dient to abandon. Failing to force her way into the coronation, she fell ill and in a fow da js died. Her body was conveyed to Bruns- wick for interment. 220 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY The famtty of George IV. consisted of but one child, the princess Charlotte, born 1796, married to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg in 1816, asao died to the general grief of the nation in 1817. I. Distress of the Nation. From the time of the peace in 1815 there had been much de- rangement of trade. Many who had been employed in connection with providing warlike materials found their occupation gone, and others, who had been engaged in European commerce, ex- perienced considerable diminution when England had no longer exclusive possession of the seas. Heavy taxation continued, which, with some unfavourable harvests, brought great distress upon the working classes. Bread rose to double the average rate, and the people were easily persuaded that nothing would improve their position but a radical reform in the representation. In the first year of the reign, Thistlewood and others entered into a scheme to assassinate the cabinet ministers, and establish a new government. Fortunately, the Cato Street conspiracy, for so it was named, became known to the authorities, and the parties being seized, some of them suffered the extreme penalty. Things were scarcely quieted, when great distress arose from another source. Mr. Canning, who came into the ministry in 1822, was instrumental in introducing several liberal measures in connection with commerce, and in recognising the independence of the South American States. A new impulse was thus given, and capital, of which there was an abundance, soon invested in various speculations, among which mining operations in the newly recognised American States stood conspicuous. Towards the latter end of 1825, it became evident that the speculations were unsound, and that there had been much over-trading. A re- action set in, numbers of banks closed, merchants became insol- vent, artisans were unemployed, and general distress prevailed throughout the kingdom. This greatly increased towards the close of the reign, and in many places families were reduced to starvation. Riots occurred in which rnachkiery was destroyed, and again advantage was taken of the general distress, to persuade the people there could be no remedy but in a reformation of the representative system. Unions to obtain this change began to be formed just as the reign was closing. II. Concessions to the Dissenters. The resignation of lord Goderich opened the way for the duke of Wellington to become prime minister. As the duke waa kruwn to be the enemy of all concession, he was received with little favour by the Catholic Association, whose main purpose i/; GEORGE IV. 221 organization Had been to obtain the removal of those disabilities under which the catholic dissenters laboured. The whigs, now ir opposition, befriended the Catholics, How far is it 242 OUTLINES OF KNULI8H HISTORY. true that trial by jury was a Saxon institution? 25. What modes of punishment prevailed among: the Saxons ? 26. Give some account of Saxon paganism. 27. To what extent may any of our existing; institu- tions be traced up to Saxon times? 28. What were the habits of the Saxons with respect to food and clothing ? 29. State particulars of the Saxon dwellings and furniture. Norman Period. 1. Write biographical sketch?? of William I. and his consort. 2 What circumstances in the lata. Saxon period may be said to havt prepared the way for the Norman conquest ? 3. What difficulties did William have to encounter befoie the conquest of England was completed ? 4. What were the principal results of the Norman con- quest? 6. Give a general account of the feudal system. 6. Give a particular account of the feudal incidents. 7. What were the purpose and character of the Domesday Book? 8. What was the Curfew Bell ? What misunderstanding has there been with respect to it? 9. Give some account of the character and death of William Eufus. 10. . What occasioned the disputes between William II. and Robert of Normandy ? How did they terminate ? 11. What was the general character of the government of William II. ? 12. Write biographical sketches of Henry I. and his consort. 13. What originated the Crusades? Give particulars of the first crusade. 14. Under what circumstances did Robert of Normandy lose his duchy ? What was the ultimate fate of the duke ? 15. What was the dispute with respect to investiture ? How was it settled ? 16. Give some account of Henry I.'s charter. 17. Write biographical sketches of Stephen and his consort. 18. Account tor the successful usurpation of Stephen. 19. Give an account of the civil war that grew out of Stephen's usurpation. 20. What was the condition of England during the reign of Stephen ? 21. To what extent did the Normans differ from the Saxons in the matter of food and clothing? 22. What changes took place in the construc- tion of dwellings subsequently to the Norman conquest ? 23. What were the relations between England and Scotland during the Norman period. Plantagenet Period. 1. Write biographical sketches of Henry II. and his consort. 2. Enumerate the dominions of Henry II., and show how he came by such extensive possessions. 3. What were the Constitutions oi Clarendon, and the causes which led to their enactment? 4. Relate the quarrel, and its issue, between Henry and Becket. 5. Give an account of the conquest of Ireland. 6. What were the family troubles of Henry II. ? Account for them. 7. What courts were origintitea by distributing the functions of the King's Court (Curia Regis) 8. What institution of the reign of Henry II. has been called the second stage of trial by jury ? 9. What was scutage ? How did it originate 1 10. Write biographical sketches of Richard I. and his consort. 11. Give some account of Richard's part in the third crusade. 12. Whai was the condition of England during the absence of Richard I. ? 13. State some particulars of the lnvt published by Richard I. for the EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 243 preservation of order in his fleet. 14. Write biographical sketches of John and his consort. 15. What circumstances in the reign of John led to the loss of the provinces which the English held in France 7 16. Give particulars of the quarrel between king John and pope Innocent, 17. What is an interdict ? What an excommunication ? 18. What were the principal points in the Magna Charta ? 19. Under what circum- stances was the Magna Charta obtained ? 20. What circumstances led to a war between John and his barons after the granting of Magna Charta? 21. Write biographical sketches of Henry III. and his consort. 22. Give some account of the government during the minority of Henry III. 23. What were the circumstances that led to the calling of the first House of Commons ? 24. Account for the reaction in favoui of Henry III. 25. Who were the Mendicants ? When did they first enter England ? 26. Write biographical sketches of Edward I. and his consorts. 27. Give an account of the reduction of Wales by Edward I. 28. Narrate the particulars of Edward I.'s wars with Scotland. 29. When and under what circumstances was the " Scottish War of Independence " carried on? 30. What were our relations with France during the reign of Edward I. ? 31. When and for what purpose was the statute of Mortmain passed ? 32. When did the Convocation have its origin * What caused its decline ? 33. Write biographical sketches of Edward II. and his consort. 34. What influence had Gaveston on public affairs in the reign of Edward II. ? 35. Narrate the circumstances connected with the battle of Bannockburn. 36. What led to the deposition of Edward II. ° 37. Who were the Knight Templars ? When and why was that order suppressed in England? 38. Write biographical sketches of Edward III. and his consort. 39. Give an account of public affairs during the minority of Edward III. 40. Under what circumstances was the battle of Halidon Hill fought* 41. On what grounds did Edward III. prefer a cl^im to the throne of France? 42. Give some account of Edward III.'s first efforts to enforce his claim to the throne of France. 43. What events marked the years 1346 — 47? 44. Under what circumstances and with what results was the battle of Poitiers fought ? 45. What led to the loss of the English possessions in France in the reign of Edward III.? 46. Give some account of the statutes of Provisos and Treason passed in the reign of Edward III. 47. Write biographical sketches of Richard II. and his consorts. 48. Narrate the particulars of Wat Tyler's insurrection. 49. What causes led to the deposition of .liichard 11. ? 50. What was the statute of Praemunire? 51. Write vrhat you kilow of John Wickliffe and his followers. 62. What changes are noticeable in the matter of food and clothing in the Plantagenet period ? >3. How far were improvements made in domestic architecture in the Plantagenet period ? 54. Give some account of the tournaments which characterized the Plantagenet period. Lancastrian and Yorkist Periods. 1. Write biographical sketches of Henry IV. and his consort. 2. Narrate the particulars connected with the battle of Shrewsbury. 3. What were our relations with France in the reign of Henry IV. f i. Who were the Loll&rdtt? G*¥e some account of their persecution 24 4 OUTLINES OK ENGLISH HISTORY. fn the reigns of Henry IV. and V. 5. Write biographical sketches of Henry V. and his consort. 6. Under what circumstances did Henry V. revive the claims of Edward III. to the throne of France ? 7. Give an account of Henry V.'s campaigns in France. 8. Write biographical sketches of Henry VI. and his consort. 9. Relate the circumstances of the final loss of the possessions held by the English in France. 10. Give the particulars of Cade's insurrection. 11. What were the causes and results of the Wars of the Roses ? 12. Write, with dates, a list of the principal battles in the Wars of the Roses. 13. Write biographical sketches of Edward IV. and his consort. 14. Give an account of the deposition and restoration of Edward IV. 15. Write biographical sketches of Richard III. and his consort. 16. What were the principal events in the reign of Richard III. ? 17. Give some particulars respecting food and dress in the loth century. 18. What is noticeable with respect to dwellings in the loth century ? 19. What was the character of the secular and religious plays of the Middle Ages ? Tudor Period. 1. Write biographical sketches of Henry VII. and his consort. 2. What were the claims of Henry VII. to the throne of England ? 3. Narrate the particulars of SimnePs insurrection. 4. Give some account of the war with France in the reign of Henry VII. 6. Relate the particulars of Warbeck's insurrection. 6. What institutions of the reign of Henry VII. had a tendency to reduce the power of the nobles ? 7. What maritime discoveries marked the reign of Henrv VII.? 8. Write a biographical sketch of Henry VIII. 9. Write biographical sketches of the two queens whom Henry VIII. divorced. 10. Write biographical sketches of the two queens whom Henry VIII. beheaded. 11. Write biographical sketches of Jane Seymour and Catherine Parr, consorts of Henry VIII. 12. Narrate the particulars of Henry VIII.'s first war with France and Scotland. 13. Narrate the particulars of Henry VIII.'s second war with France and Scot- land. 14. Narrate the particulars of Henry VIII.'s third war with Scotland and France. 15. Write what you know of Cardinal Wolsey. 16. What were the causes of the Reformation in England ? 17. Give some account of the dissolution of the monasteries, and the application of the property derived from this spoliation. 18. What was done in the reign of Henry VIII. for the circulation of the vernacular Scrip- tures ? 19. To what extent were the doctrines of the Church altered in Henry VIII.'s reign? 20. How do you account for the almost despotic power exercised by Henry VIII. ? 21. What changes were made in the government of Wales and Ireland in the reign of Henry VIII. ? 22. Why is Henry spoken of as the founder of the Royal Navy? 23. Write a biographical sketch of Edward VI. 24. Give an account of the war with Scotland in the reign of Edward VI. 25. Whar, progress was made in the Reformation in Edward VI.'s reign ? 26. What causes led to the popular insurrections in 1519 ? 27. Who wai Protector Somerset? What occasioned his fall? 28. Write a bii>- graphical sketch of Mary I. 29. Who was Lady Jane Grey ? Giva an account of her usurpation. 30. Relate some particulars connected with the restoration of Romanism by Mary. 31. Give thv particular* EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. 245 d Wyatt's insurrection. 32. Write an account of tne Marian perse- cution. 33. What circumstances led to the loss of Calais in 1558 r 84. Write a biographical sketch of Queen Elizabeth. 35. What were the difficulties which beset Elizabeth at her accession ? 36. Give an account of the completion of the Reformation by Elizabeth. 37. What circumstances originated the courts of Star Chamber and High Commission ? 38. What religious parties troubled the reign of Eliza- bath ? How were they dealt with ? 39. Sketch the life of Mary of Scots to the time of her taking refuge in England. 40. Give some reasons which influenced the English government in detaining Mary of Scots in England. 41. What plots were formed in England in favour of Mary of Scots ? 42. What was the immediate occasion of the execution of Mary of Scots ? How far was this act justifiable ? 43. Relate the story of the Spanish Armada. 44. Give particulars of the Irish Rebellion in the reign of Elizabeth. 45. What changes took place in the matter of food and clothing in the Tudor period P 46. Give some particulars of the changes in domestic architecture in the 16th century. 47. What facilities were there for travelling in the 16th century ? Stuart Period. 1. Write biographical sketches of James I. and his consort. 2. By what right did James I. take the throne of England ? 3. Give some account of the Main and Bye Plots. 4. What was the Millenary Petition ? What did it lead to ? 5. Relate the particulars of the Gunpowder Plot. 6. Who were Robert Carr and George Villiers ? What part did they iake in public affairs during the reign of James I. ? 7. Under what circumstances were English and Scotch colonies planted in Ireland ? 8. Give particulars of the first colonies founded by the English in North America? 9. What do you know of Sir Walter Raleigh ? 10. Write biographical sketches of Charles I. and his consort. 11. What caused the contentions between Charles I. and his first three parliaments? 12. Give particulars of the Petition of Right and the circumstances under which it was passed. 13. Give some account of the wars with Spain and Prance in the reign of Charles I. 14. What was the character of Charles's government between the years 1629 and 1640 ? 15. What was ship-money ? By whom was its payment resisted and with what result P 16. What led to the National Covenant in Scotland ? 17. What movements ended in the Pacification of Berwick, and the Treaty of Ripon ? 18. Under what circumstances did the Short Parliament meet? Why did it obtain that name? 19. What were the first measures of the Long Parlia- ment ? 20. Why were the courts of Star Chamber and High Com- mission abolished ? 21. What occasioned the Irish Rebellion of 1641? 22 What causes in 1 need Charles I. to separate his interests from that of the parliament ? 23. What was the immediate cause of the civil war of 1642 ? 24. Give, in the order of time, the principal battles in the civil war between Charles and his parliament. 25. Dis- tinguish between the National Covenant and the Solemn League and Covenant. 26. What mVs the Self-denying Ordinance? What pur pose was it intended to serve ? 27 Give particulars of the battles of Marston Moor and Nase'jy. 28. Under what circumstauces did Charles I. join and quit the Scotch army* 29. What w&s the 246 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HJSTOilY. character jf the struggle of parties in 1647 ? 30. What occasioned the second civil war in 1648 ? 31. What is meant ty Pride's Purge. 32. Give an account of the trial and execution of Charfes I. 33. Write biographical sketches of Oliver and Richard Cromwell 34. What form of government was established at the death of Charles 1. 1 35. Give some account of the reduction of Ireland to the Common- wealth. 36. Under what circumstances were the battles of Dunbar and Worcester fought ? 37. What were the causes and re- sults of the first Dutch war? 38. Give, in the order of time, the principal events in the first Dutch war. 39. Why were the Rump and the Barebones parliaments so called ? Give particulars of one of them. 40. Under what circumstances did Oliver Cromwell become Protector ? 41. Give some particulars of the Instrument of Govern- ment and the Humble Petition and Advice. 42. What was the general character of Cromwell's government ? 43. Give an account of the protectorate of Richard Cromwell. 44. Who were the princi- pal actors in public affairs after the resignation of Richard Cromwell ? 45. What part did General Monk play in the Restoration ? 46 .What was the Declaration of Breda? 47. Account for the general desire that existed for the restoration of Charles II. 48. Relate the case of Oames Nay lor, and show what point it illustrates. 49. Write bio- graphical sketches of Charles II. and his consort. 50. What was dono» at the Restoration for the settlement of the revenue ? 51. Give particulars oi' the Corporation Act and the Act ot Unifo/m:'ty. 52. Give particulars of the Convmticie and Five Mile Acts. 63. What were the causes and results ol the second DuU'h wa ? 64. Give, in the order of time, the principal event? in the s^cund l'utch var. 55. KVlate wbat you know ot the Great Plague. 50. Give particulars of the Fire of London. 57. What was the Triple Alliance ? By what ministry was it promoted ? 58. Give particulars of the Treaty of l^over and the results that grew out of it. 59. What were the causes and results of the third Dutch warf 60. What were the principal events in the third Dutch war ? 61. Give some particulars of the popish plots. 62. When were the Test Act and the Papists' Disabling Bill passed ? What was their object ? 63. Give some particulars tc show the purpose of the Habeas Corpus Act. 64. Under what cir- cumstances did the terms Whig and Tory originate ? 65. Give somi account of the political plots of 1683. 6G. What was the condition of Scotland during the reign of Charles II.? 67. Write biographical sketches of James II. and his consorts. 68. Give an account of Argyle's insurrection and the causes that led to it. 69. Give particulars of Monmouth's insurrection and the results- that followed it. 70. By what methods did James II. attempt to re- establish Romanism ? 71. Give some account of the Revolution of 1688. 72. What were the causes and results of the Revolution of 1688? 73. What was done during the interregnum that followed th » flight of James II. ? 74. What is a convention parliament ? How many do you know of? Under what circumstances was each called? 75. Give particulars of the first Act of Settlement. 76. Give par- ticulars of the Declaration of Rights. 77. What are called the four preat charters of English liberties ? 78. Give some account of the Edict of Nantes and its revocation. 79. Write biographical sketches erf William III. And his omsort. £0 Give particular* of the Mutiny EXAMINATION QCJESTI0N8. 247 Act and tne Toleration Act of 1689. 81. What circumstances led to the battle of the Boyne ? 82. What were the principal articles in the treaty of Limerick, 1691 ? How was this treaty violated ? 83. What was the Darien Scheme, and what results grew out of it ? 84. Why was the government of William III. unpopular ? 85. What were the causes and results of the war with France in the reign of William III. ? 86. What were the principal events in the war with France, 1689 — 1697 ? 87. Give particulars of the second Act of Settle- ment, and the causes which made it necessary. 88. What causes ar« assigned for the origin of the National Debt? 89. What do you know of the two partition treaties ? 90. Write a biographical sketch jf Queen Anne. 91. What were the principal articles in the Scotch Union Bill ? 92. What circumstances seemed to make the union of England and Scotland one of necessity ? 93. Give some account of the impeachment ot Dr. Sacheverell. 94. Give some account of the contentions between the whigs and tories during the reign of Anne. 95. What were the causes and results of the war of the Spanish Suc- cession? 96. What were the principal events in the war of the Spanish Succession ? 97. What is meant by Queen Anne's Bounty ? 98. What improvements took place in the matter of food during the Stuart period ? 99. What were the changes in costume in the 17th century ? 100. What changes took place in domestic architecture in the 17th centurv ? 101. What class of amusements mark the 17th century? 102. How ^ere the means of intercommunication improved ill the Stuart period r' Hanoverian Period. 1. W ritp biographical sketches of George I. and his consort. 2. By what right did George I. take the throne of England ? 3. Give an account of the Rebellion of 1715. 4. What circumstances originated the Riot Act ? 5. When were the Triennial and Septennial Acts passed ? Why were they thought necessary ? 6. Give particulars of the South Sea Bubble. 7. Give particulars of the Quadruple Alliance, and of the events that grew out of it. 8. Write biographical sketches of George II. and his consort. 9. Give some account of Walpole's administration. 10. What were the causes of the war with Spain commeT\ciii & in 1739 P 11. What were the causes of the war of the Austrian Succession ? 12. What were the principal events in the war 1739—1748 r 13. Narrate the particulars of the Rebellion of 1745. 14. What were the causes and results of the Seven Years' War? 15. What were the principal events in the Seven Years' War ? 16. What circumstances prepared India for English conquest ? 17. Give some account of Robert Clive and his Indian career. 18. Narrate the par- ticulars of the Black Hole Tragedy. 19. Give some account of the origin of the Methodists. 20. What is meant by the Reformation of the Calendar ? 21. What change took place in the law of marriage in the reign of George II. ? 22. Write biographical sketches of George III. and his consort. 23. Narrate the affair of John Wilkes. 24. What were the causes of the American War of Independence ? 25. What were the principal events in the war of American Independence ? 26. Hew do you account for the success of the American yioni-ste ? 27. What were £4$ OUTLINES OF ENGLISH HISTORY. the principal articles in the Treaty of Versailles? 28. Kela f e the particulars of the Gordon Riots. 29. What were the causes that led to the French Revolution ? 30. What induced the English to engage in the war of the French Revolution ? 31. Write briefly the principal events in the French war, 1793 — 1802. 32. What great naval battles were fought during the French war, 1793—1802 ? Give par- ticulars of one of them. 33. Relate some particulars of the mutiny of the British seamen in 1797. 34. What were the principal articles in the Treaty of Amiens ? 35. Give some account of the Rebellion in Ireland, 1798, and of the causes that led to it. 36. What were the principal articles in the Irish Union Bill ? 37. What causes led to a renewal of the war with France 1803 ? 38. What were the principal events in the war between 1803 and 1807 ? 39. Give some particulars of the Boulogne flotilla and the battle of Trafalgar. 40. What led the English to engage in the Peninsular War ? 41. What were the principal victories won by the English in the Peninsular War? 42. Give some account of Napoleon's expedition to Moscow. 43. Give some particulars of the battle of Waterloo, and show why a battle was fought there. 44. Write what you know of .the career of Napoleon Buonaparte. 45. What were the principal articles in the first and second Treaties of Paris ? 46. What conclusions were arrived at by the Congress of Vienna P 47. What were the cause and results of the war with the United States of America, 1812—1814? 48. What were the events in the war with America, 1812 — 1814? 49. What was the general condition of our affairs in India during the reign of George III. ? 50. What institutions for the education of the people had their origin in the reign of George III. ? 51. Write biographical sketches of George IV. and his consort. 52. What was the general condition of England after the close of the war in 1815 ? 53. What concessions were made to dissenters in the reign of George IV.? 54. Under what circumstances was the battle of Navanno fought ? 55. Write biographical sketches of William IV. and his consort. 66. What was the character of the Reform Bill of 1832? What was said to be the necessity for this measure? 57. What important measures were passed during the first four sessions of the Reformed Parliament ? 58. Write a biographical sketch of her most gracious majesty Queen Victoria. 69. What disturbances marked the early part of Victoria's reign? 60. What were the character and purpose of the movement headed by Daniel O'Conneil ? 61. What trade restrictions were removed between the years 1840 and 1849 ? 62. Give some account of the Rebellion in Canada, 1837. 63. Narrate par- ticulars of the war in Syria, 1840. 64. What were the c mses and results of the war with China, 1840—1842 ? 65. Relate the story of the fatal retreat from Cabul. 66. Give some particulars of the Sikh war. 67. What were the causes and results of the war with Russia, 1854 — 1856 ? 68. What were the principal events in the war with Russia, 1854 — 1856? 69. Give some account of the Rebellion m India, 1857 — 1859. 70. What improvements have taken place in food and clothing since the commence- ment of the Hanoverian dynasty ? 71. What improvements in travelling ttuirk the Hanoverian period ? Saxon Kings of England. Egbert, 827. Ethelwulf, 837. J — j j 1 Ethelbald, 858, Ethelbert, 860. Ethelred, 866. Alfred, 871. f Edward the Elder, 901. L Athelstan, 925. Edmund, 940. Edred, 946 ! I Edwy, 955. Edgar, 958 , L_ Edward the Martyr, 975. Ethelred the Unready, 978 i j j j Edmund Ironside, 1016. Edwy. Alfred. Edward the Confessob, | 1042. Edmund. Edward the Exile. l Edgar Atheling. Margaret, m. Christina, Malcolm III. i David L Matilda, m. Mary, m. Henry 1. 1100. Count of Boulogne. Matilda, m. Stephen, 1135. Anglo-Danish Kings. Sweyn. Canute, 1016. I Sweyn ot Norway. Harold I. 1035. Hardicanute, 1040. E << Ot bo a ■1-4 S « H CO d> © bfl " c3 o s_ 8 * WO H l " H © ^ O 88 .5 a —a is -" o i IS # c3 o ■Si .2^ 5 ^ -^ ,— o — a 3 o - I a £ £ f © © ^ W W PQ •2 5 -*l Si c p bcj4 c - o3 O O o •^ © 0* P P -3"_1 I P O 2 5^ 3J M ° o © M •■»•- 1— 1 P 'd T3 '£ o3 P Cm ~ O © . ^j © © P 2 C iS fl oS — © h» 2-3 §^ p -|l L-^ 3 2 ' i Lancastrian and Yorkist Kings. 11. Edward III 1327. I Lionel, duke of Clarence. iof< John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. (by Bla-iche of Lancaster) 13. Henry IV. 1399. 14. Henry V. 1413. 15. Henry VI. 1422. Prince Edward, slain at Tewkesbury, 1471. (by Catherine Swynford) John Beaufort, duke of Somerset. I John Beaufort. 1 Edmund, <5uke of York. Richard, earl of Cambridge, m. Ann, heiress of Lionel, duke of Clarence. Margaret, m. Edmund, son of Owen Tudor. I 19. Henry VII. 1485. Philippa, m» Edmund Mortimer, earl of March. i Roger, earl of March, killed in Ireland, 1399. Ann, m. Richard, carl of Cambridge, who was beheaded, 1415. Richard, duke of York, slain at Wakefield, 1460. 16. EBWARD IV. 1461. Elizabeth, Margaret, George, m. John m. Charles duke of de la Pole, the Bold, Clarence. duke duke of Suffolk, of Burgundy, Earl of Lincoln, 1™ killed 1487. Edward, earl of Warwick, personated 17. Edward V. Richard, Elizabeth, m. by 18. Ricttatjd III 1483. 1483. duke (19) Henry L. Simnel. cf York. VII. Margaret, counter of Salisbury, executed 1541, ! Cardinal Pole^ died 1558. The Tudor Sovereigns. 19. Henry VII. 1485. Arthur, m. Catherine of Aragon, died 1502. I I 20. Henry VIII. 1509. Margaret. Mary, m. Louis XII. of France. and Charles Brandon duke of Suffolk. (by Jane Seymour) (by Catherine (by Anne Boleyn) of Aragon) 21. Edward VI. 23. Elizabeth, 1547. 22. Mary I. 1558. 1553. Frances, m. Henry Grey, marquis of Dorset (by James IV. of Scotland) James V. of Scotland. i Mary, queen of Scots, m. earl of Darnley. 24. James 1. 1603. (by Archibald Douglas, earl of Angus) Margaret, m. earl of Lennox. i Earl of Darnley, m. Mary of Scots. Charles Stuart, earl of Lennox. 24. James I. Lady Arabella Stuart, 1603. m. William Seymour. Lady Jane Grey, Shaded 1554. Lady Catherine Grey, m. earl of Hertford. Edward Seymour, lord Beauchamp. William Seymour, m. Lady Arabella Stu&rt. 02 SP«5 Q? O *H CO CD i-H > Ph CM CD a o CM CM CD 1—1 C3 ^ - . £ -S ^ - d ^ ±? ,f dO W a -bS 2 — 2 •^ O o „ r*4 -»3 CD ^ 5R cd ' g-2 00 CM w CO CD CM o CD CD h3 o CD CM C3 o -4-3 CO -a c8 P3 02 $3 c ,£5 2 o a a 8PLH bo o ^ m ^ I 1 &3 1° WO CO _T*H r i -2 o o -~ 11 02 & p3 3 © £'3 *o «£* © © K CO SP«H © O . © SO "-* © o © © o o o O C5 CO =3 fciD ec? £ -la- -oO ■^ m — -^ .a . §1 1— 1 m O O . © © ^r£P © O •^ O W © 1 20 -►J CO G ,H tD . c *-• .E © ^ > o co 00 10 CO CO M © ^ P=H o 00 CO CO ,— . © .2 Claimants to the Throne of Scotland in Edward X, David I. 1124. Henry, prince of Scotland. !01M IV. 1153. William the Lion, 1165. Alexander II. 1214. 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