T 58 .G75 Copv 1 /w!3n^Rr%nn^S^ 1 RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS 28 ^^P^ PAMPHLETS IN THIS SERIES SCIENTIFIG PUBLISHED Officers' Guide to Civil Careers BUSINESS The Aims of RecoD- struction New Fields for British MANAGEMENT Engineering Rural Industries Food Production ! Juvenile Employment 1 Art and Indu^ry Industrial Councils State Regulation of Wages Prices Land Settlement Domestic Service The Classics in British Education Natural Science in British Education Public Heahh I & II. Electrical Development Town Planning Scientific Business Management : .''■ and others (see p. 16) TWO Pence TO BE PUBLISHED The Nation and the MINISTRY OF Fishing Industry Transport RECONSTRUCTION Trusts Poor Law Reform 1919 The information contained in this pamphlet is subject to any modifications that may be made subsequently Jo the date of going to press y 4 June, 1919, Ok ^ RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS ^^ ^\ 28 J Scientific Business Management THE prosperity of an indu^ry and of every man concerned in it is intimately bound up with efficiency of manage- ment. In the pa^ management has often been some- what mechanical in its tendency, ignoring the human element in produ6lion and di^ribution. To-day, more than ever, it is realised that the welfare of the worker is not only a vital matter for the community, but also from the point of view of the employer a matter of expediency. There is thus the double ^imulus — the good employer profits by his " goodness." What is known as Scientific Business Management embraces the problem in all its aspeds — human and material. It certainly does not mean, though it can be perverted in that dire(51:ion, getting the la^ ounce out of the workman only to ca^ him aside when prematurely exhau^ed. That is not management but mismanagement. For convenience of treatment the subjedl can be divided into three sedlions — diredion, equipment and produdtion. In all tliree the wise employer will address himself to the task of creating a spirit of " team work " among his employees, while at the same time employing the be^ methods and devices for the promotion of their well-being and the increase of produ6tion. The employer mu^ have a definite business goal towards which he aspires and be able to inffl the conception of that ideal into every employee under him, whether of high or low rank. It is the fir^ essential of a projedt that it shoi3d have defined objeds so that its efforts may not be defeated by indecision or weakness of purpose. It is also requisite that each participant should be fuQy cognisant of the firm's ambitions that the employees may be as much interested as is the employer himself. Care must be exercised in the selecting, engaging and training of workers so that each may be fitted into the occupation beS suited to the education, experience, mind and temperament possessed. One of the mo^ common causes of industrial and commercial inefficiency lies in improper vocational seledion. It causes loss not only to the employer but to the employee and the nation in general. Many workers have failed hopelessly at some occupations and been signal successes at others. It is RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS the employer's responsibility to see that the round peg is not in the square hole. Rules and regulations mu^ then be prepared by which the employees will be guided in their daily condud. Some workers may look askance at them, but it will be found diat when definite regulations are ju^ly Hved up to they have a decided influence in building the business on sound ^bundations and in moulding the character of its workpeople. Steps mu^ be taken to plan for, guide and dired employees through the channels of produdion and di^ribution. Proper planning and admini^ration plays a mo^ prominent part in the success of the firm, and not only the executive but also the admini^rative head or heads mu^ be able to plan procedure and issue in^rudions so that employees may be shown the best ways and means of executing their tasks in the minimum of time with the maximum of efficiency. The use of charts, demon^ra- tions, or written in^rudions may or may not be necessary, but the details should be so given that everyone is able to handle work without wa^e of time and have a recommended chain of operations in which it can be completed without unnecessary hesitation or needless delay. Accurate planning, or diredion, is pradically valueless unless the employer may be certain that his employees are capable of following his diredions and in^rudions in the manner desired. He mu^, therefore, be prepared to train them in the best possible methods of executing the work, to avoid unnecessary movements at their tasks, so that needless fatigue may be eliminated, and to achieve greater efficiency in the result. The Health of the Worker. In conjundion with specialised technical training, the employer mu^ assume the responsibility of educating his workers to the ordinary requirements of health regulations, and he mu^ do everything in his power to assi^ them to safeguard their health. Due attention mu^ be paid to the proper means of reducing noise and nerve shock in the work-place, and this can only be done by close ^udy of the surroundings in which they are employed and by giving proper consideration to the different influences bearing upon the worker's condition. Welfare work has made marvellous brides in the laft few years, and one of its mo^ prominent features is the introdudion of canteens for the provision of suitable meals for employees. Although a mo^ elementary ^ep, the necessity of proper su^enance has not been fully accepted as a fador in produdion. A hazily eaten sandwich, follt)wed by a period of lounging outside the work-place, is not TMP96-0246e8 SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT conducive to good health and efficiency among workers. In the canteen each day's meals can be so adjured that pleasant variety is ensured while the consumers receive balanced proportions of food^ffs containing the measure of nutritive value essential to the physical and mental energy required for the type of occupation carried on/ Adequate feeding, like housing, is one of the mo^ pressing problems of the moment. The welfare work mu^ not, however, ^op there, for the employer mu^ carry it inside and outside the work-place. He should encourage the workers to enjoy good recreation, and for that purpose mu^ assi^ them personally and financially to participate in different forms of outdoor games that provide amusement and healthy exercise at one and the same time. Inside the work-place it demands scientific ^udy of labour-saving appliances and the proper re^ pauses demanded during the working hours, if the energy of the worker is to be conserved and over-exhau^on and ill-health prevented. A very easily organised form of exercise is the physical training that was known in the army as " physical jerks." Given the right type of in^rudor these exercises should provide, not only healthy physical recreation, but also the mental exhilaration and the atmosphere of good humour that are so valuable to those whose work tends to be monotonous. Any one who has seen a squad of soldiers thoroughly enjoying a half-hour of " physical jerks " will appreciate what effect they would have on the mental and physic^ welfare of workers. Initrudlors in the army were seleded partly for their gift of keeping their men interested and amused; a number of highly trained in^rudtors, qualified to organise all forms of sport are now available for civil work. Information should be sought from the Appointments Department, Mini^by of Labour, St. Ermin's Hotel, London, S.W. i. It is, of course, impossible in a brief pamphlet dealing with the whole subjedl of Business Management to cover the ground of welfare work. Employers desiring guidance and information on these questions will do well to study the memoranda issued by the Home Office. The fadtory inspedors also are always ready to give advice based on their wide experience. Personal Intercourse. The employer, as promoter, diredor, or managing diredor, mu^ remember that all direction should emanate from his office, and that his employees will largely look upon him not only as an employer but as a leader, educated to guide and RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS Simulate them towards a higher ^andard of intelledtuality or efficiency in Hfe than that to which they have been accu^omed. In his admiiii^rative capacity, therefore, he mu^ so arrange the duties of his executives that regular produdlion, co^ and efficiency charts are rendered to him on the operation of the several sections of his enterprise. He mu^ not, however, rely only upon stati^ics to prove tliat the be^ conditions possible are in evidence in his work-place. To ensure that efficient methods are in operation, he mu^ be thoroughly acquainted with each and every depart- ment in his organisation, and make it part of his diredtion to visit them at regular and frequent intervals, so that he may see for him.self whether returns and figures are supported by fads. This has a dual influence in successful control. It not only stimulates executive heads to the highest pitch of exadtitude in their effi^rts, but demon^rates to the employees that the employer is personally intere^ed in their v/elfare and is perfectly acquainted with the surroundings in which they work. A casual examination of efficiency charts would not indicate whether proper considera- tion was being given to ventilation, Hghting, heating, sanitation, and other fatigue influences, but visits to the different sedtions of the work-place certainly would. Many emplo^^ees never hear of their employers or administra- tive heads except v/hen they have to appear before them to be severely reprimanded, or when a notice is posted on the notice board. Were the employer to leave his office for a few minutes each morning, walk through the departments, or one or more departments if his plant were too large, making comments here and there and smoothing points of difficulty where they arose, he would make himself known to the workers and the feeling of suspicion and di^ru^ of him would rapidly evaporate. Ignorance of the unknown always creates a mi^aken suspicion of it and nothing but the clear Hght of knowledge wiU ever remove the feeling of di^ru^ which exi^s between Labour and Capital. The introdudtion of a human atmosphere in commerce and induftry is one of the greater difficulties of to-day, and a fadlor in produdtion to which too much importance caimot be attached, With the increased education of the people has come an improved mental ^andard in the workers, and their attitude towards employers has altered accordingly. They now feel, rightly enough, that having ability, they should be consulted in some manner or other when indu^rial and commercial problems are being considered, since the decisions arrived at by their employers will affedt them materially as wage earners and pohtically as Trade Unioni^ SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT The present labour unreit is without doubt partly due to the small regard Capital has been inclined to pay to the opinion of Labour that it is fitted to adt and judge with the employer in important matters alfedting produdtion. A disgruntled labour sedion, not composed of merely ignorant workers, has been formed, having as its leaders eloquent but un^able extremis who, by sheer weight of the case again^ some employers, have been sblc to achieve a few vidories for their followers. The employer has, therefore, the difficult task of eliminating old causes of fridtion and cultivating good feeling between himself and his present employees. He mu^ at all times remember that they are an independent body and are not to be patronised, for patronage is a worse sin than oppression. Many employees, while anxious to participate in indu^rial and commercial recon^rudtion discussions, feel that if employers are to hold their respedt they mu^ be their intelledtual superiors. It therefore has to be accepted that leaders must be trained in the right manner as well as bom of the right mould, and in no branch of life is this demand more insi^ent than in business, upon the proper management of which not only the material but also 'the moral development of the nation is largely dependent. In management itself it is decidedly advantageous to cultivate the personal intere^ of the workers. Not only do they give closer attention to detail in their work, but a friendly atmosphere is created among them and the overhead employee co^ is greatly reduced. This is a much more important fadtor in success than is indicated on the surface. Much of the loss in present-day produdtion is caused not only by poor machinery and improper methods, but by the continual chopping and changing of the workpeople employed. A worker may be engaged to-day and discharged to-morrow, he (or she) may la^ a week or two, with success three months, but comparatively seldom longer than a year. It is here that the loss is occasioned in the labour turnover by new workers being trained to the task, by loss of output through machines or methods not being developed to their utmo^, and la^, but not leait, by the fadt that the worker never reaches the highe^ ^andard of efficiency in produdtion The human fadlor overcomes this difficulty to a great extent, for where there is a friendly spirit of under^anding between employer and employees there is generally greater harmony among the workers and executives themselves, and as a consequence when vacancies occur, exiting employees are usually anxious to introduce their own friends as candidates for the positions. Once this has been RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS Parted success will follow, for it is self-evident that a satisfactory employee intere^ed in the finn's welfare will never introduce a friend who would prove a ^umbHng block to his or her own progress. This personal intere^ can be carried further even than that, for the employer can demon^rate to the workers that by improving the ^andard of their efficiency, adding to their education, and assi^ng the firm to further successes, they will eventually reach a higher standard of Hving. Their emoluments and comforts will be increased proportionately and their promotion facilitated with the development of the concern. They can be induced by different schemes to offer sugge^ons for the improve- ment of methods or equipment, and the employer or diredor should never fail to show appreciation of a sugge^ion, no matter how small it is, or to reward it when its utiUtj' is clearly shown. The Question of Remuneration, Adequate remuneration is a subje6l that requires serious consideration, for the employer mu^ not only satisfy himself that the rates are fair and ju^, but mu^ be sure that they are in proportion to the wage-earning ability of the worker. The sy^em of payment will, of course, be governed by the type of business carried on, but there is no doubt that there have been many abuses of piece and time-rate wages on both sides, whether employers or employed, and that the subjedt is one worthy of open discussion by both parties to the contract . Where joint control is in operation this discussion is very much facilitated, as both sides of the que^ion can be easily considered in its local aspedls and thoroughly thrashed out. All bonus sy^ems mu^ be carefully examined and ^udied in their application as produdion promoters, for there is absolutely no doubt that a bonus or division of profits in some form ulti- mately proves to have a real influence on the scale of output achieved. It is not sufficient, however, that the foreman or head of a department should be the only one to receive a percentage on the volume of output from the employees. His remuneration is, of course, a necessity, but the adlual producers are even more entitled to it, and they naturally think so, than the man who, according to them, merely stimulates exertion. If it is sho^vn to the employees that they can always be certain of the wage estabHshed by the Trade Union, and can in addition earn a bonus or dividend of so much per cent, on increased production, they will very quickly learn that it is to their advantage to use brains and energy in the betterment of their work. It will also be found SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT that where a number of workers engaged on a like operation are co-operative in effort and are receiving a bonus on total produc- tion, the better workers will ^rive to eliminate those who are inefficient and less anxious to work hone^ly for their wages. Works Committees. Joint control, that is to say, control by representatives of workers and managers alike, requires serious consideration and different methods of operation for each type of business dealt with. Where the proper ^age of good feeling between employer and employed has been reached, it can be satisfactorily introduced, and if all the factors have been carefully examined and considered success will be almo^ certain. The time has probably not yet been reached in this country when the worker can actually participate in the financial organisation of the concern, but his co-operation on all points affeding hours, wages, equipment and working conditions is of enormous value, and it is on this basis that joint control should be considered. Where it is in operation, a Works Committee or council of employees' representatives and executive and admini^rative heads is formed, and in this body is ve^ed responsibihty to discuss and settle points affedling conditions of labour. Safety duties may be included among its special functions. There is evidence from experience that such an organisation may be extremely effedtive in keeping down accidents. At fir^ some httle hesitancy on the part of the managers to participate openly will be felt, and there may be a suspicion among employees that their representatives will be inclined to side with the executive and admini^rative heads, but as time goes on these prejudices will gradually be overcome. On the employer's side there may be a feeling that the employees' representatives will be inchned to adopt an antagoni^ic attitude, but tad and education will soon neutraUse any such incUnation, and the discussions will be brought to a ^ate where class hatred will be unknown and mutual development the only result desired. As the workers' representatives become more aUve to the tru^ placed in them, it will be they who will initiate improvements and they will be among the fir^ to Simulate their fellow-workers to a more equitable assumption of their portion of the responsibihty of production. Progressive Methods. The employer mu^ now be prepared to search the markets of the world for the very be^ equipment procurable. It changes daily, and the improvements effected are such that the benefits derived from the introduction of new equipment will more often RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS than not recompense the employer for scrapping the old appliance or method which it supplants. Methods vary possibly more than do machines, and the employer is therefore required to tody the conditions aflfedting his work-place, so that he may at lea^ be up-to-date if not ahead of his competitors. He mu^ be cognisant of the ways in which his equipment is used, making sure at all times that the highe^ ^andard of efficiency in pro- duction is obtained at a minimum of co^ consi^ent with ju^ce to all concerned. He mu^ try to see how other employers condudl their business, and with that objed in view mu^ always be prepared for education or new ideas. His tody should be continuous, for if it is not maintained the penalties are heavy and the time lo^ pradlically irrecoverable. One of the mo^ important fadors in the diredion of a concern lies in the co^ sy^em, which might be described as the pulse of the whole organisation. It is ^artHng how Httle attention some firms pay to efficient cotoig, for an improvised method is not sufficient if accuracy is to be assured- It is urgently important that the mo^ complete details should be entered in the calcula- tions, so that the em^ployer may know whether his concern is or is not being operated at a profit. It is therefore essential that no top be taken without due consideration being given to the co^ fadtors governing it. It is not sufficient that coding be completed in one diredlion only ; it mu^ be carried into every department and to every piece of work. There is, of course, the danger that its operation may become a burden to the firm, but it is easy enough to draw a di^indion between necessary and unnecessary ^ati^ics. Co^ng is, after all, only a scientific sub-division or analysis of the records that a firm should maintain, and the value of records Hes in their utility. Co^ reports should not be prepared unless they are to be used, but it is vitally important to business that every firm should carefully tody the necessary ^atistics. Many firms have been saved from financial ruin by a simple co^ analysis and many others could achieve much more success were they to adopt one, for it quickly demon^rates the sedtions from which failure may be expedted and where losses are being incurred through ineffi- ciency. It is immaterial whether it is a commercial or an indu^rial concern, for the same rules govern, and it is equally possible to apply coding methods to commercial as to indu^rial conditions. Having protedled these several features of his organisation, the employer has to be certain that his method of ^ock-keeping is such as to obviate chaos and to maintain order in all its sections. I SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT Not only mu^ every article be kept in a readily accessible manner, but the sy^em of record mu^ be accurate and simple in its adion. ■Minimum and maximum ^ocks muft be definitely ^ated, issues and receipts mu^ be clearly indicated, and the " remain " either perpetually shown or be easily calculated. The ^atement of sources and prices is a matter of necessity and policy with the firm. If these elements in Diredlion have been safeguarded, it can safely be assumed that di^ribution and pubHcity will be as satisfadorily handled. The fir^ of these is important in linking up the producer with the consumer in such a way that regularity of supply and demand is maintained without spasmodic shortages or surpluses of supplies. Delays in di^ribution are not only a cause of annoyance to the consumer but of instabiUty in the market, and this eventually creates disordered indu^rial and commercial conditions, detrimental to the development of the nation generally. So much is heard of pubHcity that it almost seems imneces- sary to mention the subjedl, but the fact remains that pubHcity is not so extensively adopted by British business houses as by certain of our alHes, who use it for every conceivable purpose. Advertising at its be^ certainly reaches a higher level now than ever before, both art and science being caUed in aid. It has an undeniable power in increasing the pubHc demand for com- modities and is often the only means by which the producer can make his product known to the consumer. Attention to Equipment. Equipment taken in the sense that aU buildings, machinery, tools, appHances and methods are equipment, enters into business success in a manner that unfortunately has not been given the scientific consideration to which it is entitied. Starting with the adlual con^ru6tion of the buildings, the matter of fire prevention should receive serious consideration. Ventilation and heating are subjedts to which the ^ride^ attention must be given, because clear air and weU regulated heating have a stimulating effect on the employees, whereas a vitiated atmosphere and an over or imder-heated workroom have diredly opposite and seriously exhausting influences. Light and colour also play an important part, for the health of the workers can be seriously impaired by bad Hghting or injurious colour influences. The utmo^ use should be made of whatever Hghting space is possible, and its refledtion adjured to meet the type of work in hand, and the position of Hghcs in relation to the workers should be considered. Some attention RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS __ should be given to the wall colouring. Dead whites have a tendenqr to cause nerve ^rain, and dirty walls produce a decidedly depressing effect, and by absorbing light add to the cost. As a diredt contra^, the judicious use of properly toned yellows, greens and mauves will be found to have a Stimulating, re^ful and recuperative influence, according to the particular necessity of the work-place. It is when these fadtors in output are closely ^udied that the real science of management is grasped. In an indu^rial plant operation in shifts that permit of the maximum use of equipment at a minimum of co^ plays an important part not only in production but in diftribution fadors. The six or eight-hour day is more pradticable than one would generally imagine, for if there are two regular shifts of six or eight hours each in one plant, the work produced is practically equal to that of two complete factories, provided the utmo^ scientific knowledge has been exercised in the selection of the equipment and the be^ ways of using it. With a lessened equipment co^ to be charged again^ the produCt, it can be sold at a lower figure and an increased consumption Stimulated in the pubUc. By this means alone much of the additional wages now demanded could be earned and paid without prejudice to either Capital or Labour. Labour-saving Devices. One of the greatest faCtors in the reduction of operating costs lies in the introduction of labour-saving appHances, which vary from the adding machine in the office to the heavy-weight conveyor in the faCtory. While Great Britain has not given a great deal of attention to these innovations, which in the laSl few years have reached a very high Standard of perfection, there is every indication that they will not be overlooked in the future. The United States of America has praCtically been the home of such inventions, and it is very evident that their use has materially assisted her to the position of industrial prominence she now occupies. JuSt as the telephone will link up two departments, so can the internal conveyors built for either fight papers or heavy goods link up a number of floors or even buildings. One of the wonders of modem scientific engineering Hes in the use of machines placed in rotation to one another and fed by traveUing conveyors on which the raw material virtually enters at one end of the factory and the finished produCt leaves at the other. There is a natural prejudice created by ignorance againSt the use of such labour-saving devices, but it muSt be remembered that they are of equal value to the employee and to the employer. They 10 SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT have to be viewed not only in their labour-saving values but as the eliminators of unnecessary physical movement in workers. In preventing unnecessary exertion they reduce the produdion coffc of commodities, wliich can then be sold to the public at lower prices than would be possible were manual labour only used. The reduced prices materially assi^ increased consump- tion, by which means a larger demand is automatically created. So it is that the wheel rotates until the complete circuit is accomplished and the benefits of these appHances are enjoyed by the very employee who, contrary to the expedation that his services could be dispensed with, is given further employ- ment in meeting the demand resulting from lower selling prices achieved by more scientific production. In both indu^rial and commercial life, firms have clung to old appliances for years after their utility has been worn out, for it has not been clearly recognised that money lost in scrapping old equipment and expended in the creation of new is more than recovered from the increased output and the reduced overhead operating co^. It is therefore essential that every appHance should be carefully examined at regular intervals to ensure that the utmo^ satisfadion is being obtained from it. Its produdion should be closely compared with that of newer creations and the difference in ultimate co^ accurately arrived at. Not only mu^ appHances be examined in this searching light but methods mu^ also be analysed, or the equipment will not have been completely surveyed. Antiquated methods are ju^ as dangerous as are old appliances, and they mu^, therefore, be dealt with in the same sharp manner. Much needless labour expense is incurred in the employment of workers who repeat or unnecessarily supplement the work of others, and it is always found that where such unessential employee power is evident, superfluous positions in the work- place are a(5hially created. It does not follow that because a large number of workers have a great deal of work to do that all of it is necessary. One of the valuable features of scientific management lies in its ability to reduce aU energy expenditure to that which is absolutely essential. It therefore adopts sy^ems which produce results by the mo^ diredt methods in the quicker and mo^ efficient ways. AU sy^ems or methods of operation should consequently be such that operation follows operation in uninterrupted sequence, so that continuity is maintained without unnecessary routing, machines, tools or exertion. This might be emphasised in the use of machinery to the operation of which due consideration should be given before erection is 11 RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS commenced. Each machine should be placed in such a way that it is in direct relation to other machines in the rotation cf operations necessary for the completion of any work. Production. In the fir^ place, the employees who diredtly produce mu^t be perfedly fitted for the occupations they intend to follow, and to ensure this many safeguards mu^ be adopted by the employer. A dired job or task analysis mu^ be made of every occupation incidental to the projects in which employment is to be found. In this analysis a description of each operation mu^ be given with accurate details of the type of person required to fill it, giving not only physical but also inteUedtual and moral essentials. Records mu^ be coUeded of the length of time necessary to learn the work, the ^andard of education required as a basis for training, and the po^ure of the worker during employment. A short hi^ory should also be given of the working surroundings, hours of employment, wages earnable, and the likeUhood and possibiUties of advancement. If full benefit is to be got from these data, they should be tabulated on readily accessible cards, and filed for reference when workers are to be engaged to fiU vacancies as they occur. The next ^ep is that of dealing with prospective employees. If at all possible, it is desirable that the employer should be satisfied that the candidates are physically fitted for the occupa- tions at which employment is to be given. This is unfortunately a delicate point with many, but it is nevertheless one that will have an enormous influence in raising the health ^andard of the people. If candidates can be induced to submit themselves to examination by a medical pradlitioner before being engaged, and if possible at regular intervals during employment, it not only safeguards their own health but also that of the other employees in the same work-place. This can sometimes be achieved by arranging for the works medical officer to examine the candidates as they present themselves, and by making employment conditional upon submission to medical examination with the other employees at regular intervals. The medical fitness of the candidates being satisfadtorily proved, the next ^ep is that of judging their techoical qualifica- tions for the new occupations. Many methods of sele6Hon are advocated, some of which are undoubtedly very good, but the science of vocational seledtion is yet in its infancy, and many of the psychological te^s recommended are too new to be accepted as having ^ood the acid te^ of time. There are, 12 SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT however, simple te^s by which the fitness of candidates can be judged, but these mu^ be made in different ways, each suited to the requirements of each type of occupation. If, for in^ance, book-keepers are to be engaged, nothing could prove their quahfications better than would a few book entries made on blanks provided for the purpose. They would indicate the ^andard of knowledge of the theories and pradice of the work,, while their arithmetical fitness could be gauged by te^s in long and cross tots, or the solution of some problem in arithmetic. Additional te^s to these have to be made on such matters as analytical detail, general information, observation, etc., but the examples given show how the subject might be followed. For mechanics other te^ methods mu^ be adopted. For in^ance, if they are to be engaged in operations where blue prints or written in^rudions have to be followed, some te^ mult be given from which their powers of concentration and imitation can be judged. This can be done by devising some te^ scheme which they mu^ imitate and complete, so that their fitness for the work may be judged. There is also the terminology te^, in which a few well-arranged technical terms can be put before them to ascertain the extent of their knowledge of the terms common to their occupation. These could be supplemented by a number of definite trade efficiency te^s, but in the early ^eps of scientific management it might not always be pradicable to do so. It is important that every worker should underhand the relationship of his own job to the work of the whole e^abHshment. This can be brought about by putting a new worker through as many difi;erent departments as possible. Boys may be put successively under the care of the foremen of the various shops. Training in Efficiency. The new workers having been engaged, it is requisite that they should be trained in the mo^ efficient ways of executing the operation on which employment has been obtained. This makes it necessary that the employees should have a thorough knowledge of the ideals and methods of their new employers, and the simplest way of furnishing this information is through the medium of a complete set of rules and regulations. Not only should safety and sanitation regulations be clearly defined, but it mu^ be put to the worker's reason that discipline is as much for their good as for the firm's. It mu^ be pointed out that, while they are not machines, ^ated hours mu^ be kept and certain methods followed in their work. They mu^ be encouraged to aspire to higher positions than those for which 13 RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS they have been engaged, and it mu^ be explained to them that to fulfil their desires in that direction ^udy and attention to their work is requisite. The inducements and benefits offered by the employer mu^ be definitely ^ated, as also the rewards, if any, granted for sugge^ions for the betterment of the enter- prise. With these rules before them, employees have a clear under^anding not only of the firm, its methods and ideals, but also of themselves and their future progress. Having ^died the rules, employees should be trained in the mo^ efficient ways of completing the work for which they have been engaged. This training should not be given at a machine, bench or desk where other workers will be di^urbed, but, if possible, in a separate part of the work-place imder a special in^rudor, so that the fuUy-trained workers be not hindered by requests for assi^ance from the untrained employee. This is not so difficult nor so expensive as might be imagined, as the time spent in technical in^rudlion is adequately repaid by the increased efficiency of the new workers when they enter the producing force. Motion Study. Attention should be paid to the importance of motion ^udy, and not only new but old employees should be trained so to complete a task that it is executed on a minimum of time expenditure and physical energy with a maximum of efficiency. This is a ^dy to which little consideration has been given in this country. It has not been overlooked altogether, for some of its principles are being a<5ted upon as common-sense laws, but, if more extensively adopted, it would produce more noticeable results. To this end the variables governing every motion mu^ be noted and an accurate analysis made of the existing method of operation. Steps mu^ then be taken to eliminate any unnecessary movement at the task or to improve it by the introdudion of new appliances or the alteration of the methods so that completion is facilitated in shorter time and with the expenditure of less energy. Once the be^ sy^em has been deduced from this amended analysis, a number of accepted laws or rules of procedure can be e^abHshed and what might be described as a ^andard practice introduced. It is a ^dy that requires not only the exercise of mental ability but also mechanical ingenuity, and its benefits are such that diey can be brought to bear as successftilly in the work-place as in the office. The mo^ frequently quoted examples of its successful application are those of the clerk damping envelopes, 14 SCIENTIFIC BUSINESS MANAGEMENT the bricklayer building the wall, and the mechanic at his machine, in each of which the ^andard of output was either tripled or quadrupled, the worker's fatigue reduced, and a higher earning power automatically gained. These are, however, not by any means the only cases that could be cited. It is a subjed that is equally as important to employees as to employers, for the only way to obtain a higher ^andard of wages with fewer working hours is to introduce improved methods of production in which full value is received from the worker's energy with a minimum of physical exhau^ion. Motion ^udy is one of the means by which this can be accomplished. It does not demand increased exertion from the workers, but, on the contrary, reduces it. It does, however, necessitate the exercise of their full mental faculties, and in such a peculiar way that the employer and executive head mu^ co-operate with them, if success is to be obtained. 15 RECONSTRUCTION PROBLEMS Reconstruction Problems : Pamphlets od. (2d. each) (i) Aims of Reconstruction. (2) Housing in England and Wales. (3) Demobilisation of the Army. (Out of Print.) (4) Housing in Scotiand. (5) New Fields for British Engineering. (6) Raw Materials and Employment. (7) Guide to Work and Benefits for Soldiers and Civil War Workers. (Out of Print.) (8) Re-Settiement of Civil War Workers. (9) Naval Demobilisation. [id) Labour Conditions and Adult Education. '11) Commercial Forestry. '12) The Re-Settiement of Officers. I. — Army and R.A.F. n. — Navy. '13) Rural Industries. ^14) Food Production. [15) Juvenile Employment. ^16) Prices during the War and After. [17) Art and Industry. ^18) Industrial Councils : The Whitiey Scheme. [19) State Regulation of Wages. ^20) Land Settiement. (21) The Classics in British Education. [22) Domestic Service. (23) PubHc Health. I.-A Survey. II. -A Ministry of Health. [24) Electrical Development. (25) Tovm Planning. [26) Natural Science in British Education. [27) Ofl&cers' Guide to Civil Careers. (28) Scientific Business Management. These publications may be purchased through any Bookseller or directiy from H.M. Stationery Office at Imperial House, Kingsway, London, W.C. 2 ; and the other addresses on page 4 of cover. 16 < LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 029 985 159 P LONDON': PUBLISHED BY HIS MAJESTY'S STATIONERY OFFICE. To be purchased through any Bookseller or directly from H.M. STATIONERY OFFICE at the following addresses : Imperial House, Kingsway, London, W.C. 2, and 28 Abingdon Street, London, S.W. 1 ; 37 Peter Street, Manchester ; 1 St. Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff ; 23 Forth Street, Edinburgh ; or from E. PONSONBY. Ltd., 116 Grafton Street, Dublin, 1919. Price 2d. Net. Printed by His Majkstv's Stationery Office, London.