Class _IL'^ 61 _ 
 
 Book_^---uMi 
 
A BRIEF 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 NEW EUROPE 
 
 BY ' 
 HARMON B. NIVER 
 
 AUTHOR OF "A SCHOOL HISTORY OF ENGLAND" 
 AND 
 
 EDWARD D. FARRELL 
 
 FORMERLY DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
 IN NEW YORK CITY 
 
 1921 
 
 HINDS, HAYDEN & ELDREDGE, INC. 
 
 New York Philadelphia Chicago 
 
 r 
 
Copyright, 1910, 1911, by Harmon B. Niver 
 Copyright, 1920, by Harmon B. Niver 
 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 As a companion volume to our "Brief Physical" and "Brief Com- 
 mercial" Geographies, the publishers take pleasure in presenting the 
 present "Brief Geography of New Europe." The new nations which 
 have just emerged from the bloody strife of four long years are still 
 a long way from the conditions of peaceful industry, and it is only a 
 matter of conjecture as to what their place will be in the geography 
 of the future. We do not know what they will do, but at any rate, 
 when the aftermath of war has cleared away, they will have a fair 
 start on the road to industrial and commercial progress. They will 
 begin a new career as free nations, for the war just closed marks a 
 radical change in the basis of political geography. The physical basis, 
 of course, never alters except by the action of the forces of nature 
 through infinite periods of time. The primitive boundaries of nations 
 were mainly natural barriers, such as oceans, mountain ranges, deserts, 
 and broad rivers. The people living within such boundaries — usually 
 of the same race — gradually adapted themselves to their environment, 
 and became welded together by a common language, religion, and tra- 
 ditions. In the absence of migrations, conquests, and ready means of 
 communication, these natural barriers became effective national bounda- 
 ries. The Chinese and Oriental nations generally are examples of 
 these primitive conditions, under which nations have settled down 
 within natm-al boundaries and lived for centuries at peace with the 
 rest of mankind. 
 
 When, however, a people becomes too big for the land it occupies, 
 migration becomes a necessity, and a large part of the history of man- 
 kind, hitherto, has dealt with the movements of bodies of men from 
 the more densely populated regions into those that afforded a better 
 means of livelihood. Such migrations involved the subjection of the 
 savage or barbarous nations who occupied the soil or of civilized nations 
 
 f OCT 22 '23 
 
 ^j'?* 
 
PREFACE 3 
 
 too weak to withstand the onset of the newcomers; hence, the "rule 
 of the strongest" was substituted for natural barriers as determining 
 national boundaries. This process of migration and conquest has con- 
 tinued until there are no more lands to conquer, and it has become 
 necessary to find some permanent basis on which to divide the world 
 among the nations. 
 
 The war just closed marks, we hope, the end of the rule of power. 
 The nations of central Europe, Hke the savage Teuton chief with whom 
 Julius Caesar treated 2000 years ago, "thought their lands too small for 
 people of their importance and dignity," and they set out to conquer the 
 rest of the world. Their ignominious failure has taught the world that 
 the "rule of right" must be substituted for the "rule of might." 
 
 The strongest ties that bind men together into nations are those of 
 race, language, and religion; and for those nations that have learned to 
 respect the religious rights of others, race, language, and common tradi- 
 tions should determine their national boundaries. It was a saying 
 among the ancient Greeks that "wherever Greeks live, there is Greece." 
 It was decided by the Peace Congress at Versailles that the people 
 themselves should decide whether they would have an independent 
 national existence; or if not, to what nation they should be joined. 
 This principle of "self-determination" was acquiesced in by the repre- 
 sentatives of the "Five Great Powers" — United States, Great Britain, 
 France, Italy, and Japan — and by those of the 22 lesser powers, who 
 together drew up the Peace Treaty and the "League of Nations." 
 
 This principle gives also to each people the right to decide what 
 form of government they shall have. Thus certain districts and prov- 
 inces which had been forcibly taken and ruled by Germany, Austria, 
 Russia, and Turkey, have been restored to the people who inhabit 
 them and now take their places in the family of nations; such are 
 Poland, Jugo-Slavia, Czechoslovakia, Esthonia, Lithuania, Latvia, 
 and Finland. Other districts wrested from the rightful owners have 
 been returned, as Alsace-Lorraine, Schleswig, Transylvania, and others. 
 Still other districts, in which the will of the people is uncertain, will be 
 allowed to decide by a popular vote to which nation they shall be 
 attached. 
 
 In all this we see the triumph of Democracy — the triumph of the 
 will of the people over the domination of kings, aristocracies, or classes. 
 
4 PREFACE 
 
 We see the triumph of the American form of government, which is "of 
 the people, by the people, and for the people." 
 
 There are yet lands of another character which were provided for 
 by the Peace Treaty, and these are the colonies held by Germany in 
 Africa and among the islands of the Pacific ocean. These lands are 
 inhabited by people too low in the scale of civihzation either to govern 
 themselves or to decide their futm-e. These colonies have been made 
 "mandatory" — that is, they have been placed mider the tutelage of 
 stronger nations until such time when their people shall have reached 
 a stage of intelligence that will enable them to determine how or by 
 whom they shall be governed. At this writing many questions remain 
 unsettled. Russia, western Asia, and southeastern Europe are still 
 engaged in civil wars, the outcome of which cannot be predicted with 
 certainty, but the principle of self-determination will in the end prevail, 
 and we shall see the world inhabited by one great, united family of 
 free, self-governing nations, hving in peace with one another. 
 
WESTERN" HE^nSPHERE 
 
 :yoRTir rOL-E 
 
 10 130 J^ 
 
 SOUTH POLE 
 
EASTEEK HEMISPHERE 
 
 LAND 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Europe 9 
 
 II. The British Isles 30 
 
 III. France 55 
 
 IV. Germany 72 
 
 V. Belgium and the Netherlands 84 
 
 VI. The Scandinavian Countries 94 
 
 VII. Italy 107 
 
 VIII. Spain and Portugal 121 
 
 IX. Switzerland 130 
 
 X. Russia 138 
 
 XI. Austria and Hungary 152 
 
 XII. The Balkan Peninsula 155 
 
 XIII. The New Nations of Europe . 166 
 
 Comparative Study of Europe and North America . . 180 
 
 Index 183 
 
 Appendix. Statistical Tables i 
 
 LIST OF MAPS 
 
 Western Hemisphere and North and South Polar Regions .... 6 
 
 Eastern Hemisphere and Land and Water Hemispheres .... 7 
 
 Physical Europe 16 
 
 Political Europe 20 
 
 The British Isles 31 
 
 France, Spain, and Portugal 57 
 
 Germany, Belgium, and Netherlands 76 
 
 Italy and Switzerland 109 
 
 South Central Europe 165 
 
 Commercial Map of the World 178 
 
 Political North America . . , 181 
 
CHAPTER T 
 EUROPE 
 
 Answer the map studies questions, pages 20-21. 
 
 Before studying the text read the relief map (page 12) and the contour map (pages 
 16-17) in connection with the map studies (pages 13 and 16-17). Constant reference 
 fshould be made to the other maps and illustrations in order to make the text clear and 
 to fix in mind matters relating to surface, location, and direction. 
 
 Location, Size, and Importance. — Europe is the most centrally 
 located of all the continents. This advantage of location has greatly 
 favored the development of European commerce. Only Australia 
 and the countries of eastern Asia are so far distant as to make com- 
 munication somewhat difficult. 
 
 If we look at the map on page 7 we may see that Europe is not really a 
 separate continent, but that it is part of a larger mass of land to which the name 
 Eurasia is commonly given. Europe forms less than one fifth of this land mass and 
 appears on the map as a very irregular peninsula jutting out from the west of Asia. 
 From this main peninsula, five or more smaller ones extend far out into the surround- 
 ing waters, and the coasts are so deeply cut by seas, bays, and estuaries that the 
 interior parts are brought within a few hundred miles of the seacoast. 
 
 In size Europe is, next to Australia, the smallest of all the con- 
 tinents. Its area is less than half that of North America, and only a 
 little larger than that of the United States. Having over 450,000,- 
 000 people it ranks next to Asia in population, though it has about 
 one fifth the area. Europe surpasses all the other continents in the 
 number of its populous nations, in its commerce, and wealth. 
 
 Races of Europe. — The people of Europe belong mainly to the white race and 
 are divided into three great branches: The Teutonic races occupy the northern 
 and western parts embracing England, Germany, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Den- 
 mark, Austria, and parts of Switzerland and other countries. The Latin races, 
 so called because their languages are composed largely of words derived from the 
 
 9 
 
10 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Latin language, occupy the southern parts and include the French, Spanish, Portu- 
 guese, Italian, and Rumanian. The Slavonic races occupj^ eastern Europe and 
 the Balkan peninsula; the chief nations of this race are the Russians, Poles, Bul- 
 garians, and Serbians; others are the Letts, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croatians, 
 and numerous minor tribes. Besides these three leading races there are the 
 Lapps, Finns, Esths, Turks, Tartars, and the Magyars, or Hungarians, belonging 
 to the yellow race; and along the western edge of the continent we find people 
 of the Celtic race, the oldest of the white races in Europe. 
 
 The valley of Chamonix ami the mount Blanc range. 
 
 The Greeks and Romans. — More than three thousand years ago Greek emi- 
 grants crossed the^Egean sea and made settlements on the islands and along the coasts 
 of southern Europe. They grew to be the rulers of most of the lands bordering the 
 Mediterranean sea and finally, under Alexander the Great, they conquered the world. 
 Latin tribes also made their way westward b.v land and established homes in the 
 Italian peninsula. While the Greeks were ruling tlie rest of the civilized world, the 
 Romans were building up a strong government at Rome. They gradually conquered 
 all of Italy and extended their conquests into Asia and Africa. The Cireeks were 
 subdued l)y them. In the first century before Christ, Julius Caesar added Gaul, 
 now France, to the Roman dominions, and Britain and other parts were afterward 
 contiuered. The Roman Empire then embraced nearly the whole civilized world. 
 
 The Coming of New Races ; the Teutons. — During the early days of the Roman 
 Empire western Europe had been occupied by Celtic tribes. But soon barbarians 
 from the shores of the North and Baltic seas swarmed over the borders, causing the 
 emperors no end of trouble. At first the Romans gave them lands to dwell upon, 
 
EACES OF EUROPE 
 
 11 
 
 but the invaders demanded more and more until at last they captured the city of 
 Rome itself. Some crossed the Pyrenees and established a kingdom in Spain. In 
 the mean time the Franks had taken possession of Gaul, and the kingdom of France 
 was begun. Other Teutonic tribes called Angles and Saxons invaded Britain and 
 built up a number of small kingdoms which afterwards became Angle-land, or Eng- 
 land. 
 
 The Slavonic Tribes. — These peoples had their homes on the Russian plain 
 between Germany and the Volga river. East of them dwelt Tartar tribes belonging 
 
 The Mer de Glace, or Great Glacier, and mount Blanc, the peak on the right of the glacier. 
 
 to the Yellow race. In the sixth century, the Tartars attacked the Slavs, driving 
 them westward agamst the German frontier. Being halted here they spread out 
 north and south, forming a chain of nations extending from the Baltic sea to the 
 Black. In this region to-day we find Bulgaria, Serbia, Jugo-Slavia, Czechoslovalda, 
 Poland, Lithuania, Livonia, Esthonia, Ukrainia, and Russia. Between the Teu- 
 tonic and Slavic nations are the Magyars, or Hungarians, an Asiatic race related 
 to the Tartars, who made their way into Europe during this early period. 
 
 The Middle Ages. — For many centuries the Barbarian kingdoms made 
 little progress in the arts of civilized hfe. This long period is known as the 
 " Middle Ages." During this time Mohammed estabUshed his rehgion at Mecca. 
 His followers soon overran a large part of Asia; they took possession of the 
 southern half of Spain. In 1453 the Turks, a Mohammedan tribe of Tartars, cap- 
 tured Constantinople, and conquered southeastern Europe as far as the Danube. 
 I Their present possessions in Europe are restricted to " Constantinople State." 
 
12 
 
 RELIEF MAP OF EUROPE 
 
 &i- 
 
 
 
 ^-. 
 
 
 
 J-^^f' 
 
 
 
 r<;- '■- 
 
 
 
 
 v^ 
 
 
 i'j- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 %:?vi 
 
 '/./■.-. 
 
 
 *«« 
 
 ■^i&.^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V? 
 
 
SURFACE AND OUTLINE 13 
 
 It was during the early half of the Dark Ages that the new nations were con- 
 verted to Christianity, for the most part by missionaries sent out from Rome. The 
 Christian religion served more than anything else to soften savage customs, to do 
 away with slavery, and to create a respect for law and for the rights of others. 
 
 Modem Nations. — The invention of gunpowder, the discovery of the use of 
 the compass, and the invention of the printing-press mark the beginning of modern 
 nations and of modern geography. A desire for trade led to the search for new lands. 
 Spain, Portugal, France, and England took up the work of exploration and dis- 
 covery. It was Italian sailors — Columbus, Cabot, and Verrazano, — in the employ 
 of these nations who discovered and explored the New World. Portuguese sailors, 
 Diaz and da Gama, explored the coasts of Africa, rounded the cape of Good Hope, 
 and sailed across the Indian ocean to India. 
 
 Surface and Outline. — The surface structure of Europe is not 
 unlike that of the other continents; it is composed of two mountain 
 systems enclosing a central plain. The older system stretches along 
 the northwestern coast through the British Isles and the Scandi- 
 navian peninsula; detached portions of it are found also in Russia, 
 Finland, Germany, France, and Belgium. It is everywhere greatly 
 worn down and much of it is covered with magnificent forests of 
 pine and spruce. It is also the chief source of mineral wealth. 
 
 The younger and loftier mountain system extends across the 
 southern part of the continent in a general east and west direction. 
 In height it averages about the same as the Rocky mountain system. 
 The Caucasus, the Carpathian, the Alps, and the Pyrenees are the 
 chief ranges; minor ranges are the Balkans, the Apennines, the Ce- 
 
 RELIEF MAP STUDIES. — (1) Trace the outline of the Great Central plain of 
 Europe from the bay of Biscay eastward to the Black sea, and from this point eastward 
 and northward to the northern extremity of Russia, then southwestward to the southern 
 shore of England. (For names of physical features see contour map, page 16.) What 
 bodies of water occupy the great depression in the northern part of this plain? Find 
 the region of elevation in the central part of the plain. Where do you find the greatest 
 number of lakes? (2) What highland regions border the central plain on the southeast, 
 east, northwest, and south? What is the general direction of the mountains in each 
 of these regions? What river separates the highlands of central Europe from those of 
 southern Europe? What are the chief ranges in each of these divisions? (3) Which 
 sea receives the larger share of the drainage of the central plain? Which sea receives the 
 greatest number of short rivers? Trace by means of the sources of the rivers a dividing 
 ridge across the Central plain from the Ural mountains southwestward to the central 
 highlands. (4) Which countries of Europe are most mountainous? Which lie chiefly 
 in the Great plain? Which lie partly in the Great plain and partly in the mountain 
 regions? (See map, pages 14-15.) 
 
14 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 vermes, and the Jura. The Caucasus and the Alps contain the high- 
 est peaks, most of which are covered with perpetual snow. Mount 
 Elbruz is over 18,000, and mount Blanc over 15,000 feet in height. 
 
 The Alps are perhaps the most famous mountains in the world, 
 erable snow-clad peaks, 
 their wonderful glaciers 
 and avalanches, and 
 their deep valleys with 
 clear streams and beau- 
 tiful lakes, are example- 
 of mountain scenery nof 
 equaled elsewhere. 
 
 Their innum- 
 
 A view among the Apennines in central Italy, and lake 
 Como with the Alps in the background. 
 
 The Balkans 
 and the Apennines 
 
 are offshoots from 
 the main sj'stem, 
 extending respec- 
 tively into the 
 Greek and the 
 
 Italian peninsulas. The Balkan peninsula contains man}'' detached 
 peaks and ranges enclosing fertile valleys and plains. The southern 
 half of the Apennines is a noted volcanic and earthquake region con- 
 taining three active volcanoes: Vesuvius, Etna, and Stromboli. 
 
 The eruption of mount Vesuvius in 79 a.d. was one of the most destructive 
 known in history. The three neighboring cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and 
 Stabiae were completely buried by the lava and ashes and their very existence for- 
 gotten. Recently parts of these cities have been excavated and the streets with 
 their houses and temples have been exposed to ^^ew just as they were when the 
 Romans lived there. A still greater disaster occurred December 28, 1908, when 
 an earthquake destroyed the cities of Messina, Reggio {red'-jo),Sind a dozen neigh- 
 boring towns and villages. More than 100,000 persons were buried in the ruins. 
 No other earthquake so destructive of life and property has ever been known. 
 
SURFACE AND OUTLINE 
 
 15 
 
 The Carpathian mountains lie in the center of the continent on 
 the southern border of the Great plain. They curve eastward, then 
 southward like a great bow, crossing the Danube river and partly 
 enclosing the rich plains of Hungary. These plains, once an 
 ancient lake bottom, are now -the most productive wheat fields of 
 Europe. The western Alps culminate in mount Blanc. The Jura 
 mountains extend northward from them and approach the Vosges 
 
 The city of Limoges on the river Vienne where it descends from the central plateau 
 of France to the plain. 
 
 mountains. These two ranges form the western watershed of the 
 Rhine valley. West of these mountains and parallel with them are 
 the Cevennes {se-ven') and the Cote-d'Or {cote-dor') moimtains, which 
 form the western watershed of the Rhone valley. The Pyrenees 
 rise like a great wall, forming a natural boundary between France 
 and Spain. Some of their peaks exceed 11,000 feet in height, and 
 are snow-clad during the entire 3^ear, On the eastern border of the 
 continent are the long low ranges of the Urals, which do not appear 
 to belong to either of the svstems described. 
 
,,^11,..$. s f..A.,.x r 
 
 MAP STUDIES. — (1) What elevation 
 is indicated by each of the colors on this 
 map? In which countries of Europe do you 
 find lowlands? Which country lies chiefly 
 in the region of plains? In which countries 
 do you find elevations exceeding 6,000 feet? 
 In which do you find the greatest extent of 
 plateaus? (2) What mountain ranges are 
 found in Spain? Which of these forms a 
 boundary? What countries lie partly or 
 wholly in the plateau region of central 
 Europe? In what part of Russia do you 
 find elevations exceeding a thousand feet? 
 What is the shape of that part of the cen- 
 tral plain lying east of the Elbe river? Trace 
 the contour line in central Europe between 
 the 1,500 and 6,000 foot elevations. What 
 is the form of this line? (3) What rivers 
 of Ein-ope have their sources in the region of 
 plains? What rivers rise in plateau regions? 
 In mountain regions? Name three rivers 
 that flow entirely through plains and low- 
 lands. What rivers have their courses almost 
 entirely in plateau and mountain regions? 
 Which class would be best adapted to navi- 
 gation? What two rivers have the greatest 
 extent of alluvial plains along their banks? 
 (4) How is the chmate of a country affected 
 by elevation? In what parts of Europe 
 would you expect to find a cold climate? 
 Compare the climate of central with that of 
 northern Europe, remembering that tempera- 
 ture falls about one degree Fahrenheit foif 
 every 300 feet of elevation (see page 75). 
 What can you teU about the effect of climate 
 on the plant life of a country ? Name some 
 plants that you think would flourish in each 
 region of elevation. (5) The dotted red lines 
 crossing this map are called isothermal (equal 
 heat) lines. They connect points on the map 
 which have the same average annual tem- 
 perature. Trace the isothermal line of forty 
 degrees across the map. Can you explain 
 why it is further north on the Atlantic ocean 
 than it is in Russia. Why does it run from 
 north to south in the Scandinavian peninsula? 
 Trace the isothermal of* 60 degrees from the 
 Atlantic ocean to the Caspian sea. Along 
 what parallel of latitude is its general direc- 
 tion? Can you give any reason why it fol- 
 lows the parallel of latitude more closely 
 than the isothermals in the north of Europe? 
 What influences ether than latitude deter- 
 mine the location of isothermal lines? 
 
18 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 The Central Plain. — Between the two great mountain systems 
 of Europe lies the Central plain. It begins with a narrow strip of 
 coast north of the Pyrenees mountains, and bends northeastward 
 around the central highland region, gradually widening until in 
 Russia it attains a width of 2,000 miles. Here it joins the great plain 
 of Asia. It is al- 
 most uniformly 
 level, having here 
 and there but a few 
 scattered ranges of 
 hills. The most 
 considerable of 
 these are the Val- 
 
 dai Hills in Russia. 
 
 The northern edge 
 of this plain has sunk 
 beneath the ocean and 
 two deep depressions 
 in it are now occupied 
 by the North sea and 
 the Baltic sea. It is 
 supposed that before 
 the plain was depressed 
 the British Isles and 
 Norway and Sweden 
 were joined to the mainland. The higher parts of the sunken mountain ranges pro- 
 jecting above the water* form the thousands of islands which are scattered along 
 the shores of Great Britain and Norway. The more level parts of this sunken 
 coast are the fishing banks of northwestern Europe, which are excelled only by those 
 of Newfoundland, and which give employment to thousands of men and ships. By 
 the sinking of the coasts the valleys along them became inlets, or fiords, many of 
 which extend far inland forming excellent harbors. INIany of these fiords along the 
 coast of Norway are walled in by steep and lofty rocks over which tumble swollen 
 streams, forming a type of mountain scenery indescribably grand. 
 
 Views on the plateau in southern Germany. 1. Schwartz- 
 burg with the Thuringian forests in the background. 2. A 
 hilly country in Thuringia. 
 
CLIMATE 
 
 19 
 
 Changes in Surface Level ; Glaciers and Coal Beds. — The effect 
 
 of a rise in the surface of the land is to make the climate colder; 
 oppositely, a subsidence makes the climate warmer. The surface of 
 Europe has undergone many changes of level, which have had im- 
 portant effects in fitting it to be the home of man. In very ancient 
 times a large part of the Central plain, as well as small areas in other 
 regions, was depressed, forming great swamps in which vegetation 
 grew luxuriantly. In the course of many centuries vegetable matter 
 accunmlated in these swamps to the depth of hundreds of feet. After- 
 ward these areas sank still lower, becoming inland lakes, and the vege- 
 table matter was covered to a great depth by the sand and gravel 
 brought down by the streams which poured into them. The pressure 
 of this overlying mass and the heat of the interior of the earth con- 
 verted the decayed vegetable matter into coal. 
 
 Afterward the surface of the continent was raised and parts of it in the north 
 became covered with a great glacier, or ice sheet. The ice moving southward 
 filled up the North sea and the Baltic sea and overspread a large part of Russia and 
 Germany. The glacier brought with it soil and rock broken from the mountam 
 sides or scraped out of the valleys along which it passed. This material, called 
 glacial drift, was spread on the land when the ice melted and helped to form the 
 fertile soil of the northern part of the Central plain. Often the drift would obstruct 
 the streams, forming lakes thousands of which are found in Russia, Norway, Sweden, 
 and the British Isles. We may thus see that the glacier had much to do m fitting 
 the surface of the continent for the home of man. 
 
 Climate. — Owing to the nearness of the ocean and to the numer- 
 ous inland seas as well as to the prevailing winds and the nature of 
 the surface, the climate of Europe, when the same latitudes are con- 
 sidered, is in contrast with that of any other continent. There are 
 no mountain ranges running parallel with the ocean to cut off the 
 moisture, and hence there are no arid areas in the interior, as m 
 the other continents.- Northern and central Europe he within the 
 region of the westerly winds. These winds, laden with warmth and 
 moisture from crossing the Atlantic ocean, traverse the continent 
 north of the primary highland system. As the winds at this lati- 
 tude are not intercepted by high mountains, they give up their mois- 
 
°' S" 10" 15° 20" 20° 30° 35" 
 
 ian acro^s^tTiY nL^n^orEumno^''''Tu,T/'^* ^T^^^ °^ ^^^*'"*",''° ^''^^^ Europe Ho? Trace tho prime merid- 
 iLd is Europe" Wh L.h ', a K-ntV ^"""^ncs are partly in west longitude? (2) AA'hat division of 
 
 Which eo„....?, >„l^e z Viii£;"^s^xj^^s-'^s'ij^^ %;t:;szr^ 
 
NORWAY AND SWEDEN; DEN- 
 MARK. — (1) What waters partly sur- 
 round Norway and Sweden? Which 
 is farther north? What is length of 
 each in degrees from north to south? 
 In miles? (2) What mountains sepa- 
 rate Norway and Sweden? Compare 
 the surface of these two countries. The 
 coast lines. W"hich has the most lakes? 
 \vhat has caused the formation of these 
 lakes (see page 17)? (3) Which coun- 
 try is the larger? How does each com- 
 pare in size with Great Britain? How 
 does each compare in size with your 
 state? (4) On an outline map locate 
 and name the capitals and leading 
 cities of these two countries. How do 
 you account for the absence of any 
 long rivers? (5) Describe the location 
 of Denmark, both on the continent 
 and in latitude. What country borders 
 it on the south? What countries of 
 Europe are smaller than Denmark? 
 Compare it with your state in size and 
 population. (6) Where are the Faroe 
 islands? Iceland? What is the capi- 
 -yf ^ \^^ \ i---^V/ 'V:^*" e<''"^>t^r^~' y<^ tal of Denmark? What is the capital 
 
 y l)^^^^^^c^^^'V\ ^,^1^ r'0'^'^"^>c\ °^ Iceland? (7) What is the approxi- 
 
 K JesfK^QT ^Vr-'-^Jh^*'''^ h^ \ ( /^ ' \ /^v. \ mate distance in miles between the 
 
 capital of Denmark and the capital of 
 Iceland? In what general direction 
 and over what waters would a vessel 
 sail in going from Copenhagen to 
 Reikiavik? 
 
 EASTERN EUROPE. — (1) Be- 
 tween what parallels of latitude does 
 Russia lie? What do you infer from 
 tliis in regard to its climate? Compare 
 its area with that of the rest of Europe. 
 Compare with the United States in size 
 (see APPENDIX, page ii). What part of 
 the people of Europe live in Russia? 
 (2) Name the five seas bordering on 
 Russia. Name a river flowing into each 
 of these seas. Trace each of these 
 rivers to its source. Near what city 
 do they rise? What hills near this 
 city? What countries on the western 
 border of Russia? What mountains 
 in the east? In the south? What 
 countries of Asia border Russia? (3) 
 Name five seaports and tell on what 
 water each is located. In what part 
 of Poland are Warsaw and Lodz? 
 Describe the location of Kief {ke'-yef), 
 Kazan, Tiflis, Baku, Nijni Novgorod, 
 Helsingfors, Wilna, Kharkof, and Eka- 
 terinburg. On an outUne map of 
 Russia locate these towns. On the 
 same map locate the rivers and the 
 bordering waters and countries. (4) 
 Name all the bodies of water on which 
 a vessel would sail in going from Odessa 
 to Petrograd. From Archangel to 
 Liverpool. From Venice to Hamburg. 
 (5) Find the distance by rail from 
 Paris to Berlin. 
 
 ection of the following mountain ranges: Alps, Pyrenees, Kiolen (kyu'-Ien), Carpathian, Apen- 
 les, Caucasus, and Ural. Where are the Valdai Hills? What rivers rise among them? What rivers 
 e in the Alps? Locate mount Vesuvius; mount Etna; mount Blanc. Name four lakes in Europe. 
 Make a list of the countries of Europe in order of size (see appendix, page ii). In a column 
 'josite the name of each country write the name of the capital, and in a third column the name of 
 ; chief city of each country. 
 
22 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 tiire very gradually, so that nearly all parts of Europe receive enough 
 ram for successful farming. 
 
 The coast of western Europe is also tempered by the warm waters 
 of the Gulf stream, which washes the shores of the British Isles and 
 Norway, keeping the harbors open all through the year, even at the 
 extreme northern port of Plammerfest. Western Europe has a mod- 
 erate temperature throughout the year; but as we go eastward the 
 country suffers extremes of temperature. Even as far south as the 
 
 Black sea the rivers 
 and harbors are 
 frozen during sev- 
 eral of the winter 
 months. An i n c i - 
 dent illustrating the 
 severity of the Rus- 
 sian winter is fur- 
 nished by the retreat 
 of the French army 
 under Napoleon from 
 Moscow in 1812, 
 when thousands of 
 the soldiers were 
 frozen to death. 
 
 I little or BO rala 
 
 Ught 
 1 Moderately ht^yj ralat 
 I HeaTj nuns 
 
 Rainfall cliart of Europe. 
 
 During the Crimean war also, which was fought in the south of Russia, 
 so many of the English and French soldiers perished from cold that the 
 Czar, Nicholas I, said that his best generals were General " January " 
 and General "February." The reasons for this extreme cold are dis- 
 tance from the ocean, and the absence of mountains high enough to 
 cut off the icy winds which in the winter blow from the Arctic region. 
 The average annual temperature of southern Russia is about the 
 same as that of New York City, though the extremes are greater. 
 As the northern part of Russia lies beyond the reach of the westerly 
 winds, it has long, cold winters and short summers. This section 
 consists of barren plains and tundras with little vegetation except 
 
CLIMATE 
 
 23 
 
 the mosses and lichens upon which the reindeer feed. In the north- 
 ern part of the Scandinavian peninsula, however, grains and vege- 
 tables may be grown far within the Arctic circle — much farther 
 than in any other part of the world. 
 
 Southern Europe has a climate peculiar to itself. It is protected 
 from the cold north winds by lofty mountain ranges, and the deep 
 arms of the Mediterranean which project far inland temper the 
 
 A ferry across the Seine, above Rouen. 
 
 climate. During the winter the winds blow from the Mediterranean 
 and bring heavy rains. But in summer the winds are from the north 
 and the northeast, and hence are dry, having passed over the moun- 
 tains. This is a great disadvantage to the farmer, who must irrigate 
 his crops during the growing season. In summer there is little water 
 in the rocky beds of the streams which in winter are swollen torrents. 
 The winter floods are so violent that much of the land is washed 
 away or made worthless by being strewn with rocky waste. Along 
 the Mediterranean coasts of France and Italy there are many delight- 
 ful spots where the vine, the olive, and the mulberry tree flourish 
 throughout the year. 
 
24 EURO-PE 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. — Owing to its smaller area, Europe has no 
 rivers equal in length and volume to those of the other continents, 
 but on account of the general rainfall and the gentleness of the slopes 
 the European rivers are well distributed, and many of them are navi- 
 gable nearly to their headwaters. The watersheds between the 
 rivers are so low that canal-building is carried on to a greater extent 
 than in any other continent; all the large rivers are connected, and 
 it is possible to go by water from the Black sea to the Baltic, and from 
 the North sea to the Mediterranean. 
 
 The lakes of Europe are numerous, especially in the northern 
 parts, and many of them are noted for beautiful scenery. The larger 
 lakes are found chiefly in three regions. The first group is in Russia 
 and Sweden , lake Ladoga, the largest in Europe, is nearly as large 
 as the state of Massachusetts, Onega and Wener are next in size. 
 The second lake group is in Switzerland and Italy. The third group 
 lies in Germany, north and east of the Elbe river. Many of these 
 lakes are remarkable for having no outlets. The groups of larger 
 lakes form important links in the canal connections of the country. 
 
 Plants and Animals. — The plant life of Europe as elsewhere 
 corresponds closely to the conditions of soil, heat, and moisture. 
 South of the frozen tundra region of mosses and lichens are vast 
 belts of soft-wood forests, extending through Norway, Sweden, and 
 Russia. In the dry regions of the central plain are found vast tracts, 
 or steppes, covered with coarse grass and scattered shrubbery. In 
 southern and central Europe the mountain sides and the plains near 
 them have extensive forests of both hard and soft woods. Among 
 the soft woods are the pine, spruce, fir, and cedar, among the hard 
 woods are the oak, ash, elm, willow, and chestnut. 
 
 The plants of the Mediterranean countries differ from those of the rest of the 
 continent, being suited to withstand the dry summer cUmate. The trees are mostly 
 low and have thick and leathery leaves which prevent the loss of moisture. Among 
 them are the holly, the holm oak, the laurel, myrtle, orange, and the olive. Thick 
 fleshy plants resembling the American cactus and aloe are common. The cork oak 
 is characteristic of the Iberian peninsula and the mulberry tree of southern France, 
 Italy, and Greece. Among cultivated plants the grains are first in importance. 
 
SOME ANIMALS OF EUROPE 
 
 25 
 
 "X,'""'f 
 
 "5"^' 
 
 /.,. '3* -icf^^ %.'*!"• 
 
 borne Animals of Europe. 
 
26 EUROPE 
 
 Wheat, rye, oats, and barley are grown throughout the central plain and in the fer- 
 tile river valleys. Flax, the vine, and the sugar-beet rank next in value to the grains. 
 Southern Europe is famous for its oranges, lemons, and oUves. 
 
 With the exception of the wolf, no dangerous wild animals are to be found in 
 Europe. The reindeer and even the bear have been tamed, although some species 
 of these animals as well as the lynx are found wild in Norway and Sweden. Among 
 the Alps is found the chamois and in the island of Crete the ibex, both of which are 
 species of wild goats. In the forests of northern Russia, the fox, ermine, marten, 
 and sable — valuable fur-bearing animals — are trapped and hunted. In most 
 of the countries of Europe extensive tracts of land are set aside as game preserves 
 for the pleasures of the hunt. 
 
 Industries and Products. — The occupations of the people depend 
 upon the natural wealth and conditions of the country in which they 
 live and upon their knowledge and skill in making use of them. The 
 leading occupations of the people of northern Europe are manufac- 
 turing and trading, though they are also skilful farmers and experts 
 in stock-raising. In the nations of southern Europe, where the climate 
 is sub-tropical, the people are more generally engaged in farming and 
 in the cultivation of the silkworm, the vine, the olive, and fruits. 
 In eastern Europe the conditions of soil and climate are such that 
 thousands of the inhabitants make a living by tending herds of cattle 
 and swine. 
 
 The most valuable product is grain; yet we do not think of Europe as a grain- 
 producing country. This is because she has none to sell; her own population requires 
 all of it. She has not land enough to support so many people without other indus- 
 tries than farming. Europe supplies the markets of the world with fine woolens, 
 silks, velvets, ribbons, and laces, watches and jewelry, fine gloves, shoes, and mil- 
 linery; so we think of Europeans as manufacturers. Wine, raw silk, olive oil, and 
 fruits we associate with the countries of southern Europe. 
 
 The manufactures and commerce of Europe exceed those of all 
 the rest of the world combined. Europe has also a vast amount of 
 storecl-up wealth with which to carry on her industries, and skilled 
 workmen who are trained from youth to do a certain thing in the 
 best possible way. The commerce of Europe consists mainly in the 
 exchange of manufactured goods for raw materials and foods. 
 
 Cities. — Europe is famous for its great cities. It contains Lon- 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 
 
 27 
 
 don, the largest city in the world, Paris, the most attractive city, and 
 Rome and Constantinople, famous for their historical associations. 
 
 Transportation and Commerce. — Europe is better provided with 
 means of transportation by water than any other continent. This 
 is because of the extensive coast line and the great number of navi- 
 gable rivers that intersect the continent, and because her people 
 have improved the navigation of the rivers, and connected them by 
 
 Prodnctions of 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 canals. Freight can thus be distributed very cheaply to all parts of 
 the continent. There are many railroads, but they are used more 
 for carrying passengers than freight. Trunk lines connect the great 
 cities of Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Petrograd, and Constantinople. Through 
 express trains are run between these points, and also from Paris to 
 Rome and Madrid. At Petrograd the great trans-Siberian line be- 
 gins, the eastern terminus of which is at Vladivostok on the 
 Pacific ocean; this railroad has developed Siberia. The Alps 
 
28 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 are pierced by seven tunnels, affording quick communication 
 between the surrounding countries. 
 
 In most European countries the railroads are owned and managed by the govern- 
 ment and not by private companies and corporations as in the United States. In 
 the older countries of Europe there are excellent public highways. Some of these 
 were built in the old Roman days as military roads and others have been built in 
 modern times for military purposes. Many of these roads, especially those in 
 mountainous districts, are of the most elaborate construction. 
 
 Warwick castle, one of the most famous of English medieval strongholds. 
 
 Religion and Government. — With the exception of the Moham- 
 medan Turks, all the nations of Europe profess the Christian religion. 
 The majority of the people of the Latin and Slavonic nations are 
 Roman CathoHcs, while most of those in Russia and the eastern 
 nations belong to the Greek Catholic church. The majority of the 
 people of the Teutonic countries are Protestants. 
 
 Government. — Eiu-ope now has eleven republics and thir- 
 teen constitutional monarchies, some of which are virtually 
 republics, although the head has the title of king. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Who first visited Europe? Describe its loca- 
 tion. Name its boundaries. Why is Europe an important continent? What are the 
 three leading races of Europe? Name some of the other races. (2) What were the 
 Middle Ages? What inventions helped the progress of the nations of Europe? In 
 what way did each help? (3) How does the surface of Europe resemble that of the 
 other continents? Where is the older mountain system found? How does it differ from 
 the younger, or loftier system? Name and locate five ranges of the principal S3'3tein. 
 
QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 29 
 
 What are the two highest peaks? What is said of the scenery of the Alps? Where ia 
 the region of volcanoes and earthquakes? What two great disasters have happened in 
 this region? (4) How does the central plain vary in width? What are its natural 
 resources? Why do we think the northern edge of the plain has sunk? What are the 
 results of a sunken and mountainous coast line? (5) How does a change in elevatior 
 affect climate? Explain the way in which the coal beds were formed. What are glac- 
 iers, and how have they affected the surface of Europe? (6) How do you account foi: 
 the moist and mild climate of Europe? Which parts have the greater amount of rain, 
 and why? Why is the winter colder at Odessa than at Hammerfest? How is the climate 
 of southern Europe affected by the mountains? Why does it have more rain in winter 
 than in summer? (7) What conditions of surface and climate make the rivers of the 
 continent navigable? Why have so many canals been built in Europe? Where are the 
 lakes? Which is the largest? (8) Locate the three distinct regions of plant life in 
 Europe. Why do the plants of the Mediterranean region differ from the rest? Name 
 the chief cultivated plants of the continent, and tell where each is found. (9) Name 
 the two most noted cities of Europe. Why is Europe well adapted to commerce? What 
 has encouraged the growth of manufactures in Europe? What religion prevails among 
 each of the races in Europe? What is the usual form of government in European coun- 
 tries? What republics are found? 
 
CHAPTER II 
 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 Answer the questions on the British isles, page 30. 
 
 Position, Size, Importance. — The British Isles he off the north- 
 west coast of Europe. They are separated from the mainland by 
 the strait of Dover, which in its narrowest part is only twenty-two 
 miles wide. This narrow but stormy and dangerous passage has 
 served to protect the island empire against invasion during the many 
 wars which have embroiled the continent, thus aiding it to develop 
 into one of the mightiest nations of the world. The insular position 
 of the British has made them a race of sailors and traders ; the natural 
 resources of the country have led to the growth of farming, mining, 
 and manufacturing, and the physical and intellectual activity of 
 the people has made the country a center of wealth, education, and 
 culture. 
 
 The British Isles consist of two large islands and hundreds of 
 smaller ones. These islands, as we have learned, were separated 
 from the mainland of Europe by a sinking of the coast. The moun- 
 tain tops became the islands, the valleys the firths, or inlets, and the 
 
 BRITISH ISLES. — (1) In what direction from us are the British Isles (see page 
 178)? In what direction from the mainland of Europe? What countrj' of Europe is 
 nearest to them? What waters separate them from Europe? (2) Name the waters 
 surrounding Great Britain. What waters separate it from Ireland? On which coast 
 of Great Britain do you find the greatest number of islands? What island in the Irish 
 sea? Where are the Orkney islands? The Shetland? The Hebrides? Where are 
 the Channel islands? (3) What three countries compose Great Britain? Which of 
 these is the most mountainous? What jDart of England is mountainous? What moun- 
 tain peak in Wales? In Scotland? (4) Name the largest two rivers in England. What 
 is the chief river of Ireland? Where is the Tweed? The Clyde? The Humber? What 
 firths on the coast of Scotland? Which of these are connected by a canal? (5) Locate 
 the following cities: Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, London, Manchester, Liverpool, 
 Birmingham, Bradford, Leeds, Sheffield, Cardiff, Dublin, Belfast. 
 
 30 
 
8°Loiisitude 6° West from 4° Greeuwich 2° 
 
 0"L<mg. East 2°fromGiefuwlcH 
 
 I BRITISH ISLES 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 I i-i i -< I i 1 
 
 50 lOa 150 
 
 LargeBt Cities LondOU 
 
 Cities next ia importance—Belfast 
 
 Capitals 
 
 RailroaLls ^.^ — 
 
 I 
 
 W'illiam»EBgni'ringCo., N.V. 
 
32 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 mouths of rivers the estuaries, which form excellent harbors. The 
 total area of The United Kingdom is about 121,000 square miles, 
 making it eighth in size among the countries of Europe. It has a 
 population of about 42,000,000. But the importance of the British 
 Isles is not measured by area, for the British have colonized and 
 developed and now control more than one fifth of the land surface 
 of the globe. Fully half the merchant vessels afloat are British, and 
 her navy is maintained at a strength equal to twice that of the next 
 strongest nation. 
 
 One reason assigned for the preeminence of Great Britain as a commercial and 
 colonizing nation, is its central position in the land hemisphere of the globe. A circle 
 drawn around London with a radius of 6,000 miles would include the greater part 
 of all the continents. England has a short route to the Indian ocean and the coun- 
 tries of Asia by way of the Mediterranean sea and the Suez canal, and the comple- 
 tion of the Panama canal will give her a short water route to the Pacific ocean and 
 the eastern coast of Asia. But position alone does not explain England's high place 
 among the nations, for both France and Spain are nearer the center of the land 
 hemisphere than she. It is due also to her enterprise and skill in planting and fos- 
 tering colonies and to the liberal manner in which she governs them. In these points 
 both France and Spain have failed. 
 
 People and History. — We have already learned (pagell) how 
 the Angles and Saxons conquered the Romans and Celts, whom 
 they found in Britain, and gradually built up the kingdom of Eng- 
 land. In 1066 came the Norman Conquest, as a result of which 
 the French language, laws, and customs became established in Eng- 
 land. Gradually the two languages blended, and so it happens that 
 our tongue to-day is a mixture of English and French words. 
 
 The Norman kings and those who succeeded them were able rulers and made 
 England one of the leading European states. When a Scottish king inherited the 
 throne of England he united the two kingdoms of England and Scotland. Ireland 
 was added in 1801, thus forming "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ire- 
 land." Thus the people are a mixture of races — Celtic, Roman, Saxon, Dane, 
 and Norman. But the language, laws, and customs are prevaihngly English. 
 
 Surface and Outline. — The British Isles in general outline form 
 an equilateral triangle, with the apex pointing approximately north. 
 
CLIMATE OF THE BKITISH ISLES 
 
 33 
 
 They lie entirely north of the most northern latitude of the United 
 
 States. The western coast is more deeply indented than the eastern, 
 
 and is fringed by a 
 
 cordon of islands. 
 
 The Thames {temz), 
 
 Trent, Humber,Ouse, 
 
 Tyne, Tees, Mersey, 
 
 and Severn rivers, 
 
 all afford excellent 
 
 The chalk cliffs of Dover and the upper valley of the Thames. 
 
 harbors at their 
 mouths, and all are 
 navigable for consid- 
 erable distances. 
 
 The ranges of hills 
 and low mountains that 
 cross Great Britain from 
 northeast to southwest 
 bear the marks of great 
 age. The most northerly 
 
 of these, the Grampian hills, contain Ben-Nevis, the highest mountain on the island. 
 
 These ranges are deeply worn, and rounded and covered with vegetation and forest. 
 
 Exposed cliffs and rocks have been scratched and polished by the glacier {page 19). 
 
 Climate of the British Isles. — The climate has been partly de- 
 scribed in the account of Europe. The high latitude of the country 
 gives it very long days and short nights in summer and the opposite 
 in winter. In northern Scotland the sun in summer is below the 
 horizon only a few hours each day, and there is light enough to read 
 at midnight. In the high altitudes the winters are cold; but the 
 warm westerly winds so temper the climate that in no part of the 
 country is the weather at any season either too hot or too cold for 
 out-door emploj''ment. Two days out of three throughout the year 
 the southwesterly winds bring abundant rainfall. This is heaviest 
 on the western coast and in the highland regions, but in every part 
 
34 
 
 THE BKITISH ISLES 
 
 of the country the rainfall is sufficient for the needs of the farmers. 
 As weather signals from over the ocean are not despatched as yet, 
 heavy storms often fall without warning, bringing danger to the 
 sailor and doing damage to shipping. Dense fogs often prevail in 
 the large towns during the winter season. 
 
 Fishing Industries. — The surrounding waters teem with fish of 
 many kinds. Cod, haddock, and herring are found in the North 
 sea, and on the banks off the Norway coast ; salmon ascend the rivers 
 of northern Britain, and oysters and pilchard, a kind of herring, are 
 taken on the southern coast. The flat fish, or sole, is common. The 
 
 Landing a herrina; "catch" at Lowestoft. 
 
 fishing industry was formerly conducted from numerous small ham- 
 lets, and many of these are still flourishing on the Scotch and Irish 
 coasts, but the business is now mainly concentrated in large towns 
 by companies who have capital to fit out vessels with expensive 
 equipments. Hull, Yarmouth, Lowestoft, Grimsby, Wick, and 
 Aberdeen are the chief fishing ports. 
 
IRELAND 
 
 35 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 Location and Surface. — The waters which separate this island 
 from Great Britain are shallow, but on the west the ocean floor slopes 
 rapidly to a great depth. The area of Ireland is about 32,000 square 
 miles, and its population nearly 4,500,000. Because of its location 
 it gets the full influence of the' warm winds from over the Gulf 
 Stream, which contribute to its mildness of climate and fertility. 
 Ireland is an expanse of green meadows and brown bog land, sur- 
 rounded by a rim of low mountains. The mountains are highest on 
 the northern and southern borders, and the ridges have the north- 
 east and southwest trend common to the entire highland system of 
 
 The Giant's Causeway. 
 
 northwestern Europe. The principal river is the Shannon, which is 
 navigable throughout nearly its entire length. The interior plain 
 contains many lakes. The lakes of Killarney in the southwest, 
 embosomed in green hills and dotted with islands, are famed for their 
 beauty, and are much visited by travelers. 
 
 On the northern coast of Ireland is the Giant's Causeway. It consists of three 
 tongues of rock running out into the sea overlaid with vertical columns of basalt 
 forming a road by a series of stepping stones nearly to the opposite shore. These 
 
36 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 columns were formed from the lava of some ancient volcano that crystallized into 
 regular prisms with tlieir sides so closely joined that a knife blade cannot be inserted 
 between them. The bog lands furnish abundant supplies of peat, which is quarried 
 out in blocks, dried, and used for fuel. Peat is decayed and partially hardened 
 vegetable matter and represents one stage in the formation of coal. 
 
 Climate. — Ireland is warmer and moister than any other part 
 of northern Europe. The island keeps perpetually green, and on this 
 account it has received the name " Emerald Isle." About one half of 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 --^ 
 
 
 
 b^^ 
 
 
 id^^ 
 
 ^jfite^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^Hl 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jXir='-» 
 
 
 iS^t 
 
 M 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 
 
 ^Jm 
 
 
 i^RH 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 l^^^m^^i^ 
 
 
 R 
 
 
 
 
 ^^JS 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,1* 
 
 ,--r 
 
 ^f*1 
 
 I^P 
 
 ii 
 
 
 Irish jaunting car and cottage. 
 
 the area being pasture land, a leading occupation is the raising of 
 cattle, horses, sheep, and swine. Potatoes and oats are extensively 
 cultivated and supply staple articles of food. Much flax is grown in 
 the north. The preparation of the fiber and the weaving of linen 
 are the most flourishing occupations in Ireland. 
 
 The superior quality of the Irish hnens is said to be due to the waters. The 
 stalks of flax are laid in water until the woody part separates from the fiber. This 
 process is called retting. The fiber is then removed from the stalk and combed, 
 or hackled, to separate the short fiber, or tow, from the long fiber. This must then 
 be split and combed into finer threads preparatory to spinning. 
 
 Besides the linen manufactures there are, in Belfast, several large 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 37 
 
 ship-building plants, which turn out annuallj'' from fifteen to twenty 
 steel vessels. Other industries are the making of cordage and the 
 distilling of liquors. On account of the scarcity of coal and iron, 
 manufacturing is confined to the eastern coast where fuel can be 
 cheaply transported from England. 
 
 City Hall, Belfast. 
 
 Cities and Trade. — The leading Irish seaports are Belfast and 
 Dublin. Queenstown on the southern coast is a calling port for 
 Atlantic steamers. Wheat and corn are imported directly into Dub- 
 lin, Belfast, Cork, Londonderry, and other Irish ports, but linens 
 are exported by way of Liverpool and Glasgow. Cattle, swine, and 
 butter are sent direct by coasting steamers to many British ports. 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 Location, Size, Coast. — This country occupies that part of the 
 island of Great Britain lying north of the Solway firth and the river 
 Tweed. It is about one half the size of England and Wales, and the 
 population is a little less than that of Ireland. It is remarkable for 
 its mountainous surface, numerous lakes, and the extreme irregu- 
 larity of its coast line. It is bordered on the west by a great number 
 
38 
 
 THE BRITISH" ISLES 
 
 of rocky islands. On the north are the Orkney islands, and the Shet- 
 land group, fanned for its stout breed of shaggy ponies. Both groups 
 are the home of a large fishing population. At two points the coun- 
 try is so nearly cut in two by deep inlets that canal communication 
 has been established between the eastern and western coast. 
 
 The most remarkable feature of the island scenery of Scotland is Fingal's Cave 
 on the island of Staffa. Its entrance is a gigantic arch supported by hundreds of 
 columns of gUstening volcanic rock. The cave runs a long distance under the rocks, 
 and boats may sail the entire length of it. The continual ebb and flow of the tide 
 tends to deepen the cavern. 
 
 Surface. — Scotland 
 highlands, the 
 Southern uplands, 
 and the Central low- 
 land plain. The 
 highlands form a 
 plateau about 1,500 
 
 has three natural divisions: the Northern 
 
 
 feet high, worn into 
 deep valleys and 
 glens by the swift 
 mountain streams. 
 The rainfall is so 
 heavy that the up- 
 lands are denuded 
 of soil, and only 
 coarse rock waste 
 and stones are left, which support a scant vegetation of moss and heather. 
 It is only in the lower valleys that there is jjrofitable farming. The 
 highlands themselves are useful only for grazing, and have a small peas- 
 ant population. The greater part of the country is set apart as game 
 preseives which are owned and maintained by wealthy men. A valu- 
 able kind of granite is quarried in the region of the Grampian liills. 
 
 A moor and a lake in the Scottish highlands 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 39 
 
 The Scottish Highlanders are descended from Celtic tribes from Ireland. For 
 many centuries they maintained their organizations, each clan under the rule of a 
 chief who was the leader in war, for they were perpetually at war with one another 
 and with their lowland neighbors, who were Saxons. 
 
 A rich soil and vast deposits of coal and iron Jiave made the Cen- 
 tral lowlands the home of more than one half the population of 
 Scotland. Three important rivers drain this section: the Clyde, the 
 Forth, and the Tay. The mouth of each river is an estuary, and the 
 
 Edinburgh Castle, the residence and stronghold of the ancient Scottish kings. Its 
 summit is 300 feet above the level of the street. Part of the castle was used as a state 
 prison. 
 
 canal connecting the Clyde and the Forth affords cheap communica- 
 tion between the two largest cities. The ''firths" of the Tay and 
 the Forth are crossed by splendid bridges, each over two miles * 
 long — the longest of the kind in the world. 
 
 The Southern uplands average about 1000 feet in elevation, being 
 twice the height of the lowlands. They are a thickly-settled pastoral 
 
40 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 region. The Cheviot hills which cross this section have given their 
 name to a breed of sheep and to a special cloth made from their wool 
 Industries and Cities. — The people of northern Scotland are 
 engaged chiefly in farming, herding, and fishing. But the rich coal 
 and iron deposits of the Central lowland have given rise to a variety 
 of manufactures. Glasgow is the second city in size in the United 
 Kingdom, and the chief manufacturing city of Scotland. It extends 
 along both banks of the Clyde river for about twenty miles. Among 
 its more important manufactures are steel ships, locomotives, 
 
 High street, Dundee. 
 
 machinery, and iron work of every sort. Of less importance are its 
 chemical works, potteries, and textile industries. It is the seat of a 
 great university. Edinburgh (ed'-in-bur-o), the capital of Scotland, 
 is noted neither for manufactures nor trade, but for its beauty and 
 fine location. Its streets are tastefully laid out and the buildings 
 are remarkable for grandeur and architectural taste. Edinburgh is 
 famed for its university and medical school, and lor its printing and 
 publishing establishments. 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES 41 
 
 The seaport of Edinburgh is Leith (leeth). West of Edinburgh is Stirling near 
 w?iich was fought the Battle of Bannockburn which preserved the independence 
 of Scotland. Another important Scotch city is Dundee on the firth of Tay. It 
 has extensive manufactures of flax, hemp, and jute, and is the only town in the 
 United Kingdom from which whaling fleets are still sent out. The jams made in its 
 factories are famous. 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 Location and Surface. — Southern Britain, consisting of England 
 and Wales, is separated from Scotland by the line of the Cheviot 
 bills. Its area is over 58,000 square miles and its population abou^t 
 
 A country lane and cottages in England. 
 
 33,000,000. It may be divided into highlands and lowlands by a line 
 drawn from the mouth of the Tees to the mouth of the Severn. The 
 Pennine chain forms the backbone of the highland system, extending 
 from the Cheviot hills south into the heart of England. It forms 
 the watershed between the Irish and North seas. Its southern end 
 is the high ground between the basin of the Trent on the east and 
 the Cheshire (chesh'-ir) plain and the valley of the Severn on the 
 west. South of the Severn are several lines of hills extending east 
 and west, and forming the watershed between the Severn and the 
 
42 THE BEITISH ISLES 
 
 Thames. The Pennine chain is bordered by a broad belt of upland or 
 moorland which has long been noted for stock-raising and agricul- 
 ture. In these highlands are found the chief coal regions of England. 
 
 The Pennine highlands and the surrounding central plain are the most thickly 
 settled part of Great Britain and the seat of lier chief manufactures. Here are the 
 large cities of Manchester, Leeds, and Bradford, as well as a hundred other smaller 
 towns engaged in the manufacture of cloth and of the machinery and supplies used 
 in the factories. In the southern part of the Central plain and in the very center of 
 England are Birmingham (ber'-ming-am) and other towns where iron, steel, and 
 metal work of every description are made. Both coal and iron are mined close at 
 hand, and the smoke that ascends from the hundreds of furnaces and factories has 
 given this part of England the name of the Black Coxmtry. 
 
 The Lake District is the name given to the peninsula between 
 Solway firth and Morecambe {mor'-cam) bay. It is a rugged high- 
 land region, carved into deep valleys by the glacier. The highlands 
 are called the Cumbrian mountains. Some of their peaks exceed 
 3,000 feet; Scafell (3,200 feet) is the highest point in England. The 
 vallej^s contain long and very narrow lakes. The Lake District is a 
 favorite resort for lovers of beautiful scenery. 
 
 Southeastern England has, on the whole, a level, or gently rolling 
 surface. The wide stretches of level plain are called downs, and are 
 noted for the beauty of their scenery. The soil on the downs is 
 thin and underlaid by chalk rock; it is not fertile and is devoted to 
 pasturage. The " South downs " have given their name to a famous 
 breed of sheep. But the greater part of southern England consists 
 of undulating plains, diversified by hill and valley. Well-kept cot- 
 tages and farms thickly dot the landscape. The cultivated fields 
 are separated by hedgerows, and every foot of ground is used. Even 
 the lanes and roadsides are planted with vegetables and flowers. 
 The houses are usually of stone, and many are overgrown with ivy 
 or surrounded by flowers. 
 
 All the land in England was once divided into large estates and granted by the 
 king to those of his lords and gentlemen who had served him best. Many of these 
 estates, sometimes embracing thousands of acres, with their stately mansions are 
 still to be seen in various parts of England. 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 43 
 
 A mountain valley in North Wales. 
 
 Wales. — West of the Central plain is the district of Wales, com- 
 prising the peninsula between the river Dee on the north and the 
 Severn river and Bristol channel on the south. Wales has an area 
 of a little more than 7,000 square miles; and its population is about 
 1,500,000. The country is ridged from north to south by the Cam- 
 brian mountains, the 
 highest peak of which 
 is mount Snowden 
 (3,570 feet). The coast 
 line, though rugged 
 and picturesque, has 
 few good harbors. 
 The fiord inlet of Mil- 
 ford Haven is the only 
 good natural harbor 
 on the coast. On the 
 northwest is the his- 
 toric island of Anglesey. The Menai strait which separates it from 
 the mainland is about a quarter of a mile wide, and is spanned by two 
 fine bridges, one a suspension bridge and the other a tubular bridge. 
 The entire country is mountainous and rich in mineral wealth. 
 Among the important minerals are salt, lead, and zinc. In the north 
 are extensive quarries of slate, in the south is the most valuable coal 
 field in Great Britain, covering an area of a thousand square miles, 
 and furnishing the coal which is exported from Cardiff, the largest 
 coaling port in the world. Besides the coal trade, it has important 
 manufactures of iron, and of tin plate. Artificial harbors and enclosed 
 docks have been constructed at Cardiff where the largest vessels 
 may load and unload protected from the high tides of the Severn 
 estuary. The second city of Wales, Merthyr Tydfil, has grown up on 
 the northern edge of the coal field. Its iron works are nearly two 
 centuries old, and are the leading industries of the town. Swansea 
 (swan^-si), the second port in importance, is engaged in the smelting 
 of coi)per ore and also in the manufacture of tin plate. 
 
44 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 The tin plate industry is one of the greatest in Wales, nearly all the towns and 
 villages in the southern part being engaged in it. The tin was originally obtained 
 from the Cornwall district, but since the exhaustion of those mines it has been 
 imported from Singapore. 
 
 Farming and Stock-raising. — England is better known for its 
 fine breeds of cattle, sheep, and horses than for its crops. About 
 two thirds of the available land is given to pasturage, and one third 
 to agriculture. There are several reasons for this: first, there is a 
 great deal of mountain and moor land which is either too rough or 
 too poor for profitable crops; second, the mild and moist climate is 
 favorable to the growth of grass, and the animals can be pastured 
 nearly the whole year; third, grain can be brought so cheaply from 
 the ports of Canada and the United States. It may be added that 
 the native mutton and beef command a higher price than that brought 
 from abroad, and that the great factories of Leeds and Bradford are 
 always in need of wool. The Channel islands — Jersey, Alderney, 
 and Guernsey — are known throughout the world for their dairy 
 cattle. Throughout the entire kingdom about 30,000,000 sheep and 
 nearly half as many cattle are pastured. The breeds of cattle named 
 from these islands have become common in the United States. 
 
 Of farm crops, oats is by far the largest, with barley and wheat next. Root 
 crops and other vegetables are also widely grown to furnish the immense 
 supplies required for the large cities. Potatoes, beans, peas, and turnips are the 
 most important. Fruit and vegetable farms are located near every large town 
 and supply fresh " truck " of every sort. In some sections large crops of hops are 
 grown, to be used with barley in the manufacture of beer and ale. 
 
 The Textile Industries. — The most important natural resource 
 of Great Britain is coal, which is the basis of her manufacturing 
 industries. Yet England was a great manufacturing nation cen- 
 turies before the use of coal was discovered. 
 
 As early as Queen Elizabeth's time English merchants fitted out from fifty to 
 sixty ships a year which distributed over 100,000 pieces of cloth to foreign countries. 
 Thus English manufactures and trade had an early start. Up to the beginning of 
 the nineteenth century, practically all manufacturing was hand labor done in the 
 home of the workman. About that time three great inventions came into use 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES 45 
 
 which led to the building of the great factory towns for which England is noted. 
 These were the spinning machines by Hargreaves, Arkwright, and Crompton; the 
 power loom by Cartwright; and the steam engine by Watt. Within twenty years 
 after Cartwright's invention there were 350,000 power looms at work in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The making of woven fabrics is still the greatest industry in the 
 United Kingdom. The factories employ over 1,000,000 people, and 
 the annual product is valued at one thousand milHon dollars; textile 
 goods form one half the entire exports of the country. Wool long 
 ago yielded the first place to cotton, and the value of the cotton 
 goods exported is now three times that of all other textiles combined. 
 The cotton industries center about Manchester on the border of 
 the Lancashire coal fields. Within a radius of twelve miles from 
 Manchester Center there are sixteen large towns with a population 
 of nearly 2,000,000, the working portion of which are engaged in 
 the spinning and weaving of cotton. The moist cHmate is well 
 adapted to cotton spinning. In a dry climate the fibers become 
 brittle and do not hold together well when drawn into fine thread. 
 
 Manchester is connected by a ship canal with the Mersey river and the port of 
 Liverpool, and seagoing vessels load and unload at her docks. Raw cotton and 
 wool, cattle, grain, flour, and meat are brought from the United States and other 
 countries, and manufactured goods are sent away to all parts of the world. 
 
 Leeds and Bradford, standing only eight miles apart, and the 
 numerous small towns in their neighborhood form the chief center 
 for the manufacture of woolens and worsteds. Nottingham, on the 
 border of the great Yorkshire coal country, is the leading town for 
 the manufacture of hosiery and lace; Derby and Leicester (les'-ter), in 
 the same locality, have similar industries. 
 
 Iron, Steel, and Machinery.— With her rich deposits of coal and 
 iron ore it is natural that England should make iron and steel 
 products; moreover, all large manufacturing industries are dependent 
 on these minerals for power and the materials for machinery. Because 
 the transportation of coal is expensive, all the large manufacturing 
 towns are conveniently located in or near the coal fields. Each 
 
46 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 coal field has important industries according to the convenient sup- 
 ply of other raw materials, 
 
 Newcastle is the center of the most productive deposits of coal 
 and iron in England, Its output of iron and steel is about 5,000,000 
 tons a year. It exports besides large quantities of coal and coke. 
 The largest battle-ships and other steel ships are built at Newcastle. 
 Machinery and chemicals are next in importance. Newcastle and 
 
 other important ports at 
 the mouth of the Tyne are 
 known as the "Tyne 
 ports." Sheffield is the 
 oldest steel-manufacturing 
 town in England. It has 
 long been famous for its 
 cutlery ; but now steel rails, 
 armor plate for battle- 
 ships, and machinery are 
 among its products. Bir- 
 mingham is nearly as old in metal-working as Sheffield, The South 
 Staffordshire coal fields supply its fuel. 
 
 At Birmingham beads, jewelry, watches, coins, buttons, bedsteads, bicycles, 
 steam engines, and firearms of every description are among the articles produced. 
 Wolverhampton near Birmingham is noted for its blast furnaces and manufactures 
 of heavy iron goods. 
 
 In every manufacturing country the making of machinery and other factory 
 supplies is necessarily a great industry. Thousands of mills must be equipped with 
 complicated apparatus. Heavy machinery for working iron will be made near 
 coal, iron, and hme deposits. Chemical and dye works will grow up near the cen- 
 ters of textile production. Great Britain is the largest producer and exporter of 
 machinery and supplies used in manufacturing processes. 
 
 Pottery. — England has long been prominent in producing fine 
 china-ware. Josiah Wedgewood discovered in 1763 a method of 
 making fine pottery. Within his generation " Wedgewood ware " 
 became famous, and fully 50,000 people were engaged in its manu- 
 facture. Pottery-making requires much coal for heating the ovens 
 
 City Hall, Birmingham. 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES 47 
 
 in which the clay is baked after being molded: for this reason pot- 
 teries are located near coal regions. The district south of the Mersey 
 river, known as the Cheshire plain, is not only near the Lancashire 
 coal region, but also has a variety of fine china clays. The part of 
 the plain in the upper valley of the Trent is called " The Potteries." 
 
 The growth of the factory system wrought important changes in the geography 
 of Great Britain. The people had fornierly lived in small villages, each workman 
 owning a spinning-wheel, loom, or forge. But with the building of factories employ- 
 ing thousands of people, large cities grew up, and what had been the thinly settled 
 part of England became the most densely populated. 
 
 Mining. — The mining interests of Great Britain employ nearly a 
 million people, 700,000 of whom work under ground. The only 
 minerals produced to any extent are coal, iron ore, limestone, and 
 pottery clays. The value of these four articles amounts to eleven 
 twelfths of the entire mineral product. Lead, tin, zinc, and copper 
 are mined in western England and Wales, but the product is small. 
 
 The British Isles were known to the Greeks of olden times as the " Tin Islands," 
 and their ships and, later, those of the Phenicians and Romans visited the islands 
 to obtain this metal. The ancient Britons worked the mines and brought the tin 
 ore down to the coast to exchange for the tools, weapons, cloths, and ornaments 
 which the strangers brought. 
 
 Transportation. — There are about forty thousand vessels sailing 
 under the British flag in all parts of the world; of this number 15,000 
 are engaged in carrying goods between the home ports and the other 
 ports of the world. So immense is the steamship traffic of the United 
 Kingdom that an average of over 1,000 ships of all sorts enter her 
 ports, and over 1,000 leave them every day in the year. About 
 one third are ships from other countries. Within the United King- 
 dom are over 25,000 miles of steam and electric railways and 4,000 
 miles of canals. The canals are so planned that the rivers discharging 
 on opposite coasts are connected at their heads of navigation. The 
 Manchester-Liverpool canal is the most important because every 
 canal in England has connection with it. It is 35J miles long, and 
 cost $75,000,000; it admits the largest steamers. London is the 
 
48 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 chief railway center, from which city there is a direct trunk hne to 
 every other large city in Great Britain. Birmingham and Manchester 
 also have important railway connections. 
 
 Commerce and Seaports. — The chief seaport of the United King- 
 dom and of the 
 
 Ilighgat? 
 
 is London. 
 
 a city of 
 
 world 
 It is 
 
 about 7,000,000 
 people occupying a 
 district fifteen 
 miles by ten, lying 
 "■"S^i^^yri'S^i^^fe^^w^llJ^if c^^^?^s^^ If^^iey on both sides of 
 
 the river ihames, 
 fifty miles from its 
 mouth. Every one 
 has heard of Re- 
 gent street, the 
 fashionable drive- 
 way ; of the Strand, 
 Piccadilly, and 
 C h e a p s i d e , the 
 business and shop- 
 ping centers; and 
 of Fleet street, the 
 home of newspapers, book publishers, and literary men. Some noted 
 places of interest in London are St. Paul's Cathedral, London Bridge, 
 Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, and the British Museum. 
 
 In the value of its commerce London is the first port in the world, though it ranks 
 next below New York in the amount of goods handled. Its splendid harbor is the 
 estuary of the Thames, which is 800 feet wide at London Bridge and six miles wide 
 at its mouth. The Thames is lined with docks and wharves for a distance of twenty 
 miles below the city. The greater part of London's trade is with the continent of 
 Eiurope and with India, Hongkong, and other Asiatic colonies. This trade consists 
 mostly of imports, and her markets regulate the prices of wool, tea, hides, and other 
 colonial produce; while the prices of grain and cotton are fixed in Liverpool. 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 49 
 
 As a port Liverpool is only a little less important than London. 
 Being near the great manufacturing cities, it receives the imports of 
 foods, cotton, ores, and other raw materials from American, African, 
 and Australian ports, and exports manufactured goods. Hull exports 
 cotton and woolen goods and fish to the ports of northern Europe. 
 Newcastle exports machinery and coal, in the export of coal it is 
 exceeded only by Cardiff. 
 
 The harbor at Liverpool. 
 
 The best natural harbors of England are on the southern shore, but they have 
 mainly an import trade, being too far from the manufacturing and exporting centers. 
 Southampton is a calhng port for steamers bound to the ports of continental Europe. 
 Its exports are the largest of any port of the south of England, but form only one 
 fiftieth of the total export trade. Bristol has a large import but a small export trade. 
 
 Other Important Cities. — Besides the seaports and the manufacturing towns 
 which have been described, there are a score of others noted for one thing or another. 
 Greenwich contains the royal observatory; its meridian is used as the starting-point 
 in reckoning longitude. Portsmouth is one of the chief naval stations of England. 
 Oxford and Cambridge are famous seats of learning; the former contains twenty- 
 two colleges, the latter, eighteen. Some of these date from the twelfth century. 
 Scattered through England are many towns of historical interest, noted for castles 
 or cathedrals, or as the sites of decisive battles, or associated with some distinguished 
 name. Such are Stratford-on-Avon, the birthplace of Shakespeare; Winchester, 
 the old capital of Alfred the Great; and Plymouth, the port from which the Pilgrims 
 sailed to America. 
 
50 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 Some Features of British Commerce. — Tlie commerce of Great Britain as 
 well as that of the thickly settled countries of Europe generally is the opposite of 
 that of the countries of the New World. Great Britain is a large buyer of food sup- 
 plies and raw materials and a seller of manufactured goods. The American coun- 
 tries, on the contrary, buy manufactured goods and sell raw materials and food 
 suppUes. Let us notice the reasons for this difference. The average population 
 in the western hemisphere is about ten to the square mile while that of England is 
 over 550, and that of the United Kingdom considerably over 300. Besides, Great 
 Britain is an old nation and has acquired great skill in certain hnes of industry. 
 
 Rotten Row, the fashionable riding and driving thoroughfare of London. The 
 name comes from Route du Roi, or King's Highway. In former times none but the 
 famiUes of kings were allowed to use this drive. 
 
 Both agriculture and manufacturing have been brought to a high degree of excellence; 
 but there is limit to the amount of food that can be obtained from the limited acreage 
 while the only limit to manufacturing is the accessibihty of labor and suppUes. 
 Great Britain has an abundance of labor and has also an abundance of wealth; 
 London is the money center of the world as well as the commercial center. Having 
 both labor and capital the British require in addition flour, meat, sugar, and other 
 food supplies for their swarming population ; and cotton and wool and such other raw 
 materials as their own country cannot furnish. These facts explain why Great 
 Britain owns so many ships. She must bring food to her people and supplies to her 
 factories. She must also maintain communication and trade with her colonies 
 scattered in every part of the world. Her merchant vessels have established routes 
 over which regular voyages are made. Her ships carry not only her own goods but 
 distribute a large proportion of the goods of other countries lying along these routes. 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 51 
 
 Her colonies supply an enormous amount of freight. The wool and metals of Africa 
 and AustraUa, the tin of the Malay states, and the coffee, fruit, and spices of the 
 East Indies and Arabia, come to us in British ships. About one half the exports 
 and imports of the United States, Portugal, and Holland and a large part of those of 
 Russia, France, Italy, and Germany are carried by the merchant ships of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 British Colonies. — As already mentioned, Great Britain has col- 
 onies in every part of the world, .so widely scattered that it is said, 
 
 Piccadilly Circus, London. 
 
 " The sun never sets on the British flag." The following is a list of 
 the British Colonies: 
 
 Mediterranean. — Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus. 
 
 Asia. — India, Ceylon, Straits Settlements, Malay States, Labuan, Borneo and 
 Sarawak, Hongkong, Wei-hai-wei. 
 
 Australia and the Pacific. — AustraUa, New Zealand, Tasmania, Fiji islands, Tonga 
 islands, Solomon islands, Gilbert islands. 
 
 Africa. — Ascension island, St. Helena island, W. Africa, N. Nigeria, S. Nigeria, 
 Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Rhodesia, Nyassa Land, Transvaal, Orange 
 River Colony, Natal, Basutoland, Bechuanaland, Cape Colony, East Africa, 
 Uganda, Zanzibar, Somaliland, Mauritius, and Seychelles. 
 
 America. — Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador, British Honduras, British 
 Guiana, Bermuda, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, Jamaica, Windward and Lee- 
 ward islands, Trinidad, and Tobago. 
 
52 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 These colonies, with the United Kingdom, constitute the Brit- 
 ish empire. Together they had, in 1915, an area of 12,808,994 
 square miles, and a population of about 439,734,060. Their total 
 trade with the home country amounts to nearly $2,000,000,000 
 annually. 
 
 Windsor Castle, the present residence of British sovereign. 
 
 Government. — The government of the United Kingdom is a 
 constitutional monarchy. This means that the power of the king is 
 fixed by a body of laws and customs called the Constitution. The 
 English Constitution is founded upon three important documents 
 called Magna Charta, or the Great Charter, the Petition of Right, and 
 the Bill of Rights, which the reigning kings granted to the people at 
 different times, guaranteeing them certain rights and privileges. 
 The customs and laws are also a part of the Constitution. The Par- 
 liament is the law-making body. It is composed of the House of 
 Lords and the House of Commons. The first corresponds in general 
 to our Senate, and the second to our House of Reoresentatives. The 
 
ENGLAND AND WALES 
 
 53 
 
 House of Lords is made up of nobles with inherited titles, and of the 
 bishops and archbishops of the English Church who receive their 
 appointments from the king. The House of Commons is composed 
 of members elected by the people for a term of years. 
 
 The king chooses the Prime Minister, and the Prime Minister chooses the other 
 ministers, from the political party which 
 has a majority in the House of Commons. 
 The Ministers may belong to either House. 
 Laws are proposed to Parhament by the 
 Ministry. If at any time the House of 
 Commons refuses to support the measures 
 introduced by the Prime Minister he must 
 resign; or he may appeal to the King to 
 order the election of a new House; but if 
 the second House also refuses to support 
 him, he must then retire. It will thus be 
 seen that the people themselves have a 
 powerful voice in making the laws. 
 
 Colonial Government. — The 
 
 colonies are governed by various 
 
 methods, the object of which is to 
 
 give the people of each colony as 
 
 far as practicable the right to govern themselves. Canada, Cape 
 
 Colony, Australia, and New Zealand are practically independent; 
 
 the smaller colonies and India are ruled by officers appointed by the 
 
 Prime Minister. 
 
 In the first four colonies named the people elect a Parliament, or legislature, and 
 the king appoints a governor who exercises his powers through ministers responsible 
 to the Parhament. In many of the smaller colonies also the people have more or 
 less power in making laws and in administering the government. The colonial gov- 
 ernments are modeled as closely as possible upon the home government. 
 
 Religion. — There is entire religious liberty throughout the British 
 Isles, all religious denominations being free to build houses of worship 
 and to conduct services in their own way. In England and Wales 
 the Church of England is the estabhshed church, and is supported by 
 the income from church property and by taxation as well as by volun- 
 
 A lighthouse at Plymouth. 
 
54 THE BRITISH ISLES 
 
 tary contributions. In Ireland the Roman Catholic is the prevailing 
 religion, and is supported entirely by the contributions of the congre- 
 gations. In Scotland the vast majority of the people are Presbyterians. 
 Many churches are endowed or have property which partially sup- 
 ports them; but they depend for the most part on the free-will offerings 
 of the people. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) What has been the effect of the position of the 
 British Isles on their development? What do they comprise? What was the origin 
 of the irregular coast? Compare size and population of the United Kingdom with that 
 of the United States. How does its latitude compare with that of this country? What 
 is the longitude of London? (2) What races have at different times occupied England? 
 What five races have helped to make up the British people? (3) What line divides the 
 surface of Great Britain into highlands and lowlands? What is the general direction 
 of the hills and mountains? How is their great age shown? How have the glaciers 
 changed the surface of the country? (4) How is the climate of the British Isles affected 
 by the winds? What is said of the length of the days and nights? Which parts of the 
 island have the most rain? Why do storms often come unexpectedly? (5) Surface 
 and climate of Ireland? What natural curiosity along the coast? What are the chief 
 productions of the island? Describe the preparation of flax. Why has the population 
 of Ireland fallen off? Chief cities. Exports and imports. (6) What are the natural 
 divisions of Scotland? Compare its area and population with those of Ireland? What 
 is said of the coast line? What are the chief products of the country? Where is the 
 most thickly settled section? What industries are carried on in this part? Describe 
 the chief city of Scotland. Name and locate the other important cities. What can 
 you tell of each of them? (7) Name and describe the highland regions of England. 
 Surface of southeastern England. What is the "Black Country"? Describe the sur- 
 face of Wales. Coast line. Harbors. Industries. Chief cities. (S) Why is stock- 
 raising a leading industry in England? Where are grain and provisions obtained? What 
 farm crops are most important? Why are fruits and vegetables extensively raised? 
 (9) Leading textile industries and their location. What natural resources and what 
 inventions have helped these industries? Location of the chief iron and steel industries? 
 What is said of Birmingham and Sheffield? Chief mineral products of Great Britain? 
 How is foreign commerce provided for? Domestic commerce? (10) Two leading sea- 
 ports of Great Britain? Describe the trade of each. Name some characteristics of 
 British commerce. Make a list of the leading cities of England, and state some impor- 
 tant fact about each. What of the importance of the British colonies? In what 
 continents are they located? (11) How are laws made in Great Britain? Colonial gov- 
 ernment. Religion. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 FRANCE 
 
 Answer the questions on France, page 56. 
 
 Location, Size, Population. — France is now second in area 
 among the countries of Europe, and ranks third in population. 
 Its surface consists of plains and worn-down highland regions; 
 in form, natural boundaries, and great extent of seacoast it 
 resembles Spain. Its location gives it a mild climate, heavy 
 
 The Harbor of Marseilles. 
 
 rainfall, and excellent advantages for commerce. On three 
 sides France faces the ocean. The North sea and the Enghsh 
 channel give dnect access to the northern countries; the 
 Atlantic leads to the American continent; and the Medi- 
 terranean sea and the Suez canal afford the shortest route to the 
 countries of southern Europe and the East. On each seaboard 
 
 55 
 
56 FRANCE 
 
 France has good harbors: Dunkirk on the northeast, Havre and 
 Cherbourg in the north, St. Nazaire {san-nd-zdr') , Brest, and Bor- 
 deaux {bor-do') in the west, and Marseilles (mar-salz') and Toulon in 
 the south. 
 
 Surface. — The lowland plain of Europe extends across France 
 diagonally, from the bay of Biscay to the northeastern boundary, 
 and comprises more than one half the area of France. In the north- 
 west are the highlands of Brittany, a series of hills separated by 
 lowlands. The eastern and southeastern parts of France are moun- 
 tainous. The main highland region is divided by the valleys of the 
 Rhone and Saone (sone) into a central plateau on the west, and tower- 
 ing highlands on the east consisting of the Alps, the Jura, and the 
 Vosges mountains. The highest point in France and in the Alps is 
 mount Blanc (15,781 feet). South of the central plain is the boundary 
 wall of the Pyrenees, reaching an elevation of 10,000 feet. The cen- 
 tral plateau slopes abruptly eastward and southward to the Rhone 
 valley and to the Mediterranean plain, but to the north and west the 
 
 FRANCE. — (1) What country in America lies in the same latitude as France (See 
 page 178)? How do these countries compare in climate? (2) What waters on the north 
 of France? On the west? On the south? What countries form the southeastern 
 boundary? The northeastern? What natural boundaries on the east? (3) Where 
 are the highlands in France? The lowlands? What mountains on the eastern border? 
 In which direction does the land slope from the central highland? What rivers drain 
 the northern slope? The western slope? The southern slope? Name a city near the 
 mouth of each of these rivers. (4) What is the capital of France? What city Ilea 
 nearest to Great Britain? Locate the following cities: Lyons, St. Etienne, Lille (lit), 
 Roubaix (roo'bay), Orleans, Limoges {le-mbzh'), and Toulouse. On an outline map of 
 France locate and name the boundaries, chief rivers, and largest cities. 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. — (1) Describe the location of the Iberian peninsula 
 in latitude and as a part of the continent of Europe. With what part of the United 
 States does it compare in latitude (see map, page YIB)"! What cities in the United States 
 in the same latitude as Madrid? (2) What is the general shape of Spain and Portugal? 
 What proportion of the peninsula does Portugal occupy? Which country of Europe 
 has nearly the same area as Spain? How does it compare in size with the United States? 
 With your state? (3) What waters form part of the boundary of the Iberian peninsula? 
 What mountains in the north of Spain? In the south? What is the general direction 
 of the mountain ranges of Spain? Of the rivers? Name the five largest rivers of Spain 
 and Portugal. Which one flows nearly east? Trace the dividing ridge between the 
 sources of these rivers. In which direction is the longer slope? (4) What two cities 
 of Portugal stand at the mouths of rivers? What islands east of Spain? What strait 
 separates it from Africa? In what natural division of the country are the chief cities 
 of Spain located? (5) On an outline map of this peninsula locate the chief rivers and 
 the following cities: Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Valencia, Granada, Lisbon, and Oporto. 
 
58 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 slope is so gentle that the Seine, the Loire, and the Garonne (gd-ron') 
 rivers soon become navigable. 
 
 But sandbanks and shallows obstruct in places the Loire and the 
 Garonne, and the Seine is noted for its meandering course. These 
 rivers are subject to heavy and devastating floods similar to the one 
 that deluged Paris in January, 1910. 
 
 View on the river Donlowne. The mountains of Auversne in the distance. 
 
 The central plateau region consists of very ancient rocks worn down to an 
 average height of less than 2,000 feet. Here and there remain detached peaks 
 of hard volcanic rocks which have resisted the tooth of time. The surface of cen- 
 tral France is nowhere rugged enough to prevent communication between all 
 sections. The Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, and the Rhone rivers are joined by 
 canals, allowing goods to be transported from the English channel to the Medi- 
 terranean sea. Both the Seine and the Loire (Iwar) are connected with the Saone, 
 and the Saone with the Rhine by a canal rimning through the Burgundy Gate, 
 a famous pass between the Jura and the Vosges mountains. The Marne, a branch 
 of the Seine, is connected with the Rhine by a canal crossing the Vosges mountains 
 and joining the Burgundy canal. The northeastern part of France contains a net- 
 work of canals, joining the Seine with the Somme (sdin), the Sarabrc, the Meuse 
 
CLIMATE 
 
 59 
 
 (miuz), and the Scheldt, thus bringing Holland, Belgium, Germany, and Switzer- 
 land all into water communication with France. 
 
 Climate. — As the highlands of France lie on the eastern border, 
 they do not intercept the west winds 
 from the Atlantic, and so the whole 
 country gets the benefit of their 
 warmth and moisture. These tem- 
 per the climate and bring an abun- 
 dance of rain. While the average 
 rainfall for the entire country is 
 about 30 inches, parts of the Pyre- 
 nees and the central plateau receive 
 from GO to 70 inches. The Mediter- 
 ranean coast is a region of bright 
 skies and warm sunshine; it has a 
 semi-tropical climate, and is the 
 home of the orange, the olive, and 
 the mulberry tree. 
 
 A flower seller of Calais 
 
 From Toulon eastward to the boundary of Italy this coast is known as the 
 "Riviera" {re ve a'ra), or the "Azure Coast," on account of the blue sea and 
 aky. This region is the most popular winter resort in Europe; and Nice, Cannes 
 {can), and other towns are thronged with visitors from all parts of Europe and 
 America. 
 
 People and History. — The French race, like both the English and German, 
 is a mixture of several races. The Romans conquered the Celts. The Latin lan- 
 guage as well as Roman laws and customs gradually came into use among them. 
 Then the Franks conquered the Romans, and France became one of the great powers 
 of Europe. In 1789 the people rose in rebellion and a republic was set up, but it 
 lasted only until 1804 when Napoleon Bonaparte made himself emperor. After 
 his overthrow France again became a monarchy. But another revolution in 1848 
 estabUshed a second repubhc. Louis Napoleon, a nephew of Bonaparte, was chosen 
 president. In a few years he in turn abolished the repubhc and became emperor. 
 He ruled until the end of the Franco-Prussian war, when the third French 
 republic was established, which has continued to the present time. 
 
 Government and Religion. — Laws are made by the National 
 Assembly, which is composed of a Chamber of Deputies elected directly 
 
60 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 by the people, and a Senate, chosen by representatives of the people. 
 The President is elected by the National Assembly. 
 
 There is no state religion in France, but any religious body may receive per- 
 mission from the state to organize for pubUc worship. A large majority of the 
 people are Roman Catholics, but there are many Protestants and Jews. 
 
 Character of the French People. — The French are an intellectual and briUiant 
 
 people. They are, as a class, in- 
 dustrious and thrifty, especially 
 those of the country districts. 
 They are noted for taste and 
 skill and originality in the arts, 
 and are designers of new things 
 in fashions as well as discoverers 
 of new varieties of fruits and 
 flowers. Much heavy work falls 
 upon the countrywomen, and 
 they are commonly seen working 
 in the fields with the men. This 
 is partly due to the exactions of 
 the military service which com- 
 pels every man of legal age to 
 serve at least two years in the 
 army. Wine is so abundant and 
 cheap that it is drunk as com- 
 monly as beer is in Germany. 
 Beef is, as a rule, too expensive 
 for the peasant's purse, but his 
 poultry yard and his dairy supply 
 him with the choicest food. 
 An old street in Rouen. ^~ , • * • i 
 
 Occupations ; Agricul- 
 ture. — About two thirds of the soil of France is devoted to farming 
 and grazing, and the greater part of the population is supported by 
 these industries. France has fully as many farms as the United States, 
 although it is only one fifteenth as large; but while the farms in our 
 country range from a hundred to thousands of acres, those in France 
 average scarcely over fifteen acres. The wheat crop ranks next to 
 those of Russia and the United States; but in wine France far exceeds 
 any other country. Wheat grows everywhere in the lowland regions, 
 but the vine is confined chiefly to the warm valleys of the Loire, 
 
OCCUPATIONS ; AGRICULTURE 
 
 61 
 
 the Garonne, the Rhone, and the Mediterranean coast. Other valu- 
 able crops are potatoes, grains, and the sugar-beet; third in importance 
 are hay, tobacco, corn, flax, hemp, and colza (a plant resembling flax 
 from the seeds of which oil is obtained). 
 
 Peasants bringing wool to market in northern France. 
 
 The smaller crops of fruits and nuts are of great value, amounting to many 
 million dollars. The sugar-beet is taldng the place of wheat in many parts of the 
 northern provinces on account of its greater profit, since wheat and flour can be 
 brought cheaply from the United States. The crop of mulberry leaves, for the sake 
 of the silkworm, is of increasing importance because of the bounty which the gov- 
 ernment places on raw silk. The greater part of the raw silk for her factories France 
 still brings from Italy, China, and other eastern countries. The silks and the wines 
 of France go to every part of the world and are her most famous products. 
 
 The lumber product of France is not enough to supply the home 
 demand. Forests of beech, pine, elm, and chestnut cover about 
 one fifth of the country and supply the greater part of the fuel used, 
 but much lumber is imported for building and cabinet purposes 
 and for packing-cases. 
 
62 FRANCE 
 
 Stock-raising is an important industry. Horses and cattle are 
 kept in the northern provinces and sheep are pastured in the moun- 
 tain and plateau regions and on the sandy plains known as landes, 
 bordering the shore of the bay of Biscay in the southwest. These 
 plains are sand dunes; they are continually moving, being blown 
 inland by the winds. 
 
 Gathering grapes in a French vineyard. The owner of the vineyard is in the fore- 
 ground. 
 
 A specialty is made of breeding horses for heavy draught work, such as the 
 famous Percheron breed. French dairies produce the finest of cheese; well-kno-mi 
 brands are the Camembert and Neufchatel {new-shd-tel') of Normandy; and in the 
 central plateau and Jura regions the Rochefort [roke'-fort) (made from sheep's 
 milk and cured in limestone caves). Sheep are bred both for flesh and for wool, 
 and about 18,000,000 are pastured. Many swine and goats are also kept. The 
 main supply of goat skins, however, comes from the French colonies in Africa. 
 
 Fisheries. — The fisheries have always been of great value. The 
 French were the first to visit the Newfoundland banks, and over 
 500 vessels are still maintained at the stations of St. Pierre and 
 Miquelon in the taking of cod. Herrings and sardines are next in 
 value, and productive oyster beds have been planted in the English 
 
MINERALS 
 
 63 
 
 channel and the bay of Biscay, French 
 sardines form a valuable article of ex- 
 port. The fisheries give employment 
 to about 138,000 men and 30,000 ves- 
 sels. The province of Brittany fur- 
 nishes the most fishermen, and the chief 
 fishing ports are St. Malo and Brest. 
 
 Minerals. — France is not so well 
 supplied with minerals as either Great 
 Britain or Germany. Coal and iron are 
 the more abundant and valuable ones, 
 but are insufficient. Coal has to be im- 
 ported from England, Germany, and 
 Belgium, and iron ore from Spain and 
 the Duchy of Luxemburg. Sixty per 
 cent of the coal and nearly all the 
 
 iron 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 H§»^MigiPy B|Bi§ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 n 
 
 Fisher-women of Calais. 
 
 Scene in the Landes of south- 
 western France. The shepherds 
 walk on stilts in order to see their 
 flocl^ from a greater distance. 
 
 of France was formerly mined 
 near the borders of Belgium, 
 but the mines of this section as 
 well as the great manufacturing 
 cities were utterly destroyed by 
 the Germans in 1914-1915. To 
 compensate France for the loss 
 of the coal mines, the Germans 
 have been compelled to sur- 
 render the coal fields of the 
 valley of the Saar river. 
 
 The mineral next in value is salt; this 
 is mined near the German frontier, and is 
 also obtained from salt marshes along the 
 western coast. Building stone of every 
 sort is quarried, as well as phosphate and 
 various kinds of cement rock, one of which 
 is the famous " plaster of Paris " found 
 
64 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 near that city. Besides the minerals mentioned, small amounts of lead, silver, cop- 
 per, arsenic, antimony, and 
 manganese are found. The 
 fine china clays near Limoges 
 account for the porcelain in- 
 dustries of that city. The 
 deposits of coal at Limoges 
 also favor this industry (see 
 page 46). The mines and 
 quarries of France employ 
 perhaps a quarter of a mil- 
 lion men, and the vahie of 
 the annual product is nearly 
 $200,000,000. 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 — The manufacturing industries of France are more valuable than all 
 the others combined. These comprise articles of use and luxury 
 noted for beauty and fine workmanship. The textiles are cotton and 
 woolen goods, velvets, silks and ribbons, linen goods, fine laces, and 
 
 Embroidering lace curtains by hand 
 
 View in Rouen showing bridge and cathedral. 
 
 embroideries. Wearing apparel, works of art, jewelry, vases, per- 
 fumery, clocks, and watches, and fine glassware, are made in Paris. 
 At St. Cloud {sdn-clvf), a suburb of Paris, the famous Sevres {sd!-vr) 
 
MANUFACTURES 
 
 65 
 
 porcelain is made. Besides these manufactures, iron and steel goods, 
 machinery, locomotives, and railway supplies are made for home use. 
 Special machines used in the factories are an important product. 
 Silk-reeling machines and those for weaving brocaded cloth are French 
 inventions. French machinery is noted for accurate workmanship 
 and durability. 
 
 Interior of a lace mill at Calais. The loom shown in this room is called a jacquard. 
 It weaves lace in embroidered patterns. 
 
 Silk is the most valuable textile and the city of Lyons in the 
 Rhone valley is the largest center of silk manufacture in the world. 
 The preparation of raw silk can be profitably done only where people 
 will work patiently long hours for low wages. For this reason China, 
 Japan, Italy, and western Asia have been the leading raw silk pro- 
 ducing countries. 
 
 The eggs of the silk moth are hatched in warm rooms and the young worms 
 are placed on the mulberry leaves and begin to eat. In four or five weeks they 
 are placed on twigs and laid on shelves to spin their cocoons. This the worm does 
 by winding the fine fiber many times about its body until it is enveloped in an eUip- 
 tical silk bag about an inch in length. Then the worms inside the cocoons are killed 
 by heating so that they will not eat through the cocoon and spoil the silk. The 
 operator finds the ends of the fibers and twists enough of them together to make 
 a thread of sufficient size. By using many cocoons a thread of indefinite length 
 is obtained. The reeled silk is called raw silk, and hundreds of cocoons are required 
 to make a single hank of it. 
 
66 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 More silk is woven in France on hand looms in the laborers' homes than in the 
 factories. At St. Etienne near Lyons, a large proportion of the ribbons of the world 
 are made. To its ribbon industries St. Etienne adds machinery and iron work. 
 Coal and iron ore are found in the -vdcinity, which supply also the mills of Lyons. 
 Another vastly important industry of this section is the making of lace by hand. 
 The most expensive hand lace is made by weaving the pattern across a pillow with 
 needles or bobbins; these are the "point " laces, the word point signifying merely 
 pillow lace. France produces the finest hand-made lace in the world. Calais 
 {cat-lay') is a leading center for machine-made lace. 
 
 Cotton and 
 linen goods 
 are made 
 chiefly at 
 Rouen and 
 Lille. The 
 designing and 
 manufactur- 
 
 ing of fashionable 
 dress patterns is a 
 specialty in the 
 French factories. 
 Woolen manufac- 
 ture centers at 
 Roubaix, Rheims 
 (reems) , and Amiens. 
 Roubaix is entirely 
 devoted to the work 
 of finishing cloth after it is woven. The most expensive cassimeres 
 and broadcloths for men's clothing are produced by these towns. 
 
 Many towns in France are devoted to one particular manufacturing industry, 
 which in many cases has been carried on for centuries; for example, the towns of 
 the Rhone valley have been making silk for five hundred years. The names of 
 Buch towns attached to the goods which they produce are a guarantee of good quality; 
 
 A national industrial school at Roubaix, and a room in the 
 same where hand weaving is taught. 
 
COMMERCE 
 
 67, 
 
 when we speak of Sevres china, of Baccarat cut glass, or Alengon lace, we know that 
 we are naming the best article of the kind obtainable. 
 
 Commerce. — The raw materials for her factories France must 
 buy largely abroad; but unhke the other thickly settled countries 
 of Europe she is able to feed the greater part of her people from her 
 own farms. Wool, cotton, and raw silk are the heaviest imports, 
 in the order named. Other large imports are coal, cereals, hides, 
 and furs, lumber, oil-seeds, and wine. 
 
 View of Paris showing bridges across the Seine and the chief public buildings. 
 
 The chief exports of France are wine, cheese, chemicals, sugar, 
 and the products of her factories as named above. Of these, silk, 
 cottons, and woolen goods are first in value. French goods are the 
 highest-priced goods in the world's markets, and on this account 
 their sale is confined to the richer countries; hence her share of the 
 world's trade is far less than that of Great Britain and the United 
 States. 
 
 Transportation. — Though France has a splendid system of 
 internal waterways, and a complete system of railways connecting 
 her leading cities, she is not well equipped for ocean commerce. The 
 tonnage of her ships is about that of Norway, and only one twen- 
 
68 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 tieth that of Great Britain. The government encourages the building 
 of merchant ships by paying subsidies to vessels traversing certain 
 routes of trade. Meanwhile she has to depend largely upon the 
 ships of Great Britain and other nations. 
 
 Cities. — Besides being the chief manufacturing and commercial city 
 
 of France, Paris is 
 the center of edu- 
 cation, art, politics, 
 and business. It 
 is the most accessi- 
 ble city in France. 
 All the river val- 
 leys of the north- 
 ern plain converge 
 there, and all the 
 railway systems of 
 the country, with 
 one exception, 
 radiate from Paris. 
 Paris is the second 
 city in size on the 
 continent of Eu- 
 rope, and fourth 
 in the world. 
 
 Paris is known tbe world over as a city of beauty and gayety. It is the 
 paradise of pleasure seekers. Its parks and gardens are unequaled. Its broad 
 boulevards, humming with varied hfe, are a constant source of entertainment. Its 
 buildings are models of graceful architecture. Kings and emperors of France for 
 many centuries vied with one another in adorning the city with splendid palaces 
 and museums, and in storing them with priceless works of art. One of the famous 
 places is the ancient cathedral of Notre Dame, the scene of many royal marriages 
 and the burial place of kings. West of Notre Dame along the Seine are the beautiful 
 gardens of the Tuileries {tweel'-ree) and the palace of the Louvre. The Louvre 
 is the priceless art museum of France; it contains the choicest collection of paintings, 
 sculptures, and antiquities in the world. From the Tuileries and the Louvre, the 
 most beautiful street in Paris, the Champs Elysges {shong' -ay-lee-say') , extends for 
 
CITIES 
 
 69 
 
 a mile or more to the Place du Carrousel, a public square, in the center of which 
 stands the Arch of Triumph, erected by Napoleon in memory of his victories. From 
 this arch twelve splendid avenues radiate, one leading to the Eiffel Tower, the 
 tallest structure in the world, and another (the Champs Elysees) to the Bois de 
 Boulogne, the chief park and pleasure ground of the city. 
 
 The Hotel de Ville, or City Hall, Paris. 
 
 Marseilles, probably the oldest town in France, is next to Paris 
 in size. It has a slightly larger commerce than Havre, the second 
 port in volume of trade. Marseilles owes its importance to its loca- 
 tion near the mouth of the Rhone, which gives it the trade of Lyons ; 
 it has also canal connection with the valley of the Garonne, and what 
 is of far greater importance it is the nearest port to the prosperous 
 French colony of Algeria, to the countries bordering on the Mediter- 
 ranean, and to the countries of Asia, reached by way of the Suez canal. 
 Marseilles imports raw silk, cotton, and wool from Asia, grain from 
 Russia, and coffee and spices from the far East. Its exports are man- 
 ufactured silk, wines, leather goods, and the various wares of France. 
 
70 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 
 
 
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 Havre, as the seaport of Paris, exports the extensive manufactures of that city 
 as well as the textile products of the North. It has the greater part of the trade 
 with the new world, receiving raw cotton, grain, and provisions from the United 
 States; coffee, wool, and meat from South America; and lumber and grain from 
 Canada. Ship-building and the manufacture of machinery are important indus- 
 tries at Havre. Dimkirk handles the raw materials and manufactures for the great 
 
 industrial center near 
 Lille and Roubaix. Bor- 
 deaux is the chief wine 
 port of France. Among 
 the marvels of this city 
 are the enormous cellars 
 and storage vaults for 
 wine. An active trade 
 is carried on with Great 
 Britain, Africa, and 
 South America. Brest, 
 Cherbourg (share-boor'), 
 Lor lent (lo-re-on'), 
 Rochefort, and Toulon 
 are important as gov- 
 ernment ship-building 
 and repairing stations. 
 Corsica, a mountainous island in the Mediterranean, belongs to France. Its 
 area is about 3,000 square miles and its population nearly 300,000. For purposes 
 of government it is considered a part of the mainland. The island is productive 
 of minerals, forest products, and wine. It is an important naval station. Ajaccio 
 (a-yd'-cho) , the capital, was the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 Emigration and Colonies. — France has always been a leading 
 nation in the discovery and colonization of new countries. Her 
 foreign possessions were once more extensive than those of Great 
 Britain, but America and India were lost through bad management, 
 and as the result of wars. Her most flourishing colony is Algeria. 
 Its trade with France amounts to more than $100,000,000 annually. 
 
 Other colonies in Africa are Senegal, Senegambia, and the Niger country, French 
 Guinea, the Ivory coast, Dahomey, French Congo, Somali Coast and Madagascar, 
 and various islands. Her Asiatic colonies comprise several settlements in India, 
 Annam, Cambodia, Cochin-China, Tonking, and Laos. In America she has Guada- 
 loupe, Guiana, Martinique and St. Pierre, and Miquelon. She has also a few 
 trading-posts in Oceania. The total area of these various possessions is about 
 twenty times that of France, and the population is about 56,000,000. The entire 
 
 Church of the Madeleine at Paris. 
 
EMIGRATION AND COLONIES 71 
 
 colonial trade with the home country amounts to a little over $200,000,000 annually. 
 The increase of population in France has been but a little over a million during the 
 last ten years, while that of Germany has been ten times as great. As a result 
 there is almost no emigration from France. She has room for her people at home. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Location; compare latitude with that of the 
 United States (see page 178). Size and population; compare with Great Britain; with 
 Germany; with New York state; with the United States. What advantages for com- 
 merce has France? Name a port on each seaboard. (2) What natural boundaries 
 surround France? Where are the highlands? The lowlands? What is said of the 
 central plateau? Two highest elevations? (3) Name the chief rivers of France, and 
 tell their sources and directions. What rivers in the interior of France are joined by 
 canals? With what countries is France joined by canals? (4) Describe the climate. 
 Where does the greatest amount of rain fall? What is said of the climate of the Medi- 
 terranean coast? What famous places are located there? (5) What races have occu- 
 pied France at different times? What forms of government has it had at different times? 
 (6) What is said of the character of the French people? Of the peasant farmer? Im- 
 portance of agriculture. What are the leading crops? What other crops are important? 
 What about the supply of lumber? (7) Where are the stock-raising regions of France? 
 What is said of horses? Of sheep? Importance of the fisheries? What kinds of fish 
 are taken? Where are oysters obtained? (8) What minerals are the most important 
 in France? Compare the supply of coal and iron with that of Great Britain or Germany 
 Where is salt obtained? Name other minerals found in France. (9) What important 
 manufactures depend directly upon minerals? Name three leading manufacturing cen- 
 ters of France. Name the leading classes of manufactures in each. What section is 
 noted for silk? Write an account of the culture of the silkworm and of the preparation 
 of the silk. Make a list of ten articles of French manufacture, and name the city where 
 each is made. (10) What are the chief exports of France? The chief imports? Make 
 a list of ten leading cities, and give the location and an interesting fact about each. 
 Give some account of Corsica. Name the leading colonies of France, and tell some- 
 thing of their importance. Why is there so little French emigration? 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 GERMANY 
 
 The New Germany. — A few years ago we studied in this 
 book about a great ^' German Empire/' with its large population, 
 its mighty army and navy, its vast commerce, and its extensive 
 colonies in Africa and among the islands of the Pacific ocean. 
 This gTeat German Empire was ambitious to become still 
 greater, and the ex-Kaiser Wilhelm II and the military party 
 associated with him deliberately embroiled the world in a 
 terrible war, by which they hoped to extend their power across 
 Europe to Constantinople and into Asia. This war began with 
 the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Ferdinand at Sara- 
 jevo in Bosnia, June 28, 1914, and ended with the signing of 
 the Peace Treaty at Versailles just five years later. 
 
 The War and its Results. — The story of the war is fresh 
 in our minds. We recall how one nation after another took the 
 field until nearly the whole world was arrayed against Germany 
 and her allies. We recall how our own country entered the 
 war after the sinking of the Lusitania and other offenses against 
 the law of nations; and how the American armies, together 
 with those of Great Britain, France, and Italy, drove the Ger- 
 mans out of France and compelled them to make peace. 
 
 To Germany the war was a terrible disaster, but one that 
 she richly deserved. In the first place she was compelled to 
 give up her vast colonial empire of 1,270,000 square miles of 
 territory. She was also forced to give back to France Alsace- 
 Lorraine with 5,600 square miles; to Belgium she forfeited 
 the districts of Malmedy and Eupen with 382 square miles; 
 
 72 
 
CHANGES IN G0VEKNMENT 73 
 
 to the new nation of Poland she gave up parts of Silesia, Posen, 
 West Prussia, and East Prussia — in all 27,686 square miles — 
 besides the 40 additional square miles in the vicinity of Memel. 
 Besides these cessions, she loses her sovereignty over 738 square 
 miles in the basin of the Saar river, and the free city of Danzig 
 with 729 square miles. Still more territory may be lost if the 
 inhabitants so vote; for 5,785 square miles in East Prussia, 
 2,500 square miles in Schleswig, and the 910-square mile strip 
 of East Prussia north of the Niemen river are to go to Poland, 
 Denmark, and to some third nation not yet determined, if a 
 majority of the voters so decide. Thus the total area which 
 may be lost to Germany aggregates about 45,000 square miles, 
 or one fifth of her entire territory in Europe — and this in 
 addition to her colonies. Even this is not all, for she must 
 pay for the cities and property destroyed by her in France, 
 Belgium, and Serbia a sum estimated at $25,000,000,000, and 
 whatever additional sums the victorious Allies choose to impose 
 upon her. Truly, ''The way of the transgressor is hard!" 
 
 Changes in Government. — The old German Empire con- 
 sisted of four kingdoms — Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirttem- 
 berg — six grand duchies, five duchies, and seven principalities, 
 besides the three free cities of Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen. 
 The Kaiser, the kings, princes, dukes, and grand dukes have 
 been removed from office. Germany to-day is a republic, and 
 all the separate states have republican forms of government. 
 Of course, the affairs of government are not fully settled and 
 we do not know just how the country will finally be governed, 
 but it is certain that the old kings and princes will never be 
 restored to power. In order to prevent any attempts to re- 
 store them, the Allies compelled Germany to surrender her 
 entire navy, to reduce her army to 100,000 men, and to destroy 
 all her forts and defenses. From the military point of view 
 Germany will hereafter rank among powers of the third 
 class. 
 
74 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 Surface and Climate. — With the exception of the upper 
 plain of the Danube river the surface of Germany is a con- 
 tinuous slope from the summits of the Alps and the Erzgebirge 
 {erts-ge-hir' -ge) {ore mountains) to the North and Baltic seas. 
 
 The Rhine at the Seven mountains. The highest of these is the Drachenfels, or 
 Dragon Rock, at the foot of which, according to the German legend, Siegfried slew the 
 dragon. 
 
 The southern half consists of a highland region, through which 
 the Rhine and its branches have cut broad and fertile valleys, 
 and of worn-down mountain ridges clothed with forests. The 
 extreme southern parts of the highlands belong to the region of 
 the Alps, where the loftiest peaks attain a height of nearly 
 10,000 feet. The plain of the Danube and the central highlands 
 do not exceed 2,000 feet in elevation except in occasional 
 mountain peaks, those of the Riesengebirge {giant mountains) 
 being the highest. 
 
 MAP STUDIES. — (1) In what part of Europe is Germany? What countries 
 bound it on the east? On the south? What other land boundaries has it? What 
 waters on the northern boundary? What parallel passes near the mouth of the Elbe 
 river? What parallel near the southern border? What is the extreme length of Ger- 
 many from east to west? From north to south? (2) Compare the latitude of Berlin 
 with that of London; with that of New York City (see page 178). What mountains qn 
 
RIVERS AND LAKES 75 
 
 The climate of Germany is remarkable for the fact that the 
 southern part, on account of the increased elevation, is quite 
 as cold as the northern part. Bavaria, in the extreme south, 
 is one of the coldest parts of the country, the city of Munich 
 having the same average temperature as Konigsberg in the 
 extreme north. Generally speaking, the climate of south- 
 western and western Germany is mild, the temperature aver- 
 aging about the same as that of Great Britain. The low plains 
 and river valleys of these sections are the warmest parts of 
 the country. The highlands are cooler and have a heavier 
 rainfall. The eastern half of the country is much colder, 
 and has less rain than the western half on account of its greater 
 distance from the ocean. The southwesterly winds lose a 
 large part of their heat and moisture in passing over the high- 
 land regions. The ports on the North sea are open and free 
 from ice nearly all the winter, while those on the Baltic are 
 closed from two to three months. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. — The general slope being northward, 
 all the rivers, with the exception of the Danube and its branches, 
 discharge into the North and Baltic seas. The Rhine forms 
 a most important highway of commerce from Switzerland to 
 the sea. It flows through a broad and fertile valley, in which 
 are located the largest of Germany's manufacturing interests. 
 
 the southern border of Germany? What lake? What river rises in this lake and fiows 
 through Germany? What river rising in the Alps crosses southern Germany? Find 
 the sources of the Oder, the Elbe, and the Vistula. Into what waters does each of these 
 flow? (3) Describe the slope of Germany. In what natural divisions of Europe does 
 the greater part of it he? What seaports on the North sea? On the Baltic? What 
 is the capital city? Name and locate five of the leading German states. What is the 
 capital of each? (4) On an outline map of Germany locate the chief rivers and cities 
 and write in the names of all the boundaries. 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS. — (1) In what part of Europe are these 
 countries? (2) What countries border Belgium? Compare its coast line with that of 
 Holland. "What rivers cross Belgium? In which direction does the country slope? (3) Lo- 
 cate the capital of Belgium; the chief seaport. Locate Ghent, Liege (h-azh'), Namur, and 
 Verviers (ver-vya')- (4) What countries border Holland? What rivers cross Holland? 
 Where is the Zuyder Zee? What islands along the coast? (5) What is the capital of 
 Holland? The chief city and leading seaport? Compare Belgium and Holland as to coast 
 line. Draw an outline map of these two countries and locate the rivers and chief cities. 
 
w 9 Jo IS ill ® " s«MII* l>^5^ 
 
ANIMALS AND PLANTS 
 
 77 
 
 Double-tracked railroads on both sides of the river and the mountainous and 
 picturesque scenery help to remind us of the Hudson river in New York state. 
 The songs and legends connected with its ancient towns and the lofty castles which 
 crown the cliffs on either side make the Rhine the chief historic river of Germany 
 
 East of the Rhine are the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the 
 Vistula, each of which is navigable for hundreds of miles and 
 has many navigable tributaries. These river systems are 
 
 A view on the Rhine showing the village of St. Goar on the heights. 
 
 connected with one another in their middle courses by canals, 
 forming a complete system of waterways across the country 
 from east to west. The Rhine is also connected by canal with 
 the Danube and the Rhone, securing water transportation to 
 both the Black and the Mediterranean sea. The Kiel ship 
 canal, 61 miles in length, connecting the North and Baltic seas, 
 is the most useful of the canals; between 30,000 and 40,000 
 ships pass through it annually. 
 
 Animals and Plants; Forests. — In an old and thickly- 
 settled country like Germany, where all the available space is 
 cultivated, the native animals disappear to be replaced by 
 
78 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 those domestic species which are common to all countries. 
 The stag, deer, and wild boar, however, are still found in the 
 extensive forests of Germany, and also the usual small animals. 
 Fully one fourth the area of the country is forest-covered. 
 The pine and the fir are the chief varieties among the soft 
 woods, and the oak, beech, birch, and larch among hard woods. 
 
 Women harvesting with the sickle in Germany. 
 
 Agriculture. — Nearly one third of the people are dependent 
 for a living upon agriculture, which is still the most important 
 industry of Germany. The quality of the soil, except in the 
 fertile river valleys, is poor, but the German farmer by scientific 
 methods secures excellent crops. 
 
 Rye, potatoes, and hay are the leading farm crops. Wheat 
 is grown to a less extent than the other grains because the 
 clayey and sandy soils of the lowlands are not so well adapted 
 to it. The potato crop of Germany exceeds that of any other 
 country. Great quantities are exported and still greater 
 quantities are used in the manufacture of alcohol. Another 
 
MINING 79 
 
 crop in which Germany leads the world is the sugar-beet. It 
 grows well in the lighter soils of the northern plains. Germany- 
 produces more beet sugar than any other country. 
 
 The national drink of Germany being beer, much attention is given to hop 
 culture. The warm and moist climate of the Rhine valley is well suited to this 
 plant, and it is here that the crop is chiefly grown. Tobacco raising and grape 
 culture are also leading industries of this section. The vine will grow farther north 
 in the Rhine valley than in any other part of Europe, and the steep hillsides along 
 the river are often terraced to their tops and planted with vineyards. 
 
 Meadows and pastures occupy about one third of the 
 arable land. The hay crop ranks next to that of potatoes in 
 value. Beef and dairy cattle are raised everywhere, and much 
 attention is given to securing the best breeds; but the low 
 price at which beef and wool can be obtained from both Aus- 
 tralia and America has made farming more profitable than 
 grazing. 
 
 Mining. — The Germans are skilled miners and metal- 
 lurgists. As in Great Britain, the chief minerals are coal and 
 iron. These ores commonly occur in the same region, thus 
 fixing the location of the great manufacturing towns. The 
 richest coal field hes in the middle of the Rhine valley along 
 the river Ruhr (roor); it extends eastward, as either coal or 
 lignite, through Saxony and Silesia, and westward through 
 Belgium, Luxemburg, and into France. 
 
 The Rhine district, the Hartz and the Ore mountains, have 
 the richest deposits of iron. Silver and copper are found in 
 the Hartz mountains. About half the silver mined in Europe 
 comes from Germany. The largest zinc mines in the world 
 are located in Silesia. The north German plain contains rock 
 salt mixed with valuable salts of potassium. The latter are 
 used in glass-making, soap-making, dyeing, and many other 
 manufacturing processes. 
 
 Potash (potassium salts) is usually obtained from wood ashes; but Germany 
 has a natural supply stored away beneath the soil sufficient for many centuries. 
 
80 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 Solenhofen in Bavaria is the chief source of lithographic stone, a stone that is used 
 especially in printing maps and pictures containing many colors. 
 
 Manufacturing. — As a manufacturing country Germany- 
 ranks next to the United States and Great Britain. Iron, 
 steel, and textile fabrics are the most valuable products of her 
 mills; next come drugs and chemicals, leather goods, glassware, 
 
 
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 A view in the heart of Leipzig showing public square and boulevard. 
 
 books, and fine engravings. Toys, carved wood, and cutlery 
 are also famous German products. 
 
 The coal fields in the Ruhr valley have fixed the location of the " Black Coun- 
 try " of Germany. The entire valley is devoted to manufacturing. The twin cities 
 of Barmen-Elberf eld are centers for cotton and woolen goods, while Krefeld (krd'-felt) 
 leads in the manufacture of silk. Dortmund is a center of coal and iron mining, and 
 is noted for its foundries and machine works. Solingen {zo'-ling-en) is famous for 
 cutlery and other articles of steel. 
 
 A second important manufacturing center is southern Saxony, where the Erz- 
 gebirge mines furnish coal, iron, and other minerals, and the river Elbe supplies 
 transportation to the sea. Saxony woolens have long been famous, but now cotton 
 goods are the more important, and Chemnitz, Zwickau, and the neighboring towns 
 form a cotton manufacturing center which may be compared with Manchester in 
 Great Britain. Other leading Saxon towns are Dresden, the capital, famous for its 
 
GERMAN CITIES 
 
 81 
 
 architecture and art treasures; near by at Meissen and also at Berlin the beautiful 
 Dresden chinaware is made; Leipzig, known the world over for its fur-dressing 
 and printing and publishing establishments, is the center of the German book trade', 
 Magdeburg is the chief center of the sugar trade. Stuttgart, the ancient capital of 
 Wiirttemberg, is noted for its pianos, its school of music, its book publishing; and the 
 old town of Nuremberg in Bavaria is the chief seat of the toy trade. 
 
 German Cities. 7- Owing to the introduction of steam power 
 and the rapid ex- 
 tension of the 
 factory system, 
 German cities 
 have had a ra- 
 pidity of growth 
 during the last 
 forty years that 
 has not been 
 equaled e 1 s e- 
 where. In 1871 
 there were only 
 eight cities with 
 
 The former royal palace at Berlin. 
 
 a population of over 100,000; they contained a little less than 
 five per cent of the population. Now there are about forty 
 cities having over 100,000, and fifty more having between 
 50,000 and 100,000; these cities contain one fourth the popu- 
 lation of the nation. Toy-making, wood-carving, cabinet work, 
 lace and embroidery work are still largely carried on in the 
 German household. 
 
 Berlin, the metropolis, ranks as the most important city. 
 It is the third city of the world in size, coming next to London 
 among European cities. It is the chief railway center of central 
 Europe, and is connected by canal with both the Elbe and the 
 Oder river. It is also the money center of Germany, and like 
 all large and rich cities specializes in high-class manufactures. 
 Clothing, shoes and leather goods, jewelry, fine pottery and 
 vases, artistic and fancy articles, and machinery are some of 
 the varied products. 
 
82 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 Some famous cities in the Rhine valley are Cologne {kd-lon'), 
 noted for its beautiful cathedral, Essen, famous as a steel-manu- 
 facturing center, Aachen {ah' -ken), the burial place of Charle- 
 magne {shar' -le-man) , and Frankfort-on-the-Main, the old seat of 
 government of the German Confederation. 
 
 Seaports and Commerce. — On account of its favorable 
 location, Hamburg, the second city in size, handles about half 
 
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 Cathedral at Aachen. The burial-place of Charlemagne. 
 
 the foreign trade. Bremen, near the mouth of the Weser, 
 ranks next to Hamburg in the amount of its commerce. 
 
 Emigration; Religion. — Over five million Germans have 
 come to the United States during the last seventy-five years, 
 and many have settled in Brazil, Argentina, and other countries 
 of South America. New York City has a larger German popu- 
 lation than any other city in the world except Berlin. The 
 majority of the population are Protestants, though more than 
 one third are Roman Catholics. The manner in which the 
 clergy are maintained varies. The control of the universities 
 is divided between the two churches. 
 
QUESTIONS AND TOPICS ' 
 
 83 
 
 The Elbe river at Hamburg. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Location, area, and population of Germany. 
 (2) How old is the present German Republic? Describe the older form of government. 
 Describe the present form of government. (3) Surface. Highlands. Lowlands. 
 Divisions of the plain. Where is the best soil found? Explain the difference of climate 
 between the eastern and western parts of the country. Name the chief rivers of Germany, 
 and give their sources and directions. Canals. (4) Why are there few native wild 
 animals in Germany? The forests. Varieties of trees. (5) What are the chief crops? 
 What is said of beet sugar? What are the chief crops of the Rhine valley? Where is 
 stock-raising carried on? What is said of it? (6) What minerals are found in Germany? 
 In what locality is each found? (7) What minerals are the basis of manufacturing? 
 Why? What are the leading German manufactures? Name others. (8) How do you 
 explain the rapid growth of the cities in Germany? For what is Cologne noted? Aachen? 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main? (9) Two leading ports. What advantage has Hamburg over 
 Bremen? 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 Answer the questions on Belgium and the Netherlands, page 75. 
 
 The Low Countries. — Belgium and the Netherlands occupy the 
 northern part of the central European plain bordering the North sea. 
 About one third of the Netherlands, and the coast lands of Belgium, 
 lie in the Rhine delta, and are protected from overflow by sea walls 
 
 f 
 
 ^"^^S-^^^^^B^^-B!^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Sea dike on the coast of Holland. 
 
 and drainage canals. The rest of the surface is composed of low 
 plains formed from glacial drift (see jyage 19), and of the remains 
 of an ancient highland region. On account of the situation of these 
 countries in the lowest part of Europe they are often spoken of as the 
 Low Countries. 
 
 People and History. — The Belgians and the Dutch are descended from Low 
 German tribes — the Saxons, the Frisians, Jutes, and Danes, who in Roman times 
 inhabited the northern part of the low plain. Their languages, the Flemish and the 
 Dutch, are closely related. It was these same tribes that conquered Roman Britain 
 (see 'page 11.) The two countries were united until 1830, when Belgium became a 
 
 84 
 
THE GERMAN INVASION 85 
 
 separate kingdom. The Belgians are a mixed race and three languages are spoken. 
 About two per cent of the people are German, and of the remainder, one half are 
 French and one half Flemish. Dutch is the prevaiUng language of the Netherlands. 
 
 Surface and Climate. — By the terms of the treaty of peace 
 with Germany, 382 square miles of land lying on the south- 
 eastern border of the two countries were restored to Belgium, 
 thus bringing her total area up to 11,755 square miles. The 
 population is about seven millions. The surface in the south 
 and east is elevated, sloping down into the low coast "plain. 
 This plateau region is rich in forests and in coal and iron, 
 building stone, and zinc. Copper and lead also are found. 
 The lowland plain is a rich farming district. The climate is 
 temperate and moist, the number of rainy days during the 
 year averaging about 200. 
 
 The Campine District, between the upper waters of the 
 Meuse and the Scheldt, was formerly barren because the soil 
 has no underlying stratum of clay to hold the waters; but the 
 industrious farmers have redeemed 270,000 acres by fertili- 
 zation and irrigation and made it highly productive. 
 
 The German Invasion. — Belgium suffered more heavily 
 from the war than any other country in Europe. When the 
 German armies began the invasion of the country in August, 
 1914, they planned the total destruction of its industries. 
 Hundreds of towns and villages were battered to pieces and the 
 inhabitants driven out or killed. The machinery in the fac- 
 tories was carried away or destroyed, in order to prevent any 
 competition with Germany after the war. Even the soil, 
 which was fought over for four years by the contending armies, 
 was plowed up by exploding shells, furrowed with trenches, 
 and littered with the appliances of war, in such a manner that 
 it will require years to restore it to its former value and fer- 
 tility. With the same indomitable energy with which they 
 entered the war, the Belgians are laboring to rebuild the coun- 
 try and to restore it to its former productiveness. 
 
86 BELGIUM 
 
 Agriculture. — About one fifth of the people are supported by 
 farming and gardening. The farms are very small, mostly 
 from two acres to twelve acres. Less than one third of these 
 farms are owned by the farmers and the high rent tends to 
 discourage agriculture. Cereals are grown, but more attention 
 is given to the potato. The beet-sugar product is rapidly 
 increasing and flax, colza (see yage 61), and hops are important 
 crops. Flowers and vegetables are profitably grown near the 
 large cities. Much attention is given to dairying and the 
 rearing of farm animals. Belgian butter is said to be the finest 
 in Europe and along with eggs and poultry finds a good market 
 in Great Britain. 
 
 Heavy draught horses of the Norman and Flemish breeds are raised for export, 
 but many horses are imported, for Belgium is one of the few countries where horse 
 flesh is an article of food. Swine and cattle are kept in large numbers and sheep 
 are pastured on the Ardennes highland. About one sixth of the country is wood- 
 land, which is made highly productive by careful management. 
 
 Minerals and Metal Manufactures. — The southern part 
 of Belgium was formerly one of the greatest mining and manu- 
 facturing regions of the world. The cities of Liege, Seraing, 
 Charleroi, and Mons were busy making up the native iron and 
 coal into pig iron, steel, machinery, cutlery, rifle-barrels, tools, 
 railway supplies, and hardware of every sort. Lead, zinc, 
 and silver were mined, and the quarries of sand and clay utilized 
 in the production of different grades of pottery and glass- 
 ware. But all these cities now lie in ruins, and all their indus- 
 tries are gone. Many of the fugitives have returned, and are 
 patiently rebuilding their ruined homes, but the restoration 
 of the great manufacturing industries will be the work of many 
 years. 
 
 Textile Manufactures. — The Belgians are the oldest manu- 
 facturers of woolen goods in Europe and they are still expert 
 in making cloths of every sort. Their linens and linen laces are 
 noted throughout the world. The waters of the river Lys, 
 
TRADE AND TRANSPORTATION 
 
 87 
 
 being free from lime, are well adapted to the retting of flax (see 
 page 36), and the cleansing and scouring of both flax and wool. 
 The cities of Brussels and Mechlin have given their names to 
 carpets and laces, which are sold under these names in every 
 civihzed country. The textile industries, like those in metals, 
 have been destroyed and must be rebuilt. Raw cotton for the 
 textile mills is brought from the United States to the port of 
 Antwerp and thence distributed by water. and rail to the in- 
 tenor cities. Many 
 goods are woven on 
 hand looms in the 
 homes of the work- 
 men. The rest of 
 
 1. The senate house. 2. The palace of justice. 
 
 this chapter refers 
 to the condition of 
 affairs in Belgium 
 before the war, and 
 it should be borne in 
 mind when reading 
 it that all the cities mentioned, except Brussels and Antwerp, 
 were practically wiped out during the years 1914-1919. In 
 due time the country will doubtless be restored to its former 
 activities by the rebuilding of the cities and their industries. 
 
 Trade and Transportation. — Besides her rivers and canals 
 Belgium has an excellent system of railroads built and owned 
 by the state. There are also 6,000 miles of well-kept pub- 
 lic highways. The number of her ships is very small, and 
 the foreign trade is handled mostly by British, German, and 
 Dutch vessels. In the value of her foreign commerce Bel- 
 gium is sixth among the countries of the world. Her larg- 
 
88 THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 est trade is with France, Germany, Great Britain, and the 
 United States. 
 
 The chief exports are iron and steel goods, machinery, coal, textiles, gun barrels 
 and rifles, diamonds, and rubber. The imports are food and raw materials. The 
 United States supplies her with cereals, cotton, kerosene, tobacco, and provisions. 
 
 Cities. — Belgium contains many old towns. Brussels is the cap- 
 ital and chief city, famous for its ancient Town Hall, for its picture 
 galleries, its University, and its Botanic Garden. Antwerp is one 
 of the leading commercial ports of Europe. It is strongly fortified 
 and is the basis for the defence of the country. It has a fine old Gothic 
 cathedral containing some of the pamtings of Rubens, the greatest 
 of Flemish artists. 
 
 Government, Education, Religion, Colonies. — Belgium is a con- 
 stitutional monarchy. Laws are made by the king and a legislature 
 composed of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The senators 
 are chosen by the provinces and the representatives by the people. 
 In Belgium a man may have more than one vote according to age, 
 wealth, or educational qualifications, but none may have more than 
 three votes. The Belgians maintain an excellent public school 
 system with universities at Ghent, Brussels, Liege, and Louvain. 
 Nearly the entire population is Roman Catholic in religion, while a 
 few thousands are Protestants or Jews. 
 
 All denominations are partly supported by the state. As the independence 
 of Belgium is guaranteed by the great powers of Europe she does not support a large 
 army and has no navy. Belgium has only one colony, the Congo Free State, from 
 which she obtains rubber, ivory, palm oil and nuts, and copal. 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 Situation, Surface, Climate. — The situation of the Netherlands 
 on the border of the continent, its extensive coast line, and numerous 
 islands have developed a nation of fishermen, sailors, and traders. 
 The area exceeds that of Belgium, but the population is about two 
 milhons less. Holland, the name of the leading province, is often 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 89 
 
 applied to the whole country. The climate is moderate owing to the 
 winds that blow steadily from the ocean for more than two thirds of 
 the year, bringing almost daily showers. 
 
 A little more than one third of the surface of the Netherlands has been formed 
 by the delta deposits of the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt, or has been reclaimed 
 from the sea. The rest of the country consists of rolling hills of sand and gravel, and 
 in the southeast a part of the ancient highland of central Europe, where the elevation 
 slightly exceeds a thousand feet. In this section are a few coal mines. Clays and 
 sandstone and a small amount of iron ore are the only other minerals. 
 
 Agriculture. — Having no forests and few mines Holland is an 
 agricultural and trading nation. Her manufactures are of minor 
 
 
 
 . - '^9 ";_ '^^HIi^^MMa 
 
 J^^m^^^SS^ . 1* 
 
 , i ''-^P 
 
 IHHHili^^ttB^^ 
 
 Canal and windmills in Holland, near Delft. 
 
 importance. The farms are larger than those of Belgium, half of 
 them containing over thirteen acres each. There are many large 
 estates. Rye, oats, and potatoes are the largest crops, twice as 
 many acres being given to these as to all other crops together. Potato 
 flour is a valuable export. Other farm crops largely exported are 
 flax and beet-root. 
 
 The exports of fruits, flowers, vegetables, bulbs, shrubs, trees, and other garden 
 and nursery products are greater in value than that of any other single product. 
 Wheat is grown, but to supply the large population cereals and rye flour are imported 
 
90 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 annually, to the value of about $200,000,000. The sea bottoms and alluvial delta 
 lands form fertile pastures, and dairying is carried on with great profit. Butter, 
 butterine, and cheese form six per cent of the exports. Alkmaar and Delft are the 
 most noted butter and cheese markets. The latter town is to be remembered also 
 for the manufacture of the fine grade of china known as " Delft." 
 
 The work of reclaiming land from the sea by building walls of earth has been 
 going on in the Netherlands 
 for many centuries. Some of 
 these walls are three hundred 
 feet thick and thirty feet high, 
 with portions built of massive 
 blocks of stone brought from 
 foreign countries. Over six- 
 teen hundred miles of sea dikes 
 
 have been built at a 
 cost of fifteen hundred 
 million dollars. In 
 some instances the 
 sand dunes which have 
 been blown up along 
 the coast afford pro- 
 tection against the 
 inroads of the sea. 
 Building the dikes is 
 the first step in re- 
 claiming land. The 
 second step is to get 
 rid of the surplus water. This is done by means of canals into which the water is 
 pumped, thus draining it off into the sea. Windmills used for lifting the water dot 
 the land in every direction. They also benefit the farmer and manufacturer by 
 furnishing power, at little cost, to saw wood, grind grain, and to turn the wheels of 
 small factories. Over a thousand miles of canals have been built, intersecting the 
 country at frequent intervals. Their banks are utilized as highways. The canals 
 and rivers form the chief means of communication. The lower courses of the rivers 
 are walled in by dikes, for all the streams of low Holland are higher than the adjoin- 
 ing land. 
 
 1. Industrial palace at Amsterdam. 
 the same city. 
 
 Tlie royiil palace in 
 
INDUSTRIES AND CITIES 91 
 
 Fisheries. — Holland has important herring fisheries in the North 
 sea which give employment to 20,000 men and are worth about 
 $5,000,000 annually. " Dutch herrings " are a well-known commercial 
 article. The yield of oysters along the coast is large. The Dutch 
 fishing fleet visits also the cod banks of the Lofoten islands on the 
 coast of Norway, 
 
 Manufactures. — Coal for the manufacturing industries of the 
 Netherlands is brought chiefly from Great Britain and Belgium. 
 Beer, alcohol, and hquors are the important manufactures. Many 
 ships are built. The minor products are cloth, leather goods, 
 machinery, sugar, vinegar, glass, and paper. 
 
 Cities, Trade and Transportation.— The metropolis of the Nether* 
 lands is Amsterdam. It is built on a chain of islands in a long arm 
 of the Zuider Zee and is also connected directly with the North Sea 
 by a ship canal. The islands are joined by three hundred bridges, 
 and canals run through the streets. On this account it has been called 
 the " Venice of the North." As a seaport it ranks next to Rotterdam, 
 but its trade is equal to only one fifth that of the latter city. 
 
 Amsterdam has many handsome buildings with towering spires and steeples 
 which, mingled with the masts of the ships that line the streets, give an impression 
 different from any other city. Amsterdam is for its size one of the richest of cities. 
 While it has extensive manufactures, its money exchange and banks, its university 
 and museums are of special interest. The city is a heavy importer of rough diamonds 
 from Africa, for it is the first city in the world in diamond cutting and polishing. 
 
 Rotterdam is the chief seaport. Its location at the mouth of the 
 Rhine makes it a leading distributing point for goods shipped to the 
 interior of the continent. Steamship lints from New York and from 
 other leading ports of the world have their termini at Rotterdam. 
 Like Amsterdam it has a multitude of canals and bridges. Among 
 its manufacturing industries are many distilleries. The Hague is 
 the capital of the nation although the sovereigns are crowned at 
 Amsterdam. The word Hague means garden, and the spacious and 
 beautiful capital is worthy the name. It is connected by a densely 
 
92 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS 
 
 wooded park about two miles in length with its suburb, Scheveningen 
 {ska'ven-ing-en), the fashionable watering-place of Holland. 
 
 In 1899 a body of delegates from the leading nations of the world met at The 
 Hague and established itself as a permanent Court of Arbitration, the work of which 
 is to settle disputes among the nations of the world and thus avoid wars. A second 
 meeting of this International Peace Congress, as it is also called, was held in 1907 
 at the suggestion of President Roosevelt. Its object was to consider the questions 
 growing out of the Russo-Japanese war. A number of agreements were made in 
 regard to the conduct of warfare. 
 
 On the beach at Scheveningeru 
 
 Utrecht and Leiden are cities familiar in American history. The 
 former is the most important inland city, a railroad center and the seat 
 of an old university. Leiden was the home of the " Pilgrim Fathers " 
 for the eleven years preceding their immigration to New England. 
 
 Government, Education, Religion. — The government of the 
 Netherlands is a limited monarchy. A majority of the people are 
 Protestants, but there is entire religious liberty and all denomina- 
 
COMMERCE AND COLONIES 93 
 
 tions receive support from taxation. The Dutch schools are excel- 
 lent, and attendance is compulsory. 
 
 Commerce and Colonies. — For a time in the seventeenth century 
 the Netherlands held the first rank as a sea power and trading nation. 
 To-day she is fifth in the value of her foreign commerce. During 
 her naval supremacy she established colonies in all parts of the world. 
 New Amsterdam, and some of the smaller West India islands were 
 settled, and, in the East Indies, Java, Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas, 
 Banca and Billiton, Madura, and other small islands. 
 
 Holland's principal trade is the importation of the products of her colonies and 
 their distribution to the other countries of the world. Over 4,000 Dutch ships engage 
 in this carrying trade. The coffee, sugar, spices, tobacco, and tin that we buy in 
 Amsterdam are brought from Sumatra, Java, and the Moluccas by Dutch ships, which 
 carry back our cotton goods and other manufactures to the Indies. Other articles 
 that the United States imports from Holland are diamonds, chemicals, and cheeses; 
 our other exports are oils, breadstuffs, oleomargarine, provisions, flaxseed, and 
 manufactured goods. The great bulk of the Dutch trade is wath Germany, Great 
 Britain, the East Indies, the United States, Belgium, and Russia. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Belgium and the Netherlands; location. Race 
 and language of the people; history. Area and population of Belgium. What lan- 
 guages are spoken? Religions of the country; how supported? (2) What are the 
 natural divisions of Belgium? Seacoast. Rivers. Harbors. What kind of climate 
 prevails? Where and why is irrigation necessary? (3) The two leading occupations. 
 What crops are raised? What advantage has a small farm over a large one? What farm 
 products are exported? Dairy-farming and stock-raising. What is the chief mineral 
 wealth of Belgium? (4) What advantages have the people for the manufacture of 
 linens? What cities are noted for lace-making? What is said of home-manufac- 
 ture? What uses are made of potatoes? Transportation. Exports and imports. 
 (5) Make a list of the leading cities of Belgium and state an important fact about 
 each. How is Belgium governed? What does it obtain from its colony? (6) Situ- 
 ation of Holland. What are the divisions of the surface? How are the lowlands 
 protected from overflow? Describe the climate of Holland. Compare its area and popu- 
 lation with those of Belgium. With those of New York state. (7) Why is farming 
 the leading occupation? What is said of Dutch gardening? What are the chief crops? 
 Write a paragraph on the reclaiming of land. Describe the means of transportation in 
 Holland. (8) What are the most important manufactures in Holland? Name other 
 manufactures. Make a list of the four leading cities and write a short paragraph on 
 each. What was the Hague Conference? For what is Leiden noted? (9) When was 
 Holland the leading trading nation? What colonies does she own? What is the value 
 of these colonies? How extensive is her commerce now? Describe the trade that she 
 Carries on with other nations. Exports and imports. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES 
 
 Answer the questions on Norway and Sweden; Denmark, page 21. 
 
 General Sketch. — The Scandinavian countries occupy the Scan- 
 dinavian peninsula and the peninsula of Jutland in the north of 
 Europe and the numerous islands that fringe the coasts of these 
 countries. The two peninsulas vary widely in surface and in the 
 
 A fiord on the Norway coast. 
 
 nature of their coasts. The Scandinavian peninsula is on the whole 
 a plateau region, rugged and mountainous in the north and west, but 
 in the east and south descending gradually by a series of plateaus 
 and plains to the coast. The coast line is famous for its many fiords 
 and estuaries. Glaciers and snow fields aboimd in the high mountain 
 region. Jutland is flat and sandy and for the most part unindented. 
 
 94 
 
NOKWAY AND SWEDEN 95 
 
 The people of these three countries are closely related in race and 
 have a common history. The spoken languages were the same in 
 early times, but now differ slightly; the written languages of Norway 
 and Denmark are still the same. Each country is now a separate 
 constitutional monarchy. 
 
 The people of the Scandinavian countries were formerly called Northmen. 
 Accustomed to the sea, they became daring adventurers. They established settle- 
 ments in England and France. They founded the kingdom of Naples in Italy. 
 They colonized Iceland and Greenland, and in the year 1000 reached the coast of 
 America. During the next two centuries the Danes ruled over the whole southern 
 coast of the Baltic sea. In recent years many thousands of Scandinavians have 
 made their homes in our western states, where they have become prosperous 
 farmers. 
 
 NORWAY AND SWEDEN 
 
 Location, Surface, Climate. — The rugged Scandinavian peninsula 
 occupied by Norway and Sweden is, next to Switzerland and Spain, 
 the most mountainous region of Europe. These two countries have so 
 many features in common that they can be most conveniently treated 
 together. The extreme breadth of the peninsula is 450 miles; the 
 length is about 1,150 miles — a greater extent north and south than 
 that of any other European country except Russia. Norway is the 
 most northern country of the continent, extending several degrees 
 within the Arctic circle. Its area is 124,000 square miles and its popu- 
 lation 2,400,000. The area of Sweden is 173,000 and its population 
 5,500,000. 
 
 Although each of these countries is considerably larger than the British Isles, 
 both together have far less soil available for agriculture, only one twentieth of the 
 area of Norway and less than one tenth of that of Sweden being fit for cultivation. 
 The rest is made up of mountainous ridges and high plateaus deeply cut by streams 
 which widen into fiords as they approach the sea. Many of these fiords are navi- 
 gable, extending inland from fifty to one hundred miles and affording easy access 
 to the settled regions. The towns and villages of Norway almost without exception 
 are built near the sea. 
 
 In the north the Kiolen mountains form the boundary between 
 the two countries and are the chief watershed. Near the western 
 
96 
 
 NORWAY AND SWEDEN 
 
 coast isolated mountain peaks range from 6,000 to 8,000 feet in height. 
 The momitain ridges descend abruptly into the sea, their scattered 
 tops appearing in the thousands of islands which fringe the coast of 
 Norway and which form many safe harbors for the multitude of 
 Norwegian fisher- 
 men. AVhile prac- 
 
 tically the entire surface of 
 Norway is mountainous, that 
 of Sweden is made up of 
 broad plateau which slopes 
 eastward from the dividing 
 ridge, and a long low plain 
 along the Baltic sea and the 
 strait of Skagerack. 
 
 The climate of Norway is 
 mild for the latitude. The 
 harbors are free from ice, and 
 open all the year round. The 
 rainfall is heavy in the north, decreasing toward the south. The 
 snowfall of winter is light along the coast but heavy among the high 
 mountains, where glaciers are formed which plow their way through 
 the valleys, melting as they approach the sea. Sweden, being on the 
 eastern side of the mountain ridge, is cut off from the genial westerly 
 
 1. A mountain valley in Norway. A wind- 
 ing highway follows this valley to the top of 
 the mountain. 2. An ancient pagan church in 
 Norway built in the eleventh century. 
 
FOKESTS 
 
 97 
 
 winds and has a climate subject to extremes of temperature. The 
 winters are long and severe, the ports and the mouths of the rivers, 
 unHke those of Norway, being closed by ice for six months. The 
 rainfall is less than half that of Norway. It is abundant on the west- 
 ern coast, but the eastern coast is quite dry. 
 
 Out for a drive, in Sweden. 
 
 Forests — About one half the surface of Sweden and one fourth 
 that of Norway is covered with forests of pine, fir, and spruce. Owing 
 to slow growth in the cold cHmate, the wood is very hard and of excel- 
 lent quality for ship-building, a characteristic industry of a people 
 whose home for ages has been the sea. The numerous swift mountain 
 streams furnish power for thousands of lumber mills and factories. 
 
 The timber of southern Norway has been freely cut on account of convenience of 
 shipment through the port of Christiania. The annual product is now only one 
 sixth that of Sweden. The two countries together furnish about two fifths of the 
 lumber supply of Europe. Mining timber, building materials, wood-pulp, paper, 
 furniture, wooden ware, and matches are some of the forms of lumber which make 
 up one half the total exports of the two countries. The value of the lumber products 
 of Sweden equals one third the total manufactures. 
 
98 
 
 NORWAY AND SWEDEN 
 
 Fishing. — The fishing industry is as important to Norway as 
 lumbering is to Sweden, employing fully 100,000 men, or one twentieth 
 of the population. With a population of only 2,000,000, Noi-way 
 has as many men engaged in fishing as Great Britain. Fishing 
 villages border the fiords all along the coast. 
 
 Fleet of herriug boats on the coast of Norway. 
 
 Cod, mackerel, and herring are the principal catch. Sahnon, sea trout, lobsters, 
 and oysters abound in the fiords and coast waters. Trondhjem {tron'-yem) , a 
 busy seaport of nearly 40,000 inhabitants and third in size among the cities of 
 Norway, is the most important fish-packing center. 
 
 Agriculture. — Farming is relatively unimportant in Norw^ay, but 
 
 in Sweden it employs about one half of the people. Only along the 
 
 southern coasts of Norway are there tracts of arable land. Here 
 
 grain and potatoes are raised and a considerable number of farm 
 
 animals. Both Norway and Sweden are obliged to import grain, 
 
 meat, and other provisions. The southern and western provinces 
 
 of Sweden contain the most productive farm lands, bearing good 
 
 crops of oats, rye, and vegetables including the sugar-beet. Especial 
 
 attention is given to dairying. 
 
 Dairy schools are maintained and modern machinery is used. Swedish butter 
 is noted for its excellence and forms one tenth of the exports. The centrifugal cream 
 separator, now widely used in all countries, is a Swedish invention. 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRADE 
 
 99 
 
 Mineral Wealth. — Iron constitutes the chief mineral wealth of 
 Sweden, although gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc are mined in 
 paying quantities. The iron ore from the Swedish mines is the richest 
 in the world, yielding 70 per cent pure metal. The mines of Danne- 
 
 mora in eastern Sweden have been 
 worked for centuries and the ore 
 has been sold to all iron-producing 
 countries. Three fourths of the 
 Swedish iron ore is exported. 
 
 Sweden has little coal and that is found 
 in the extreme southern section. Small 
 amounts of silver, copper, and iron are 
 mined in Norway; and apatite, a lime phos- 
 phate used as a fertilizer, is exported to 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Manufactures and 
 Trade. — There are few 
 manufactures of impor- 
 tance. The only manu- 
 factures of metals of 
 consequence are at 
 Dannemora and Norr- 
 koping, in Sweden, 
 where iron ore is made 
 into bars and blooms 
 2. Raking for export, and into 
 sheet iron, wire, nails, 
 machinery, tools, and hardware for home use. Coarse cloths are 
 made from cotton, flax, and wool; flour, tobacco, brandy, and beer 
 are also manufactured; but these do not fully supply the home market. 
 Coal and coke, wool and yarn, coffee, tea, sugar, and oils are large 
 imports in both countries. The United States sells to Norway and 
 Sweden wheat, provisions, raw cotton, machinery and locomotives. 
 Among our imports are wood-pulp and matches. Sweden makes 
 and exports more matches than any other country. 
 
 1. A peasant home in Dalecarlia in Sweden, 
 and binding grain in Sweden. 
 
100 
 
 NORWAY AND SWEDEN 
 
 
 
 
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 ly 
 
 
 HBkk" ""^'~\ ^^ ^ 
 
 ' '^ ^"-JMrS^^^ 
 
 HlR^5&a.'~^ irfarSiU, -.~«-rf*.,S!i(»ffe_ i-^^^Btts 
 
 SlSl 
 
 
 ^E'i.^—..^.^ 
 
 ».S 
 
 ^^^^— ^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 ^gw^^^Hfl^^^l 
 
 
 
 ij^ 
 
 '^sr 
 
 
 
 i^m^i^^^^i^^mmi^^^B§iig 
 
 H9 
 
 IfeteHs'c 
 
 
 
 
 
 The mountain of iron at Kiruna in northern Sweden. Notice tlie mines at various 
 levels and the inclined chutes for transferring the ore to the railroad. 
 
 Transportation. — The rivers of these countries are generally not 
 navigable. In southern Sweden, however, there is a chain of large, 
 navigable lakes which have been utilized in making canal connection 
 
 The port of Gothenbur 
 
 between Stockholm and Gothenburg. This is important for Swedish 
 trade, as the latter port is always free from ice. There are about 
 
CITIES 
 
 101 
 
 7,800 miles of railroads in Sweden and 1,600 miles in Norway. The 
 northern part of Sweden is crossed by a line which terminates at 
 Victoria Haven, the most northern railway station in the world. 
 
 In the extent of her shipping Norway- 
 ranks with Great Britain, Germany, and 
 the United States; and according to the 
 number of her people she is in advanqe 
 of any other nation. Her merchant ves- 
 sels number about 6,000, many of them 
 engaged in the carrying trade for other 
 nations. Christiania, Bergen, Trondhjem, 
 and Frederiksstad are the chief ports. Swe- 
 den has less than one third as many ships. 
 
 and these are 
 devoted mainly 
 to her own 
 trade. 
 
 Cities.— 
 
 Sweden has 
 only two 
 towns that 
 exceed 100,- 
 000 popula- 
 tion, Stockholm and Gothenburg, Norway has only one, Christiania. 
 The chief cities of both countries are also seaports. Stockholm is the 
 capital and metropolis of Sweden. Originally built on an island it 
 has extended to other islands and the mainland. The several parts 
 
 Views in Stockholm: 1. The Royal Palace, 
 arm of lake Malar and bridges. 
 
102 
 
 NORWAY AND SWEDEN 
 
 of the city are connected by bridges, and many of the streets have 
 
 canals running 
 through them. 
 
 SIOCDOTOLM 
 
 ^nd Vicinity 
 
 Stockholm has mu- 
 seums, a university, 
 and many old historic 
 buildings. Gothenbixrg 
 is the second city in 
 size, but the chief sea- 
 port in Sweden. It is 
 a well-built modern city 
 and has a fine univer- 
 sity. Other important 
 towns are Malmo and 
 Norrkdping. 
 
 Christiania, the 
 capital of Norway, 
 is situated at the end of a long fiord, dotted with many beautiful 
 green wooded islands and has a splendid harbor. It is noted foi its 
 museum of antiquities of the days of the Northmen. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ^^^^^H^i<i^<7s!^l^^^r . . S 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 Fish market in the harbor of Bergen. 
 
DENMARK 103 
 
 Bergen, the second town, noted for its fishing trade, is a very old 
 
 town. 
 
 Government, Education, Religion. — Norway and Sweden are 
 Hmited monarchies. Both have legislatures chosen by the people, 
 which have the sole power to vote taxes and, with the consent of the 
 king, to make laws. In Norway the legislature consists of one house 
 only, while in Sweden there is both an upper and a lower house. 
 The king is the chief executive, but must act through a body of 
 ministers chosen by himself. In both countries the Lutheran church 
 is recognized as the state church and its expenses are paid partly out 
 of the public funds. Religious freedom is granted to all denomi- 
 nations. Both countries maintain public free schools with numerous 
 institutions for higher instruction. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Describe the situation of the Scandinavian- 
 countries. In what way are their languages aUke? Who were the Northmen? Describe 
 their settlements and colonies. (2) Why is it convenient to study Norway and Sweden 
 together? How does each compare in size with New York? Compare the coast of 
 Sweden with that of Norway. How do these countries differ in surface? In climate? 
 (3) Why can Sweden manufacture lumber and not iron? Why is Norway more exten- 
 sively engaged in the fishing business than any other country? Compare the farming 
 industries of these two countries. Why are they more important in Sweden than m 
 Norway? What products are furnished for export? (4) What are the chief minerals 
 of Norway? Of Sweden? In what part of Sweden is the best iron found? How is 
 transportation provided for? Into what forms is iron manufactured? (5) Make a list 
 of the exports and imports of these countries. Describe their trade with the United 
 States Compare the transportation facilities of the two countries. How does their 
 shipping compare? (6) Which are the leading cities of Sweden? Of Norway? Write 
 a paragraph about Stockholm. What is said of Christiania? Speak of government, 
 education, and religion in each country 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 Location, Surface, and Climate. — Denmark occupies the extreme 
 northern part of the European plain. With the exception of Holland, 
 it is the lowest land in Europe, but it is entirely above the sea level, 
 rising in places to 600 feet. The kingdom consists of the peninsula 
 of Jutland and numerous islands lying between the strait of Cattegat 
 and the Baltic sea. The islands are fertile agricultural regions. The 
 area of Denmark is about 15,000 square miles, two thirds being con- 
 tinental and one third insular, and the population exceeds 2,.W0,000. 
 
104 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 The climate is moist and mild in summer, but cold in winter as 
 it is exposed to the winds from over the icy waters of the Baltic sea. 
 
 Industries and Agriculture. — Of the total area of Denmark, a 
 little over one third is cultivated land. One third is pasture and 
 meadow; the remainder, principally the mainland to the north and 
 west, consists of forests, peat bogs, sand wastes, and heather. Much 
 attention is given to the sugar-beet. Butter and eggs are, however, 
 the chief farm products, forming over one half the exports of the 
 country. Next in value among the products and exports are horses, 
 cattle, swine, goats, meats, hides, beans, and fish. 
 
 The Danes take every care to make their products the best. Dairy inspection 
 is provided by the government and by agricultural societies. The horses, live 
 cattle, and meats exported are of the very best quaUty. 
 
 Other Occupations. — Fishing and trade are the natural occupa- 
 tions of the Danes. Their fishing grounds are in the North and Baltic 
 seas. Over 4,000 merchant vessels sail under the Danish flag, many of 
 
 Thorwaldsen Museum, Copenhagen. The museum was presented 
 to the city by the famous sculptor, and contains the best speci- 
 mens of his work. 
 
 them engaged in the carrying trade for other nations. With the excep- 
 tion of beet sugar, brandy, and beer, the manufactures of the country 
 are small. Denmark's largest trade is with Germany, Great Britain, 
 and the United States. From this country she buys among other things 
 grains and oil cake, and sells us hides, skins, and dairy products. 
 
CITIES AND COLONIES 
 
 105 
 
 Cities. — The capital and metropolis of Denmark is Copenhagen, 
 situated on the eastern shore of the island of Zeeland. The narrow- 
 strait between this island and the mainland of Sweden is the main 
 entrance of the Baltic sea. Copenhagen is strongly fortified and is 
 sometimes called the "Keeper of the Baltic " because it guards the 
 entrance. It is a beautiful city finely laid out with many parks and 
 gardens. It is the only large city in Denmark and handles nearly 
 all the commerce of the country. 
 
 Copenhagen contains a university and is the seat of several learned societies. 
 It was the birthplace of Thorwaldsen, one of the most famous of sculptors. Another 
 famous citizen was Hans Christian Andersen, the story teller. Aarhuus, (or'-hoos) 
 the second city, is the chief town and port on the mainland of Jutland. Odense, 
 a very old city, is the principal town on the fertile island of Fyen. 
 
 Religion, Education, and Government. — Nearly the entire popu- 
 lation belong to the Lutheran church, 
 which is the established religion of 
 the state. Members of other de- 
 nominations have entire freedom of 
 worship. The laws of Denmark are 
 made by a National Congress consist- 
 ing of a Senate and House of Com- 
 mons. The laws are executed by a 
 council appointed by the king. Free 
 public schools are maintained in 
 every town and country district in 
 Denmark, and all children from 
 seven to fourteen years of age are 
 compelled to attend. Numerous 
 high schools, professional schools, 
 and colleges are provided by the 
 state. 
 
 Colonies. — The colonies of Den- 
 
 ,.T-i Ti j„„J+u^ A native of the Faroe islands. 
 
 mark m Europe are Iceland and the 
 
 Faroe islands. Both of these are of volcanic origin. The latter have 
 
106 DENMARK 
 
 an area of 500 square miles and a population of 9,000. They con- 
 tain some farm land and raise fine-wooled sheep. On these islands 
 are found vast numbers of sea fowl from which eider-down is obtained. 
 Iceland contains over a hundred volcanoes, some of which are active. 
 Mount Hekla is the most famous of them. Earthquakes are frequent 
 and destructive. The area of the island is 40,000 square miles and its 
 population nearly 85,000. Sheep and cattle are raised for export. 
 Other products and exports are fish, cod-liver oil, furs, eider-down, and 
 feathers. The annual commerce is valued at several million dollars. 
 Foxes and polar bears are common and the waters abound in whale, 
 seals, and fish. 
 
 Iceland was settled by Northmen over a thousand years ago. It was sailors 
 from Iceland who settled Greenland and who first reached the shores of America. 
 The iyland early became the seat of considerable learning and culture and has an 
 ancient collection of myths and tales called Eddas and Sagas. The old Saga 
 language is still spoken. Education is universal. The religion is the Lutheran. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Compare the location and surface of Denmark 
 with that of Holland. What are the natural resources of Denmark? Why is farming 
 the chief occupation? What products are produced for export? Name other important 
 products. (2) What can you tell of the fishing industry? Of the carrying trade? Of 
 manufactures? (3) What is the capital of Denmark? Why is its location important? 
 Name and describe two other leading cities. (4) Government. How is the National 
 Congress composed? Name the colonies of Denmark. Write a paragraph about Ice- 
 land. What difference do you notice between the Danish people and the Dutch? 
 
 The Danish Plebiscite Areas. — It is provided in the Treaty 
 of Versailles that the people of certain areas shall be allowed to 
 decide by a popular vote as to which of the bordering nations 
 they shall be joined. The Danish " Plebiscite " area is the prov- 
 ince of Schleswig, which was forcibly taken from Denmark and 
 annexed to Germany in 1866. This province is a little smaller 
 than the state of Delware and has about the same number of 
 people. The Plebescite has been taken and the land has been 
 nearly equally divided between Germany and Denmark. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 ITALY 
 
 Answer the questions on Italy, page 108. 
 
 Location and Surface. — Italy occupies the central one of the 
 three peninsulas which project from southern Europe. In shape the 
 peninsula resembles a riding boot. The area of Italy, including the 
 islands of Sicily and Sardinia, is 111,000 square miles and the popu- 
 lation is 35,000,000. Its extensive coast line is lacking in good har- 
 bors because of the absence of tides to carry away the deposits from 
 the rivers. Venice has the best harbor on the east side, Genoa on the 
 west, and Taranto on the south. Italy is isolated from the rest of 
 Europe by the Alps, v/hich for many centuries could be crossed only 
 at the high mountain passes ; but now six railways cross these moun- 
 tains by means of numerous tunnels or by easy grades over the high 
 passes. 
 
 Italy is traversed by the rugged chain of the Apennines, 800 miles 
 in length. In the south they extend into Sicily, reaching their highest 
 point in Etna, over 10,000 feet; in the north they curve westward 
 around the gulf of Genoa and then turn north to join the Alps; with 
 them they enclose the valley of the Po on three sides. Everywhere 
 the sides of the Apennines are terraced and planted with vineyards 
 and olive groves. 
 
 The Lombardy plain, as the valley of the Po is called, is the chief 
 lowland region of Italy. It widens toward the sea where the river has 
 built up a rich delta which affords productive rice fields. With the 
 exception of the Po valley and smaller river valleys, and a narrow 
 coast plain, the surface of Italy is rugged or mountainous; so also is 
 that of Sicily, Sardinia, and its other islands. 
 
 107 
 
108 ITALY 
 
 Climate. — The climate is delightful. The protection afforded 
 by the high Alps and the influence of the Mediterranean waters 
 so moderate the temperature that the winters are mild and the 
 summers never oppressively hot. The northern plain, being en- 
 circled by mountains, has a scanty rainfall, but heavy rains in the 
 mountains themselves furnish water for irrigation and make this 
 plain available for agriculture. The peninsular part of Italy 
 is better watered, because the central ridge of highlands con- 
 denses the moisture from both east and west. The rain comes, 
 however, mostly during the autumn and winter, and artificial 
 irrigation is extensively practised throughout the country. 
 
 History and People. — In ancient times the peninsula contained many races, 
 which the Roman government united into one nation. At the breaking up of the 
 Roman Empire, barbarians invaded the country. The Venetii, pressed by the 
 Huns, sought refuge on some small islands in the Adriatic and built a village which 
 grew into the famous city and republic of Venice. In the south the kingdom of 
 Naples was established. The central part of the country was ruled by the Pope. 
 For centuries the Httle state of Italy was devastated by the contending armies of 
 Spain, France, and Germany. In 1860 seven of these states joined to form the 
 first " Kingdom of Italy." In 1866 Venice was added. After the Franco-Ger- 
 man war the states of the church were annexed and a " United Italy " was pro- 
 claimed with Rome as its capital. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. — (1) Describe the location of S-natzerland in latitude and longi- 
 tude. What countries surround it? What natural boundary has it on the south? What 
 two large lakes on its borders? (2) What four large rivers rise among the Alps? In 
 which direction does each flow? (3) What is the length of Switzerland in miles? The 
 breadth? How does it compare in size with your state? (4) What is the capital 
 of this country? Locate Basel, Zurich (zoo'-rik), St. Gall, Lucerne, and Lausanne. 
 (5) Draw an outline map of Switzerland and locate on it the chief rivers, lakes, and cities. 
 
 ITALY. — (1) What is the range of latitude of Italy? How does this compare 
 with Spain? How does it compare with your state? What countries of Europe 
 border Italy? What seas partly surround it? What gulfs and straits on the coast? 
 (2) What islands west of Italy? To what country do they belong? What river, lakes, 
 and mountains in the north of Italy? Name a tributary of the river. What famous 
 river in central Italy? (3) What mountains extend through Italy? How do they 
 affect the climate? Where is mount Vesuvius? Etna? Stromboli? (4) What inland 
 cities in the north? What two seaports? What seapo/ts on the east coast? On the 
 west coast? Locate Florence, Bologna, Trieste, Leghorn. What is the capital of Italy? 
 What city south of Rome? What cities on the opposite sides of the strait of Messina? 
 What can you tell about these cities? Locate Catania and Palermo. On what waters 
 could one sail from Venice to London? From Genoa to Constantinople? (5) On an 
 outhne map of Italy write the boundaries and fill in the names of the rivers, lakes, moun- 
 tains, and cities. 
 
■^UJliffc 
 
 |^4|ll.Wen»fV,,,G E R M A N Y \ If: ^t^ 
 
 rent ... .--"Cii'*** UdiueS 
 .'Mr*' Qoritz* \ 
 
 ITALY 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 1 I 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 Largest City iu each Country. Rome 
 
 Cities next in importance ^Oenoa 
 
 Capitals "^ 
 
 Railroads 
 
110 
 
 ITALY 
 
 Government, Education and Religion. — Italy has the constitu- 
 tional form of government. The Senate, or upper house of the Par- 
 liament, is chosen by the king. The Chamber of Deputies, or lower 
 house, is elected by the people according to districts and population. 
 The king and his body of chosen ministers are the executive power. 
 The education of children has been greatly neglected in the past, but 
 
 Women of Italy baking. All the people of a village make iise of the same oven. 
 
 Italy now has compulsory education and a system of free public 
 schools. For higher education there are twenty-one universities, 
 nearly all of them over 500 years old. The universities of Bologna 
 and Padua are the oldest; that of Naples is the largest, having over 
 5,000 students. The Italian is the language of all but a very small 
 part of the inhabitants. The people of Italy are nearly all Roman 
 Catholics. Nominally the Catholic Church is the state church. 
 
RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 
 
 111 
 
 Resources and Industries. — The chief natural wealth of Italy is 
 her soil and the adaptability of the climate to the cultivation of silk, 
 the vine, the olive, and tropical fruits. The valley of the Po is the 
 only region where extensive field crops are grown. Its soil is wonder- 
 fully fertile. The grass 
 grows so rapidly where 
 water is supplied that the 
 meadows may be mown 
 from six to nine times a 
 year, so that dairying is an 
 important industry. Cheese 
 is the chief dairy product 
 and there are several well- 
 known brands in steady de- 
 mand throughout the world. 
 Many cattle are fattened for 
 export to France. In south- 
 em Italy sheep are pastured, 
 mutton being a favorite 
 meat; but not enough wool 
 is produced to supply the 
 demand. 
 
 The leading crops of the Po 
 region are wheat, corn, and rice. 
 Grains are grown everywhere, but 
 not in sufficient quantities to sup- 
 ply the population. Flax, hemp, and tobacco are raised in northern and central 
 Italy; in the south and in Sicily, oranges, lemons, figs, and nuts are valuable crops, 
 and are exported in large quantities. 
 
 Silk is the most important commercial product of Italy. The silk 
 industries are carried on all over the country, but most extensively in 
 the north. They consist principally in caring for silk-worms and in pre- 
 paring the threads for weaving. For this work great quantities of silk 
 cocoons are imported from Japan, China, and other countries in Asia. 
 
 Italian women preparing herbs for market. 
 
112 
 
 ITALY 
 
 In the export of silk Italy ranks next to China and Japan, the average annual 
 value of the product being about $125,000,000. The city of Milan is the chief 
 silk market in Europe. The silk exported is shipped from Genoa, or is sent north 
 by rail to the great manufacturing countries. The weaving of silk fabrics is a rap- 
 idly growing industry, chiefly at Como, where a school for operatives is established. 
 
 The vine and the olive tree are plants characteristic of all the 
 Mediterranean countries and about one fifth of the area of Italy is 
 devoted to their cultivation. Lucca produces the best oil. Olives 
 
 Transporting wine at Bologna. 
 
 and olive oil form the second largest export and are sent to all civilized 
 countries. In these products Italy is the leading country of the 
 world. 
 
 Olive oil in Europe takes the place of butter, and is used in cooking. Cotton- 
 seed oil is imported from the United States into France and Italy, and after refining 
 is sold again as olive oil. Some of it can hardly be distinguished from the genuine 
 article. 
 
 In wine Italy ranks next to France, but the Italian wines are 
 inferior to the French. It is a common beverage throughout Italy 
 and forms a valuable export. Messina and Palermo are the chief 
 shipping points for fruit. 
 
FISHERIES AND MANUFACTURES 
 
 113 
 
 Fisheries. — Nearly 136,000 men and 29,000 vessels of all kinds 
 are employed in the fisheries. These are partly in the Mediterranean 
 sea and partly in foreign waters. The tunny, a fish often weighing over 
 1,000 pounds, is the chief variety caught in the Mediterranean. The 
 fisheries cannot supply the home demand, and cured fish is one of 
 the leading imports. Coral and sponges are found along the Itahan 
 coasts. The Italians are the chi6f manufacturers of coral jewelry. 
 
 The mineral wealth of Italy consists mainly in the sulphur of Sicily and the 
 white statuary marbles 
 of Carrara. Borax is 
 found in the volcanic 
 districts. Good iron ore 
 occurs in the island of 
 Elba, copper in Tuscany, 
 and lead and zinc in Sar- 
 dinia. No true coal is 
 found, but considerable 
 amounts of lignite are 
 mined and used in man- 
 ufacturing. 
 
 Of manufactures, 
 the silk, woolen, and 
 
 ,'*^!3^:''^ 
 
 Remains of an old Roman theater. 
 
 cotton products are the most important. Venetian glass, Leghorn 
 straw goods, coral jewelry, and cutlery are made in Milan. Native 
 hemp is made into cordage, and steel rails, locomotives, and machin- 
 ery are manufactured near Genoa, but most iron, steel, and other 
 metal goods are imported. Porcelain and mosaic work are made in 
 Florence, and hand lace, alabaster and marble sculptures, and wood 
 carvings in many places. The Italians exhibit taste and skill in the 
 making of articles of an artistic nature. 
 
 Trade is carried on mainly with the neighboring countries; but 
 cotton, wheat, tobacco, and farm machinery come from the United 
 States, and coal, woolens, and steel goods from England. France, 
 Germany,, and Switzerland buy the Italian raw silk and the United 
 States takes about one third of the sulphur. 
 
114 
 
 ITALY 
 
 Transportation is provided for by over 10,000 miles of railways 
 and a system of excellent highways many of which have been in exist- 
 ence since the old Roman days. The railroads traverse the peninsula 
 on both sides of the Apennines with frequent lines crossing. A 
 famous mail route connects the seaport of Brindisi with London and 
 Paris and transfers the mails to steamers bound to and from the 
 Indies. Other routes are mentioned (see page 135). 
 
 There is little water conuntinication; boats ascend the Po as far as Turin. The 
 Arno is navigable to Florence, the Tiber to Rome, and other smaller streams in 
 parts of their courses. During the Middle Ages Italy was the foremost nation of 
 
 Naples and mount Vesuvius. 
 
 the world in the number of her ships and in the value of her commerce, but her 
 merchant fleet is now fifth in size among the nations. It carries the greater part 
 of her own goods, and a considerable amount for other countries. Genoa and 
 Naples are the most important seaports. Next to these in the value of their trade 
 come Leghorn, Messina, Palermo, Venice, and Catania. 
 
 Cities. — Italy has eleven cities with over 100,000 population and 
 about fifty containing from 25,000 to 100,000. The Italians are fond 
 of city life and are willing to go back and forth to their work in the 
 country for the sake of living in town. Naples, the largest city, is 
 remarkable for its blue skies, its blue crescent-shaped harbor, its ter- 
 raced hillsides, and the neighboring volcano, Vesuvius (see page 14). 
 
CITIES 
 
 115 
 
 PtOMJB 
 
 The country surrounding Naples is dotted with villages buried in groves of 
 orange and lemon 
 trees, and with hills set 
 with vineyards. Thou- 
 sands of tourists visit 
 Naples every season to 
 climb the volcano, to 
 view the excavated 
 cities of Pompeii 
 {pom-pa' -ye) and Her- 
 culaneum, and to study 
 the curious life of the 
 Neapolitan streets. Of 
 especial interest are 
 the excavations at 
 Pompeii, where pal- 
 aces, temples, thea- 
 ters, and streets have 
 been exposed to view 
 
 just as they were two thousand years ago. 
 
 Milan and Rome have each nearly half a million population. 
 
 former, at 
 
 The 
 the 
 of 
 lines 
 is a 
 city 
 
 Sorting silk cocoons at Milan. 
 
 intersection 
 important 
 of travel, 
 progressive 
 with modern 
 buildings, stores, 
 wide streets, and 
 beautiful parks. 
 Its cathedral of 
 white marble, 
 adorned with 
 thousands of 
 minarets and 
 statues, is the 
 
 chief glory of the city. Rome, the " Eternal City," the capital of 
 ancient Rome and modern Italy, dates its existence from 753 B.C. For 
 
116 
 
 ITALY 
 
 centuries it has been the residence of the Pope. It contains the 
 cathedral of St. Peter, the largest Christian church in the world, and 
 the Vatican. 
 
 St. Peter's was designed and built by Michael Angelo, Italy's greatest archi- 
 tect and sculptor. Standing within one may look upward 440 feet to the summit 
 of the dome decorated with mosaics, each composed of thousands of pieces of colored 
 marble, so skilfully laid together as to look like pictures painted on canvas. The 
 palace of the Pope, the Vatican, is a world by itself. Surrounded by spacious parks 
 and gardens, it contains twenty courts, eight great staircases, and 11,000 rooms. 
 It contains the famous Sistine Chapel, celebrated for wonderful paintings by Michael 
 Angelo and Raphael, and for its halls and corridors, filled with sculptures, paintingS; 
 
 St. Peter's and the Vatican. 
 
 tapestries, vases, and jewels. St. Peter's and the Vatican are frequented by art 
 students from all countries, who go there to study the works of the famous artists 
 and sculptors. No less noted than these comparatively modern structures are 
 the ruins of ancient Rome. The most magnificent of these is the Colosseum, a 
 great stone amphitheater seating 100,000 people, where men and beasts fought 
 for the amusement of the Roman populace. Near the Colosseum is the Forum 
 where the Roman citizens met to transact pubhc business and to listen to the speeches 
 of their great orators. The present capitol stands on the site of the citadel of ancient 
 Rome. The Rome of to-day is much hke other Italian cities, and is busthng with 
 life and thronged, not only with Itahans, but with visitors from every nation. Out- 
 side of Rome are the Catacombs, consisting of caves and tunnels hollowed out of the 
 
CITIES 
 
 117 
 
 rock, which were used as tombs and as hiding places by the persecuted Christians 
 of early times. 
 
 Venice, the " Queen of the Adriatic," the " City of the Sea," is 
 built on a hundred small islands joined together by 400 bridges. It 
 has canals for streets and the principal means of conveyance are the 
 gondolas, or long, narrow skiffs, each propelled by a single oar. 
 
 Venice at one time was the richest commercial state in the world. Its mer- 
 chant ships traded with all parts of Europe and with the countries of the East. 
 
 A bird's-eye view of Venice. 
 
 On the " Rialto," or bridge crossing the Grand Canal, merchants and bankers 
 met for the transaction of business. The rulers of the city were called Doges; 
 the palace in which they lived and the cathedral of St. Mark are the most noted 
 structures in the city. 
 
 Florence, the " Beautiful City," stands on the banks of the Arno 
 in the province of Tuscany. It has a famous Cathedral and BeU 
 Tower. It was formerly the chief center of Italian art, and some of 
 the finest paintings in the world are still preserved in its palaces and 
 galleries. 
 
 West of Florence is Pisa, with its famous Leaning Tower, from whose summit 
 Galileo igal-i-te'-o) first determined the laws of falling bodies. Northward along 
 the coast is Genoa, the birthplace of Columbus and the old commercial rival of 
 
118 
 
 ITALY 
 
 Venice. The city is built on terraced hillsides along the harbor, back of which are 
 the Apennines. The stately houses that line some of the streets were the homes of 
 
 A street in Florence. 
 
 nobles and merchants in the time of Columbus; now they have been made over into 
 tenements for poor families. Turin is an important railroad center and manufac- 
 turing town in Lombardy; it is the first large Italian city on the mount Cenis rail- 
 road from France. Palermo, in Sicily, stands in the midst of orange and lemon 
 groves, and is a shipping-point for fruit. 
 
 A view of Genoa. 
 
 The Islands. — The area of Sicily is 10,000 square miles and the 
 population 3,500,000. It is separated from Italy by the strait of 
 
EMIGRATION AND COLONIES 
 
 119 
 
 Messina. Sicily is mountainous with a narrow coastal plain. Mount 
 Etna rises more than 10,000 feet above the sea. The interior of 
 Sicily has been denuded of trees. The coastal plains are very fertile, 
 producing wheat, corn, fruits, grapes, and olives. Sulphur is the 
 chief mineral product. The Lipari islands, north of Sicily, are famous 
 for the Stromboli volcano , it is called the Lighthouse of the Mediter- 
 ranean. The Maltese group, southwest of Sicily, now belongs to 
 England. The island of Malta has an area of 100 square miles, mostly 
 
 A view of Messina after the eartiiquake. 
 
 bare rock. The fine harbor of Valetta is guarded by impregnable 
 forts. Sardinia is a mountainous island to the westward from Italy. 
 It has an area of 9,000 square miles and a population of 870,000. 
 Forests cover two fifths of its surface. The soil is fertile, and the 
 vine, olive, and orange grow to perfection. 
 
 Emigration and Colonies. — During the last five years about 
 three millions of Italians have emigrated to foreign countries. One 
 third of these have come to the United States, The number of emi- 
 grants is steadily increasing. Italy has two colonies in Africa, Eritrea 
 
120 
 
 ITALY 
 
 and Italian Somali-land; and also the concession of Tientsin 
 {tyen'-tsin'). 
 
 San Marino. — Included within the territory of Italy is the little 
 state of San Marino, the oldest and smallest republic in the world. 
 It contains 24 square miles and 11,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Monument at Rome in memory of King Victor Emanuel II, the founder of the United 
 Kingdom of Italy. This is one of the most magnificent memorials in the world. It is 
 500 feet long, 450 feet wide, and 250 feet high, and cost $20,000,000. The bronze eques- 
 trian statue of the king is 40 feet high. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Location of Italy in Europe; in latitude. 
 Which of our states have the same latitude? (2) Describe the direction and extent of 
 the Apennines. What is the highest point? What volcanoes has Italy? W' here are the 
 lowlands? What is said of the Po valley? (3) How do you account for the mild cli- 
 mate of Italy? Why do the rains come chiefly in winter? How is Italy governed? Re- 
 ligion? Education? (4) Why is Italy a better farming country than Spain? What 
 industries are carried on? What are the products of southern Italy? (5) Describe the 
 silk industry and trade. Where do the vine and olive grow? W^hat is said of the olive- 
 oil industry? How does Italy rank in wine? (6) Fishing industries. What use is made 
 of coral? What are the chief minerals of the country? Where are borax and sulphur 
 found ? Name the other minerals and tell where found. (7) What are the leading man- 
 ufactures ? What manufactured goods are imported ? Make a list of the exports and 
 imports of Italy and the countries to which each is sent. (8) Means of transportation. 
 Name the chief land and water routes. What is said of Italy's shipping ? (9) Write a 
 paragraph about Naples. Write one about Rome. Make a list of all the_cities named 
 in this chapter, and write an important statement about each. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 SPAIN AND. PORTUGAL 
 
 Answer the questions on spa cn and Portugal, -page 56. 
 
 Location, Surface, Climate. — The extreme southwestern part of 
 Europe, called the Iberian peninsula, is occupied by Spain and 
 Portugal. The area of Spain is 192,000 square miles with a population 
 of 19,000,000. Portugal has an area of 35,000 square miles and a 
 population of 6,000,000. In the rugged nature of its surface the 
 Iberian peninsula resembles Switzerland and Norway. The coast is 
 not broken by deep inlets, but there are numerous small indentations 
 which make good harbors, the estuary of the Tagus being the best. 
 
 The mountains which run nearly parallel with the coast shut off the moisture 
 so that the interior plateau region receives too Httle rain for farming. The 
 Pyrenees and Cantabrian mountains form the northern boundary of the plateau. 
 Some of the peaks of the Pyrenees are over 10,000 feet high. The mountain passes 
 are so numerous that the Moors called the Pyrenees the " Range of Gates." The 
 Sierra Morena mountains are the southern boundary of the plateau. To the south 
 between the Sierra Morena and the Sierra Nevada mountains lies the fertile valley 
 of the Guadalquivir (gwa'-thdl-ke-ver') river. The long slope of the plateau is drained 
 toward the west by the Douro, Tagus, and Guadiana igud-the-d'-na) rivers. The 
 shorter eastern slope is drained into the Mediterranean by the Ebro, the only impor- 
 tant river in the north. Many of the peaks of the plateau ranges are from 7,000 
 feet to 10,000 feet high. 
 
 Spain and Portugal lie on the southern border of the belt of west- 
 erly winds. The northern and northwestern parts of these countries 
 therefore receive a heavy rainfall, coming at all seasons. Like the 
 rest of western Europe the climate of this section is moderate through- 
 out the year. The rain diminishes gradually toward the southeast; 
 at Madrid it is only ten inches annually, while farther south on the 
 plateau sheltered by the lofty Sierra Nevada mountains the rainfall 
 
 121 
 
122 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 is so meager that irrigation is necessary. The narrow coast plain 
 on the south and east receives enough rain, but chiefly in winter 
 (see 'page 23). This region has the warmest cHmate in Europe, and 
 
 cotton, sugar-cane, 
 and tropical fruits 
 are grown. The 
 central plateau has 
 extremes of tem- 
 perature; snow and 
 
 The mouth of the Tagus showing Lisbon and the highest 
 point of the Sierra Nevada mountains in Spain. 
 
 ice are common at 
 Madrid in winter, 
 while in summer 
 the thermometer 
 often registers 
 above 100° Fahren- 
 heit in the shade. 
 The climate of 
 Portugal resembles 
 that of the peninsula in general, but unlike Spain every part of this 
 country receives sufficient rain for farming. 
 
 People and History. — The Celts, who inhabited the Spanish peninsula, were 
 conquered by the Romans. Afterwards Teutonic tribes invaded the land. The 
 invaders adopted the Roman language and customs which they found prevailing, 
 and did not greatly change the character of the people. Still later the Mohammedan 
 Moors crossed the strait of Gibraltar and conquered the southern half of the penin- 
 sula, which they held until driven out by Ferdinand and Isabella. The Moors of that 
 time were a highly civihzed people, far in advance of the nations of Europe. During 
 their long residence in Spain they had made the country productive and prosperous. 
 In the time of Columbus, Spain and Portugal were the leading maritime nations 
 of Europe; it was Diaz and Da Gama who explored the coast of Africa and found 
 the first sea route to India; and Columbus, De Soto, Cortez, and Pizarro who were 
 the discoverers and conquerors of the New World. In those days the best men of 
 Spain went either to the wars or to the colonies, and the home country became 
 
INDUSTRIES OF SPAIN 
 
 123 
 
 impoverished. Useful industries nearly ceased and the government depended 
 almost entirely upon the colonies for resources. In the early part of the nineteenth 
 century the Spanish colonies in America became independent. Spain lost the last 
 of her important colonies in the late war with the United States. The Spanish 
 people of to-day are simple and hospitable, proud and somewhat disinclined to 
 work. In the rural districts they Uve mostly in villages, going out every morning 
 to work on their farms. 
 
 Industries of Spain. — From one half to three fourths of the peo- 
 ple of Spain obtain a hving directly from the soil. Wheat, oats, and 
 barley are grown on the central plateau; corn on the coast plain and 
 in the river valleys. Southern Spain and the Mediterranean coast 
 produce grapes, olives, oranges, cotton, sugar, and silk; the date 
 palm and the pomegranate flourish in the dry regions, as well as 
 flax, hemp, and esparto, a grass used in making paper. 
 
 The Moors had developed a thorough system of irrigation in southern Spain 
 
 which the government 
 is now trying to restore; 
 it is also endeavoring 
 through agricultural 
 schools and experiment 
 farms to improve the 
 methods of cultivation. 
 Of farm products, 
 wine and fruit, olives 
 and olive oil are the 
 most valuable. The 
 olive grows on the dry 
 uplands without irriga- 
 tion, and is of the high- 
 est value to the Spanish 
 both as an article of 
 food and as an article of 
 trade. To obtain ohve oil, the fruit is crushed and the oil pressed out by rude 
 machinery on the plantations and the waste pulp is used to fatten swine. Malaga 
 grapes are well-known articles of Spanish commerce. 
 
 Sheep and swine are the principal farm animals; the dry plateau 
 is splendidly adapted to sheep and more are kept than in any other 
 European country. The sheep are of the fine-wooled merino breed 
 for which Spain is noted. Mules and donkeys are the common beasts 
 
 A party of Spanish villagers out for a holiday near Valencia. 
 
124 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 of burdeji. The roads in general are so bad that vehicles cannot be 
 used, and farm products are transported on the backs of these sure- 
 footed animals. The Basques in the north raise cattle for export 
 to England. Bulls and horses are bred in Andalusia; the former 
 for the bull fights. The forests of Spain are nearly depleted, the 
 only product they supply worthy of mention is the bark of the cork 
 tree, an export which is next in value to wine. 
 
 Minerals. — The most valuable natural resource of Spain is the 
 mines, which have been worked for three thousand years and seem to 
 grow richer the more they are worked. Cadiz, the oldest city of 
 Spain, was founded by the Phenicians as a trading port for metals. 
 The mines are for the most part in the bordering mountains; they 
 number over 28,000 and cover an area of 280,000 acres. In copper, 
 lead, and quicksilver Spain is the leading country of Europe. Zinc, 
 silver, and arsenic also are found. Coal and ixon are most abundant 
 in the highlands of Asturia in the north; more iron ore is shipped 
 from the port of Bilbao than from any other port of Europe. 
 
 Salt, sulphur, soda, cobalt, and phosphorus are other valuable mineral products. 
 Owing to antiquated methods of mining and the lack of capital, the Spaniards 
 profit little by their mineral wealth. Many of the mines are owned by foreigners, 
 and the metals are exported mostly as raw materials; nearly the entire output of 
 the iron mines goes to Great Britain, to be sold back to Spain in the form of iron 
 and steel manufactures. 
 
 Manufactures. — Spain was once one of the busiest of manufac- 
 turing countries. Spanish cottons, woolens, linens, leather, and steel 
 goods once supplied her colonial trade and half the markets of Europe. 
 The industries of the country declined after the expulsion of the Moors. 
 Barcelona is now the chief manufacturing city. Its leading products 
 are textile goods, paper, and glass. Murcia and Valencia have exten- 
 sive silk mills; fine glass and china ware, articles of gold and silver, 
 and chocolate are made at Madrid and at several smaller cities. Iron 
 and steel goods are manufactured mainly in the Basque provinces. 
 Cannon and rifles are made at the government arsenals at La Trubia 
 near the town of Oviedo. Wines are made at Jerez {ha'-rath), 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 
 
 125 
 
 Alicante, and Malaga, and exported to France and other countries of 
 Europe. There are numerous flour and oil mills, and factories for 
 making tobacco and cigars give employment to 50,000 families. 
 Leather goods are still made at Cordoba, and cutlery at Toledo. 
 
 Transportation and Commerce. — Since the industries of Spain 
 are mostly along the coast, trade is mainly carried on by coasting ves- 
 sels. Steamers ascend the Guadalquivir as far as Seville, but the 
 
 Transporting produce to market at Seville. 
 
 other rivers are of little use for navigation. There is one canal, 60 
 miles long, built to improve the navigation of the Ebro. This river, 
 as well as the Tagus, the Minho, and Douro, is navigable for short 
 distances. The coast towns and the larger interior cities are con- 
 nected by railroads. 
 
 Besides the articles already named Spain exports cork, olive oil, 
 raisins, nuts, Malaga grapes, and oranges. Esparto and a few coarse 
 textiles are also among the exports. Articles of necessity are imported. 
 
126 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 such as grain, flour, provisions, tobacco, cotton cloth, lumber, and 
 machinery. These goods are obtained mainly from Russia and the 
 United States. Our chief imports from Spain are nuts, fruits, and. 
 cork, Spanish goods are in large part carried by Spanish ships. 
 
 Cities. — The two cities of Spain which exceed half a milHon popu- 
 lation are Barcelona and Madrid. The former is the main seaport 
 and the leading business and manufacturing city. Madrid owes its 
 importance to its being the political center of the nation. The loca- 
 
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 Shipping Malaga grapes from the port of Almeria in Spain. 
 
 tion of the city is inconvenient and the climate is bad. The sights of 
 Madrid center about its splendid square, the Puerta del Sol, or Gate- 
 way of the Sun, so called because it was formerly the eastern entrance 
 to the city. The Royal Palace with its fine interior decorations, 
 the Parliament Houses, and the Picture Gallery with hundreds of 
 paintings by the most distinguished artists of Europe, are the most 
 famous buildings. 
 
 Valencia, Seville, Malaga, Murcia, and Cartagena, the next cities in size, are 
 practically seaports. Cartagena has the best harbor. Seville, the " Paris of Anda- 
 lusia," is noted for the old Moorish palace of the Alcazar. Granada contains the 
 royal palace of the Moorish kings, the Alhambra, one of the most beautiful and 
 
ISLANDS AND COLONIES 
 
 127 
 
 lavishly decorated structures in the world. Cordoba, once a city of a million inhab- 
 itants, has dwindled to sixty thousand; its mosque is unrivaled among the Moorish 
 sacred edifices. Toledo has a second Alcazar, and both Toledo and Burgos have 
 splendid Gothic cathedrals. Madrid and Seville are famous for large amphitheaters 
 for bull-fighting, though most of the larger cities have their bull rings. 
 
 Islands and Colonies. 
 
 The chief islands belonging to Spain are 
 the Balearic (bal-e-dr'-ik) group in 
 the Mediterranean, and the Canary 
 group near the coast of Africa. 
 Politically these groups are at- 
 tached to the mainland, as are also 
 the Spanish possessions on the coast 
 of Morocco. The Balearic islands 
 have rich mineral resources and 
 important manufacturing indus- 
 tries. The Canary group consists of 
 a number of small islands which 
 are very productive of tropical 
 fruits and vegetables. The vol- 
 canic peak of Teneriffe rises over 
 12,000 feet above the sea. The 
 mild and equable climate of both 
 these island groups has made them 
 
 A fish pedler in the streets of Malaga. famOUS aS a health rCSOrt. 
 
 In a lofty valley on the southern slope of the Pyrenees is the little republic of 
 Andorra, which has maintained its independence for over a thousand years. Its 
 area is only 150 square miles, and its population about 10,000. Its resources are 
 chiefly in agriculture and grazing. The rock of Gibraltar on the southern coast 
 of Spain is a crown colony of Great Britain. Its strong fortifications command 
 the entrance to the Mediterranean sea. It is also important as a naval station 
 and coahng port. 
 
 Industries and Cities of Portugal. — Portugal closely resembles 
 Spain in surface features, climate, resources, and industries. It has 
 the most extensive cork forests in the world, and cork bark is, next 
 to wine, the most valuable export; copper ore, cotton goods, timber, 
 
128 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 
 
 and fruits are the exports next in value. The trade of Portugal is 
 chiefly with Great Britain, Germany, France; and with Brazil, at one 
 time her largest colony. The leading imports are wheat, fish, sugar, 
 iron work, cotton, and machinery. 
 
 Both Spain and Portugal have extensive fisheries both in the Mediterranean 
 and in the Atlantic, but the catch is not large enough to supply the home demand, 
 so that fish is one of the foods imported. 
 
 Lisbon and Oporto are the only large Portuguese cities. Lisbon 
 is situated on the Tagus twelve miles from the coast, where the river 
 widens to form a splendid harbor. It is picturesquely situated with 
 rugged mountains at its back. It has one of the largest libraries in 
 
 iiism^*'s;rym- 
 
 WM^^ 
 
 \ >if. __^\ 
 
 Funchal, the capital of the Madeira islands. 
 
 Europe. It is the seat of the government and is the chief military 
 and naval station. Oporto, at the mouth of the Douro, is the leading 
 wine-shipping port. 
 
 Colonies. — Portugal has important colonies on the coasts of 
 India and China. The eastern part of the island of Timor in the 
 East Indies also belongs to her. Coffee and wax are exported, but the 
 island is not developed. The most important of Portugal's colonies, 
 however, are Guinea, Angola, and Portuguese East Africa. She owns 
 also the Cape Verde and Madeira {ma-de'-r'a) groups of islands near 
 
GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION 129 
 
 the African coast. The African colonies are valuable to Portugal for 
 minerals, forest products, and fruits. 
 
 Government and Religion. — The government of Spain is a 
 limited monarchy. The king is the executive, and takes part in the 
 making of the laws. The legislature is called the Cortes, and is com- 
 posed of a Senate and Congress equal in authority. The Senate, num- 
 bering 360, consists of three classes. First, those nominated by the 
 crown; second, those elected by the church, the universities, and by 
 various corporations; third, senators in their own right, among which 
 are sons of the king, certain of the nobility, and various officers of 
 state. The Congress is composed of deputies elected by the people. 
 The government of Portugal formerly resembled that of Spain. In 
 October, 1910, the revolutionary party seized the government prop- 
 erty in Lisbon, expelled the king, and established a republic under a 
 president. The new government has abolished the House of Peers, 
 the Council of State, and titles of nobility. The popular branch of 
 the legislature only has been retained. The Roman Catholic Church 
 is the state religion in both countries. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Location and surface of the Iberian peninsula. 
 Locate the mountains; the plateau. Why does the rain decrease from north to south? 
 Explain the climate of the coast plain. (2) Name the races that have successively 
 invaded the Spanish peninsula. Are any of them still found there? Who were the 
 Moors? What is said of their civilization? (3) What is said of Spain in the days of 
 Columbus? Name some of the distinguished men of Portugal and Spain. (4) What 
 difficulties retard successful farming in Spain? What are the products of the interior? 
 Of the coast plain? What plants grow well on the uplands? What farm animals are 
 kept? Why are sheep more abundant than cattle? What use is there for donkeys 
 and mules? (5) What is said of the mines of Spain? Which minerals are the most 
 abundant? Name other minerals, and tell some use of each. How could Spain make 
 her mines more profitable? (6) What caused the decline of Spanish manufactures? 
 Make a list of the chief manufactures to-day and tell the locality of each. Exports 
 and imports of Spain. (7) What are tlie two leading cities of Spain? Of Portugal? 
 Trade of Portugal. Make a list of all the cities named in this chapter, and state an 
 important fact about each. What is said of the colonies of each of these countries? 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 Answer the questions on s-u'itzerland, page lOS. 
 
 Location and Surface. — The area of Switzerland is a little less 
 than 10.000 square miles and its population about 4,000,000. Thl^ 
 is the most mountain- 
 ous country in Europe. 
 It may be called the 
 roof of the continent, 
 from whose lofty ridges 
 flow four rivers, the 
 Rhine, the Rhone, the 
 Danube, and the Po. 
 On the northwestern 
 border are the Jura 
 mountains with an aver- 
 age elevation of 2,500 
 feet; the southern and 
 southeastern parts, com- 
 prising about three 
 fifths of the entire sur- 
 face, are occupied by 
 the high Alps, ranging 
 in height from 5,000 to 
 15,000 feet. Between these two mountain regions lies the Swiss pla- 
 teau extending from lake Geneva to lake Constance. This plateau 
 is irregular and hilly, heaped here and there with the glacial deposits 
 of the Ice Age (see page 19), and deeply furrowed by the numerous 
 
 130 
 
 The Matterhorn. 
 
CLIMATE 
 
 131 
 
 swift mountain streams which descend from the Alps and flow north- 
 west into the Aar (dr) river. 
 
 The mountain ranges and plateaus have a general trend from northeast to 
 southwest: nevertheless the streams, with the exception of the upper waters of 
 the Rhone and the R,hine, instead of following the ridges, have found their way 
 across them through the numerous mountain passes. These mountain passes 
 are followed by the highways and railroads of the country. The most famous are 
 the Great St. Bernard, the Simplon, the St. Gothard, and the Splugen. The same 
 
 The Rhone glacier. Every glacier is the source of a stream which flows under- 
 neath the ice for several miles and finally emerges as the source of a river. 
 
 force that shaped the courses of the streams has arrested their flow in hundreds of 
 places, forming lakes of great beauty, and some of considerable size. The mountain 
 passes divide the Alps into numerous groups each of which bears the name of the 
 territory in which it stands. The Pennine Alps contain the greatest number of 
 lofty peaks. Near the village of Zermatt are mount Rosa (15,217 feet), Weisshorn 
 (14,803 feet), the Matterhom (14,705 feet), and twenty others, exceeding 12,000 
 feet in height. West of Zermatt, just over the French boundary, is mount Blanc, 
 the highest peak of all (see page 56). 
 
 Climate. — A great variety of climate and products is found in 
 Switzerland, depending upon the elevation and the direction of the 
 mountain slopes. Wheat, the vine, and the mulberry tree flourish 
 
132 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 in the plateau regions and in the southern valleys where the height 
 is less than 2,000 feet. The characteristic trees at this elevation are 
 the walnut, the chestnut, and the oak. Up to 4,000 feet the beech 
 and the maple are found. In this region grasses and some of the 
 hardier grains and fruits are cultivated. Above 4,000 feet the pine, 
 the larch, and the fir are the principal trees. At 5,000 feet glaciers 
 appear in the valleys and only dwarfed trees, shrubs, and grasses 
 
 
 
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 The Axenstrasse, a famous higliway which runs along the shore of lake Lucerne 
 where it is chiseled out of the solid rock. This road affords a fine view of the lake and 
 the surrounding mountains and is traversed every year by thousands of tourists. 
 
 grow. At 9,000 feet comes the region of perpetual snow and ice which 
 includes one twentieth of the country. About one third the area of 
 Switzerland is covered with ice or rock and is valueless for cultiva- 
 tion, the forests cover about one third, while the remaining tliird 
 consists of pasture and cultivated land. 
 
 On southern slopes, owing to the greater directness of the sun's rays, the tem- 
 perature rises high during the day but falls correspondingly low at night. The 
 western and southern slopes receive the heaviest rainfall because the prevailing 
 
GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, EDUCATION 
 
 133 
 
 winds blow from those directions; but the whole country has rain in abundance. 
 In the high altitudes snow takes the place of rain, and the vast accumulations shd- 
 ing off the mountain tops and ridges into the valleys form the glaciers, of which 
 
 there are about 600 among the Alps. In Berne, 
 the most populous canton is found in the Aletsch 
 glacier, the longest in the Alps (16 miles). In 
 the same regions are the famous mountains, the 
 Jungfrau iyiing'-frdu) (the maiden) and the 
 Mbrich (the monk). Near by are the beauti- 
 ful valleys of the Grindelwald and the Lauter- 
 brunnen; further north are lakes Thun (tun) 
 and Brienz, with Interlaken between them, the 
 favorite resort of tourists. With the coming of 
 the warm season the glaciers retreat up the 
 valleys and the melting ice deposits the soil and 
 drift. 
 
 People and History. — The early inhabi- 
 tants of Switzerland were a Celtic tribe called 
 Helvetians. Helvetia, as ancient Switzerland 
 was called, fell under the rule of the Franks, 
 and afterwards became a part of the German 
 Empire. In 1291 some of the cantons united 
 and founded the Swiss republic. From time 
 to time other cantons joined; there are now 22 
 in all. These cantons were free and independent 
 districts and have retained their old powers of 
 self-government. The Swiss have no national 
 language. Two thirds of them speak German; 
 those near the borders of France and Italy speak 
 the languages of those countries; a surprisingly 
 
 A native of Grisons, the largest of 
 the Swiss cantons, occupying the 
 Engadine, or upper valley of the Inn. 
 
 great number speak all three languages, as well as English. 
 
 Government, Religion, Education. — Each canton elects mem- 
 bers to a State Council and the people at large elect members to a 
 National Council. These two bodies form a national legislature called 
 the Federal Assembly. The Federal Assembly chooses a President and 
 a Federal Council of seven members which is the executive body of 
 the Republic. The President holds office for one year only, but the 
 term of membership for the Federal Council varies. 
 
 Both religion and educatior are under the control of the separate cantons. 
 Considerably more than half of the people are Protestants; the rest are Catholics, 
 
134 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 with one per cent, of Jews. No one can be taxed to support any creed to which he 
 does not belong, and there is entire freedom of worship for all. Elementary, high, 
 and technical schools are maintained, and there are universities in six cities. 
 
 Industries. — Though Switzerland has poor conditions for farm- 
 ing, agriculture combined with stock-raising and dairying provides a 
 living for about half the population. There are nearly 300,000 small 
 farms owned by the peasant proprietors, but the returns are insuf- 
 ficient for the comparatively large 
 population, and half the food sup- 
 ply is brought from other countries. 
 Dairy products and fruits are more 
 important than field crops. Con- 
 densed milk and cheese are large 
 exports. Swiss milch cows are of 
 the finest breeds and are much in 
 demand in the neighboring coun- 
 tries, while beef cattle are imported 
 from Italy and Austria. 
 
 The fine flavor of the Swiss milk and 
 butter is due to the rich grasses and sweet- 
 smelling herbs which grow in the upper 
 valleys. The pastures belong to the entire 
 village and every farmer has the right to 
 graze his cows in them. During the long 
 winter the cattle must be stabled and fed. 
 
 In the early spring when the grass springs up in the mountains, a day is set when all 
 the cows of the village are brought together. The village herdsman and his assist- 
 ants drive them to the upper pastures where they are kept and tended throughout 
 the summer. The milk is either made into butter and cheese there or is sent down 
 the mountain each day to the village. 
 
 Rye, oats, and potatoes are the chief products of the farms. 
 Apples, grapes, pears, and cherries flourish. The wine product is 
 very large but is not exported. The forests of Switzerland are cared 
 for by a government commission. The forests supply timber for 
 fuel and building purposes and for the important industries of wood- 
 carving and the manufacture of musical instruments. Salt, cement, 
 
 Quaint architecture in the old quarter 
 of Lucerne 
 
TEANSPORTATION 135 
 
 and building stone are the only mineral products of any impor- 
 tance. 
 
 The manufacturing industries of Switzerland employ about one 
 third of the people. The textile industry is the most important. 
 Silk and cotton are manufactured extensively and the Swiss are 
 expert in making knit goods and underwear of a mixture of these 
 fibers. Plain and embroidered silks and ribbons are made at Zurich 
 and Basel, and fine laces, trimmings, edgings, and embroideries at 
 St. Gall and Berne. St. Gall is especially noted for hand embroideries 
 on linen. Much of the weaving is done by hand at home. Straw is 
 braided by hand and exported for use in making hats. The metal 
 industries include watches, clocks, machinery, and jewelry. Geneva 
 is the center of the watch trade. 
 
 Over 300 technical schools are maintained by the canton governments. For- 
 merly all metal work, including watches, was done by hand ; but the competition of 
 other countries has compelled the Swiss to introduce machinery. 
 
 Transportation and Commerce. — Switzerland has about 3,000 
 miles of railways and a complete system of telegraph and telephone 
 lines, most of which are operated by the Federal Government. Five 
 important railways cross the Jura mountains into France, Germany, 
 Belgium, and Holland, and shorter lines lead up the valleys to points 
 of interest to tourists. Public highways, built with much engineer- 
 ing skill, cross the country in every direction. 
 
 Two railways cross the high Alps into Italy. One of these passes under Saint 
 Gothard mountain by a tunnel nine miles long; the other, under the Simplon, by 
 a tunnel thirteen miles long. A third tunnel, the Loetschberg, nine miles long, 
 was completed in 1911. It connects Berne with the Simplon railroad and with 
 Milan, Italy. These roads make it possible to travel in two days from the North 
 sea to the Mediterranean. The water-power of the country supplies electricity to 
 railroads and factories. 
 
 Besides dairy products and cattle, Swiss exports consist of the 
 manufactured goods above described. Material for the textile indus- 
 tries is practically all imported. Raw silk comes from Italy, China, and 
 Egypt. Cotton thxead and yarn come from England, and raw cotton, 
 
136 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 foodstuffs, and kerosene from the United States. Our imports from 
 Switzerland are mainly cotton goods, lace trimmings and lace cur- 
 tains, clocks and watches, dyes, silks, knit goods, cheese, and choco- 
 late. 
 
 Cities. — The large cities are all in the plateau region, this being 
 the most productive part of the country, the most easily accessible, 
 and the seat of the chief manufactures. Zurich, besides its manu- 
 
 Zurich on lake Zurich. 
 
 facturing industries, has a university, a national scientific school 
 (see page 135), and a national museum. Basel, the second city and 
 chief railroad center, stands on the frontier where the Rhine crosses 
 into Germany. Geneva, an old city, on the French border at the west 
 end of lake Geneva, is noted as an educational center. Its manu- 
 facturing industries are supplied with power generated by the falls 
 of the Rhone. Berne, the capital, contains the government buildings 
 and the offices of several international bodies which have their meeting 
 place in Switzerland on account of its central location. Other large 
 towns are Lausanne {lo-san'), St. Gall, Chaux-de-Fonds {sho' -de-fdh') , 
 Lucerne, and Bienne. 
 
SWISS SCENERY 
 
 137 
 
 Swiss Scenery. — The delightful cUmate and scenery of Switzerland are the 
 
 chief commercial assets 
 of the country. With- 
 out the money received 
 annually from travelers 
 she would be heavily 
 in arrears to foreign 
 countries for raw mate- 
 rials and food. She 
 has over $100,000,000 
 invested in summer 
 hotels and there are 
 
 thousands of board- 
 ing houses. Prob- 
 ably tourists spend 
 every year, in this 
 " Playground of Eu- 
 rope," from $60,000,- 
 000 to $70,000,000. 
 The thrift of the 
 Swiss and the money 
 left by tourists, con- 
 tribute to make the 
 country prosperous. 
 
 Favorite amusements in Switzerland 
 2. Tobogganing. 
 
 1 Mountain climbing. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND TOPICS. — (1) Location and surface of Switzerland; natural 
 divisions. Describe the streams and lakes. Name some of the high mountain peaks. 
 (2) Name five of the climatic divisions that depend on elevation. How do the slopes 
 affect temperature and rainfall? Tell how the glaciers are formed. Where is the longest 
 glacier? What interesting places near it? When are the glaciers longest? Shortest? 
 What is the result of the melting of the glaciers? At what height does perpetual snow 
 begin in the Alps? (3) What languages are spoken in Switzerland? What are the 
 divisions of the Federal Government? What are the principal religions of the country? 
 (4) What are the chief farming industries in Switzerland? Why is stock-raising more 
 important than agriculture? Describe the pastures of the Swiss valleys. What is said 
 of the forests? What mineral products are found? (5) What are the leading textiles? 
 The leading metal products? What city is noted for watches? Transportation and com- 
 munication. (6) Exports and imports. Trade with the United States. (7) Make a list 
 of the chief cities of Switzerland, and write a statement about each. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 RUSSIA 
 
 Answer questions on eussia, page 21. 
 
 Effects of the World War. — In 1914 before the outbreak of 
 the Great War, the Russian Empire was the strongest absolute 
 government on the globe. It embraced one sixth of the land 
 surface, and was second only to the British Empire in area. 
 All its divisions — Russia-in-Europe, Siberia, Caucasia, and 
 Turkestan — were rich in agricultural resources, producing 
 enough for the needs of the home land, besides exporting more 
 food products and raw materials than any other country 
 except the United States. The area of European Russia was 
 about 2,000,000 square miles and. the population nearly 160,- 
 000,000. The great bulk of the people were peasant farmers 
 living upon land belonging in common to their villages or leased 
 from large estates belonging to the nobility, which numbered 
 about 100,000 landed proprietors. The Czar, the absolute 
 ruler of the Empire, residing at Petrograd, governed the coun- 
 try through the army and through his appointed officers living 
 in the provinces. Home affairs were administered by the head- 
 men of the villages and the local assemblies of the provinces. 
 
 Revolution. — The government of Russia has always been 
 oppressive. It has always been the object of the Czars to 
 make Russians out of the multitude of alien peoples living 
 within the Empire by forbidding the use of their native lan- 
 guages and the practice of their religions. In this way the 
 Finns, the Poles, and especially the Jews have been subject 
 to continual persecution. It is no wonder, then, that Russia 
 has been the breeding place for Anarchists, Nihilists, Bolshe- 
 
 138 
 
SCANDINAVIAN INVADERS 139 
 
 vists, and revolutionists of every type, all seeking to destroy 
 the harsh and oppressive government of the Czars. The ranks 
 of the revolutionists have been recruited mainly from among 
 the educated classes and the poor laborers in the cities. The 
 peasant farmers, for the most part illiterate and densely igno- 
 rant, have taken little interest in matters of government, and 
 as a general thing supported the government of the Czars. 
 
 Historical Sketch. — A few centuries ago before Russia 
 became one of the states of Europe, there were three sections 
 known by the name ''Russia." These were Red Russia, in 
 the west between the Dnieper and the Vistula rivers. White 
 Russia, lying north and east of Red Russia, and Black Russia, 
 consisting of the central provinces of which Moscow was the 
 capital. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
 the colonization period of America, the name generally applied 
 to Russia was ''Muscovy," a name derived from Moscow, 
 indicating the prominence of that state. The "Czar of Mus- 
 covy" was the symbol of autocracy and arrogance. All Rus- 
 sians are members of the Slavonic race, which is supposed to 
 have come from Asia in the fourth and fifth centuries. 
 
 Scandinavian Invaders. — In the eighth and ninth centuries 
 the northern countries of Europe (Norway, Sweden, and Den- 
 mark) were united under the government of Denmark, the 
 greatest power of that time. The people were known as 
 "Northmen," and their soldiers and sailors led by able chiefs 
 explored and conquered in every direction. They sailed west 
 to Iceland and America. They conquered Britain and northern 
 France. In 862 Chief Ruric led an army into Russia and 
 estabHshed a kingdom in the west with his capital at Novgorod, 
 about 100 miles southeast of Petrograd. The seat of govern- 
 ment of the Scandinavian state was afterward removed suc- 
 cessively to Kief, Vladimir, and Moscow, the last-named city 
 remaining the capital until St. Petersburg — now Petrograd — 
 was made the capital in 1703 by Peter the Great, who drove the 
 
140 RUSSIA 
 
 Swedes out of the country. Peter and his descendants, or the 
 ''House of Romanoff," continued in power until the abdication 
 of the late Czar Nicolas, March 15, 1917. 
 
 Bolsheviki and Soviet Rule. — A new republic was pro- 
 claimed immediately after the removal of the Czar, with free 
 speech, universal suffrage (including women), pardon for all 
 political prisoners and exiles, and the maintenance of the 
 existing political relations with other countries. Attempts 
 were made to establish a permanent constitutional govern- 
 ment at Petrograd, but these attempts were opposed by the 
 radical revolutionists, or Bolsheviki, who wished the ''Soviet," 
 or Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Delegates, to have the 
 supreme control. The result was a series of revolutions in 
 different parts of the country and several provinces declared 
 independence. The Bolsheviki, under their leaders Lenine 
 and Trotzky, finally obtained control of affairs and set up their 
 government at Petrograd. The new government abolished 
 all property rights and divided the land among the people; 
 it wiped out the institutions of marriage and religion, and all 
 other institutions that civilization has laboriously built up, 
 and began the systematic confiscation of all kinds of private 
 property. Opponents of the new government were massacred. 
 Civil wars sprang up in different parts of the country and are 
 still raging. Millions of people have been killed, and of those 
 who are left thousands are dying of starvation every month. 
 The railroads and industries of the country are for the most 
 part suspended; the system of the "government by the people" 
 — which in Russia means the worst people — has failed and 
 the entire land is in a state of ruin and desolation. Of the 
 2,000,000 inhabitants of Petrograd, the capital and largest 
 city, only 600,000 are left, and hundreds of other towns have 
 suffered a similar decimation from war, famine, and disease. 
 
 Losses of Territory in European Russia. — A comparison 
 of the old and new maps of Russia indicates that nearly one 
 
GENERAL DESCRIPTION 
 
 141 
 
 third of the surface has been given up to the new repubhcs, 
 Finland, Poland, Esthonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Ukrainia. 
 All these lie along the western and southern borders. It is 
 probable that other regions also will be lost, especially if the 
 Bolsheviki remain in control of Petrograd. The remainder of 
 this chapter was written before the war, and it should be read 
 with the thought that many of the productions mentioned are 
 not now produced, and that many of the industries described 
 are now suspended. 
 
 General Description. — Russia with its dependencies, 
 Siberia, Caucasia, and Turkestan, lies in the great northern 
 plain, extending from the Baltic sea to the Pacific ocean and 
 from the fortieth parallel to within ten degrees of the north 
 pole. The border of European Russia is broken by four seas: 
 the Caspian, which is landlocked; the Black and the Baltic, 
 whose outlets are controlled by other nations; and the White, 
 which is icebound eight months of the year. The Russian plain 
 is crossed by a 
 low table-land ex- 
 tending in a north- 
 easterly direction 
 from the Carpa- 
 thian mountains 
 to the Valdai Hills 
 and thence to the 
 Ural mountains. 
 The large rivers of 
 
 -r» • ii TT 1 Plowing in southern Russia. 
 
 Russia, the Volga, 
 
 Don, Dnieper (ne'-per), Duna, and Dwina rise in the table-land 
 and flow down its gentle slopes to the four seas. Near the Cas- 
 pian the plain is below the sea level, yielding luxuriant grass 
 in spring, but in otlier seasons blasted by extremes of heat and 
 cold. In the north, the plain slopes toward the Arctic ocean 
 and ends in the tundras, the home of the reindeer, and the 
 breeding places of innumerable migratory birds. 
 
142 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 Climate. — As Russia lies far from the warm oceans and 
 has no high bordering mountains to arrest the rainfall or to 
 break the force of the winds, it has all the features of a con- 
 tinental cHmate. The 
 winters are cold and 
 the summers hot. 
 The shores of the 
 Arctic ocean are ice- 
 bound for more than 
 half the year, while 
 the mouths of the 
 Volga and Dnieper 
 rivers in the south are 
 closed on account of 
 
 Devil's Gate, a pass in the Caucasus. A military road the ice f Or more than 
 has been built by Russia through this pass. , i i • 
 
 three months durmg 
 the winter. The winds which bring rain and warmth to the 
 plain are the same westerly and southwesterly winds that 
 bathe the shores of Great Britain and France. But they 
 
 ^_. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^^^H 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 A view of the steppes of southeastern Russia. 
 
 become drier and cooler as they proceed eastward, so that the 
 Russian plains receive only one fourth as much rain as the 
 Atlantic coast, while the climate toward the east is subject to 
 
THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE 
 
 143 
 
 greater extremes. Thus the western part of the country is 
 fairly well watered, while the eastern and southeastern parts 
 receive not over 20 inches annual rainfall, and frequently less; 
 as a result droughts, with crop-failures and famines, are fre- 
 quent. In the winter the winds from northern Siberia bringing 
 the Arctic cold traverse Russia from the northeast. 
 
 Russia may be divided into six belts of vegetation. In the extreme north are 
 the tundras (see page 22). South of the tundra region is a belt of forests of low 
 birches, larches, and firs; farther south are forests of evergreen trees, with here 
 and there cultivated clearings. Next to this and crossing the central part of the 
 
 ^ s 
 
 1 
 
 iHii^; 
 
 $^M 
 
 
 i@ 
 
 
 
 
 
 A Russian drosky, or carriage. 
 
 country is a belt including forests of deciduous trees and the great farming region 
 where grain, hemp, and flax are the chief products. Below this farming belt is the 
 Black Earth belt which extends from the valley of the Dnieper to the base of the 
 Ural mountains. This is the " wheat belt " of Russia, and has extensive orchards 
 and meadows. In the arid region bordering the Caspian sea only coarse grasses 
 are found; this is the chief grazing section. The inhabitants are wandering tribes 
 of Tartars who keep cattle and sheep. In the region south of the Caucasus moun- 
 tains the climate is semi-tropical; corn, cotton, the vine, and tropical fruits are 
 produced. Southwest of the river Dnieper vegetables and root crops, especially 
 the sugar-beet, are important products. 
 
 The Russian People. — Russia contains from fifteen to 
 twenty races, speaking forty languages and dialects. Of the 
 
144 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 100,000,000 people belonging to the white race, over 90,000,000 
 are Slavs, who constitute the backbone of the nation. There 
 are many Poles and Germans and about 4,000,000 Jews. The 
 
 Finns and Samoyeds 
 in the North and the 
 Tartars in the South 
 belong to the yellow 
 race. 
 
 Although the town popu- 
 lation has increased in recent 
 years, the mujik {mobzhik'), 
 or peasant farmer, is stUl 
 the real representative of 
 the nation. Until 1861 the 
 Russian peasants were serfs 
 attached to the estates of 
 the nobles, and were bought 
 and sold with the land. 
 They lived in villages, and when set free about two fifths of the land was ap- 
 portioned among them. There are about half a million villages in the empire, 
 
 
 A Russian tea party. The tea urn, or "samovar," is 
 always kept ready for use among the Russians, who are 
 great tea drinkers. 
 
 Russian peasants in the market place. 
 
 holding on an average from four to five square miles of land each, 
 been changed by the present government. 
 
 All this has 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 145 
 
 Government, Education, and Religion. — Each village is 
 self-governirig, all the men meeting together in the open air to 
 discuss public affairs. They elect an elder, or headman, to 
 direct the business of the village; and a tax collector. The 
 peasant population is still very ignorant, less than one fourth 
 being able to read and write. 
 
 The established religion of the Empire is the Greek Catholic 
 faith. There are, however, about 12,000,000 Roman Catholics, 
 14,000,000 Mohammedans, and some Jews, Buddhists, and 
 various denomi- 
 nations of Prot- 
 estant Christians. 
 The Jews are the 
 only sect to 
 whom religious 
 liberty is denied. 
 Agriculture. — ■ 
 Farming is the 
 main occupation 
 of the Russian 
 people. Russia 
 is, next to the 
 United States, the greatest grain-raising country in the worid. 
 The annual yield of grains of all kinds amounts to two thousand 
 five hundred millions of bushels. Rye is the chief crop ; wheat 
 and corn grow in the Black Earth country and oats and barley in 
 the northern and central sections. 
 
 A Russian pleasure sleigh. 
 
 Russia is also the chief hemp- and flax-growing country, supplying four fifths 
 of the entire world's product. Next in value are hay, potatoes, beet sugar, eggs, 
 and poultry. Rice is grown in Trans-Caucasia, and tobacco chiefly in the Volga 
 basin. Seeds, oils, and oil-cake are important articles of export; flax, hemp, rape, 
 and sunflower seeds are the source of some of the oils. Oil-cake is what remains 
 of the seeds after the oil is pressed out; it is sold to the countries of western Europe 
 for fattening cattle, and for use as a fertilizer. Animals and their products are 
 exported from southern Russia and the steppe regions. 
 
146 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 Forests Products. — The basin of the Dwina is the richest 
 section of the great forest belt. In the value of its forest 
 products Russia ranks next to the United States and Canada. 
 The home demand for lumber is enormous as most buildings 
 are made of wood. In the manufacturing districts wood is 
 still used for fuel; it is more easily obtained than coal. Lum- 
 
 Petroleum tanks at Batum. 
 
 ber, resin, potash, and wood-pulp are exported by way of 
 Archangel and the ports on the Baltic sea. 
 
 The forests of European Russia are disappearing rapidly, and the effect is 
 already apparent in the diminishing volume of the streams and in the disappearance 
 of the fur-bearing animals. 
 
 Minerals. — Russia is rich in minerals, and mining indus- 
 tries are increasing in value. Coal and iron are abundant in 
 the Ural district and north of the sea of Azov; blast furnaces 
 and iron and steel works are found in both of these sections. 
 Coal and iron also occur in the district south of Moscow. 
 
FISHERIES 147 
 
 Gold, silver, copper, precious stones, and nine tenths of the 
 world's supply of platinum are also found in the Ural mining 
 district. Quicksilver ore and petroleum are found near the 
 Caspian sea. Russia ranks next to the United States in petro- 
 leum. These two countries supply nearly the entire world. 
 Salt is obtained north of the Caspian sea and near the sea of 
 Azov. 
 
 Fisheries. — Fishing is carried on along the Arctic coast, 
 in the rivers, especially the Ural and Volga, and in the Black 
 and Caspian seas. An important industry is the making of 
 the Russian caviar from the eggs of the sturgeon and other 
 fish; this is much esteemed as a table delicacy and extensively 
 imported. Cured fish is one of the largest imports into Russia 
 on account of the many fast days observed by the Greek 
 Church. 
 
 Manufacturing. — Since the Russian Revolution in 1917 
 the manufacturing industries have been at a standstill. An 
 attempt was made by the new government to have all the 
 factories controlled by the state, but it was found impossible 
 to carry out this method. Before the war the textile industries 
 were in the lead, Russia being the third country in the produc- 
 tion of cotton cloth. Next in value were woolens, hnens, and 
 silks. It is probable that the farming industries will have to 
 be restored before manufacturing is resumed on a large scale. 
 
 The coal deposits near Moscow have stimulated manufacturing in that city, 
 while water-power has promoted the growth of Narva near Petrograd. Tanning is 
 an old Russian industry. "Russia leather" is stm a leading product. Kazan is 
 a center of both leather and linen industries. Tula is noted for steel works and 
 the making of small arms. It is the national arsenal. Alcohol made from potato 
 starch is an article of export. Iron and steel industries are of later development, 
 so that less skill in making them has been acquired. In the making of farm ma- 
 chinery Russia is far behind the United States. She is a large importer of our plows, 
 harrows, harvesters, seed-drills, and mowers. 
 
148 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 Domestic and Foreign Commerce. — Domestic trade is still 
 carried on partly through annual fairs. The most important of 
 
 these is that held 
 at Nijni-Novgorod 
 ( nizh' -nee-nov-go- 
 rod'). Merchants 
 come from all 
 Russia, from Per- 
 sia, and central 
 Asia. As many as 
 200,000 people 
 are often present. 
 The value of the 
 goods sold often 
 exceeds $100,000,000. Other large fairs are held at Kief and 
 Kharkof in the southwest. Nearly 2,000 smaller ones are 
 held in various parts of the country. 
 
 A party of gypsies with their team, in Caucasia. 
 
 Moscow, showing the Kremlin on the left. 
 
 Such fairs are still held in many parts of Europe. They are a relic of the Middle 
 Ages. In our times, with the improyed facilities for transportation and travel, 
 the cities have become easier of access, and the fairs are dying out. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 149 
 
 The export trade consists mainly in the shipment of food 
 products and raw materials to the countries of western Europe. 
 About one half these exports consist of flour and grain; next 
 in value are lumber, flax and hemp, seeds, petroleum, eggs, and 
 poultry. Manufactured goods make up less than one twelfth 
 the exports. Odessa is the chief port for the shipment of grain; 
 it also has machine shops, sugar refineries, flour mills, and 
 breweries. The grain and timber of western Russia are sent 
 down the river Vistula and shipped by way of Danzig. Arch- 
 angel exports hemp, flax, timber, and grain. Baku on the 
 Caspian sea is the chief center of petroleum production and 
 export. Batum, the principal port on the Black sea, exports 
 petroleum, wheat, carpets, and silks. 
 
 Most Russian imports enter the country by way of the Baltic sea; our cotton 
 and machinery take that route. Tea, however, which, next to raw cotton, is the 
 largest import, comes over the Siberian railroad from Dalny and Irkutsk. It ia 
 pressed into blocks and is known as brick tea. Much cotton also goes from Tash- 
 kend and other towns in Turkestan, over the railway to Orenburg on the eastern 
 frontier. Cotton and woolen goods and machinery are imported from Germany; 
 and coal, iron, copper, lead, and machinery from Great Britain, Our leading imports 
 from Russia are raw wool, skins, and hides. 
 
 Transportation. — Internal communication is mainly by 
 means of the numerous rivers, canals, and lakes, all of which 
 furnish nearly 80,000 miles of navigable waterways. The great 
 drawback to the water transportation is the ice during the 
 long winter. The chief railway center is Moscow; from this 
 city, trunk hues radiate connecting with the larger cities and, 
 over the long trans-Siberian route, with the Pacific coast of Si- 
 beria. The Siberian railway terminates at Vladivostok, situated 
 on the Pacific ; this port has direct trade connections with New 
 York by steamers through the Panama canal. Nine tenths of 
 the ocean commerce is carried on by foreign ships. This trade 
 is about equally divided between Odessa on the Black sea 
 and Petrograd and Cronstadt on the Baltic. 
 
150 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
 PETROGRAD 
 
 And yioinity 
 
 Crties. — About one seventh of the people of European 
 
 Russia now Hve 
 in towns; there 
 are sixteen cities 
 that exceed 100,- 
 000 population, 
 and two, Petro- 
 grad and Mos- 
 cow, that exceed 
 1,000,000. Mos- 
 cow, the former 
 capital, is more 
 oriental than 
 European; its 
 churches with 
 their gilded,bulb- 
 shaped domes, 
 the houses painted in bright colors, and the dress of the 
 people remind the traveler of Constantinople. Petrograd, the 
 capital, is a modern European city with broad avenues, and 
 buildings of more recent architectui'e. It is the fifth city of 
 Europe. 
 
 The Winter Palace in Petrograd is the largest royal palace in the world. Other 
 famous buildings are the Cathedral of St. Isaac, with its beautiful golden dome, 
 and the Admiralty Building, the center of the naval affairs of the Empire. The 
 Nevski Prospekt is the most magnificent street of the city. Among the monu- 
 ments is a statue of Peter the Great, the base of which is the largest stone ever 
 used in building. It is of red granite, 84 feet high, and 14 feet in diameter at 
 the base. 
 
 As a result of the revolutions Petrograd is estimated to have lost one half 
 its population. Moscow is the center of a populous region and chief lines of travel 
 meet there; to these facts it owes its prominence. The most famous spot in 
 Moscow is the walled enclosure called the Kremlin, which contains the Imperial 
 Palace, the tower of Ivan the Great, the Treasury, and churches. The most 
 sacred of the churches ia the Church of the Assumption where the Russian emperors 
 were crowned. 
 
QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 
 
 151 
 
 Several cities mentioned in this chapter are located in the new 
 state of Ukrainia, 
 which has not been 
 recognized by the 
 Russian Government. 
 
 QUESTIONS AND 
 TOPICS. — (1) Compare 
 European Russia with the 
 United States in area and 
 position. Describe the slopes 
 of European Russia; the high- 
 lands; name some of the 
 rivers. (2) Climate; why 
 extreme or continental? 
 Direction of the winds; rain- 
 fall; temperature. Locate the 
 six vegetation belts of Russia; 
 name some of the products 
 of each belt. (3) How do 
 you account for the variety 
 of races in Russia? Which 
 races are the most numer- 
 ous? Under the new gov- 
 ernment the peasants own 
 the land; why is this better 
 than the old system by which 
 the people of each village 
 held the land in common? 
 (4) Why is it better for a 
 country to have the farmer 
 own the land that he tills? 
 In what farm crops is Russia . , , . , , 
 
 the leading nation? What A church m Moscow, 
 
 farm products are exported? (5) What is said of the Russian forests? What mmerala 
 does Russia produce? Where is each of these found? Can you think of any reason 
 why she should import coal and iron? What is said of the Russian trade in fish? 
 
 (6) Name some manufacturing centers of Russia. What are the leading manufactures? 
 
 (7) What is said of the factory system and of home manufacture? What manufactured 
 goods are imported by Russia? How is this explained? Make a list of the exports. _ Im- 
 ports, and the countries from which obtained. Describe the transportation facihties of 
 Russia. (8) Make a list of the principal cities, and write a statement about each. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY 
 
 The Empire Dissolved. — The old Austrian Empire, or 
 Austro-Hungarian monarchy as it was called, was made up 
 of a number of different races, which were once separate nations. 
 The chief divisions were Hungary, German Austria, Bohemia, 
 inhabited chiefly by Czechs and Slovaks, and Jugo-Slavia in 
 the southeast. Besides these nationalities, Austria held terri- 
 tory in the north which had been taken from Poland, territory 
 in the east inhabited by Rumanians, in the southeast by Italians, 
 and in the west was land closely related to the Swiss. By the 
 Peace Treaty all these lands have been restored to their rightful 
 owners, and the province of Austria proper has been made a 
 separate nation. It is inhabited almost entirely by Germans 
 and has a republican form of government. 
 
 Location, Surface, Climate. — Austria lies in the Danube 
 valley between Jugo-Slavia and Hungary; it has an area of 
 25,000 square miles and a population of about 7,000,000. 
 Except on the north and west it is surrounded by its former 
 subject nations and enemies, the Czechs, Slavs, Italians, and 
 Magyars, or Hungarians. It is a landlocked country, having 
 now no access to the sea, and has few natural resoiu"ces except 
 the soil. The land, however, is rich, and the climate temperate 
 and moist. The surface of the northern part is level, but the 
 southern part is crossed by ranges of the Alps, which, however, 
 afford little mineral wealth. Much of the mountain region is 
 forested with oak, walnut, and chestnut, with evergreen trees 
 in the higher elevations. 
 
 152 
 
VIENNA 153 
 
 Productions and Industries. — In the absence of minerals, 
 farming, grazing, and fruit-growing are the natural industries 
 connected with the soil. Rye, flax, hemp, tobacco, potatoes, 
 and sugar-beets are the leading crops. Good breeds of stock 
 are raised, and the poultry and egg product is the largest pro- 
 duced in Europe on an equal area, the dry Hmestone soils 
 of the uplands being perfectly adapted to poultry. The hard- 
 woods of the forests are utilized in the manufacture of staves 
 for wine and beer casks which find a ready market in Germany 
 and Italy. In pre-war times the manufactures of Austria 
 were considerable, but her manufacturing districts have been 
 mostly taken away. It is difficult to predict what will develop 
 in the future in the manufacturing way. 
 
 Vienna. — The only large city in Austria is Vienna, the 
 capital of the former Empire. Then it supported a population 
 of over 2,000,000, but it is hard to see how in the new repubhc 
 so many people can find the means of making a living. The 
 old Imperial government supported a vast army and employed 
 many thousand officials; but now both the military and the 
 civiUan officials must find other occupations. The glory of 
 Vienna has departed. That city, which for centuries had been 
 so lavishly adorned by kings and emperors that it ranked 
 with Paris in the majesty and grandeur of its pubfic buildings 
 and in the beauty of its streets, pleasure resorts, and environs, 
 must now become largely a place of historical interest. The 
 Parliament Houses, the old Imperial Palace, and the Cathedral 
 of St. Stephen still remain to be visited by tourists. 
 
 The city may continue to flourish as an educational and 
 musical center. Once the home of the great masters of musical 
 composition — Mozart, Beethoven, Wagner, Bach, Haydn, 
 and Schubert — its hundreds of schools and societies of music 
 will continue to be frequented by students from every civilized 
 land. The Vienna University with its renowned School of 
 Medicine will remain and will doubtless continue to flourish. 
 
154 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY 
 
 The famous ''Ring Strasse/' or circular boulevards, the 
 ''Prater/' or public pleasure park, and the hundreds of noted 
 places in the city and its suburbs will still attract visitors; 
 but Vienna as the capital of a great Empire, as a center of 
 politics, and as a meeting-place of world congresses is gone 
 forever. 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 Size and Surface. — Hungary has been left by the war a 
 small country of 25,000 square miles in area and about 5,500,000 
 people, who are almost entirely Magyars. The surface is level 
 and lies in the plain of the Danube river. The country is sur- 
 rounded by five of the new republics and is shut off from the 
 sea. The industries must in the future be almost entirely 
 agricultural, for there are little or no resources of any other 
 kind. 
 
 Products. — Wheat, rye, corn, oats, and sugar-beets are 
 grown, and much stock is raised. Horses, sheep, and swine 
 are exported, but the largest exports are grain and flour. The 
 capital and largest city is Budapest. The city has large flour 
 mills and a variety of other industries. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 History and People. — This peninsula forms the south- 
 eastern part of Europe and takes its name from the Balkan 
 mountains, which ex- 
 tend from the Black 
 
 r 
 
 View on the Balkan plateau and mount Olympus. 
 
 sea to the Adriatic. 
 As it is separated 
 from Asia by two 
 narrow straits, the 
 Dardanelles and 
 the Bosporus, it 
 
 has from the earliest times been the principal road by which the 
 people in Asia have entered Europe. The surface is broken 
 into plains and valleys by mountain ridges and for this reason 
 many separate nations have grown up. 
 
 The Mohammedan Turks, who were the latest invaders of Europe (1453), con- 
 quered Greece as well as the Slavonic nations of the Balkan peninsula, and ruled 
 them for nearly 400 years. Montenegro broke away from Turkish rule in 1697; in 
 1829, Greece proclaimed its independence; Rumania and Serbia received their in- 
 dependence by the agreement of the nations of Europe in 1878; Bulgaria declared 
 its independence as a result of its war with Turkey in 1912, and the independence of 
 Albania was declared at the same time. 
 
 155 
 
156 THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 RUMANIA 
 
 Physical Features. — Before the war Rumania had an 
 area of 53,000 square miles and a population of 7,500,000; 
 but she will enlarge her boundaries in every direction at the 
 expense of her neighbors. From Hungary she will take Tran- 
 sylvania and the Banat; from Russia she takes the province 
 of Bessarabia, and from Austria, the province of Bukovina, 
 thus bringing her area up to about 125,000 square miles, while 
 her population will be doubled. The majority of the people 
 in all these added states are of Rumanian stock. Hereafter 
 Rumania will rank among European powers of the second 
 class. 
 
 Products. — The Carpathian mountains cut through the 
 center of the country, and on either side are broad fertile plains, 
 a part of the famous ''Black Earth" region, which extends 
 through Hungary, Rumania, and the Ukraine. The mountain 
 regions abound in minerals, while the plains are capable of 
 producing all kinds of farm products. Wheat, flax, sugar- 
 beets, and corn are the leading crops, and form the chief exports. 
 There are extensive forests of oak, pine, and other woods. 
 Coal and petroleum are the chief minerals. All industries are 
 in a backward condition owing to defective transportation and 
 a lack of knowledge and scientific skill in manufacturing. 
 Much of the country has been ravaged by war and a con- 
 siderable period will have to pass before the capacities of the 
 people can be developed. 
 
 BULGARIA 
 
 Size, Surface, and Climate. — Bulgaria lies south of the 
 Danube river, and is divided by the Balkan mountains into two 
 sections, which are quite different in soil and climate. The 
 northern section has a climate of extremes, like Rumania, and 
 is devoted to grain-growing and grazing. Wheat and wool 
 
ALBANIA 
 
 157 
 
 are the leading products. The southern section has a mild 
 and moist climate, and raises 
 rice, grapes, tobacco, silk, and 
 cotton. 
 
 A characteristic product is the per- 
 fume, attar of roses — an oil distilled from 
 the petals of the damask rose. The " Vale 
 of Roses " is near Kazanlik, at the south- 
 ern end of the Shipka Pass in the Balkans. 
 
 Coal is found in the Balkan 
 mountains, and iron is abundant 
 in many places; salt is mined 
 at Burgas, and building stone 
 is extensively quarried. The 
 chief manufactures are textiles, 
 cord, and cigarettes. 
 
 Cities and Trade. — The 
 capital, Sofia, is on the main line 
 of railway between Constanti- 
 nople and central Europe, and 
 has a large trade. Rustchuk, 
 the Danube port, is connected by rail with Varna on the Black 
 sea. Burgas and Philippopolis are the chief towns in south 
 Bulgaria. On account of the excellent facilities for transporta- 
 tion afforded by the Danube river and the canals of central 
 Europe, Bulgaria finds a market for her goods among her near 
 neighbors. 
 
 ALBANIA 
 
 General Description. — Albania is a rough, mountainous 
 region, about as large as the state of Massachusetts, lying 
 along the Adriatic sea opposite the "heel" of Italy. Like the 
 other Balkan provinces, it had been nominally under the rule 
 of the Turks for 400 years when made independent at 
 
 A Bulgarian shepherd. His rough 
 clothing is made from sheep skins with 
 the wool on the outside. 
 
158 
 
 THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 the close of the war between Bulgaria and Turkey in 1912. 
 The country was made into a principality, and William of 
 Wied, a German Prince, was placed at the head of it. Attempts 
 of the new ruler to restore order and establish a settled govern- 
 ment were followed by a revolution by the rough, warlike 
 Albanians, who drove William out of the country. This 
 happened just before the outbreak of the Great War in 1914. 
 The People. — The Albanians are the oldest race in the 
 Balkan peninsula, and are hunters and herdsmen rather than 
 farmers. Like the old Scotch Highlanders they are divided 
 into clans, and never-ending blood feuds are common among 
 them. They are very hospitable to strangers in their homes, 
 but in their capacity as brigands would not hesitate to rob 
 them abroad. About two thirds of the Albanians are Moham- 
 medans and the rest are mainly Greek Catholics. The future 
 of the people has not yet been decided by the " Allied and 
 Associated Powers." Their land is claimed by Italy, Greece, 
 and Jugo-Slavia, while the Albanians on their part claim that 
 all the surrounding nations are occupying land that is largely 
 peopled by Albanians. 
 
 GREECE 
 
 Physical Features. — The boundaries of Greece were con- 
 siderably enlarged at the close 
 of the Bulgarian War, the land 
 bordering the northern shore of 
 the iEgean sea being added with 
 the important seaport of Salon- 
 ica. Greece is usually divided 
 into ''Continental Greece" and 
 "the Islands." The two parts 
 of Continental Greece are con- 
 nected by the isthmus of Corinth, which is crossed by an im- 
 portant ship canal. The "Islands" consist of Crete, Negropont 
 
 The Corinth canal. 
 
GREECE 
 
 159 
 
 A lady of Greece. 
 
 (the large island near the eastern coast, anciently called Euboea), 
 the CycladeS; and various other 
 islands scattered through the Ionian 
 sea. 
 
 The question of the ownership of the ^gean 
 islands has not been fully settled. The coast 
 line of Greece is perhaps as irregular as. that of 
 any other country in the world, and her people 
 from the earliest times have been noted as fisher- 
 men, sailors, and traders. The mainland is 
 broken by mountain ranges into many valleys, 
 plateaus, and river basins. The southern pen- 
 insula, or Morea (a name meaning mulberry 
 leaf), is bordered by a narrow coast plain. 
 
 Climate. — Greece has the usual 
 Mediterranean climate, with hot, 
 dry summers and warm, rainy win- 
 ters. The climate is a delight to the 
 
 pleasure-seeker but disastrous to the 
 farmer, whose fields are furrowed by the 
 torrents of winter rain and parched dur- 
 ing the growing seasons. 
 
 Effects of Turkish Misrule. — During the three 
 centuries of Ttu-kish government the forests were cut 
 down and the farm land suffered from flood and sum- 
 mer droughts; but under the present government 
 great progress has been made in agriculture as well 
 as in education, manufactures, and commerce. 
 
 Agriculture. — Though only one fifth 
 of the surface is fit for cultivation, 
 Greece is chiefly dependent on the 
 products of the soil. The best farming 
 regions are the inland valleys and the 
 plains along the coast. The plains of 
 Thessaly in the north yield large crops 
 of grain; about one half of all the farm land is devoted to 
 
 J^ Greek peasant. 
 
160 THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 wheat, barley, corn, and other cereals. The product for which 
 Greece is chiefly known is the Zante currant, a small seedless 
 grape which grows luxuriantly along the western coast and on 
 the island of Zante. 
 
 The currants are grown in enormous quantities and the amount marketed is 
 lirnited by law in order to keep up the price. Other products of the soil are tobacco, 
 sugar, olives, figs, and grapes. Minor products of Greece are valonia (acorn cups 
 used in tanning), silk, cheese, and other animal products. Many of the people are 
 shepherds and the country supports over 6,000,000 sheep and goats, besides other 
 farm animals. 
 
 Mining and Manufacturing. — Iron is the most important 
 mineral, but there is a considerable amount of lead, nickel, zinc, 
 and various earths and clays used in manufacturing. The 
 island of Paros produces the pure white marble from which the 
 ancient sculptors cut the most beautiful statues and archi- 
 tectural ornaments. 
 
 The manufacturing establishments are located principally at Athens and Piraeus; 
 the products are chiefly articles for home use. Engines are built in the machine 
 shops of Piraeus, and ships are built at Syra. Most Greek households make their 
 own carpets, cloth, and other domestic articles. 
 
 Cities and Trade. — The capital, Athens, stands six miles 
 from the sea and is connected by railway with its seaport, 
 Piraeus. It is the only large city in Greece, and is the chief 
 seat of culture. It has a university and other important edu- 
 cational institutions. The greater part of the ruins of the 
 ancient city are on the summit of the Acropolis, or citadel, a 
 flat-topped rock around which the modern Athens is built. 
 
 Greek Art and Architecture. — On the Acropolis stands the Parthenon, the 
 world-renowned temple of Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom. This was no doubt 
 the most beautiful temple ever built. It was of pure white marble and contained a 
 statue of the goddess. The whole Acropolis and its approaches are thickly strewn 
 with ruins which were once the most perfect specimens of Greek architecture. 
 
 The chief exports of Greece are agricultural products, crude minerals, olive oil, 
 and wine. She imports various food products, cloth, sugar, and manufactured goods. 
 Her imports are chiefly from Russia and Great Britain, but her exports are sent 
 to many countries. The imports are considerably greater than the exports, although 
 
TURKEY 
 
 161 
 
 A view of Constantinople and the Golden Horn. 
 
 the difference is not so great as formerly. The freishts earned by her large fleet of 
 merchant vessels, and the money spent in her cities by tourists more than make 
 up the balance of trade standing against her. Transportation is provided for by 
 good highways and various short lines of rail- 
 roads which follow the coast. The newly-acquired 
 seaport of Salonica is the second city and is con- 
 nected by rail with Constantinople and the cities of 
 central Europe. 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 Extent. — The future of Turkey has 
 not yet been decided by the "Associated 
 and AlUed Powers." Her possessions 
 in Europe are now known as ''Con- 
 stantinople State/' but whether Turkey 
 will be allowed to retain this State or 
 whether she will be driven back into 
 Asia is a question still unsettled. 
 
 Constantinople. — This city dates 
 from 700 b. c. when the Greek colony 
 of Byzantium was founded. About 1000 
 
 A peasant woman of Turkey. 
 
162 
 
 THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 years later, the Roman 
 Emperor, Constantine, 
 made it the capital of his 
 empire, naming the city 
 after himself. Its char- 
 acter was entirely 
 changed by the Turks, 
 who captured it in 1453, 
 and it became half Euro- 
 pean and half Oriental. 
 
 Constantinople is built on 
 both sides of an inlet from the 
 Bosporus called the Golden Horn, 
 a name arising from the shape 
 of the inlet and from the valu- 
 able cargoes of goods entering 
 it. The two sections of the city 
 are connected by the " Galata 
 bridge," which is supported by 
 boats. The bridge with its rows 
 of bazaars on either side is one 
 of the most interesting places 
 in the city, for over it streams 
 
 daily a most curious assemblage of persons from all parts of the East and the West. 
 
 Constantinople has hundreds of mosques, which from a distance resemble a forest 
 
 A Turkish letter writer in Constantinople. 
 
 Palaces and mosques along the Bosporus. 
 
TUEKEY 
 
 163 
 
 of domes and minarets. The church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian and turned 
 into a mosque by the Mohammedans, is one of the most costly churches in the world. 
 
 A street in Constantinople. 
 
 The most beautiful scene about Constantinople is the Bosporus itself, with the hills 
 on both sides lined with palaces and costly residences, and its waters dotted with 
 
 The chui'ch of St. Sophia. 
 
 the ships of all nations. Adrianople stands near the Bulgarian frontier and is the 
 most important military post in Turkey. 
 
164 THE BALKAN PENINSULA 
 
 REVIEW. — (1) Account for the name of the Balkan peninsula. (2) By what 
 two straits is it separated from Asia? (3) What nations does it now contain? (4) By 
 whom were they formerly ruled? (5) Describe the surface and climate of Rumania. 
 (6) What are the chief products? (7) Why are the industries in a backward condition? 
 (8) What are the two physical divisions of Bulgaria? (9) How do these sections differ 
 in climate and products? (10) What are the principal minerals and manufactures? 
 (11) Name the capital and the chief seaport. (12) What is said of the surface and size 
 of Albania? (13) When did Albania become independent? (14) Describe the people 
 and industries. (15) What are the two divisions of Greece? (16) What is said of the 
 "Islands"? (17) Describe the surface of the mainland. (18) What is said of the cli- 
 mate? (19) What are the farm products? (20) What fruit is famous? (21) What is 
 the capital of Greece? (22) What famous ruins in the city? (23) Describe the foreign 
 trade. (24) What are the two leading seaports? (25) By what name are Turkey's 
 European possessions now known? (26) What two cities in European Turkey? 
 (27) Write a paragraph about Constantinople. 
 
15° Longitude East 20° horn Greenwich 25 
 
 SOUTH CENTRAL TEUROPE 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 n" 60 100 200 300 
 
 l^itjesl Cities in lach Country AtllCllS 
 
 Cities next in imitortanee Budapest 
 
 Capitals , _^ 
 
 Rmlroaiis 
 
 Wms.Ene.Co..N.Y. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 THE NEW NATIONS OF EUROPE 
 
 Boundary Changes. — If you examine the map of Europe 
 between the Black sea and the Baltic you will find the names of 
 eight nations made independent by the war. These are Fin- 
 land, Esthonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Czecho- 
 slovakia, and Jugo-Slavia. The western third of Russia, 
 nearly all of Austria-Hungary, and about one fifth of Germany 
 have been used to make up these new nations and to enlarge 
 other old nations. Old Serbia has been made over into Jugo- 
 slavia by the addition of Montenegro and parts of Austria. 
 Rumania has been enlarged at the expense of Russia and 
 Austria. France, Belgium, and Denmark have had restored 
 to them the lands taken from them by Germany. Hungary 
 has been made much smaller, while Turkey in Europe has 
 nearly disappeared from the map. Italy has recovered the 
 Trentino (the land in the neighborhood of the city of Trent), 
 the city of Trieste, and other territory on the eastern shore of 
 the Adriatic sea. 
 
 Comparative Size of Countries. — Russia is still the largest 
 country in Europe, but Austria, formerly second in size, now 
 ranks with the small nations. Poland, Finland, and the 
 Ukraine rank with Great Britain, France, and Germany. 
 Next come Spain, Sweden, Norway, and Italy followed by 
 Jugo-Slavia, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, and Greece. The rest 
 are the ''small nations," with Constantinople State as the 
 smallest of all. 
 
 166 
 
FINLAND 167 
 
 FINLAND 
 
 Physical Features. — Finland is one of the three countries 
 of Europe which extend beyond the Arctic Circle, and hence 
 has a very cold climate. The land is very level and is dotted 
 with thousands of lakes, from which it is called ''Suomi," or 
 the Land of the Lakes. The -northern part of Finland belongs 
 to the belt of swamp land known as the ''Tundras," and is 
 unproductive; but the southern half is a fertile farming and 
 grazing region. The area is a little less than 150,000 square 
 miles, and the population about 3,000,000. The chief foreign 
 races in the country are Swedes, Russians, Garmans, and 
 Lapps. The Finns and the Lapps are of the same race as the 
 Tartars of northern and central Asia, and they have inhabited 
 the region where they now live for the past 2,000 years. 
 
 Government. — For many years Finland has been governed 
 by Russia as the "Grand Duchy of Finland." The object of 
 the Russian government was to crush the national spirit of 
 Finland, and there was much disorder. With the Russian 
 Revolution in 1917 the Finns got back the right to govern 
 themselves and they declared their independence in December 
 of that year, and established a republican form of government. 
 
 Industries and Cities. — Farming, herding, and lumbering 
 are the leading industries. Rye, barley, oats, wheat, flax, and 
 hemp are the chief grain -crops. Potatoes and all kinds of root 
 crops flourish. Good breeds of cattle are kept, and dairy 
 products form a valuable export. The northern part of the 
 country abounds in minerals and forests. Pig iron and bar 
 iron are manufactured and exported. Paper, tar, and pitch 
 are the chief forest and wood products. Flour, meal, and hides 
 are sold to the neighboring countries. There are valuable 
 fisheries in the Baltic and salted fish are exported. 
 
 The merchant marine comprises 2,800 saihng and steam 
 vessels, and there are 2,500 miles of railroad. An active com- 
 
168 THE NEW NATIONS OF EUROPE 
 
 merce is carried on by sea and land. Helsingfors is the capital 
 and chief city. 
 
 THE BALTIC PROVINCES 
 
 People and History. — These provinces are the three small 
 states of Esthonia, Latvia, and Courland, lying on the eastern 
 shore of the Baltic sea south of the Gulf of Finland. The 
 Esths are of the same race as the Lapps and Finns, but are- far 
 more advanced in civilization than their kinsmen to the north. 
 South of the Letts, as the people of Latvia are called, are the 
 Lithuanians, and to the west of the Lithuanians are the Prus- 
 sians of East Prussia. The people of the Baltic states were in- 
 dependent in early times, but with the growth of the Russian 
 power they became subject to that country. With the coming 
 of the last Russian Revolution in March, 1917, all of them 
 declared their independence. 
 
 ESTHONIA 
 
 This country lies opposite Finland across the gulf of that 
 name. It is a peninsula embraced by the Baltic sea and the 
 two gulfs that open into it. The area of Esthonia is 7,600 
 square miles, and the population is about 500,000 consisting 
 mainly of Esths and Finns. The surface is low and level, 
 much of the land consisting of sand and marsh. About one 
 fifth is covered with evergreen forests. The northern coast 
 is bordered with high cliffs. The climate is very moist and 
 favorable to agriculture. The majority of the people cultivate 
 the soil, raising grains and vegetables, especially potatoes. 
 Iron and granite are the chief minerals. The principal manu- 
 factures are spirits, cotton cloth, and machinery. Reval, 
 the capital, the largest city, and chief seaport, is a noted bathing 
 resort. 
 
LITHUANIA 169 
 
 LATVIA 
 
 Latvia is variously known as Lettonia, Livonia, or Letvia. 
 The official spelling is not decided. The country hes between 
 Esthonia and Lithuania. Its area is 17,574 square miles and 
 its population about 1,800,000. The surface resembles that of 
 Esthonia — flat and sandy near the coast with a large part 
 covered with dwarfed forests of pine, spruce, fir, oak, alder, 
 birch, and larch. The interior plateau rises nearly 500 feet 
 above the sea, and is excellent farming land. The leading 
 crops are, rye, barley, oats, flax, wheat, and hops. The river 
 Dwina crosses the country, and there are several lakes of con- 
 siderable size. The fisheries off the coast are the principal 
 source of animal food. Elk, wolves, and bears are found in 
 the forests. Riga is the largest city and the chief seaport. 
 The manufactures are sugar, spirits, tobacco products, linen, 
 cotton, and woolen goods. There are about 900 establishments 
 employing 25,000 workmen, with an output of $30,000,000 
 annually. 
 
 LITHUANIA 
 
 Race and History. — The Lithuanians belong to the white 
 race, but are neither Slavs nor Teutons. They are the parent 
 race of the Letts and the Borussians (now Prussians), and have 
 lived since the very beginning of European history on the shores 
 of the Baltic sea and on the plain between the Niemen and 
 Dwina rivers. At the beginning of the eleventh century the 
 ancient nation divided into three branches. The Prussians 
 moved westward, the Letts northward, while the parent race 
 continued to occupy the old home land between the Niemen 
 and Dwina. 
 
 The Lithuanians are also closely related to the Poles; 
 in 1386 these two nations were united by the marriage of the 
 King of the former nation with Yadviga, the Queen of Poland. 
 
170 THE NEW NATIONS OF EUROPE 
 
 The two countries then extended from the Baltic to the sea of 
 Azov and became the most powerful nation in Europe. From 
 the sixteenth century on, the power of Lithuania waned before 
 the rising kingdom of Russia, which finally conquered both 
 Poles and Lithuanians. 
 
 Kosciuszko was a Lithuanian patriot who came to America 
 and fought under Washington during our Revolutionary War. 
 He afterward returned to his native land and fought many 
 battles with the Russians in defense of his country, until 
 finally defeated and imprisoned in 1794. He died in Switzer- 
 land in 1817. 
 
 The New Republic. — The city of Vilna on the Niemen 
 has always been the center of Lithuanian life, and here in 
 January, 1918, a congress of Lithuanian representatives met 
 and affirmed their independence, which had been formally 
 declared in 1905 and 1917. As the country has no natural 
 boundaries the people have spread out in every direction and 
 many of them are found in the bordering countries. The 
 fixing of the political boundaries is therefore a very difficult 
 matter and will be determined by the ratio which the Lithu- 
 anians bear to other races. 
 
 Surface, Climate, Products. — The land is very level and 
 slopes gently toward the Baltic sea. Much of it is swamp and 
 marsh land, and is partly covered with forests of pine, which 
 have given rise to various lumber industries. To the east and 
 south there is excellent farm land, which yields wheat, rye, 
 tobacco, potatoes, and fruits. Many cattle are raised and 
 dairying is a leading industry. The chief manufactures are, 
 lumber, flour, leather, liquors, paper, glass, and metal work. 
 
 Cities. — The capital and chief city is Vilna, a river port 
 on the Niemen. It contains about 200,000 inhabitants, and 
 is the chief manufacturing and commercial center. Kovno, 
 with about 100,000 population, manufactures soap, candles 
 matches, flour, tobacco, and textiles. Grodno has about 
 
POLAND 171 
 
 50,000 people; it was once the seat of government for Poland 
 and Lithuania; it has a variety of manufactures including 
 building materials and machinery. 
 
 POLAND 
 
 People and History. — The- Poles are a very ancient Slavonic 
 race who came into Europe long before the Russians. We hear 
 of them on the banks of the river Vistula in the sixth century, 
 and the PoHsh kingdom rose to the height of its power in the 
 fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. After this the history of 
 Poland is one long story of wars with the rising power of Russia 
 and her neighbors, the Prussians and Austrians. Finally, in 
 1795, the Poles were overcome and their territory was divided 
 among the conquerors, Russia getting the largest share. Dur- 
 ing the World War just closed, Poland was overrun and dev- 
 astated by the Germans, who granted the country, tempo- 
 rarily, an independent government in 1917. 
 
 Present Area and Territorial Claims. — Early in the seven- 
 teenth century Poland contained 375,000 square miles, and 
 extended from Hungary and Turkey to the Baltic sea. It 
 included the kingdom of West Prussia, the Red Russian portion 
 of Galicia, besides the Ukraine, Lithuania, and Livonia, or 
 Latvia. The capital was Warsaw. The present territory on 
 the Vistula centering about Warsaw contains 70,000 square 
 miles, and of the 20,000,000 population 14,000,000 are Poles. 
 Besides this territory, however, Poland claims additional lands 
 on every side, including Posen, West Prussia, parts of other 
 German provinces inhabited by Poles, and other lands now held 
 by Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, and Ukrainia. All these claims 
 are disputed and remain to be adjusted by the Council of the 
 Allies at Paris. 
 
 Natural Resources and Industries. — When the final terri- 
 torial adjustments have been made, Poland will doubtless 
 
172 THE NEW NATIONS OF EUROPE 
 
 rank next to Italy in size and have a population of 40,000,000. 
 She will have great resources in fertile soil, extensive forests, 
 and vast and varied mineral deposits. There is no variety of 
 grain, vegetable, or fruit that will not flourish upon her soil. 
 The forests comprise both evergreens and hardwoods and yield 
 valuable lumber, timber, potash, and other forest products. 
 There are abundant deposits of coal, iron, lead, salt, copper, 
 and silver. Gold and potash are mined. Petroleum is found 
 on the northern slopes of the Carpathians. The coal mines 
 yielded 52,000,000 tons in 1911. Textile and metal manu- 
 factures are well developed. The leading exports in the past 
 have been beet sugar, starch, spirits, cattle, pigs, fowls, eggs, 
 and dairy products. Warsaw and Lodz are the chief cities. 
 Both are important manufacturing centers. 
 
 UKRAINIA 
 
 Country and History. — The Ukrainians, or ^^ Little Rus- 
 sians," are a Slavonic people inhabiting the southwestern part 
 of Russia extending across the Carpathians into Austrian 
 Galicia, where they are known as Ruthenians. Their country 
 includes eight states centering at Kief, the ancient capital. 
 The area is about 300,000 square miles — nearly the same 
 as Texas and Louisiana combined — and the population is 
 between 30,000,000 and 35,000,000. Additional races living 
 within Ukrainian boundaries bring the total population up to 
 40,000,000. 
 
 The " Grand Principality of Kief " was at one time the ruling Russian State. 
 In fact, the Ukrainians claim that they are the only genuine Russians, and that 
 the " Great Russians " of the State of Moscow are a mixed race of Finns, Russians, 
 and other tribes. The Ukrainians were the first branch of the Russian people to be 
 converted to Christianity, which was carried from them to the other Russians. In 
 the ninth century the Ukrainians were absorbed by the kingdom of the Poles and 
 Lithuanians, and in the 12th and 13th centuries their land was devastated by the 
 terrible Mongol armies, which swept away nearly the entire population, the small 
 remnant taking refuge with the Poles and Hungarians. Since that time the land 
 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA 173 
 
 of the Ukrainians has been under the rule of the Great Russians of Moscow and 
 Petrograd. During this whole period the Ukrainians have been persecuted by- 
 Russians, Poles, and Hungarians alike, who have tried to destroy their nation by 
 forbidding the use of their language and the practice of their customs, religion, and 
 laws. Nevertheless they have preserved their identity as a nation, and they are 
 now claiming independence. This independence was proclaimed by the Rada, or 
 Parliament, November 20, 1917, and freedom of speech, religion, and the press was 
 declared. 
 
 Resources and Products. — Ukrainia lies in the famous 
 *' Black Earth" region, on this account sometimes called 
 " Black Russia." The soil is wonderfully fertile and productive 
 of wheat and other grains. The vine and other fruits flourish, 
 and potatoes and other root crops yield enormous returns. 
 Ukrainia may easily become, next to Russia, the most pro- 
 ductive agricultural country in Europe. It ranks next to 
 Russia in size and stands probably third in population. At 
 the present time all industries are disturbed by war, and it is 
 still uncertain what the outcome will be for this ancient land. 
 
 CZECHOSLOVAKIA 
 
 The Land. — The country of the Czechs and Slovaks con- 
 sists of a strip of mountain and plateaus, about 400 miles in 
 length, lying along the upper waters of the Danube, the Elbe, 
 and the Moldau rivers. It is hemmed in by high mountain 
 ranges. The Carpathians border the south and east; the 
 Erzgebirge (ore mountains), and the Riesengebirge (giant 
 mountains) are on the north, while the mountainous region 
 of the Bohemian Forest lies on the west. A central highland 
 divides the country into northeastern and southwestern slopes, 
 down which rush the numerous tributaries of the Danube and 
 the Elbe. 
 
 The country includes the ancient kingdom of Bohemia and Moravia, Austrian 
 Silesia, and portions of the Carpathian region lying farther east, the boundaries of 
 which have not yet been fixed. The Ukrainians to the eastward, known as Ru- 
 thenians, have mingled with the Slovaks, and are claimed by them as a related race. 
 
174 THE NEW NATIONS OF EUROPE 
 
 The entire area is about 50,000 square miles, neai'ly the same as that of the state of 
 New York, and the population is approximately 9,000,000 Czechs and Slovaks, 
 besides 4,000,000 Germans, Hungarians, and other races. 
 
 Race and History. — The Czechs and Slovaks are Slavonic 
 tribes who entered this mountain region in the sixth century, 
 being driven westward by the Avars, a warlike Tartar people. 
 They displaced the Marcomanni; a branch of the Teutonic 
 family, who formerly had driven out the Boii, of whom we read 
 in Julius Caesar's story of his ''Gallic Wars." For many 
 centuries they maintained their independence, though sur- 
 rounded by their traditional and bitter enemies, the Germans 
 and Hungarians. In 1637, about three centuries ago, their 
 government was abolished and they have since been ruled 
 by either Germany or Austria. The Czechs are the leading 
 race, and the native name of the country is ''Czechy. " Czech 
 is the official language, of which Slovak is a dialect. 
 
 Soil, Climate, Products. — The soil of the Slovak country 
 is poor, but that of the Czechs is rich and fertile. The climate 
 is of the cold-temperate variety, resembling that of the northern 
 part of the United States. The average annual temperature 
 is 46|° F. The spring rains are heavy, and the rivers in the 
 higher regions become swollen torrents in the rainy season. 
 The most valuable farm product is the sugar-beet and the 
 manufacture of sugar is the leading industry dependent on the 
 soil. Rye, oats, potatoes, and other vegetables flourish. 
 
 Minerals and Forests. — The mineral wealth is rich and 
 varied, including coal, iron, silver, lead, tin, antimony, and 
 graphite. The northern mountain region affords the most of 
 these, and the chief manufacturing cities are in this section. 
 As the country is mountainous, it has, as we might expect, much 
 land given up to forests. It is estimated that one third of the 
 country is covered with hardwoods and evergreen species. 
 The Czechs are a very intelligent and industrious people, and 
 have developed extensive manufactures. After the effects of 
 
JUGO-SLAVIA 175 
 
 the war shall have passed away they will doubtless develop 
 into a great commercial nation. The chief cities are Prague 
 and Briinn. 
 
 ^ JUGO-SLAVIA 
 
 Boundaries and People. — The country of the Jugoslavs, 
 or South Slavs, lies, in general, between the Danube and Drave 
 rivers and the Adriatic sea. It comprises the formerly separate 
 and independent countries of Serbia and Montenegro, and the 
 provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia-Slavonia, and Car- 
 niola, all of which formerly belonged to the Austrian Empire. 
 The boundaries with Austria, Italy, Hungary, Rumania, 
 Bulgaria, Greece, and Albania, which countries border on 
 Jugo-Slavia, are still unsettled. The probable area of the 
 new constitutional monarchy will be 100,000 square miles, 
 and the population 15,000,000. The leading races are the 
 Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, but there are many others, with 
 every variety of custom, religion, and traditions. About 
 two thirds of the people are Slavs; the rest are mainly Turks, 
 Germans, Italians, and other races from the bordering nations 
 that have '' filtered" in. The prevailing religion of the Slavs 
 is the Greek Catholic; the Roman Catholics are next in num- 
 bers; Mohammedans and Jews together make up something 
 more than a half-million. 
 
 Surface, Climate, and Products. — Jugo-Slavia is crossed 
 by numerous offshoots of the central mountain system running 
 in a northeast-southwest direction. The drainage is mainly 
 into the river Save, which crosses the central part of the country 
 and joins the Danube at Belgrade, the former capital of Serbia. 
 There is a narrow strip of coast land which slopes toward the 
 Adriatic sea. Much of the rock is limestone, which has been dis- 
 solved by the waters forming grottoes, caves, intermittent lakes, 
 and underground streams. The famous ''Karst" limestone 
 region is in Croatia-Slavonia. It is remarkable for curiously 
 
176 THE NEW NATIONS OF EUROPE 
 
 sculptured rock forms. There is much fertile land on the slopes 
 and in the river valleys yielding wine, silk, fruits, grains, and 
 vegetables. The climate is apt to be severe in the mountain 
 regions in winter, but is generally mild with plenty of moisture. 
 
 Forests. — Nearly one third of the surface is covered with 
 forests of oak, chestnuts, beech, and pine. These forests sup- 
 port vast herds of swine, which fatten upon the ''mast," or 
 nuts. Herdsmen are employed to look after the animals. 
 The hardwoods are used in the manufacture of wagons, farm- 
 ing tools, various articles of wood, and lumber for building 
 purposes. 
 
 Fanning. — The farms are small, but well-worked and very 
 productive of corn and other grains, hemp, hay, and especially 
 plums. The silk product is valuable and increasing, and 
 marmalade and brandy are manufactured from the plum crop. 
 Much attention is given to bee culture. 
 
 Minerals. — Jugo-Slavia contains some of the richest 
 mineral deposits in Europe. Gold, silver, lead, copper, h'on, 
 and quicksilver are found. The quicksilver mines at Idria in 
 Carniola rank next to those of Spain in the value of the output. 
 Owing to the backwardness of the people the rich mineral 
 resources have been little developed, and the people have 
 devoted themselves mainly to the more primitive occupations 
 of farming and grazing. Every advantage is at hand to make 
 this country a leader among the manufacturing countries of 
 the continent. 
 
 Cities. — The capital and largest city is Belgrade, famous 
 in history for the defeat of numerous Turkish armies attempting 
 the conquest of Europe. Belgrade was almost entirely de- 
 stroyed by the Austrians and Germans during the Great War. 
 The public buildings were battered down, and all the homes 
 of the wealthier citizens were plundered and burned. Sixty 
 trainloads of ''loot" were carried off. Sarajevo, the capital 
 of Bosnia-Herzegovina, is famous as the scene of the murder of 
 
JUGO-SLAVIA 177 
 
 the Archduke Ferdinand, the event which kindled the Great 
 War. Laibach, the capital of Carniola, is a railroad center on 
 the main route of trade between Vienna and Trieste. Agram 
 is the capital and chief city of Croatia-Slavonia. Flume is 
 the seaport of the country, but it has not yet been settled 
 whether it shall belong to Italy or Jugo-Slavia. 
 
MAP STUDIES. — (1) Compare the latitude of Europe with that of North America. 
 What part of each continent is crossed by the Arctic circle? Which continent extends 
 further south? (2) What part of North America lies directly west of the British isles? 
 Directly west of Spain? (3) How do the parts of these continents lying in the same lati- 
 tude compare in climate? (4) What is the distance from New York to Liverpool? From 
 New York to Havre? To Hamburg? (5) What is the distance from Pernambuco and 
 Para to the nearest ports of Europe and Africa? (6) Trace the route from London west- 
 
I ward to Hongkong. (7) Trace a route from London by way of the Suez canal to Bombay. 
 (8) What waters are crossed on this route? (9) Trace a route by sea from Lisbon to the 
 Cape Verde islands; from this point to Cape Town, and from Cape Town to Melbourne. 
 (10) Compare this distance with the western route to Melbourne, by way of New York, 
 San Francisco, and Honolulu. (11) What is the distance from Hongkong to Yokohama? 
 Prom Yokohama to Victoria? From Victoria to Montreal? 
 
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EUROPE AND 
 NORTH AMERICA 
 
 LOCATION AND SIZE. — (1) In what zone is the greater part of these two con- 
 tinents? (2) How many degrees of longitude between London and New York? Between 
 London and San Francisco? (3) What city of Europe directly east of New York? (4) 
 What city of North America due west from Petrograd? Locate this city. (5) What 
 is the time at New York City when it is twelve o'clock at London? (6) Compare North 
 America and Europe as to size. (7) What form of government prevails in the countries 
 of Europe? (8) In those of North America? 
 
 OUTLINE. — (1) What natural division of land is each of these continents? 
 (2) Which has the more irregular outline? (3) Name the chief peninsulas of each 
 continent. The chief islands. The chief seas, gulfs, and bays. (4) Which of these 
 are farthest inland? (5) What great indentations on the southern borders of each of these 
 continents? 
 
 SURFACE. — (1) Name the chief mountain system of each continent. (2) How do 
 they compare as to direction and extent? (3) How do the Appalachian highlands compare 
 in direction and character with the northern highland region of Europe? (4) Compare 
 the great lowland plain of Europe with that of North America. What is the extent of 
 each north and south? East and west? 
 
 LAKES AND RIVERS. — (1) Compare the largest river of Europe with the largest 
 river of North America as to direction, length, and size of basin (see Appendix, p. iii). 
 (2) Name the three rivers of Europe that are next in size and compare them with the St. 
 Lawrence, the Mackenzie, and the Yukon. (3) Name some rivers of Europe flowing 
 north. What great river flows east? (4) Name two flowing south. (5) What can you 
 say of the navigability of the rivers of Europe and North America? (6) In what part of 
 Europe are the largest lakes? In what part of North America? (7) Compare the largest 
 lake of each continent as to size. (8) What can you tell of the origin of the lakes of these 
 continents? 
 
 SOIL AND CLIMATE. — (1) In what part of each continent do we find the m^ost 
 productive soil? (2) Which has the greater extent of alluvial soil? (3) Compare the ex- 
 tent of the Mississippi basin with the basins of the Volga and the Danube rivers. (4) 
 Compare the area of the Po basin with that of the St. Lawrence basin. (5) In what part 
 of each continent do we find soil formed from glacial drift? (6) Tell something of the 
 effect of glaciers on the soil. (7) What region in Russia may we compare with the prairies 
 of the United States? (8) What part of the United States resembles southern Europe in 
 soil and products? (9) Which parts of these continents receive the greatest amount of 
 rainfall? (10) From which direction does the rainfall come in each case? (11) Compare 
 the climate of Great Britain with that of the part of North America lying directly west of 
 it. (12) What part of Europe has a climate resembling that of California? (13) In 
 what part of each continent do we find dry regions suitable for grazing? (14) Why has 
 the southern coast of Europe less rainfall than the southern coast of North America? 
 (15) Why is the climate of Europe warmer than that of North America, when lands lying 
 in the same latitude are compared? (16) Compare the effects of the westerly winds on 
 each of these continents. Why the difference? 
 
 PLANTS AND ANIMALS. — What are the chief conditions that affect plant and 
 animal Ufe? (2) What are the four plant regions of Europe? Give the characteristics of 
 each region. (3) Compare the most northern of these regions with the northern part of 
 North America. (4) Compare the forest belts of the two continents with respect to 
 location and variety of trees. (5) Compare the regions lying south of the forest belt as 
 to plant life. (6) Which continent has the greater variety of wild animals? How do 
 you account for this? (7) What parts of each continent raise the greatest number of 
 domestic animals? (8) Name five leading cultivated plants of Europe and five of North 
 America. Compare. (9) In what part of each continent do you find the vine? Tropical 
 
182 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA 
 
 fruits? Olives? (10) Name some products of Europe that are not produced in North 
 America. How do you explain this? (11) Name the chief plants of each continent 
 which are useful as raw material. What animals supply raw materials? 
 
 PEOPLE. — (1) In what part of Europe do you find the greatest density of popula- 
 tion? In what part of North America? (2) Compare the density of population of the 
 two continents. (3) Give reasons why that of Europe is greater. (4) Why are the lead- 
 ing races of Europe and America the same? (5) Name the races peculiar to each continent. 
 (6) In what way do they resemble each other? (7) What relation do you notice between 
 the disposition of people to emigrate and their energy and civilization? (8) What is 
 generally true of stationary races? 
 
 INDUSTRIES. — (1) Name the seven leading occupations of mankind. (2) In 
 which of these is Europe the leading continent? (3) In which is America the leading 
 continent? (4) What are the chief industries of the countries of western Europe? (5) 
 What part of North America leads in similar industries? (6) Leading occupations of 
 eastern Europe? Compare with North America. (7) What are the leading occupations 
 of the people of southern Europe? (8) Compare the lumbering industries of the two con- 
 tinents as to location and value. (9) In a similar manner compare the grazing, mining, 
 and fishing industries. (10) Describe the commerce of Europe, and compare it with that 
 of North America as to products exchanged and their value. 
 
 CITIES. — Make a list of the ten largest cities of Europe and compare with the ten 
 largest of North America. What is meant by a capital city? (2) Make a list of the capi- 
 tal cities of each continent. (3) Make a list of the ten leading seaports of each continent 
 and tell something of the trade of each. (4) Make a list of the ten largest inland cities 
 of each continent and describe briefly the character of each. 
 
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 The authority followed in the system and manner of pronunciation is Webster's International 
 Dictionary, edition of 1910. 
 
 Key to the Symbols used. — Vowels: a as in ale, a as in senate, a as in care, 
 a as in S,m, a as in arm, a as in ask ;' e as in eve, e as in event, 6 as in 6nd, e as in 
 maker; i as in ice, lasinHH; 5 as in old, 6 as in obey, 6 as in orb, 5 as in 6dd; u as 
 in use, 11 as in Ijinite, ti as in tirn, ii as in tip, ii as in German ii or French ii. Diph- 
 thongs: ou as in out, oi as in oil, oo as in moon, 66 as in f66t. Consonants: ch 
 as in chair, g as in go, th as in then, th as in thin. Italics are silent. 
 
 Aachen (a'kSn), 82. 
 
 Aar river (ar), 131. 
 
 Aarhus (or'hoos), 105. 
 
 Aberdeen (S,b er den'), 34. 
 
 Acropolis (a kr6p'6 lis), 160. 
 
 Adrianople (3.d rl an 6'p'l), 163. 
 
 .^gean sea (e je'an), 10, 158. 
 
 Agram (a'gram), 177. 
 
 Albania (alba'nla), 157-158. 
 
 Algeria (al je'ri a), 70. 
 
 Alkmaar (alk mar'), 90. 
 
 Alps mountains, 14, 56, 107, 130-131. 
 
 Alsace-Lorraine (al sas'16 ran'), 72. 
 
 Amiens (a myan'), 66. 
 
 Amsterdam, 91. 
 
 Andorra (an d6r'a), 127. 
 
 Anglesey island (an'g'l sS), 43. 
 
 Ant'werp, 88. 
 
 Apennines mountains (ap'gnlnz), 14, 107. 
 
 Archangel, 149. 
 
 Athens, 160. 
 
 Austria, 152-154. 
 
 B 
 
 Baku (bakoo'), 149. 
 
 Balearic islands (bal e Sr'ik), 127. 
 
 Balkan States (bal kan'), 155-164. 
 
 Barcelona (bar se 16 'na), 124, 126. 
 
 Barmen-Elberfeld (-61 ber Mt'), 80. 
 
 Basel (ba'zgl), 136. 
 
 Batum (ba t66m'), 149. 
 
 Bavaria (ba va'ri a), 73, 75. 
 
 Belfast, 37. 
 
 Belgium, 84-88. 
 
 Belgrade (b6l grad'), 176. 
 
 Berlin (ber len'), 81. 
 
 Berne (bgrn), 136. 
 
 Bienne (bygn), 136. 
 
 Bilbao (bilba'6), 124. 
 
 Birmingham (bvlr'mlng Sm), 42, 46, 48. 
 
 Blanc, Mount, 14. 
 
 Bohemia (bohe'mla), 152, 173. 
 
 Bordeaux (bor do'), 56, 70. 
 
 Bosporus strait (b6s'pd rus), 155, 163. 
 
 Br6m'6n, 73, 82. 
 
 Br6st, 56, 70. 
 
 Bristol, 49. 
 
 British Isles, 30-54. 
 
 Briinn (briin), 175. 
 
 Brussels (briis'glz), 88. 
 
 Budapest (boo'dapgst), 164. 
 
 Bulgaria (b66l ga'rl a), 156-157. 
 
 Burgas (b66r gas'), 157. 
 
 Key. — ale, senate, care, am, arm, ask; eve, event, gnd, maker; ice, 111; old, obey, 
 6rb. 6dd; use, unite, llrn, up, menii; out, oil, food, foot; chair; go; then, thin. 
 
 183 
 
184 
 
 INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 C 
 
 Calais (ka 16'), 66. 
 
 Cambrian mountains, 43. 
 
 Cambridge, 49. 
 
 Campine District, 85. 
 
 canals, Europe, 24; British Isles, 47; 
 
 Germany, 77; France, 58; Holland, 
 
 90. 
 Canary islands, 127. 
 Cardiff (kar'dif), 43. 
 Carpathian mountains (kar pa'thi S,n) , 
 
 15. 
 Caucasus mountains (ko'ka siis), 13; 14. 
 Cevennes mountains (sav6n'), 15. 
 Channel islands, 44. 
 Chemnitz (kgm'nits), 80. 
 Cherbourg (shSrboor'), 56, 70. 
 Cheviot hills (chgv'I iit), 40. 
 Christiania, 102. 
 Clyde river, 39, 40. 
 Cologne (ko Ion'), 82. 
 Constantinople (kon stS,n tl no'p'l), 27, 
 
 161-163. 
 Constantinople State, 161. 
 Copenhagen (ko p6n ha'gen), 105. 
 Cordoba (kor'do ba), 127. 
 Corsica (kor'sK ka), 70. 
 Cote d'Or (kot dor'j, 15. 
 Cumbrian mountains (kum'bri Sn), 42. 
 Cyclades (sik'la dez) , 159. 
 Czechoslovakia (chgk'o slo vS,k'i a), 1C6, 
 
 173-175. 
 
 D 
 
 Dannemora (dan e mo'ra), 99. 
 
 Danube river, 130, 152, 154, 156. 
 
 Danzig (dan'tslk), 73. 
 
 Dardanelles strait (dar da nelz'), 155. 
 
 D6lft, 90. 
 
 D6n'mark, 103-106. 
 
 Derby (dtlr'bl), 45. 
 
 Key. — ale, senate, care, Sm, arm, ask; 
 
 Dneiper river (ne'per), 141, 
 
 Don river, 141. 
 
 Dortmund (dort'moSnt) , 80. 
 
 Dresden (drez'd6n), 80. 
 
 Dtib'lin, 37. 
 
 Du'na, 141. 
 
 Dundee (dun de'), 41. 
 
 Dunku-k (dtin'kui'k), 56, 70. 
 
 Dwina river (dwena), 141. 
 
 E 
 
 E'bro river, 121, 125. 
 
 Edinburgh (6d"nbur6), 40. 
 
 El'be river, 77. 
 
 Elbruz mountain (glbrooz'), 14. 
 
 Esthonia (6s tho'nl a) , 141, 166, 168.- 
 
 Et'na, Mount, 14, 119. 
 
 Eurasia, 9. 
 
 Europe, 9-29. 
 
 F 
 Faroe islands (far'6), 105. 
 Finland, 141, 166-168. 
 fiords (fyord), 18. 
 Fiume (fyoo'ma), 177. 
 Florence, 117. 
 Forth river, 39. 
 France, 55-71. 
 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 82. 
 
 G 
 
 Garomie (garon'), 58. 
 Geneva (je ne'va), 136. 
 Genoa (j6n'6 a), 117. 
 Germany, 72-83. 
 Gibraltar (jl brol'ter), 127. 
 Glasgow (glas'ko), 40. 
 Gothenbxu-g (g6t'6n burg), 102. 
 Granada (gra nii'da), 126. 
 Greece, 158-161. 
 Greenwich (grln'ij), 49. 
 Grodno (gr6d'n5), 170-171. 
 
 eve, 6vent, 6nd, maker; Ice, 111; old, obey, 
 
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 185 
 
 H 
 Hague, The (hag), 91. 
 Hamburg, 73, 82, 83. 
 Hammerfest (ham'er fest), 22. 
 Havre (ha'ver), 56, 70. 
 Hek'la mountain, lOG. 
 Hel'stog fors', 168. 
 Hull, 34, 49. 
 HurnHber river, 33. 
 Hungary, 154. 
 
 Iberian peninsula, 121. 
 Iceland, 106, 139. 
 In ter la'ken, 133. 
 Ireland, 35-37. 
 Italy, 107-120. 
 
 J 
 Jugo-Slavia (y5o'g6 slaf'i a), 175-177. 
 Jura mountains (joo'ra), 56, ISO. 
 Jutland (jiit'land), 94, 103. 
 
 Kazan Qcazan'y'), 147. 
 Kharkof (kar'kof), 148. 
 Kief (ke'yef), 139, 148, 151, 172. 
 Kiel ship canal (kel), 77. 
 Killarney lakes (ki lar'ni), 35. 
 Konigsberg (ku'niks berk), 75 
 Kovno (kov'no), 170. 
 Krefeld (kra'felt), 80. 
 Krgm'Un, 150. 
 
 Laibach (li'bak), 177. 
 
 Latvia (lat'vl a), 141, 166, 168, 169. 
 
 Lausanne (lo zan'), 136. 
 
 Leeds, 42, 45. 
 
 Leicester (les'ter), 45. 
 
 Leiden (li'den), 92. 
 
 Leipzig (lip's&), 81. 
 
 6rb, 6dd; use, lonite, <irn, tip, menti; out, 
 
 Leith (leth), 41. 
 
 Liege (le azh'), 86. 
 
 Limoges (le mdzh'), 64. 
 
 Lipari islands (lip'a re), 119. 
 
 Lisbon (liz'bun), 12S. 
 
 Lithuania (lith u a'ni a), 166, 169-171. 
 
 Liverpool, 49. 
 
 Lodz (lodz), 172. 
 
 Loire river (Iwar), 58. 
 
 Lombardy (lom'bar di) , 107. 
 
 London, 26-27, 47-48. 
 
 Lowestoft (lo'stoft), 34. 
 
 Liibeck (lii'beck), 73. 
 
 Lucca (look'ka), 112. 
 
 Lucerne (lu surn'), ISG. 
 
 Luxemburg (lulv'sem blirg), 63^ 79. 
 
 Lyons (Is on'), 65. 
 
 Lys river (les), 86. 
 
 M 
 Madrid, 126. 
 Magdeburg, 81. 
 Makno (malm'u), 102. 
 Malta (mol'ta), 119. 
 Manchester, 42, 45, 48. 
 Marne river (marn), 68. 
 Marseilles (mar salz')j 56, 69. 
 Meissen (mi'sen), 81. 
 Menai strait (men'i), 43. 
 Mersey river, 33, 45. 
 Merthyr Tydfil (mur'ther tid'vil), 43. 
 Messina (m§ se'na), 14, 112. 
 Meuse river (muz), 58, 85. 
 Milan (mil'an), 112, 115. 
 Milford Haven, 43. 
 Mons (mons), 86. 
 
 Montenegro (-na'gro), 155, 166, 175. 
 Moors, 122, 123. 
 Moscow, 139, 148, 150. 
 Munich (mu'nflc), 75. 
 Murcia( mAr'sW a), 124. 
 
 oil, food, foot; chair; go; tihen, thin. 
 
186 
 
 INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 N 
 Naples, 95, 108, 114. 
 
 Netherlands, 88-93. 
 Newcastle (nu'kas'l), 46, 49. 
 Nijni-Novogorod (nyez'nye nov'go rot), 
 
 148. 
 Norrkoping (nor'cM ping), 102. 
 Northmen, 95, 139. 
 Norway, 95-103. 
 Nottingham (not'Ing Sm), 45. 
 Nur'gm berg, 81. 
 
 O 
 
 Odense (o'then sa). 105. 
 Oder river, 77. 
 6 des'sa, 149, 151 
 Oporto (6 por'tcio), 128. 
 Orenburg (a rSn boork'), 149. 
 Orkney islands, 38. 
 Ouse river (ooz), 33. 
 Oxford, 49. 
 
 Palermo, 112, 118. 
 Paris, 27, 68. 
 
 Pennine mountains, 41, 42. 
 Petrograd (pye tro grat') , 138, 150. 
 Philippopolis (ffl Ip op'6 lis), 157. 
 Piraeus (pi re'iis), 160. 
 Pisa (pe'sa), 117. 
 Plymouth (pllm'iith), 40. 
 Po river, 107, 111, 130. 
 Poland, 73, 141, 166, 171-172. 
 Portsmouth (ports 'miith), 49. 
 Portugal, 127-129. 
 Prague (prag), 175. 
 Prussia (priish'a), 73. 
 Pyrenees mountains (pir'enez), 15, 56, 
 121. 
 
 Q 
 
 Queenstown, 37. 
 
 Key. — ale, senate, care, am, arm, ask; 
 
 R 
 
 Reggie (rgd'jo), 14. 
 
 Reval (ra'val), 168. 
 
 Rheims (remz), 66. 
 
 Rhine river, 15, 75, 130. 
 
 Rhone river (ron), 15, 56, 58, 130.. 
 
 Riga (re'ga), 169. 
 
 Riviera (re vya'ra), 70. 
 
 Rome, 115. 
 
 Rotterdam (rot'er dam), 91. 
 
 Roubaix (roo bg')» 66. 
 
 Rouen (roo an'), 66. 
 
 Ruhr river (roor), 79. 
 
 Rumania (roo ma'ni a), 155, 156. 
 
 Russia (riish'a), 138-151. 
 
 Rustchuk (rust chuk'), 157. 
 
 S 
 St. Cloud (sSn klooO, 64. 
 St. Gall, 136. 
 Saar river (zar), 63, 73. 
 Salonica (sa 16 ne'ke), 158, 161. 
 Sambre river (sam'br'), 58. 
 San Marino (san ma re 'no), 120. 
 Saone (son), 56, 58. 
 Sarajevo (sa'ra ya v6), 176. 
 Sardinia, 119. 
 Saxony, 73. 
 
 ScafeU mountain (sko fel'), 42. 
 Scheldt (skSlt), 59, 85. 
 Scheveningen (ska'vSn ing en), 92. 
 Schleswig (shlaz'vik), 73, 106. 
 Scotland, 37-41. 
 Seine river (san), 58. 
 Seraing (se rS,n'), 86. 
 Serbia, 155, 166, 175. 
 Severn river, 33, 41. 
 Seville, 126. 
 Sevres (sa'vr'), 64. 
 Shannon river, 35. 
 Sheffield (shgf'eld), 46. 
 
 eve, -event, find, maker; Ice, ill; old, Obey; 
 
INDEX AND PRONUNCIATIONS 
 
 187 
 
 Shetland islands, 38. 
 
 Sicily, 118. 
 
 Sierra Morena (sygr'a mo ra'na), 121. 
 
 Sierra Nevada (si 6r'a ne va'da), 121. 
 
 Snowden mountain, 43. 
 
 Sofia (so'fe ya), 157. 
 
 Solenhofen (zdln'ho fen), 80. 
 
 Solingen (z5'Hng 6n), 80. 
 
 SoKvay firth, 37, 42. 
 
 Somme river (som), 58. 
 
 Southampton (south Smp'tun), 49. 
 
 Spain, 121-129. 
 
 Staffa island, 38. 
 
 Stirling, 41. 
 
 Stockholm (stok'holm), 101. 
 
 Strassburg (shtras'boork), 82. 
 
 Stratford-on-Avon, 49. 
 
 StromboH, vol. (strom'bo l5), 14, 119. 
 
 Stuttgart (stut'gart), 81. 
 
 Suez canal, 32. 
 
 Swansea (swSn'se), 43. 
 
 Sweden, 95-103. 
 
 Switzerland, 130-137. 
 
 t'ay river, 39. 
 
 Tees river, 33, 41. 
 
 Thames river (t§mz), 33, 42. 
 
 Toledo, 127. 
 
 Toulon (too Ion'), 56, 59, 70. 
 
 Trent river, 33. 
 
 Trondhjem (tr5n'y6m), 98. 
 
 Tula, 147. 
 
 tundras, 22, 143, 167. 
 
 Turin (tu'rin), 118. 
 
 Turkey, 161-164. 
 
 Tweed river, 37. 
 
 Tyne river (tin), 33, 46. 
 
 U 
 
 Ukrainia (llkran'Ia), 141, 166, 172-173. 
 Ural mountains, 15. 
 Utrecht (ti'trekt), 92. 
 
 Valdai hills (val di'), 18, 141. 
 
 Valetta, 119. 
 
 Venice, 108, 117. 
 
 Vesuvius volcano, 14, 114, 
 
 Victoria Haven, 101. 
 
 Vienna, 153. 
 
 Vilna (vel'na), 170. 
 
 Vistula river, 77. 
 
 Vladivostock (via dyS vas tok'), 27, 149. 
 
 Volga river, 141. 
 
 Vosges mountains (vozh), 56. 
 
 W 
 
 Wales, 43. 
 
 Warsaw, 171, 172. 
 
 Weser river (va'zer), 77. 
 
 Winchester, 49. 
 
 Wolverhampton (wool verhSmp'ttin), 46. 
 
 Wtirttemberg (viir'tSm b6rk), 73. 
 
 Yarmouth (yar'muth), 34. 
 
 Z 
 
 Zurich (zoo'rik), 135, 136. 
 Zwickau (tsv&'ou), 80. 
 
 6rb, fidd; use, llnite, Arn, ttp, menii; out, oil, food, foot; chair, go; then, thin. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH 
 
 Polar diameter of the earth 7,899 
 
 Equatorial diameter of the earth 7,926 
 
 Length of the equator. 24,902 
 
 Length of a meridian circle 24,857 
 
 Average length of a degree of latitude 69 
 
 Length of a degree of longitude at the equator 69. 2 
 
 10° north or south . 
 
 20° 
 
 30° 
 
 40° 
 
 50° 
 
 60 
 
 70° 
 
 80° 
 
 90° 
 
 68 
 65 
 59 
 62.3 
 44.4 
 34.5 
 23.6 
 12 
 
 
 miles 
 
 Total Area of Earth's Surface 196,907,000 square miles 
 
 Pacific Ocean 71,000,000 
 
 Atlantic Ocean 34,000,000 
 
 Indian Ocean 28,000,000 
 
 Antarctic Ocean 7,500,000 
 
 Arctic Ocean 4,000,000 
 
 Total Sea 144,500,000 
 
 The CoNTINENTOS Square Miles Population 
 
 North America 9,431,000 106,095,000 
 
 South America 6,856,000 38,483,000 
 
 Europe 3,842,000 400,700,000 
 
 Asia 17,056,000 909,199,000 
 
 Africa 11,512,000 141,204,000 
 
 Australia 3,456,000 6,458,000 
 
 Polar Lands 254,000 
 
 Total Land 52,407,000 1,602,139,000 
 
 AREA AND POPULATION OF THE CHIEF COUNTRIES OF EUROPE 
 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 England 50,874 34,045,290 
 
 Wales 7,446 2,025,202 
 
 Scotland 30,405 4,760,904 
 
 Ireland 32,586 4,390,219 
 
 United Kingdom 121,311 45,221,615 
 
 Germany 164,000 50,000,000 
 
 Netherlands 12,761 6,609,000 
 
 Switzerland 15,950 3,800,000 
 
 Austria 25,000 7,000,000 
 
 Hungary 25,000 5,500,000 
 
 i 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 11 
 
 Square Miles Population 
 
 Norway 124,400. . 2,400,000 
 
 Sweden , . 172,900 5,500,000 
 
 Denmark 15,500 2,800,000 
 
 Belgium 11,755 6,000,000 
 
 France 212,697 41,750,000 
 
 Spain 196,700 20,500,000 
 
 Portugal 35,500 6,000,000 
 
 Italy 120,000 40,000,000 
 
 Greece 50,000 6,000,000 
 
 Turkey in Europe 102,000 2,000,000 
 
 Bulgaria 25,000 4,000,000 
 
 Rumania 125,000 15,000,000 
 
 Finland 150,000 3,000,000 
 
 Esthonia 7,600 500,000 
 
 Latvia 17,574 1,800,000 
 
 Lithuania 50,000 5,000,000 
 
 Poland 100,000 25,000,000 
 
 Ukrainia 300,000 40,000,000 
 
 Czechoslovakia 50,000 13,000,000 
 
 Jugo-Slavia 100,000 15,000,000 
 
 HEIGHTS OF PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS AND PLATEAUS 
 
 Feet 
 
 Mt. Everest, Nepal 29,002 
 
 Mt. Aconcagua, Argentina 23,082 
 
 Sahama (vol.) Bolivia 22,350 
 
 Mt. Sorata, Bolivia 21,286 
 
 Chimborazo (vol.) Ec 20,517 
 
 Mt. McKinley, Alaska 20,464 
 
 Mt. Killimanjaro, Africa 20,000 
 
 Himalaya Mts. Asia 19,000 
 
 Karakoram Mts. Tibit 18,500 
 
 Demavend (vol.) Persia 18,846 
 
 Mt. Elbruz, Caucasus 18,493 
 
 Orizaba (vol.) Mex 18,314 
 
 Mt. St. Elias, Alaska 18,024 
 
 Hindu-Kush Mts. Asia 18,000 
 
 Mt. Kenia, Africa 18,000 
 
 Keunlun Mts. Tibet 18,000 
 
 Thian Shan Mts. Asia 18,000 
 
 Popocatepetl (vol.) Mex 17,784 
 
 Cotopaxi (vol.) Ec 16,291 
 
 Mt. Blanc, France 15,744 
 
 Tibet Plateau 15,000 
 
 Mt. Whitney, Cali 14,502 
 
 Mt. Shasta, Cali 14,380 
 
 Mt. Rainier, Wash 14,363 
 
 Longs Peak, Colo 14,275 
 
 Fujiyama (vol.) Japan 14,177 
 
 Pikes Peak, Colo 14,111 
 
 Mauna Kea (vol.) Hawaii 13,953 
 
 Fremont Peak, Wyo 13,790 
 
 Andes Mts 13,000 
 
 Bolivian Plateau 12,500 
 
 Feet 
 
 Mt. Hooker, Canada 12,000 
 
 Etna (vol.) Sicily 10,874 
 
 Caucasus Mts 10,000 
 
 Rocky Mts 10,000 
 
 Atlas Mts 9,000 
 
 Cascade Mts 9,000 
 
 Sierra Nevada Mts 9,000 
 
 Alps Mts 8,500 
 
 Pyrenees Mts 8,000 
 
 Mexican Plateau 7,500 
 
 Mt. Mitchell, N. C 6,711 
 
 Abyssinian Highland 6,500 
 
 Altai Mts 6,300 
 
 Mt. Washington, N. H 6,279 
 
 Hekla (vol.) Iceland 5,110 
 
 Carpathian Mts. . 5,000 
 
 Iran Plateau, Persia 5,000 
 
 Rocky Mountain Highland 5,000 
 
 Balkan Mts 4,500 
 
 Vesuvius (vol.) Italy 4,205 
 
 Apennines Mts. Italy 4,000 
 
 Mongolian Plateau, Asia 3,500 
 
 Ural Mts 3,500 
 
 Coast Ranges, U. S 3,000 
 
 Jura Mts. France 3,000 
 
 Kiolen Mts. Norway 3,000 
 
 Appalachian Mts. U. S 2,500 
 
 Bohmerwald, Austria ........... 2,500 
 
 Brazilian Plateau 2,000 
 
 Deccan Plateau, India 2,000 
 
 Guiana Plateau 2,000 
 
in APPENDIX 
 
 LENGTH OF RIVERS AND BASIN AREAS 
 
 Miles Basin Area in Square Miles 
 
 Mississippi 4,200 1,250,000 
 
 Nile 3,900 1,300,000 
 
 Amazon 3,400 2,320,000 
 
 Yangtze 3,100 690,000 
 
 Yenesei 3,000 1,500,000 
 
 Obi 3,000 1,100,000 
 
 Niger 2,900 1,000,000 
 
 Kongo 2,800 1,500,000 
 
 Lena 2,800 900,000 
 
 Hoangho 2,800 390,000 
 
 Amur 2,700 780,000 
 
 Mekong 2,600 280,000 
 
 Plata 2,500 1,150,000 
 
 Volga 2,300 590,000 
 
 St. Lawrence 2,100 565,000 
 
 Mackenzie 2,100 680,000 
 
 Yukon 2,000 380,000 
 
 Euphrates 2,000 490,000 
 
 Indus 1,900 360,000 
 
 Nelson-Saskatchewan 1,900 470,000 
 
 San Francisco 1,800 210,000 
 
 Ganges 1,800 600,000 
 
 Rio Grande 1,800 230,000 
 
 Danube 1,800 320,000 
 
 Zambezi 1,600 580,000 
 
 Orinoco 1,500 425,000 
 
 Colombia 1,400 290,000 
 
 Dnieper 1,300 197,000 
 
 Orange 1,200 270,000 
 
 Murray 1,100 350,000 
 
 Magdalena 1,100 90,000 
 
 Colorado 1,000 230,000 
 
 Po 460 27,000 
 
 AREA OF LAKES 
 
 Area in Square Miles Area in Square Milea 
 
 Caspian , 168,765 Erie 9,960 
 
 Victoria 32,167 Winnipeg 9,400 
 
 Superior 31,200 Balkash 8,550 
 
 Aral 26,766 Ontario 7,240 
 
 Huron 23,800 Ladoga 7,000 
 
 Michigan 22,450 Titicaca 3,261 
 
 Tanganyika 14,000 Nicaragua 2,800 
 
 Baikal 13,197 Great Salt Lake 2,300 
 
 Tchad 10,400 Dead Sea 353 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 IV 
 
 POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF EUROPE 
 
 Population 
 
 British Isles 
 
 London 7,217,941 
 
 Glasgow 847,584 
 
 Liverpool 746,144 
 
 Manchester 272,969 
 
 Birmingham 522,000 
 
 Leeds 470,268 
 
 Sheffield 455,453 
 
 Bristol 367,979 
 
 Belfast 349,180 
 
 Edinburgh 345,747 
 
 Dublin 290,638 
 
 Bradford 290,323 
 
 Newcastle 272,969 
 
 Hull 266,762 
 
 Nottingham 257,489 
 
 Leicester 236,124 
 
 Portsmouth 208,291 
 
 Cardiff 187,620 
 
 Aberdeen 174,579 
 
 Dundee 165,748 
 
 Derby 125,774 
 
 Merthyr Tydfil 122,536 
 
 Plymouth 120,063 
 
 Southampton 119,745 
 
 Wolverhampton 102,016 
 
 Swansea 97,324 
 
 Leith 83,668 
 
 Cork 76,122 
 
 Oxford 51,900 
 
 Londonderry 39,892 
 
 Cambridge 38,939 
 
 Germany 
 
 Berlin (1911) 3,500,000 
 
 Hamburg 802,793 
 
 Munich 538,983 
 
 Dresden 516,996 
 
 Leipzig 503,672 
 
 Breslau 470,904 
 
 Cologne 428,722 
 
 Frankfort-on-Main 334,978 
 
 Barmen-Elberfeld 318,933 
 
 Nuremburg 294,426 
 
 Stuttgart 249,286 
 
 Chemnitz 244,927 
 
 Magdeburg 240,633 
 
 Essen 231,360 
 
 Stettin 224,119 
 
 Konigsberg 223,770 
 
 Bremen 214,861 
 
 Population 
 
 France 
 
 Paris 2,763,393 
 
 Marseilles 517,498 
 
 Lyons 472,114 
 
 Bordeaux 251,917 
 
 Toulouse 149,438 
 
 Nice 134,232 
 
 Nantes 133,247 
 
 Havre 132,430 
 
 Rouen 118,459 
 
 Toulon 103,549 
 
 Limoges 88,597 
 
 Brest 85,294 
 
 Calais 66,627 
 
 Versailles 64,820 
 
 Cherbourg 43,837 
 
 Dunkirk 38,287 
 
 Cannes 34,151 
 
 Sevres 7,954 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brussels 623,041 
 
 Antwerp 304,032 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Amsterdam 564,186 
 
 Rotterdam 390,364 
 
 The Hague 248,995 
 
 Utrecht 114,692 
 
 Leiden 57,095 
 
 Delft 33,916 
 
 Schiedam 30,038 
 
 Norway 
 
 Christiania 227,626 
 
 Bergen 72,251 
 
 Trondhjem. ... 38,180 
 
 Stavanger 30,613 
 
 Drammen 23,093 
 
 Frederikstad 14,635 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Stockholm 332,738 
 
 Gothenburg 156,927 
 
 Malmo 75,691 
 
 Norrkoping 45,528 
 
 Dannemora 2,717 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Copenhagen 426,540 
 
 Aarhus 55,193 
 
 Odense 40,547 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Population 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Zurich 186,846 
 
 Basel 131,687 
 
 Geneva 116,387 
 
 Berne 73,185 
 
 Lausanne 54,460 
 
 St. Gall 52,934 
 
 Chaux-de-Fonds 41,310 
 
 Lucerne 34,480 
 
 Bienne 27,026 
 
 Austria 
 
 Vienna 2,000,000 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Budapest 730,000 
 
 Finland 
 
 Helsingfors 144,000 
 
 Lithuania 
 
 Vilna 200,000 
 
 Poland 
 
 Warsaw. 
 Lodz 
 
 800,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 1,300,000 
 
 450,000 
 
 140,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 90,000 
 
 .... 60,000 
 
 539,835 
 
 533,000 
 
 213,530 
 
 .... 148,315 
 
 130,109 
 
 11,539 
 
 99,871 
 
 ..... 99,118 
 
 83,306 
 
 75,900 
 
 .... 69,836 
 ..... 69,382 
 58,275 
 
 PORTUGUAL 
 
 Lisbon 356,009 
 
 Oporto 167,995 
 
 Braga 24,202 
 
 Setubal 22,074 
 
 Funchal (Madeira) 20,844 
 
 Russia 
 
 Petrograd 
 
 Moscow 
 
 Odessa 
 
 Kazan 
 
 Astrakhan 
 
 Tula 
 
 Nijni-Novgorod 
 Cronstadt 
 
 Spain 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Seville 
 
 Malaga 
 
 Murcia 
 
 Cartagena 
 
 Zaragoza 
 
 Bilbao 
 
 Granada 
 
 Lorca 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Cordoba 
 
 Population 
 Italy 
 
 Naples 563,540 
 
 Milan 493,241 
 
 Rome 462,743 
 
 Turin 335,6.56 
 
 Palermo 309,694 
 
 Genoa 234,710 
 
 Florence 205,589 
 
 Bologna 152,009 
 
 Venice 151,840 
 
 Catania 149,295 
 
 Leghorn 98,321 
 
 Rumania 
 
 Bucharest 338,000 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 Sofia 103,000 
 
 Esthonia 
 
 Reval 69,000 
 
 Latvia 
 
 Riga 350,000 
 
 Jugo-Slavia 
 
 Belgrade 1.50,000 
 
 Laibach 42,000 
 
 Agram 79,000 
 
 Czechoslovakia 
 
 Prague 224,000 
 
 Briinn 126,000 
 
 Ukrainia 
 
 Kief 300,000 
 
 Montenegro 
 
 Podgoritza. 10,000 
 
 Cetinje 4,500 
 
 Albania 
 
 Scutari 32,000 
 
 Durazzo 5,000 
 
 Greece 
 
 Athens 170,000 
 
 Piraeus 70,000 
 
 Patras 37,958 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Constantinople 1,106,000 
 
APPENDIX VI 
 
 AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS 
 DEPENDENCIES. CENSUS OF 1920 
 
 Area of United States 3,026,715 square miles 
 
 Area of Dependencies 716,591 " " 
 
 Total Area , 3,743,305 " " 
 
 Population of United States 105,708,771 
 
 Population of Dependencies 12,148,738 
 
 Total Population .' 117,857,509 
 
 States Area in Square Miles Population 
 
 Alabama 51,998. 2,348,174 
 
 Arizona 113,956 333^903 
 
 Arkansas 53,335 1,752,204 
 
 California 158,297 3,426361 
 
 Colorado 103,948 939,629 
 
 Connecticut 4,965 1,380,'631 
 
 Delaware 2,370 223*003 
 
 District of Columbia 70 437 571 
 
 Florida 58,666 '. 968^470 
 
 Georgia 59,265 2,895i832 
 
 Idaho 84,313 431,866 
 
 Illinois : . . 56,665 6,485,280 
 
 Indiana •. . . 36,354 2,930,390 
 
 Iowa 56,147 2,408,021 
 
 Kansas 82,158 1,769,257 
 
 Kentucky 40,598 2,416,630 
 
 Louisiana 48,506 1 798 509 
 
 Maine 33,040 768,014 
 
 Maryland 12,327 1,449|661 
 
 Massachusetts 8,266 3,852,356 
 
 Michigan 57,980 3,668,412 
 
 Minnesota 84,682 2,387,125 
 
 Mississippi 46,865 . 1,790,618 
 
 Missouri 69,420 . 3,404,055 
 
 Montana 146,572 548,889 
 
 Nebraska 77,520 1,296,372 
 
 Nevada 110,690 77,407 
 
 New Hampshire 9,341 443,083 
 
 New Jersey 8,224 3,155,900 
 
 New Mexico 122,634 360,350 
 
 New York 49,204 10,384,829 
 
 North CaroUna 52,426 2,559,123 
 
 North Dakota 70,837 645,680 
 
 Ohio 41,040 5,759,394 
 
 Oklahoma 70,057 2,028,283 
 
 Oregon 96,699 783,389 
 
 Pennsylvania 45,126 8,720,017 
 
 Rhode Island 1,248 604,397 
 
 South Carolina 30,989 1,683,724 
 
 South Dakota 77,615 636,547 
 
 Tennessee 42,022 2,337,885 
 
 Texas 265,896 4,663,228 
 
Vll 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 States Area in Square Miles Population 
 
 Utah 84,990 449,396 
 
 Vermont . . 9,564 352,428 
 
 Virginia 42,627 2,509,187 
 
 Washington 69,127. ............ 1,356,621 
 
 West Virginia. 24,170 1,463,701 
 
 Wisconsin 56,066 2,632,067 
 
 Wyoming 97,914 194,402 
 
 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 
 
 Hawaii . - . 6,449. ........ 255,912 
 
 Alaska ............. 599,884 54,899 (1920) 
 
 Porto Rico .......... 3,606. 1,118,012 
 
 PhiUppines 121,935. ....... 7,635,426 
 
 Guam ............ 207. ........ 14,142 
 
 Samoa 56. ....... . 7,250 
 
 Virginia 138 27,086