I i .& I ;rican school qfoomispo CHICAGO ILLINOIS H w o , CD w .S gl FELT INSTRUCTION PAPER Prepared by John F. Timmermann Textile Expert and Writer Formerly with the Central Woolen Co. Stafford Springs, Connecticut AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE CHICAGO IlylvINOIS U. S. A. -^^ Copyright 1909 by American Schooi< of Correspondknc:^ Entered at Stationers' Hall, L,ondon All Rights Reserved ^J- /#f 1 €■13X^24 4 72 6 \ JUL 14 r909 FELT Judging by its appearance felt might readily be classed among woven goods; but this, it will be seen, would be a wrong classification, although it is termed cloth in many instances. Felt as such, however, displaces cloth to quite a large extent; for linings and trimmings it has become an indispensable article, which is largely due to its greater cheapness, and in the shoe and rubber trade large quantities are being consumed. The cheaper grades of gloves have felt for linings, and in the saddlery trade it is found to be not only a very useful but an almost indispensable material. Stock. The stock from which felt is made varies, of course, ivith the quality and nature of the product to be made; but on the whole felt lends itself very readily to manipulation of the stock, and it is safe to say that there is very little waste made in the average woolen mill which cannot be used for some kind of felt. Long, coarse wool and the finest burr waste can be successfully used, and even cotton enters into quite a percentage of the products of felt mills. The first and most important requirement for the superintendent of a felt mill is a thorough knowledge of the various kinds of stock, especially in regard to their felting properties; for while it is true that much stock can be and is used which does not possess felting proper- ties, there must be some stock used which does possess these prop- erties. Cotton is considered as being void of the felting capacity, but thousands of yards of linings and paddings are made every year from cotton. Mixing. The mixing of the various grades of stock to be used for the required kind of felt is of the greatest importance, and therefore much care has to be exercised at this point, which is practically the first step in the process of felt manufacture. The stock to be mixed is thoroughly dusted and then taken to the mixing-room, where it is placed in even layers. A thin layer of the longest stapled stock is usually placed at the bottom, and the various other kinds are then placed on top of this in thin layers. The man in charge of the work ^ 2 FELT must see that the different quaUties of stock used are also evenly distributed throughout the batch. For instance, if the batch to be made is 3000 pounds, and six grades of stock enter into it in the fol- lowing proportion: 1000 pounds of one grade, 600 pounds of a second grade, 450 pounds of a third grade, 375 pounds of a fourth grade, 375 pounds of a fifth grade, and 200 pounds of a sixth grade, it can readily be seen that the various layers must be in proportion to the amount of each kind of stock. It is usual to make from four to five layers of each kind of stock to be used, and the whole amount is then divided so that each layer of that kind will receive an equal amount. To illustrate this a little more clearly, let us follow the mixing process of the imaginary batch mentioned above. Assume that each quality of stock is to be divided into five dif- ferent layers, which gives thirty layers for the whole batch. This would give 200 pounds to a layer of the first kind, 120 pounds of the second, 90 pounds of the third, 75 pounds each of the fourth and fifth, and 40 pounds of the sixth. Now, it does not matter in which order the stock is put down, so long as the proper amount of each kind is taken and the same order is observed in all the layers. The stock is then fed to th e mixino'-picker . This simple opera- tion should be performed very carefully for felt. The stock must be taken from the batch with a vertical movement in order to produce a good mix, for, if this is not carefully observed, the poor stock will not be mixed with the better grade as thoroughly as it should be. At this point a departure from the usual way of preparing batches will be noted, for no emulsion of oil is added to the stock, it being fed to the picker dry. While simple moisture is not harmful to the operations used in making felt, it would however upset calculations, for as such moisture would be an unknown and undeterminable quantity, it can be seen that no correct provision can be made for it. The case of oil, on the other hand, is quite difi^erent; for oil is posi- tively a detriment to stock intended for felts. It is impossible to get stock on which oil has been used into the condition necessary for the felting process proper, for it must be remembered that felt is not woven, and therefore the stock has to be prepared by what is termed the hardening process, in order that it may be properly handled at the fulling or felting process. All the stock used for felt has to be closely watched for the presence of oil, although if only a small quan- FELT 3 tity is slightly oily it may pass, if the larger amount is entirely free from oil. All the waste coming from woolen mills should be carefully inspected, in order to be on the safe side. In many places all such stock is thoroughly washed before using it; but this is an added expense, and the price obtained for the goods does not admit of its being done in most instances. After the stock has been run through the mixing-picker, it is usually run through a burr-picker; not because the burring operation is necessary on all kinds of stock, but as there usually is a great variety of different grades of stock, it frequently happens that a batch is somewhat burry, and it is well to be on the safe side. In many places the stock is run twice through the same picker. Carding. The stock after this careful treatment is ready for the carding process. The carding is, next to the mixing proper, of the greatest importance, for in order to have an even piece of felt, the carding must be even. Even carding cannot be done with the several machines in poor condition, and especial care must be taken that both cylinder and workers are perfectly true and well set. It also is nec- essary that the clothing should be of the proper sharpness, and it should be prevented from becoming too full by stripping at regular intervals. When these things are attended to as they should be, the carding process will not cause much trouble. The stock, after com- ing from the picker room, is fed to the first breaker card. As in ordinary feeding, the stock should be fed as evenly as possible, and automatic feeds are generally used. When the carded stock arrives at the doffer, instead of being twisted into roving, as is done where a thread is to be produced, it is deposited upon a drum, which, revolving at the back of the doffing cylinder, takes the stock along and winds it. When the lap on the drum is thick enough, it is torn off and laid aside in sheets to await the next step in the process. The speed of the drum exerts quite an influence upon the product, for, if it runs too fast, the stock is stretched too much, while if it runs too slowly, the stock will be lumpy. On the lower grades of felt the second breaker card is dispensed with in most mills, although the product could be much improved by its use. However, this is a matter of judgment, and much of the better grade of goods is made without the use of the second breaker. FELT ^ FELT 5 When the stock has been run through the breakers it is ready for the finisher card, which, in the hxnguage of the feUing industry is 0\ termed the "former". - As the name impHes, this card is used for the purpose of forming the carded stock into the proper shape for the piece of felt which is to be made, and for this reason the width of the machine has to be somewhat greater than the width of the goods, for the fulHng, necessary to give the piece the required strength, cannot be performed without more or less shrinkage. Usually the former cards are from one hundred to one hundred six inches wide, and the feeding apron is supplied with guide boards, which can be set so that any width, within the limits of the machine, can be made. This card is provided also with a drum at the back under the doffer cylinder. The drum is used to operate an endless canvas apron, on which the stock is deposited. At this stage a piece of felt is generally made forty yards long, therefore this is the length of the canvas apron. After passing around the drum, the apron passes over a series of rolls set in a frame, and as high as the room will allow. This is done for the purpose of economizing space. At the rear end of this stand of rolls another drum is placed, over which the apron also passes on its return journey. This drum is used to roll the stock on sticks when the carding process is completed. The diagram, Fig. 1, shows how the apron travels and also how the stock is wound upon the sticks. When the guide boards have been properly set for the width wanted, the stock from the breaker card, which is lying ready in sheets, is carefully weighed and then fed evenly to the machine. The endless apron referred to above is connected with the machine, being virtually a part of it, so that when the macliine is in motion, the apron also is in motion. When the stock comes from the doffer, it is depos- ited upon the apron and carried along with it, traveling around until all the stock required for the piece has been carded and deposited upon the apron. As soon as this is done, the stock is torn- across on the drum at the rear and wound around a stick, commonly termed a* ^tstick.. This completes the carding process and the stock thus V formed is termed a bat. When the stock is ready to be made into bats and is weighed for ihe piece, allowance is made for the sides, which are generally thinner 6 FELT than the body, and have to be trimmed off so that the goods may be of an even thickness. The method of procedure at this stage depends greatly upon the nature of the goods being made. On common weight goods the whole piece may be made in one bat, while 'on heavy goods two or more bats are sometimes made and placed together afterwards to get the required weight. All grades which are to weigh one pound to the yard, or less, are usually made in one bat; while those goods which are to weigh from two to ten or twelve pounds per yard are made in bats weighing from forty to sixty pounds, as the case may be. When the bats have been made they are taken to the trimming table and are trimmed to width, and as many bats as are required for the piece are placed on top of each other. When trimmed the bats are again weighed, and they are then ready for the next step, which is termed "hardening". ^J ^.IJardening. When the stock has been carded into bats it is \ loose and can be handled only with greatest care. For this reason the hardening process is employed, to give the bat a consistency where it can be handled readily in subsequent processes. Hardening felt is a very simple process, but it requires quite a lot of time. The ■machine itself consists of a heavy iron framework supporting a strong cast-iron platen, which is thirty-two inches wide by one hundred ten inches long. A top platen of the same width, but two or three inches shorter, is over the first one, so that the actual width which the machine will handle is about one hundred six inches. The accompanying illustration. Fig. 2, shows one style of hard- ener, and it will be observed that the machine is very solidly built. On the left side of the illustration the mechanism for its operation may be seen. ^y Hardening felt is an adaptation of the principles,o f fulli ng, which ^""^Nyis employed here to give to felt its first stability. As is well known, ^, the"e^ments. required for fulling are pressure, moisture, and JieMiL,jaXxd all three are made use of at this process. The illustration gives only the mechanical part of the hardening operation, and the explanation is thus not complete. On each end of the hardener is placed a bench- like construction which corresponds with the bottom platen. On one end of the hardener this bench is about eight yards long, while on the other end it is about four yards long. Between the longer bench FELT 8 FELT and the hardener is placed a steam box, which is covered with burlap to cause the steam to pass through evenly. At the outside of each platen a wooden frame, to which canvas is secured, is placed. The canvas is drawn tightly over both surfaces. At the end of the benches is placed a shaft operated by a crank, and on this is wound another canvas apron frorn fifty to fifty-two yards long. The tops of the benches are covered with planks one foot wide, and there is a space between each plank to admit of a roll being placed between them. The canvas apron is first rolled up smoothly on the end of the eight yard bench, and the end is then drawn over the bench and steam box and passed between the platens. It is then brought to the shaft at the end of the other bench and secured. It will be seen that the rolls make it much easier to draw the apron along. The bat, ready for hardening, is then placed upon this apron over the steam box, with the end just touching the edge of the bottom platen, and is unrolled toward the end of the bench. Care must be taken that no wrinkles are in either the apron or the bat. On top of the bat is placed an apron of burlap which has previously been smoothly rolled on a bat stick and this also is unrolled towards the end of the bench, thus covering the stock completely. After moisten- ing this burlap apron, another bat is placed on top of it in the same manner as the first, and also another apron. This is continued until there are as many pieces as it is intended to treat. The steam is then turned on in the steam box and the pieces saturated, after which the whole is drawn along by means of the shaft and crank at the end of the short bench, until the steamed part of the goods is between the platens. The top platen is then let down on the goods and the machine started. Now it will be seen by.a glance at the illustration that a mechanism is provided to impart a recipro- cating motion to the top platen. We have now the three elements of fulling in action; the steam supplying moisture and heat, and the top platen supplying the pressure. The duration of the vibration is automatically controlled by means of a mechanism with gears and a wormshaft. When this mechanism has been set it will shift the belt from the tight to flie loose pulley, thus stopping the vibration, and it will also lift the top platen. The steaming process of the next width has been going on during this time, and by drawing the apron ahead thirty-two inches, another ^ FELT ^ 10 FELT width is placed between the platens. The machine is again started, this being repeated until the end is reached. Both the bats and the burlap aprons are again rolled up on bat sticks, after passing through the hardener. The vibrations of the top platen referred to are very short, not exceeding one-half inch from one extreme to the other. In Fig. 3 is shown another style of hardener^ which is often termed a double hardener, because the machine is constructed in such a man- ner that the vibrations are imparted to both top and bottom platens. The vibratory motion thus being doubled, the machine will produce the same results as the single hardener in one-half the time. In all other respects the machines are alike. Four pieces are usually treated at the hardener at one time by placing one bat on top of another as described, but this" depends entirely upon the weight of the goods. For instance, on glove linings which weigh from ten to twelve ounces per yard, six pieces is the com- mon practice; while on heavy laundry and saddlery felts, which weigh from ten to twelve pounds to the yard, one piece is all that can be treated at a time, and even then it is necessary to repeat the opera- tion. On some of the light weight goods also, it is often necessary to ' give two hardenings in order that they may be better handled at the fulling process. This is done as follows: To commence, three pieces are hardened, then placed on top of three fresh pieces and passed through the macliine again. The first three pieces are then taken off the machine, and three more fresh pieces put through under the second three; and so on. After the hardening process is completed the pieces are taken to the fulling room, unrolled, and drawn over a perch for examination. Every imperfection in carding will show, and the attention of the carders must be called to any unevenness in order that it may be reme- died. After a careful examination the goods are ready for soaping, preparatory to putting them into the fulling machine.. The soapiiTg operation is preferably performed with a machine similar to the one shown in Fig. 4. It is a very simple contrivance, consisting of two squeeze rolls marked A, the lower one of which is set in the tank C which contains the soap. On each side are guide rolls, a single one marked B on the side where the goods enter; and a set of two rolls also marked B on the other side, to take care of the goods ^ FELT 11 as they leave the squeeze rolls. The machine is made wide enough to admit of the pieces passing through open width, which is preferable to having them in the rope shape, common to ordinary soaping machines. The soap used on felts is generally used very warm, as it is thus possible to use a better bodied soap, and also to provide the heat necessary in the fulling process. The strength of the soap need not Y Fig. 4. Elevation of Soaping MacMue. be very great as there is not much, if any, oil or grease to loosen, but on account of alkali being a powerful aid in fulling, quite an amount may be used. These things do not go by rule, being subject to the judgment of the one who has charge of the fulling. In some instances it is found profitable to have the soap as near neutral as possible, and then add alkali, dissolved in hot water, near the end of the process. .Fullin g. The machines used for fulling are of the old-fashioned kind, that is, the crank type of mill, for it is impossible to use rotary 12 PELT mills on felts. There are two reasons why rotary mills are not adapted for this work: first, because the goods are not solid enough to stand the strain, and consequently would pull apart; and second, because the pieces, being in rope form, would felt together in that shape. As there are no provisions, on this style of fuUing mill, to regulate the shrinkage in width and length, the desired end must be attained in another way. The illustration. Fig. 5, shows a crank type fulling mill, and it will be seen that one or more pieces can be placed at either end. The sides are on hinges and can be let down to make it easier to remove the goods. The letters A, A, A, A, indicate the four sides of the mill which are made of 4-inch yellow pine. The top frame B, B, B, B, supports the shaft E to which the hammers C, C, are connected at D, D. The levers H connect the hammers to the crank shaft F which is driven by a belt on the pulley G. When the shaft revolves a reciprocating motion is imparted to the hammers. When it is desired to full the goods up in length, they are placed in the machine so that the pressure exerted by the crank will be lengthwise, therefore the pieces are folded into the machine at full width. If, however, they are to be shrunk in width, they are placed in the machine from the side. When goods shrink in length, they should shrink more or less in width also; therefore it requires close attention on the part of the fuller to bring them out right. After the goods have been placed in the machine and have run about ten minutes, or sometimes less, they must be carefully examined to see if they felt together. If there is any indication of felting, they must be taken out at once, and all wrinkles which have begun to felt together must be carefully pulled apart. The edges are generally the worst for this fault, and often cause much trouble and hard work to keep them smooth and open. The better the quality of the stock used the more trouble of this kind will be present, and it often requires from four to six men to operate one of these machines. It is not uncommon to find from thirty to forty men working in a fulling room with five or six fulling machines. As the fulling operation nears completion, greater attention is required, for the goods should be taken from the machine and opened out more often. They are also carefully measured, both as to width and length, and if the width comes up faster than it should, the goods *r PELT 13 14 FELT have to be pulled apart again. This makes the work of the fulling room very hard, but there is no other way to get the desired results. There are goods which require additional alkali to hasten the fulling, but the same precautions as to taking them from the machine and opening out must be observed. When the pieces are finally taken from the machine and have been opened and measured and found right, they are ready for the washer. Washing. The washing machines do not differ from ordinary washers, except that more room is ^iven the goods. In a common eight-string washer only four pieces are treated at a time. This makes it possible to have the guide rings and throat plates, through which the goods have to pass, much larger than on woven goods. After the goods are run into the washer and the ends sewed together, they are given a generous supply of warm water and run about fifteen minutes, after which the gates are opened and the lather rinsed off with warm water, followed by cold water. If the goods are to be fancy dblors, they must be rinsed very thoroughly in order to remove all the soap, while if they are gray or white, a common washing and rinsing will answer. In washing felts it is often much the same as on woven goods, for some finishers think that goods cannot be washed clean unless soap is added in the washer. While there may be rare cases where it is advisable to use additional soap at the washing process, such cases are rare, and as a general rule it may be accepted as a foolish waste of good material. In addition to this, it will make the washing, process slower, for the more soap in the goods, the longer time is required to remove it. From the washer the goods are sent either to the dye house or to the extractor to be extracted before drying, according to the nature of the goods. Drying. The drying process is the most particular operation in finishing felt goods, for the defects in other operations must be cor- rected. With even the greatest care in fulling, the pieces will not shrink evenly, some being long and narrow and others being shrunk too much in length and not enough in width. It is known how much stock there is in the piece, for in this respect all pieces of one style are supposed to weigh aUke; the loss sustained in the various processes is also known; so that if the goods are to weigh a certain amount per yard when finished, it is an easy matter to figure how many yards FELT 15 long the piece ought to be when finished. Therefore every piece that comes to the dryer is measured, and if it is short of the required length, it must be stretched in length sufficiently so that the piece will be right when it is dry. So it will be seen that aside from the actual work of drying the pieces, much judgment is required to have uniform and satisfactory work result. After-processes vary with the quality of the goods. A common padding or white cotton glove lining is usually passed through the 16 PELT press and then rolled up, measured, etc. These goods are given a bath of starch after the washing is completed, which makes them feel more substantial than they really are. In the case of all cotton linings this starch bath is a necessity, for without it, it would be difficult to get the desired article. Such goods as these require very little labor in the finishing room, but hat felts cause much more work. There are two kinds of hat felt, the smooth and the rough. The smooth hat felt is taken from the washer to the extractor and partly extracted, that is, more moisture is left in the goods than would be done if they were intended to be dried. From the extractor the pieces are taken to the napper and both sides thoroughly napped. They are then sent to the dye house to be colored. When they return, they are thoroughly extracted and dried, after which they are again taken to the napper and receive one run on each side. The sandpapering machine fallows, each side being given one or more runs to smooth the face, and the goods are ready for shearing. Fig. 6 shows a felt sheai'ine: machine. The goods are sheared down so that the face as well as the back will be perfectly smooth, after which they pass to be pressed and the usual final work. On rough hat felts, as a rule, the wet napping is omitted and they are napped after coming from the dryer. This class of felt requires the use of mohair, and as this is an expensive article, it is customary to have the middle of good filling stock and a layer of mohair on each side. After the fulling the mohair is held tightly by the body felt, for it has very little of the felting property itself. This fact must be remembered when the goods are napped, or the nap will be thin and straggling. For the purpose of napping the ordinary mohair hat felt, a machine resembling a double cylinder brushing machine is used, only the brushes are lacking and the cylinders are covered with fancy card clothing. On low grade mohair hat felts the rear cylinder is often replaced by a brush cylinder, thus leaving only one napping cylinder. Most mohair hat felts are measured and rolled up immediately after napping, but on the finer grades, where it is an object to bring out the luster of the mohair, the wet napping process is employed, and after drying they are again lightly napped and sent to the press for a good hard pressing. Shoe felts are usually of low grade but are felted as solid as possi- *^ FIFTY CELL DRYER, WITH HOUSING REMOVED, FOR DRYING CLOTH Vacuum Process Co. FELT 17 ble. These pass from the washer to the dye house to be colored, usually black. They are then dried and thoroughly sandpapered. Shearing follows, for they also have to be as smooth as possible. They are then pressed hard, and are ready for the final work of measurino-, etc. The machines used for sandpapering are usually the nappers referred to, but the card clothing is taken off and the cyhnders covered with sandpaper. The processes in the finishing room do not differ materially from those employed in other mills, for the goods are in most respects treated like cloth. Some difference is noted when handling heavy laundry felts, for such goods cannot be handled in lengths over ten yards; neither- can they be doubled, therefore they are rolled up full width and sent to the market. After the drvino- process is completed they are at once measured and packed. Felts are made for almost every imaginable purpose, but in the foregoing the chief points in handling felt have been given, and on the whole there is very little departure from the methods explained. PUNCHED OR NEEDLE FELT Another class of felt merits mention; namely, the so-called Punched or Needle Felt. It is chiefly used for the cheaper grades of stable blankets, and has excellent wearing qualities. The stock used for this class of goods must be of good felting quahty and should not be of too long staple. It is not desired to have much nap on the blankets, for the more nap there is on them, the sooner the wool stock will wear oft", but if a good felting short-stapled stock is used, and if the pieces have been well felted in the fullino- process, a good serviceable article will be the result. The carding process is practically the same as before described, and as soon as the stock has been properly rolled on the bat stick it is taken to the punching machine, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 7. The body of the goods consists of a good quality burlap, and the wool stock is deposited on each side of this, so that when done, the burlap is entirely hidden from sight. The punching machine is used to make the wool adhere to the burlap until it is properly f eked. It will be seen that the mechanism is extremely simple, consisting chiefly of a series af rolls for moving the burlap and stock, and the 18 FELT FELT 19 punching mechanism proper. This latter part of the machine con- sists of the bed A and the head block D. The bed is rigid, but the head block is set into jaws on each side, to which, by means of the lever G, an up-and-down motion is imparted. Into the head block D is fitted a board E, wliich is removable, and into which are set several rows of a pecuHar kind of needle (shown in Fig. 8). As will be seen, these needles are supplied with barbs near the point which is intended to punch the stock into the burlap. They are set into the board very carefully and firmly, for in passing downward they pass between one-quarter inch steel rods F, set one-quarter inch apart. These rods are firmly placed one-half inch above the bed A, while the burlap with the carded wool stock passes over them; that is, between the rods and the head block D. It is necessary that these rods also be placed very carefully, for in the case of any deviation, the needles will come in contact with them and thus lose much of their efficiency. The needles are set in rows which are one- half inch apart and there is one-half inch space between the needles. The rolls B and C move the goods and are driven by a chain from the delivery roll so that their movement may be even and steady. A piece of burlap is fed into the ma- chine at H, the piece being laid on the floor and taken up by the machine as it is needed. The bat of carded stock is placed at I, the end being passed under the roll K and p^Jwn placed on top of the burlap, and carried along with it. ^^edie. A leader is fastened to the end of the burlap and this is taken to C, usually passing over C and between C and C^ From there it passes into the scray L. The piece of burlap moves about one-quarter inch to each down- ward stroke of the head block D, and as there are five or six rows of needles, the stock is pretty thoroughly punched through it. When the bat of carded stock is run out, another is placed in position and the process continues, but when the end of the first forty yards (which is the length of the first bat) reaches the scray, it is cut off and returned to the front of the machine to await its turn for the next run. As soon as the end of the second piece is reached, the first is 20 FELT attached to its end, but in such a manner that the side which has been punched is on the underside. Another bat of carded stock is placed in position and the machine is again started. The burlap now receives a coating of wool stock on the other side. When the first end of this piece gets as far as the rolls C and O-, it is separated from the other piece and wound around a stick which is placed in the slots, MM. When the punching operation is completed the pieces are ready for the fuUing. In the fulhng room the pieces are first given a thor- ough soaping. It is desired to have the stock felted as well as it is possible to felt it, and as there is no danger of too much shrinkage, the soap for this Idnd of fabric can be made very strong in point of alkaH. Of course, there is no grease to loosen which would require the presence of alkali in the soap to any extent, but on account of its being a great aid to felting it should be liberally used. The cost of alkali is much less than the cost of soap, and it has a tendency to make the body of the soap heavier, so that in this case the amount of hard soap to be used can be considerably reduced, thus keeping the cost for soap very low. A soaping machine should be used on all felts, but it is a deplor- able fact that this machine is found only in a few places. Without the aid of a soaping machine, the goods will have to be soaped in the old way by spreading them on the floor and applying the soap by means of a sprinkling can. The waste of soap thus entailed would soon pay for the best machine of this kind ever made, but when it is considered that almost any mechanic can construct a macliine which will fill the need in every respect, it is surprising that so many still hold to the old way. When the pieces have been properly soaped they may be placed in the fulling machine. In this instance also, the crank mills are preferable. The shrinkage will be small so that no particular atten- tion is necessary in putting the pieces in the mill, as is the case on regular felt goods. However, if the stock has the felting property it should have, it is necessary to watch the pieces closely, and remove them from the machine frequently for an opening and general over- hauling, so that no wrinkles may felt into them. Even though the goods are of the cheapest kind, they should be perfect. The fulling proper should take about two hours and at the end FELT 21 of this time the goods may be taken from the machine, well opened, and inspected. The washing process is not very elaborate, as the pieces contain very little grease or other foreign matter which needs to be removed, but unless they are well rinsed they are apt to feel stiff at first. Plenty of warm water at the washer for these, as well as all other goods, is much to be desired. This does not mean that they cannot be washed properly without the aid of warm water, for unless the supply of warm water is plentiful it is as well to rinse entirely with cold water, bearing in mind, however, to let them rinse one-quarter or one-half hour longer than would be required with warm water. From the washer the goods go at once to the dye house to be colored, usually a dark yellow. They are then ready for drying, if medium gpods. When a somewhat better quality of felt is made, it is given a heavy brushing with plenty of water. This has a tendency to lay all the loose fibers in one direction, but does not produce what may be termed a nap. When treated thus, the finished article has a much smoother and better appearance; but after a day's use, one would be unable to tell the better from the cheaper grade. After drying the pieces they are taken to the press and receive a hard pressing, after which they are at once sent to the making-up room, for in most places the goods leave the mill in the shape of the finished blanket. EXAMINATION PAPER FELT Read carefully: Place your name and full address at the head of the paper. Any cheap, light paper like the sample previously sent you may be used. Do not crowd your work, but arrange it neatly and legibly. Do not copy the answers from the Instruction Paper; use your own words, so that we may be sure that you understand the subject. 1. In the hardening process, how many pieces are treated at the same time? 2. How is felt stock mixed and prepared? 3. Why should oil not be used about the stock? 4. What machines are used in the fulling process? 5. How many and what kinds of felt are used in hats? 6. What color is "needle felt" usually dyed? 7. How many layers of each kind of stock are generally used? 8. What are the important requirements for the superintendent in a felt mill? 9. After the stock has been run through the bur pickers, what is the next step in the preparation of the stock? 10. How many hardenings is it necessary to give lightweight goods? 11. Does the washing process have to be as elaborate with "needle felt" as with other felts? Why? 12. Why cannot a rotary machine be used in the fulling process? 13. Of what use is "punched" or "needle felt?" 14. After the goods have been fulled, what is the next process? 15. What is the most particular operation in finishing felt goods, and why? 16. Explain fully the difference in fulling goods in length and in width. After completing the work, add and sign the following statement: I hereby certify that the above work is entirely my own. (Signed)