*.«< ^o* \* o °^ J. ** ^ ,4^ ■^ V 5k- *^ ** *i "^ ■* ^ v v^ 1 S? o *■ o « °o ^.' «* °* ^4. v/ : •v * A & ome of these, argon, helium, radium, tung- ' ears, so it is barely possible that others may »u are somewhat familiar with some of these ie substances, in the list of elements which Aluminum Antimony Argon Arsenic Barium Bismuth Boron Bromine Cadmium Cassium Calcium Carbon Cerium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt List of Elements. Columbium Copper Erbium Fluorine Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Glucinum Gold Helium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lead Lithium Magnesium Manganese Mercury Molybdenum Neoymium Neon Nitrogen Nickel Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Potassium Praseodymium Radium Rhodium Rubidium Ruthenium Samarium Scandium Selenium Silicon Silver Silver Sodium Strontium Sulphur Tantalum Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Yandadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zirconium Zinc Of the above elements, fifteen enter into the composition of the human body. These elements are as follows: Oxygen Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Sulphur Phosphorus Calcium or lime Iron Sodium Potassium Magnesium Silicon Chlorine Iodine Fluorine j Minute quantities Food and Food Nutrients 1. Definition — (a) Food is any material which when taken into the body will build and repair tissue or give heat and other forms of energy, (b) A nutrient is that constituent of a foodstuff which will perform any of these functions. 2. Discussion — In our daily food supply, we should obtain sufficient of both building and fuel material to maintain the body at its highest standard of weight, efficiency and appearance. In other words, our daily meals should contain the food nutrients in sufficient quantity and proper proportions. Classifications: There are five food nutrients: A — Building Material Water Mineral Protein B — Fuel Material f3. Protein 4. Fat (5. Carbohydrates 16 These nutrients are also classified in the following manner: I. Inorganic II 1. Water 2. Mineral Organic a. Nitrogenous 3. Protein Non-nitrogenous 4. Fats 5. Carbohydrates b. The elements comprising each nutrient are as follows: 1. Water is composed ofhydrogen and oxygen. 2. Mineral matter. The minerals of the body are calcium, iron, sodium, po- tassium, magnesium in combination with sulphur, phosphorus, silicon or chlorine, fluerine and iodine. 3. Protein is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and al- ways contain some sulphur and usually some phosphorus. 4. Fats are made up of carbon, hydrogen and some oxygen. 5. Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen — the oxygen being in a greater proportion than found in the fats. Nitrogen enters into the structure of every living cell hence protein, the only food principle containing nitrogen is essentially a buildng material. Elements are usually referred to by chemical signs — or abbreviations. Following are the signatures for body elements: C=Carbon Na= Sodium S=Sulphur I=Iodine H=Hydrogen K=Potassium P=Phosphorus =Fluorine 0=Oxygen N=Nitrogen The uses of these elements and food materials in the body are shown in the following outline: ; Nutrient Composition Uses in Body Remarks Na= Sodium K=Potassium Si=Silicon Cl=Chlorine S=Sulphur P=Phosphorus Ca=Lime (calcium) Fe=Iron — ■ s a 3 Water Mineral H + O Ca, S, P, Fe, Na, K, Mg, Si, CI. Protein H+O- Enters into the structure of every cell and the circulation. Build bone, teeth, and form part of the structure of every cell, furnish coloring material, red blood corpuscles, furnish alkaline and acid and neutral conditions of digestive juices and are essen- tial in all digestive, assimila- tive and circulatory processes Build muscle tissue, and is essen- -C+N+S+P tial in all cell structure, and may serve as fuel, producing heat and energy. The body is over 2-3 or 66 per cent water. The body is about 4 per cent mineral matter The body varies in protein material as to whether muscu- lar or not 17 C3 ■c a PQ Nutrient Composition Use Remarks Protein Fat See above C+H+O Carbohydrate C+H-fO To be burned in the body, pro- ducing heat and other forms of energy. To be burned in the body to produce heat and other forms of energy. . The fat con- tent of the body varies widely. The supply of carborhydrate taken in the food is used up daily or changed into fat and stored in the tissues. Typical foodstuffs representative of each food nutrient. [Drinking water [All beverages Fruits 1. Water-! Milk Vegetables | Meat, eggs [more or less in all foods. Drinking water Fruits Vegetables Mineral } Cereals | Whole wheat or graham bread [Milk I Eggs [Meat 3. Protein [Much in: [Meat gal. of ice when frozen How many persons will it serve? III. Orange ice (1 qt water I. Boil 5 Min. <2 c sugar II. Add to the Syrup 2 c orange juice [ Y4, c lemon juice Then cool [ grated rind of 1 orange Strain the mixture; cool; freeze. 3. Any ripe fruit, stewed or fresh, may be put through the colander and used in place of orange juice, or any fruit juice may be used. 34 SIXTH LESSON Continuing the Use of Water as a Carrier of Flavors. References : See present newspaper advertisements for Postum Cereal, showing cafhene and tannin tests for coffee. Human Foods by Harry Snyder Chapter XIV— "Tea, Coffee, Chocolate and Cocoa." The Story of Chocolate by The Walter Baker Co., Ltd., Dorchester, Mass. Farmers' Bulletin 105 (E. S. W. 11) p. 19. Some Coffee Substitutes. III. Making coffee. Experiment 8: Utensils Recipe Glass flask Glass funnel n 2 T. ground coffee Filter paper J c boilin £ water Coffee pots Manipulations: (three in number) (1) Fold filter paper to fit funnel, wet it from the interior and see that it fits the funnel closely around the edge. Place the coffee on the filter paper and pour over it the boiling water. (2) Tie the ground coffee loosely in a piece of cheese cloth. Place it in a coffee pot. Pour over it the boiling water and let it simmer for five min- utes, at the end of the time lift the bag of coffee from out of the coffee pot. (3) Prepare the material in the same manner as in (2) ; letting it stand but keeping hot, for 30 minutes, after the five minutes simmering, before lifting out the "coffee grounds." Comparisons : (1) Taste all three beverages. (2) Place some of each in a test tube, or jelly glass (half full.) Mark the samples "1," "2," "3," and test for tannin. Test: To y-2 glass of coffee solution, add 10 c c of 10 per cent solution of lead acetate. The precipitate shows presence of tannin. 35 Result : Experiment. Method. Time. Evidences of Tannin Color. Flavor. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Coffee filtered Coffee simmered Coffee simmered and steeped 5 minutes 5 minutes 30 minutes Conclusions : (1) As to best method for coffee making. (2) As to water as a carrier of flavor. Application : Making a pot of coffee for 6 people. Utensils : Coffee pot Knife Tea kettle of freshly boiled water A tablespoon Cheese cloth Note. It is a great advantage to put the coffee into some porous carrier which may be re- moved, containing the grounds, at the proper time. A cheese cloth sack may be used — for larger quan- tities, a clean salt sack is useful. Aluminum tea balls or "strainers" with lids may be had at very small cost. Recipe for 6 persons: 7 c boiling water 12 T coffee Egg (optional) Manipulation: A clearer and richer colored product may be obtained by adding (1) t of egg for each cup of coffee. If the egg be used, it should be mixed through the ground coffee with a few T of cold water, before putting it into the container for cooking. Then add the boiling water. Let it simmer for 5 min. and stand 5 min. longer before sepa- rating the grounds from the beverage. Notes. (1) A percolator or coffee pot with strainer attachment obviates the use of the cloth bag. (2) If the egg is not used for clearing, a few T of cold water may be dashed in at the end of the simmering process. Some use crushed egg shells. These should be freshly broken. Some use just the yolk of the egg. Others just the white. Question. What is the purpose of adding the egg? Observe the grounds when egg have been used. What did the egg do? What does the cold water do? Explain. 36 Recipe for 1 cup. 1 t tea 1 c bdHing water Experiment 9. IV. Making Tea. Utensils. Tea kettle of freshly boiled water Tea pot (earthen) t spoon tea ball or strainer or square of cheese cloth Procedure : (a) Use black tea and make a cup of tea by placing tea, enclosed in ball, strainer, or cheese cloth, in a hot earthen tea pot. Pour over this the boiling water. (1) Steep 3 minutes and remove the grounds at once. (2) Repeat, steeping 10 min. (3) Repeat, steeping 30 min. (4) Repeat, boiling 15 min. Compare these four products as to color, flavor, tannin, and tabulate results. For the tannin test, use % glass of tea and 10 c. c. of lead acetate as in coffee experiment. (b) Repeat (a), using green tea. Results : Experiment Method. Time. Tannin. Color. Flavor. (a) Black tea (1) (2) (3) (4) (b) Green tea (1) (2) (3) (4) Conclusions as to methods for making tea: 37 Practical application; Make and serve tea or coffee at next social affair of the school or at home. Coffee is served hot" with cream and loaf sugar. Tea is served hot with cream and sugar, or with lemon and sugar, and sometimes with cloves. When the latter method is used, the guest should be asked if he will have lemon and cloves and they should be placed in the cup, the hot tea being poured in upon them. Two cubes of sugar are placed on the saucer or the sugar is passed to the guests in turn. Tea may also be served cold by pouring over ice and mint leaves or lemon, adding granulated sugar. 38 SEVENTH LESSON. Fruits. References : Human Foods by Harry Snyder. Chapter IV— "Fruits, Flavors, Extracts." Farmers' Bulletins: 293— Use of Fruit as a Food. 105 — (E. S. W. 12, p. 22) Food Value of Apricots, Cherries, Peaches, plums and Prunes. 193— (E. S. W. 25, p. 15) Cold Storage of Fruit. 118— (E. S. W. 15, p. 12)Mechanical Cold Storage of Fruit. 334— (E. S. W. 48, p. 17) The Keeping of Apples. 202— (E. S. W. 26, p. 29) A Cheap Fruit Evaporator. 175 — Home Manufacture of Unfermented Grape Juice. 122— (E. S. W. 16, p. 27) Preparation of Unfermented Grape Juice. 78— (E. S. W 5, p. 29) The Preservation of Grape Juice and Sweet Cider. *Composition of Several Fruits (the numbers represent per cent) : Fuel Values Fresh Fruit. Refuse. H 2 Protein. Fat Carbohydrate Ash per lb. (Calories) Apples 25 63.3 0.3 0.3 10.8 .3 220 Strawberri es 5 85.9 .3 .6 7.0 .6 175 Oranges 27 63.4 .6 .1 8.5 .4 170 Bananas 35 48.9 .8 .4 14.3 .6 300 For graphic illustrations of Composition, see: Illustrated Food Chart by C. F. Langworthy. "Note. The percentage composition of various food stuffs given in this note book is taken from Bulletin 28, Chemical Composition of American Food Materials, by W. O. Atwater, U. S- Dept. of Agriculture. Experiment 10. Showing composition of the Apple. Utensils and Supplies: Grater Evaporating dish Bowl 2 Glass tubes Measuring cup Test tube Cheese cloth Test tube holder Plate Litmus paper Pan of hot water Apple Paring knife Water Procedure: Fehling's solution 1. Grate the apple. 2. Squeeze out the juice through cheese cloth. 3. Compare quantities of juice and pulp. 4. Dry the fibre and examine its structure. 5. Taste the juice, note flavors, sugar, acid. 6. Test with litmus paper.* 7. Place small quantity, about 1 c. c. in a test tube. Test for sugar. Explanation. — The test of sugar is made with Fehling's solution as follows: Place material to be tested in a perfectly clean test tube. Add 1 c. c. of water. Holding test tube by means of wire holder warm the liquid slightly over a flame. Now add the Fehling's solution as follows. (Have two pieces of clean glass tubing, each several inches long. Use these as dippers. Place one rod in the green Copper Sulphate Solution (CuS0 4 ). Place the other in the bottle of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH).) (a) Closing the top end of the tubing by pressing the fingers on it, lift up the ube from the CuS0 4 and let a few drops of the green liquid drop into the test tube. *Jfote. If a substance is acid it will turn blue litmus paper pink. If it is alkaline, it will turn the pink paper blue. Test: Take a piece of blue litmus paper — dip it in vinegar — note result. Wash it in clear water, now dip it in soda water and again observe result. ! 'J 40 (b) In the same manner add a few drops of the KOH. Add enough for the solution to turn blue. And then heat over the flame. A yellow precipitate, shading from light yellow te deep orange color will imdicate the presence of a simple sugar. 8. Burn V 2 the pulp on top of a hot stove lid or porcelain crucible or evapo- rating dish. The ash left is the mineral. 9. Cook other y 2 of pulp in V2 e boiling water. Examine. Does composi tion show water? Mineral? i f 1 ! ," I 1 : Sugar (carbohydrate) ? Some other fuel material which burned ? Would the sugar burn if dry? Try some in a flame. ' What does cooking do to the fiber? Examine cooked and raw fiber under microseope. (B) Utensils already out. Procedure : 1. Take two apples of same kind and shape. 2. Pare one, core and cut into eighths. 3 Place the pieces on a plate over a pa. of boiling water and dr apples there until very dry. The drying may be completed in the sun 0: a very slow oven. . , , 4. When the first apple is dry, pare the other apple, core and eu; int.. eigntns. Comparisons : 1. Compare the two apples as to : Color, Texture, Weight. What constituent of the dried apple has been lost? Of what advantage is this ' 41 i:..". i:.; -.:■=.:• si ■ 2. Wrap half of ths pieces of the fresh apple in a moist cloth and put them in a covered dish till next day. 3. Soak half of the pieces of the dried apple in Yi e °f c0 ^ water until next day. 4. Again compare the two as to : Texture, Weight. What has happened to the dried apple 5. Place pieces of both fresh and dried apple in covered jelly glasses and leave them for one week. What do you observe? Conclusions : (1) As to effect of drying upon keeping qualities. (2) As to how the water lost in evaporation may be replaced. (3) As to methods used in drying. Sun drying. Artificial drying. 42 EIGHTH LESSON. APPLICATION LESSON ON FRUIT I. The Cooking of Fresh Fruits Experiment 12. Making Apple Sauce. Utensils needed for lesson •• Food materials needed : One large sauce pan and cove r. 6 medium sized apples. One measuring cup. y% e sugar. One large tablespoon. Two vegetable knives. Two large bowls. Manipulation: (1) Cook % of the apples in stew pan, with about one-half as much water as apples by measure. Use Vfc the sugar to sweeten them when ready to serve. (2) Cook the other half oi the apples in the same quantity of water used in (1) and tbu same quantity of sugar used in (1) added when the apples go on to cook. Comparisons : When ready to serve the two kinds of apple sauce, note the difference in: Appearance, Texture, Flavor. Conclusions : 43 Baked Apples. Apples Sugar Raisins Cinnamon Wash and core apples; place them in a buttered baking dish. Pill the hole in each apple with 1 t butter, a little cinnamon and chopped raisins or nuts. Put over each apple 1 T of brown sugar. Bake in a hot oven until tender. Serve with cream. Steamed Apples. Prepare and season apples as for baking. Place each apple in a cup or ramequin, and steam them in a covered steamer until tender. Jellied Apples. Make a heavy syrup with 2 parts sugar and 1 part water. Drop into it whole apples which have been washed and cored. Add a stick of cinnamon and a half dozen cloves. Cook until apples are tender. Lift apples into a serving dish. Cook the syrup un- til reduced to a jelly like consistency and pour it over the apples. Serve with whipped cream. Pears are delicious prepared in any of the above ways, omitting the raisins and spice. Escalloped Apples. 3 c chopped apples 2 c crumbs % c sugar 2 T butter % t cinnamon % lemon, juice and rind % t nutmeg % c water Add sugar, cinnamon, nutmeg and lemon rind to chopped apples. Add crumbs to melted butter. Line the bottom of a buttered baking dish with *4 the crumbs, then add % the apples. Add % more crumbs and remainder of apples, lemon juice and water. Cover with buttered crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven iy 2 hours. Cover first hour. Rhubarb Sauce. 1 pt. rhubarb 1 c sugar y% c water Wash rhubarb stalks, peel the flat side, and cut in V2 inch lengths. Put rhubarb in a sauce pan, add water and stew until tender, stirring often at first. Add sugar and heat till sugar is dissolved. Steamed Rhubarb. Prepare rhubarb as for sauce. Put all material in top of double boiler and cook until tender. Baked Rhubarb. Prepare as rhubarb sauce, put in earthen baking dish. Cover and bake until tender and deep red in color. Escalloped Rhubarb. Follow recipe for esealloping apple, s ubstituting 3 c slice rhubarb for the apple and adding y 2 c sugar. Cherries, gooseberries, plums and all other fruits may be prepared after any of the methods indicated for apples or rhubarb. Any of the juicy fuits or berries may be treated as the rhubarb. The quantity of sugar must be varied. Cranberry Jelly. 4 c cranberries 1 or 2 c water 1 e sugar Pick over and wash the cranberries. Cook them in water until they burst from their skins, and press through a strainer. Add sugar to juice and stir until the sugar is dis- solved. Then, without stirring, boil 8 to 10 minutes, or until it jells when dropped on a cold saucer, and pour into molds or glasses which have been wet with cold water, and set away to cool. 44 Experiment 13. Replacing of water lost in drying and softening the cellulose of dried fruit. II. The cooking of Dried Fruits. Cooking dried peaches, or dried apples. Utensils : Large sauce pan and cover Large bowl Measuring cup Vegetable knife Large spoon Procedure : Fruit should be washed and put to soak the day before, by pupils. Recipe : 1 pound of dried peaches or prunes 1-3 c sugar Manipulation : Weigh the fruit dry. The fruit should be soaked in water enough to cover it and should be placed in a vessel which can be covered. The next day it should be removed from the juice and weighed, then cooked in a double boiler for 1 hour, the sugar being added when it goes on to cook. If a tart flavor is desired, Y> lemon may be sliced into the cooking peaches. Results : Weight, dry? Weight, soaked? Gain in weight? Gara, per cent, in weight Note. Much of the mineral matter of fruit lies directly underneath the skin; it is therefore best to cook fruit in the skin whenever possible, as, for example, baking apples, or cooking them whole in syrup. The fuzz on peaches is unpleasant to take. Peaches may be peeled like tomatoes by scalding, thus a very thin skin is removed. Prunes are nice served as follows: When cooked, cut open the side of the prune, remove the seed and put in its place a nut meat; close the prune and serve heaped in dishes and covered with the rich juice and whipped cream. 45 Water in the Diet and Digestion Water is an essential food constituent. One can live much longer without food than without water. Water forms the greater part of the substance of every living cell. It makes pos- sible the circulation of food materials to the tells and the disposal of body wastes. It dis- solves the mineral food elements and carries them in solution to perform their offices. It dilutes the digestive juices to the proportions in which they act most effectively. Remove the water supply from the body and digestive juices will cease to flow: waste will not be removed; the skin will parch; the eyes become inflamed ; the muscles shrivel; and the final death of every cell result. The body of an adult of average weight throws off about three pints of water daily. Hence, this amount at least should be taken in. Our foodstuffs have some water content : from 1.4 per cent in some nuts and 5.8 per cent in the dryest form of crackers, to about 96 per cent to 98 per cent in some soups and broths, and 87 per cent in milk. Besides the water taken in our foodstuffs, we should have plenty of safe, pure drinking water, and in quantity it should be not less than one quart in twenty-four hours for a person of average weight. This is taken in the form of beverages such as tea, coffee, and best of all, pure water. If one does "not like water" the desire for it may be cultivated through drinking water containing fruit juices, such as lemons, limes, oranges, grapes, cherries, etc. The eating of juicy fruits, such as oranges, grapefruit, etc., furnishes a drink of pure water dis- tilled by Nature's processes. Minerals in the Diet and Digestion. The mineral constituents of our food supply occupy a far more important place than was at one time given them, and we should give attention to the matter of securing proper mineral content in our food. Calcium has long been known to be important in the child's diet as a former of bone structure and teeth, but it is now known that besides performing that important office, it is absolutely essential in the processes of digestion and circulation. And iron is essential not only as a color producer in eyes and hair and all color pigments of the body, but is the constituent of those blood cells called red corpuscles which enables them to take up and carry their burden of oxygen to all parts of the body. We cannot here go into a detailed discussion of the many offices of these mineral food constituents, which keep the digestive juices in turn alkaline,* then acid, then alkaline, and so on — the proper condition at the proper time — surely are we "wonderfully made." But each is essential in its own minute way and the body demands them and becomes an hungered for them just as much as it does for those constituents which are more evident to our sight as fat, or sugar, or starch, or water. *Jfote. The saliva is the first digestive juice which comes in contact with our food. Is it alkaliDe or acid? How might you easily determine? Which is the blood? Test some beef juice. Test perspiration for acidity. It is much more desirable that we should obtain these minerals in our foods than that we should take them in the form of tonics, prescribed by physicians or patent medicine firms; and sufficient of these are obtained if our diet contains plenty of milk, cheese, eggs, fruit and vegetables ; above all, the fruits and vegetables should not be neglected in the diet, and with our gardens in summer and our modern canning processes, by which sum- mer's supply may be stored for winter use, we need not suffer for need of these things — we should look ahead to having sufficient supplise of mineral yielding foodstuffs. 53 NINTH LESSON. Proteins. The food materials dealt with in the experiments under this subject are those having high percentages of protein, usually combined with other nutrients. Of these, w« have taken up milk first, because it not only contains protein, but all of the nutrients, and these, in such combination as to be easily separated and distinguished. Milk. References : Human Foods, by Snyder. Chapter VII — Milk and Dairy Products. Farmers' Bulletins: 363— The Use of Milk as a Food ; 149— (E. S. W. 20, p. 27) The Digestibility of Raw Pasteurized and Cooked Milk ; 375— The Care of Food in the Home; 413 — The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home; 487 — Cheese and Its Economical Use iu the Diet; 490 — Bacteria in Milk. Composition of Milk and Milk Products. Fuel Value per lb. Food Refuse Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash calories. Whole Milk 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 0.7 325 Milk Skimmed 90.5 3.4 0.3 5.1 0.7 170 Buttermilk 91.0 3.0 0.5 4.8 0.7 165 Cream 74.0 2.5 18.5 4.5 0.5 910 Butter 11.0 1.0 85.0 3.0 3605 Cheese: 0.3 3.4 3605 American pale 31.6 28.8 35.9 4.3 1.8 2055 Cottage 72.0 20.9 1.0 510 For graphic illustrations of composition see Illustrated Charts by Dr. C. F. Lang- worthy. Experiment 13. Showing presence of the different nutrients in milk. Utensils : Porcelain Evaporating dish Tripod and alcohol lamp or flame of stove. Triangle Cup or shallow par- Procedure : Place the pan, partly filled with water, Dver a flame ; lay the triangle across the top ; set the dish on the triangle holder, and place in the dish 2 T of sweet milk. Let the milk heat there. Look across the top of the dish, and observe the rising steam. Observe the decrease in the volume of milk. Let it heat there until the material in the dish is dry. What « passed off? What is left? Plate the dish in an oven or over a flame. What happens? Heat until blackness disappears. What is left? 54 Is water present in milk? Are solids present in milk? Do the the solids burn? Do all of the solids burn? What are solids which do not burn called? Experiment 14. Test for Fat. I. Gravity Test for Cream. What is the weight of a c of milk? Pill a glass measuring cup, or graduated cylin- der, level full of fresh, whole milk. Let it stand 6 to 12 hours until cream has raised to the top. What proportion of milk is cream? What per cent is cream; by measure? By weight? See Langworthy Chart for composition of cream. What food principle is most largely represented by the cream? II. Churning Test for Fat. Utensils and Supplies- White bowl Thermometer Square of cheese cloth String Dover egg beater 1 c sour cream Procedure: Cut a slit in the center of the cheese cloth large enough for the handle of the egg beater to pass through. Scald the utensils and string and cloth. Take 1 c of thick sour cream ; weigh the cream ; place the cream in the bowl; slip the egg beater handle through the cheese cloth and fasten the cloth, by means of the string, down around the top of the bowl. Beat the cream until the fat separates out; skim out the fat; place it in a bowl of cold salt water and work with a spatula into a solid ball or roll. Measure the buttermilk left. Weigh the butter. What proportion of the cream was fat? What per cent of fat by measure? What are these proportions by weight? What per cent of whole milk is butter fat? 55 III. Babcoek's Test for Fat, Many neighborhoods own Babcock Cream Testers. In some places this community tester is kept at the school house. Any older pupil, by experience, can learn to make the Babcock test for butter fat. This test is more accurate than the churning test and it would be valuable indeed if every owner of a cow knew what she was yielding in butter fat. Results tabulated : Measure of Cream Weight of Cream Measure of Buttermilk. Measure of Butter Weight of Butter Percent of Butter by Measure Percent of Butter by Weight Describe a Babcock Cream Tester. On what principle is it constructed? lc skimmed milk J /4 c vinegar Experiment 15. Test for Casein Utensils and supplies: Measuring cup Glass or cup Filter paper Funnel Glass bottle or flask Procedure : Take 1 c of skimmed milk. Add vinegar, 1 t at a time, until the curd or precipi- tate forms, let it stand a few minutes until the curd is well precipitated, or separated out. Fold a filter paper to fit the funnel and moisten the paper, taking care that it fits the funnel sides closely at the edges. Place the funnel in the bottle or R&Jk, to drip, and pour the milk through. What is on the filter? (Curd, casein) What is the watery portion' (Whey, Taste it) How does it taste? 56 What was skimmed off before the experiment b> gan? Then we have found at least three different substances : Cream (Fat) Curd (Casein) Whey (Water) What caused the curd to be precipitated out of the whey? Does it ever separate naturally? What causes it? Use these materials in the following experiments 16 and 17. Experiment 16 Test for Protein. Utensils and Supplies: Test tube Nitric acid Test tube holder Ammonium Hydroxide Flame Curd Glass rod Caution Be careful not to get the nitric acid on the fingers, or to drop it on table or clothing. It burns severely. Place some of the curd in a test tube — a small amount — 1 e. c. Carefully add 2 c. c. of nitric acid (HN0 3 ) and heat. Then cool. When cooled, add about 5 c. c. of ammonium hydroxide (NH 4 OH). Stir with glass rods. If a distinct yellow color appears it gives evidence of nitrogenous organic matter (Protein). Experiment 17. Test for Carbohydrates. (The carbohydrates are cellulose, stach, and sugar.) I. Cellulose is present only in plants and is most evident by the presence of plant fibre. Is there any in milk? II. Test for Starch. To 1 t of milk add a few drops of tincture of iodine. A blue color denotes the pres- ence of starch. Is there any in milk? III. Test for Sugar. Put 5 c. c. of milk in a test tube and proceed with the test for sugar as described under experiment 10. A yellow precipitate shows the presence of glucose or lactose, sugars. Is there sugar in milk? Summary of Results. What food constituents have we discovered in milk ? Water? How found? Mineral ? How founds 57 Protein? How found? Fat? How found? Carbohydrate ? In what form? How found? Name the necessary constituents of our food. Does milk contain all of these constituents? Milk is therefore apparently a perfect food, and it truly is a perfect food, for the infant and young child. Experiment 18. Effect of Heat upon Milk. Utensils and Supplies: Small kettle Flask Measuring cup Porcelain evaporating dish Flame V£ e milk Funnel Nitric acid Filter paper Ammonium hydroxide Boil !/2 c of milk. Taste it. Note the skin which forms on the top. Carefully remove this. Place it on the filter paper in a funnel. Wash it by pouring water over it several times and letting the water filter off. Now place the material in a test tube and test as you did curd for protein. Is it protein ? This skin is a protein called albumin — and it hardens with the heat forming this skin on top of milk when heated. It also cooks fast to the sides and bottom of the vessel. Pour the milk out of the kettle. Scrape the sides of the kettle. Burn the material iu the evaporating dish. Is ash present? 58 It is true that most of the calcium is carried down and deposited on the bottom of the vessel when milk is boiled or heated to a high temperature, just as lime deposits on the bottom of the tea kettle in which hard water is heated. Now this calcium is a most essential food element, particularly for the growing babe and the small child who are depending upon it very largely for bone and teeth structure. Therefore milk, heated to boiling or a high temperature— above 70 degrees Centigrade — is unfit for feeding babies. 59 TENTH LESSON. PRACTICAL USE OF MILK. 1. Butter Making. References : Farmers' Bulletins: 541 — Farm Butter Making. 131 — Household Tests for Detection of Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter. Experiment 18. Determining Best Temperature for Butter Making. Utensils and Supplies: 4 white bowls or Mason jars 4 Dover egg beaters or jar rubbers and lids 1 measuring cup 4 squares of cheese cloth Thermometers 4 strings 4 dishes or bowls for washing butter 4 cups of thick sour cream (about 36 hrs. old) Procedure : Scald the utensils. Weigh each cup of cream and after emptying, weigh the soiled cup and subtract its weight. The result equals the weight of the cream. Record weights: Pour the weighed cream from the cup into a bowl or jai ;.bel the receptacles and record the temperature of each. Temperatures : (a) (b) (c) (d) Next: (a) Pack in ice and lower temperature to 40° C. (b) Let stand in room until temperature reaches about 63° to 65° F. (the approximate temperature of a comfortable room). (c) Let stand in room or in warm water until the temperature reaches 85° F. (the approximate temperature of a room on a hot day). (d) Warm gently to "hike warm" or body temperature: 98° F. When temperatures are correct, cover the containers ; note the time ; insert Dover egg beater or place the lids on the jars; churn, by using the egg beater or shaking the jar, until the butter forms in lumps. Note the time and temperature. Skim out the butter, wash it in cold salt water and weigh it. Record the time occu- pied in churning. If butter does not come in all jars at near the same time add cold water, or warm as seems wise, and continue churning. 60 Results : Experiment Quantity of Cream Temperature at Beginning Time used in Churning Final Expedient Resorted to Additional Time Used a b e d Temperature at End Weight of Butter Per Cent of Butter Flavor Color Grain a b c d Salt the butter, pack in a clean bowl, cover, store until cold, and make into butter balls, later. Conclusions : At what temperature does butter "come" most quickly? How does temperature seem to affect: The color? The flavor? The quantity? Therefore what do you conclude to be the best temperature for churning \ Apply at home in doing a family churning and see if these conclusions are borne out by your experience there. Making Butter Balls. Scrub butter paddles well with whit 1 soap and hot water, rinse in clean boiling water, and chill in ice water. Cut each half pound of butter into 16 pieces of equal size. Shake water from pad- dles, hold one paddle firmly in left hand, and roll piece of butter on that, with the paddle in the right hand, until round. 61 ELEVENTH LESSON. II. Methods of Making Solid Foods from Milk. 1. Solidifying milk by the action of lactic acid. (Souring until it is clabered). Skim off the cream for butter making. Uses of the skimmed milk: (a) Many people like to eat clabber in this form, plain, or with brown sugar, jelly or syrup. (b) More people use it for making cottage cheese. This is done by several methods. Experiment 19. Precipitating Casein for Cottage Cheese by means of acid and heat. Utensils and Supplies: White bowls Cheese cloth (5 squares 10-in. double) Stew kettles Sieves Double boiler Table spoon Measuring cup Sour milk (3 pt.) Procedure : Take five cups of thick clabbered milk and warm them respectively, as fol- lows: (a) To body temperature— 98° F. (b) Heat to boiling in a pan. (c) Place in double boiler and heat to steaming. (Record temperature at once) (d) Place in double boiler or crock at back of stove and watch carefully until it separates. Take temperature at onee. (e) Place in a bowl and into it pour, not in one spot, but round and round, an equal quantity of boiling water. Take temperature at once. Place a cheese cloth over a strainer resting in a bowl and pour the cheese (a) onto it letting it drain for several minutes. Over other bowls, in the same manner, drain (b), (e), (d), (e). Remove the curds to saucers and taste and touch with fork, and with fingers. What is the condition of the various curds? Results : Experiment Method Used Temperature Condition of Cheese Which curd is most tender? Conclusions : The surest method of getting good cottage cheese? Temperature to produce best cheese ?f Practical Application: Make sufficient quantity of cottage cheese for a meal at home. Methods of Serving : To Serve Cottage Cheese. Cool the curd, salt it and break it into fine particles by using a fork, at the same time mixing into it thick cream sufficient to make it smooth and capable of being molded out. 1. Serve in a blue dist or in a white vegetable dish on a bed of lettuce leaves, in large enough quantity to be the meat substitute for the meal. 2. Serve as a relish : (a) In small flat cakes or patties garnished with jelly. (b) Made into balls and rolled in ground nut meats. (c) Made into balls, rolled in crumbs and fried in deep fat. 3. Serve as salad: (a) On lettuce leaf, with a cooked mayonnaise dressing. (b) Mixed with cherries and served as in (a). (c) Mixed with nuts and served as in (a). (d) Mixed with chopped cucumbers or pimentos and filled into the half of a green mango pepper. 2. Solidifying by means of an enzyme (rennin). Experiment 20. — Junket ' Utensils : Recipe : Granite kettle or double boiler 1 c milk Thermometer % junket tablet Teaspoon 1 t sugar Measuring cup Flavoring 2 tea cups Procedure : Dissolve junket in 1 t cold water. Heat milk to body temperature, add sugar, flavoring, and junket. Pour into two cups to mold. Let stand in a warm place V2 hr. Result? Try heating milk to boiling and then add junket. Result? Try having milk very cold — from cellar or refrigerator and add junket. Result ? 63 Explain why any of these failed to solidify. What is rennet? How obtained? How is "cream cheese" ordinarily made? In what ways have we made milk solid? 1. By acid. (a) Adding vinegar, (b) Letting stand to sour. 2. By the use of what digestive enzyme? At what temperature do enzymes act? Practical Application Junket Pudding. 1 qt. milk 1 junket tablet dissolved in 14 c 2 T sugar luke warm water Heat milk until luke warm. Add sugar and stir until dissolved. Add rennet and a few drops of vanilla. Stir slightly and pour into moulds. Let stand until firm. Sprinkle with nutmeg; chill. Serve with cream and sugar. Junket should be handled carefully so as not to jar and break curd and cause separation of whey. Junket may be flavored and colored by the addition of fruit juice such as straw* berry, raspberry, graps or melted jelly made of these fruits. Serve with fruit ganish or with cream, plain or whipped. 64 TWELFTH LESSON. Milk as a Basis, r other preparations. Experiment 21. — White Sauce. Recipe : Milk Flour Butter Consistency Use? 1 c 1 t 1 t 1 c 1 T 1 T 1 c 2 T 2 T 1 c 3 T 2 T 1 c 4 T 2 T Manipulation : One of several methods of mixing may be used in making white sauce. (1) The cold butter may be thoroughly mixed with the flour, added to the cold milk and let melt and blend gradually as the milk heats in the double boiler, leaving it to cook in the double boiler 20 to 25 minutes. (2) The butter may be melted in a small stew pan, the flour gradually blended, being careful not to let browning occur; then the milk, which has been heated in the double boiler, may be added, slowly blending; then all returned to the double boiler and heated 20 to 25 minutes. (3) The butter is added to the greater proportion of the milk, in the double boiler. The flour is stirred into a smooth paste in a small portion of the cold milk which has been reserved, and this mixture added slowly and with constant stirring to the hot milk in the double boiler. Heat this 20 to 25 minutes. Under what circumstances might each of these methods be best? Compare the sauces, hot and cold, and conclude in what way each amount of thick- ening would be useful. Practical Uses for White Sauce: Milk Soups. Experiment 22. Using a very thin white sauce. 1. Cocoa (a). Recipe : % c milk 2 t cocoa 2 T boiling water 2 t sugar Manipulation : Heat the milk in a double boiler. To the cocoa and sugar add grad- ually, the hot water, and stir until they boil. When smooth and thickened, add part of the hot milk, slowly, until well blended. Return all to the double boiler and keep hot until ready to serve. Mill briskly with Dover egg beater before serving. 65 Cocoa (b). Make as above adding 1 t of corn starch to the watery mixture. Compare the two as to consistency. This serves 1 person. Formulate recipe for 6. How many will 1 qt. of milk serve? Formulate recipe with that as basis and compute cost. 2. Chocolate (a). Recipe : 2-3 c milk 1 t corn starch % square of chocolate 2 t sugar. 3 T hot water Dash of salt Manipulation : Heat the milk in a double boiler. Cook corn starch in hot water, add the sugar and lump of chocolate and salt. Let chocolate melt, and the mixture blend and thicken by boiling. Stir constantly. When smooth add slowly some of the hot milk until a thoroughly blended mixture is produced. Return the mixture to the double boiler to keep hot. Mill with Dover egg beater before serving. Chocolate (b). Make the same recipt- leaving ou, the corn starch. Which is the nicer product? Figure recipe for 6. Figure recipe based on 1 qt. of milk and compute cost. How many will it serve t 66 Note I. Chocolate and cocoa are made from the cocoa bean and contain starch and should therefore be subjected to boiling or to long cooking to break up the starch grain. The addition of corn starch gives body to the product. Chocolate or cocoa are more attractive when served with a spoonful of whipped cream or a marshmallow floating on the surface. A few drops of vanilla is thought by many to add to the flavor. Note 2. All cream (milk) soups should be vigorously milled by an egg beater just before serving. This breaks up the "skin" or albumen formed on the top of the milk and leaves in its place a light foamy surface very attractive. Cream Vegetable Soups Experiment 23. Using a Thin White Sauce. 3. Potato Soup. Recipe : 1 potato (medium size or y 2 t salt smaller) Celery salt 1 c milk Pepper 1 T butter 1 T chopped parsley 1 t flour Manipulation : Cook potato in boiling salted water; when soft rub it through a sieve. Heat the milk with slice of opion in it, adding to it the butter and flour by any one of the three methods used for white sauce. When the white sauce is cooked, remove the onion and add the white sauce slowly to the hot, fine potato, blending thoroughly. Return to double boiler to keep hot; add parsley and other seasonings. The white sauce is made very thin because the potato is starchy and has great thickening power. 4. Cream of vegetable soup may be made after the same recipe from any vege- table. Using equal measure of milk and vegetable, cook the vegetable to boiling, and rub it through a sieve to remove hulls and skins. Peas, beans, corn, lentils, like the potato, need a thin white sauce. For celery, cabbage and vegetables with less thickening power, 1 T of flour may be used to 1 c of milk. Omit the onion in these soups. Experiment 24. Using a Thin White Sauce. 5. Tomato soup. (This requires special manipulation because of the acidity of the tomato and it requires more thickening also because of the consistency of the tomato itself.) Recipe Part I. Make into a white sauce 1 c milk 1 T flour 2 T butter Part II. Cook and run through a Y2 t salt sieve Pepper 1 c tomato V2 t sugar 1 slice of onion Vg t soda Manipulation: Have both parts hot, then add soda to tomato and stir until effer- vescence ceases. Pour the tomato slowly into the milk sauce, stirring constantly with fork or wire egg beater. Serve at once. Do not reheat. Why add tomato to milk rather than the reverse? Why stir? Why use soda ? 67 Why not reheat? Why serve at once? Why make milk soups? When should they be served? With bread and butter, and some fruit for desert, a cream soup in sufficient quan- tity will make a well-balanced and wholesome meal. 68 THIRTEENTH LESSON. Experiment 25. — Milk Used in Frozen Dishes A— Milk Sherbet. I./ IV2 c sugar II. r Mix( juice of 3 lemons Chilli 1 qt milk in] Freezer III. When milk is cold enough to begin freezing, slowly add the mixture I., stirring constantly until blended, and freeze. How is this mixture like tomato soup ? What did we add to tomato soup, not used in this dish, to help prevent curdling? What advantage is it to have the milk very cold? Why stir constantly while adding the lemon juice? B. — Ice Cream or Frozen Custard. I. f 2 c milk II. ' 1 Blend and 1 t corn starch Add to I egg Cook in 1 c sugar after 30 min. and beaten Double Boiler Vs t salt cook 5 min. longer, smooth for 30 min. stir constantly III. When the custard is 1 qt. thin cream cool, add 2 T of Vanilla P7. Strain, and freeze. V. For "Frozen Pudding" add 1 to 2 cups of candied fruit or preserves and chopped nuts. 69 Experiment 26. — Frozen Cream. A. — Philadelphia lee Cream. I. 1 qt thin scalded cream Add II. and freeze slowly % c sugar dash of salt 1 T vanilla B. — Mousse. I. Whip until stiff 1 pt. cold thick cream II. Add 1 T vanilla Yi c sugar III. Mix with egg beater, pack in freezer of small diameter, or in sanitary glass freezer, or in cocoa cans with paraffine applied around the edge of the lid. Pack in ice and salt mixture for 3 or 4 hours. This may be packed in the fireless cooker. To either of the above may be added preserves, sweetened fruit pulp, or nuts and candied fruit to the amount of % the measure of cream used. 70 71 72 FOURTEENTH LESSON. EGGS. References : Human Foods, by Harry Snyder. Chapter VIII (Portion on Eggs). Farmers' Bulletins: 128— Eggs and Their Use as Food. 87— (E. S. W. 8, p. 24) Food Value of Hen's Eggs. 353_(E. S. W. 50, p. 14) Preservation of Eggs. 273— (E. S. W. 38, p. 17) Preserving Eggs. 103— (E. S. W. 11, p. 17) Preserving Eggs in Water Glass. Composition Eggs Refuse Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash Fuel Value per lb. Calories As purchased Edible portion Egg white (boiled) Egg yolk (boiled) 11.2 65.5 73.3 86.2 49.5 11.9 13.4 12.3 15.7 9.3 10.5 .2 33.3 .9 1.0 .6 1.1 635 720 250 1705 For graphic illustration of composition, see Dr. Langworthy's IllustratedChart. What nutrient is lacking in eggs, according to the table of composition? 2 eggs Nitric acid Ammonia Iodine Fehling's solution Experiment 27. — Composition. Utensils and supplies: Double boiler Evaporating dish 6 Test tubes 2 Test tube holders Flame Funnel Filter paper Procedure : 1. Beat an egg thoroughly. Remove 1 T to an evaporating dish. Heat the remainder slowly in a double boiler, stirring constantly; when thickened, remove to filter and strain. Is there any evidence of water in the egg? 2. Burn the egg in the evaporating dish to whiteness, as you did the milk. Do you find mineral substance? 3. Separate the white and yolk of an egg, beat each slightly until it will pour. Place about 2 c. c. of each in separate test tubes; test both white and yolk for protein. (See test of milk for same.) 4. In clean test tubes: Test for carbohydrate (a) With iodine. Any starch? (b) With Fehling's solution. Any sugar? List the food constituents found by you in egg. 73 Was any constituent lacking 1 What ? What is the use of that constituent in the body? The egg is body, bone, food, and raiment, for a possible chick. How is the fuel constituent provided in the egg for the growing chick? See Langworthy chart. How does proportion of fat in egg compare with that in Do you know the offices of the different portions of the egg in the growths of the The shell? The skin inside the shell? The white? The little speck near the yolk? The yolk itself? These questions of interest would constitute a number of very interesting lessons for us in Biology — which do not belong just here, but which are worthy of our thought and investigations as side lessons. At least we are ready now to believe that the egg, like milk, is a perfect food for an infant animal organism. milk? chick? 74 FIFTEENTH LESSON. PROPERTIES OF EGGS. Experiment 28. — I. Viscosity. Utensils and supplies: 3 bowls or small plates 1 egg Egg beaters % t butter Procedure : (1) Make small hole in end of egg shell. Let white run out slowly. Note the stretchy, ropy, consistency of the white. (2) Separate the white from the yolk of an egg. (3) Divide the white into two parts, in separate dishes. (4) Add Yz t of melted butter to one dish of the white. Mix it thoroughly. (5) Label yolk (a) ; white containing fat (b) ; white without fat (c). (6) Beat (a), (b), (c) with egg beaters. Observe results and compare. How do you explain the fact that (a) and (b) do not retain air when beaten and that (e) does so? Look at Langworthy illustrated chart. Observe and compare the composition of egg white and egg yolk. What is the dif- ference in fat content? What constituent did you add to (b) ? Conclusion ? 75 Practical application: Experiment 29 The viscous property of egg employed in leavening. A. — Omelet. Utensils : Small dish Recipe : Plate 1 egg Egg beater 1 T water or milk Frying pan % t salt Asbestos mat % t butter Flame Pepper Oven (if convenient) Manipulation: Separate yolks from whites. Beat yolks until thick and lemon colored ; add salt, pepper and hot water. Beat whites until stiff and dry, cutting and folding carefully into the first mixture. Heat omelet pan, put butter in it and grease both sides and bottom. Turn in the mixture and cook slowly on top of the stove until the omelet is puffed and a light brown underneath. Place pan in oven and leave until omelt is firm to the touch when pressed by the finger. Fold and turn on a hot plate to serve. Jelly, fruit, bacon, minced ham or panned oysters may be served with an omelet. "What made the white of egg froth? What makes the omelet rise when heated? What keeps the air in? B.— Bird's Nest. Separate white and yolk of egg. Beat white to stiff froth, adding % t salt. Pile white on light brown buttered toast. Drop yolk on white, salt and pepper. Put in a moderate oven until white sets — about 2 minutes. Gar- nish with parsley. Serve hot. 1. Coagulation Temperatures Experiment 30 II. Coagulation by heat. Utensils and supplies: Stew pan Egg 2 Test tubes Water Thermometer Test tube holder Procedure : To determine temperature at which white and yolk of eggs coagulate. 76 (a) Pour some of white of egg into a test tube, using enough to cover the bulb of the thermometer. Suspend the test tube in a pan of cold water which is to be heated. Do not let the test tube touch the dish nor let the ther- mometer bulb rest on the test tube. Heat the water slowly. Note and record : 1. Temperature at which coagulation appears. 2. Temperature at which coagulation is complete. 3. Consistency after water has reached boiling point. (b) Make similar test with yolk of the egg. Material Temperature when coagulation appears Temperature when coagulation is complete Consistency of egg when water is at boiling point White Yolk Conclusions : Does white or yolk of egg coagulate at the lower temperature? Does egg coagulate at a high or low temperature according to our scale in Ex- periment 3? What do you conclude as to the temperature to be employed in egg cooking, high or low? Boiling or below boiling? 11. Hard and Soft Cooking of Eggs. Utensils and supplies: 4 stew pans and lids 9 eggs Procedure : (1) Put 2 eggs into 2 cups cold water and remove 1 egg just as water boils. Remove the second egg after 3 minutes. Turn them into dishes and compare. (2) Put 2 eggs into boiling water, remove at 3 and 10 minutes respectively. Compare. (3) Put 3 eggs in 3 cups boiling water. Cover sauce pan and remove from stove. Remove and examine an egg at end of 3, 8 and 10 minutes, respec tively. 77 (4) Put 1 egg in boiling water and let it boil 10 minutes. Place another iD boiling water and push to back of stove where only steaming may be main- tained for 45 minutes. Remove and examine. Cut through whites. Com- pare and note differences. Conclusion : Which eggs are preferable and why? What seems to be the effect of high temperature upon the albumin of the egg white ? How does this relate to the thermometer test made in test tube ? How does this relate to the effect of heat in making cottage cheese? What points of similarity between egg and milk cookery. Why? 78 What is the effect of heat upon proteins? Application : Care of Eggs: Wash eggs as soon as brought from market; keep in a cool place. Handle eggs carefully so that membranes about yolk will not be broken. Break eggs with one blow. The left-over yolk of an egg, if unbroken, may be kept from hardening by cov- ering it with cold water or with paraffin paper. Experiment 31 — Egg cookery. A.— Coddled Eggs. Put 1 pt. of water into a sauce pan. When it boils, remove the sauce pan to the side of the stove where boiling will not continue. Put into this one washed egg, cover the pan and let it stand 5 to 10 minutes, according to consistency desired. Multiply quantity of water according to the number of eggs to be cooked. Break into hot cups and serve. B. — Hard cooked eggs. Proceed as in A, keeping the water at such place ou the stove that the steaming temperature may be maintained, and leave the eggs in the water for 45 minutes. Use for salads, garnishes, or deviled eggs. C. — Poached egg. 1 egg Salt 1 slice of toast Butter Parsley Have a shallow pan full of boiling water. Butter a muffin ring and set it in the water. Break egg onto a saucer and slip it into the muffin ring. Remove pan to a place on the stove where boiling will cease ; cover it and let it stand until a film forms over the eggs — 4 to 5 minutes — lift the egg and ring from the pan with a flat skimmer and slip it onto hot buttered toast; salt, pepper, garnish with parsley, and serve hot. Experiment 32 III. The Thickening Power of Egg. 1. Soft Custards. Utensils and supplies: Eggs Double boilers Milk Egg beaters Sugar _ Spoons Flavoring Dishes 79 Recipe : Milk Eggs Sugar Consistency Use? 1 c 1 2-3 c 1 2-3 c 1 yolk 1-3 c 1 yolk 2-3 c 1 white Manipulation : Beat the egg until well mixed and smooth, add the milk and sugar and mix well. Cook in double boiler; stir constantly until the mixture thickens and slips from the spoon. Why stir? custards ? Record in above table consistency and possible use. What is the effect of the egg in this mixture? What food principles are present and how will they affect the method of preparing Will you take special care to beat the egg very light or not? Why? 80 If your custard is a failure when done, what is its condition? Can this be remedied? How? Example: Take a custard which, because of overheating, has separated (become watery). Place it in a bowl and beat it with an egg beater. Result. "What has happened? Try beating clabbered milk. Result? Do you recall the method used in putting your tomato soup together? How do all of these compare ? 81 Conclusions : Applications : I. Baked Custards. Utensils and supplies: Ramequin Eggs Egg beater Milk Spoon Sugar Cups Nutmeg Large dripping pan Hot water Use proportions found in previous experiment and cook custard in the oven until firm in center. "Will you prepare the mixture differently from that of the previous experi- ment ? Should the oven tempeature be high or low? How will you manage the cooking of this mixture in the oven? (Set the custard in a pan of water while baking. It is nice to bake the custards in individual cups, setting ell the cups in one large pan of water.) 82 Why are custard pies and meringues on top of pies often watery ? 2. Floating Island. Use recipe for soft custard ; separate whites and yolks. Make a thin, soft custard using the yolks for thickening. Add flavoring. Cook in top of double boiler. Beat whites to a stiff froth, sweeten with 2 T sugar. Flavor with vanilla or lemon juice. When custard is thickened, pile white in on top of soft custard, cover closely and leave 2 min. Then with a knife loosen the meringue from the sides of the double boiler, pour custard into serving dish, and the puffy, cooked meringue will float on top. 3. Original Recipe: Experiment 33. — Cooked Salad Dressing. With what you know of the thickening power of egg and what you know of the effect of acid upon milk, compose a recipe and indicate the proper manipulation for making a cooked salad dressing. Do we want salad dressings tart? Why? Utensils and supplies: Recipe : 83 Manipulation : Class display salad dressing in dishes, compare as to consistency, color, flavor. Conclusions as to results. Compare with a recipe given in some recipe book as to ingredients. Application : Use on a salad: Potato, cabbage or diced fruits. 84 SIXTEENTH LESSON. Cheese References : Human Foods, by Snyder. Chapter VII.— Milk and Dairy Products. Farmers' Bulletins: 166 — Cheese Making on the Farm. 487 — Cheese and Its Economical Use in the Diet. Composition— See Milk and Langworthy Charts. Experiment 34. —Effect of heat upon cheese. Utensils and supplies: Frying pan 1 oz. cheese Double boiler Procedure : . (a) Take a piece of cheese and place it in a hot frying pan, turning it several times. (b) Place a piece of cheese in a double boiler and melt it slowly. Compare (a) and (b). Explain what has happened. What is the constituent lost in the "frying" of the cheese? What is the constituent which became tough and stringy? Conclusions. *Notfi. The lesson on cheese is placed following eggs instead of milk because the dish used as an illustrative practical application employs eggs, and is one in which the egg must be carefully dealt with. 85 Practical Application. Experiment 35. — Welsh Rarebit. Utensils : Double boiler Tablespoon Teaspoon (to serve eight) : T butter lb. cheese egg or yolks Knife Egg beater Plate Recipe 1 % i 2 y 2 c of cream or milk V-2 t "Worcestershire sauce t salt y± t soda A few grains of paprika Manipulation : Put butter in a double boiler, let it melt, then add the cheese, grated or cut fine, and stir until cheese is melted ; add soda and other seasonings ; stir in the eggs diluted with the milk; stir until smooth and creamy. Serve on toast or crackers. What temperature will you employ? Why ? 86 87 SEVENTEENTH LESSON. MEATS. References : Human Foods, by Harry Snyder. Chapter VIII, Meats and Animal Pood Products. Farmers' Bulletins: 391 — Economical Uses of Meat in the Home. 183 — Meat on the Farm — Butchering, Curing and Keeping. 34 — Meats — Composition and Cooking. 85— Fish as Food. 182— Poultry as a Food. 162— (E. S. W. 21, p. 9) Cooking Meat. 435— (E. S. W. 62, p. 32) Market Classes and Grades of Meat. Composition : Fuel Values Type Refuse Water Protein Fat Carbohydrate Mineral Per pound Calories Beef Round 64.4 Lean 8.1 54.0 19.5 7.3 1.0 670 Fat 12.0 52.9 17.5 16.1 0.8 1005 Loin 13.3 46.8 16.4 16.9 0.9 1020 Shoulder 22.1 13.7 17.1 0.7 975 Pork Ham 45.1 Fresh 10.3 35.8 14.3 29.7 0.8 1520 Smoked 12.2 14.5 33.2 4.2 1670 Bacon Smoked 8.7 18.4 9.5 59.4 4.5 2685 For graphic illustration of composition see Langworthy's Illustrated Food Charts and for further information see Government Bulletin 28 — Chemical Composition of American Food Materials. Experiment 36. — Showing Composition. 1. Presence of water and ash. Utensils and supplies : Frying pan Evaporating dish Flame Procedure : (a) Take a piece of lean beef slice of bacon slice of fat beef oz. lean beef slice of fat pork 2 in. square; heat it slightly in a frying pan; observe steam. Squeeze it and note quantity of juice, liquid. (b) Place a small portion of this piece in the porcelain evaporating dish. Heat to burning. Burn to blackness; continue burning until only white ash remains. 2. Presence of fat. Observe fat portions : (b) In bacon (a) In beef j Try the fat out of each in a frying pan. (c) In side of pork J 3. Test for protein : See utensils and procedure as directed in testing milk curd for protein. Take % t chopped lean beef. Add 2 c. c. water. Test for protein with nitric acid and ammonia. 89 4. Tests for carbohydrate: (a) Take meat as in (3) add 2 c. c. water and test with iodine for starch. (b) Take meat as in (3) add 2 c. c. of water and test with Fehling's solution for simple sugar. Note table of composition. Compare your results. 5. Test of liver for sugar. Chop fine a small piece of liver. Test for simple sugar. Explain. See in Physiology text — The functions of the liver. Conclusion : "Water in meat? Ash in meat? Pat in meat? Protein in meat? Carbohydrates ? How does the composition of meat compare with articles previously studied? Look at Langworthy's food charts and compare with: Milk? Cheese ? Eggs? Compare in total solids (nutrients) the amount which can be purchased for 10 cents in milk, eggs, cheese, lean beef. Compare as to protein. Price per lb. To be had for 10 cents. Food stuff Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Oz. Total Energy Total Mineral Protein Fat Carbohv. Solids Calories Milk Cheese Eggs Lean Beef 90 EIGHTEENTH LESSON. Properties of Meat. Experiment 37 Effect of heat on solids in meat. Utensils and supplies: Frying pan Flame Scales Slice of bacon Procedure : Take a slice of bacon. Weigh. Cook it in a hot frying pan, turning frequently. Lift it from pan, letting it drip. Weigh. What has the meat lost? What per cent has it lost? What is the condition of the material lost? Let it cool. Condition after cooling? Conclusion : 91 Experiment 38. —Determining wherein the toughness of meat lies. Utensils and supplies: Plate Flame Knife 2 oz. lean beef Frying pan Procedure : Select a small piece of lean meat. Set aside one-third. With the back of a knife scrape out the soft part from the rest of the meat and form into a cake. Note tenderness. Observe fibrous portion noting: Color ; Elasticity ; Toughness. Cook in a hot frying pan samples (a) and (b) and the fibrous portion of (c) re- maining after (b) is removed. Compare these cooked samples and explain the differences in flavor and tender- ness. 92 Is any one of them tougher or more tender than before cooking? Experiment 39. — Determining wherein the flavor of meat lies. Utensils and supplies : W?P > Plate Thermometer Knife or meat grinder Cheese cloth Measuring cup Test tube Test tube holder Stew pan 1 oz. lean meat "Water 1. Procedure : Take 2 T of finely minced lean beef. (a) Form about 1 t into a little cake. (b) Stir the remainder up well with 14 c cold water. Let stand several minutes, then strain through cheese cloth. Add a second portion of water and strain. Repeat until meat has lost its color. Place some of the watery solution in a test tube and heat by holding test tube in pan of cold water, allowing the water to heat gradually. Note carefully the temperatures at which : 1. Small white flakes begin to appear. 2. Heavy precipitate appears. 3. The red color disappears. 4. Filter and taste the broth filtered off. Flavor? (c) Make a little cake of the washed meat as (a). Compare the little cakes as when cooked as to flavor. 5. Filter the heated solution. 6. What remains on filter? (Albumin plus haemoglobin containing iron.) 7. Taste filtrate. (Liquid in bottle below.) 8. Compare flavor with that of washed meat: 93 Where is the flavor of meat located ? 9. "What is the result of washing meat? 10. "What is the red of meat juice? (Iron plus oxygen, carried in a protein called haemoglobin. See Physiology ; red blood corpuscles.) 11. What is beef tea? Beef extract? Beef broth? Soup? 12. What difference between these and beef juice? 94 2. Procedure : Take a piece of round steak, about 3 in. square. Heat it quickly on both sides in warm frying pan. Hold it over a bowl and squeeze it. Reheat and squeeze again. The red juice in the bowl is beef juice. What foods does it contain? Taste it. Taste the meat from ifHich the juice was squeezed. Conclusion : Where does the flavor of meat lie ? Experiment 40. — Methods for retaining the juices of meats. Utensils and supplies: 2 double boilers 2 pieces of lean beefsteak 4 bowls (2 in. square and 2 stew kettles % in. thick) Egg beater 4 chunks of beef for boiling Thermometer (4 oz. each.) Procedure : I. Cut two small pieces of lean beef steak, (1) and (2). 95 1. Quickly sear over the surface in a very hot pan, then reduce heat until the meat is cooked. Turn it frequently. Do not pierce it with a fork. 2. Put meat into a cold pan (not the same papn used for (1)). Heat graduually. Cook slowly. Observations : What change of color takes place at once in (1) ? The material which turns white with heat is albumin, a protein. Recall the effect of heat upon the albumin of the egg. Cut through both pieces of meat. Which is toughest? Taste both. Flavor of each? Squeeze each piece. Which has most juice? Why? Observe the frying pans. Which contains most juice cooked fast? Why? 96 Pour y± c of water into each pan, heat it, observe color and flavor. Where is the juice of the meat which was cooked in the hot pan? Of that cooked in the cold pan? Where should we want the flavor to be? How may this be accomplished? 97 II. Have four pieces of lean, very fibrous meat as nearly as possible the same shape and size— about 4 oz. each. Number your cooking utensils, a, b, c, d. (a) Double boiler; put the meat in the top compartment over hot water, add 1 c of boiling water, cover, and cook for i hours. (b) Double boiler; sear the meat in a hot frying pan, then put it into the top com- partment of the double boiler, add no water, cover it, and cook over boiling water for 4 hours. Remove both pieces. Observe and taste both. Cut meat and taste the meat. Are t here any differences? What? III. (c) Small kettle; add the meat, cover it with boiling water and boil for 4 hours. 98 (d) Small kettle; add the meat, cover it with cold water and let it stand simmering slowly at the back of the stove for 4 hours. Compare at the end of the cooking process (a), (b), (c), (d). (1) Which piece of meat falls apai't most readily? (2) Which piece of meat has best flavor? (3) Which piece of meat has least flavor? (4) Which broth will make the best soup? (5) Fill jelly glasses i/ 2 full of broth from (a), (b), (c) and (d) ; label them; set them where they will get cold. Do any of them get solid? Does the solid broth come from the tenderest or the toughest piece of meat? 99 IV. Take two bowls; label them (e) and (f). Into (e) put 1 1 of Knox Gelatin and add to it 2 T of cold water. Let it soak % hour. At the end of the time, into (f ) put 1 1 of Knox Gelatin. Into each bowl (e) and (f) pour y 2 e of boiling water. Take the tem- perature at once in each bowl. Observations : What happened in (e) ? "What happened in (f ) 1 Temperature in (e) 1 Temperature in (f ) 1 Gelatin and glue are packing house by-products and are made by dissolving out the connective tissue in the tougher leg and foot portions of beef and veal. Set both dishes aside to get cold. When the gelatin in (e) is cool and begins to stiffen, beat it with a Dover egg beater. Eesult? Try the same experiment on (a) and on (d). Results? 100 Conclusions : The toughness of meat lies where? The flavor of meat is found where? The materials dissolved from meat by washing are what? Should meat be washed? The use of albumin in searing meat? At what temperature does albumin harden? Compare with egg and milk. 101 At what temperature does the color leave meat? At what temperature does gelatin dissolve? At what temperature does the connective tissue in meat dissolve? Method of cooking meat to retain juices? To dissolve connective tissue and secure tenderness? 102 103 104 NINETEENTH LESSON. Make outline drawings of the various animals used for meat. See Farmers' Bulletin No. 34. Meats: Their Composition and Cooking. Let your drawing fill upper half of page. Outline various meat cuts and number them. In the lower half of the page list the numbers and record the market name, leav- ing four vacant spaces for additional records. With the teacher the class should make a trip to the meat market and observe the cutting up of a beef and other meats. The drawings should be taken on this trip and the records made of prices, tough- ness or tenderness and uses for various cuts. At the following class period the methods for cooking the various cuts can be dis- cussed, after which the drawings and complete) table may be inserted in the note book fol- lowing this page. See model page following: 105 Outline of Animal on hoof. Outline of Animal As hung after butchering. Record of cuts: No. Name of Cut Price per lb. Refuse, Much or little Meat Tough or tender Uses for cut Methods of Cooking 106 107 108 TWENTIETH LESSON. Practical Applications : Care of Fresh Meat : Meat should be removed from the paper as soon as it comes from the market and put on a porcelain dish. Wipe the meat off with a damp cloth. Would you put it in a pan of water to wash it? Why? Experiment 41. — Cooking the Tender Cuts of Meat. , i 1. Broiled Steak: Steak for broiling should be 1 in. to 2 in. thick. Wipe with a damp cloth and cook in a toasting rack over a clear fire, turning frequently at first, and reducing tempera- ture toward the end of the process. The thickness of the steak and the degree of cooking desired determine the length of time for cooking — 7 or 8, 15 or 20 minutes. Put on a hot platter, add pepper and salt and butter. Garnish with parsley and sliced lemon. 2. Pan Broiled Steak: In case a broiler is lacking or a suitable fire for broiling, heat a filing pan very hot, but use no grease in it. Sear meat on both sides and finish cooking at a somewhat lower temperature. Mushrooms or bananas may be sauted in the drippings and served with the steak as garnish. 3. Beef Roast : Trim and wipe off meat, place on a rack in the roasting pan, skin side down. Place meat in a hot oven 480 to 490 degrees F., after 15 or 20 minutes reduce the heat to 365 or 375 degrees F. and allow 15 or 20 minutes per pound of meat, according to shape of cut and whether it is desired rare or well done. Garnish with parsley and lemon. What cuts of meat are suitable for the above processes? 113 Sauces for Meats and Fis h Maitre 'd Hotel Sauce. %c butter 2 T chopped parsley 2 T lemon juice Cream the butter. Add lemon juice slowly until thoroughly blended, then add parsley. Cool, and serve on beef loaf, Hamburg steak or fish. Tartar Sauce. 1 c Mayonnaise dressing % e chopped pimento % c chopped pickle *4 c chopped olives Mix all together and serve with boiled or steamed fish. The seasonings may be added to the butter sauce instead of the mayonnaise if desired. Hollandaise Sauce. % c butter 14 t salt Juice of V 2 lemon Yolks of 2 eggs y 2 c boiling water Cayenne pepper Cream the butter, add the beaten yolks of eggs, blending thoroughly ; add season- ings and water. Cook in a double boiler, stirring constantly until the sauce thickens. Re- move from the fire and add the lemon juice. Serve with fish. Tomato Sauce. 1 pt. tomatoes Pepper 14 * celery salt 2 T butter 2 cloves Salt 2 T flour A sprig of thyme Heat the tomato with seasonings. Then make a sauce of butter, flour and tomato. Strain and serve hot with croquettes or beef loaf or fish. 114 115 Experiment 42. Cooking the Tougher Cuts of Meat. 1. Hamburger Steak. Recipe : 2 lb. lean beef 1 egg 1 T salt 1 T lemon juice y 2 T onion juice % T pepper 1 T parsley 2 T melted butter Manipulation: Chop or grind meat, add other ingredients, shape into small cakes and sear in hot frying pan with a little fat, lowering temperature after searing process, and continuing the cooking slowly. Serve with a suitable meat sauce. 2. Brown Stew. Cut lean beef into cubes, season each piece with salt, dredge with flour and brown in a little suet in a hot frying pan. Add sufficient hot water to cover the meat and allow this to cook in a double boiler 2 or 3 hours. During the last half hour of the cooking, diced vegetables of various sorts may be added to give the desired flavor. What cuts of meat would you choose for a stew, beef loaf, and for Hamburg steak ? Why? 116 3. Brown Soup Stock. 6 lb. shank of beef .1 sprig of marjoram 3 qts. cold water 3 sprigs parsley 12 pepper-corns Carrot i 6 cloves Turnip \ 2 c each 1 small bay leaf Potato [ cut in dice 3 sprigs thyme Celery J 1 T salt 1 onion Wipe beef, and cut in inch cubes. Brown 1-3 of meat in hot frying pan in marrow from bone. Put remaining 2-3 with bone and fat in soup kettle, add water and let stand 30 minutes. Add the browned meat and heat gradually to the boiling point. Cover and cook slowly about 6 hours, being careful to keep it always below the boiling point. Add vegetables and seasonings. Cook y 2 hour, strain and cool. "When cold, lift off layer of fat from top. You have left a rich, brown soup stock, which may be served as a plain bouillon or used as the basis for various soups and gravies. 4. Use of Soup Stock. Tomato Soup. 1 qt. brown soup stock 3 cloves 1 can tomatoes 3 sprigs thyme 4 T butter */4 c celery 5 T flour Pepper and salt Make a sauce of butter, flour and tomatoes. Add all the seasonings and cook for 10 or 15 minutes, then strain tomato and add to the soup stock. Serve garnished with whipped cream. 5. Bepf Croquettes (From meat left from soup making). 1 c cold ground meat 1 T onion juice Salt ' t "Worcestershire sauce Pepper 2 T bread crumbs Yolk of 1 egg 1 T melted butter Add the ingredients to the meat. Shape into croquettes. Roll in flour, egg and crumbs. Pry in deep fat and serve with tomato sauce. 6. Pot Roast. 3 lbs. beef round (a thick chunk) 4 cloves Flour 3 c boiling water 2 slices fat salt pork % c each diced carrots, onions, turnips, 9 pepper corns celery y 2 bay leaf Pepper Salt Try out pork and remove scraps. "Wipe meat, skewer and tie in compact form, dredge with flour and brown entire surface in pork fat. Place on rack in pot, surround with vegetables and spices and 1 c boiling water. Season with salt and pepper. Cover closely. Simmer 4 hours. Turn once during the cooking. Strain liquor in pot, and serve as sauce. 7. French Stew. 2 to 4 lb. second round ( ; peppers 3 oz. suet I T horseradish 1 large onion 1 bay leaf 6 cloves 1 c tomatoes The meat should be 3 inches thick. Try out the suet in kettle or roasting pan. Sear the meat on all sides in the hot fat, until weil-browned, then slice over it the onion, later adding other seasonings and last the tomato. Cover the vessel and let the stew simmer for 4 or 5 hours. Do not let it boil. The meat should become so tender as to almost fall to pieces. Lift carefully to a platter, leaving the seasonings as garnish. Serve with the rich sauce which surrounds it. 117 TWENTY-FIRST LESSON. Gelatine. Experiment 43. White Soup Stock. 3 lb. knuckle of veal 1 t salt 1 onion 2V:> qt. cold water % t pepper-corn 2 stalks celery- Cut meat in small pieces. Put meat, bone, water, and seasonings into a kettle. Heat gradually to the boiling point, skim, simmer 4 or 5 hours and strain. If it is cloudy, clear as directed below: To ont qt. of stock use the white and the shell of 1 egg, or one whole egg. Re- move fat from top of cold stock and put it in a stew pan. Beat the white slightly and add it and the shell to the stock. Stir const iil it boils. Set aside for a few min- utes. Strain. (If the shell of the egg is not used, the residue from straining may be used in cro- quettes or bash.) What is the nature of your soup sto er it cools? Explain. What can you say of its nutritive value? Refer back to Experiment 34 in meats, "Effect of Heat upon Connective Tissue." Recall properties of: 118 Practical applications. Experiment 44. Uses of Gelatines. I. Asparagus Soup. 3 c white stock Salt and pepper % c flour 1 can asparagus y 2 e butter 2 c milk 1 slice of onion Drain and rinse asparagus. Reserve tips ; add stalks to cold water ; boil five min- utes; drain; add stock and onion to asparagus; boil y 2 hour; rub through sieve; add butter and flour; cook together; add salt, pepper, milk and tips. II. Orange Je 1 t Knox gelatine in 2 T cold 2 T lemon juice water c orange juice V2 c boiling water Part of grated orange rind 6 T sugar Soak gelatine in cold water, add hot water and sugar. Strain. When cool add fruit juice and set away to chill. If jellies are to be molded, the molds should be wet with cold water. Jellies should be placed near the ico to harden, or may be hardened quickly by surrounding with ice water. Formulate recipe for 6 persons. III. Chocolate Bavarian Cream. 1 T Knox gelatine in 1-3 c cold water G T sugar % c milk 2 squares chocolate 1 t vanilla 2 c cream Soak gelatine in water, heat chocolate and milk and sugar. Add gelatine. When cool and beginning to thicken, add whipped cream. Mould and chill. Formulate recipe for 6 persons. 119 IV. Strawberry Sponge 1 T Knox gelatine 1 c sugar 4 T cold water Juice of 1 lemon 4 T hot water Whites of 3 eggs 1 c strawberry juice and pulp Soak gelatine in cold water and dissolve in hot water, add sugar and cool by stand- ing in a dish of ice. When beginning to thicken, add strawberry juice and beat until light, then add the stiffly beaten whites and continue beating until mixture will hold its shape. Pour into a mould and chill. Serve with whipped cream and whole strawberries. Experiment 45. Cost of Gelatine Dishes. Examine commercial brands of gelatine. Prepare % c of jelly from each kind and compare as to desirability and cost. 120 General Observations on Meats. 1. Red meats may be served rare but the white meats are distasteful to us unless well done. Hence chicken, veal, mutton, pork should be well done. Cook to sear, and then slowly until thoroughly done. 2. Sometimes pork and mutton contain undesirable parasites, which is an addi- tional reason for cooking them thoroughly. 3. Poultry. Poultry, like other meats, should not be washed after cutting up, as the water extracts the flavors. After picking and singing, wash the fowl thoroughly on the outside, using soda and a rather rough cloth. Then remove the entrails and cleanse the inside thor- oughly by washing in cold water containing soda or salt. After it is thoroughly cleansed, outside and in, lay the fowl on a clean meat board or paper and cut it up. If it is not to be cooked for some time, wrap it in a clean cloth and put to cool. Do not soak it in water. The pieces may be dipped in milk before rolling in flour. Salt and pepper should be added to the flour. If the chicken is to be roasted, it should be salted inside, before stuffing. 4. Cured Meats. Ham and Corned Beef. These meats should be cooked in as large portion as possible. Put them to cook in cold water. Let it reach the boiling point and drain off the water, thus removing some of the salt and flavor of other preservatives. Then cover with boiling water and cook at simmering temperature, cooking it about 20 minutes for each pound of weight. After the ham has been parboiled, it may be placed in the oven, the outside having been spread with brown sugar, and baked, basting it from time to time with water or sweet cider. Let cured meats cool in the broth they have been cooked in. Then remove, trim and slice them. 125 Proteins Discussion : The various proteins yield us the organic nitrogenous nutrients in our foods. They are found in both vegetable and animal foods. So far we have been dealing largely with the protein substances of animal foodstuffs — milk, eggs, meat, cheese, fish. The proteins we have met in this study are: Proteins : Of animal foods. 1. Of milk. Casein — the curd, not soluble in water. Coagulated by acid or rennin. Albumin — soluble until coagulated by heat and then separating out. 2. Of eggs. Albumin — egg white, soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. Vittelin — in egg yolk, not soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. 3. Of meat. Myosin — muscle fibres; not soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. Albumin — soluble in water. Coagulated by heat. Gelatenoids— dissolved by hot water, hardened by high temperatures. Haemoglobin — red, soluble in water and found in the blood, coag- ulated by heat. Further we will meet with the proteins of vegetable foods in our bread, vege- tables and cereal foods. Proteins. Of vegetable foods. In all vegetables — albumin. In wheat. Glutenin l . , , „ „, Gliadin / m B luten of fl ' . A A O .0 X. 'o^ «<» o "*$? £"1 S-, ^ ,0* X V* " o m is M