THE STORY THE HARDING OF THE LAKE HISTORY STOR Class P l/( f Book . tj ^^ Gopyii^ht}|°^ 3/ 7^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. The Lake History Stories The Lake History Stories THE HARDING BOOKS GREEK GODS, HEROES, AND MEN, by Samuel li. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 202 pages, 12 full page illustrations. Price $0.r)() THE CITY OF THE SEVEN HILLS, by Samuel B. Harding and Caroline H. Harding. 274 pages, 38 illustrations and maps. Price 50 THE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES, by Samuel B. Harding. 256 pages, 79 illustrations and nmps. Price 50 THE STORY OP ENGLAND, by Samuel B. Harding and William F. Harding. 384 pages, 7 maps, and 138 illustrations. Price 60 THE STORY OF EUROPE, from the Times of the Ancient Greeks to the Colonization of America. Based on the outline of the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association. By Samuel B. Harding and Margaret Snodgrass. Illustrations and maps. Price 00 THE EXPANSION OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE, Edwin E. Sparks, M.A., Ph.D., State College, Penn- sylvania. 472 pages, 184 illustrations and maps. Price 60 SCOTT, FOEESMAX AND COMPANY Chicago New York THE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY FOR SIXTH AND SEVENTH GRADES SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D. INDIANA UNIVERSITY New Edition, Revised and Enlarged SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK Copyright, 1901, 1912, by Scott, Poresman and Company g CI. A3 120 4 6 PREFACE The point of view from which this book is written is perhaps sufficiently set forth in -the introductory- chapter, but it may fittingly call for an additional word in this place. It is, namely, the point of view of one who believes that the child about to undertake the formal study of American history in the seventh and eighth grades of our schools, needs first a preliminary sketch of the history of earlier times, — especially of the Middle Ages, — in order that our own history may appear in its true perspective and setting. In attempting to make intelligible to children the institutions and events of the Middle Ages, the author is aware of the magnitude of the task which he has essayed. He is, however, firmly of the opinion that the difficulty arises frequently not so much from an inability on the part of the child to grasp the essential ideas underlying medieval relations, as from the lack of a clear understanding of these on the part of the narrator himself, and the need of finding familiar non- technical terms of definition. Whether the difficulty has bqen entirely surmounted in this work can only be determined by the test of use ; but at least no pains have been spared in the effort. The interest of the book, no doubt, might have been enhanced had the author wislied to give stories, instead of ''the story" of the Middle Ages. Detached episodes, striking figures, romantic tales, exist in plenty to rivet the child's attention and fire his fancy; but it has been no part of the plan of this work to draw attention to 3 4 PREFACE particular persons and events at the expense of the whole. "Somehow," writes Walter Bagehot of historical reading for children, "the whole comes in boyhood; the details later and in manhood. The wonderful series going far back to the times of the old patriarchs with their flocks and herds, the keen-eyed Greek, the stately Roman, the watching Jew, the uncouth Goth, the horrid Hun, the settled picture of the unchanging East, the restless shifting of the rapid West, the rise of the cold and classical civilization, its fall, the rough impetuous Middle Ages, the vague warm picture of ourselves and home, — when did we learn these? Not yesterday nor today ; but long ago in the first dawn of reason, in the original flow of fancy. What we learn afterwards are but the accurate littlenesses of the great topic, the dates and tedious facts. Those who begin late learn only these ; but the happy first feel the mystic associations and the progress of the whole." Bloomington, Indiana, July, 1901. The opportunity afforded by the necessity of making new plates for the book has been used to revise and expand the text, to increase the number of the chap- ters by dividing some of the longer ones and rearrang- ing parts of the narrative, and to introduce a number of new illustrations. At the beginning and end of each chapter, there are also introduced analyses and lists of topics, as aids to the busy teacher. With these changes it is hoped that the revised edition of the book will not merely retain the favor accorded to the original edition, but will make new friends. January, 1912. CONTENTS Chap. Page Preface 3 List of Illustrations 7 I. Introduction 9 II. The Ancient Germans 12 III. Breaking the Frontier 23 IV. Wanderings of the West-Goths 31 V. Fall of the Western Empire 38 VI. East-Goths and Lombards 46 VII. Growth OF the Christian Church. .. . 52 VIII. Rise of the Franks 62 IX. Descendants of Clovis 71 X. Mohammed and the Mohammedans. . . 77 XL The Mayors of the Palace 84 XII. Charlemagne 89 K.111. Descendants of Charlemagne 104 XIV. EisE OF Feudalism 109 XV. Deeds of the Northmen 114 XVI. England in the Middle Ages 124 :VII. The First Crusade 132 ' i^III. The Later Crusades 146 ^IX. Life of the Castle 158 XX. Life of the Village 173 KXI. Life of the Town 182 5 CONTENTS ^^C^h.v. Page XXII. Life of the Monastery 195 XXIII. Triumph of Papacy over Empire 207 XXIV. Decline of the Papal Power 216 XXA^. First Period of the Hundred Years' War 224 XXVI. ]\Iiddle Period of the Struggle 232 XXVII. Joan of Arc and the Close of the War 239 XXVIII. End of the Middle Ages 245 Index (with Pronunciation of Proper Names) 257 LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE King John of France taken Prisoner at Poitiers. .. .Fron/. An Old German Village 13 Germans going into Battle ... 17 Woden 20 Thor 21 A Hun Warrior 26 Goths on the March 32 West-Gothic Tower 37 Court of the Huns 41 Tomh of Theodoric 48 Ivory Comb of a Lombard Queen 49 Bishop on his Ihrone 53 A Monk 57 Franks Crossing the Rhine. . 63 A Frankish Chief 65 Baptism of Clovis 68 Descendants of Clovis 72 Merovingian King on Ox-Cart 75 The City of Mecca 78 Map of Mohammedan Con- quests 80 Charles Martel Defeats the Moors 85 ^Merovingian King Deposed. . . 87 Royal Palace of Charlemagne's Time 94 Charlemagne (as after ages thought of him) 99 Charlemagne (as he really looked) lul Map of Charlemagne's Empire. 103 Lothair 105 Charles 107 A Vassal doing Homage 108 Lord and Dependents Feasting.lll A Viking Ship 115 Count Odo bringing Aid to Paris 119 An Early English Church. ... Ili5 House of an English Noble- man 128 William of Xormandy Landing in England 129 Death of Harold 130 Map of the Crusades 133 PAGE A Pilgrim 134 A Crusader 136 Crusaders on the March 137 Machine for Hurling Stones.. 144 A Knight Templar 148 The Legend of Barbarossa. . . .151 Attacking a City (I) 152 Attacking a City (II) 153 St. Louis in Captivity 154 A Castle of the Eleventh Cen- tury 159 Castle belonging to Richard the Lion-IIearted 164 Lady Hunting with a Falcon. 167 Arming the Knight 169 A Great Feast in the Twelfth Century 170 I'lan of a Village 174 Peasants Plowing 177 Harrowing and Threshing. . . .178 A German City 184 Cathedral of Cologne 186 Shop in the Middle Ages 189 Fair in the Thirteenth Cen- tury 192 German Monastery 197 French Cloister 198 Monk Copying Books 200 Illuminated Initial 201 Ring Seal of Otto 1 208 Henry IV. at Canossa 213 Seizure of Pope Boniface VIII. 220 I'apal I'aUue at Avignon 221 Archers Shooting at a Mark. 226 Crossbowman 227 Knights in Battle 228 Battle of Poitiers 230 Knight Attacking Foot Sol- diers 233 I)u Guesclin 234 Halberds, Bills, and I'ikes. . .236 Joan of Arc and Her Voices. 241 Joan at the Crowning of the French King 243 Early Printers 250 Early Cannon 251 The Cross-Staff 252 INTRODUCTION Outline of Chapter Relation of European history to American history. Greek and Eoman civilization, the German peoples, and the Christian Church combine in the Middle Ages. Europe becomes Europe, and prepares to found new Eiiropes in America, Australia, and Africa. When Columbus in the year 1492 returned from his voyage of discovery, a keen rivalry began among the Old World nations for the possession of the Relation of New World. Expedition followed expedi- IZZTto tion; Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Eug- ^^^can. lish, and later the Dutch and Swedes, all began to strive with one another for the wealth and dominion of the new-found lands; and American history — our own history — begins. But who were these Spaniards and Portuguese, these Englishmen and Frenchmen, these Dutchmen and Swedes? In the old days, when the might and power of Eome ruled over the world, we hear nothing of them. AVhence had they come ? Were they entirely new peoples, who had no part in the old world of the Greeks and Romans? Were they the descendants of the old peoples over whom the Emperors had ruled from the city of the Seven Hills? Or did they arise from a mingling of the old and the new ? Then, if they were the result of a mingling, where had the new races dwelt during the long years that Rome was spreading her Empire over the known world? When and how 9 10 'T'BE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES had the mingling taken phice? What, too, had become of The glory that was Greece, the grandeur that was Rome? AVhy was America not discovered and settled earlier? AVliat were the customs, the ideas, the institutions which these peoples brought with them when they did settle here? In short, what had been the history and what was the condition of the nations which, after 1492, began, the struggle for the mastery of the New World? To such questions it is the aim of this book to give an answer. It will try to show how the power of Rome fell before the attacks of German barbarians, and how, in the long course of the Middle Ages, new peoples, new states, a new civilization, arose on the ruins of the old. At the beginning of the period, Rome was old and worn out with misgovernment and evil living. But, planted in this dying Rome, there was the Germans, and ucw and vigorous Christian Church, which was to draw up into itself all that was best and strongest of the old Roman world. The Germans, on the other hand, were rude and uncivilized, but they were strong in mind and body, and possessed some ideas about government, women, and the family which were better than the ideas of the Romans on these subjects. When the Germans conquered the Romans and settled within the bounds of the Empire, it might well have seemed that the end of the world had come. Cities were plundered and destroyed; priceless works of art were dashed to pieces; and the inhabitants of INTRODUCTION IX many lands were slain or enslaved. For nearly a thou- sand years Europe did not entirely recover from tlio shock ; and the period which immediately follows the coming of the barbarians is so dreary and sad that historians have called it ''the Dark Ages." But what was best in the old Greek and Roman civilization did not wholly perish. The Christian Church, too, grew steadily stronger, and sought to soften and civilize the rude Grermans. The Germans, in turn, did not lose their vigor or their good ideas. At last, from the combination of these three elements, a new civilization arose, — stronger, better, and capable of higher development than the old, — and Europe be- the Middle Ages were past. Then, and ^^he ^""^^ only then, could — and did — the new kiddie Ages. nations, which meanwhile had slowly been forming, set out on their careers of discovery and exploration, which have made our New World possible. So, we may say, the Middle Ages were the period when Europe became Europe, and made ready to found new Europes in America, in Australia, and in Africa. It was the growing-time for all the great harvest which has come since that time.. Study Topic What does civilization mean? It is the art of living together in cities, and is contrasted with the rude family and village life of the savage and barbarian. Civilization means better houses, better clothing (spun and woven fabrics of wool, linen, etc., instead of skin garments), and better food. It also means better roads and bridges, and sewers and other public conveniences. It means organized governments and orderly societies, in place of savage independence and lawlessness; it means schools, museums, and libraries; more reasonable law, and more spiritual religion. n THE ANCIENT GERMANS Outline of Chapter Eelation of the ancient Germans to modern peoples; where they lived; their relation to other Aryan peoples. Their personal appearance and character; their houses; their manner of living. Why the Romans could not conquer them; battle of the Teuto- berg Forest; German manner of fighting; relation of the leader to his followers. Life of the Germans in time of peace; their government; their religion; readiness to learn of other peoples. We must begin our story with those new races which were to mix their blood with that of the peoples of the Roman Empire, and so form the chief Germans Europcau uatious of today. These were the ancient Germans, the ancestors of the peoples who now speak German, English, Dutch, and Scandinavian. They lived then, — as part of their descendants still do, — in the lands extending from the North Sea and the Baltic, on the north, to the Danube they^ived. ^ivcr ou the south ; and from the Ehine, on the west, to the rivers Elbe and Oder on the east. This region is now one of the most flourishing countries in the world, with many great cities and millions of inhabitants. At that time it had no cities at all, and but few inhabitants. The people had just begun to settle down and cultivate the soil, where before they had moved from place to place, to find fresh pasturage for their flocks and better hunting. 12 THE ANCIENT GERMANS 13 The surface of the country was still almost as Nature had made it. Gloomy forests stretched for miles and miles, where now there are sunny fields ; and wide and treacherous marshes lay where the land now stands firm and solid. In this wild country, for many years, the Germans had room to live their own life. To the east were the *i4l/t>Kj AN OLD OERMAN VllJ.AtiK Notice the circular shape of the huts, made ont of rough boards or bark, and without windows. Slavs, a people still ruder and more uncivilized than themselves. To the west were the Gauls, in what is now France. To the south were provinces of the Roman Empire, separated from them by the broad stream of the river Danube. The Germans, the Gauls, the Slavs, and the Romans, — though they did not know it, — might all call them- selves cousins; for most of the peoples of Europe are ]4 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES descended from one great race, called Aryans. Long before Athens or Rome was built, before the Germans had come into this land, before any nation Relation to . other Aryan had bcgun to keep a written account oi peoples. its deeds, the forefathers of these peoples dwelt together somewhere in western Asia or eastern Europe. At last, for reasons which we cannot know after so great a stretch of time, these Aryan peoples separated and moved away in different directions. One branch of them entered Italy and became the ancestors of the Greeks and Romans. Another entered what is now France, and became the Gauls whom Caesar conquered. One settled in Germany, and still others settled in other lands both near and far. In spite of the kinship between them, however, the Germans and Romans were very different in many ways. The Romans were short and dark, ^ppearance ^^.jjjj^, |.|jg Germans were tall — very tall, they seemed to the Romans, — with fair skin, light hair, and clear blue eyes. The clothing of the Germans, unlike that of the Romans, was made chiefly from the skins of animals. Usually it did not cover the whole body, the arms and shoulders at least being left free. AVhen the German was in a lazy mood he would sit for days by the fire, clad only in a long cloak of skins; then when he prepared to hunt or to fight, he would put on close-fitting garments and leave his cloak behind. The houses in which the Germans lived were mere cabins or huts. Nothing was used but wood, and that Their ^^'^^ ^^^ planed smooth, but was roughly houses. hewn into boards and timbers. Sometimes a cave would be used for a dwelling, and often a THE ANCIENT GEBMANS 15 house of timber would have an underground room at- tached to it. This was for warmth in winter and also for protection against their enemies. Sometimes in summer the people made huts of twigs woven to- gether in much the same way that a basket is woven. Such houses were very flimsy, but they had the advantage of being easily moved from place to place. Often, too, the house sheltered not only the family, but the horses and cattle as well, all living under one roof. One can imagine that this was not a very healthful plan. The Germans gained tlieir living partly from hunting and partly from tilling the soil. They also depended a great deal upon their herds and flocks for meat, as well as for milk and the foods ^*r"®L ■ 01 living. which they made from milk. The Germans paid great respect to their women, and the latter could often by their reproaches stop the men when defeated and in flight, and encourage them to do battle again. Nevertheless, the care of the cattle and the tilling of the soil, as well as the house-work, fell chiefly to the women. The men preferred to hunt or to fight; and when not doing either, would probably be found by the fire sleeping, or idling away their time in games of chance. Most of the occupations of which we now see so much were not known to them. Tliere was hardly any trading either among themselves or with other nations. Each family made its own things, and made very little more than it needed for its own use. The women spun and wove linen and other cloth, tanned leather, made soap, — which the Greeks and Romans did not know, — and a few other things. But all tliis wns onlv for use in their own families. There were 16 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES no trading places, and almost no commerce, except in a few things such as skins and the amber of the Baltic Sea. One occupation, however, was considered good enough for any man to follow. This was the trade of the blacksmith. The skillful smith was highly honored, for he not only made tools to work with, but also weapons with which to hunt and to fight. But usually the free man considered it beneath his dignity to work in any way. He was a warrior more than anything else. The Romans had Why Rome . i i /-< could not reason to know that the Grermans were conquer them, n ^ • i i i x-> very stubborn fighters; indeed, the Komans never did conquer Germany. The Germans were not made weak, as the Romans were, by indulging in all kinds of luxuries. They lived in the open air, they ate plain food, and they did not make their bodies tender by too much clothing. In every way their habits were more wholesome than those of the Romans ; and besides this, each man had a spirit of independence that caused him to fight hard to avoid capture and slavery. At one time, while Augustus was Emperor, three legions of the Roman army, under an officer named Varus, were entrapped and slain at a place the Teutoherg called the Tcutobcrg forest. The shock of For65ti this defeat was felt so keenly at Rome that, long after this, the Emperor would awake at night from restless sleep, and cry out : ' ' Varus, Varus, give me back my legions ! ' ' After this defeat the Romans learned to be more careful in fighting the Germans. The Romans had the advantage of better weapons with which to fight, better knowledge of how to fight, and greater wealth with which to carry on a war. So, in spite of some THE ANCIENT GEBMANS 17 decided victories over the soldiers of the Empire the Germans were obliged for many years to acknowledge Rome as the stronger; and Roman soldiers were even stationed in some parts of the German territory When the German army was preparing tor battle, the men arranged themselves so that each line had a greater number in it and was longer than ^^^^^^ the one in front. Thus the army formed a manner of sort of wedge, which they called the "boar's head," from its shape. fighting. Arranged in this ^4 GERMANS GOING INTO BATTLE Taken from the sculpturos on a Roman monument. manner the army moved forward with one grand rush guarding their sides with large wooden shields, and hewing with their swords and thrusting " with their spears If the first rush failed to dismay the enemy and turn them in flight, there was no longer any order or plan of battle. Each man then fought for himselt, until victory or defeat ended the struggle. Among the Germans no man dared to flee from the field of battle, for cowardice was punished with death. To leave one's shield behind was the greatest of crimes, 18 THE STOUT OF THE MIDDLE AGES and made a man disgraced in the sight of all. Bravery was the chief of virtues, and it was this alone which could give a man the leadership of an The leader n i • and his army. The general was chosen for his followers. i i i valor, and he kept his position only so long as he continued to show himself brave. He must be an example to all his followers and must fight in the front ranks. A general was made by his fellow warriors, who raised him upon their shields as a sign of their choice. If he proved less worthy than they had thought, they could as easily make another general in his place. The leader and his men were constantly reminded that upon their strength and courage depended the safety and happiness of their wives and children ; for their families often followed the army to battle, and witnessed the combats from rude carts or wagons, mingling their shrill cries with the din of battle. Times of peace among these early Germans would seem to us much like war. Every man carried his weapons about with him and used them Life in time fj-eelv. Huuian life was held cheap, and a of peace. " ^ ' quarrel was often settled by the sword. There was no strong government to punish wrong and protect the weak ; so men had to protect and help themselves. A man was bound to take up the quarrels, or feuds, of his family and avenge by blood a wrong done to any of his relatives. As a result there was constant fighting. Violent deeds were frequent, and their punishment was light. If a man injured another, or even committed murder, the law might be satisfied and the offender excused by the payment of a fine to the injured man, or to his family. TEE ANCIENT GEBMANS 19 Some tribes of the Germans had kings, but others had not, and were ruled by persons chosen in the meetings of the people, or "folk." Even among those tribes that had kings, the of the power of the ruler in time of peace was not very great. The kings were not born kings, but were chosen by the consent of the people. Some few families, because they had greater wealth, or for some other reason, were looked upon with such respect that they were considered noble, and kings were chosen from among their number. Yet each man stood upon his own merits, too ; and neither wealth nor birth could keep a king in power if he proved evil in rule or weak in battle. The rulers decided only the matters that were of small importance. When it came to serious matters, such as making war or changing the customs of the tribe, the "folk" assembled together and decided for itself. In their assemblies they showed disapproval by loud murmurs; while to signify approval, they clashed their shields and spears together. Every free man had the right to attend the folk-meeting of his district, and also the general assembly of the whole tribe. The power of the king was less than that of the assembly, and he was subject to it; for the assembly could depose the king, as well as elect him. In times of war, however, the power of the kings was much in- creased ; for then it was necessary that one man should do the planning, and time could not be taken up with assemblies. At the period of which we are speaking, the Germans did not believe in one God as we do, but ^j^^j^. in many. The names of some of their religion, gods are preserved in the names which we have for the 20 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES days of the week. From the god Tyr comes Tuesday, from Woden comes Wednesday, and from Thor comes Thursday. Tyr was the god of the heavens, and was at first the chief of gods. Songs were sung in his honor, places named for him, and even human beings were sacrificed to him. Woden was after- wards worshiped as the god of the sky, and also of the winds. Be- cause he controlled the winds, it was nat- ural that he should be the special god to whom those people looked who depended upon the sea ; there- fore he became the protector of sailors. He was also the god of war, and the spear was his emblem. Af- ter the worship of Tyr died out, Woden became the chief god of the Germans. To him also there were WODEN . sacrifices ot human beings. Next in importance to Woden was Thor, the god of thunder and also of the household. His emblem was a hammer. When it thundered the people said that Thor with his hammer was fighting the ice- giants; so he was regarded as the enemy of winter, and the giver of good crops. Besides these chief gods, there were many less THE ANCIENT GERMANS 31 important ones. Among these were spirits of the for- ests and rivers, and the "gnomes" or dwarfs who dwelt in the earth, guarding the stores of precious metals and jewels which it contains. Long after the old religion had come to an end, the descendants of the ancient Germans remembered these spirits, and stories of their tricks and good deeds were handed down from father to son. In this way the Germans kept something from the old re- ligion in the beautiful fairy tales which we still love ; and in our Christmas and Easter customs we find other traces of their old beliefs and customs. When missionaries went among them, however, they became Christians. This shows one of the greatest qualities which they possessed. They were willing and able to learn from other peoples, -and to thor change their customs to suit new conditions. Other races, like the American Indians, who did not learn so readily, have declined and died away when they have the Germans been brought in contact with a higher civi- lization. But the Germans could learn from the Greeks and the Romans; so they grew from a rude, half- barbarous people into great and civilized nations. Today the strongest and most progressive nations of 22 TEE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES the world are descended, wholly or in part, from these ancient Germans. Review and Study Topics 1. Describe the German village pictured ou p. 13. 2. Locate Rhine, Elbe, Oder, Danube, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Gaul, Roman Empire. 3. Make a list of the good qualities of the early Germans. 4. Do the same for their bad qualities. Ill BREAKING THE FRONTIER Outline of Chapter The boundary between the Konians and Germans. Early history and wanderings of the Goths; Ulfilas converts them to Christianity. The Huns attack them; character of the Huns; the East-Goths submit; the West-Goths flee into the Koman Empire (375 A.D.) The Battle of Adrianople; the Goths remain quiet under the Emperor Tlieodosius; trouble follows his death; Alaric becomes King of the West-Goths. If you look at the map of Europe you will see two great rivers, — the Rhine and the Danube, — flowing in opposite directions across the continent, ^ '^ Boundary one emptying into the North Sea and the of Roman '^ "^ " Empire. other into the Black Sea. Their mouths are thousands of miles apart ; yet when you follow up the course of each, you find that they come nearer rand nearer, until, not far from their sources, the distance be- tween them is no greater than a good walker might cover in a day. Thus these two rivers almost form a single line across the whole of Europe. Each in its lower course is broad and deep, and makes a good boundary for the countries on its banks. The Roman armies in the olden days often crossed these rivers and indeed gained victories beyond them ; but they found it so hard to keep possession of what they conquered there, that in the end they decided not to try. So, for many years, the Rhine and the Danube rivers formed the northern boundary of the Roman Empire. 23 24 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES In the last chapter j^ou have read something of the Germans who lived north and east of this boundary. Among these peoples there was one which Avas to take the lead in breaking through the frontier and bringing about the downfall of the great empire of Rome. This was the nation of the Goths. In the latter part of the fourth century after Christ, the Goths dwelt along the shores of the Black Sea and just north of the lower course of the oA^he^GoVhJ. Danube river. There they had been dwelling for more than a hundred years. According to the stories which the old men had told their sons, and the sons had told their children after them, the Goths at one time had dwelt far to tlie north, on the shores of the Baltic. Why they left their northern home, we do not know. Perhaps it was because of a famine oi* a pestilence which liad come upon the land ; perhaps it was because of a victory or a defeat in war with their neighbors ; perhaps it was because of the urging of some great leader, or because of an oracle of their gods. At any rate, the Goths did leave their homes by the Baltic Sea, and wandered southward through the forests of what is now Western Russia. They arrive i i t • t • i at the Alter many years, they had arrived in the Danube River- . ■, -r^ ^ mi sunnier lands about the Danube. There they had come in contact with the Romans for the first time. For a while there had been much fighting between the two peoples; but at last the Goths had been allowed to settle down quietly in these lands, on condition that they should not cross the river Danube and enter the Roman territory. And there they had dwelt ever since, living peaceably, for the most part, BREAKING TEE FEONTIEB 25 alongside their Roman neighbors, and learning from them many civilized ways. The greatest thing that the Goths learned from the Romans was Christianity. Little by little they ceased worshiping Thor and Woden, and became . . Ulfllas Christians. This was chiefly due to one of converts the '' Goths. their own men, named Ulfilas, who spent a number of years at Constantinople, the Roman capital of the world. There he became a Christian priest ; and when he returned to his people he began to work as a missionary among them. Ultilas had many difficulties to overcome in this work ; but the chief one was that there was no Bible, or indeed any books, in the Gothic language. So Ulfilas set to work to translate the Bible from the Greek language into the Gothic. This was a hard task in itself; but it was made all the harder by the fact that before he could begin he had to invent an alphabet in which to write down the Gothic words. After the translation was made, too, he had to teach his people how to read it. In all this Ulfilas was suc- cessful; and under his wise and patient teaching the Goths rapidly became Christians. At the same time they were becoming more civilized, and their rulers were beginning to build up a great kingdom about the Danube and the Black Sea. Suddenly, however, an event happened which was to change all their later history, and indeed the history of the world as well. This Avas the coming of the Huns into Europe. The Huxs were not members of the great Aryan family of nations; and indeed the Germans and the Romans thought that they were scarcely human at all. They were related to the Chinese ; and their strange features and customs, and their shrill voices, were 26 TEE STOSY OF THE MIDDLE AGES new to Europe. An old Gothic writer gives us a pic- ture of them. "Nations whom they could never have defeated in fair fight," he says, "fled in horror from those frightful faces, if, in- deed, I may call them faces; for they are nothing but shapeless black pieces of flesh, with little points instead of eyes. They have no hair on their The Huns attack the Goths. A nUN WARRIOR cheeks or chins. Instead, the sides of their faces show deep furrowed scars; for hot irons are applied to the face of every boy that is born among them, so that blood is drawn from his cheeks before he is allowed to taste his mother's milk. The men are little in size, but quick and active in their motions; and they are BREAKING THE FRONTIER 27 especially skillful iu riding. They are broad-shoul- dered, are good at the use of the bow and arrows, have strong necks, and are always holding their heads high in their pride. To sum up, these beings under the forms of men hide the fierce natures of beasts." The Goths were brave, but they could not stand against such men as these. The East-Goths, who dwelt about the Black Sea, were soon con- ' The East- quered, and for nearly a century they con- Goths submit. tinned to be subject to the Huns. The West-Goths, who dwelt about the Danube, fled in terror before the countless hordes of the new-comers, and sought a refuge within the boundaries ^^^ ^^^^ of the Roman Empire. As many as two fh^e^Roman"*** hundred thousand fighting men, besides ^^p'"- thousands of old men, women, and children, gathered on the north bank of the Danube, and "stretching out their hands from afar, with loud lamentations," begged the Roman officers to permit them to cross the river and settle in the Roman lands. The Roman Emperor, after much discussion, granted their request ; but only on hard conditions, for he feared to have so many of the Goths in the land. The Gothic boys, he said, must be given up to the Romans as hostages, and the men must surrender their arms. The situation of the Goths was so serious that they were forced to agree to these terms ; but many of them found means to bribe the Roman officers to let them keep their arms with them. At last the crossing began ; and for many days an army of boats was kept busy ferrying the people across the stream, which at this point was more than a mile wide. In this way the West-Goths were saved from the 28 TEE STOl^T OF TEE MTBDLE AGES Huns; but they soon found that it was only to suffer many injuries at the hands of the Roman officers. The Emperor had given orders that the Goths were to be fed and eared for until they could be settled on new lauds ; but the Roman officers stole the food intended for them, and oppressed them in other ways. Some of the Goths, indeed, fell into such distress that they sold their own children as slaves in order to get food. This state of affairs could not last long with so war- like a people as the Goths. One day, in the midst of a banquet which the Roman governor was giving to their leader, an outcry was heard in the palace-yard, and the news came that the Goths were being attacked. At once the Gothic leader drew his sword, saying he would stop the tumult, and went out to his men. From that time war began between the Romans and the West-Goths. About a year after this (in the year 378 a.d.) a great battle Avas fought near Adrianople, a city which lies about one hundred and forty miles north- Adrianopie wcst of Constantinople. The Emperor Valens was himself at the head of the Roman army. His flatterers led him to believe that there could be no doubt of his success ; so Valens rashly began the battle without waiting for the troops that were coming to assist him. The Romans w^ere at other disadvantages. They were hot and tired, and their horses had had no food. The men, moreover, became crowded together into a narrow space, where they could neither form their lines, nor use their swords and spears with effect. The victory of the Goths was complete. The Roman cavalry fled at the first attack ; then the infantry were BREAKING THE FEONTIEB 29 surrounded and cut down by thousands. More than two-thirds of the Koiiiau army perished, and with them perished the Emperor Valens — no one knows just how. The eflfects of this defeat were very disastrous for the Romans. Before this time the Goths had been doubtful of their power to defeat the Romans in the open field. Now they felt confidence in themselves, and were ready to try for new victories. And this was not the worst. After the battle of Adrianople the river Danube can no longer be considered the boundary of the Empire. The Goths had gained a footing within the frontier and could Avander about at will. Other barbarian nations soon followed their example, and then still others came. As time went on, the Empire fell more and more into the hands of the barbarians. These effects w^ere not felt so much at first because the new Emperor, Theodosius, was an able man, and was wise enough to see that the best way . Goths quiet to treat the Goths was to make friends of under . . Theodosius. them. This he did, giving them lands to till, and taking their young men into the pay of his army; so during his reign the Goths were quiet, and even helped him to fight his battles against his Roman enemies. One old chief, who had remained an enemy of the Romans, was received with kindness by Theo- dosius. After seeing the strength and beauty of the city of Constantinople, he said one day : ''This Emperor is doubtless a god upon earth; and whoever lifts a hand against him is guilty of his own blood." But the "wise and vigorous rule of Theodosius -was a short one, and came to an end in the year 395. After 30 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES that, the Roman Empire was divided into an Eastern Empire, with its capital at Constantinople, and a Western Empire, with its capital at Rome. After that, too, the friendly treatment of the Goths came to an end, and a jealous and suspicious policy took its place. Moreover, a new ruler, named Alaric, had just been chosen by the Goths. He was a fiery young prince, and was the ablest ruler that the West-Goths becomes leader evcr had. IIc had servcd in the Roman of the Goths. , t i t i i i i -r» armies, and had there learned the Roman manner of making war. He was ambitious, too ; and when he saw that the Empire was weakened by division, and by the folly of its rulers, he decided that the time had come for action. So, as an old Gothic writer tells us, ''the new King took counsel with his people, and they determined to carve out new kingdoms for themselves, rather than, through idleness, to continue the subjects of others." Review and Study Topics 1. Tell the story of Ulfilas, the missionary to the Goths. 2. Imagine yourself a Gothic boy or girl, and describe the attacks of the Huns. 3. Trace on a map the boundaries of the Eastern Empire, and of the Western Empire, after the death of TheodosiuB. IV WANDERINGS OF THE WEST-GOTHS Outline of Chapter The West-Goths in Greece; how Stilicho checked Alaric's conquests; how Alaric used tlie period of peace. Alaric's first invasion of Italy; Stilicho again checks his con- quests; Stilicho put to death by the Western Emperor. Alaric again invades Italy; three times besieges Rome; he cai)tures and plunders it (410 A.D.). Further plans of Alaric; his death and burial; the West-Goths settle in Spain. Up to this time the Goths had entered only a little way iiito the lands of the Empire. Now they were to begin a series of wanderings that took ^^^^.^ ^^^^^ them into Greece, into Italy, into Gaul, and the Goths ' "^ ' into Greece. finally into the Spanish peninsula, where they settled down and established a power that lasted for nearly three hundred years. Their leader, Alaric, was wise enough to see that the Goths could not take a city so strongly walled as Constantinople. He turned his people aside from the attack of that place, and marched them to the plunder of the rich provinces that lay to the South. There they came into lands that had long been famous in the history of the world. Tlieir way first led theni through Macedonia, whence the great Alexander had set out to conquer the East. At the pass of Thermopyhp, more than eight hundred years before, a handful of heroic Greeks had held a vast army at bay for three whole days; but now their feebler descendants dared not attempt to stay the march of Alaric. The city of 31 32 TEE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Athens, beautiful with marble buildings and statuary, fell into the hands of the Gotlis without a blow. It was forced to pay a heavy ransom, and then was left "like the bleeding and empty skin of a slaughtered victim. ' ' From Athens Alaric led his forces by the istlimus of Corinth into the southern peninsula of Greece. City after city yielded to the conqueror without resistance. Everywhere villages were burned, cattle were driven off, precious vases, statues, gold and silver ornaments GOTHS ON THE MARCH were divided among the barbarians, and multitudes of the inhabitants were slain or reduced to slavery. In all the armies of the Roman Empire, at this time, there was but one general who was a match for Alaric in daring and skill. He, too, was descended checks°Aiaric. ^0^^ tlic sturdy barbarians of the North. His name was Stilicho, and he was now sent by the Emperor of the West to assist the Eastern Emperor. He succeeded in hemming in the Goths, at first, in the rocky valleys of Southern Greece. But the skill and perseverance of Alaric enabled him to get his men out of the trap, while his enemies feasted and WANDEBINGS OF TEE WEST-GOTHS 33 danced in enjoyment of their triumph. Then the Eastern Emperor made Alaric the ruler of one of the provinces of the Empire, and settled his people on the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea. In this way he hoped that the Goths might again be quieted and the danger turned aside. But Alaric only used the position he had won to gather stores of food, and to manufac- ture shields, lielmets, swords, and spears for his men, in preparation for new adventures. When all was ready, Alaric again set out, taking Avith him the entire nation of the West-Goths — men, women, and children — together with all ' Alaric their property and the booty which they P^^'^^^^^j had won in Greece. Now their march was to the rich and beautiful lands of Italy, where Alaric hoped to capture Rome itself, and secure the treasures the Romans had gathered from the ends of the earth. But the time had not yet come for this. Stilicho was again in arms before him in the broad plains of the river Po. From Gaul, from the provinces of the Rhine, from far-off Britain, troops were hurried to the protection of Italy. On every side the Goths were threatened. Their long-haired chieftains, scarred with honorable wounds, began to hesitate; but their fiery young King cried out that he was resolved "to find in Italy either a kingdom or a grave!" At last, while the Goths were piously celebrating the festival of Easter, the army of Stilicho suddenly attacked them. The Goths fought stub- bornly; but after a long -and bloody battle defeats him. Alaric was obliged to lead his men from the field, leaving behind them the slaves and the booty which they had won. 34 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Even then Alaric did not at once give up his plan of forcing his way to Koine. But his men were discour- aged; hunger and disease attacked them; their allies deserted them ; and at last the young King was obliged to lead his men back to the province on the Adriatic. For six years Alaric now aAvaited his time; while Stilicho, meanwhile, beat back other invaders who The Western sought to comc iuto Italy. But the Western murd"rT Euipcror was foolish, and thought the stilicho. danger was past. He listened to the ene- mies of Stilicho, and quarreled with him ; and at last he had him put to death. At once Alaric planned a new invasion. Barbarian warriors from all lands, attracted by his fame, flocked to his standard. The friends of Stilicho, also, came to his aid. The new generals in Italy proved to be worth- less; and the foolish Emperor shut himself up in fear in his palace in the northern part of the peninsula. Alaric meanwhile did not tarry. On and on he pressed, over the Alps, past the plains of the Po, past the palace of the Emperor, on to the "eternal city" of Rome itself. In the old days, the Romans had been able to conquer Italy and the civilized world, because they were a brave, sturdy people, with a genius for war and for government. But long centuries of unchecked rule had greatly weakened them. Now they led evil and unhealthful lives. They neither worked for themselves, nor fought in their country's cause. Instead, they spent their days in marble baths, at the gladiatorial fights and wild beast shows of the theaters, and in lounging about the Forum. In the old days Hannibal had thundered at the gates WANDEEINGS OF THE WEST-GOTHS 35 of Rome in vain ; but it was not to be so now with Alaric. Three times in three successive years he advanced to the siege of the city. The , Alaric three first time he blockaded it till the people times besieges ^ Kome. cried out in their hunger and were forced to eat loathsome food. Still no help came from the Emperor, and when they tried to overawe Alaric with the boast of the numbers of their city, he only replied : "The thicker the hay the easier it is mowed." When asked what terms he would give them, Alaric demanded as ransom all their gold, silver, and precious goods, together with their slaves who w^ere of bar- barian blood. In dismay they asked: "And what then will you leave to us?" "Your lives," he grimly replied. Alaric, however, was not so hard as his word. On payment of a less ransom than he had at first demanded, he consented to retire. But when the foolish Emperor, secure in his palace in Northern Italy, refused to make peace, Alaric advanced once more upon the doomed city, and again it submitted. This time Alaric set up a mock-Emperor of his own to rule. But in a few months he grew tired of him, and over- turned him with as little thought as he had shown in setting him up. As a great historian tells us of this Emperor, he was in turn "promoted, degraded, insulted, restored, again degraded, and again insulted, and finally abandoned to his fate. ' ' In the year 410 a.d., Alaric advanced a third time upon the city. This time the gates of f -^ <= Xhe Goths Rome were opened by slaves who hoped capture Rome to gain freedom through the city's fall. For the first time since the burning of Rome by the 36 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Gauls, eight hundred years before, the Romans noAV saw a foreign foe within their gates — slaying, destroy- ing, plundering, committing endless outrages upon the people and their property. To the Romans it seemed that the end of the world was surely at hand. At the end of the sixth day Alaric and his Goths came forth from the city, carrying their booty and their captives with them. They now marched Ai&Ti!^ °^ ^^^^ ^^^^ south of Italy, destroying all who resisted and plundering what took their fancy. In this way they came into the southern- most part. There they began busily preparing to cross over into Sicily, to plunder that fertile province. But this was not to be. In the midst of the prepara- tions their leader Alaric — ''Alaric the Bold," as they loved to call him — suddenly sickened. Soon he grew worse ; and after an illness of only a few days, he died, leaving the Goths weakened by the loss of the greatest king they were ever to know. Alaric 's life had been one of the strangest in history, and his burial was equally strange. His followers wished to lay him where no enemy might Hisstrange disturb his gravc. To this end they com- pelled their captives to dig a new channel for a little river near by, and turn aside its waters. Then, in the old bed of the stream, they buried their beloved leader, clad in his richest armor, and mounted upon his favorite war horse. When all was finished, the stream was turned back into its old channel, and the captives were slain, in order that they might not reveal the place of the burial. And there, to this day, rest the bones of Alaric, the AVest-Gothic King. Of the AVest-Goths after the death of Alaric, we WANDEEINGS OF THE WEST-GOTHS 37 need say very little. The foolish Emperor of the West remained foolish to the end ; but his advisers The West- now saw that something must be done to Goths settle in Spain. get rid of the barbarians. The new leader of the Goths, too, was a wise and moderate man. He saw that his people, though they could fight well and overturn a state, were not yet ready to take the government of Rome for themselves. "I wish," he said, "not to de- stroy, but to restore and maintain the prosperity of the Roman Em- pire." Other barbarians had meanwhile pressed into the Empire ; so it Avas agreed that the Goths should march into Gaul and Spain, drive out the barbarians who had pushed in there, and rule the land in the name of the Empire of the West. This they did; and there they es- tablished a power which became strong and prosperous, and lasted until new barbarians from the North, and the IMoors from Africa, pressed in upon them, and brought, at the same time, their king- dom and their history to an end. WESTGOTUIC TOWER Review and Study Topics Trace on a map tlie wanderings of the West-Goths. Which do you think was doing the greater work for the world, Alaric or Stilielio? Why? Describe the capture of Rome by the Goths, from the stand- point of a Roman boy or girl. What does the story of the West-Goths prove concerning the power of the Eomans at that time? FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE Outline of Chapter Other Germans enter the Empire; two hundred years of con- fusion begin. The Vandals enter Spain; they cross over into Africa; their cruel, greedy nature; they plunder Rome (455 A.D.). The Burgundians settle in the valley of the river Rhone. Attila, King of the Huns; he attacks Gaul, but is defeated (451); death of Attila. Fall of the Western Empire (476) ; Odoacer rules Italy. "While the West-Goths were winning lands and booty within the Empire, the other Germans could not long remain idle. They saw that the legions other Germans hip i ^ enter the had Dcen recalled irom the frontiers m Empire. i t i m order to guard Italy. They saw their own people suffering from hunger and want. Behind them, too, they felt the pressure of other nations, driving them from their pastures and hunting grounds. So, the news of Rome's weakness and Alaric's vic- tories filled other peoples with eagerness to try their fortunes in Southern lands. Before the West-Goths had settled down in Spain, other tribes had begun to stream across the borders of the Empire. Soon the stream became a flood, and the flood a deluge. All Germany seemed stirred up and hurled against the Empire. Wave after wave swept southward. Horde after horde appeared within the limits of the Empire, seeking lands and goods. For two hundred years this went on. Armies and 38 FALL OF THE WESTEEN EMPIRE 39 nations went wandering up and down, burning, rob- bing, slaying, and making captives. It was a time of confusion, suffering, and change; when the "uncouth Goth," the "horrid Hun," and wild-eyed peoples of many a name, struggled for the lands of Rome. They sought only their own gain and advantage, and it seemed that everything was being overturned and nothing built up to take the place of what was destroyed. But this was only in seeming. Unknowingly, these nations were laying the foundations of a new civiliza- tion and a new world. For, out of this mixing of peoples and institutions, this blending of civilizations, arose the nations, the states, the institutions, of the world of today. In following the history of the AVest-Goths we have seen that some of these peoples had preceded the Goths into Spain. These were a race called the Vaxdals. They too were of German blood. f^%J^^^^^^ At one time they had dwelt on the shores of the Baltic Sea, near the mouth of tlie river Elbe. From there they had wandered southward and west- ward, struggling with other barbarian tribes and with the remaining troops of Rome's imperial army. After many hard-fought contests they had crossed the river Rhine. They had then struggled through Gaul, and at last had reached Spain. Now they were to be driven from that land, too, by the arrival of the West-Goths. Just at this time the governor of the Roman province of Africa rebelled against the Emperor's vandaiscros government. To get assistance against the AfricL"*(429). Romans, he invited the Vandals to come to Africa, promising them lands and booty. The Van- 40 TEE STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES dais needed no second invitation. The Strait of Gibraltar, which separates the shores of Spain from Africa, is only fifteen miles wide ; but when once the Vandals had crossed that strait, they were never to be driven back again. Twenty-five thousand warriors, together with their women, children, and the old men, came at the call of the rebellious governor. There they set up and a kingdom of their own on Roman soil. A greedy nature. cruel, greedy people they were, but able. From their capital, — the old city of Carthage, — their pirate ships rowed up and down the Mediterranean, stopping now at this place and now at that, wherever they saw a chance for plunder. Their King was the most crafty, the most treacherous, the most merciless of the barbarian kings. ''Whither shall we sail?" asked his pilot one day, as the King and his men set out. "Guide us," said the King, "wherever there is a people with whom God is angry." The most famous of the Vandal raids was the one which they made on the city of Eome, forty-five years after it had been plundered by Alaric. The The Vandals , c- i-i -r^ ii i plunder Rome rulcrs ot the Koiiians were as worthless now as they had been at the earlier day. Again, too, it was at the invitation of a Roman that the Van- dals invaded Roman territory. No defence of the city was attempted; but Leo, the holy bishop of Rome, went out with his priests, and tried to soften the fierceness of the barbarian King. For fourteen days the city remained in the hands of the Vandals, and it was plun- dered to their hearts' content. Besides much rich booty which they carried off, many works of art were broken FALL OF THE WESTEBN EMPIBE 41 and destroyed. Because of such destruction as tliis, the name "vandal" is still given to any one who destroys beautiful or useful things recklessly, or solely for the sake of destroying them. Another of the restless German peoples were the BuEGUNDiANS. They, too, had once dwelt in the north of Germany, and had crossed the river Burgundians Rhine in company with the Vandals. Grad- ®®"^® "* '^*"'' ually they had then spread southward into Gaul; and the result was the founding of a king- dom of the Burgun- dians in the valley of the Ehone river. From that day to this the name Burgundy, — as kingdom, duke- dom, county, prov- ince, — has remained a famous one in the geography of Eu- rope. But this peo- ple was never able to grow into a powerful and independent na- tion. While the Germans were finding new homes in Roman ter- ritory, the restless XT COURT OF THE HUNS Huns were ever pres- sing in from the rear, driving them on and taking their lands as they left. At the time when the Vandals were 42 TEE STOET OF THE MIDDLE AGES establishing their kingdom in Africa, a great King arose among the Hnns. Ilis name was Attila. Though Attiia King ^^® ^^'^^ ^ great warrior and ruler, he was of the Huns, f^^ froui being a handsome man. He had a large head, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a beard, broad shoulders, and a short square body. The chief god of the Huns was a god of war. As they did not know how to make statues or images of him, they represented him by a sword or dagger. One day a shepherd found an old SAVord sticking out of the ground, and brought it to Attila. This, the King said, was a sign that the whole earth should be ruled by him. Whether he believed in this sign himself or not, Attila used his own sword so successfully that he formed the scattered tribes of the Huns into a great nation. By wars and treaties he succeeded in estab- lishing a vast empire, including all the peoples from the river Volga to the river Rhine. The lands of the Eastern Empire, too, were wasted by him, even up to the walls of Constantinople. The Emperor was forced to pay him tribute; and an Emperor's sister sent him her ring, and begged him to rescue her from the convent in which her brother had confined her. In the year 451 a.d., Attila gathered up his wild horsemen, and set out from his wooden capital in the valley of the Danube. Southward and ftucks Gaul westward they swept to conquer and de- stroy. It is said that Attila called himself the "Scourge of God." At any rate, his victims knew that ruin and destruction followed in his track; and where he had passed, they said, not a blade of grass was left growing. On and on the Huns passed, through - FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE 43 Germany, and into Western Gaul ; and men expected that all Europe would fall under the rule of this fierce people. This, however, did not come to pass. Near the city of Chalons, in Eastern France, a great battle was fought, in which Romans and Goths fought side by side against the common foe, and all defeated the peoples of Europe seemed engaged in one battle. Rivers of blood, it was said, flowed through the field, and whoever drank of their waters perished. At the close of the first day, the victory was still uncertain. On the next day Attila refused to renew the battle ; and when the Romans and Goths drew near his camp, they found it silent and deserted. The Huns had slipped away in the night, and returned to their homes on the Danube. Many legends came to cluster about this battle. In later ages men told how, each year on the night of the battle, the spirits of Goths and Huns arose from their graves, and fought the battle over again in the clouds of the upper air. The next year Attila came again, with a mighty army, into the Roman lands. This time he turned his attention to Italy. A city lying at the head of the Adriatic was destroyed; and its J^^^i^ °^ people then founded Venice on the isles of the sea, that they might thenceforth be free from such attacks. Perhaps Attila might have pressed on to Rome and taken it, too, as Alaric had done, and as the Vandals were to do three years later. But strange misgivings fell upon him. Leo, the holy bishop of Rome, appeared in his court and warned him ofi^. Attila, therefore, retreated, and left Rome untouched. 44 TBE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Witliin" two years afterward he died ; and then his great empire dropped to pieces, aud his people fell to fighting once more among themselves. In this way Christian Europe was delivered from one of the greatest dangers that ever threatened it. Gaul, Spain, and Africa had now been lost by the Romans; but amid all these troubles, the imperial gov- ernment, both in the East and in the Empire W6). ^^'^^t' still wcut on. In the West the power had fallen more and more into the hands of chiefs of the Roman army. These men were often barbarians by blood, and did not care to be emperors themselves. Instead, however, they set up and pulled down emperors at will, as Alaric had once done. In the year 476 a.d. — just thirteen hundred years before the signing of our Declaration of Indepen- dence, — the Emperor who was then ruling in the West was a boy of tender years, named Romulus Augustulus. He bore the names of the first of the kings of Rome, and of the first of the emperors ; but he was to be the last of both. A new leader had now arisen in the army, — a gigantic German, named Odoacer. When Odoacer was about to come into Italy to enter the Roman army, a holy hermit had said to him : "Follow out j^our plan, and go. There you will soon be able to throw away the coarse garment of skins which you now wear, and will become wealthy and powerful. ' ' He had followed this advice, and had risen to be the commander of the Roman army. The old leader, who had put Romulus Augustulus on the throne, was FALL OF TEE WESTEEN EMPIBE 45 now slain by Odoacer, and the boy was quietly put aside. Odoacer thus made himself ruler of Italy ; but he neither took the name of Emperor himself, nor gave it to any one else. He sent messengers instead to the Emperor of the East, at Constanti- ^ifigg'^itaiy. nople, and laid at his feet the crown and purple robe. He said, in actions, if not in words : "One Emperor is enough for both East and West. J will rule Italy in your name, and as your agent." This is sometimes called the Fall of the Western Empire ; and so it was. Yet there was not so verj'- much change, after all. Odoacer ruled Italy in much the same way as the emperors had done, except that his rule was better and stronger. Review and Study Topics 1. Was it because the Germans were stronger now than in former days, or because the Komans were weaker, that the barbarians were able to overrun the Empire? 2. Trace on a map the wanderings of the Vandals. 3. What part of France still bears the name of the Burgun- dians? 4. What difference was there between the troops with which Odoacer overthrew the Western Empire and those which Alaric led? VI EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBARDS Outline of Chapter The East-Goths freed by the death of Attila; early life of their King, Theodoric. Theodoric overthrows Odoacer; his wise rule in Italy; the Eastern Emperor Justinian overthrows the East-Goths. The Lombards settle in Italy (568); their character; their kingdom lasts until 774. Aftek ruling for sixteen years, Odoacer was over- thrown and a new ruler arose in his place. This was the head of a new invading people, the last-Goths. East-Goths. From the days of the battle of Adrianople to the death of Attila, the East-Goths had been subject to the Huns. At the battle of Chalons they had fought on the side of the Huns, and against their kinsmen, the West-Goths, Now, however, they were free, and a great leader had arisen among them in the person of Theodoric, the descendant of a long line of Gothic kings. When Theodoric was a young boy, he was sent as a hostage to Constantinople, where he lived for ten years. There he learned to like the Early life of culturcd manucrs of the Romans, but he Theodonc. ' did not forget how to fight. When he returned home, a handsome lad of seventeen, he gath- ered together an army, and without guidance from his father captured an important city. This act showed his ability ; and when his father died he was acknowl- edged as the King of his people. He was a man of 46 EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBARDS 47 great strength and courage ; he was also wise, and was anxious for his people to improve their condition. For some years his people had been wandering up and down in the Eastern Empire ; but they were unable to master that land because of Constantinople's massive walls. So, with the consent of the Emperor, Theodoric now decided to lead his East-Goths into Italy, drive Odoacer from the land, and settle his people there. The Goths set out over the Eastern Alps, two hundred thousand strong. \Yith them went their Avives and children, their slaves and cattle, and behind came twenty thousand heavy odoacer^fMS)^ ox-carts laden with their goods. But Odoacer proved a stubborn fighter. Several hard l)attles had to be fought, and a siege three years long had to be laid to his capital, before he was beaten. Then Theodoric, for almost the first and last time in his life, did a mean and treacherous act. His con- quered enemy was invited to a friendly banquet ; and there he was put to death with his own sword. In this way Theodoric completed the conquest tliat made him master of the whole of Italy, together with a large territorj^ to the north and east of the Adriatic Sea. For thirty-three years after that, Theodoric ruled over the kingdom of the East-Goths, as a wise and able king. Equal justice was granted to all, whether they were Goths or Italians ; and ^'^L'"^® "^ •' ' Tneodonc. Theodoric sought in every way to lead his people into a settled and civilized life. The old roads, aqueducts, and public buildings were repaired ; and new works in many places were erected. Theodoric was not only a great warrior and states- 48 TEE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES man ; he was also a man of deep and wide thought. If au3^ man and any people were suited to build up a new kingdom out of the ruins of the Empire, and so end the long period of disorder and confusion which we call the Dark Ages, it would seem that it was Theo- TOMB OF THEODORIC doric and his East-Goths. But no sooner was Theo- doric dead than his kingdom began to fall to pieces. The Eastern Empire had now passed into the hands of an able Emperor, who is renowned as a conqueror, a builder, and a law-giver. His name was Justinian ^ . . - , , , overthrows the Justmian ; and he was served by men as great as himself. Under their skillful attacks, much of the lands Avhich had been lost were now won back. The Vandal kingdom in Africa was overturned; the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sar- EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBABDS 49 dinia were recovered ; and at last, after years of hard fighting, the East-Goths too were conquered. The last remnant of that race then wandered to the lands north of the Alps, and disappeared from history. It was only for a little while, however, that the Eastern Emperor was able once more to rule all Italy. Within thirteen years a new Germanic Lombards people appeared on the scene, — the last to settle in find a settlement within the Empire. These were the Lombards, or "Langobards," as they were called from their long beards. Ten generations before, according to their legends, a wise queen had led their race across the Baltic Sea, from what is now Sweden, to Germany. Since then they had gradually worked their way south, until now they were on the borders of Italy. The northern parts of the peninsula at this time were almost un- inhabited, as a result of years of war and pesti- lence. The resistance to the Lombards, therefore, was very weak; and the whole valley of the river Po — thenceforth to this day called ''Lombardy" — passed into their hands almost at a blow. These Lombards were a rude people and but little civilized, when they first entered Italy. It was only a short time before they settled there that they even became Christians. A wild story the^LombarL. is told of the King who led them into Italy. He had slain with his own hand the King of COMB OF A QUEEN. LOMBARD 50 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES another German folk, and from his enemy's skull he had made a drinking cup, mounted in gold. His wife was the daughter of the King he had slain. Some time after, as he sat long at the table in his capital, he grew boisterous; and sending for the cup, he forced his Queen to drink from it, bidding her "drink joyfully with her father." At this the Queen's heart was filled with grief and anger, and she plotted how she might revenge her father upon her husband. So, while the King slept one night, she caused an armed man to creep into the room and slay him. In this way she secured her revenge ; but she, and all who had helped her, came to evil ends, — for, as an old writer says, "the hand of Heaven was upon them for doing so foul a deed." The Lombards were not so strongly united as most of the Germans, nor was their form of government so highly developed. Many independent bands of Lom- bards settled districts in Central and Southern Italy, under the rule of their own leaders, or "dukes." In this way the peninsula was cut up into many govern- ments. The northern part was under the Lombard King; a number of petty dukes each ruled over his own district ; and the remainder, including the city of Rome, was ruled by the officers of the Eastern Emperor. The kingdom of the Lombards lasted for about two hundred years. Then it, too, was overturned, and the land was conquered by a new German kingdom lasts peoplc, the grcatcst of them all and the till 774. 1 L- ^ o only one, with the exception of the Eng- lish, that was to establish a lasting kingdom. These EAST-GOTHS AND LOMBAEBS 51 were the Franks, who settled in Gaul, and founded France. But, before we trace their history, we must first turn aside and see how the Christian Church was gaining in strength and power in this dark period of warfare and confusion. Review and Study Topics 1. Make a table showing the peoples who settled in the Roman Empire between 375 and 568. Head the columns (1) Name of People, (2) Where they came from, (3) Where they settled, (4) Leader. (For the Angles and Saxons who settled in Britain, see ch. xvi.) 2. In what ways was Theodoric a greater ruler than Alaric? 3. What qualities of character are shown by the story of the Lombard King? VII GROWTH OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH Outline of Chapter The Christian religion established in the Roman Empire before the coming of the Germans; how the Church was governed. Early Church disputes; the "Arian" heresy; separation of the Eastern and Western churches; effect of the coming of the Germans; rise of hermits and monks. Pope Gregory the Great; Gregory sends missionaries to Eng- land; importance of Gregory's work as Pope. In another book in this series you may have read of the trials which the early Christians had to endure under the Roman rule, — of how they wer« The Christians , , , . , , . . , and the looKed upou With scom and suspicion ; how Empire. i i i they were persecuted; how they were forced to meet in secret caves called catacombs, where they worshiped and buried their dead ; and how at last, after many martyrs had shed their blood in wit- ness to their faith, the Emperor Constautine allowed them to worship freely, and even himself became a Christian. After this, Christianity had spread rapidly in the Roman Empire ; so that, by the time the German tribes began to pour across the borders, almost all of the people who were ruled by the Emperor had adopted the Christian religion, and the old Roman worship of Jupiter, Mars, and Minerva was fast becoming a thing of the past. When Christianity had become the religion of many people, it was necessary for the Church to have some 52 GIIOWTH OF CHEISTIAN CHURCH 53 form of organization; and such an organization speed- ily began to grow. First we find some of the Christians set aside to act as priests, and have charge of the services in the churches. We find ^/If p?"^ », of the Church, next among the priests in each city one who comes to be styled the "overseeing priest" or bishop, whose duty it is to look after the affairs of the churches in his district. Gradually, too, the bish- ops in the more important cities come to have certain powers over the bishops of the smaller cit- ies about them ; these were then called ' ' archbishops. ' ' And finally, there came to be one out of the many hundred bishops of the Church who was looked up to more than any other person, and whose advice was sought on all impor- tant Church questions. This was because he had charge of the Church in Rome, the most important city of the Empire, and be- cause he was believed to be the successor of St. Peter, the chief of the Apostles. The name "Pope," which means father, was given to him ; and it was his duty to watch over all the affairs of the Church on earth, as a father watches over the affairs of his family. Of course, all this organization did not spring up at once, ready made. Great things grow slowly, and it BISHOP ON THRONE Notice the staff (crozier) which he 54 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES was only slowly that this organization grew. Some- times disputes arose as to the amount of power the priests should have over the "laymen," as Early \ . J ^ Church those who were not priests were called ; and disputes. sometimes there were disputes among the ''clergy" or churchmen, themselves. Sometimes these disputes were about power, and lands, and things of that sort ; for now the Church had become wealthy and powerful, through gifts made to it by rulers and pious laymen. More often the question to be settled had to do with the belief of the Church, — that is, with the exact meaning of the teachings of Christ and the Apostles, as they are recorded in the Bible and in the writings of the early Christian teachers. Many of the questions that were discussed seem strange to us, but men were very much in earnest about them then. And at times, when a hard question arose concerning the belief of the Church, men would travel hundreds of miles to the great Church Councils or meetings where the matter was to be decided, and undergo hardships and sufferings without number, to see that the question was decided as they thought Avas right. One of the questions which caused much trouble was brought forward by an Egyptian priest named Arius. He claimed that Christ the Son was not ^uestio^"*" equal in poAver and glory to God the Father. Another Egyptian priest named Athanasius thought this was a wrong belief, or "heresy"; so he combated the belief of Arius in every way that he could. Soon the whole Christian world rang with the controversy. To settle the dispute the first great Council of the Church was called by the Emperor Constantine in the year 325 a.d. It met at - GBOWTH OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH 55 Nicaea, a city in Asia Minor. There ''Arianism" was condemned, and the teaching of Athanasius was declared to be the true belief of the Church. But this did not end the struggle. The followers of Arius would not give up, and for a time they were stronger than their opponents. Five times Athanasius was driven from his position of archbishop in Egypt, and for twenty years he was forced to live an exile from his native land. But he never faltered, and never ceased to write, preach, and argue for the belief which the Council had declared to be the true one. Even after Arius and Athanasius were both dead, the quarrel still went on. Indeed, it was nearly two hundred years before the last of the "Arians" gave up their view of the matter ; but in the end the teachings of Athanasius became the belief of the whole Church. One consequence of this dispute about Arianism was that the churches in the East and West began to drift apart. The Western churches followed the separation of lead of the bishop of Rome and supported wegtem*"*^ Athanasius in the struggle, while the East- churches. ern churches for a time supported Arius. Even after Arianism had been given up in the East as well as in the West, a quarrel still existed concerning the relation of the Holy Ghost to the Father and Son. As time went on, still other disputes arose between the East and West. The Roman clergy shaved their faces and were not permitted to marry, while the Greek clergy let their beards grow, and were permitted to marry. Moreover Rome and Constantinople could not agree as to whether leavened bread (i.e., bread made with yeast) or unleavened bread (without yeast) should be used in the Lord's Supper. Still less could the great 56 THE STOEY 0^' THE MIDDLE AGES bishop of Constantinople, where the Emperor held his court, admit that the power of the bishop of Rome was above his own. Each side looked with contempt and distrust upon the other; for the one were Greeks and the other Latins, and the differences of race and lan- guage made it difficult for them to understand one another. Gradually the breach grew wider and wider. At last, after many many years of ill feeling, the two churches broke off all relations. After that there was always a Greek Catholic Church (which exists to this day) as well as a Eoman one; and the power of the Pope was acknowledged only by the churches in the "Western or Latin half of the world. The Church, of course, was as much changed by the conquests of the Germans as was the rest of the Roman world. The barbarians who settled in the Effect of the <. i -n • coming of lauds of the Empire had already become the Germans. ^ • • p Christians, for the most part, before the conquest, but they Avere still ignorant barbarians. Worst of all, the views which they had been taught at first were those held by the Arians ; and this made them more feared and hated by the Roman Christians. Among the citizens of the Empire, as well as among the barbarians, there was also much wickedness, oppression, and unfair dealing. "The world is full of confusion," wa^ote one holy man. "No one trusts any one; each man is afraid of his neighbor. Many are the fleeces beneath which are concealed innumerable wolves, so that one might live more safely among enemies than among those who appear to be friends." The result of this was that man began to turn from GROWTH OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH 57 the world to God. Many went out into the deserts of Egypt and other waste and solitary places, and be- came lieririits. There they lived, clotlied in •^ ' . Rise of rags or the skins of wild beasts, and eating hermits and , monks. the coarsest food, in order that they might escape from the temptations of the world. The more they punished their bodies, the more they thought it helped their souls ; so all sorts of strange deeds were performed by them. Perhaps the strangest case of all was that of a man named Simeon, who was called "Stylites," from the way in which he lived. For thirty years, — day and night, summer and winter, — he dwelt on the top of a high pillar, so narrow that there was barely room for liim to lie down. There, for hours at a time, he would stand praying, Avith his arms stretched out in the form of a cross ; or else he would pass hours bowing his wasted body rapidly from his forehead to his feet, until at times the people who stood by counted a thousand bows without a single stop. Such things as these happened more frec[uently in the Eastern than they did in the Western Church. In the West, men were more practical, and when they wished to flee from the world, they went into waste places and „ * , . . . ,, , A MONK founded monasteries, w h e r e the "monks," as they were called, dwelt together under the rule of an abbot. 58 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES In the West, too, the power of the bishop of Rome became much greater than that possessed in the East by the bishop of Constantinople. It was' because the Pope was already the leading man in thTpope. Rome that Leo went out to meet the Huns and the Vandals, and tried to save Rome from them. About one hundred and forty years later, Pope Gregory the Great occupied even a higher posi- tion. He not only had charge of the churches near Rome, and was looked up to by the churches of Gaul, Spain, and Africa more than Leo had been ; but he also ruled the land about Rome much as an emperor or king ruled his kingdom. Gregory was born of a noble and wealthy Roman family. When he inherited his fortune he gave it all to found seven monasteries, and he himself Pope Gregory i • n the Great bccame a monk m one of these. There he (590-604). lived a severe and studious life. At length, against his own wishes, he was chosen by the clergy and people to be Pope. This was in the very midst of the Dark Ages. The Lombards had just come into Italy, and everything was in confusion. Everywhere cities were ruined, churches burned, and monasteries destroyed. Farms were laid waste and left unculti- vated, and wild beasts roamed over the deserted fields. For twenty-seven years, Gregory wrote, Rome had been in terror of the sword of the Lombards. "What is happening in other countries," he said, "we know not ; but in this the end of the world seems not only to be approaching, but to have actually begun." The rulers that the Eastern Emperors set up in Italy, after it had been recovered from the East-Goths, either could not or would not help. And to make matters GBOWTH OF CHRISTIAN CHUECH 59 worse, famine and sickness came, and the people died hy hundreds. So Gregory was obliged to act not only as the bishop of Rome, but as its ruler also. He caused processions to march about the city, and prayers to be said, to stop the sickness. He caused grain to be brought and given to the people, so that they might no longer die of famine. He also defended the city against the Lombards, until a peace could be made. In this way a beginning was made of the rule of the Pope over Rome, which did not come to an end until the year 1871. Gregory was not only bishop of Rome, and ruler of the city. He was also tlie head of the whole Western Church, and was constantly busy with its affairs. Before he was chosen Pope, Gregory was passing through the market-place at Rome, one day, and came to the spot where slaves — white slaves — were sold. There he saw some beautiful, fhe^Engifsh^ fair-haired boys. *^*^* ^°^^' "P>om what country do these boys come?" he asked. "From the island of Britain," was the answer. "Are they Christians?" "No," he was told; "they are still pagans." "Alas!" exclaimed Gregory, "what a pity that lads of such fair faces should lack inward grace. ' ' Then he asked of what nation they were. "They are Angles," replied their owner. "They should be called angels, not Angles," said Gregory, "for they have angelic faces. From what province of Britain are they?" "From Deira," said the man, naming a kingdom in the northern part of the island. 60 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES "Then," said Gregory, making a pun in the Latin, "they must be rescued de ira [from the wrath] of God. And what is the name of their king?" "^Ua," was the answer. "Yea," said Gregory, as he turned to go, "Alleluia must be sung in the land of ^lla." At first Gregory planned to go himself as missionary to convert the peoples of Britain. In this he was disappointed ; but when he became Pope he missionaries scnt a uiouk named Augustine as leader of to the £ng^lish. a band of missionaries. By their preaching, Christianity was introduced into the English kingdoms, and the English were gradually won from the old German Avorsliip of Woden and Thor. Gregory also had an important part in winning the West-Goths and Lombards from Arianism to the true faith. In all that he did Gregory's action seemed so wise -and good that men said he was counselled by the Holy Spirit ; and in the pictures of him the Holy Spirit is always represented, in the form of a dove, hovering about his head. Gregory has been called the real father of the Papacy of the Middle Ages. This is no small praise, for the Papacy, in those dark ages, was of great Importance of . /-^,l • i Gregory's scrvicc to Cliristendom. In later ages, ■work. popes sometimes became corrupt ; and at last the Reformation came, in which many nations of the West threw oft' their obedience. But in the dark days of the Middle Ages, all the AVestern nations looked up to the Pope as the head of the Church on earth, and the influence of the popes was for good. There was very little order, union, and love for right and justice in the Middle Ages, as it was ; but no one GROWTH OF CHBISTIAN CHVBCH qi can imagine how much greater would have been the confusion, the lawlessness, and the disorder without the restraining influence of the Papacy. Review and Study Topics 1. What model did the Christians take .n organizing the government of the church? Why was this a eood thiuL' for the world? ^ 2. Would the separation of the Eastern and Western churches have been so likely to come about if tlie Empire had not first separated into an Eastern and a Western half? 3. Make a list of the good things which Gregory the Great did. VIII RISE OF THE FRANKS Outline of Chapter The work of the Franks; their first settlement in Gaul; their early weakness. What Clovis did for the Franks; he overthrows Syagrius; becomes sole King of the Franks; he conquers the Alle- nianians; wars with the Burgundians and Goths. The Franks become Christians; importance of their conversion. Why the power of the Franks was permanent; relations of Franks and Romans. The AVest-Goths, the Burgundians, the Vandals, the East-Goths, and the Ijoinhai-ds, all lielped in their own way to make Kuroi)e what it is today ; yet til'e^ F^ranks"^ uoue of tluMu suc'ceeded in founding a power that was to last as a separate state. Their work was largely to break doAvn the rule of the Western Empire. The ))uildiug up of a new state, to take its place, was to be the work of another people, the Franks. The Franks were the earliest of all the German invaders to settle in the Roman province of Gaul, but they were the last to establish a power of their own in that land. Gaul, in the five hundred years that had passed since its conquest by «Iulius Caesar, had become more Roman even than Italy itself. But its long rule by foreigners had weakened its strength. The spirit of patriotism had died out, and the people in the latter days of the Empire were oppressed by heavy taxes. So Gaul, equally with the other provinces, was unable to otfer resistance to the barbarians. 62 RISE OF TEE FEANKS 63 A hundred years before the West-Goths crossed the Danube, bands of Franks had been allowed to cross the Rhine, from their homes on the right , „ . . Their first bank of that river, and to establish them- settlement in Gaul. selves as the allies or subjects of Rome on the western bank. There they dwelt, gaining in numbers and in power, until news came of the deeds FRANKS CROSSING THE RHINE of Alaric. When the Vandals, Burgundians, and other Germanic tribes tried to cross the Rhine, the Franks on the left bank resisted them, but their resistance was overcome. Then the Franks also set out to build up a power of their own within the Roman territory. Gradually they occupied what is now northern France, together with Belgium and Holland. AVhen the Iluns swept into Gaul, tlie Franks fought against them, side by side Avith the Romans and West-Goths. And, wiien Attila was defeated and had retired, the Franks were allowed G4 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES to take possession of certain cities in the valley of the Rhine which the Huns had won from the Romans. So, by the time that Odoacer overthrew the last of the Roman Emperors of the "West, the Franks had secured a firm footing in the Empire. But Their early fhey werc Still hcathcn, and they were j^et weakness. - ^ ^ ^ far from being strong as a people. They had not yet learned, like the Goths, to wear armor or to fight on horseback. They still went to war half- naked, armed only with a l)arl)ed javelin, a sword, and an ax or tomahawk which they used both for strik- ing and hurling. They wore not united, but were divided into a large num- ber of small tribes, each ruled over by its own petty king. Besides all this, the Franks had many rivals, even in Gaul itself. In the southern part of that land, reaching across the Pyre- nees and taking in nearly the whole of Spain, was the kingdom of the West- Goths. In the southeast- ern part was the kingdom of the Burgundians. In the central part, the re- gion that included the river Seine, a Roman officer named Syagrius still ruled, though the last of the Emperors of the West had fallen. And to the east of ARMS OF THE FRANKS EISE OF THE FRANKS 65 Gaul were tribes who still remained on German soil — the Thuringians, some tribes of the Saxons, and the AUemanians. It was mainly due to one man that the Frankish power was not overcome, but instead was able to over- come all its enemies. This man was Clovis, What Clovis the Kine of one of the little bands of the did for them , (481-511). Franks. Five years after the fall of Rome, he succeeded his father as King of his tribe. Though he was only sixteen years of age at that time, he soon proved him- self to be one of the ablest, but alas! one of the craftiest and crudest leaders of this crafty and cruel people. In the thirty years that he ruled, he united aH. the Franks under his own rule ; he greatly improved the arms and organization of the army; he ex- tended their territory to the south, east, and west; and he caused his people to be baptized as Chris- tians. One of the first deeds of Clovis was to make war on Syagrius, the Roman ruler. In this war the Franks were completely success- ful. Syagrius was defeated, and put to death ; and the district over which he ruled became sub- ject to Clovis. A story is told of this war which shows the rude and independent spirit of the Franks. When the booty was being divided by A FUANKISII CHIEF Notice Ills long hair. 66 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES lot after the battle, Clovis wished to obtain a beautiful vase that had been taken from one of the churches, that he might return it to the priests. But the'va^s^e ^^^ °^ ^^^^ Franks cried out : ' ' Thou shalt have only what the lot gives thee!" And saying this he broke the vase with his battle-ax. Clovis could do nothing then to resent this insult. But the next year he detected this soldier in a fault, and slew him in the presence of the army, saying : "It shall be done to thee as thou didst to the vase!" After the overthrow of Syagrius, Clovis turned to the conquest of other neiglibors. One by one he set to work to rid himself of the other kings of sole Kfil^^of the Franks. Some he conquered by force ; the Franks. " others he ovewame by treachery. He per- suaded the son of one king to kill his father; then he had the son put to death for the crime, and persuaded the people to take him as their king. Another king and his son were slain because they had failed to help Clovis in his wars; and he took their kingdom also. A third king was slain liy Clovis *s OAvn hand, after he had been betrayed into his power. Still otliers of his rivals and relatives were got rid of in the same way. Then, when all were gone, he assembled the people and said: "Alas! I have now no relatives to lend me aid in time of need." But he did this, as an old writer says, not because he was made sad by their death, but craftily, that he might discover whether there remained any one else to kill. In this way Clovis made himself sole King of the RISE OF THE FRANKS 67 Franks. Already he had begun to extend his rule over other branches of the German people. The AUeman- ians, who dwelt to the eastward of the Franks, were beaten in a war which lasted several years, He conquers and were forced to take the King of the the AUe- manians. Franks as their overlord. After this the Franks began to settle in the valley of the river Main, where the Allemanians had dwelt ; and in the course of time this district came to be called Franconia, from their name. Several wars too were waged between Clovis and the Burgundians; and here also the power of the Franks was increased. Most important of Wars with the all were the conquests made from the Burgundians ^ and Goths. West-Goths, who held Southern Gaul and Spain. Again and again Clovis led his Franks against this people. At one time Theodorie, the King of the East-Goths, came to their aid and defeated Clovis with terrible slaughter. But in the end the Franks were victorious, and most of Southern Gaul was added to the Frankish territory. Thus Clovis won for the Franks a kingdom which reached from the river Rhine on the north and east, almost to the Pyrenees mountains on the south. To all this land, which before had borne the name Gaul, the name "Francia" was gradually applied, from the race that conquered it ; and under the name of France it is still one of the most powerful states of Europe. When Clovis first became King, the Franks wor- shiped the old gods, Woden and Thor. Before he died, however, he and most of his people had been baptized and become Christians. His conversion came about in this way. While he was fighting against the Alleman- 68 IRE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES ians, lie saw his Franks one day driven from the field by the enemy. He prayed to the old gods to turn the defeat into victory, but still his troops gave The Franks become WHy. Then he bethought him that his wife Christians. ' ... Clotilda had long been urgnig him to give up his old gods and become a Christian. He determined now to try the God of his wife ; so he cried out : "0 Christ Jesus, I beseech thee for aid ! If thou wilt grant me victory over these enemies, I will believe in thee and be bap- tized in thy name!" AVith this he re- newed the battle, and at last won a great victory. As a result, Clovis be- came a Christian, a n d more than half of his war- riors decided to follow his ex- ample. When the i!.vi'ii.sM lu iLuvis news was brought to the priests, they were filled with joy, and at once preparations were made for the baptism. Painted awnings were hung over the streets. The churches were draped in white. EISE OF THE FEANES 69 and clouds of sweet smelling smoke arose from the censers in which incense was burning. The King was baptized first, and as he approached the basin the bishop cried out : "Bow thy head, King, and adore that which thou hast burned, and burn that which thou hast adored ! ' ' After this, Clovis was, in name, a Christian, but his conversion was only half a conversion. He changed his beliefs, but not his conduct. AVhen the story was told him of the way Jesus suffered death on the cross, he grasped his battle-ax fiercely anji exclaimed: "If 1 had been there with my Franks I would have revenged His wrongs ! ' ' So, in spite of his conversion, Clovis remained a rude warrior, a cruel and unscrupulous ruler. Nevertheless, the conversion of the Franks was of very Importance great importance. The Goths, Vandals, and of their o -^ conversion. Burgundians, had all been Christians at the time they invaded the Empire, but their Chris- tianity was not of the kind that the Romans of the West accepted. They were Arian Christians, and, as we have seen, there was great hatred between the Arians and the Roman or Athanasian Christians. In Africa, Spain, and Italy, therefore, the people hated their Arian masters. But it was different with the Franks. Because they believed as the Roman Chris- tians did, their Roman subjects in Gaul accepted and supported their rule, and the Pope shoAved himself friendly to them. This is one of the two chief reasons why the Frankish power was permanent. The other reason was that the Franks did not wholly leave their old homes as the other Germans did when they set out on their con- 70 TEE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES quest. The Franks kept wliat they already had, while adding to it the neighboring lands which they had con- why the quered. So their increase in power was a Frlnks^ias* growth, as Well as a conquest; and this permanent. made it morc lasting. AVhen the barbarians conquered portions of the Roman Empire tlu^y did not kill or drive out the people who already lived there. Usually they con- Relations of .,,. '^i Franks and tcntcd thcmselvcs With taking some or the Bomans. i t p i i ■> lands tor themselves, and making the people pay to them the taxes which they had before paid to the Roman emperors. So it was with the Franks. The people of Gaul were allowed to remain, and to keep most of their lands; but the Franks, although they were not nearly so numerous as the Romans, ruled over the state. The old inhabitants were highly civilized, while the Franks were just taking the first stej)s in civilization. "We make fun of them,'' wrote one of these Romans, "we despise them, — but we fear them also." As the 3^ears went by, the differences between the conquerors and the conquered became less. The Romans found that times were changed, and they had to adopt the habits of the Franks in some respects. The Franks had already adopted the religion of their subjects; they began also to adopt their language and some of their customs. In this way, the two peoples at last became as one ; but it was not until long after the time of Clovis that tliis end was fully reached. Review and Study Topics 1. Compare Clovis i^ith Theodoric flip East-Goth. 2. What does the story of the vase show concerning the power of the King? 3. Make a list of the good things which Clovis did. Do the same for the bad things. IX DESCENDANTS OF CLOVIS Outline of Chapter Division of the kingdom among Clevis's four sons; their quar- rels and wars; separation of East Franks and West Franks; story of Fredegonda and Brunhilda. •'Feuds," or family wars; payment of "wergeld"; German modes of trials; the "ordeals". Later history of the "Merovingian" kings; the "do-nothing" kings. Whex Clovis died, in the year 511, he left four sons. Tlie Germans followed the practice of dividing the property of a father equally among his male children. The Franks now applied of^cfj'^ll this rule to the kingdom which Clovis left, and divided it just as though it were ordinary prop- erty. Each son received a portion of the kingdom, and each was independent of the others. This plan turned out very badly and caused a great deal of misery. None of the kings was ever satisfied with his own portion, but each wished to secure for himself the whole kingdom which Clovis had ruled. So, murders and civil wars became very common among these "Merovingian" princes, as they were called. Almost all of the descendants of Clovis died a violent death ; or else their long hair, — which was their pride and the mark of their kingship, — was cut and they were forced into monasteries. At one time, when one of the sons of Clovis died, his two brothers sent a message to their mother Clotilda saying : 71 72 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES "Send us our brother's children, that we may place them on the throne." When the children were sent, a messenger returned to the grandmother, bearing a SAvord and a pair of shears, and telling her to choose whether the boys should be shorn or slain. In despair the old queen cried out : "I would rather know that they were dead than shorn!" Probably she did not mean this; but the pitiless uncles took her at her word. Two of the boys were cruelly slain. The third es- caped from their hands, and to save his life he cut off his own hair and became a priest. After a time, the laud of the Franks was divided into two divisions, and the people were called respectively East Franks and West Franks. Each land had a separate government. The AVest Franks gradually came to speak a language which was based on the old Latin language which the Romans had introduced into Gaul; and, long afterward, this grew into the French tongue of to-day. The East Franks, on the other hand, kept their old Germanic tongue, which finally de- DESCENDANTS OF CLOVIS From statues carved at the entrance to a church DESCENDANTS OF CLOVIS 73 veloped into the German language as it is now spoken. About a hundred years after the time of Clovis, two terrible women were queens in these lands. Their names were Fredegonda and Brunhilda ; Fredegonda and their iealousy and hatred of each other and '' '' Brunhilda. caused them to commit many murders and stir up many wars. It is hard to say which of the two was the worse, but we feel some pity for Brunhilda because of her terrible end. She had ruined her grandchildren in order that she might keep the power in her own hands, and she was charged with causing the death of ten kings of Frankish race. But at last she fell into the hands of her enemies; and although she was an old woman of eighty years, she was put to death by being dragged at the heels of a wild horse. Her terrible rival had died some years before. In many respects the laws of the Franks, and indeed of all the Germans, seem very strange to us. One of their strangest customs was that of the "feud," as it was called, and the f«""^,^- °' ' ' family wars. "wergeld." Both of these had to do with such struggles as the one between Brunhilda and Fredegonda. In our day, and also among the Romans, if any one injured a man or killed hiin, the man or his family could go to law about it, and have the person who did the injury punished. But among the old Germans the courts of law had very little power, and many preferred to right their own wrongs. "When a man was killed, his relatives would try to kill the slayer. Then the relatives of the slayer would try to protect him ; and in this way a little war would arise between the two families. This was called a *'feud": 74 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES and the struggle would go on until the number killed on one side equaled the number killed on the other. By and by men began to see that this was a poor way of settling their diflferences. Then it became the practice for the man who did the injury to -w^^g^id."^ P^y ^ ^^1^ of money to the one who was injured; and the families helped in this, just as they had in the feud. AVhen the payment was given for the slaying of a person it was styled "wergeld" or "man-money." After this, the feud was only used when the offender could not, or would not, pay the wergeld. Every man, —and indeed every part of the body, from a joint of the little finger up to the whole man, — came to have its price. The wergeld of a Frank w^as twice that of a Roman; and the wergeld of a person in the King's service was three times that of a simple freeman. Another interesting thing about the old Germanic law was the way the trials were carried on. Let us suppose that a man is accused of stealing. German methods • \\ c sliould at oucc try to find out whether of trials. ' • i i o any one had seen him commit the theft ; that is, we should examine witnesses, and try to find out all the facts in the ease. That was also the Roman way of doing things ; but it was not the German way. The Germans had several ways of trying cases, the most curious of which was the ''ordeal." If they used this, they might force the man who was ^ordeals " accusccl to pluugc his hand into a pot of boiling water and pick up some small object from the bottom. Then the man's hand was wrapped up and sealed ; and if in three days there was no mark of scalding, the man was declared innocent. DESCENDANTS OF CLOFIS 75 In this way they left the decision of the case to God; for they thought that he would not permit an innocent man to suffer. Besides this form of the ordeal, there were also others. In one of these the person accused had to carry a piece of red-hot iron in his hand for a certain distance. In another he was thrown, with hands and feet tied, into a running stream. If he floated, he was considered guilty ; but if he sank, he was innocent, and MFROVINGIAN KING ON AN OX CART must at once be pulled out. All of these forms of trial seem very absurd to us, but to men of the early Middle Ages they seemed perfectly natural; and they continued to be used until the thirteenth century. In spite of the wickedness of the descendants of Clovis, and in spite of the divisions of the kingdom, the power of the Franks continued to Later increase. For about one hundred and Mstoryofthe Franks. seventy years the Merovingian kings were powerful rulers ; then, for about one hundred years. 76 TEE STOUT OF TEE MIDDLE AGES they gradually lost power, until they became so unimportant that they are called "do-nothing" kings. The rich estates which Clovis had left to his descendants were now wasted, through the reckless grants which the kings had made to their nothing" nobles. So poor were the kings that they kings. could boast of but small estates and a scanty income ; and when they wished to go from place to place they were forced to travel in an ox-cart, after the manner of the peasants. Now they had few followers, where before their war-bands had numbered hundreds. All this made the kings so weak that the nobles no longer obeyed them. The government was left more and more to the charge of the kings' minis- ters; while the kings themselves were content to wear their long flowing hair, and sit upon the throne as figureheads. The time had come when, indeed, the kings "did nothing." They reigned, but they did not rule. Review and Study Topics 1. Why was the division of the kingdom among the king's sons a bad practice? 2. Would you call these Franks a "civilized" people? Give reasons for your answer. 3. Do you know of any places where "feuds" are still fought? 4. Why were "ordeals" not a good way to try cases at law? MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAM- MEDANS Outline of Chapter Condition of the Arabs before Mohammed; changes which came in the seventh century. Early life of Mohanimod; he preaches a new faith; all Arabia accepts it ; the ' ' Koran. ' ' Conquests outside of Arabia; the Moors conquer Spain (711); they prepare to conquer Gaul. While the descendants of Clovis were struggling with one another for his kingdom, and while the Church M-as gaining in wealth and in power, a danger was arising in the East that was to threaten both with ruin. This danger was caused by the rise of a new reli- gion among the Arabs. Arabia is a desert land for the most part ; and the people gained their , . . , 1 • • , 1 • , , The Arabs living by wandering with their camels and before Mohammed. herds from oasis to oasis, or else by carry- ing on trade between India and the West, by means of caravans across the dt'serts. The people themselves were like grown-up children in many ways. They had poetic minds, and impulsive and generous hearts; but they were ignorant and superstitious, and often very cruel. Up to tiiis time they had never been united under one government, nor had they all believed in the same religion. Some tribes worshiped the stars of heaven, others worshiped "feticlies" of sticks and stones, and others believed in gods or demons called 77 78 THE STOSY OF THE MIDDLE AGES "genii." If you' have read tlie story of Aladdin and his wonderful lamp, in the Arabian Nights, you will know what the "genii" were like. Arabia is so near to Palestine that it will not surprise you to hear that the Arabs had also learned something from the religion of the Jews, and from the Christians. But until the seventh century after Christ, the Arabs remained, in spite of this, a rude and idolatrous people, without any faith or government which all acknowledged. THE CITY OF MECCA Tn the seventh century came a change. The Arabs then became a united people, under one government, and with one religion. And under the influence of this religion they came out from their deserts, and conquered vast empires to the east and to the west, until it seemed as though the whole of the known world was to pass into their hands. The man who brought about this change was named MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 79 Mohainmed. He belonged to a powerful tribe among the Arabs. But his father and mother had died be- fore he was six years of age. He w^as then taken care of by his uncle, who was so poor iiie of Mohammed. that Mohammed was obliged to hire out as a shepherd boy, and do work that was usually done by slaves. When he was thirteen years old his uncle took h^m with a caravan to Damascus and other towms of Syria ; and there the boy caught his first glimpses of the outside world. When he grew up he became manager for a wealthy widow who had many camels and sent out many caravans ; and at last he won her love and respect, and she became his wife. When Mohammed established his new religion she became his first convert, and to the day of her death she was his most faithfu^|iriend and follower. ]\Iohamined nii|l a dreamy and imaginative nature, and when he liacT become a man he thought much about religion. Every year he would go alone into the mountains near his home, and spend a month in fasting and prayer. At times he fell into a trance, and when he was restored he would tell of wonderful visions that his soul had seen while his body lay motionless on the earth. When Mohammed was forty years old, a vision came to him of a mighty figure that called him by name and held an open book before him, saving, He preaches "Read!" Mohammed believed that this anew faith. was the angel Gabriel, who came to him that he might establish a new religion, whose watchword should be: "There is but one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet!" \ -~^^- 80 TBE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES When he began to preach the new faitli, ^lohamraed at first found few converts. At the end of three years he had only forty followers. His teachings angered those who had charge of the idols of the old religions, and Mohammed was obliged at last to flee from the holy city of ]\Iccca. This Avas in the year 622 a.d., and to this day the followers of ]\Ioliammed count time from this date, as we do from the birth of Christ. a ' ido ' ♦Aq ' *do MAP SHOWING ^[OIIA^IMKPAN COXQincSTS After this Mohammed gained followers more rapidly, and he began to preach that the new religion must ])e spread by the sword. AVarriors now came aicept's^u? flocking into his camp from all directions. Within ten years after the flight from ]\Iecca, all the tribes of Arabia had become his fol- lowers, and the idols had everywhere been broken to pieces. Then the Mohammedans turned to other nations, and everywhere they demanded that the people should believe in Mohammed, or pay tribute. If these demands were refused, they were put to death. MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 81 Mohammed could neither read nor write, but his sayings "were written down by his companions. In this way a whole chestful of the sayings of the The Prophet was preserved, written on scraps Mohammedan of paper or parchment, or dried palm leaves, and even on tlie l)road, flat shoulder-bones of sheep. After Mohammed's death (in 632) these say- ings were gathered together and formed into a book ; in this way arose the "Koran," which is the bible of the Mohammedans. Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jesus are all recognized as prophets in the Koran ; but Mohammed is regarded as the latest and greatest of all. The Koran teaches that those who believe in Mohammed, and live just lives, shall enter Paradise when they die. They will there dwell in beautiful gardens, Avhere they shall never be burned by the rays of the sun, nor chilled by wintry winds ; and there under flowering trees they shall recline forever, clad in silks and brocades, and fed by delicious fruits, which beautiful black-eyed maidens bring to them. To win Paradise the Moham- medan must follow certain rules. Five times a day he must pray with his face turned in the direction of the holy city Mecca ; he must not gamble or drink wine ; and during the holy month, wlien Mohammed fasted, he too must fast and pray. But the surest way to gain Paradise, and all its joys, was to die in battle fighting for the ^lohammodan faith. This teaching helps to explain why the Christians have always found the Mohammedans such fierce and reckless fighters. "Within a lumdred years after the death of IMoham- med bis followers liad won an empire which stretched from the Indus river, in Asia, to the Red Sea, and from 82 TEE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES the Red Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. All of Southwest- ern Asia, and all of Northern Africa, were under their rule; and they were preparing to add Mohammedan Spain also, and perhaps all Europe, to the conques s. jj^^fig -^yhere the "call to prayer" was chanted. In the year 711 A.u., a Mohammedan general named Tarik led tlie first army of Moors and Arabs across from Africa to Spain. Near wliere he The Moors '■ Conquer landed was a huge mountain of rock on Spain (711). _ ° Avhich lie built a fortress or castle ; and from his name it is still called "Gibel-Tarik," or Gibraltar, the mountain of Tarik. Spain at this time was ruled by the West-Goths; were not able to resist the fierce Moors. Near a little but they were weakened by cpiarrels and idleness, and river in Southern Spain the great battle was fought. For seven days the Christian Goths, under their King, Rodrigo, fought against the Mohammedan army ; but still the battle Avas undecided. On the eighth day the Christians fled from the field, and Spain was left in the hands of the ^Mohammedans. Long after that day an old Spanish poet sang of that battle in Avords like these : The hosts of Don Eodrigo were scattered in dismay, When lost Avas the eightli battle, nor heart nor hope had they; He, when he saw that field was lost, and all his hope was flown, He turned him from his flying host, and took liis way alone. All stained and strewed with dust and blood, like to some smouldering brand Plucked from the flame, Eodrigo showed; his sword was in his hand. But it was hacked into a saw of dark and purple tint: His jeweled mail had many a flaw, his helmet many a dint. MOHAMMED AND THE MOHAMMEDANS 83 He climbed into a hill-top, the highest he could see, Thence all about of that wide rout his last long look took he, He saw his royal banners, where they lay drenched and torn, He heard the cry of victory, the Arab's shout of scorn. He looked for the brave captains that led the hosts of Spain, But all were fled except the dead, and who could count the slain ? Where'er his eye could wander, all bloody was the plain. And while thus he said, the tears he shed ran down his cheeks like rain: "Last night I was the King of Spain — to-day no king am I; Last night fair castles held my train — to-night where shall I lie? Last night a hundred pages did serve me on the knee — To-night not one I call my own — not one pertains to me." This battle destroyed the power of the West-Goths. It also marks the beginning of the rule of the Moors in Spain, Avhich was to last until the time of Queen Isabella and Columbus. The ease with which the Moors conquered Spain made them think it would be an easy thing to conquer Gaul also. So within a few years we find , , . . • , 1 -r. , "^^^y prepare their armies crossing the Fyrenees to carry to conquer Gaul. war into that land. But here they met the Franks, and that people was not so easy to overcome as the Goths had been. Review and Study Topics 1. Compare the Arabs, before Mohammed, with the Franks of that time. 2. Eead a brief account of Mohammed *s life. 3. Do you think Mohammed really believed in the religion which he preached? Why do you think so? 4. Which was the larger, the ]\Iohammedan Empire as it was after 711, or the Roman Empire before 375? Which took the longer time to build up? XI THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE Outline of Chapter Rise of the Frankish "Mayors of the Palace"; Charles Martel becomes Mayor (714); he defeats the Moors at Tours (732). The sons of Cliarles Martel; Pepin "the Short" sets aside the last Merovingian king, and becomes King of the Franks (751). You have already seen how Clovis built up a strong kingdom in Gaul and Germany ; and then how the power slipped away from the hands of his Tll6 do-nothing descoudants, until they became mere kings. "do-nothing" kings. An old Frankish writer says: "The kings had only the name, and nothing save means for meat and drink. They dwelt in a country house all the year, until the middle of May. Then they came forth to greet the people and be greeted by them, and to receive their gifts. After that they returned to their dwelling, where they remained until the next year." The real power was now in the hands of great nobles who acted as the King's ministers. The chief of these was called the "Mayor of the Palace"; and The Mayors , . ,*,-!.»■ • , of the at the time when the Moors came into Spain this office Avas handed down from father to son in a powerful family, which possessed rich estates in the Rhine valley, and could command a multitude of warlike followers. Three years after the Moors had crossed over into 84 TEE MAYOnS OF TEE PALACE 85 Spain, the old Mayor of the Palace died, and the office passed to his son Charles. This was a serious time for the kingdom of the Franks. Civil wars ° 111 Charles Martel now broke out anew among the nobles; becomes Mayor . (714). the Saxons from Germany broke into the kingdom from the north ; and the Moors were pressing up from Spain into the very heart of France. The young Mayor of the Palace, however, proved equal to the occasion. The civil wars were brought to an end, CHARLES M ARTEL DEFEATS THE MOORS and all the Prankish lands were brought under his rule. The heathen Saxons were driven back to their own country. Then, gathering an army from the whole kingdom, Charles marched, in the year 732, into Southern France to meet the Moors. He found their army near the city of Tours, laden with the booty which they had taken. The „ , . ^ XlQ (I6I G&lS ]\[oors expected another victory as great the Moors at ^ Tours (732). as the one which had given them Spain; but they found their match in Charles and his 86 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Franks. All day long the battle raged. Twenty times the light-armed Moors, on their fleet horses, dashed into the ranks of the heavy-armed Franks; but each time Charles and his men stood firm, like a wall, and the enemy had to retreat. At last the Moors gave up the attempt; and when day dawned next morning the Franks found that they had slipped off in the night, leaving behind them their tents and all their rich booty. This battle forever put an end to the conquests of the Moors in France. It was this battle also, perhaps, that gave Charles his second name, ''Martel," or "the Hammer"; for, as an old writer tells us, ''like a hammer breaks and dashes to pieces iron and steel, so Charles broke and dashed to pieces his enemies." At all events, the fame which Charles Martel won by his actions, and the ability wliich he showed as a ruler, enabled him to leave his power to his two Sons of 1 1 T T . • 1 Charles SOUS whcu hc died. Agam there was a war M^rtel. between the Mayors of the Palace and the nobles who ruled over portions of the kingdom, but again the Mayors of the Palace won. Then, when quiet was restored once more, the elder of the two sons of Charles gave over his power to his brother Pepin, and entered a monastery, in order that he might spend the rest of his years in the holy life of a monk. This left Pepin (who was called "Pepin the Short") as tlie sole IMayor of the Palace. There was still a ^lerovingian prince who sat on the throne, but he was a "do-nothing" King, as so many had been before him ; and he only said the words that he was told, and did the things that were given him to do. Of course, this could not go on forever. Every one THE MAYORS OF THE PALACE 87 was getting tired of it ; and at last Pepin felt that tlie- time had come when he might safely take the title of King. First, messengers were sent to Pepin becomes the Pope to ask his opinion. The Pope King of the ^ ^ Franks (751). was now eager to get the aid of the Franks against the Lombards in Italy ; so he answered in the way that he knew Avould please Pepin. Till': MKR(»VIN(;i.\N KINC DKrOSEl) "It is better," he said, "to give the title King to the person who actually has the power." Then the weak ^Merovingian King was deposed. His long hair was cut, he was forced to become a monk, and was shut out of sight in a monastery. Pepin the Short was then anointed with the sacred oil, and was crowned King in his place. As long as Pepin lived, he ruled as a strong and just King. AVhen he died, the crown went to his children, gg THE STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES and after them to his children's children. In this way the crown of the Franks continued in the family of Pepin for more than two hundred years. Review and Study Topics 1. Why did tho Merovingian kings lose power, and the Mayors of the Palace gain it? 2. What difference might it have made to history if the Mohammedan Moors had been victorions at Tours, instead of the Ciiristian Franks? 3. Was it right that the Merovingian King should be deposed, and Pepin "the Short" take his place? Give your reasons. 4. Why was the Pope appealed to by Pepin when he wanted to take the crown? XII CHARLEMAGNE Outline of Chapter Importance of Charlemagne's reign; dates when he ruled (768- 814); what he did for the Franks. Number of his wars; their objects; their results. War with the Saxons; its long duration; massacre of the rebels; Widukind's resistance; end of the war. War with the Lombards; why Charlemagne attacked them; their kingdom overthrown, and Charlemagne becomes King of Italy (77-i). Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Kome (800); relations between Pope and Emperor; nature of Cliarlemagne 's empire; impor- tance of the revival of the Empire in the West; how Charle- magne's emjiire was governed. What Charlemagne did for education; the Palace School; Charle- magne and the schoolboys. Personal appearance and dress of Charlemagne. Charles the Great, or Charlemagne, became King of the Franks when his father Pepin died. He was the gre atest riilei^ of_his_Jime ; and for hun- chariemagne, dreds of years after his death his influence J^'"^v°^ ,, »" the Franks continued to be felt in Western Europe, ees-su). If Columbus had never been born, America would have been discovered just the same. But if Charlemagne had never been King of the Franks, and made himself Em- peror of the Holy Roman Empire, — as we shall see that he did, — the whole history of the ^Middle Ages would have been very different from what it actually was. At first Charlemagne's brother ruled with him as King; but within three years the brother died, and then Charlemagne ruled as sole King of the Franks. He owed the power which he held largely to his father, 89 90 TEE STOHY OF TUE MIDDLE AGES and to his grandfather Charles Martel; but Charle- magne used this power wisely and Avell, and greatly increased it. He put down the rebellions of the peoples who rose against the rule of the Franks; he defended the land against the ]\Ioliaraniedans of Spain and the heathen Germans of the north; be conquered new lands and new peoples. In addition, he set up an improved system of government ; and he did all that he could to encourage learning and make his people more civilized than they had been before. ^Vhen w'e read of all the things that Charlemagne did, we wonder that he was able to do so much. In the forty-six years that he was King he wars^^"*^^"^^ sent out more than fifty expeditions against different enemies ; and in more than half of these he took the command himself. Charlemagne's wars, liowever, were not simply for plunder, or for more laud, as so many of the earlier wars of the Franks had been. They were fought either to keep down the peoples wlioni the Franks liad already con- quered, or else to keep out new peoples who were seeking to conquer the Franks. In both these objects Charlemagne was successful. The result of his wars Avas tliat almost all of those lands Avhich had formerly been under the • Emperors of the West, were now^ brought under the rule of the King of the Franks : and the peoples who lived in these lands, both the old inhabitants and the German new-comers, were allowed peaceably to live together and work out their OAvn destiny. The most stubl)orn enemy that Charlemagne had to fight was the Saxons. A portion of this people had settled in the island of Britain about three hundred CHABLEMAGNE 91 years earlier, but many Saxon tribes still dwelt in the northern part of Germany. In Charlemagne's time they still worshiped Woden and Thor. and ^^ ^j^^ lived in mii(;h the same way that the Ger- *^® saxons. mans had done before the great migrations. It was part of Charlemagne's plan to make himself ruler of all the German nations; besides, there were constant quarrels along the border between the Saxons and the Franks. The result was that Avar was declared, and Charlemagne started out to conquer, to Christianize, and to civilize these heathen kinsmen. But it was a hard task; and the war lasted many years before it was ended. Again and again the Franks would march into the Saxon lands in summer and conquer the Saxon villages ; but as soon as they withdrew for the winter the young warriors of the Saxons would come out from the swamps and forests, to which they had retreated, and next year the work would liave to be done over again. After this had occurred several times, Charlemagne determined to make a terrible example. Forty-live liundredj)fjthe- Saxon warriQrajVYliQ_had rebelled and been captured were put to death by his orders, all in one day. This dreadful massacre was the worst thing that Charlemagne ever did ; and it did not even succeed in terrifying the Saxons. Instead, it led to the hardest and bloodiest war of all, in which a chief named Widukiud led on his countrymen to take vengeance for their murdered relatives and friends. In the end Charlemagne and his Franks proved too strong for the Saxons. Widukind, at Irfst, ^j^^ saxons was obliged to surrender and be baptized, conquered, with all his followers. After that the resistance of the 92 TEE STOET OF THE MIDDLE AGES Saxons died away ; and Charlemagne 's treatment of the land was so wise that it became one of the strongest and most important parts of the kingdom. Charlemagne also fought a number of times against the Arabs in Spain. He not only prevented them from settling in Southern France, as they had War in ^^led to do in the time of Charles Martel ; Spain, ' but he won from them a strip of th<-ir own country south of the Pyrenees ^Mountains. In one of these wars, the rearguard of Charlemagne's army was cut off and slain by the mountain tril)es in the narrow pass of Koncesvalles. The leader of the Franks was Roland, while the leader of tiie enemy was called Bernardo. Long after that day, strange stories grew up; and poets sang of tlie brave deeds of Roland, and of the mighty blasts which he gave on his RotI^d°^ hunting-horn, to warn Charlemagne of the danger to his army. Three blasts he l)lew. each so loud and terrible that the birds fell dead from the trees, and the enemy drew back in alarm. Charle- magne, many miles away, heard the call, and hastened to the rescue, but he came too late. An old song says: The day of Roncesvalles was a dismal day for you, Ye men of France, for there the lance of King Charles was broke in two; Ye well may curse that rueful field, for many a noble peer In fray or fight the dust did bite beneath Bernardo's spear. In most of his wars Charlemagne was successful, and the stories about him told rather of his glory and his might than of his defeats. One of his most important conquests was that of the CHARLEMAGNE 93 Lombar dSj in Northern Italy . Nearly a century after- ward, an old monk wrote the story of this war as he had heard it from his father. Desiderius. the King of the Lombards, had offended ^e^JmLds. the Pope, and the Pope appealed to Charle- magne for aid. AVhen Cliark'iuagne marched his army over the Alps into Italy, the Lombard King shut him- self up in his capital, Pavia. There he had with liim, according to the story, one of Charlemagne's nobles named Otker, who had offended the dread King and fled from him. "Now when they heard of the approach of the terrible Charles," writes this old monk, "they climbed up into a high tower, whence they could see in all directions. AVhen the advance mcnks guard appeared, Desiderius said to Otker : 'Is Charles with this great army, do you think?' And he answered: 'Not yet.' "When he saw the main army, gathered from the whole broad empire, Desiderius said Avith confidence: 'Surely the victorious Charles is Avith these troops.' But Otker answered: 'Not yet, not yet.' "Then Desidei'ius began to ])e troubled, and said: 'What shall we do if still iiioic come with him ?' Otker answered: 'You will soon see how he will come; but what will become of us, I know not.' And, behold, while they were speaking, appeared the servants of Charles's household, a never-resting multitude. 'That is Charles,' said the terrified Desiderius. But Otker said: 'Not yet, not yet.' Then appeared the bishops and tlie ab])ots, and the chaplains with their com- panions. AYhen he beheld these the Lombard prince, dazed witli fear and longing for death, stammered out these words: 'Lc^t us go down and hide in the earth 94 TEE SrORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES before the wrath of so terril)le an enemy ! ' But Otker, who in better times had known well the power and the arms of the great Charles, answered: 'When yoa see a harvest of steel Avaving in the fields, and the rivers dashing steel-blaek waves against the city walls, then you may believe Charles is coming. ' -v/^'V^-ir^^—V^^'' '?■--, rx.!'"^— — R(fYAL rAl.At'K •)!•' rilARI.KMAONE'S TIME "Seareely had he spoken Avhen there appeared in the north and west a dark cloud, as it were, which wrapped the clear day in most dreadful shadow, ^f'ch^i"^ ^^"t as it grew nearer, there flashed upon the besieged from the gleaming weapons a day that was more terrible for them than any night. Then they saw him,— Charles,— the man of steel; his arms covered with plates of steel, his iron breast and his broad shoulders protected by steel armor. His left hand carried aloft the iron lance, for his right was CHAELEMAGNE 95 always ready for the victorious sword. His thighs, which others leave uncovered iu order more easily to mount their horses, were covered on the outside with iron scales. The leg-pieces of steel were common to the whole army. His shield was all of steel, and his horse was iron in color and in spirit. "This armor all who rode before him, by his side, or who followed him,— in fact, the whole army,— had tried to huitate as closely as possible. Steel filled the fields and roads. The rays of the sup were reflected from gleaming steel. The people, paralyzed by fear, did homage to the bristling steel ; the fear of the steel pierced down deep into the earth. 'Alas, the steel!' 'Alas, the steel!' cried the inhabitants confusedly. The mighty walls trembled before the steel, and the courage of youths fled before the steel of the aged. "And all this, which I have told with all too many words, the truthful seer Other saw with one swift look, and said to Desiderius: 'There you have Charles, whom you have so long desired!' And witli these words he fell to the ground like one dead." In this war Charlemagne was completely victorious. Desiderius ceased to be King of the Lombards, and Charlemagne became King in his place. ^^^,^^^^^^ For centuries after that Charlemagne's t^ecomes Kmg successors continued to wear "the iron crown of Italy," which the great King of the Franks had won from Desiderius. One of the results of the conquest of the Lombards was that Charlemagne was brought into closer rela- • tions with the Pope. The Emperor of the East still claimed to rule over Italy ; but his rule was feeble, and only a small part of the peninsula was now in the 96 TEE STOMY OF THE MIDDLE AGES hands of his officers. The real power in Italy had passed into the hands of the King of the Franks; and the question now was, whether the Pope should be under his rule as he had been under that of the Eastern Emperors. Two things made this question harder to decide. One was that Charlemagne, following the example of his father Pepin, had given to the Pope a number of the cities and villages which he had conquered in Italy. The other was that the Pope, on Christmas day of the year 800, placed a crown on Charlemagne's head as he knelt in prayer in St. Peter's church at Rome, and proclaimed him Emperor. Charlemagne had gone to Rome to aid the Pope against rebellious Romans, and remained for the cele- chariemagne bratiou of Christmas. On that day, as EmiMol- Charlemagne's secretary tells us, "the (800). King went to mass at St. Peter's, and as he knelt in prayer before the altar, the Pope set a crown upon his head. Then the Roman people cried aloud: 'Long life and victory to the mighty Charles, the great and peaceful Emperor of the Romans, who is crowned of God!' " He adds that later Charlemagne declared "that he would not have set foot in the church that day, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope." Nevertheless Charle- magne accepted the new title, and prized it higher than his old title of King. When Charlemagne gave those cities and villages to the Pope, did it mean that he gave up the right to rule Relations of thorc, and turned the power over to the Emperor. Popc, SO that the latter became the Prince in these places? And when the Pope crowned Charle- CHAELEMAGNE 97 magne as Emperor, did that mean that the Pope could set up and pull down emperors whenever he pleased ? These are very hard questions to answer, but they are very important questions to understand. Upon the answers given to tliem would depend the decision whether the Pope was above the Emperor, or the Emperor above the Pope ; and this was a question about which men fought for iiundreds of years. We may also ask, AVhat was this Empire of which Charlemagne became Emperor on that Cliristinas morning ? The name which men later gave to it is "the Holy Roman Empire j)f the German Nation." They thought of it as a revival of the old Roman Empire of the West, which had come to an end chariemagnes more than three hundred years before. They called it the Holy Roman Empire, to show how great a part the Church, and especially the Pope, played in it ; and they added the words, of ike German Xation, because it was the new and vigorous peoples who had come from the North who now supplied its strength. Though Charlemagne as Emperor ruled only over the peoples who had obeyed him as King, still men felt that his position now was higher, and his authority greater, than it had been before. For now his power was linked with the majestic history of Rome, and was given a more solemn sanction by the Church. In this way, the crowning of Charlemagne as Em- peror was an event of very great importance. For a thousand years after that day, the office of importance of ,, • 1 Tir • T • revival of hmperor in the \\ est continued to exist; the Empire, and for a good part of this time it was one of the 98 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES most powerful means of holding the peoples of West- ern Europe together in one family of nations, and pre- venting them from growing wholly unlike and hostile to one another. To govern the wide territories which were under his rule, Charlemagne kept up the "counts" or local rulers that he found established in different parts Government fi-Ti- y-\ ■, • ■, of the or his hmpire. Over these he set higher Empire. rulers, called Missi or "messengers," who were to travel about the country, seeing everything and reporting everything to the King. Twice a year, in the spring and in the autumn, the nobles of the land with their followers were called to- gether to consult with him, and assist him in making laws for the kingdom. These assemblies would con- tinue for several days, according to the importance of the business. While they lasted, the nobles would come and go from the King's palace, proposing laws to their followers, and carrying back their assent. The King's will decided everything ; the nobles advised ; their fol- lowers merely assented to what was proposed. If the weather was fine, the assembly met in the open air; but if it was not, then the meetings took place in churches and other buildings. The King, meanwhile, was busy receiving presents, talking with the most im- portant men, especially those who dwelt at a distance from his court, and hearing what his nobles and officials had to report to him concerning any part of the king- dom. This last (^harlemagne considered very impor- tant. As an old writer says : "The King wished to know whether, in any part or any corner of the kingdom, the people murmured or were troubled, and Avhat was the cause of their troubles. CHARLEMAGNE 99 CHARLEMAGNE This shows him as after ages thought of him. The sword, crown, and robes are the ones used by later emperors. 100 'J^B.E STOEy OF THE MIDDLE AGES Also he wished to knoAv if any of the conquered peoples thought of rebelling, or if any of those who were still independent threatened the kingdom with an attack. And upon all these matters, wherever a danger or a disturbance arose, his chief questions were concerned with its motives or its cause," Besides being a great warrior and a great ruler, Charlemagne was also a great friend of learning and education. He loved to gather about him sc^hoo^.*'*^* learned men from all parts of the world. In this "Palace School," as it was called, the King and his wise men discussed learned questions. Charlemagne himself learned to read only after he was a grown man ; and in spite of all his efforts he never succeeded in learning to write. This made him all the more anxious that the bright lads of his kingdom should have the advantages which he lacked. So he founded schools in the monasteries and bishoprics; in this way he hoped to get learned men for offices in the Church and State. The rude fighting men of that day, however, looked upon learning with contempt ; and many noble youths in the schools neglected their books for hawking and warlike exercises. The old monk who tells us how Charles overcame King Desiderius, also tells us of the p]mperor's wrath „, , when he found the bovs of one school going Charlemagne . . ' o o and the on in this fashion. The bovs of low and schoolboys. middle station had been faithful ; and when they presented their compositions and poems to the King, he said : "]\Iany thanks, my sons, that you have taken such pains to carry out my orders to the best of your ability. Try now to do better still, and I will give you as reward CHARLEMAGNE 101 splendid bishoprics, and make you rulers over monas- teries, and you shall be highly honored in my sight." But to the high-born boys, who had played while the others worked, he cried out in wrath : "You sons of princes, you pretty and dainty little gentlemen, who count upon your birth and your wealth ! You have d i s r e g a rded my orders and your own reputations; you have neglected your studies and spent your time iu games and idleness, or in foolish occu- pations ! I care lit- tle for your noble birth, and your pretty looks, though others think them so fine ! And 1 e t me promise you this : if you do not make haste to re- cover what you have lost by your neglect, you will never get any favors from Charles!" In many other ways, besides those which we have mentioned, Charlemagne did a great work for the peoples over whom he ruled, and laid the foundations on which the ages that came after builded. In the troubled times that followed his death much of his work seemed to be swept away ; but this was only in STATUE OF CHARLEMAGNE This shows CharlemnKne as he really looked. Notice that he had no beard. 102 1^^ STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES seeming, for the most important parts of it still live in the governments and civilization of the world. Before taking leave of this great King, perhaps you would like to know what he looked like, and how he Personal Hved. One of the learned men of his court chiriemag*ne°^ '^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ dcscription of him. "He was tall and stoutly built," he says, "his height being just seven times the length of his own foot. His head was round, his eyes large and lively, his nose somewhat above tlie common size, and his expression bright and cheerful. Whether he stood or sat. his form was full of dignity; for the good proportion and grace of his body prevented the observer from noticing that his neck was rather short and his person rather too lleshy, " He was very active, this same writer tells us, and delighted in riding and hunting, and was skilled in swimming. It was, indeed, because of its natural warm baths that he made his favorite residence and capital at Aachen (the French Aix-la-Chapelle). He always wore tiie Frankish dress; but on days of state he added to this an embroidered cloak and jewelled crown, and carried a sword with a jewelled hilt. The name Charlemagne. l)y whicli Ave know him, is French ; but the King himself, in speech, dress, and habits, was a thoroughly German king, and ruled over a thoroughly German people. Review and Study Topics 1. Was it a good thing for the Saxons to be conquered by Charlemagne? Why? 2. Read ' ' The Poet 's Tale ' ' in Longfellow 's ' ' Tales of a Way- side Inn" (about Charlemagne's war with Desiderius). :'.. What made Charlemagne Emperor? Was the position given him by the Pope, or had he won it by his victories? 4. Imagine yourself a pupil in one of Charlemagne's schools, and describe his visit to it. CHAELEMAGNE 103 XIII DESCENDANTS OF CHARLEMAGNE Outline of Chapter Weak rule of Charlemagne's son, Louis the Pious. Battle of Fontenay; division of the Frankish Empire among his three sons (843); new barbarian attacks; decline of the Frankish power. The great landowners build castles as centers of defence. Upon the death of Charlemagne, his Empire passed to his son, Louis. This ruler is sometimes called "Louis the Pious," because he was so friendly to pi'^us * the Church ; and sometimes ' ' Louis the (8U-84 . Good-natured," because he was so easy- going and allowed himself to be guided by his wife and his favorites. Under his weak rule the Empire lost much of the strength that it had possessed under Charlemagne. After Louis's death the Empire was still further weakened. His sons had begun fighting for the king- dom even while their father lived. AVhen Fontenay he was gouc they fought a great battle, in which troops from all the Frankish lands took part. The old writers describe this as a terrible struggle, — more terrible than any since Attila and his Huns were driven back by the Romans and the Goths, or the Moors were defeated by Charles Martel. Those battles had been fought by Christians against peoples who wore not Christians; but now Christians fought against Christians, Franks against Franks. "May the day of that battle bo accursed!" wrote a 104 DESCENDANTS OF CHABLEMAGNE 105 writer who himself took part in the struggle. ' ' May it never more be counted among the days of the year, but be wiped out from all remembrance! May that night also be accursed, — that ter- rible niglit in which so many brave and skillful warriors met their deaths ! Never was there a worse slaughter ! The garments of the dead whit- ened the whole field." As a result of this battle, the three sons of Loviis agreed to divide the king- dom among them. (1) Charles, the youngest son, got the western part, and this in course of time grew into the kingdom of France. (2) Ludwig, the second son, got the land lying east and north of the Rhine river and Alps mountains ; and this region in time became the kingdom of Germany. (3) Lothair, the eldest son, got Italy, and a long narrow strip which lay between Charles's portion on the west and Ludwig 's portion on the east : and with it he received the title Frankish of Emperor. This ''middle strip" was long Empire ^ 1- o divided (843). and awkwardly shaped, and there was so little to bind the people together that it never grew into a permanent kingdom. Before many years had gone by, LOTH AIR Eldest son of Louis the Pious. 106 TUE SrOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES it passed into the hands of the rulers of France and of Germany, and the only thing that remained to show its former rule was the name "Lotharingia" or ''Lor- raine," which is still given to the northern part of it. This division of the kingdom tended, of course, to make the Frankish poAver weaker. Other things, too, contributed to this end. The Carolingian Decline of . / i i i e r^•^ ^ Frankish princcs (as the descendants oi Charles are power. called) were not nearly as strong rulers as their great forefather had l)een, and besides they con- tinued the practice of dividing the kingdoms among all the sons whenever a king died. So the kingdoms grew ever smaller and weaker. New enemies, moreover, now arose to trouble the land, and make the task of governing it more difficult. The ]\Ioors of Spain and Africa were going New attacks f.^^. j^j^j^ jjjy heart of Fraucc and Italy in from without. •' their search for plunder and slaves. On the north and west tieets of Viking ships, laden with fierce Northmen from Denmark and Norway, were landing upon the coast, or ascending in their light vessels far up the rivers, plundering, killing, and burning. And from the east the Hungarians — a new race, of close kin to the old Huns — were now advancing year after year up the Danube valley, into Germany, into Italy, into France, carrying everywhere terror and dismay. Since the kings of this period were too weak to pro- tect the land against attack, the people were obliged to look after their own defence. The result Rise of ^yj^g ihat rich and powerful landowners be- castles. ^ gan to build great, gloomy towers and castles as a protection against these raids. In course of time every lofty hill-top, every cliff, every island in DESCENDANTS OF CHAELEMAGNE 107 the great rivers, came to have a castle, where the lord and his followers might find protection against their enemies. There was now no power in the state either to protect or to pun- ish its subjects ; so these lords not only used their castles as a defence against the Hungarians and other enemies, but often themselves op- pressed their neigh- bors. From their strongholds they would sally forth to misuse the peasants of the country around, or to plun- der merchants trav- eling from town to town. Everything w a s falling into confusion; and it seemed as if the time told of in the Bible, when "every man did that which seemed good in his own eyes," had again come upon earth. Review and Study Topics 1. Compare the history of Charlemagne's descendants with that of the descendants of Clovis. 2. What change of language among the East Franks paved the way for the separation of France from Germany? (See ch. ix). 3. Name three things which brought about the decline of the Frankish power under the Carolingians. 4. "Why is there no need now for private persons to build castles as places of defence? chaiu.es Youngpst son of Louis the Pious. 108 ^^-E STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES p, 3 X 3 XIV RISE OF FEUDALISM Outline of Chapter Why men becanio ''vassals" of a lonl; the process of "com- mendation"; "homage" and "fealty"; meaning of "bene- fice " or " fief ' '. What the vassals gained from feudalism; what the lord gained; lords, overlorils, and "serfs". Rights of government possessed by the lords; growth of feudal- ism; its results; the Feudal Age. There seemed to be only one remedy, for the ordinary man, against such evils as those described in the last chapter. This was to give up his inde- pendence, and get the lord of some castle f^T°^s&&Is.^ to agree to protect him against all other enemies. That, in fact, is just wliat we find going on in this period. Men everywhere were giving up their independence, and becoming the dependents of some great num. who took them un(h'r his protection. When a freeman wislied to "commend himself," as it was called, to tlie protection of a lord, he Avent down on his knees b(^fore him, put Iiis hands between the hands of the lord, and swore to be "his man'' — that is, to serve him. Then the lord raised his "vassal," as the man was thenceforth called, and gave him the kiss of peace.. This was called "doing homage" to the lord. Next the vassal swore to lie faithful to his lord in all things; this was the "oath of fealty." If the nuiii had land in his own right, he usually gave it up to the lord, and th(> loi-d then gave him back the 109 110 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES use of it. If he had no land before, the lord granted him the use of some of his own land ; and a lance, or a twig, was given him at the time he did homage, The benefice jjj gjgQ Qf n^jg Thenceforth the lord was or fief. ° the real owner of the land, but the vassal had the use of it till his death. When he died, his son would do homage and swear fealty to the lord, and then he would be given the land his father held. Such a piece of land was called a "benefice," or a "fief," and the name which is given to the whole system w^as "feu- dalism," or the "feudal system." As a result of this system the ordinary freemen gained the protection which they so much needed and the state could no longer furnish. Thenceforth they had a place of refuge, in the lord's castle, to which they could flee when robber bands appeared ; and they also had a pow^erful protector to defend them against the attacks of other lords. "But," you may ask, "what good w^as all this to the lord of the castle? Why was he willing to admit these men to become his vassals, and even grant Military them part of his own lands as benefices?" service. '■ That is a question which is easily an- sW'Cred. The lord needed w^n to help him guard his castle, and fight his battles; and that Avas what the vassals supplied. Every year they might be called upon to serve their lord, as armored knights, for forty days in the field, besides rendering him other services. In this w^ay the lord obtained military followers, who were closely bound to him by ties of homage and fealty ; and the more vassals he had, the more pow^erful he became. RISE OF FEUDALISM 111 The lords themselves in turn often became the vassals of some greater lord above them, and bound themselves to brine all of their followers to serve him, ° Lords, when called upon to do so. In the com- overlords, pleted system, the king of the land stood at the head ; tlien under him were his vassals, and under them were their vassals — and so on until we come down to the peasants. They were not looked upon as Avorthy to be the vassals of anybody; they were called "serfs" Loan AND PEPF.N'niCN'TS FE.VSTINQ or ** villains," and had to till the soil, and raise the food which supported all the classes above them. From what you have been told you might think that feudalism was an organization only for fighting ; but it was something more than this. It came to be an organization for governing the land gJvernmfnt. as well. The power of the kings became so weak that the feudal nobles were able finally to take into their own hands most things that the head of the state ought to liave done. In this way it came about that the feudal lords had the right to make war, coin 112 THE SrOBT OF THE MIDDLE AGES money, make laws, and hold courts in their fiefs. Some- times they had tlieir own gallows, on which to hang offenders. The power that ought to have been in the hands of the head of the state was thus split u}) into many bits, and eacli of these great lords had part of it. The growth of the feudal system was going on every- where, in Western Europe, fi-om about the eighth to the eleventh centuries. It grew slowly, but it Growth of wrew surely ; for, in the weakened condi- feudahsm. r> .' i ^ tion of the state, it was the form of organi- zation that best met the needs of the people. So every- where, — in Spain, in France, in England, in Germany, and in Italy — we find the feudal castles arising; and men everywhere gave up their free land, received it back as fiefs, and became the vassals of lords above them. The existence of feudalism is one of the most im- portant facts about the Middle Ages. It is this which makes the government of that period so dif- resuits ferent from the governments of Greece and Home, and also from the government of to- day. Feudalism, moreover, led to other important changes. In the Church it made the abbots and bishops the vassals of the kings and nobles for the land which the Church held ; and since vassals owed military service, the bishops and abbots often became more like feudal warriors than mild and holy servants of Christ. Because the chief business of vassals and lords was fighting, much attention was paid to arms and armor, and to training for war. In this way arose the wonder- ful coats of mail and suits of armor of the Middle Ages ; in this way, also, arose the long training which one had to go through to become a knight, and the exciting EISE OF FEUDALISM 113 "tournaments" in which the knights tried their skill against one another. In another chapter is an account of the life of the castle. AVe tell you of these things here only that you may see how truly we may say of this period that it was indeed the Feudal Age, |^e^^j ^^^ as it is sometimes called. Especially is this true of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries. It is in those centuries especially that we find feudalism grown into a complete system, and ruling the whole life of the lands which the German conquerors had won from the Roman Empire. Review and Study Topics 1. Why do not men now seek to become the vassals of others? 2. How did feudalism weaken the power of the king? 3. How did the "serfs" differ from the "vassals"? 4. Was feudalism a good or a bad thing in the Middle Ages? Give your reasons. XV DEEDS OF THE NORTHMEN Outline of Chapter Tlio Northnion at home; they become daring sea-rovers. Their first attacks on Gaul; story of Charlemagne; wide extent of their ravages; their leader Hastings; his attacks on Italy. The Northmen begin to make settlements; their great siege of Paris (885); they are repulsed by Count Odo; Odo becomes King of France. Eolf "the Ganger" is given Normandy; his followers become Christians and settle down; their descendants conquer Sicily and Southern Italy. Other deeds of the Northmen — in America, at Constantinople. and in Russia. OxE of the things "vvliich lielped the growth of feu- dalism was the coming of the Northmen into the Frankish Empire. The Northmen were a sturdy people who dwelt about the Baltic Sea, in the lands which their descendants — the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes — still The Northmen occupv. Tlicrc tliev had dwclt as long as at home. ^' ^ _ " we have any record of them. While the other Germans Avere seeking new homes in the fifth and sixth centuries, the Northmen had remained quietly at home, worshiping the old gods, and gaining a scanty living from their herds and fields, and from the sea. They were so far away from Rome that only faint re- ports reached them of the stirring events that were taking place in the Roman lands. For four hundred years after the Goths had crossed the frontier, the Northmen remained quiet. But at last Charlemagne's 114 DEEDS OF NOETHMEN 115 conquest of the Saxons brought Christianity and the Frankish rule close to their doors. Traders and mis- sionaries now began to come among them; from them they learned of the rich and beautiful lands which lay to the south, and their minds were dazzled by the thought of the easy victories which were to be won there. When finally the Northmen came into the Empire, they came, not by land, as the earlier invaders had done, but by sea. The rocky islands, the bold cliffs, and the narrow valleys of the Daring •^ sea rovers, Scandinavian lands did not tempt men to agriculture. On the other hand, the sea invited them A VIKING snip Notice the row of shiolds along the side; also tbe oars used for rowing. to voyage forth and seek adventures on its waters. The Northmen, therefore, became bold sailors ; and in their long, many-oared ships, they d^red the storms of heaven and tiie wrath of man, to sail wherever there was booty to be had or glory to be gained. They called themselves ''Vikings," which means "men from the 116 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES viks, " or creeks of Scandinavia. Even in Charle- magne's time the Northmen had begun to trouble the southern lands, "One day, while Charlemagne tarried in a city of Southern Gaul," says an old writer, "a few Scan- dinavian boats came to plunder even within fn'oau"*''^^ the harbor of the city. Some thought at first that they were Jewish merchants ; others believed that they were from Northern Africa, or were traders from Brittany. But Charlemagne recognized them by the tleetness of their ships. " 'These are not merchants,' he said, 'but cruel enemies. ' "When the ships were pursued, they quickly disap- peared. Then the Emperor, rising from the table where he sat, went to tlie window wliich looked toward the east, and remained there a long time, his eyes filled with tears. No one ventured to ([uestion liim ; l)ut at last he said : " 'Do you know, my i'aitliful friends, why 1 weep so bitterly? It is not because I fear tluit these men should annoy me by their wretched acts of piracy. But I am deeply afflicted because during my lifetime they have come so near these shores ; and T am tormented by a great grief when I think of the woes they will inflict upon my successors and the whole nation.' " Before Charlemagne was dead, indeed, these hardy wanderers began to fulfill his prophecy ; and after he was gone the evil increased rapidlv. Now Wide extent of their the vikmg ships came by scores and hun- ravages. dreds, where before they had come singly and in dozens. The whole of Christendom suffered from them. They plundered the shores alike of Ger- DEEDS OF NORTHMEN 117 many, France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Spain, and Italy. With their light vessels they would enter the river mouths and row as far into the heart of the country as they could. Then they would seize horses, and on these ride far and wide. They loved most of all to attack the churches and monasteries. They cared nothing for the Christian God, for they were still heathen; and in the churches were rich gold and silver vessels, and fine embroidered cloths. It was easier, also, to capture a church or a monastery than it was a castle, for the priests and monks were not fighting men. And if any resisted these fierce heathen, they were pierced with arrows, or cloven with their swords. One of the most famous vikings was named Hastings. Some say that he was not a Northman at all, but a French peasant, who had joined the sea- rovers. At all events, he was very strong, J^"/ ^^*<^«'' ' •^ 7 Hastings. brave, and cunning, and became one of their most famous leaders. AVe first meet with him while Louis the Pious was King; for nearly fifty years aft(n' this he was busy plundering towns and wasting the country in different lands. Now we find him in France ; now he is in Frisia, just north of France ; now he is in Errgland ; now he is on the shores of Spain. On one voyage Hastings sailed around the Spanis'h perrinsula and entered the Mediterranean Sea. There he plundered Southern France, Africa, and Italy. He wished especially to plunder ^'^n^a"*'^'' Kome, as Alaric and the Vandal king had done before him. But he knew more about fighting than he did about geography. Orr the coast of Italy, north of Koiue, lay a little city called Luna, and Hast- 118 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES ings mistook its marble palaces and churches for the buildings of Rome. Even the walls of Luna, however, were too strong to be taken by force ; so he was obliged to use a trick. He sent a messenger into the city say-' ing that he had not come to make war, but was dying and wished to be baptized a Christian. The bishop and rulers of the city were pleased at this, and Hastings was baptized as he wished. Then the next day word was brouglit from the ships that their leader was dead, and they wished him to be buried in the church of the city. There seemed no harm in tiiis request, so the rulers gave tlieir consent. Hastings, with his weapons lying by his side, was brought within the walls, and with him came some of liis l)est Avarriors, as mourners. AYhile the people of the city went with the funeral party to the church, the rest of the Nortlnnen landed from their ships and slipped through the unguarded gate. Then Hastings suddenly seized his weapons and sprang from the couch where he lay ; at once his fol- lowers fell upon the people, and in this way the town was soon won. At first the Northmen came only during the summer season, sailing home when the winter storms were due. Before long, however, they began to spend Jeufemen^ts. ^^^*^ winter also in Christian lands. They would seize upon an island lying off the coast, by a river 's mouth ; and from this as headquarters they would go forth at all times of the year to ravage the land. For many years this prayer was regularly used in the churches: "From the fury of the Northmen, good Lord, deliver us." The struggle lasted for a long time. In France, with- in fifty years after Charlemagne's death, Paris had DEEDS OF NORTHMEN 119 fallen three times. At first the weak kings tried to buy off the Northmen Avith gifts of money. But such gifts only made them greedy for more ; and payment had to be made again and again. Tiien the nobles and the curxx oDo Biti.Ni;iN(; aid to pakis cities took the defence into their own hands. In addi- tion to the castles which the nobles were building, the cities began to fortify bridges over the rivers, so that they could keep the pirate sliii)s from ascending the streams. 120 THE STOBT OF THE MIDDLE AGES The most famous struggle of all came at Paris in the year 886. This city was not yet the capital of France, but its situation already made it important. Great siege i-, -it-ioc- of Paris It was Duilt ou a low islaud m the Seme, (885). with a fortified bridge connecting it with each bank. When the Northmen came up the river in that year, the governor of the city, Count Odo, and the bishop, encouraged the people to resist. The viking ships numbered seven hundred, and they carried an army of 40,000 men; but for eleven months the city held out, and in spite of the weakness and cowardice of the King, the Northmen at last were obliged to with- draw. The family of this Count Odo had already won great honor in warring against the Northmen. His father, Robert the Strong, had fallen, after many coTOt^odo*^ victories, fighting against the pirate Hast- ings. The brave defence of Paris now made Odo more powerful than ever, and men began to think how much worthier he was of the throne than the weak Carolingians. So the cowardly King who was then rul- ing was set aside, and Count Odo was chosen King in his place. After Odo's death the Carolingians regained the throne, but their hold upon it was weaker than ever. For about a hundred years the family of Odo continued to be the rivals of the Carolingians. Then (in 987) another descendant of Robert the Strong seized the throne, and this time the change of rulers was perma- nent. From that date, for more than eight hundred years, all of the kings of France were descendants of this great family; and their rule did not cease until DEEDS OF NOETHMEN 121 the kingship came to an end in France, and a republic was set up in its place (1792). Twenty-five ycai-s alter tlie great siege of Paris, a hand of Nortlmien seeui'cd sucli a footing in Fi-aiicc that it was never possible afterwards to drive theui forth. Their leader was a man ^°^^ "t^5 Ganger. of enormous size, strength, and courage; his name was Kolf (or Rolloj, and they called him "the Ganger," which meant "the AValker." Like Hastings, he was for nearly fifty years a sea-king, plundering Frisia, England, Scotland, and France. At the great siege of Paris, he was one of the chiefs. Unlike Hast- ings, however, Rolf was something more than a mere pirate and robber. AVheu he captured a town, he strengthened its walls, and rebuilt its churches, and sought to rule over it as a conquering prince. In this way he came to possess a number of towns which lay north and south of the mouth of tlie river Seine. At last, in the year 911, he secured , . Rolf grains a grant from llic King of France to a wide Normandy stretch of country in that region, Avith the title of Duke. Tins grant was made on three condi- tions. First, he must settle his Northmen there and leave the rest of the country at peace; second, he must become a Christian; and third, he must do homage to the French King as his feudal lord. This last condi- tion was very distasteful to Duke Rolf, and he could scarcely be induced to place his hands between the hands of the King, as was required. When he was told to kneel down and kiss the foot of the King, as was the custom, he refused, and calling one of his followers, commanded him to do it. This bold Northman, how- ever, had no more liking for the deed than iiis chief; 122 TEE STOHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES and when he raised the King's foot to touch it to his lips, he topph^d the King over on his back ! In Normandy, as his land was called, Duke Rolf speedily showed that he was as good a ruler as he was a fighter. His followers settled down development quictly, uudcr his stern rule, and became of Normandy. , n'l - i,-^ i>,i -i -r, landlords and cultivators ot the soil. Be- fore he died, it is said that gold rings could be hung on the limbs of the trees, and no one would touch them. The Northmen learned rapidly in other ways too. They followed the lead of their Duke in being l)aptized, and soon all were Christians. They also laid aside their old speech and law, and in less than a hundred years the fierce sea-rovers had become as good Frenchmen, in speech and everything else, as could be found in the kingdom. Al)Out the only thing to mark the difference between these Normans, as they were called, and the rest of the P^reneh, was their greater energy, their skill in governing, and their fondness for the sea and ad- venture. Proof that they had not lost their energy or military skill Avas given in events which took place in tlie eleventh century. Within a little more than Normans con- •' it"aiy^a'*n"d^"" a huudrcd years after Duke Kolf and his Sicily, followers were established in France, their descendants began to send forth new bands of con- querors. By accident their attention was turned to Sicily and the southern part of Italy. Soon the greater part of these lands was concpiered from the Greeks and Mohammedans, and a Norman kingdom was established there, called the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This is not nearly all of the great deeds the North- men and their descendants performed nt this time; but DEEDS OF NORTHMEN 133 we can only mention a few of the others. As every American boy and girl knows, the Northmen settled Ice- land and Greenland, and discovered America other deeds of the lone before Columbus was born. Twice Northmen. ])ands of them attacked the city of Con- stantinople ; and after that they entered the service of the Greek Emperor, and for centuries made up his faith- ful bodyguard. In the far North, they made settlements in Russia, and gave a line of rulers to the great Russian Empire. And when the Crusaders set out to win Jerusa- lem from the infidels, the Normans of France, England, and Sicily took the leading part in these movements also. These old Northmen were truly a wonderful people, and their coming into the Southern lands did much to make the nations there stronger and more energetic than they would otherwise, have been. Review and Study Topics 1. Why did not the Northmen come into southern lands when the other Germans were coming? Why did they come in the ninth and tenth centuries? 2. Show how the coming of the Northmen helped on the growth of feudalism. 3. Write a story telling about a Viking expedition. 4. In what ways was the coming of the Northmen a good thing for the lands of the Frank ish Empire? In what way was it a bad thing? 5. Explain the difference between the terms Northman and Norman. XVI ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES Outline of Chapter. The Romans in Britain; they withdraw (about 410 A.D.). Cominfj of the Angles and Saxons (449 A.D.); they conquer the land and give it the name England; conversion of the Eng- lish by Augustine; union of the little kingdoms under a single rider. Invasions of the Northmen; youth of King Alfred; he saves England from the Northmen (871-901); his greatness. Canute of Denmark rules England; the old English line of kings restored; weak rule of King Edward; he favors the Nor- mans; Harold elected King. William of Normandy claims the English throne against Harold; he lands in England; battle of Hastings (1066); Harold is slain and William becomes King. The Britisli Isles were among the lands which suf- fered most from tiie raids of the viking Northmen, and it was there also tiiat the Normans of France made their greatest conquest. In the days when Rome was spreading her rule about the Mediterranean Sea. the larger of these islands was called Britain, from its inhabitants, the The Romans iJritous, who wcrc akin to the Gauls of the in Britain. Continent. Some time after the Romans had conquer-ed Gaul. l>ritaiti also was added to tlu'ir Empire and was ruled by the Romans for about three hundred and fifty years. But when the Empire had grown weak and llic German barbarians began to over- run Italy, Rome was o])liged to withdraw her legions from Britain, and that island was then left to govern and defend itself. The Britons, however, had lived so long under Roman 124 ENGLAND IN J HE MIDDLE AGES 125 rule that, by this time, they had almost forgotten how to fight. So, when wild tribes from Ireland and Scot- land came to attack 'them, the Britons were in an evil situation. At one time they wrote a letter to the Roman commander in Gaul^ in which they said : "The barbarians drive us to the sea; the sea throw^s us back on the barbarians. Thus two modes of death await us: we arc either slain, or drowned." (^ Also, roving bands of Germans, called Angles and Saxons, now began to trouble the shores of Britain, coming in their sw^ft pirate ships much as tlie Northmen were to do four hundred the English (449 A.D.). years later. When the Britons found that the Romans were not able to help them, they asked a liand of these sea- rovers to aid them against their other enemies, promising them rich rewards (449 A.D. ). When once the Angles and Saxons had secured a footing, they proceeded to conquer the island for themselves. In this way the Angles and Saxons won for themselves the fairest portion of the land. From the name of the first of tliese peoples, it came to be called "Angle-huid" or Knglaiid. It was only after two centuries of hard fight- ing, however, that the conquest was completed. In the western part of the island the Britons long kept their independence; and ther(\ under tlie name of "Welsh," , ,.-i-k^(jtK_- ij^j?- AX KARLY ENGLISH CHURCH 126 TEE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES as they were styled by the new-comers (a word which meant foreigners), they continued for hundreds of years to use their own language; to follow their own laws, and to obey their own princes. Meanwhile the "English," as the descendants of the Angles and Saxons are called, settled down into a num- ber of little kingdoms. You have already Conversion . . . r. , ' of the read hoAV captive boys from one or these English. . ^ "^ kingdoms excited the pity of Pope Gregory when he saw them exposed for sale in the slave market at Kome, and how this led him to send the monk Au- gustine to f]ngland, to convert these new-comers. The English became Christians and grew more civilized, and finally their little kingdoms were joined together under the rule of a single king. But now they, in turn, were exposed to the danger of conquest; for like the Britons before tiiem the Eng- lisii liad, through long years of peace, lost of the much of their former warlike ability. The Northmen. new enemy was the Northmen, whose deeds we have described in the preceding chapter. Little by little they overran the island, plundering and destroy- ing monasteries and churches, until ^ only the south- western part of the island was still unconquered. But there they were met by a young English King who stopped their conquests and saved his people from ruin at their hands. This was the English national hero, Alfred, whom v^ later ages called "Alfred the Truth-Teller" and "Eng- land's Darling." "When he was a boy his Ki'ng'' Alfred, mother one day said to him and his brothers : "Do you see this little book, with its clear black writing, and the beautiful letter at the beginning, ENGLAND IN IRE MIDDLE AGES 127 painted in red, blue, and gold? It shall belong to the one who first learns its songs." Books were precious things in those days, for print- ing was not yet invented and they must be made slowly and painfully by writing the letters with a pen. So Alfred exclaimed eagerly : "Mother, will you really give that beautiful book to me if I learn it first?" "Yes," she replied, "I really will." So Alfred set to work, with the aid of his teacher; and long before his brothers had nuistered it, he learned to repeat the verses. He thus not only earned the prize, but in doing it he showed the love of learning and quicknt^ss of mind which made him noted in after years. Tile first seven years of Alfred's rule as King were taken up with fighting the Northmen. At one time he was obliged to take refuge on a small island j^if^g^ amid swamps, whore he found shelter in a lYgllnd herdsman's hut, and was scolded by the '^^''^■^^^'>- herdsman's wife (who did not know who he was) for letting some coarse cakes burn which she was baking before the fire. An old song represents the woman as saying: Can't you mind the cakes, man? And don't you see them burn? I'm bound you'll eat them fast enough, As soon as 'tis the turn. In the end Alfred defeated the Northmen in a great battle, and forced their king to make peace. The re- mainder of his reign was given up to improving educa- tion and bettering the condition of his people. He was "the wisest, best, and greatest King that ever reigned 128 TEE STOBY OF THE MfDDLE AGES in England," and the good effet-ts of liis rule lasted long after he was gone. But, after a time, the rule came again into the hands of weak kings, and again Northmen overran the land. ^ ^ , Canute, King of Denmark and Norway, Canute of ' '^ ■' ' iiTeTa^d "^"'^^ conquered England, and was recognized as (1016-1035). j^jj.g 1^^^. .^]i ^Ij.-^^ j.^j^j Fortunately the Northmen were now Christians and more civilized than, they had been in Alfred's day; and Canute ruled Eng HOUSE OF AX ENGLISH NOBLEMAN From an oUi manuscript. The lord and bis lady are giving alms to the poor. land as a strong and able King for nearl}- twenty years. After Canute's death there was again trouble for a number of years. First his unworthy sons ruled after him ; and when their short reigns Avere at an end, a well meaning but weak King of the old English line, named Edward, was placed on the throne. His mother was a Norman, and he himself had spent a part of his youtli in Normandv, where the descendants of the Northmen ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 129 Avere now the most energetic and enlightened people of France. King Edward was so fond of the Normans that he invited many of them to come over into his kingdom, wliere he showed them such favor that it aroused the jealousy of the English and led to many conflicts. When Edward died, in the year 1066, with- out leaving a son to succeed him, the English chose as King a nobleman named Harold, who had taken a chief part in resisting those Norman favorites. Wn.HAM OF NORMANDY LANDIXO IN KNCr.AND The Duke of Normandy at this time was a strong ruler named William, wlio had already done great things and was looking about for an oppor- _, „ '^ " ' ^ The Normans tunity to do greater ones. He claimed jjjfg^iand that King Edward had promised him the (^°6^>- throne when, at one time, he had visited him in Eng- land; and also that Harold, who had taken Edward's place, had SAVorn never to become king. So, with a great army of Normans and Frenchmen, and with a 130 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES banner blessed by the Pope, William landed on the shores of England to claim the throne. At a hill called Senlac, not far from the town of Hastings, the Normans found King Harold and his Englishmen awaiting them. For a time it looked as though the Normans would be defeated, for the Eng- lish ranks held firm and could not be broken. Three horses were killed under William, but he escaped with- HEATH OV lIAHOI.n From an old piece of embroidory. n.irokl is the seoond fisure from the left. The inscription (in Liitin) reads: "Harold the Kin;? is slain." out injury. At one time the cry was raised, "The Duke is down!" and the Normans began to give way. But William tore off his helmet that they might better see his face, and cried : "I live, and by God's help shall have the victory!" After a time AVilliam ordered his men to pretend to flee, in order to draw the English from their strong position. This move succeeded in part, but still the battle went on. William next ordered that a volley of arrows be shot high in the air, and one of these in ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES 131 falling struck Harold in the eye and slew him. Then the Normans easily won the battle. After this William got possession of all England, and was accepted by the people as their King. He is known in history as William the Conqueror. He was a strong and able ruler, and he and his descendants knew how to keep what their energy and valor had won. From that day to this, every king or queen who has ruled over England has been a descendant of this Norman Duke. His Conquest was the greatest feat which the Normans accomplished, and it is one of the most important events in the history of the Middle Ages. Review and Study Topics 1. What other German peoples found homes within the Roman Empire in the same century that the Angles and Saxons did? 2. Tell the story of Pope Gregory and the English slave boys. 3. How long was it after the coming of the English that the Northmen began to invade the island? 4. Why is Alfred considered so great a King? 5. Was William's claim to the English throne a good one? 6. In what way was the Norman Conquest a good thing for England? XVII THE FIRST CRUSADE Outline of Chapter Dates of the period of the Crusades; iinportanco of these move- ments; why they did not begin earlier. The Turks oppress ])ilgrims; I'oiie Urban II. calls the First Cru- sade (1095); jireparations for it. Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless set out; their fol- lowers destroyed. The princes make ready; they march to Constantinople; they wonder at its riches; they cross into Asia Minor. Letter from a Crusader; he tells of his gains; the siege of Antioch; sufferings of the Crusaders; their victories over the Turks. Finding of the "Holy Lance"; the Crusaders arrive before Jerusalem; they capture the city (1099); they massacre its defenders; their vows fulfilled. The period of the Crusades lasts from tlie year 1095 to the year 1201. In the great movement in:duded be- tween these dates we find, for the first time, ^mpor^ance jji-actieally the whole of Europe acting together for one end. And it was not only the rnlers Avho were eoneerned : priests and kings, nobles, townsmen, and peasants, alike took arms against the infidel. The story of the Crusades, therefore, is one of the most important and interesting parts of medijeval history. Nothing can better show what the ^Middle Ages were like; and nothing helped more than they did to bring the iMiddle Ages to an end. The object of this movement was to bring Palestine, where Christ had lived and died, again under the rule of Christians. Until the Arabs began their conquests in the seventh century, the land had bem ruled by the 1.32 THE FIRST CRUSADE i: Eastern Emperors. Even after the religion of ]Moham- med was established, side by side with that of Christ, the Christians did not at first feel so badly -^j, ^he about it. They Avere too busy at home, b^gin"* fighting the Northmen and Hungarians, *"^'®'"- and settling the institutions under which th(\y were to live, to give nnieli attention to things so far away. Besides, the Arabs respected the holy places of the MAI' OF THE CKISAIiKS Christians, and allowed pilgrims to Jerusalem to come and go without harm or hindrance. But, about thirty years before William the Norman coiKjuered P]ngland, a new race appeared in the East. The Turks, who were a rude, fierce people Th© Xurlcs from Centrnl Asia, of close kin to the old oppress the , p 1 t 1 Christians, Huns, took the power troin the Arabs; and the treatment of tiie Christians was thenceforth very different. The Turks also were ^lohammedans, but 134 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES they did not have the same respect for the religion of the Jews and Christians that the Arahs did. Besides, they were fiercer and more bloodthirsty, and in a short time they won from the Eastern Empire lands which the Arabs had never been able to conquer. Even Constantinople was not safe from them. "From Jerusalem to the .Egean Sea," wrote the P^mperor of the East to a Western ruler, ''the Tui'kish hordes have mastered all. Their galleys sweep over the Black Sea and the Mediterranean, and threaten the imperial city itself." In the West, too, quieter times had now come, and rulers and people could turn their attention al)road. Finally, there was now more enthusiasm for religion among all classes; so, when pil- grims returned from Jerusalem, telling of outrages committed against Christian persons and against Christian holy places, it was felt to be a shame that this thing should be. When, therefore, the Emperor of the East wrote to the Pope asking for aid against the Turks, the people of „ , „ the West were in a mood to grant it. At a Pope urban II. , . S c'l^sade g^eat Council held at Clermont, m France, m (1095). ^Y\e year 1095, Pope Urban II. laid the matter before the clergy and princes. IMost of those present were French; and Urban, who was himself a French- man, spoke to them in their own tongue. He told them A I'lUUU.M TUE FIRST CBUSADE 135 of the danger to Constantinople and of the sad state of Jerusalem, while the western peoples were quarreling and fighting among themselves. In all that region, he said, Christians had been led off into slavery, their homes laid waste and their churches overthrown. Then he appealed to his hearers to remember Charlemagne and the victories which he was believed to have won over the Arabs, and urged them to begin anew the war with the ]\Iohammedans. ''Christ himself," he cried, "will be your leader when you fight for Jerusnleiii ! Let your quarrels cease, and turn your arms against the accursed Turks. In this way you will i-cturn liouie victorious and laden with the wealth of your foes; or, if you fall in battle, you will receive an everlasting reward!" With one accord his hearers cried: *'It is the will of God! It is the will of God!" From all sides they hastened to give in their names for the holy war. Each person promising to go was given a cross of red cloth, which he was to wear upon his breast going to the Holy Land, and on his back returning. To those who "took the cross," the name "Crusaders" was given, from the Latin word wliieh means cross. The winter following the Council was spent in getting ready. All classes showed the greatest zeal. Preachers went about among the people calling upon 1 11 1 i Ti X Preparations rich and poor, uol)le and peasant alike, to for the Ml Crusade. help free the Holy Land ; and whole villages, towns, and cities were emptied of their inhal)itants to join the Crusade. JMany sold all they had to get the means to go ; and thieves, robbers, and wicked men of all kinds promised to leave their wickedness and aid 136 lUE STOBY OF THE 211DDLE AGES in reselling the tomb of riirist Jesns from the infidels. The time set for the starting of the Crusade was the early summer of the year of 1096. But ihe common people could not wait so long. Under a monk named Peter the Hermit, and a poor knight called AValter the Penniless, great companies from Germany and France set out before that time. They had almost no money ; they were unorganized ; and there was no discipline or obedience in the multitude. The route which they took was down the river Danube, through the kingdoms of the Hungari- ans and Bulgarians, and so to Constantinople. Few of the people or their leaders had any idea of the distance, and as each new city came in sight, many cried out: "Is this Constantinople?" In Hungary and Bulgaria the people attacked them because they were forced to plunder the country as tliey passed through, and many were slain. When they reached Constantinople, some of the unruly company set fire to buildings near the city, wliile others stripped off sheets of lead from the roofs of churches to sell them to Greek mer- chants. The Emperor hastened to get rid of his un- welcome guests by sending them across into Asia JMinor. There witliin a few months AValti'i- and most of his A CUUSADF.R Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless. THE FIRST CRUSADE 137 followers were slain by the Turks; and the expedition came to a sorrowful end. ^leanAvhile the princes from France, Germany, and Italy Avere making ready their expeditions. AVhile the Norman chiefs of Southern Italy were en- gaged in one of their many wars, a mes- ^''? princes " ' make ready. senger came to them with the news that countless warriors of France had started on the way to Jerusalem, and invited them to join the expedition. CRUSADERS ON TIIK MARCH "What are their weapons, what their badge, what their war-cry?" asked one of the Normans. "Our x^kpouH," replied tiie messenger, "are tliose best suitJllto war; our badge, the cross of Christ; our war-cry, 'It is the will of God ! It is the will of God !' " AVhen he heard tliese words, the Norman tore from his shoulders his costly cloak, and with his own hands he made crosses from it for all wlio would follow him to the Holy Land. There he became one of the most famous and renowned of the Crusaders; and his fol- 138 ?'^^ STOST OF THE MIDDLE AGES loAvers showed tliat they could be as brave, as enter- prising, and as skillful in fighting for the Holy Land, as they had "been before in fighting for lands and goods in France, in England, and in Italy. The Crusaders set out at last in five different com- panies. The first started in August, 1096; the last did not join the others, near Constantinople, They march to . Constantinople uutil the ucxt suiiinier. The companies were (1096). P • , made up of trained and armed knights, Avitli chosen leaders, who had made many preparations for the expedition. They did not suffer so severely, therefore, as^|^lhe poor, ignorant people under Walter the Penniless, n^ill they encountered many hardships. It was already winter when the men of South France toiled over the mountains near Constantinople. "For three weeks," writes one of their number, "we saw neither ))ird nor beast. For almost forty days did we struggle on througli mists so thick that we could actually feel them and l)rush them aside with a motion of the hand." At last this stage of their journey came to an end, and the Crusaders arrived at Constantinople. In the lands north of the Alps, there were at that It'usTiche^s' ^'"^^ none of the vast and richly ornamented churches and other buildings which later arose ; all was poor, and lacking in stateliness and beauty. Constantinople, however, was the most beauti- ful city of the world ; so the sight of it filled the Cru- saders with awe and admiration. "Oh, how great a city it is!" wrote one of their number; "how noble and beautiful ! What wondrously wrought monasteries and palaces are therein ! What marvels everywhere in street and square ! It would be THE FIB ST CRUSADE I39 tedious to recite its wealth in all precious things, in gold and silver, in cloaks of many shapes, and saintly- relics. For to this place shigs bring all things that man may require." Now that these sturdy warriors of the West were actually at Constantinople, tlie Greek Emperor began to fear lest they might prove more troublesome to his empire than the Turks themselves, "Some of the Crusaders," wrote the Emperor's daughter, "were guileless men and women marching in all simplicity to worship at the tomb of Christ. But there were others of a more wicked kind. Such men had but one object, and this was to get possession of th^ Emperor's capital." After much suspicion on both sides, and man}' dis- putes, the Emperor got the "Franks" — as the Cru- saders were called — safely away from the They cross city, and over into Asia Minor. There, at into Asia last, they met the Turks. At first the latter rushed joyously into battle, dragging ropes with which to bind the Christians captive ; but soon they found that the "Franks" were more than a match for them. Nica?a, the city where Constantino the Great held the first Church council, was soon taken ; and the Crusaders then pressed on to other and greater victories. Letter-writing was not nearly so common in those days as it is now; but some of the Crusaders wrote letters home, telling of their deeds. A few of these have come down to us across the ^^"*'" ^f""" a Crusader. centuries ; and in order that you may learn what the Crusaders were thinking and feeling, as well as what they were doing, one of them is given here. 140 ^^UE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Tlie writer was a rich and powerful noble, and the let- ter was written while the army was laying siege, with battering rams and siege towers, to the strongly walled city of Antioch. "Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife, to his dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks, — his greeting and blessing : "You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger (whom I send to give you pleasure) left me before Antioch safe and unliarmcd, and througii ?is gl\ns°^ God's grace in the greatest prosperity. Al- ready at that time we had been con- tinuously advancing for twenty-three weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus. You may know for cer- tain, my beloved, that of gold, silver, and many other kinds of riches I now have twice as much as your love had wished for me when I left you. For all our princes, with the common consent of the whole army and against my own wishes, have made me, up to the present time, the leader, chief, and director of their whole expe- dition. "You have certainly iieard tliat, after the capture of the city of Nica^a, we fought a great battle with tlie faithless Turks, and by God's aid conquered them. Next we conquered for the Lord all the Sultanate of Roum, and afterwards Cappadocia. Thence, con- tinually following the wicked Turks, we drove them through the midst of Armenia, as far as the great river Euphrates. Having left all their baggage and beasts of burden on the bank, they fled across the river into Arabia. "Some of the bolder of the Turkish soldiers, how- ever, entered Syria and hastened by forced marclies. I HE FIEST CnU!SADE 14X night and day, to enter the royal city of Antioch before our approach. The whole army of God, learning this, gave due praise and thanks to the all-powerful Lord. Hastening Avith great joy to Antioch, we besieged it, and had many conflicts there "^^^^l^^^ '' of Antioch. With the Turks. Seven times we fought, with the fiercest courage and under the leadership of Christ, against the citizens of Antioch and the in- numerable troops which were coming to its aid. In all these seven battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered, and assuredly killed an innumerable host of them. In tliose battles, indeed, and in very many attacks made upon the city, many of our brethren and followers were killed, and their souls were borne to the joys of Paradise. "In fighting against these enemies of God and of our own, Ave have by God's grace endured many sufferings and innumerable evils up to the present time. Many have already exhausted all sufferings of , . . the Crusaders, their resources in this very holy expedition. Very many of our Franks, indeed, would have met death from starvation, if the mercy of God, and our money, had not helped them. Before the city of Antioch, and indeed throughout the whole Avinter, Ave suffered for our Lord Christ from excessive cold and great torrents of rain. What some say about tlie impossibility of bearing the heat of tiie sun througliout Syria is untrue, for the Avinter here is very simihir to our Avinter in the West. "When tile p]mir of Antioch — tliat is, its prince and lord— perceived that he Avas Iiard pressed by us, he sent his son to the prince Avho holds Jerusalem, and to the prince of Damascus, and to three other princes. 142 ^^^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Thpso five Emirs, with 12,000 picked Turkish horse- men, suddenly came to aid the inhabitants of Antiocli. "We, indeed, ignorant of this, had sent many of our soldiers away to the cities and fortresses; Victories over j'^p tluTe are one hundred and sixty-five the Turks. " cities and fortresses throughout Syria which are in our power. But a little before they reached the city, we attacked them at three leagues' dis- tance, with seven hundred soldiers. God surely fought for us against them ; for on that day we conquered them and killed an innumerable multitude ; and we carried back to the army more than two hundred of their heads in order that the people might rejoice on that account. ''These things which I write to you are only a few, dearest, of the many deeds which we have done. And because I am. not able to tell you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right, to carefully watch over your land, to do your duty as you ought to your children and your vassals. You will certainly see me just as soon as I can possil)ly return to you. Farewell." The capture of Antioeh was the hardest task that the Crusaders had to perform; and it was not until three months later that the city was finally safe in their hands. Many of the Crusaders became discouraged meanwhile and started home. At this trying time, a priest declared that it had been revealed to him in a dream, thrice repeated, that the head of the spear which had pierced our Findinir of the Lord 's sidc lay buried near one of the Holy Lance. ^ altars of a church near by; and it was further revealed, he said, that if this was found and borne at the head of the army, victory would surely follow: After long search, and much prayer and THE FIRST CRUSADE 143 fasting, the "Holy Lance" was found. Then there was great joy and new courage among the Christians ; and when next they marched against the Turks, the Crusaders fought more fiercely than ever. "Thanks to the Lord's Lance," whites one of their number, "none of us was wounded, — no, not so much as by an arrow. I, who speak these things, saw thera for myself, since I was bearing the Lord's Lance." The Crusaders continued to fight valiantly until Antioch was theirs, and the armies which had marched to its relief were defeated and scattered. The Crusaders were now free to march on to Jeru- salem. ]\Ien and animals suffered much from lack of food and water. "Many lay near the dried-up springs," says an old writer, before , , nil Jerusalem. unable to utter a cry because ot the dry- ness of their tongues ; and there they remained, with open mouths, and hands stretched out to those whom they saw had water." Again the priests saw visions ; and it was promised to the Crusaders that if the army marched ])arefoot around tiie city for nine days, the city would fall. So, a procession was formed, and the Crusaders marched around the city, with white-robed priests and bishops, cross in liand, at their head, chanting iiymns and praying as they went. As the procession passed by, the IMohammedans mocked at them from the walls; and some beat a cross, crying out : "Look, Franks! It is the Holy Cross on which your Christ was slain ! ' ' After this the chiefs ordered an attack on the city from two sides. The IMoiiammedans were now beaten back from the walls by the showers of stones thrown by 144 TEE STOIiY OF THE MIDDLE AGES MAciiiNi: idit iirnLiNc stonks the hurling- machines, while blazing arroAVS carried fire to the roofs of the buildings in the city. Battering rams, too, were at work breaking great cUyTi09°/).*^*^^*^^fi^ in the solid walls, and scaling lad- ders Avere placed, by which the Christians swarmed over the ramparts. So, at last, the city fell. Jerusalem,— the holy Jerusalem, which held the tomb of Christ — was now once more in the hancis of the Christians. But what a terrible day was that! How little of the meek and just spirit of Christ did his followers show I ''\Vhen our men had taken the city, with its w^alls and towers," writes one of the Crusaders, "there were things wondrous to be seen. For some of the enemy — and this is a small matter — were deprived Massacre of the of their heads; others, riddled through with arrows, were forced to leap down from the towers; and others, after long torture, were burned in the flames. In all the streets and squares there were to be seen piles of heads, and hands, and feet; and along the public ways foot and horse alike made passage over the bodies of the slain." In this way the Crusaders fulfilled their vow to "wrest the Holy Sepulchre from the infidel." How many hundreds of thousands of lives, both Christian and ^lohannncdau, were lost to gain this end ! AVIiat agonies of battle, what sufferings on the way, what numbers of women made widows and children left % THE FIEST CEUSADE I45 fatherless ! And all this, that the tomb of Christ might not remain in the hands of a people who did not accept his religion. How pityingly the Christ must have looked down upon this struggle with Jows^fumue" his mild, sweet eyes I How far away this bloodshed and war seems from the teachings of him whose birth was heralded by the angels' cry: ''Peace on earth, good will toward men!" "Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy," said Christ. But this teaching, alas! the Crusaders seemed not to know. Review and Study Topics 1. Imagine yourself a boy or girl at the Council of Clermont, and write an account of the calling of the Crusade. -. Did men like Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless do more good or harm to the Crusade? Why? 3. What other motives besides zeal for religion influenced men to go on the Crusade? 4. Make a list of the things for which we should praise the Crusaders, and then make a list of their defects. XVIII THE LATER CRUSADES Outline of Chapter The Kingdom of Jerusalem organized; its defence prepared; the three "military orders." Fall of Edessa; failure of the Seeond Crusade (1147-49); rise of Saladin; he captures Jerusalem (1187). The Third Crusade organized (1189-92); death of Barbarossa; Philip of France and Richard of f>ngland set out; Richard takes Acre; I'hilip returns home; shipwreck and imprison- ment of Richard. The Fourth Crusade takes Constantinople (1204); the last Cru- sades; results of the Crusades. After the Holy Land was won, a government had to be organized to prevent it from slipping back into the hands of the infidels. The Crusaders knew only one way to rule a land, and that was the feudal wdv. All AVestern Europe was ruled by feudal governments, so feudal gov- jerusaiem emments were set up in Palestine. The land was divided into a number of fiefs, each of which was given to a Crusading chief. Jeru- salem, with the country about it, was formed into "the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem," and was given to God- frey, one of the most famous of the Crusaders. The rest of the land was formed into three principalities, each with its own feudal head, and with many vassal Crusaders. The peasants, Avho tilled the soil before the Crusaders came, were not driven off. They had long been Chris- tians, though tlieir worship was more like that of the 146 THE LATER CRUSADES 147 Greeks than the Latins. The only difference in their position was that now they paid rent and taxes to Christian masters, and not to Turks and Saracens. As soon as Jerusalem had fallen, most of the Crusaders prepared to return home. Soon Godfrey and his fellow rulers were left, with mere handfuls of men, to resist the attacks of the Mohammedans. If the latter had been united, they could easily at this time have driven the ''Franks" into the sea. But the ^Mohammedans were quarreling among themselves, and besides they had learned to fear the mail-clad Franks. So, the Christians were given time to prepare their defence. Huge castles were everywhere built, to protect the lands which they had won. New companies of Crusaders, too, con- "epwed!'''* stantly arrived to take the place of those who had returned home; and merchants from the Italian cities came to settle for the purpose of carrying on trade. Soon, too, three special "military orders" were formed to protect the Holy Land, and to care for the sick. The first of these was the Knights of ^^^ ^^^^^ the Hospital, or the Knights of St. John; '^^^^^^^y its chief purpose was to care for and pro- tect sick pilgrims. The second was the Order of the Temple, or Knights Templars; they got their name because their headquarters were in the royal palace at Jerusalem, which was near the site of the old temple. The third was the Order of the Teutonic Knights, which received its name because its members were Germans, while the members of the other orders were mostly French. The members of these orders were both monks and 148 TEE STORY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES knights. They were bound, like monks, by vows of pov- erty, chastity, and obedience; but they were also knights, engaged in a perpetual crusade against the in- fidel. The Hospitallers wore a white cross on a black mantle ; the Templars a red cross on a white mantle ; and the Teutonic Knights a black cross on a white man- tle. These "military orders" became very powerful and wealthy, and helped a great deal to keep the Holy Land in the hands of the Christians. For nearly half a century aftt'r eJerusalem was recovered there was no very great danger to the rule of the Franks. Then all Europe was Edess°a Startled by the news that Edessa, one of the four Christian principalities, had been con- quered by the Saracens, and the Christians put to the sword. At once there was great fear lest the other states should fall also, and preparations w ere made for sending out a large number of Crusaders to their as- sistance. This expedition started in the year 1147, and is known as the Second Cru- sade. The kings of two of the leading countries of Europe, Conrad III. of Failure of the Germany and Louis VII. of France, led the Second Crusade ' (1147-49). forces. Their armies took the same route — down the river Danube and across to Constantinople A KXICIIT TEMPI.AU THE LATER CRUSADES I49 — that the First Crusade had followed. Again there was terrible suffering on the way. The German army was almost entirely destroyed in Asia Minor; and although the French reached Palestine in safety, very little was accomplished in the way of strengthening the Christians there. After the failure of this Crusade, there was no great change for forty years. However, twice a year, in the spring and in the autumn, a number of vessels would sail from tlie cities of Italy and Southern France, carrying pilgrims and adventurers to Palestine. In this way, the strength of the Christian states was kept up, in spite of the number who were constantly returning. Towards the end of this period, rumors began to come of a great ^Mohammedan leader, who liad arisen in Egypt, and was threatening Palestine with new danger. He was called Saladin, f^fadin. and was one of the greatest rulers the Mohammedans ever had. He was foremost in battle, and wise and far-sighted in council. When he was victorious, he dealt generously with his enemies; and when he was defeated, he was never cast down. He was ever simple in his habits, just and upright in his dealings, and true to his promises. He was, in short, as chivalrous a warrioi", and as sincere a believer in his faith, as any of the Christian knights against Avhom he fought. For Saladin, as well as for the Crusaders, the war for Palestine was a "holy war"; and soon his power was grown so great that he could attack them from ;ill sides. 150 2'ff£ STOE¥ OF THE MIDDLE AGES "So great is the multitude of the Saracens and Turks," wrote one of the Crusaders in speaking of his armies, "that from the city of Tyre, which they are besieging, they cover the face of the earth as far as Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of ants." When the Christians marched out to battle, they were overthrown with terrible slaughter ; and the King of Jerusalem, and the Grand Master of the Jerusalem Tcmplars, wcrc among the captives taken. (1187). tj i Three months after this, Saladin laid siege to Jerusalem itself. For two weeks the city held out ; at the end of that time it was forced to sue for peace. The mercy which Saladin now sliowed to the con- quered Christians was in strange contrast to the cruelty which the Crusaders had displayed, when the city fell into their hands. There was no slaughter, such as had occurred ninety years before ; and the greater number of the defeated party were allowed to go free, on paying a ransom. But the crosses on the churches were torn down, the bells were destroyed, and the churches themselves were changed into iMohammedan- mosques. Once more the Holy Land was in the hands of the unbelievers. AVhen news of these events reached Europe, it caused great excitement. The three most powerful rulers, — Frederick of Germany, Philip of crusade"^ Fraucc, and Richard the Lion-llearted of ( 1189-92) England, — took the cross, and in the years 1189 and 1190 they led forth their followers to the Third Crusade. The Emperor Frederick of Germany, — who was called "Barbarossa," on account of his red beard, — had been one of those who followed King Conrad in the THE LATEFi CEU SAVES 151 .-^M;^:^;^, Second Crusade ; now although he was seventy years old, he was the first to start on the Third. He led his army by the old land route, but his forces were better organized, and there was garbaroLa not so much hardship as there had been before. Except for one battle which they had to fight with the Greek Em- peror, all went well until the army reached Asia ]\Iinor. There, alas! the old Emperor was drowned, while swim- ming a river one hot day, to refresh him- self and shorten his way. After that the German army went to pieces, and most of its members lost their lives in the mountains and deserts o f A s i a ]\Iinor, or else they were cut down by Turkish soldiers. In Germany the people refused to believe that their King was dead. Long after tiiis, stories were told of the good Barbarossa, who slept from year to year in a rocky cavern high up on a lonely mountain side, with his head resting on his hand and his long red beard grown round the granite blocks by his side. There, the people said, he lay sleeping throughout the ages; but when tlie ravens should cease to fly about the mountain, the Emperor would wake to punish the wicked and bring back the golden age to the world. TIIIO LICCJKM) OF HAKBAKOSSA 152 IRE STOin OF THE MIDDLE AGES Philip of France and Richard of England. When, at last, Philip of France and Richard of England were ready, they took ship in order to avoid the hardships of the journey by land. From the beginning, however, things went wrong. Richard and Philip were very jealous of each other, and could not get along together. Philip was only half- hearted in the Crusade, and longed to bo back in France; while Rich- ard allowed hiiiis(>lf to be turned aside for a while to other things. AVhen they reached the Holy Laud, they found the Christians laying siege to Acre, one of the sea-ports near Jerusalem. The siege had already lasted more than a year. and for several months longer it dragged on. It was a dreary time for the C h r i s t i a n s. "The Lord is not in the camp," wrote one of their number; "there is none that doeth good. The leaders strive with one an- Awe! °^ other, while the lesser folk rstarve. and have none to helj). The Turks are persistent in attack, while our knights skulk within their tents. The strength of Saladin increases daily, but daily does our army wither away." .VTTACKING A CITY— I TEE LATEB CEV SAVES 153 At last Acre was taken, — mainly through the skill and daring of King Richard, who was one of the best warriors of that day, and well knew how to use the battering-rams, stone-throwers, J^kes^Acre movable towers, and other military "engines" to ])atter doAvn walls and take cities. Philip was already wi^ary of the Crusade, and soon returned to France. Richard remained for more than a year longer. In this time he won some military suc- cesses, ])ut he could not take Jerusalem. Finally, news came to Richard from p]nglaud liiat his brother John was plotting to make himself king. Richard was now obliged to re- turn home. The only advantage he had gained for the Chris- tians was a truce for three years, permitting pilgrims to go to the TToly Seiiulclire at Jerusalem without hindrance. Before he left, Richard warned Saladin that he would return to renew the war ; but he never did. On his way home he was shii)wrecked and ^o^/.^*"™ was obliged to pass l)y land tlirough Ger- many. There he was recognized ])y his enemies and kept prisoner till he pnid a heavy ransom. Then, after ATT.VOKIXG .\ CITY— 11 154 TRE STOEY OF TUE MIDDLE AGES liis release, he foiiud himself engaged in troubles with his brother John, and at war with King Philip; and at ST. LOUIS IN CAPTIVITY last, in the year 1109, he died from an arrow wound Avhih^ fighting in France. TEE LATER CEUSADES I55 The remaining Crusades are not of so much importance as the First and the Third. On the Fourth Crusade, the Crusaders were per- suaded hy the Venetians to attack the Christian city of Constantinople. In this way the Greek „^ ^ ^ •' The Fourth Empire passed for fifty years into the cr^sade to '■ ^ ^ ./ Constantinople hands of the Latin Christians. The (i^o*)- Venetians were the ones who chiefly profited by this Crusade, for they secured many islands in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, and important trading privileges. As a result of the Fifth Crusade, Jerusalem was recovered for a while ; but tliis was accomplished through a treaty, and not as the result of victories won ])y arms. The Sixth Crusade was led by the good King, St. Louis of France. The Crusaders now sought to attack the Saracens in Egypt ; but they 'c^uJ^ls. were defeated, and the French King him- self was captured and forced to pay a heavy ransom to secure his freedom. The. last Crusade was the Seventh, which was also led by St. Louis of France. Now the Crusaders attacked the Saracens in Tunis. Again the Crusade was a failure, and this time the French King lost liis life fl270), through a sickness which broke out in the army. After this, for more than a century, popes and kings talked of crusades, and raised taxes and made prepara- tions for them. But thougli they fouglit the heathen in 1 russia, and the ^lonain- cmsading movement. medans in Spain and in Hungary, no more crusades went to the Holy Land to win the Sepulchre of Christ from the infidel. Men no longer thought 156 i'JiF^ SrOKY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES that this was so import aut as it had once seemed to them; and no doubt they were right. It doesn't malve so much difference wlio rules the land where Christ lived and died ; the great question is whether Christ lives and rules in the hearts and lives of those who follow him. Although the Crusades failed in Avhat tlicy were intended to aecomplish, they had some very important results. The returning Crusaders brought of the l)ack witii them many plants and other Crusades. ■ ■ i ' i- things which were new to Kurope. Among these Avere the sugar cane, orange, lemon, watermelon, apricot, and rice. Cottons, muslins, damask, satin, vel- vet, and new dye-stuffs were also introduced. Besides these new products, there were changes at home which were even more important. The expense of setting forth on the Crusades caused many lords to free their serfs in return for money, and to sell to the towns which were on their lands tiie right to govern them- selves. The power of the nobles was thus weakened by these expeditions, while that of the King and towns was strengtlicned. Most important of all was the influence of the Cru- sades on ideas. For nearly two hundred years men were going and coming in great numbers to and from the Holy Land, s-nnng strange countries and strange peoples, and learning new customs. Before the Cru- sades, each district lived by itself, and its inhabitants scarcely ever heard of tlie rest of the world. During the Crusades this separation was broken down, and peoples from all parts of Christendom met together. In this way men came to learn more of the world, and of the people who dwelt in it ; and their minds w^ere I THE LATEIl ClRT'SADES I57 broadened by this knowledge. Never after the Cru- sades, as a result, was the life of man quite so dark, so drearj^ and so narrow, as it had been before. From this time on, the Middle Ages gradually changed their character ; for influences were now at work to bring this period to an end, and to bring about the begin- ning of Modern Times. Review and Study Topics 1. Why was the feudal plan of government a good one for the lauds won by the Crusaders in Palestine? 2. In what ways were the "military orders" better defenders of Palestine than ordinary Crusaders? 13. Read Sir Walter Scott's account of an imaginary interview between King Richard and Saladin (The Talisman, ch. xxvii). -i. Draw four columns on the blackboard, and set down in the first the words ' ' First Crusade ", " Second Crusade ' ', etc. ; in the second the dates; in the third the leaders; and in the fourth tjie results of each one. XIX LIFE OF THE CASTLE Outline of Chapter Place of the castle in the life of the Middle Ages. Plan of a Norman castle in the eleventh century; entrance to it; the outer court; the inner court; the "keep" of the castle; attacks on castles. The castle in time of peace; the great "hall"; dwellers in the castle; training for knighthood; the "page"; life of the "squire"; amusements of the castle folk; falconry; hunting with hounds. The conferring of knighthood; feats and feasting. Before we consider what the influences were which brought the Middle Ages to a close, we must see more clearly what the life of that period was J;"L,°^ «^^ like. We will first read about the life of Middle Ages. tlie castle, where lordly knights and gentle ladies dwelt. Then we will see what was the manner of life of the peasants who dwelt in the villages, and the merchants and craftsmen who dwelt in the cities and towns. Finally, we will visit the monasteries, and see what was the life of the monks and nuns, who gave their lives to the service and praise of God. If you visit France, Germany, and other European countries today, you will find everywhere the ruins of great stone castles, rearing their tall towers on the hilltops, and commanding the passage of roads and rivers. At the present time these are mostly tumbled down and overgrown witli moss and ivy, and nobody cares to live within their dark walls. 158 LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 159 A CASTLE OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY 160 TEE S'lOBY OF THE MIDDEE AGES In the Middle Ages it was not so. TJien the castles were the safest places in which to live; so in spite of their cold and gloom, they became the cSties. centers of the life of the time. It was from tlie castles that the feudal barons ruled their lands. It was there that the people found refuge from tlie attacks of Northmen and Hungarians. It was from the castles tliat the Crusaders set out for the Holy Land. In them chivalry was born and /iourished ; at tlieir gates tournaments, jousts, and other knightly festivals took place; and in their halls the Avandering singers, who were building up a new literature, found the readiest welcome a-nd the most eager and appreciative listeners. Let us fancy ourselves back in the eleventh or twelfth century, and examine a castle. We shall find the country very different, we may be sure, from what it is today. Great forests stand where now there are flourishing toAvns ; and everything has a wilder, more unsettled look. Here is a castk', in France, that will suit our pur- pose. It was built ])y one of tlie vassals of AViDiam the Conqueror, and has been the scene of many Norman castle. ^^^"S"^''*^ ^"<^^ battlcs. See how everything is arranged so as to make easy its defence. It is built on the top of a steep hill, and around its walls is dug a deep ditch or moat. At the outer edge of the moat we see a strong palisade of heavy stakes set in the ground. Just inside tiiis is a path, along which sentries march in time of war. The gate, too, is doubly and triply guarded. In front of it is a draw- bridge across tlie moat — indeed, there are tAvo ; and the space between is guarded by a protecting wall. LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 161 In later clays these draAvbridges were made stronger and more complicated, and heavy towers, with Avails of masonry, were built, the better to protect the entrance. When we have passed these outer works, we come to a heavy wooden door between two tall toAvers which mark the entrance to the Avails, AVe pass through this, and find ourselves Avithin the ^"tr^nce '^ ' to It. galcAvay. But Ave are still far from being in the castle. In the nan-OAv vaulted passage-Avay before us, Ave see suspended a heavy iron grating, called tlie portcullis. Avhich may come rattling doAvn at any moment to bar our passage. And beyond this is another door; and beyond tiiis another portcullis. The entrance to the castle is indeed Avell guarded ; and the porter Avho keeps Avatch at the gate, and has to open and shut all these barriers, is at times a busy man. At last Ave are past the gatcAvay and find ourselves in an open courtyard. The thick Avails of the castle surround us on all sides, and at their tops Ave see the battlements and loopholes JJj,®t°"*®'" through Avhich arroAvs may be shot at t1u' enemy. Here and there the Avail is protected by stone tOAvers, in Avhich are stairAvays leading to tlie battle- ments above. In the first courtyard Ave find the stables, Avhere the lord of the castle keeps his horses. Here, too, is space for the shelter of the villagers in time of Avar; and here, perhaps, is the great brick oven in Avhich bread is baked to feed the lord and all his folloAvers. Going on Ave come to a Avail or palisade, Avhich separates the courtyai-d Ave are in from one Ijnng 162 '^Hl^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES beyond it. In later times this wall, too, was made much stronger than we find it here. Passing through a gate- way, we come into the second courtyard, court!""*' Here again we find a number of buildings, used for different purposes. In one are the storerooms and cellars, where provisions are kept to enable the dwellers in the castle to stand a siege. Next to this is a building shaped like a great jug, with a large chimney at the top, and smaller ones in a circle round about. Tiiis is the kitchen, in which the food is cooked for the lord of the castle and his household. The cooking, we may be sure, is usually simple, — most of the meats being roasted on spits over open fires, and elaborate dishes, with sauces and spices, being uncommon. ]\Iost castles have, in addition, a small church or chapel in this courtyard, in which the inhabitants may worship. The most important building of all is still to be described. There at the end of the courtyard we see the tall ''keep'' of the castle, which the of'the^M^tie. I'^i'cnch Called "donjon," and in whose basement there are "dungeons" indeed, for traitors and captured enemies. This is the true strong- hold of the baron, and it is a secure retreat. Think of all the hard fighting there must be before the enemy can even reach it. The drawbridges must be crossed, the gates must be battered down, and the portcullises pried up ; the first courtyard must be cleared ; the dividing wall must be carried ; the second courtyard also must be cleared of its defenders. And when the enemy, bruised and worn, at last arrives at the keep, their work is just begun. There the lord and his LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 163 followers will make their last stand, and the fighting will be fiercer than ever. The walls of the keep are of stone, eight to ten feet thick; and from the loopholes in its frowning sides peer skilled archers and crossbowraen, ready to let fly their bolts and arrows at fh"\tsVe" all in sight. A long, long siege will be necessary, to starve out its defenders. If this is not done, movable towers must be erected, battering rams placed, stone-hurling machines brought up, blazing arrows shot at the roof and windows, and tunnels dug to undermine the walls. In this way the castle may be burned, or an entrance at last be gained. But even then there will be fierce fighting in the narrow passageways, in the dimly-lighted halls, and on the winding stairways which lead from story to story. It will be long, indeed, before our lord's banner is torn from the summit of the tow^r, and his enemy's is placed in its stead ! And even when all is lost, there still remain hidden stairways in the castle walls, underground passages opening into the moat, and the gate in the rear, through which the lord and his garrison may yet escape to the woods and open fields ; and so continue the battle another day. In later days, stronger and more complicated castles were erected, especially after Western lords had begun to go on the Crusades, and had seen the great fortresses of the Eastern Empire. The picture on the following page shows such a castle, erected in Nor- mandy by Richard the Lion-Hearted, and called by him the ''Saucy Castle" (Chaicaii Qaillard) because of its defiance of the French King. The picture also 1G4 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES >L- CASTLK IN NORMAXnV KtXONGIXG TO RRIIAKU THE LKIX IIKAUTKH OF ENGLAND * LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 165 shows hurling engines set for attack, and a movable tower bei-Dg brought to scale its walls. But let us now inquire concerning the life of the castle in time of peace. "Where and how did the lord and his household live ? How were his children educated? And with what did fn^^a^"* they, amuse themselves in the long days when there was no enemy to attack their walls, and no distant expedition in which to engage ? Sometimes the lord and his family lived in the upper stories of the huge donjon, where arms and supplies were always stored. But this was so gloomy, with its thick walls and narrow ^^j^j ^"^^^^ windows, that many lords built more co^n- fortable "halls" in their courtyards, and preferred to live in tlicse. Let us hjok in upon such a "hall," whether it is in the donjon, or in a separate })uilding. There we find a great wide room, large enough to hold all the inhabi- tants of the castle, when the lord wishes to gather them about him. Tliis is the real center of the life of the castle. Here the lord eats and sleeps; here the great banquets are given ; here he receives his vassals to do homage ; here he plays chess and backgammon with his companions ; and here in the evening the inmates gather, perchance to listen to the songs and tales of M'andering minstrels. "VYithin the castle are many people, occupying them- selves in many ways. In the courtyards are servants and dependents caring for the horses, cooking in the kitchen, and busily engaged Jji^^ca\"ie.'* in other occupations. p]lseAvhere are those whose duty it is to guard the castle — the porter at the 166 THE STOIiY OF THE MIDDLE AGES gate, the watchnian on the tower, and the men-at-arms to defend the walls in ease of attack. Besides these we see many boys and young men Avho are evidently of too noble birth to be servants, and yet are too young to be w^arriors. Who can they be? These are the sons of the lord of the castle, and of other lords, who are learning to be knights. Their training is long and careful. Until he is knSthood"' seven years old, the little noble is left to the care of his mother and the women of the castle. At the age of seven his knightly education begins. Usually the boy is sent a"\vay from home to the castle of his father's lord, or some famous knight, there to be brought up and trained for knighthood. From the age of seven till he reaches the age of fourteen, the boy is called a "page" or "varlet," which means ''little vassal." There he waits ^^« upon the lord and ladv of the castle. He page. '■ ' serves them at the table, and he attends them Avlien they ride forth to the chase. From them he learns lessons of honor and bravery, of love and chivalry. Above all, he learns how to ride and handle a horse. When the young noble has become a well-grown lad of fourteen or fifteen, he is made a ''squire." Now it is his duty to look after his lord's horses ^i^® of . and arms. The horses must be carefully the squire. _ *^ groomed every morning, and the squire must see that their shoes are all riglit. He must also see that his lord's arms and armor are kept bright and free from rust. When the lord goes forth to war, his squire accompanies him, riding on a big strong horse, and carrying his lord's shield and lance. When the LIFE OF TEE CASTLE 167 lord goes into battle, his squire must stay near, leading a spare steed and ready to hand his master fresli weapons at any moment. After several years of tliis service, the squire may himself be allowed to use weapons and fight at his lord's side; and sometimes he may even be allowed to ride forth alone in search of adventures. In this manner the squire learns the business of a A L.\DY HUNTING WITH A FALCON knight, whieli is fighting. But he also learns his amusements and accomplishments. Let us approach a group of squires in the castle liall, when their work is done, and they are tired of chess and backgammon. They are dis- of the . castle folk. putmg, perhaps, as to winch is the more interesting, hunting or fah'onry; and we may hear a delicate featured squire hold forth in this way : 168 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES "AVhat can be prettier than a bright-eyed, well- trained falcon liawk"? And what can be i:>leasanter than the sport of Hying it at the birds? Falconry. Take soiuc fine September morning, when the sky is blue and the air is fresh, and our lord and lady ride forth with their attendants. Each carries his falcon on his gloved hand, and we hurry forward in pursuit of cranes, herons, ducks, and other birds. When one is sighted, a falcon is unhooded, and let Hy at it. The falcon's bells tinkle merrily as he rises. Soon he is in the air above the game, and swift as an arrow he darts upon the prey, plunging his talons into it, and crouching over it until the hunter gallops up to recover ])oth falcon and prey. This is the finest hunting. And what skill is necessary, too, in rearing and training the birds ! Ah, falconry is the sport for me!" But this does not seem to be the opinion of others of the group. Their views are expressed by a tall, strongly-built squire, who says: ' ' Falconry is all right for women and boys, but it is not the sport for men. AVhat are your falcons to my hounds and harriers? The education of one with^hfunds S^o'-^ ])oar-liound, I can tell you, requires as much care as all your falcons; and Avhen you are done the dog loves you, and that is more tlian you can say for your hawks. And the chase itself is far more exciting. The hounds are uncoupled, and set yelping upon the scent, and away we dash after them, plunging through the woods, leaping glades and streams in our haste. At last we reach the spot where the game has turned at bay, and find an enormous boar, defending himself stoutly and fiercely against the LIFE OF THE CASTLE 1G9 hounds. Right and lei't he rolls the dogs. With his back bristling with rage, he charges straight for the huntsmen. Look out, now; for his sharp tusks cut like a knife ! But the huntsmen are skilled, and the dogs play well their part. Before the beast can reach man or horse, he is pierced by a dozen spears, and is nailed to the ground, dead! Isn't this a nobler sport than hawking?" ARMING TITK KXinriT So, we may be sure, most of tiie knights and squires will agree. But the ladies, and many of the squires and knights, will still love best the sport of falconry. In this way the squire spends his days until he reaches the age of twenty or twenty-one. He has now proved both his courage and his skill, and at last his lord says that he has "earned his spurs." So the squire is to be made a knight : and tliis is the 170 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES occasion for great festivities. lu company with other squires who are candidates for knighthood, he must go through a careful preparation. First comes 2?knShood!^ ^^^6 "^^th, which is the mark of purification. Then he puts on garments of red, white, and black. The red means the blood he is willing to shed in defence of the Church and of the oppressed; A GREAT FEAST IX THE TWELFTH CENTURY Tlic birds Dyins alwiit have liccn "liak?d in a pii'," as in tlip old song, and falcons are now loosed at tbora. the wliile means that his mind is pure and clean; and the black is to remind him of death, which comes to all. Next comes the "watching of the arms." All night the squires keep watch, fasting and praying, before the altar in the church on which their arms have been placed ; and though they may stand or kneel, they must on no account sit or lie down. At the break of LIFE OF TUE CASTLE 171 day the priest comes. After they have each confessed their sins to him, they hear mass and take the holy sacrament. Perhaps, too, the priest preaches a sermon on the proud duties of the knights, and the obligations which they owe to God and the Church. At last the squires assemble in the courtyard of the castle, or in some open place outside the walls. There they find great numbers of knights and ladies who have come to grace the occasion of their knighting. Each squire in turn now takes his place on a carpet which is spread on the ground, and his friends and relatives assist in girding on his armor and his sword. Then comes the most trying moment of all. His father or his lord advances and gives him what is called the "accolade." At first this was a heavy bloAv with the fist, given upon the squire's neck; but later it was with the flat of a sword upon his shoulder. At the same time the person who gives the accolade cries out: "In the name of God, and St. Michael, and St. George, I dub thee knight! Be brave and loyal!" The squire is now a knight, but the festival is not yet over. The new-made knights must first give an exhibition of their skill in riding and handling their horses, and in strikins: with Tournaments ' c> and leasting. their lances marks which are set up for them to ride at. Then comes fencing with their swords on horseback. Perhaps this is followed by a regular "tournament," in which knights, both old and new, ride against one another in mimic warfare. With closed helmets and lowered lances the knights charge at one anotiier. each seeking to unhorse his opponent. Lances are shattered, armor battered, and sometimes serious wounds are received in this rough sport ; while 172 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES bright-eyed ladies sit besides the "lists," to inspire their knights to brave deeds in their honor. Then the day is wound up with a great feast, and music, and the distribution of presents. At last the guests depart ; and the new-made knights go off to bed, to dream of Saracens to be fought in the Holy Land, and dragons to be slain, and wicked knights to be encountered, — and, above all, of beautiful maidens to be rescued and served with loyalty and with love. So they dream the dreams of Chivalry. And, when they awaken, the better ones among them — but not all, alas ! — will seek to put tlieir dreams into action. Review and Study Topics 1. Imagine yourself a "page," and write a letter home telling of your life. 2. Imagine yourself a "squire," and write an account of the siege of a castle. 3. Read the description of the tournament in Scott's Ivanhoe, ch. vii, viii, ix. 4. Let the girls find out what they can of the life of the ladies of the castle, and make a story out of that. (See Gautier, Chivalri), ch. x.) 5. Describe the knighting of an imaginary "squire." XX LIFE OF THE VILLAGE Outline of Chapter How the knights wore supported; the three classes of society in the Middle Ages. Position of tlie peasants; the lord's "domain" and the "com- mons"; the three fields; the peasant's scattered strips. The peasants' payments to their lord; the "services" which they owe him. The peasants live in villages; their houses; their furniture; peasant food and clothing; contempt of the nobles for them; possibility of leaving their lord 's estate. OxE important thing about the life of the knights and squires has not yet been explained ; that is, how thev were supported. They neither culti- . How the vated the fields, nor manufactured articles knights were supported. for sale, nor engaged in commerce. How, then, were they fed and clothed, and furnislied with their expensive armor and horses? How, in short, was all this life of tiie castle kept up, — with its great buildings, its constant Avars, its costly festivals, and its idleness ? We may find the explanation of tiiis in the saying of a bishop who lived in the early part of the Middle Ages. "God,'' said he, "divided the human race from the beginning into three classes. These were, the priests, whose duty it was to pray and serve God; the l-7iights, whose duty it was to defend society; and the peasants, whose duty it Avas to till the soil and to support, by their ]al)or, the otlier classes." 173 174 TEE STOBY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES This, indeed, was the arrangement as it existed during the whole of the Middle Ages. The peasants, who tilled the .soil, together with the merchants and craftsmen of the towns, bore all the burden of supporting the more picturesque classes above them. AVOODL AJ>^0 PLAN OF A VILLAGE The strips belonging to the lord's "domain" were usually scattered amid those held by his tenants, but for greater clearness they are here shown as If gathered into one place. The peasants were called "serfs" and ''villains," and their position was very curious. For several miles about the castle, all the land belonged to its lord, and LIFE OF TEE VILLAGE I75 was called, in England, his '* manor. " He did not own the land outright, — for, as you know, he did homage and fealty for it to Ms lord or ''suzerain," and the latter in turn owed homage and Position of ^ the peasants. fealty to his "suzerain," and so on up to the king. Neither did the lord of the castle keep all of the manor lands in his own hands. He did not wish to till the land himself, so most of it was divided up and tilled by peasants, wlio kept their shares as long as they lived, and passed them on to their children after them. As long as the peasants performed the services and made the payments which they owed to the lord, the latter could not rightfully turn them out of their land. The part of the manor which the lord kept in his own hands was called his "domain," and we shall see presently how this was used. In addition tiiere were certain parts which were used and com- mons. by the peasants as common pastures for their cattle and sheep; that is, they all had joint rights in this. Then there was the woodland, to which the peasants miglit each send a certain number of pigs to feed upon the beech nuts and acorns. Finally, there was the part of the manor which was given over to the peasants to till. This was usually divided into three great fields, without any fences, walls, or hedges about them. In one of these we should find wheat growing, or some other grain that is sown in the g^i^g*''"^ winter ; in another we should find a crop of some grain, such as oats, which requires to be sown in the spring; while in the third we should find no crop at all. The next year the arrangement would be 176 J^^HE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES changed, and again the next year. In this way, each field bore winter grain one year, spring grain the next, and the third year it was plowed several times and allowed to rest to recover its fertility. While resting it was said to "lie fallow." Then the round was repeated. This wdiole arrangement was due to the fact that people in those days did not know as much about "fertilizers'' and "rotation of crops'' as we do now. The most curious arrangement of all was the waj^ the cultivated land %vas divided up. Each peasant had from ten to forty acres of land which he scattered cultivatcd ; and part of this lay in each of the three fields. But instead of lying all together, it was scattered about in long narrow strips, each containing about an acre, W' ith strips of unplow^ed sod separating the plowed strips from one another. This was a very unsatisfactory arrangement, because each peasant had to waste so much time in going from one strip to his next ; and nobody has ever been able to explain quite clearly how it; ever came about. But this is the arrangement w^hich prevailed in almost all civilized countries throughout the whole of the Middle Ages, and indeed in some places for long afterw^ard. In return for the land which the peasant held from his lord, he owed the latter many payments and many services. He paid fixed sums of money at The peasants' dift'crcnt timcs duriug the year : and if his payments. o i/ ^ lord or his lord's suzerain knighted his eldest son, or married off his eldest daughter, or w^ent on a crusade, or w^as taken captive and had to be ransomed, — then the peasant must pay an additional sum. At Easter and at other fixed times the peasant LIFE OF THE VILLAGE 177 brought a gift of eggs or chickens to his lord ; and he also gave the lord one or more of his lambs and pigs each year for the use of the pasture. At harvest time the lord received a portion of the grain raised on the peasant's land. In addition the peasant must grind his grain at his lord's mill, and pay the charge for this; he must also bake his bread in the great oven which belonged to the lord, and use his lord's presses in making his cider and wine, paying for each. These payments were sometimes burdensome enough, PEASANTS PLOWING but they were not nearly so burdensome as the services which the peasants owed their lord. All the labor of cultivating the lord's 3?®'.' ° services. domain land was performed by them. They plowed it with their great clumsy plows and ox- teams ; they harrowed it, and sowed it, and weeded it, and reaped it ; and finally they carted the sheaves to the lord's barns and thrcslKMl them by beating with great jointed clubs or "Hails." And when the work was done, the grain belonged entirely to the lord. About two days a week were spent this way in working on the lord's domain; and the peasants conld only work on their own lands between times. In addition, if the lord decided to build new towers, or a new gate, 178 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES or to erect new buildings in the castle, the peasants had to carry stone and mortar for the building, and help the paid masons in every way possible. IIAKKOWING The boy with the sliui,' is driviug away birds And, when the demands of their lord were, satisfied, there were still other demands made upon them; for r THRESniXG WITR FLAILS every tenth sheaf of grain, and every tenth egg, chicken, lamb, pig, and calf, had to be given to the Church as "tithes." LIFE OF THE VILLAGE I79 The peasants did not live scattered about the coun- try as our farmers do, but dwelt together in an open village. If we should take our stand there on a day in spring, we should see much to j^^^^^^nages. interest us. On the hilltop above is the lord's castle ; and near by is the parish church with the priest's house. In the distance are the green fields, cut into long narrow strips; and in them we see men plowing and harrowing with teams of slow-moving oxen, while women are busy with hooks and tongs weeding the growing grain. Close at hand in the village we hear the clang of the blacksmith's anvil, and the miller's song as he carries the sacks of grain and flour to and from the mill. Dogs are barking, donkeys are braying, cattle are lowing ; and through it all we hear the sound of little children at play or women singing at their work. The houses themselves were often little better than wooden huts thatched with straw or rushes, though sometimes they were of stone. Even at the best they were dark, dingy, and unhealth- ^heir^ ful. Chimneys were just beginning to be used in the :\nddle Ages for the castles of the great lords; but in the peasants' houses the smoke was usually allowed to escape through the doorway. The door was often made so that the upper half could be left open for this purpose while the lower half was closed. The cattle were usually housed under the same roof with the peasant's family; and in some parts of Europe this practice is still followed. AVithin the houses we should not find very much furniture. Here is a list of the things which one well-to-do family owned in the year 1345 : 380 TEE STOFY OF THE MIDDLE AGES 2 feather beds, 15 lineu sheets, and 4 striped yellow counter- panes. l" hand-mill for grinding meal, a pestle and mortar for pounding grain, 2 grain chests, a kneading trough, and 2 ovens over which coals could be heaped for baking. 2 iron tripods on which to hang kettles over the fire; 2 metal pots and 1 large kettle. 1 metal bowl, 2 brass water jugs, 4 bottles, a copper box, a tin washtub, a metal warming-pan, 2 large chests, a box, a cup- board, 4 tables on trestles, a large table, and a bench. 2 axes, 4 lances, a crossbow, a scythe, and some other tools. The food and clothiug of the peasant were coarse and simple, but were usually sufficient for his needs. At times, however, war or a succession of rnrcro*thrng. '^^^ seasons Avould bring famine upon a district. Then the suffering would be terrible; for there were no provisions saved up, and the roads were so bad and communication so difficult that it was hard to bring supplies from other regions where there w^as plenty. At such times, tlie peasants suffered most. They Avere forced to eat roots, herbs, and liie bark of trees; and often they died by hundreds for want of even such food. Thus you will see that the lot of the peasant was a hard one ; and it was often made still harder by the cruel contempt which the nobles felt for Contempt of nobles for tliosc wliom tlicy looKcd upou as base- born." The name "villains" w-as given the peasants because they lived in villages; but the nobles have handed down the name as a term of reproach. In a poem, wdiich was written to please the nobles no doubt, the writer scolds at the villain because he w^as too w^ell fed, and, as he says, "made faces" at the clergy. "Ought he to eat fish?" the LIFE OF TEE VILLAGE 181 poet asks. "Let him eat thistles, l)riars, thorus, and straw, on Sunday, for fodder; and pea-husks during the week ! Let him keep watch all his days, and have trouble. Thus ought villains to live. Ought he to eat meats! He ought to go naked on all fours, and crop J'.erbs with the horned cattle in the fields!" Of course there were many lords who did not feel this way towards their peasants. Ordinarily the peasant was not nearly so badly off as the 1 • 1 /-I 1 1 -r-. 1 1 Possibility- slave in the Greek and Koman days; and of leaving the _„ loid's estate. often, perhaps, he was as well off as many of the- peasants of Europe today. But there was this difference between his position and that of the peasant now. Many of them could not leave their lord's manors, and move elsewhere, without their lord's per- mission. If they did so, their lord could pursue them, and bring them back. If, however, they succeeded in getting to a free town, and dwelt there for a year and a day without being re-captured, then they became freed from their lord, and might dwell where they chose. Review and Study Topics 1. Make a list of the ways in wliicli the farming of the Middlo Ages differed from that of the United States today. 2. How do you suppose the cattle, sheep, pigs, and geese \\-ere prevented from straying into the cultivated fields, in the absence of fences and hedges? I). Why did the jieasants live in villages, instead of in scat- tered farmhouses ? 4. What can you learn concerning the cooking arrangements of the Middle Ages, from the list of household possessions on p. 180, and from the fact that all the bread for the village was baked in one great oven? 5. Would you be likely to find any stores in a village of the Middle Agesf Give reasons for your answer. XXI LIFE OF THE TOWN Outline of Chapter Decay of towns after the coining of the Germans; gradual growth of better conditions. Revival of towns in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth cen- turies; the towns in Italy, in Germany, and in France; what the towns did for the world. Privileges of the towns; their rights of self-government; strug- gles within the towns; their independence finally lost. Life in the towns; the walls, streets, and houses; shops and workmen; the "apprentices"; the "guilds"; the "cathe- dral"; the bell-tower. The great fairs of the Middle Ages; a busy street scene. We must now consider tlio life of the towns during the Middle Ages. The Germans had never lived in cities in their old homes; so, when they came into the Roman Empire, they preferred the free life of the country Decay of "^ ^ . '' towns under to Settling withiu towu walls. The old German rule. Roman cities, which had sprung up all over the Empire, had already lost much of their impor- tance ; and under these country-loving conquerors they soon lost what was left. In many places the inhahi- tants entirely disappeared ; other places decreased in size ; and all lost the rights which they had had of governing themselves. The inhabitants of the towns became no better off than the peasants wlio lived in the little villages. In l)oth, the people lived by tilling the soil. In both, the lord of the district made laws, appointed officers, and 182 LIFE OF TEE TOWN 183 settled disputes in his own court. There was little difference, indeed, between the villages and towns, except a difference in size. This was the condition of things during the early- part of the Middle Ages, while feudalism was slowly- arising, and the nobles were beating back the attacks of the Mohammedans, the Hungarians, and the North- men. At last, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, as we have seen, this d-anger was overcome. Now men might travel from place to place, witliout con- stant danger of being robbed or slain, better ^. , ,. , 1 , conditions. (commerce and manuractures began to spring up again, and the people of the towns supported themselves by these, as well as by agriculture. AVith commerce and manufactures, too, came riches. This was especially true in Italy and Southern France, where the townsmen were able, by their geographical position, to take part in the trade with Constantinople and Egypt ; and, also, to gain money by carrying pilgrims and Crusaders, in their ships, to the Holy Land. Some German cities also, especially Augsburg and Nil ruber g, grew rich on the commerce which flowed from Venice over the Alps, and along the tribu- taries of the Danu])e and Rhine, into the heart of Germany. AVith riches came power; and, with power, came the desire to free themselves from the rule of their lord. So, all over civilized Europe, during the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, we find new towns arising and old ones getting the right to govern them- selves. In Italy the towns gained power first : then in South- 184 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Revival of towns. ern France; then in Northern France; and then along the valley of the river Rhine, and the coasts of the Baltic Sea.^Sometimes the towns bought their freedom from their lords; sometimes they won it after long struggles, and much fighting. Sometimes the nobles and the clergy were wise enough to join with the townsmen, and share in the benefits which the town brought ; sometimes they fought them foolishly and bitterly-N ^In German}^ and in Italy, the power of th e kings was A GEUMAN ( ITV not great enough to make inucli difference one way or the other. Tn France , the kings favored the tOAvns against their lords, and used them to break down the power of the feudal nobles. Then, when the king's poAver had become so strong that they no longer feared the nobles, they checked the power of tiie towns, lest they in turn might become powerful and independent?) Tluis, in different Avays and at different times, th^Ve grew up the cities of mediaeval Europe. In Italy, there sprang up the free cities of Venice, LIFE OF TEE TOWN 185 Florence, Pisa, Genoa, and others, where scholars and artists were to arise and bring a new birth to learning and art; where, also, daring seamen were > to be trained, like Colniuhus, ('a])ot, and |f{°"''^ 1/ Vespucius, to discover, in later times, the ^^^ ^^^^^' New World. In France, the citizens showed their skill by building those beautiful Gothic cathedrals, which are still so much admired. In the towns of Ger- many and Holland, clever workmen invented and de- veloped the art of printing, and so made possible the learning and education of today. The civilization of modern times, indeed, owes a great debt to these old towns, and to their sturdy inhabitants. Let us see, now, what those privileges Avere which the townsmen got, and which enabled them to help on the world's progress so much. To us these privileges would not seem so verv sreat Privileges i T , , -, „ J to • obtained / In imndreds of towns in France the lords t^wns? ^ granted only such rights as the folloAving: 1. The townsmen shall pay oidy small fixed sums for the rent of their lands, and as a tax Avhen they sell goods, etc. 2. They shall not be obliged to go to Avar for their lord, unless they' can return tlie same day, if they choose. 3. AVhen they have laAv-suits, the tOAvnsmen shall not be obliged to go outside the toAvn to have them tried. 4. No charge shall be made for the use of the toAvn oven ; and the toAvnsmen may gather the dead Avood in the lord's forest for fuel. 5. The toAvnsmen shall be alloAved to sell their 186 ^'-ZZii STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES CATHKnUAI. OF COLOGNE LIFE OF THE TOWN 187 property when they wish, and leave the town without hindrance from the lord. 6. Any peasant who remains a year and a day in the town, without being claimed by his lord, shall be free. In other places the townsmen got, in addition, the right to elect their own judges ; and, in still others, they got the right to elect all their officers. Towns of this latter class were sometimes called "communes.'' Over them the lord had very little right, except to receive such sums of money „, . . ^^ ° ' '^ . . _ Their rights as it Avas agreed should be paid to him. In of self- government. some places, as in Italy, these communes became practically independent, and had as much power as the lords themselves. They made laws, and coined money, and had their vassals, and waged war just as the lords did. But there was this important difference : in the communes the rights belonged to the citizens as a whole, and not to one person. This made all the citizens feel an interest in the town affairs, and produced an enterprising, determined spirit among them. At the same time, the citizens were trained in the art of self-government, in using tliese rights. In this way, the world was being prepared for a time when governments like ours — "of the people, for the people, and by the people," — should be possible. But this was to come only after many, many years. The townsmen often used their power selfishly, and in the interest of their own families and their „ struggles own class. Often the rich and powerful within the towns. townsmen were as cruel and harsh toward the poorer and weaker classes as the feudal lords them- selves. Fierce and bitter struggles often broke out in the towns, between the citizens who had power and 188 'l"UJ^' STOh'Y OF THE MIDDLE AGES those who had none. Often, too, there were great family quai'rels, continued from generation to generation, like the one which is told of in Shake- speare's play, "Romeo and Juliet." In Italy there came, in time, to be two great parties, called the "Guelfs" and the "(Jhil)ellines." At first there was a real difference in views between them; but, by and by, they became mei'ely two rival factions. Then Guelfs were known from Ghibelliues by the waj'' they cut their fruit at table ; by the color of roses they wore ; by the way they yawned, and spoke, and were clad. Often the struggles and brawls in a city became so fierce that, to get a little peace, the townsmen would call in an outsider, to rule over them for a while. With the citizens so divided among themselves, it will not surprise you to learn that the communes everywhere, at last, lost their independ- Their mi independence encc. Tlicv passcd uudcr the Yulo, of the lost. . ■ Knig, as ni Fi-ance ; or else, as happened in Italy, they fell into tlie power of some "tyrant" or local lord. But let us tiiink, not of the weaknesses and mistakes of these old townsmen, but of their earnest, busy life, and its quaint surroundings. Imagine your- thl^owns. ^^^^ ^ peasant lad, fleeing from your lord, or coming for the first time to the market in a mediaeval town. As we approach the city gates, we see that the walls are strong, and are crowned with turrets. The gate is defended with drawbridge and portcullis, like the entrance to a castle. AVithiii. are narrow, winding streets, with rows of tall-roofed houses, each with its garden attached. The houses themselves are niore like LIFE OF THE TOWN 189 our houses today than like the Greek and Roman ones ; for they have no courtyard in the interior and are sev- eral stories high. The roadways are often unjiaved, and full of nuul ; and there are no streets and T f> 111 f houses. sewers. li you walk tlie streets after nightfall, you must carry a torch to light your foot- steps, for there are no street-lamps. There are no policemen ; but if you are out after dark, you must be- ware of the "city watch." who take turns in guarding the city, for they will make you give a strict account of yourself. Now, liowever, it is day. and we need have no fear. Pres- ently we come into tlie business parts of the city, and there we find the different trades grouped together in different streets. Here are the gold- smiths, and there are the tanners; here the cloth mer- chants, and there th(> butchers; here the ,, Shops and armor-smiths, and there the money-chang- workmen, ers. The shops are all small and on the ground floor, with their M^ares i^xposed for sale in the open windows. /» ^"1 A smip IN THE ^iiudlk .\(;k.s 190 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Ijot US look in at one of the goldsmiths' shops, 'The shop-keeper and his wife are busily engaged, waiting on customers and inviting passers-by to stop and examine their goods. Within we sec several men and boys at work, making the goods which their master sells. There the gold is melted and refined; the right amount of alloy is mixed with it; then it is cast, beaten, and filed into the proper shape. Then, perhaps, the article is enameled, and jewels are set in it. All of these things are done in this one little shop ; and so it is for each trade. The workmen must all begin at the beginning, and start with the rough material; and the '.'apprentices," as the boys are called, must learn each of the processes by which the raw material is turned into the finished article. Thus, a long term of apprenticeship is necessary for each trade; lasting sometimes for ten years. During this time, the boys are fed, clothed, and apprentices, lodged witli their master's family, above the sliop, and receive no pay. If they mis- behave, the master has the right to punish them; and if they run away, he can pursue them and bring them back. Their life, however, is not so hard as that of the peasant boys, for they are better fed and housed, and have more to look forward to. When their apprenticeship is finished, they will be- come full members of the "guild" of their trade, and may work for whomever they please. For gufidl!^*^* a wliile tliey may wander from city to city, working now for this master and now for that. In each city they will find the workers of their trade all united together into a guild, with a charter from the king, or other lord, which permits them to LIFE OF TEE TOWN 19]^ make rules for tlie carrying on of that business, and to shut out all persons from it who have not served a regular apprenticeship. So, in each important town, there were ''craft guilds" of stone-cutters, plasterers, carpenters, blacksmiths, weavers, and the like, as well as a "merchant guild," composed of those who traded to other places. The more ambitious boys will not l)e content with a mere workman's life. They will look forward to a tune when they shall have saved up money enough to start- in business for themselves. Then they too will become masters, with workmen and apprentices under them ; and perhaps, in course of time, if they grow in wealth and wisdom, they may be elected rulers over the city. Let us leave the shops of the workers and pass on. As we wander about we find many churches and chap- els; and perhaps we come, after a while, to a great "cathedral" or bishop's church, rearing its lofty roof to the sky. No ])ains have been The ' cathedral spared to make this as grand and imposing ^•'"'•ch. as possible; and we gaze upon its great height with awe, and wonder at tlie marvelously quaint and clever patterns in which the stone is carved. We leave this, also, after a time ; and then we come to the "belfry" or town-hall. This is the real center of the life of the city. Here is the strong square tower, like the "donjon" of a t^^er^*" castle, where the townsmen may make their last stand, in case an enemy succeeds in entering their walls, and they cannot beat him back in their narrow streets. On top of the tower is the bell, witli watchmen always 192 THE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Oil tlie lookout to give the signal, iu ease of fire or other danger. The bell is also used for more peaceful pur- poses. It summons the citizens, from time to time, to public meetings. Also, every night at eight or nine o'clock, it sounds the "curfew" (French couvre feu, "cover fire") as a signal to cover the fire with ashes, and cease from the day's labors. Within the tower are dungeons for prisoners and IIUTEENTH CENTURY meeting rooms for the rulers of the city. There, also, are strong rooms, where the city money is kept, to- gether with the great seal of the city. Lastly, there too is the charter which gives the city its liberties — the most precious of all the city's possessions. Even in ordinary times the city presents a bustling, busy appearance. . If it is a city which holds a fair, once or twice a year, what shall we say of it then? LIFE OF THE TOWN 193 For several weeks, at such times, the city is one vast bazaar. Strange merchants come from all parts of the land and set up their booths and stalls along the streets, and the city shops are crowded J^^irs^"^^** with goods. For miles about, the people throng in to buy the things which they need. "Opposite is a picture of the streets of a city during fair-time, in the thirteenth century. In the middle of the picture, we see a townsman and his wife /^ returning home after making their pur- f^^eet^scen ^'^ chases. Behind them are a knight and his attendant, on liorsel)ack, picking their way through the crowd. On the right liand side of the street is the shop of a clotli morchant ; and we see tlie merchant and his wife showing goods to customers, while workmen are unpacking a bo.x in the street. Next door is a tavern, with its sign hung out ; and near this we see a cross, which some pious person has erected at the street cor- ner. ' On the left-hand side of the street, we see a cripple begging for alms. Back of him is another cloth- merchant 's shop; and next to this is a money-changer's table, where a group of people are having money weighed, to see that there is no cheating in the pay- ment. Beyond this is an elevated stage, on which a company of tumblers and juggU'rs are performing, with a crowd of people about them. In the background we see some tall-roofed houses, topped with turrets; and beyond these we can just make out the spire of a church rising to the sky. This is, indeed, a busy scene, and it is a picture which we nuiy carry away with us. It well shows the energy and the activity which, during the later Middle Ages, 194 THE STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES made the towns the starting-place for so many im- portant movements. Review and Study Topics 1. Make a list of the things which caused the decline of the towns at the beginning of the Middle Ages. 2. Make another list of the things whicli helped their growth in numbers, wealth, and powers of self government. 3. Locate Pisa, Florence, Genoa, and Venice. Why were these the first towns to gain their independence? 4. Why did cities of Germany (like Augsburg and Niirnberg) and those of Northern France (like Bruges) follow next in developmoiit after those of Italy? 5. Imagine yourself an api)rentice lad, and write an account of your life. 6. Write a letter describing an imaginary ^isit to a fair in the Midtlle Ages XXII LIFE OF THE MONASTERY Outline of Chapter Why men became monks; the "rule" of St. Benedict; dress of the monks; "friars" and "nuns." The monastery buildinj^s and lands; jilan of a German monaster}'. Hours for worsliip; labors and humility of the monks; they copy books; their services to education; histories written by the monks. The three vows taken by a monk; enforcement of the rules; how one became a monk; a letter from a "novice." In tlie last three chapters we liave studied the lile of the castle, of the village, and of the town. We must now see what life in a monastery was like. In the Middle Ages, men thought that storms and lightning, famine and sickness, were signs of the wrath of God, or were the work of evil spirits. The world was a terrible place to them, and ^^^ '"^" , '■ ' became monks. the wickedness and misery with which it was filled made them long to escape from it. Also, they felt that God was pleased when they voluntarily led lives of hardship and self-denial, for his sake. So, great numbers of men went out into the desert places and became hermits or monks, in order that they might better serve God and save their own souls. Soon the separate monks drew together and formed monasteries, or groups of monks living in communi- ties, according to certain rules. A famous monk named Benedict drew up a series of of st. , „ , . . Benedict. rules tor his monastery m Italy (529 A.D.), and these served the purpose so well that they 195 196 2\ff^ STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES were adopted for many others. In course of time all the monasteries of AYestern Europe were put under "the Benedictine rule," as it was called. The dress of the monks was of coarse woolen cloth, with a cowl or hood which could be pulled up to pro- tect the head ; and about the waist a cord ?he^monks. "^^'^^ wom for a girdle. The gown of the Benedictines was usually black, so they were called ''black monks." As the centuries went by, new orders of monks were founded, Avith new rules; but these usually took the "rule" of St. Benedict, and merely changed it to meet new conditions. In this way arose "white monks," and monks of other names. In addition, orders of "friars" were founded, espe- cially by St. Francis and by St. Dominic. These were like the monks in many ways, but liA-ed Friars Hiorc ju tlic world, prcaching, teachine-. and nuns. ' -i »' and caring for the sick. The friars also were called "black friars," "gray friars," or "white friars," according to the color of their dress. Besides the orders for m.en, there were also orders of "nuns" for Avomen. St. Scholastica, the friend of St. Benedict, and St. Clara, the friend of St. Francis, were the founders of two important orders of nuns. In some places in the ]\Iiddle Ages nunneries became almost as common as monasteries. Let us try, now, to see what a Benedictine monastery was like. One of Benedict's rules provided that every monastery • should be so arranged that p.® P°°*^*"y everything the monks needed would be in 1)uildings. ■' " the monastery itself, and there would be no need to wander about outside; "for this," said Benedict, "is not at all good for tlieir souls." Each LIFE OF THE MONASTERY 197 monastery, therefore, became a settlement complete in itself. It not only had its halls, Avhere the monks ate and slept, and its own church ; it had also its own mill, its own bake-oven, and its own workshops, where the monks made the things wdiich they needed. A GERMAN MONASTERY The better to shut out the world, and to protect the monastery against robbers, the buildings were sur- I'ounded by a strong wall. Outside of this te^ry Tan"(fs^.' ''^.^ ^^^^ ficlds of tile luonastcry, where the monks themselves raised the grain they needed, or which were tilled for them by peasants, in the same way that the lands of the lords were tilled. Finally, there was the woodland, where the swine Avere herded ; and the pasture lands, where the cattle and sheep were sent to graze. The amount of land b{>louging to a monastery was 198 TEE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES often quite large. Nobles and kings frequently gave gifts of land, and the monks in return prayed for their souls. Often, when the land came into tiie possession of the monks, it was covered with swamps or forests. But by unwearying labor the swamps were drained and the forests felled, and soon smiling fields appeared where before there was only a wilderness. On page 197 is the picture of a German monastery, at the close of the Middle Ages. There we see the strong wall, surrounded by a ditch, inclosing the German buildings and protecting the monastery monastery. ' . i • i trom attack. To enter the mclosure, we must cross the bi-idge and present ourselves at the gate. When we have passed this, we see to the left stables for cattle and horses, while to the right are gardens of herbs for the cure of the sick. Near by is the monks' graveyard, with the graves marked by little crosses. In the center of the inclosure are workshops, where the monks work at different trades. The tall building, with the spires crowned with the figures of saints, is the church, where the monks hold services at regular intervals, throughout the day and night. Adjoining this, in the form of a square, are the build- ings in which the monks sleep and eat. This is the "cloister," and it is the principal part of the monastery. In southern lands, this inner square or cloister was A FRENCH CLOISTEK LIFE OF TEE MONASTERY 199 usually surrounded on all sides by a porch or piazza, the roof of which was supported on long rows of pil- lars; and here the monks might pace to and fro, in quiet talk, when the duties of worship and labor did not occupy their time. In addition to these buildings, there are many others, which we cannot stop to describe. Some are used to carry on the work of the monastery ; some are for the use of the abbot, who is the ruler of the monks ; some are hospitals for the sick ; and some are guest chambers, where travellers are lodged over night. In addition to these buildings, there are many others, undisturbed all the night through. It was not so with the monks. They must begin their worship long l)efore the sun was up. Soon after midnight, the bell of the monas- tery rings, the monks rise from their hard beds and gather in the church, to recite "orswp^.""^ prayers, read portions of the Bible, and sing psalms. Not less than twelve of the psalms of the Old Testament must be read each night, at this service. At day-break, again the bell rings, and once more the monks gather in the church. This is the first of the seven services which are held during the day. The others come at seven o'clock in the morning, at nine o'clock, at noon, at three in the afternoon, at six o'clock, and at bed-time. At each of these, there -are prayers, reading from the Scriptures, and chanting of psalms. Latin was the only language used in the church services of the AVest in the Middle Ages; so the Bible was read, the psalms sung, and the pra^-'ers re- cited in this tongue. The services are so arranged 200 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES that in the course of every week the entire Psalter, or psalm book, is gone through ; then, at the Sunday night service, they begin again. Besides attending these services, there are many other things which the monks must do; for "idleness." wrote St. Benedict, "is the enemy of the Labors and i , , t t i / /^ i i humility of soul. It was arranged that, at nxed hours (luring the day, the monks should labor with their hands. Some plowed the fields, harrowed them, and planted and harvest- ed the grain. Others worked at various trades in the work- shops of the monas- teries. If any brother s h owed too much l)ride in his work, and put himself above the others be- cause of his skill, he was made to work at something else. The monks must be hum- ble at all times. "A monk," said Benedict, "must al- ways show humility, — not only in his heart, but with his body also. This is so whether he is at work, or at prayer; whether he is in the monastery, in the garden, in the road, or in the fields. Everywhere, — sitting, walking, or standing, — let liiiu always be with head bowed, his looks fixed upon llie ground ; and let liini re- member every hour that he is guilty of his sins." One of the most usefid lMl)()rs which the mediu'val monks performed was the cojjving and writing oF l)o()ks. A MOXK roi'Yixr; ikmik LIFE OF THE MONASTEEY 201 At certain liours of the day, especially on Sundays, the brothers were required by Benedict's rule to read and to study. In the Middle Ages, of course, there were no printing "^'"^ '"""'^^ ^ *^ copy books. presses, and all books Avere "manuscript,"— that is, they were copied, a letter at a time, by hand. So, in (^ach well - regulated monastery, there was a writing-room, or "scrip-' torium," where some of the monks worked at copying man- uscripts. T h e writing- was u s u a 1 1 y done on skins of pare h m c n t. These the m o n k s cut to the size of the page, rubbing the surface smooth Avith pumice stone. ^ . Then the margins were marked, and the lines ruled, with sharp awls. The writing was done with pens made of quills or of ^ -* reeds, and with ink made of soot mixed with gum and acid. The greatest care was used in forming each letter, and at the beginning of the chapters a large initial was Tlio plctiiro Kliows a nutnbor of youiii; iiion receiving the "ton- sure" — that is, having the hair olipped from the ton of their lieails as a j:ign that they are to become priests. 202 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES made. Sometimes .these initials were really pictures, beautifully "illuiniuatcd" iu blue, gold, and crimson. All this required skill and much pains. ''He who does not know how to write," wrote a monk at the end of one manuscript, "imagines that it is no labor; but, though only three fingers hold the pen, the whole body grows weary." And another one wrote: "I pray you, good readers who may use this book, do not forget him who copied it. It was a poor brother, named Louis, who, while he copied the volume (which was brought from a foreign country) endured the cold, and was obliged to finish in the night what he could not write by day." The monks by copying books did a great service to the world, for it was in tliis way tliat many valuable works were preserved during the Dark Ages, when vio- lence and ignorance spread, and the love of learning had almost died out. In other ways, also, the monks helped the cause of learning. At a time when no one else took the trouble, or knew how, to write a history of the ^o'educatlon^' tilings that Avcrc going on, the monks in most of the great monasteries wrote "an- nals" or "chronicles" in which events were each year set down. And at a time when there were no schools except those provided ])y the Church, the monks taught boys to read and to write, so tlisit there might always be learned men to carry on the work of religion. The education which they gave, and the books which they wrote, were of course in Latin, like the services of the Church ; for this was the only language of edu- cated men. LIFE OF THE MONASTEEY 203 The histories which the monks wrote were, no (loiil)t, very poor ones, and the schools were not very good; but they were ever so much better than . •^ . Histories none at all. Here is what a monk wrote in written by monks. the "annals" of his monastery, as the his- tory of the year 807 ; it will show us something about both the histories written at that time, and the schools : "807. Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, died; and there was great sickness in the monastery of St. Boni- face, so that many of the younger brothers died. The boys of the monastery school beat their teacher, and ran away." That is all we are told. Were the boys just unruly and naughty ? Did they rebel at the tasks of school, at a time when Charlemagne was waging his mighty wars; and did they long to become knights and warriors, in- stead of priests and monks? Or was it on account of the sickness that they ran away ? We cannot tell. That is the way it is with many things in the IMiddle Ages. Most of what we know about the history of that time we learn from the "chronicles" kept by the monks, and these do not tell us nearly all that we should like to know. The three most important things which were re- quired of the monks were that they should have no property of their own, that they should not , 1 1 T • 1 , Three vows marry, and that they should obey those ^^^^^ who were placed over them. "A monk," said Benedict, "should have absolutely nothing, neither a book, nor a tablet, nor a pen." Even the clothes which they wore were the property of the monastery. If any gifts were sent them by their friends or relatives, 204 2'-^^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES they luust turn them over to the abbot, for tlie use ol' the monastery as a whole. Tlie rule of obedience required that a monk, wlien ordered to (U) a tiling, should do it without delay; and if impossible things were commanded, he must at least make the attempt. The rule about marrying Avas ('(jually strict; and in some monasteries it was counted a sin even to look upon a woman. Other rules forbade the monks to talk, at certain times of the day and in their sleeping halls. For fear lest they might forget themselves at the table, St. Benedict ordered that one of the brethren should always read aloud, at meals, from some holy book. All were required to live on tlie simplest and plaim^st food. The rules, indeed, were so strict that it was often difficult to enforce them, especially after the monas- teries became rich and powerful. Then, of" the ^ althougii the monks might not have any rules. (. 1 • ■ T ' property ot then- own, they enjoyed vast riches belonging to the monastery as a whole, and often lived in luxury and idleness. When this happened, there was usually a reaction, and new orders arose with stricter and stricter rules. So, we have times of •zeal and strict enforcement of the rules, followed by periods of decay; and these, in turn, followed by new periods of strictness. This Avent on to the close of tlie ]\riddle Ages, when many of the monasteries Avere done away with. AViien any one wished to become a monk, he had first to go through a trial. He must becoane a "novice" and live in a monastery, under its rules, for a year; then, if he was still of the same mind, he took the vows LIFE OF THE MONASTEBY 205 of Poverty, Chastity, and Obedience. ''From tliat day forth," says the rule of St. Benedict, "he shall not be allowed to depart from the monastery, nor to shake from his neck the yoke of the rule; for, after so long delay, he Avas at liberty either to receive it or to n° fuse it." "When the monasteries had become corrupt, some men no doubt became monks in order that tliey might live in idleness and luxury. But let us tiiink rather of the many men who l)eeame monks because they be- lieved that this Avas the best way to serve God. Let us think, in closing, of one of the best of the monasteries of the .Aliddle Ages, and let us look at its life through the eyes of a noble young novice. The monastery was in France, and its abbot. St. Bernard, was famous throughout the Christian world, in the twelfth century, for his piety and zeal. Of this mon- astery the novice writes : "I watch the monks at their daily services, and at their nightly vigils from midnight to tiie dawn; and as I hear them singing so holily and un- wearyingly, they sccin to me more like better of , , a novice. angels than men. Some ol" them have been bishops or rulers, or else have been famous for their rank and knowledge; now all are equal, and no one is higher or lower than any other. I see them in the gar- dens with the hoe, in the meadows with fork and rake, in the forests with the ax. When I remember what they have been, and consider their present condition and work, their poor and ill-made clothes, my heart tells me that they are not the dull and speeeldess beings they seem, but that their life is hid with Christ in the heavens. 206 7'FE STOBY OF THE MTT)T)LE AGES "FarcAvell! God willing:, on the next Sunday after Ascension Day, I too sliall put on the armor of my profession as a monk!" Review and Study Topics 1. Make a list of the ways in which the monks helped the world. 2. Why do not so many persons become monks and nuns now, as in the Middles Ages? XXIII TRIUMPH OF PAPACY OVER EMPIRE Outline of Chapter Decline of the Papacy and the Empire after Charlemagne; Otto I. revives the Empire (962). Early life of the monk Hildebrand; evils in the Church; the monks of Cluny fight them; Hildebrand becomes Pope, and takes the name Gregory VII. The Emperor Henry IV.; liis investiture quarrel with Gregory VII.; Gregory excommunicates Henry; Henry submits at Canossa (1077); the struggle continued; settlement of investiture struggle. We have seen, in an earlier chapter, how the bishop of Rome became the head of the Western Church, with the title of Pope. We have also seen how Charlemagne restored the position of Emperor, as ruler of the West. We must now follow the history of these two great in- stitutions, — the Papacy and the Empire, — and see how they got along together. After Gi-egory the Great died, it was long before the Church had a Pope who equaled him in ability and goodness. And after Charlemagne was dead, it was long before there was an- Empire after Charlemagne. other Lmperor as strong as he had been. Charlemagne's empire was divided by his grand- sons, as we have seen, into three kingdoms, and though the oldest of these received the title of Emperor, he had little of Charlemagne's power. Afterwards, the rule of these "Carolingians," or descendants of Charlemagne, grew weaker and weaker, until finally 207 208 TEE STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES their power came entirely to an end. AYe have al- ready seen (p. 120) how their rule ceased in France and the power passed to the family of that Count Odo who defended Paris so bravely against the Northmen in the year 886. In Italy and in Germany also, at about the same time, the rule of the Carolingians ceased, and new rulers arose. In Germany, it was the Saxons, whom Charlemagne had conquered with so much difficulty, who then took the leading part in the government. A new and stronger German kingdom was established, and soon one of these Saxon kings — Otto I., who was rightly called Otto the Great — gained the rule over Italy also. AVhen this was done, he revived the title of Emperor, which meant something more than King. It meant not only the rule over Italy and Germany, but also a supremacy over all the kings of AVestern Europe, such as Charlemagne had exercised. This occurred in the year 962. Otto had already been King for twenty-six years, and he ruled for twelve years longer, proving to be as great a ruler as Emperor as he had been as King. One of the first things that Otto did in Italy was to put the Papacy in a better condition. During the trou- bled times that had folloAved the fall of ^^^^ j Charlemagne's empire, Italian nobles op- Hoi'rRomln pressed the popes and even attempted to set ^"^^"^ ^^^^^' them up and pull them doAvn at pleasure. The Papacy had no army of its own, and when there was no one who RINC > ,, ..i OTTO I (Sl)owing au ul«l spelling of the name) TRIUMPH OF THE PAPACY 209 was acknowledged as Emperor there was no one to whom the Pope could turn for aid. When Otto I. re- vived the Empire, it became his duty to protect the Pope. After many efforts the emperors succeeded in taking from the Italian nobles their power, and soon the position of the Pope was higher than it had even been. Then the question arose as to what then' relation should be to the emperors. Just one hundred years after the death of Otto I., a man became Pope who had very decided opinions on this subject. His name was Hildehrand. He was the son of a poor carpenter, and f/n^i^e^brand. was born in Italy, but he was of German origin. His uncle was the head of a monastery at Rome, and it was there that the boy was brought up and educated. When he grew to manhood he too be- came a monk. Circumstances soon led him to France, and there for a while he was a member of the most, famous monastery of Europe — the one at Cluny, in Burgundy. Not only the Papacy, but the whole Church, had fallen into a bad condition at this time. ]\Ionks had ceased to obey the rules made for their government, and lived idly and often fht^church. wickedly. Priests and bishops, instead of giving their attention to the cliurclies wliieh were under their care, spent their time, like the nobles of that day, in hunting, in pleasure, and in war. There were three evils which were especially com- plained of. First, priests, bishops, and even popes often got tlieir 210 TRE UTOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES offices by purchase instead of being freely elected or appointed; this was called simony. Second, the greater part of the clergy had followed the example of the Eastern Church and married, so breaking the rule of celibacy, which required that they should not marry. This was especially harmful, be- cause the married clergy sought to provide for their children by giving them lands and other property, which belonged to the Church. The third evil was the "investiture" of clergymen by "laymen," that is, by persons who were not clergy- men. AVhen a bishop, for example, was chosen he was sometimes "invested," that is, given the ring and the staff which were the signs of his office, by the Em- peror or King, instead of l)y another bishop, as was required by the rules of the Church. This investiture by laymen made the clergy feudal vassals of the lord who invested them, and the result was that they looked more to the rulers of the land for guidance than to the rulers of the Church. The monastery of Cluny took the leading part in fighting these evils. Its abbots joined to Cluny other monasteries, which were then purified and Monks of ... ^, Cluny reformed, and in this way Cluny became the them. head of a "congregation" or union of mon- asteries, which numbered many hundreds. Everywhere it raised the cry, "No simony; — celibacy; — and no lay investiture !" When Ilildebrand came to Cluny, this movement had been going on for some time, and much good had al- ready been accomplished. But it was through his ef- forts that the movement was to win its greatest success. After staying at Cluny for some months, Hildebrand TRIUMPH OF THE PAPACY 311 returned to Rome. There, for almost a quarter of a century, under five successive popes, he was the chief adviser and helper of the Papac3\ Several times the people of Rome wished to make Hildebrand Pope, but he refused. At last, when the fifth of these Hildebrand popes had died, he was forced to submit. ^if^^^^P® In the midst of the funeral services, a cry arose from the clergy and the people : "Hildebrand is Pope! St. Peter chooses Hildebrand to be Pope!" When Hildebrand sought again to refuse the office, his voice was drowned in cries : "It is the will of St. Peter! Hildebrand is Pope!" So, he was obliged at last to submit. Unwillingly, it is said, and with tears in his eyes, he was led to the papal throne. There he was clothed with the scarlet robe, and crowned with the 6r®egory*vu. papal crown ; then, at length, he was seated in the chair of St. Peter, where so many popes had sat before him. In accordance with the custom, lie now took a new name, and as Pope he was always called Gregory VII. The Emperor, at this time, was Henry IV., who had been ruler over Germany ever since he was six years old. One of his guardians had let the boy have his own way in everything ; so, al- H?nry°iv. though he was well-meaning, he had grown up without self-control, and with many bad habits. Gregory was determined to make the Emperor give up the right of investiture, and also tried to force him to reform his manner of living. Henry, for his part, was just as determined never to give up any right 212 ^'ST? STOliY OF THE MIDDLE AGES which the emperors had before him, and complained bitterly of the pride and haughtiness of the Pope. A quarrel was the result, which lasted for almost fifty years. The question to be settled was not merely the right of investiture. It included also tu/e"*^*^ " the question whether the Emperor was above the Pope, or the Pope above the Em- peror. Charlemagne and Otto I., and other emperors, had often gone into Italy to correct popes, when they did wrong; and at times they had even set aside evil popes, and named new ones in their place. Gregory now claimed that the Pope was above the Emperor ; that the lay power had no rights over the clergy; and that the Pope might even depose the Emperor, and free his subjects from the obedience which they owed him. The Pope, he said, had given the Empire to Charle- magne, and what one Pope had given, another could take away. The popes relied, in such struggles, on the power which they possessed to "excommunicate" a person. Excommunication cut the person off from eJcommuni- the Cliurcli, and no good Christian, thence- cates Henry, • i i , i • . i • i i i • lorth, might have anything to do with luiii. They could not live with him, nor do business with him; and if he died unforgiven, his soul was believed to be lost. This was the weapon which Gregory used against the Emperor Henry, when he refused to give up the right of investiture. He excommunicated him, and forbade all people to obey him as Emperor, or to have anything to do with him. Some of Henry's sub- jects were already dissatisfied with his rule, so they took this occasion to rise in rebellion. t TRIUMPH OF TEE PAPACY 213 Soon Henry saw that, unless he made his peace with the Pope, he Avould lose his whole kingdom. So, with Henry IV. at ^^^^ ^^^^^' '^"*"^ infant son, and only one attend- canossa ant, lie crossed the Alps, in the depth of winter. After terrible hardships, he arrived at Canossa, where the Pope was staying, on January 25, 1077. There, for three days, with bare feet and HKNRY IV. AT in the dress of a penitent, he Avas forced to stand in the cold before the gate of tlie castle. On the fourth day he was admitted to tlie presence of the Pope; and cry- ing, "Holy Father, .spare me!" he thrcAV himself at Gregory's feet. Then tlie Pope raised him up and for- gave him; and, after promising that henceforth he would rule in all tilings as the Pope wished, Henry was allowed to return to Germany. 214 i:s:e stoey of tee middle ages This, however, did not end the quarrel. Henry- could not forgive the humiliation that had been put upon him. The German people and clergy, JonUnue"!^^^ too, would not admit the rights which the Pope claimed. Gradually Henry recov- ered the power which he had lost ; and at last he again went to Italy, — this time with an army at his back. All Gregory's enemies now rose up against liim, and the Pope was obliged to flee to the Normans in South- ern Italy. There the gray-haired old Pope soon died, in 1085, saying : "One thing only fills me with hope. I have always loved the law of God, and hated evil. Therefore, I die in exile." Even after the death of Gregorj^ the struggle went on. New popes arose, who claimed all the power that Gregory had claimed ; and everywhere the monks of Cluny aided the Pope, and opposed the Emperor. Henry's son, also, rebelled against him; and at last, twenty-one years after the death of Gregory (1106) Henry IV. died, broken-hearted and deprived of power. Then Henry's son became Emperor; and although he had formerly sided with the Pope, he now found that he must continue the struggle, or his power Investiture i t i . • * i struggle ended would DC nothing. At last, it was seen (1122). , , . , • , • that each side must give up something. The whole trouble had arisen from the fact that the bishops were not only officers of the Church, but also held feudal ''benefices" of the Emperor. By a com- promise which was agreed to in the year 1122, the Em- peror surrendered his claim to give the bishops the ring and the staff. On the other hand, the Pope agreed that the Emperor might control the election of bishops, and TRIUMPH OF THE PAPACY 215 bind them to perform the duties which they owed as a result of the lands which they received from him. This agreement, however, did not settle the question whether the Pope was above the Emperor, or the Em- peror above the Pope. On this point there continued to be trouble throughout the Middle Ages. Review and Study Topics 1. Find out whtii you can about a great battle between Otto I. and the Hungarians. 2. Read an account of the monastery of Cluny (see encyclopedias). 3. Find out what you can about the personal .appearance and character of Gregory VIT. 4. Why was the Emperor's submission at Canossa so great a triumph for the Pope? XXIV DECLINE OF THE PAPAL POWER Outline of Chapter Powers of Pope and Emperor; the Emperor Frederick I. and the Pope; new quarrel with Frederick II. (1214-1250); he is three times excommunicated; victory of the Papacy over the Empire. Victory of France over Pope Boniface VIII. (1303); the "Babylonian captivity" of the Papacy at Avignon (1305- 1376); the Great Schism (1378-1417); Papacy and Empire both weakened at the end of the Middle Ages. Everybody in the Middle Ages agreed that there must be one head to rule over the Church, and one head, above all kings and princes, to rule Powers of Pope and ovcr the statcs of Europe. But thev could Emperor. . not settle the relations which these two powers should bear to each other. Some said that the power of the Pope in the world was like the soul of a man, and the power of the Em- peror was like his body, and since the soul was greater than the body, so the Pope must be above the Emperor. Another argument Avas founded on the passage in the Bible in which the apostles said to Christ: "Be- hold, here are two swords;" and Christ answered, ''It is enough." By the two swords, it was claimed, was meant the power of the Pope and the power of the Emperor. Those in favor of the Papacy tried to ex- plain that both the SAVords were in Peter's hands, and that as Peter was the founder of the Papacy, Christ meant both powers to be under the Pope. Still another argument Avas based on the "two great 216 DECLINE OF PAPAL POTTEP 217 lights" (the sun and the moon) Avhich the Bible tells us God set, the one to rule the day, and the other the night. The sun, it was said, represented the Pope, and tiie moon the Emperor, and since the moon shines only by light received from the sun, so, it was argued, the Emperor's power must be drawn entirely from the [*ope. It is not surprising that those who favored the Emperor would not accept arguments like these. When Frederick Barbarossa was Emperor there was another long quarrel; and one of the Pope's officers tried to show that Frederick held the Em- . Emperor pire as a "benefice" from the Pope, lust as Frederick i. ^ ^ ' •* and the Pope. a vassal held his land as a benefice from his lord. But his claim raised such an outburst of anger from the Germans, that the Pope was obliged to ex])lain it awaj\ The last great struggle between the Papacy and the Empire came when Frederick 11., the grandson of Frederick Barbarossa, was Emperor. Fred- jj^^ quarrel erick II. ruled not only over Germany and Frederick ii. Northern Italy, but over Southern Italy as (1214.1250). well. His mother was the heiress of the last, of the Norman kings in Italy ; and from her Frederick inher- ited the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Pope was afraid that the Emperor might try to get Rome also, so a quarrel soon broke out. Frederick had "taken the cross" and promised to go on a crusade. When he delayed doing this, the Pope excommunicated him for not going. Frederick at last was ready, and went to the Holy Land. Then the Pope excommunicated him a second time for going without getting the excommunication removed. In the Holy Land Frederick had great trouble with the Pope's 218 THE STOSY OF THE MIDDLE AGES friends because he was excommunicated. At last he made a treaty by which he recovered Jerusalem from the Mohammedans, and returned home. Then he was excommunicated a third time. It seemed as if there was nothing that he could do that would please the Pope. For a while peace was made between the Pope and Emperor, but it did not last long. The Papacy could Victor of "f'ver be content so long as the Emperor Papacy over rulcd ovcr Soutlicrn Italy. A new quarrel Empire (1268). "^ ^ broke out ; and this time it lasted until Frederick's death in the year 1250. After that, the struggle continued until the Papacy was completely victorious, and Frederick's son and grandson were slain, and Southern Italy was ruled by a King who was not also the ruler of Germany. Thus the Papacy was left completely victorious over the Empire. For nearly a quarter of a century there was then no real Emperor in Germany; and when at last one was chosen, he was careful to let Italy alone. ''Italy," said he, "is the den of the lion. I see many tracks leading into it, l)ut there are none coming out." From this time on, the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire comes more and more to be merely the ruler over Germany. At about this same time, the popes began to make greater claims than ever. One Pope, Boniface VIII., clothed himself in the imperial cloak, and Pope Boniface with the sceptcr in his hand and a crown upon his head, cried: "I am Pope; I am Emperor!" This could not last long. The power of the Empire was gone, but there were now national gov- ernments arising in France, England, and elsewhere, which were conscious of their strength. DECLINE OF PAPAL POWEE 219 If we go back to the beginning of the Middle Ages, we find that the pcojjli'.s wlio were overthi'owing the old Roman Empire were national , -, . governments. hound together in inbes, the members of which were united by ties of kinship, that is, they were all of the same blood. But as time went on, and the different peoples settled down to orderly life, the old tribes were broken up. Then men entered into feudal relationships by becoming the vassals of their lords, and thenceforth the ties which bound them together were those of loyalty and feudal service. As yet there was no feeling of patriotism among them, or of loyalty to a country. After the Crusades the kings gained more power, and began to take from the nobles their feudal rights of raising armies, making war when they pleased, holding courts, and the like. In this way strong national governments arose in France, in Eng- land, and elsewhere ; and it was not long before these also came into confiict with the Papacy. The most powerful of these new governments was the monarchy of France. Pope Boniface VIII., who had made such great claims for tlie Papacy, soon got into a quarrel with King Philip defeated by IV., of that country, about some money matters; and the way he was treated by the servants of the King showed that the old power of the popes was really gone, equally with the power of the emperors. Boniface was seized at a little town in Italy, where he was staying, was struck in the face with a glove by one of his own nobles, and was kept prisoner for several days. Although he was soon released, the old Pope died in a few weeks, — of shame and anger, it was said. 220 THE STOUT OF THE MIDDLE AGES SEIZURE OF POPE BONIFACE VIII. DECLINE OF PAPAL POWER 221 Xor was this the end of the matter. Within a few jnonths, the seat of the Papacy was removed from Kome to Aviffnon, on the river Rhone. The Papacy There, for al)ont seventy years, the popes at Avignon . . . (1309-1376). remained under the influence of the kings of France. Tliis period is known as the "Bal)ylonian %y.^- fk'^^' ^^>\ 1 ^lJfIi&»^^V^ TAPAL PALACE AT AVIGNON captivity"' of the Papacy, in memory of the seventy years' captivity of the Jews at Babylon, which is de- scribed in the Old Testament. • And even when, at last, a Pope removed the Papacy l)ack to Rome, new troubles arose. A great division or "schism" followed, during which there Avere two popes instead of one ; and all the riations of Europe were divided as to whether they should obey the Pope at Rome, or tlu? one at Avignon. 222 'Z'^^' STOUT OF THE MIDBl.E AGES "All our West land," wrote an EngHslnnan, named Wyelif, "is with that one Pope or that other; and he that is with that one, hateth the other, with The Great ,, , . • i -r» Schism all his. Some men say tliat here is the 1 ope (1378-1417). at Avignon, for he was well chosen ; and some men say tiiat he is yonder at Rome, for he was first chosen." A Council of the Church tried to end the schism ; but it only made matters worse by adding a third Pope to the two that already existed. At last, another and greater Council was held ; and there, after the schism had lasted for nearly forty years, all three popes were set aside, and a new one was chosen whom all the na- tions accepted. So, at last, the Papacy was reunited and restored to Rome. But it never recovered entirely from its stay at Avignon, and from the Great Schism. Papacy and „,, ,. , Empire both Tile powcr ot llic poi)es was never again as great as it had l)eeii ])efore the quarrel between Boniface Viil. ami tlic King of France. The Papacy had triumplu'd over tiie Empire, but it could not triumph over the national kingdoms. "We look on Pope and Emperor alike," said a w^riter in the fifteenth century, wdio soon became Pope him- self, "as names in a story, or heads in a picture." Thenceforth, there was no ruler whom all Christen- dom would obey. The. end of the Middle Ages, indeed, was fast approaching. The modern times, when each nation obeys its own kings and follows only its own interests, were close at hand. DECLINE OF PAPAL POWER 223 Review and Study Topics 1. Eead an account of Frederick IT. 2. How did the "Babylonian captivity" weaken the Papacy? 3. How did the Great Schism weaken it? 4. Why do we not today recognize some one ruler, like the Emperor in the Middle Ages, as the ruler in chief of all Christian lands? 5. Would it be best (a) for the Pope to be above the Emperor, or (b) the Emperor above the Pope, or (c) Church and State to be entirely independent? Why? XXV FIRST PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR Outline of Chapter The earlier wars between England and France did not greatly concern the people; a new spirit comes in with the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). Causes of this war; English archers at the battle of Crecy (1346); flight of tlio French crossbowmen; the Black Prince and the King; victor}' of the English. The Black Death wastes both England and France; the war renewed; battle of Poitiers (1356); victory of the f^nglish; the French King captured. One of the signs that the Middle Ages were com- ing to an end was the long war hetween France and England. It lasted altogether from 1337 to 1453, and is called the Hundred Years' AVar. Wlien AVilliam the Conqueror became King of Eng- land (see p. 131), he did not cease to be Duke of Nor- ^ ,. mandy. Indeed, as time went on, the power Earlier wars '' ' ' *■ _ between Qf Euglisli kings iu France increased, until England and ^ ° France. William's successors ruled all the western part of that land, from north of the river Seine to the Pyrenees mountains, and from the Bay of Biscay almost to the river Khone. They held all this territory as fiefs of the kings of France; but the fact that they were, also, independent kings of England, made them stronger than their overlords. This led to freqiKuit wars, until, at last, the English kings had lost all their land in France except Aquitaine, in the soutliAvest. These, however, were merely feudal wars between 224 FIRST PERIOD OF THE WAB 225 the rulers of the two countries. They did not much concern the people of either France or England ; for in neither country had the people come to j,j^ ^^^ feel that they were a nation, and that one of foncem the their first duties Avas to love their own p^^p^^- country and support their own government. In Aqui- taine, indeed, the people scarcely felt that they were French at all, and rather preferred the kings of Eng- land to the French kings, who dwelt at Paris. During the Hundred Years' War, all this was to change. In fighting with one another, in this long struggle, the people of France and of Eng- New spirit land came gradually to feel that they were in Hundred French and English. The people of Aqui- taine began to feel that they were of nearer kin to tliose who dwelt about Paris, than they were to the English ; and began to feel love for France and hatred for England. It was the same, too, with the English. In fighting the French, the descendants of the old Sax- ons and of the conquering Normans came to feel that they were all alike Englishmen. So, although the long war brought terrible suffering and misery, it brought also some good to both countries. In each patriotism was born, and in each the people became a nation. There were many things which led up to the war, but the chief thing was the fact that the French King who died in 1328 left no son to succeed him. The principal claimants for the throne ^^3^^^°^ were his cousin, Philip, who was a Duke in France, and his nephew, Edward III. of England. The French no1)les decided in favor of Duke Philip, and he became King as Philip VI. Edward did not like this decision, but he accepted it for a time. After nine 226 THE STOEY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES years, however, war broke out because of other rea- sons ; and then Edward claimed the throne as right- fully his. During the first eight years, neither country gained any great advantage, though the English won an im- portant battle at sea. In the ninth year of the war, the English gained their first great victory on land. This battle took place at Crecy, in the northernmost part of France, about one hundred miles from Paris. The French army was several times as large archers at as the Euglish, and was made up mainly of mounted knights, armed with lance and sword, and clad in the heavy armor of the Middle Ages. The Englisli army was made up chiefly of archers, on ARCHERS SHOOTING .\T MARK foot. Everywhere, in England, boys were trained, from the time they were six or seven years old, to shoot with the bow and arrow. As they grew older, stronger and stronger bows were given them, until at last they could use the great long-bows of their fathers. The greatest care was taken in this teaching; and on holi- days grown men, as well as boys, might be seen shoot- ing at marks on the village commons. In this way, the English became the best archers in Europe; and so FIEST PEEIOD OF THE WAR 227 powerful were tlieir bows that the arrows would often pierce armor, or slay a knight's horse, at a hundred yards. So, the advantage was not so great on the side of the French as it seemed. Besides, King Edward placed his men very skillfully, while the French managed the battle very badly. Edward fh^'brtul °^ placed his archers at the top of a sloping hillside, with the knights behind them. In command of the first line he placed his fifteen year old son, the Black Prince, while the King him- self took a position on a little windmill-hill, in the rear. The French had a large number of crossbowmen Avith them. Al- though the crossbowmen could not shoot so rapidly as the English archers, because the crossbow had to be rested on the ground and wound up after each shot, they conld shoot to a greater distance and with more force. Unluckily, they were hungry and tired out by the long day's march, while the English were fresh and vigorous. So, when the French King ordered the crossbowmen to advance, they went unwillingly; and when the English archers, each stepping forward one pace, let fly their arrows "so thick that it seemed that it snowed," the crossbowmen turned and fled. At this King Philip was very angry, for he thought they fled through cowardice ; so he cried: "Slay me those rascals!" A CUOSSBOWMAN 328 ^^^' STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES At this coiniuand, the French knights rode among the erossbowmen, and IdUed many of tlieir own men. All this time the English arrows Avere falling in show- ers about them, and many horses and knights, as well as archers, were slain. Then the French horsemen charged the English lines. Some of the knights about the young Prince now began to fear for him, and sent to the King, urg- The Black . , • , i • i. Prince and ing him to scud assistancc. the King. ,,j^ ^^^ ^^^ dead," asked tlie King, "or so wounded that he cannot help himself?" "No, sire, please God," answered the messenger, "but he is in a hard passage of arms, and much needs yoiii- help. " "Then," said King Edward, "re- LS^" ^>^^ -'Uma=^- turn to them that KNUaiiS INI^ATTLIC ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ them not to send to me again so long as my son lives. I command them to let the boy win his spurs. If God be pleased, I will that the honor of this day shall be his." On the Frencli side, was the blind old King of Bo- hemia. AVhen the fighting began, he said to those about him : "You are my vassals and friends. I pray you to lead me so far into the battle that T may strike at least one good stroke with my sword!" Two of his attendants then placed themselves on either side of him ; and, tying the l)ridles of their horses together, they rode into the figlit. There the old blind King fought valiantly ; and when the battle was FIEST PERIOD OF THE JVAR •_)■)() over, the bodies of all three were found, witli their horses still tied together. The victory of the English was complete. Thou- sands of the French were slain, and King Philip him- self was obliged to Hee, to escape capture. So the l^lack Prince won his spurs right Y}^^°^y °.^^ ^ ° the English. iio])ly, but the chief credit for the victory was due to the good shooting of the English archers. It was some years after this before the next great battle was fought. This was due^ in part, to a terrible sickness which came upon all Western Eu- rope, soon after the battle of Crecy. It was Death^*'^'' called the Black Death, and arose in Asia, where cholera and the plague often arise. AVhole vil- lages were attacked at the same time ; and for two years the disease raged everywhere. When at last it died out, half of the population of England was gone ; and Prance had suffered almost as terribly. Ten years after the battle of Crecy (in 1356), the war broke out anew. The Black Prince, at the head of an army, set out from Aciuitaine and marclu^d northward into the heart of France. Soon, of Pouiers (1356). however, he found his retreat cut off, near the city of Poitiers, by the P>ench King, John (who had succeeded his father Philip), with an army six or seven times the size of the English force. The situation of the English was so bad that the Prince offered to give up all the prisoners, castles, and towns which they had taken during this expedition, and to promise not to fight against France again for seven years, if the French King would grant them a free retreat. But King John felt so sure of victory that he refused these terms. Then the jjattle began. 230 T^^ STOEY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Just as at Crecy, the English were placed on a little hill ; and again they depended chiefly on their archers. From behind a thick hedge, they shot their arrows in clouds as the French advanced. Soon all was uproar and confusion. Many of the French lay wounded or slain; and many of their horses, feeling the sting of the arrow-heads, reared wildly, flung their riders, and dashed to the rear. When once dismounted, a knight B.\TTI>E OI<" port U.l(> From a picture In an old manuscript. could not mount to the saddle again without assistance, so heavy was the armor which was then worn. In a short time this division of the French was over- thrown. Then a second, and finally a third division met the same fate. To the French war- win th"^ '^ cries ' ' Mount joy ! Saint Denis ! " the Eng- victory. ^.^j^ replied with shouts of "Saint George! Guyenne!" The ringing of spear-heads upon shields, the noise of breaking lances, the clash of hostile swords, FIEST PERIOD OF THE WAR 231 and battle-axes, were soon added to the rattle of Eng- lish arrows upon French breastplates and helmets. At last the French were all overthrown, or turned in flight, except in one part of the field. There King John, with a few of his bravest knights, fought valiantly on foot. As he swung his heavy battle-ax, now at this foe and now at that, his son Philip, a brave boy of thirteen years, cried unceasingly : ''Father, guard right! Father, guard left!" Finally even the King was obliged to surrender ; and he and his son Philip were taken prisoners, and were conducted to the tent of the English Prince. There they were courteously entertained, ?,■?« ^'■«"'=^ , King captured. the Prince waiting upon them at table with his own hands. But for several years they re- mained captives, awaiting the ransom which the Eng- lish demanded. Review and Study Topics 1. Eead an account of the causes of the Hundred Years' War. (See Harding's Story of England, p. 121.) 2. Write a story of the battle of Crecy, from the point of view of an English squire who was present at it. 3. Find out what you can about the Black Death and its effects in England and in France. (Story of Ennlami, pp. 127-129.) 4. Imagine that you are the French Prince Philip, and write a letter describing your capture at Poitiers. XXVI MIDDLE PEKIOJ) OF THE STRUGGLE Outline of Chapter Troubles in France; ('liarles the Wise bet-onies King; the Eng- lish at a disadvantage; successes of the French (1370-1380). New disorders in France; Henry V. becomes King of England; he renews the war (1415); English victory at Agincourt. The battle of Poitiers was a sad blow, indeed, to France. ]\Iany hundreds of her noblest knights were there slain, and all sorts of disorders arose iTi^Fr^nce. during the captivity of her King. The peasants rose in rebellion against their mas- ters, and civil war broke out. And when, after four years of comfortal)le captivity, King John Avas set free, he was oliliged to pay a lieavy ransom, and to sign a peace in which he surrendered to the English, in full right, all of Aquitaine. Soon after this, ''good King John," as he was called, died, leaving his kingdom in great disorder. He Avas a good knight and a brave man, but he was a poor general and a weak king. His eldest son, Charles, who was styled Charles V., or Charles the AVise, now became King. He was very different from his father; and though he Charles the . i • i i i • i wipo becomes was uot nearly so knightlv a warrior, he King (1350). 1 1 i.4. 1 • ' TT • A proved a much better king. He improved the government and the army; and when the war with the English was resumed, he soon began to be suc- cessful. 232 MIDDLE PEEIOD OF THE STRUGGLE 233 The Black Prince was now broken in liealtli, and died in the year 1370; the oki English King, Edward 111., died the next year; and then Richard ' "^ The English II., the twelve year old son of the Black at a ' " disadvantage. Prince, became King of England. Troubles, too, broke out in England ; and as a result of all this the Englisli were not able to carry on the war nearly as vigorously as they had done before. At the same time, the French .King found a general. KNIGHT ATTAfM.NC KOOT .SOMUKKS named Du Guesclin, who pi-oved to be one of the best commanders that the Middle Ages produced. Du Guesclin was a poor country noble, from West- ern France. As a boy he was so ugly and ill favored that his parents scarcely loved him, and his _ - ,. ,, .,, Du Guesclin. cliief pleasure was ni fighting the village constable of ' France. lads. At sixteen years of age he ran away from home, and lived for a time with an uncle.' He longed to take part in tournaments and pei-t'orm feats of arms, but he Avas too poor to i)rovide himself witli a horse and armor. But one day, when a tournament was being held at his native toAvn, lie returned there, borrowed a horse and armor, and overthrew fifteen knights, one after the other. When he raised the visor 234 THE STOBY OF TEE MIDDLE AGES of his helmet, and his father saw Avho the uuknown war- rior was, there was a happy reunion. In the earlier stages of the Hundred Years' War, Du Gueselin had taken some part, but had not been present at either Crecy or at Poitiers. He had made a nprae for himself, however, and was recognized as a man of im- portance. When Charles V. renewed the war with the English, he chose Du Gues- elin to be "Con- stable of France," that is, commander- in-c li i e f of the P^ronch armies. At first Du Gueselin asked the King to excuse him from this office, saying that he was but a poor man, and not of high birth ; and how could he ex- pect the great nobles of France to obey him ? But the King answered him, saying: "Sir, do not excuse yourself thus; for there is no nobleman in the kingdom, even among my own kin, who would not obey you. And if any should be so hardy as to do otherwise, he would surely hear from me. So take the office freely, I beseech you." DU GUESCLIN MIDDLE PERIOD OF THE STRUGGLE 235 So Du Gueselin became Constable, and from that time the fortunes of France began to improve. One trouble with the French had been that they scorned the "base-born" foot-soldiers, and thought that war should be the business of the , 1 1 • 1 J 1 1 , Successes of heavy-armed knights alone ; and another the French was that the knights thought it disgrace- ful to retreat, even when they knew they could not win. AVith Du Gueselin, all was different, lie was willing to use peasants and townsmen if their way of fighting was better than that of the nobles; and he did not think it beneath him to retreat, when he saw that he could not win a victory. So, by caution and good sense, and with the support of wise King Charles, Du Gueselin won victory after victory; and though no great battles were fought, al- most all of the English possessions in France came once more into the hands of the French. But here, for a time, the French successes stopped. Du Gueselin died, in 1380, and soon after him King Charles V. Now it was the French who had a boy king, and when this King. ^^Z '^'^<"'"i®" *','=" *=• in France. Charles VI., grew to be a man, he became insane. His uncles quarreled with one another, and with the King's brother, for the government. Soon the quarrel led to murder, and the murder to civil war ; and again France was thrown into all the misery and disorder from which it had been rescued by Charles the "Wise. In England, about this time, King Henry V. came to the throne. He was a young and warlike prince ; and he wished, through a renewal of the war, to win glory for himself. Besides, he remembered the old claim 236 TBE SrOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES of Edward III. to the French crown; and he thought that now, when the French nobk^s were fighting among „. „ „ themselves, was a fine opportunity to make King Henry V. ' t i •' of England. ^|j.^^ cUlim gOOd. So, in the year 1415, King Henry landed with an army in France, and began again the old, old struggle. Again, after a few months, the English found their retreat cut off, at Agincourt, not far from Crecy, by a much larger army of the French. But King Henry remem- bered the former vic- tories of the Engli.sh, and did not despair. AVlien one of his knights Avished that the thousands of warriors then lying idle in England were only there, King Henry exclaimed : "I would not have a single man more. H God gives us the victory, it will be plain that we owe it to His grace. If not, the fewer we are, the less loss to England." At Agincourt, there was no sheltering hedge to pro- tect the English archers. To make up for this. King Henry ordered each man to provide himself with tall HALBERDS, BILLS. AND PIKES MIDDLE PEBIOD OF THE STEUGGLE 237 stakes, sharpened at each end ; these they planted slant- wise in the ground, as a protection against French horsemen. Most of the English force was English victory at again made up of archers, with the long- Agincourt ts -i (1415). bow; while most of the French were knights, in full armor. The French seemed to have forgotten all that Du Guesclin and Charles V. had taught them. To make matters worse, their knights dismounted, and sought to march upon the English position on foot. As the field through which they had to pass was newly plowed, and wet with rain, the heavy-armed knights sank knee-deep in mud, at every step. For the third time, the English victory was complete. Eleven thousand Frenchmen were left dead upon the field, and among the number were more than a hun- . dred great lords and princes. In after years Englishmen sang of the wonderful victory in these words : Agincourt, Agincourt! Know ye not Agincourt? When English slew and hurt All their French foemen? With our pikes and bills brown How the French were beat down, Shot by our bowmen! Agincourt, Agincourt! Know ye not Agincourt? English of every sort, High men and low men, Fought that day wondrous well, as All our old stories tell us, Thanks to our bowmen. 238 2'^S STOET OF THE MIDDLE AGES Agineourt, Agincourt ! Know ye not Agincourt? When our fifth Harry taught Frenchmen to know men, And when the day was done •Thousands then fell to one Good English bowman. So the middle period of the war, like the first period, ends with a great victory for the English, and a flood- tide of English success. Review and Study Topics 1. Why were the French more successful under Du Guesclin than at Crecy and Poitiers? 2. Find out what you can about King Charles V. of France. 3. Bead Shakespeare's account of the battle of Agincourt ("Henry V.," Act IV). XXVII JOAN OF ARC AND THE CLOSE OF THE WAR Outline of Chapter " Burgiindians " and " Armagnacs; " death of Henry V. and Charles VI.; government of England and France afterwards. Joan of Arc appears; her early life; her "voices"; she leads the French troops before Orleans; she saves France; her capture and death (1431). French successes continue; end of war (1453). Even so great a defeat as that at Agiucourt could not make the French princes cease from their quarrels. Again the leader of one party was mur- dered by the followers of the other ; and a^P^ **°^ the followers of the dead prince became so bitterly hostile that they were willing to join the Eng- lish against the other party. In this way the *'Bur- gundians, ' ' as the one party was named, entered into a treaty with Henry of England against the "Armag- nacs," as the other party was called. It was agreed that Henry V. should marry Katharine, the daughter of the insane King Charles VI., and that Henry should become King of France when the old King died. No one seemed to care for the rights of the Dauphin (the French King's son) except the Armagnacs; they, of course, were opposed to all that the Burgundians did. Both Henry V. of England and poor old Charles VI. of France died within two years after this treaty was signed. Henry had married Katharine as agreed ; and though their son (Henry VI.) was a mere 239 240 ^'^^ STOBY OF THE MIDDLE AGES baby, only nine months old, he now became King of both England and France. In neither country, how- ever, was his reign to be a happy or a Death of . • Henry V. peaccful onc. In England, the little (1422). . . King's relatives fell to quarreling about the government, just as had happened in France, and when he grew up, like his French grandfather he became insane. At the same time the English found their hold upon France relaxing, and the land slipping from their grasp. Only the Armagnacs, at first, had recognized the Dauphin as King; and for seven years after the death of his father he had great difficulty in keep- appears iiig any part of France from the hands of (1429) the English. In the year 1429, however, a great change took place. A young peasant girl, named Joan of Arc, appeared at the King's court in that year, and, under her inspiration and guidance, the French cause began to gain, and the English and Bur- gundian to lose ground. Joan's home was in the far northeastern part of France, where she had been brought up in her father's cottage, with her brothers and sisters. nil ^^""^^ There she helped to herd the sheep, assisted her mother in household tasks, and learned to spin and sew. She never learned to read and write, for that was not thought necessary for peasant girls. Joan was a sweet, good girl, and was very religious. Even in her far-off village, the people suffered from the evils which the wars brought upon the ??^Ji„<.. " land, and Joan's heart was moved bv the voices. ' distress which she saw about her. When she was thirteen years old, she began to hear voices JOAN OF ARC 241 of saints aud angels, — of Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, and of the augel Gabriel. When she was eighteen her "voices" told her that she must go into France, aid the Dauphin, and cause hini to he crowned King at Rheinis, Avhere the kings of France had been crowned before him. The cause of the Dauphin, at this time, was at its JOAN or ARC USTKNING TO THE VOICES lowest ebb. The English were besieging the city of Orleans, on the Loire river; and, if that j^^n le^as the should be taken, all France would be lost. ^'^«"'=^ ^'■°°p^- So, the first work that Joan set herself to do was to raise the siege of Orleans. With much difficulty she succeeded in reaching tlie Dauphin. When she was brought into the room where 343 '^SE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES he was, she picked him out from among all, though she had never seen him before and though many of the courtiers were more richly dressed than he. After many weeks she succeeded in persuading his councillors that her "voices" were from God, and not from the evil one. Then, at last, she was given a suit of armor ; and mounted on a white horse, with a sword at her side and a standard in her hand, she rode at the head of the Dauphin's troops to Orleans. When once Joan had reached that place, she so encouraged the citizens that, within eight days, the English were forced to raise the siege and Frlnce!^^ to retire. It seemed to the French a miracle of God, while the English dreaded and feared her, as a witch or sorceress. From this time Joan is called "the Maid of Orleans." Nor did her success stop with the relief of tliat city. Within a few months, the Dauphin was taken to Rheims, and crowned as the true King of France. After this, many flocked to his standard, who before had taken no part in the war. From that time on, the French began to get the advantage of the English ; and it was mainly the enthu- siasm and faith aroused by the Maid that caused the change. Joan's M'ork was now almost done. Twice she was wounded, while fighting at the head of the King's troops. At last, she was taken prisoner Her capture ' ^ ' aLi)^^^ '^^ ^ pai'fy of Burgundians, and turned over to the English. By them she was put on trial for heresy and sorcery. She showed much cour- age and skill, before her judges, but she was con- demned and sentenced to be burned to death at the stake. JOAN OF ABC 243 The next day the sentence was carried out. To the last, she showed herself brave, kind, and womanly. As the flames mounted about her an Englishman cried out : "We are lost; we have burned a "saint!" Such, indeed, she was, if a saint was ever made by purity, faith, and noble suffering. The English burned the Maid and threw her ashes into the river Seine; but they could not undo her work. The French continued to gain victory after victory, even after she had been put to death. Soon the old quarrel between the Armagnacs and Bur- gundians was set- tled, and the Bur- gundians abandoned the English. Then Paris was gained by the French King. Some years after this Normandy was con- quered, and finally Aquitaine. In the year 1453, the long, long war came to an end. Of all the wide territories which the English had once possessed in France, they now held only one little town in the north ; and the shadows of a civil war— the War of the Roses — were settling on England to prevent them from JOAN AT THE CUOWNING FKENCn KING OF THE End pf the war '(1453). 244 THE STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES ever regaining what they had lost. Down to the time of George III., the English kings continued to style themselves "kings of France;" but this was a mere form. The French now felt themselves to be a nation, and only a national king could rule over them. That this was so was mainly due to the Maid of Orleans. She was the real savior of France, and remains its greatest national hero. Review and Study Topics 1. Make a list of the chief events of the Hundred Years' War, with their dates. 2. Write an account in your own words of the life and death of Joan of Are. 3. Was the failure of the English kings to secure the throne of France a good or a bad thing for England? Why? XXVIII END OF THE CUDDLE AGES Outline of Chapter When the Middle Ages came to an end; what brought this about. Influence of the Crusades, etc.; capture of Coustan- tinople by the Turks {l4'hV). Other factors: (1) The Revival of Learning; (2) new inventions —printing, gunpowder, the compass and "cross-staff"; (3) discovery of new lands — Prince Henry the Navigator; Colum- bus; Vasco de Gama. European states at the end of the Middle Ages: Germany; Italy, Sweden, and Holland; Englany Columbus, his request was granted. In that way, the beginning was made of a claim which, after many years, gave the English the possession of all tlie eastern part of North America. END OF TEE MIDDLE AGES 255 France, also, was strong, united, and prosperous at the close of the Middle Ages. Through several cen- turies, the kings had been busy breaking down the influence of the great nobles, and France, gathering the power into their own hands. So, France was ready to take part in the exploration and settlement of the New AVorld. The result was that the French got Canada and Louisiana, and, for a time, it seemed as though the whole of the great Mississippi basin also would pass into their hands. It was Spain, however, that was to take the chief part in the work of making known the New World to the Old, and in establishing there the first colonies. From the days when the Moors came into Spain, in 711, the Spanish Christians had been occupied, for nearly eight hundred years, in defending themselves in the mountains against the Spain. Mohammedans, and in winning back, bit by bit, the land which the Goths had lost. Little by little, new states had there arisen — Castile, Leon, Aragon, and Portugal. Next, these states began to unite — Leon with Castile, and then (by the marriage of Queen Isabella to King Ferdinand) Castile with Aragon. In the year 1492, the last of the Moors were overcome, and the whole peninsula, except Portugal alone, was united under one King and Queen. Thus Spain, too, was made strong, united, and pros- perous ; and so was prepared, with the confidence of victory upon it, to send forth Columbus, Vespucius, De Soto, Cortez, and Magellan, to lay the foundations of the first great colonial empire. All this was made possible by tlie Middle Ages. Tlie blending of the old Germans with the peoples of the 256 ^J'^I'^ STORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES Roman Empire made the Spaniards, the French, "and, to a certain extent, the English people. The events of the Middle Ages shaped their develop- Ages and the mcnt, and formed the strong national mon- archies which alone could colonize the New World. And it was the institutions and ideas, which had been shaped and formed and re-shaped and re- formed in the Middle Ages, that the colonists brought with them from across the sea. So, in a way, the story of the Middle Ages is a part of our own history. The New World influenced the Old World a very great deal; but it was itself influenced, yet more largely, by the older one. Review and Study Topics 1. Make a list of the ways in which Modern Times are different from the Middle Ages. 2. How did the fall of Constantinople help to bring the Middle Ages to an end? 3. State in your own words what the Eevival of Learning was. 4. Which of the new inventions was the most important? Give your reasons. INDEX Diacritical Marks: a as in late; a as in fat; a as in far; a as in care; e as in me; 6 as in met; & as in there; g as in gem; i as in ice; i as in ti7i; n the French nasal; o as in note; 6 as inno(; 6 as in for; ii the French u. Italic letters are silent. Aachen (a'ken), 102. Acre (il'ker), siege of, 1.52-3. Ad-rl-an-6'ple, battle of, 28; under Turks, 247. Agincourt (a-zh&n-koor'), battle of, 236-38. Al'a-ric, 30, 31-6, 63, 117. Al'frSd, King of England, 126-28. Al-16-nian'ians (-yans), 65, 67. America, discovered by Northmen, 123; by Columbus, 253. Angles, 59-60, 12.5-26. An'tl-ocfe, siege of, 140-43. Ar'abs, 77-87; overthrown by Turks, 1.33. Archers, English, 226. A'rI-an-ism, 54-5, 60, 69. A'rl-us, 54-5. Armagnacs (ar-man-yak') . and Bur- gundians, 239, 240, 243. Ar'yiin peoples, 14. As'tro-labe, 252. Ath-a-na'sius (-shus), 54-5. Athens, 32. At'tl-la, 42-3, 63, 104. Augustus, Emperor. 16. Avignon (a-ven-yon'), papacy at, 221- 22. Benedict, St., 195; rule of, 196-201. Ber'nard, St., 205. Black Death, 229. Black Prince, 227-33. Bon'i-faoe VIII., Pope, 218, 221. Books, mediaeval, 201-2. Britain, 59; Romans in, 124; conquered by Angles and Saxons, 125. {See England.) Brun-hil'dii, 73. Bul-ga'rI-ans, 136. Bur-gun'dl-ans, 41, 03, 64, 67; party in France, 239, 240, 243. Cab'ot, John, 254. Cannon, use of, 247, 250. Ca-nos'sa, Henry IV. at, 213-14. Ca-nute', King, 128. Castles, rise of, 106; life of, 158-72. Cathedrals, 191. Chalons (sha-lon'), battle of, 43, 46. Charlemagne (shar'-16-mafi), 90-100, 114, 116, 135, 212. Charles Mar-tgl', 85-86, 104. Charles (the Bald), 105. Charles V. of France, 232-35. Charles VI. of France, 235, 239. Chimneys, 179. Christians, in Roman Empire, 52; oppressed by Turks in Holy Land, 133; massacre inhabitants of Jeru- salem, 144; spared by Saladin, 150. Church, 10-11; growth of, 50-60; separation of Greek and Roman, 55; feudalized, 112; evils in, 210; Great Schism in Western, 222. Civilization, meaning of, 11; elements of mediaeval, 11. Clara, St., 196. Clgr'mont, council at, 134-35. Clo-tll'da, 68, 71. Clo'vls, King, 65-70, 71, 73. Cluny (klii-ne'), monastery of, 209, 210-11, 214. Columbus, 253. Com'munes, mediaeval, 187. Compass, 251. 157 258 INDEX Conrad III. of Germany, 148. Con'-stan-tlne, Emperor, 52. Constantinople, 25, 29, 30, 32, 42, 47, 134, 136; splendor of, 138-39; cap- tured on Fourth Crusade, 155; by Turks, 246-47. Corinth, isthmus of, 32. Crecy (cra-se'). battle of, 226-29. Cross-staff, 252. Crusades, 123, 132-57. Curfew, 192. Dark Ages, 11, 38-9, 48, 58. Dg-sl-de'ri-us, King, 94-96. Dominic, St., 196. Dii Guesclin (ga-klan'). 233-35. East-Goths, 27, 46-9, 67. E-dgs'sa, fall of, 148. Edward (the Confessor), 128-29. Edward III. of England, 225-29, 233. Empire, Eastern, separation from West, 30; threatened by Turks. 134; in hands of Crusaders, 155; fall of, 246-47. Empire, Western, separation from Eastern, 30; overthrown by Ger- mans, 38-51; revived by Charle- magne, 97-8; by Otto I., 208-9; conflicts with Papacy, 212-18; practically confined to Germany, 218. Engines, military, 140, 144, 153, 165, 247. England, conquered by Angles and Saxons, 125; conversion, 59-60, 126; Northmen in, 126-28; Norman con- quest, 129-31; Hundred Years' War with France, 224-44; Wars of the Rpses, 243, 254; at close of Middle Ages, 254. Excommunication, 212. Fairs, 192-93. Falconry, 168. Ferdinand, King of Aragon, 255. Feud, 18, 73-74. Feudalism, rise of, 109-13; decline of, 245. Fonte-naj/', battle of, 104-5. France, rise of, 67, 105; fall of Carol- ingian dynasty, 120, 208; rise of national government in, 220-21; conflict with Papacy, 221; Hundred Years' War with England, 224-44; at close of Middle Ages, 255. Francis, St., 196. Franks, 51, 62-76, 84-107; of the Crusades, 139, 147. Fr6d-f-g6n'da, 73. Frederick (I.) Bar-ba-ros'sa, Em- peror, 150-51; and the Papacy, 217. Frederick II., Emperor, 217-18. Friars, 196. Ga'ma^^Vasco da, 253. Gaul, 13, 14; Romans in, 124; Bur- gundians settle in, 41; Attila in, 42; conquered by Franks, 63. (See France.) Germans, ancient, 10, 11, 12-22; influence on Church, 56. Germany, at beginning of Middle Ages, 12-13; separation of, 105; end of Carolingian rule in, 208; at close of Middle Ages, 253-54. G^Ib'gl-lines, 188. Gl-b'ral'tar, origin of name, 81. G6d'frey (of Bouillon), 146-7. Goths, 22-37, 39, 43, 46-49, 63-67, 81-82. Greek Empire. (5ee Empire, Eastern.) Greenland, discovered by Northmen, 123. Gregory I., the Great, Pope, 58-60. Gregory VII., Pope, 211-14. Guelfs (gwglfs), 188. Guilds, 190-91. Gunpowder, 250. Ga't6n-berg, 249. Han'nibal, 34 Harold, King of England, 129-31. Hajst'ings, battle of, 130. Hastings, the Northman, 117-18, 121. Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 253. Henry IV. Emperor, 211-14. Henry V., of England, 235-39. Henry VI. of England, 239-40. Henry VII. of England, 254. INDEX 259 Hll'dS-brand, 209, 211-14. Holland, 254. Holy Lance, 142. Holy Roman Empire, 90, 98, 208-9, 218. Hos'pitallers, 147-48. Humanists, 248-49. Hundred Years' War, 224-44. Hungarians, 106, 13C. Huns, 25-7, 39, 41-44, 46, 58, 63. Iceland, settled by Northmen, 123. Investiture conflict, 210-15. Ireland, 125. Isabella, Queen of Castile, 255. Italy, West-Goths in, 33-36; Attila in, 43; Odoacer rules, 45; East Goths in, 47-48; recovered by Justinian, 48- 49; Lombard kingdom in, 49-51; conquered by Franks, 94-97; given to Lothair, 105; end of Carolingian rule in, 208; Normans conquer south, 122, 137; Frederick II. rules, 218; abandoned by Emperor, 218; cities of, 183-85, 188; at close of Middle Ages, 254. Jerusalem, under Mohammedans, 133- 34; captured by Crusaders, 143-45; Latin Kingdom of, 146; overthrown by Saladin, 150; recovered by Frederick II., 1.55, 218. J6-an' of Arc, 240-43 John, King of France, 229-32. Jus-tin'i-an, Emperor, 48. Katherine, of France, 239. Knighthood, training for, 166-72. K6-ran', 80-81. Leo (I., the Great), Pope, 40, 43, 58. Lom'bards, 49-50, 58, 60, 87; conquer- ed by Charlemagne, 94-96. Lor-rainf', origin of, 105. Lo-thair', 105. Louis the Pious, 104, 117. Louis VII. of France, 148. Louis (IX.), St., of France, 155. Lud'wig, 105. Mayors of the Palace, 84. M6c'ca, 80. MSr-o-vin'gi'an kings, 71-76; set aside by Pepin, 87. Middle Ages, end of the, 245-53. Military Orders, 147-48. Mo-ham'm6d, 78-80. Mohammedans, conquests of, 81-83 defeated by Charles Martel, 85-86 Charlemagne's wars with, 93, 135 Crusades against, 134-57; e.xpelled from Spain, 255. Monasteries, rise of, 56-57; life of, 195-206. Moors, 37, 83, 85-86, 106, 255. Nl-cae'ii, Council of, 54; taken by Crusaders, 139-40. N6r'-man-dy, founded, 121. Normans, 122-23; conquests of, 122- 23; 129-31, Northmen, 106, 114-23. Nuns, 196. O'do, 120. O-do-a'cer, 44-45, 46, 47, 63. Ordeals, 74-75. 6r'16-ans, relief of, 241-42. 6t'to I. of Germany, 208, 212. Palace School, 100. Pa'pacy, rise of, 53; under Gregory I., 58-60; and Empire, 96-98, 207-18; under Boniface VIII., 218; at Avignon, 221-22; Great Schism in, 222-23. Paris, taken by Northmen, 119; besieged, 120. Peasants, life of, 173-81; in Palestine, 146-47; revolt of in France, 232. Pgp'in the Short, 86-88. Peter the Hermit, 136. Philip (II. Augustus), of France, 150, 152-53. Philip IV. of France, 221. Philip VI. of France, 225-29. Poitiers (pwa-tya'), battle of, 229-31. Portugal, 252-53. Printing, 249-50. 260 INDEX Revival of Learning, 248. Richard (I.) the Lion-Hearted, of England, 150, 152-54. 163. Richard II. of England, 233. Robert the Strong, 120. Ro'land, 92. Rolf, the Northman, 121-22, Roman Empire, 23; and the barbar- ians, 16, 23-51; fall of Western, 44- 45; Christians and the, 52. {See Empire, Eastern, and Empire, Western.) Romans, 9, 13, 14, 16. Rome, sacked by Alaric, 35-36, by the Vandals, 40; rule of Pope over, 58-59. R6m'alus Augtis'tulus, Emperor, 44. R6n-c6s-vari6s, 92. St. Clara, 196. St. Ber'nard, 205. St. B6n'e-dict, rule of, 195-96. St. D6m'in-ie, 196. St. Francis, 196. St. John, Knights of, 147. St. Louis, King of France, 155. St. Scho-las'tl-ca, 196. S&l'a-dfn, 149-53. Saxons, conquer Britain, 125; in Ger- many, 65; conquered by Charle- magne, 91-93, 115; secure the Em- pire, 208. ScMsm, the Great, 221-22. Scho-ias'tl-ca, St.. 96. Scotland, 125. Sicily, 122. SIm'e-6n Sty-li'tes, 57. Slavs, 13. Spain, Vandals in, 37, 39 ; conquered by West-Goths, 37, 39; by Moham- medans, 81-83; expulsion of Moham- medans, 255; at close of Middle Ages, 255. Stephen (of Blois), letter of, 140-42. StIl'I-c/io, 32-34. Sweden, 254. Sy-ag'rI-fls, 64-65. Tar'Ik, 81. Templars, Knights, 147-48, 150. Teu'to-berg Forest, battle of, 16. Teutonic Knights, 147-48. The-6d'6-ric, 46-48, 67. The-6-d6'sius (-shus). Emperor, 29-30. Ther-mo'py-lae, 32. Thor, 20, 25, 60, 67, 92. T/iu-rln'gl-ans, 65. Tithes, 178. Tyr, 20. Tours, battle of, 85-86. Turks, conquer Arabs, 133; Crusades against, 132-57; rise of Ottomans, 246; capture Constantinople, 247. Towns, rise of, 182-85; life of, 185-94. Ul'fll-as, 25. Ur'ban II., Pope, 134-35. Va'lens, Emperor, 29. Van'dals, 39-41, 48, 58, 63. Va'rus, 16. Venice, foundation of, 43. Vik'ings. {See Northmen.) Village, life of, 173-81. Villain, as name of contempt, 180. Walter the Penniless, 136. Welsh, 125. Wgr'geld, 18, 73, 74. West-Goths, 27-37, 39, 43, 60, 63, 64, 67, 81-83. WJd'u-kind, 92. William the Conqueror, 129-31, 224. Wo'don, 20, 25, 60, 67, 92. !\flAR 20 1912 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS GIO^lVllBflA