Copyright }J^. < -r^ 1 — * LOM COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY CHARLES MORRIS AUTHOR OF "history OF THE UNITED bTATES" (ADVANCED, ELEMENTARY. AND primary), "history OF THE WORLD," "HISTORICAL TALES OF THE NATIONS," ETC. ILLUSTRATED PHILADELPHIA J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY ' 191 it Copyright, 1909 By J. B. LippiNcoTT Company Copyright, 191 i By J. B. LippiNCOTT Company Printed by J. B. Xyip^nicott Company The Washington Square Prkss, Philadelphia, U. S. A. C:CI.A2S9593 PREFACE In response to an urgent demand for a ti^xt-book on United States History of convenient size and adapted to the needs of pupils in the seventh and eighth grades of elementary schools, this book has been written. It will be noticed that this history is somewhat smallei' than others written for the same grades. This reduction in size has been accomplished, not by excluding any essential or important fact of histor}^, but by the omission of unnecessary detail; and yet details have not been omitted to the extent of making the narrative dr}^ and uninteresting. The leading events of United States history are herein set forth in such manner as to show their relations and historical significance and to give a fair general idea of the causes and the results of the great issues which have affected the life and the government of the American people. In writing it several essential considerations have been closely attended to. Those include clearness and accuracy of statement, simi)licity of language, and avoidance of partisan or sectional opinions, imparti- ality being made a leading rec|uisite. This countr}^ has been the scene, not only of rapid progress in times of peace, but. of several wars of great political signifi- cance. While seeking to point out the causes and consequences of these wars, their details have been iii iv rUEFACE dealt with very briefly, it seeming uiinecessaiy for the pupil to learn what took place on the various battle fiekls, while very necessary that the significance of these wars should l)e graspcnl and their effect upon the nation made evident. And tliis applies as well to many events not of a warlike nature, yet which had had their share in moulding thi^. character and influ- encing the destiny of our people. The public conception of what constitutes true his- tory has greatly broadened within recent times. Formerly the doings of courts and kings and the details of battles and sieges were the leading consicier- ations. Now the doings of the people are considered of equal, if not of greater, importance, and the social, ethical, political, and other elements of human life and progress attract the chief attention of the historian. All this has been attended to here, with the object of lU'oducing a well-rounded work, in which the life of the American people should be considered from every point of view, and the student be given the oppor- tunity of gaining a definite general acquaintance with the career and character of his forefathers. It is hoped that this purpose has been to some satisfactory extent attained. The author is highly gratified to know that his humble eflorts hitherto have been appreciated by the educational public, and in sending forth this new can- didate for popular favor he indulges the hope that it may be given a like cordial reception. Charles Morris. Philadelphia, July 30, 1909. CONTENTS PART I THE ERA OF DISCOVERY PAGE 1. How America was FoI' xd 1 2. Later Voyages of Discoveuy 15 3. The Natives of America 19 PART IT THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 1. The Spanish axd French in tjie South 30 2. The French in the North and West 37 3. The English and Dutch in the I^ast 43 4. The Claims of the Nations 47 PART III THE ERA OF SETTLE:\rENT L The Places and Dates of Colonies 52 2. Virginia oj 3. New England and its Colonies 72 Plymouth 72 Massachusetts Bay Colony 78 Maine and New Hampshire 86 Rhode Island 87 connectici't 00 The New England L'nion 94 4. New York and New Jersey 98 New Netherland 98 New York 103 New Jersey 105 5. Pennsylvania and Delaware 107 6. Maryland 113 7. Carolina and Georgia 117 V vi TABLE OF CONTENTS PART IV THE ERA OF COLOXLAL WARS 1. Ktx(; W'ii.t.iam's War 120 2. giEKx A.nne's War 128 ;>. KiNd (!koi{ge's Wak 121) 4. Tin: Fukncii and Indian War l-"^! f). Life in Colonial Times 140 PART T THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 1. The Cat'ses of Discontent in the Colonies HiO 2. TiiK Coi oNiEs IN Rehellion '. . . ITS .'i. The War for Independence I'.iO 4. The War in the Soc'tii 206 PART YI THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPURLIC 1. The Couxtry and the Peofle 215 2. From Confedeiiation to Constitution 220 o. Washincton's Ad:\iinistration 230 4. .loiiN Ada:ms"s Administration 288 "). Jefferson's Ad:ministration 242 0. Madison's Administration 251 7. The Second War with Great Rrttain 2")5 PART VTT THE DEVELOr:\rEXT OF THE NATION 1. ^Ignroe's Administration 209 2. John Qiincy Adams's Administration 278 3. Jackson's Administration 282 4. Van lU'RENs Administration 28) 5. The Hakrisox and Tyler Administration 292 0. Polk's Administration 299 TABLE OF CONTENTS vii PART VIII A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY 1. Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations 307 2. Pierce's Administration 313 3. Buchanan's Administration 318 PART IX THE CIVIL WAR 1. Lincoln's Administration 326 2. The West in 1862 335 3. The East in 1862 .342 4. The Campaigns of 1863 348 5. The Final Campaigns of the War 354 6. The Country During the War 367 PART X PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION 1. Johnson's Administration 37 j 2. Grant's Administration 377 3. Hayes's Administration 334 4. The Garfield and Arthur Administration 387 5. Cleveland's Administration 39I 6. Benjamin Harrison's Administration 393 7. Cleveland's Second Administration 397 8. McKinley's Administration 401 PART XI THE UNITED STATES IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 1. Roosevelt's Administration 4II 2. Taft's Administration 42o viii TABLE OF CONTENTS PART XII STAGES OF DE\'ELOPMEXT 1. Territorial Growth of the United States 426 2. Population and Slavery 428 3. Political Parties 432 4. Transportation and News-sending 434 5. Industrial Development 437 6. Inventors and Their Inventions 440 7. Famous Authors of America 444 Gener-vl RE^^EW 449 The Declaration of Independence i The Constitution of the United States vi Table of States and Territories xxiv Table of the Presidents xxv Pronouncing Vocabulary xxxi In-dex xx\'ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Reading the Declaration of Independence Frontispiece A ship of the Northmen 2 Reproduction of Viking stone carvings 5 An Eastern caravan 6 Instrument used by Columbus in determining solar altitudes. ... 8 A ship of the loth century 10 The landing of Columbus 12 Columbus before the Court of Ferdinand and Isabella 14 A native American 10 Indian girl weaving blanket 21 An Indian wigwam 22 A wampum peace belt 23 Indian snow-shoe 24 Building a birch-bark canoe 25 Pottery from Mound-builder's grave 27 Ruins of the Cliff-dwellers' homes 28 De Leon fighting the natives of Florida 31 De Soto discovering the Mississippi 33 Huguenot Bible 35 The oldest house in St. Augustine 36 Battle with the Iroquois Indians 41 Sir Walter Raleigh 45 The landing of Hendrick Hudson 46 The Half :Moon 47 Seal of the London Company 53 Landing at Jamestown 55 John Smith on his return journey to Jamestown 57 Tobacco proclamation of James 1 60 The marriage of Pocahontas 61 Hall of Shirley house, Virginia 67 Quarrel between Bacon and Berkeley 69 Old tower at Jamesto^^^l 70 On board the ^layflower 73 Sword, pot. and platter of Miles Standish 75 ix X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Matc\\ of Miles Standish 7G John Winthrop 70 Persecution of the Quakers 82 The witeh liouse. Salem 83 Old Harvard College 84 Old fort of the Puritans 85 Poirer Williams sheltered by the Xarragansetts 88 Attack on the Pequot stronghold 93 The Charter Oak 96 Xew Amsterdam 100 New Amsterdam about 1067 102 Peter Stuvvesant considering summons to surrender Xew York. . 103 Interior of Old Sweden Church. Phila 107 Penn's vision of a land of freedom 108 Penn's landing at Essex House, Chester 110 Treaty Elm on the Delaware Ill Letitia House. Philadelphia 112 Five-mile stone marking ^lason and Dixon line 116 James E. Oglethorpe 122 The attack on Haverhill 127 Copy of penmanship by which Washington's handwriting was formed 134 Washington presenting Gov. Dinwiddle's letter to Chevalier Le- gardeur de St. Pierre. 1753 136 Washington crossing the Alleghany River on raft 137 Benjamin Franklin 138 Braddock's march 139 The Heights of Abraham 144 Death of General Wolfe 145 Old block house 146 Conestoga wagon 149 A Colonial stage coach 150 Fireman's hat 152 Fire bucket of 1S20 153 William Penn's writing ciesK 154 Costumes of the Pilgrims 155 A Colonial dress of 17C0 156 Old grist mill and water power wheel 157 Some of Benjamin Franklin's china 158 Old spinning wheel 158 A hackle 159 IJST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi Stool, flint, tindor box and sulphur luatclios IGO A Colonial rhuroh Itil A <"oot-stovo 1()2 Pine-troe shilling 163 A stamp-act stamp 169 Patrick Honrv addressing the Virginia Assemhly 170 The Boston massacre 171 Faneuil Hall 173 The Boston tea-party 174 First prayer in the Continental Congress 177 Paul Revere's ride 170 The battle of Lexington 180 Line of the minute-men at Lexington, Mr.s^ 181 Concord Bridge 182 Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga . 183 A drum used at Bunker Hill 18o A Hossian helmet 180 The committee on the Declaration 188 Washington crossing the Delaware 193 The spirit of '7G 104 Chew house, Germantown 106 Winter quarters at Valley Forge 200 Benjamin Franklin at the Court of France 201 John Paul Jones 204 Siege of Charleston 207 General Clarion and British officer 208 Cornwallis's headquarters at Yorktown 210 Surrender of Cornwallis '. . . 212 One of Robert Morris's ox teams transporting money 216 Pine-tree lantern 210 Continental paper money 221 Washington and Lafayette at Mount Vernon 222 Interior of Independence Hall 220 Patrick Henry 228 George Washington 230 Washington delivering his inaugural address in New York.... 231 A reception by Lady Washington 234 Indian warfare on the frontier 236 John Adams 230 Fighting the French 240 Thomas Jefferson 243 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Stephen Dooatur 244 Sieniiiir tlie contract for tho purchase of Louisiana 24C An Ohio ilat-boat 248 John Fitcli's steani-hoat 249 Ivobort Fulton's stoani-ltoat Clermont 250 James "NFadison 2r)2 r.attlo of Tippeoauo- 254 The perils of the wihierness 25G The Constitution and Guerriere 258 Perry on Lake Erie 261 Battle of Xew Orleans 265 James Monroe 260 Henry Clay 273 Transportation by canal-boat 275 John Quiney Adams 278 John C. Calhoun 279 Andrew Jackson 282 Daniel Webster 283 Daniel Webster addressinjr the U. S. Senate 284 The Capitol at Washin-ton in 1831 285 Westward the course of empire takes its way 288 :\[artin Van Buren 289 William Henry Harrison 292 John Tyler 293 Residence of Fresident Houston of Texas. 1836 294 The Alamo 295 James K. Polk 300 Battle of Buena Vista 302 Battle of ChapultL^pec 303 San Francisco about 1835 305 Zachary Taylor 308 Henry Clay's speech in the Senate in 1850 309 :\lillard Fillmore 311 Franklin Pierce 313 Commodore Perry meeting the commissioners at Yokohama 316 James Buchanan 318 John Brown's fort at Harper's Ferry 319 Laying the Atlantic cable 321 Jefferson Davis 324 Abraham Lincoln 326 A battery directed against Fort Sumter 327 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii Harper's Ferry, West Virginia 328 Cotton picking 330 George B. MeClellan 332 The Monitor and the Merrimac 334 Gun and mortar boats on the Mississippi 337 Farragiit's fleet passing the forts on the Mississippi 340 Robert E. Lee 343 Battle of Antietani 346 Signing the Emancipation ProcUimation 348 Battle of Gettysburg 351 Battle of Lookout Mountain 354 William T. Sherman 358 Sherman's march to the sea 361 Farragut commanding his flagship in action 362 The Alabama and Kearsarge 363 The surrender of General Robert E. Le:? 365 Andrew Johnson 372 Ulysses S. Grant 378 Medal issued by Congress upon completion of the Union Pacific Railroad 378 Custer's fight with the Sioux Indians 381 Rutherford B. Hayes 384 James A. Garfield 387 Chester A. Arthur 388 The Washington monument 389 Grover Cleveland 391 Benjamin Harrison 393 The Johnstown flood 394 A native Hawaiian hut 399 William McKinley 401 Street scene in Dawson City on the Yukon 402 The annihilation of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila. . 404 The naval battle at Santiago 406 Theodore Roosevelt 411 Steam shovel at work on the Panama canal 413 Ruins of the City HalL San Francisco 416 Opening an irrigation dam, Truckee River. Xevada 418 William H. Taft 420 Manufacturers' building, Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exhibition, Seattle 421 LIST OF MAPS PAGE Early French settlements in Canada 39 Virginia. Territory claimed by the English 40 New France. Territory claimed by the French 49 Florida. Territory claimed by the Spanish 49 New Netherland. Territory claimed by the Dutch 49 The middle colonies 59 New England and New Netherland 97 Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware 109 The Carolinas and Georgia 120 French settlements in the West and South 131 Colonial territory before the French and Indian War 132 The Fort Duquesne campaign 140 The seat of the war in New York 141 The siege of Quebec I43 Colonial territory after the French and Indian War 148 Boston and vicinity 184 The New Jersey campaign 192 Burgoyne's route I97 Siege of Yorktown 211 Battle-fields on the Niagara 255 Northern battle-fields of the war of 1812-1.5 262 New Orleans and the Creek War 264 Scott's campaign 301 Battle-fields of Kentucky and Tennessee 328 McClellan's Campaign, Yorktown to Richmond 342 Battle-fields of Virginia, ^laryland, and Pennsylvania 345 Plan of the battle of Gettysburg 350 Grant's Vicksburg campaign 352 Grant's campaign. Wilderness to Petersburg 356 Sherman's march, Atlanta to Raleigh 359 Railway and canal from Panama to Colon 4I4 127 117 Lonfcitude i5 Ireat rWP N X A iv Greenwich SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE United States PART I. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 1. HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 1. An Age of Ignorance. — The country we live in is one of the late discoveries of mankind. Men lived upon the earth for thousands of years, and made much progress in civilization, before the most learned of scholars knew one-tenth as much about the surface of the earth as a school-boy does to-day. In fact, in the time of Columbus, a little more than four hun- dred years ago, much had been forgotten that was known by the people of ancient Greece and Rome, and a state of great ignorance about geography prevailed. 2. Barbarism Replaces Civilization. — For many cen- turies after the fall of the great Roman empire, and the conquest of Southern Europe by the wild tribes of the north, the old civilization ceased to exist, and a state of barbarism took its place. There was no science, there was little learning, commerce and enter- prise were wanting, ignorance and superstition spread 1 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY everywhere. Wars were very common, poverty and oppression were equally common, and it was not until about the fifteenth century that the people of Europe showed a desire to learn something more about the earth upon which they lived. 3. Lack of Knowledge of Geography. — In the days here spoken of there was in Europe a fair general idea of the geography of that continent, and some- thing was known about Southern and Eastern Asia and Northern Africa, though not half as much as had been known by the Greeks and Romans a thousand years before. But beyond this the map of the world was a blank, and no one so much as dreamed that a great double continent lay in the western seas. As for the vast oceans which are now the highways of com- merce, no ship had ever sailed upon them, no mariner knew how far and wide they stretched. 4. The Voyages of the Northmen. — Just here, A Ship of thk Northmen. hoWC VCr, t hcrC is a tale to tell. We have been speaking of the nations of Southern Europe, the seat of what learning tnen existed. In the far north, the realm of Scandinavia, now known as Xorway, Sweden, and Denmark, there was a race of bold sea-rovers who, in their small open vessels, moved by oars as well as 874] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 3 sails, did not hesitate to venture far upon the unknown sea. The people of the south knew them only as ferocious pirates, who landed upon their coasts and burned, slew, and plundered in all directions. But the men of the north were not only sea-robbers, they were explorers as well, and to them we owe the first discovery of America. 5. Iceland and Greenland. — Sailing boldly outw^ard, without compass, yet without fear, and daring the wildest tempests of the seas, they did not hesitate to go far from land, and one of their vessels that was caught in a storm was driven far to the northwest, finding harbor at length on a large island, wdiich they named Iceland from its frozen aspect. They made a settlement on this island in 874, and their ships frequently visited it. From here the Vikings, as these fearless navigators were called, ventured still farther west, and in time reached another island shore. This was also a land of ice, but just then it was in its summer verdure, and they named it Greenland. A settlement was made on its shores in 986, and the descendants of the settlers lived there for about five hundred years, abandoning it about the time of the voyage of Columbus. The present Danish settlements were founded in 1721. 6. The Northmen Reach America. — The rovers of the north had now got close to America, and, as many of their ships sailed to and from Iceland and Green- land, they were likely soon to reach the mainland of the continent. As in the discovery of Iceland, a storm again blew a vessel from its course and its crew saw land far to the south. On reaching Green- 4 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1000 land, they told the story of what they had seen, and Leif, a son of Eric the Red, the discoverer of Green- land, grew eager to visit this new shore. It was in the year 1000 A.D. that he set sail, and, after seeing land at several points, at length landed at a place he called Vinland (vine-land), from the fact that wild grapes grew there in abundance. How far south this was we do not know. It may have been on the New England coast or it may have been farther north, for no undoubted relics of the visit of the Northmen have been found. 7. The Story of Vinland. — The Northmen made vari- ous visits to Vinland, but they did not form a colony there, as they had done in Greenland. A settlement was made, but it was little more than a lumber camp, to cut wood and send it north. It finally broke up in a quarrel, in which many of the settlers were killed, while the remainder took to their ships and made their way back to Greenland. After that only a few voyages to Vinland were made. The natives of the new country were hostile and it was a dangerous place in which to live. 8. The Memory of Vinland Lost. — It may be seen from this that the honor of first discovering America belongs to the Northmen. But they had found it by chance, and in time forgot all about it. The story of their discovery was never told in the south. Several accounts of it were written in Iceland, where the people were much given to literary work, but the manuscripts remained in that island and were not knowm elsewhere. Those manuscripts, which tell us much about the country, reached the hands of 1295J HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 5 geographers only in recent times. Thus it was that the discovery of the Northmen failed to become known, and America remained to be discovered over again, this time not by accident, but as a result of set purpose and scientific study and deduction. *^^ ^K*. © Reproduction of Viking Stone Carvings. 9. Europe in the Fifteenth Century. — At the opening of the fifteenth century the state of affairs in Europe had much improved. Peaceful enterprise was begin- ning to take the place of warlike turmoil, and a desire to know^ more about the earth on which they lived was rising in the minds of men. Something had been learned of Asia by aid of overland commerce to Persia and India, and travellers had visited that continent, chief among them being a man named Marco Polo, who dwelt many years in China, returning to Europe in 1295. The story, he told added much to the in- terest felt in the distant realms of the earth. 10. Commerce with the East. — The commerce in the pearls and spices, shawls, silks, and muslins of the East was prosecuted by caravans to the eastern ports of the Mediterranean and thence by the ships of Venice, Genoa, and other seaports to European cities. 6 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1418-97 But the conquest of Western Asia by the Turks at this period put a stop to this valued commerce; and Europe lost the luxuries to which it had long been accustomed. If these treasured products were to be enjoyed some new route of travel needed to be discovered. Copyright 10(12 liy C. H. Graves. Ax Eastern Caravan. 11. Portuguese Enterprise. — About this time the little kingdom of Portugal was showing much activity in ocean navigation. Thinking that Asia might be reached by sailing around Africa, Prince Henry began sending ships down its coast in 1418. Madeira, the Azores, and other islands were discovered, but pro- gress was slow, and it was not until 1471 that the equator was reached. In 1481 Bartholomew Diaz discovered the southern cape, known as the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded this cape and reached the coast of India. He returned in 1499 with a cargo of the rich Indian products. 1435] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 7 12. Christopher Columbus. — Among the daring mari- ners who took part in the Portuguese voyages was an Italian named Christopher Columbus. Born in Genoa about 1435, he took to the sea at the age of fourteen. For years afterwards he was activel}^ engaged in commerce and adventure, taking part in several of the Portuguese expeditions to the south, and sailing north probably to and beyond Iceland. Such was the experience as a sailor of the man who was to become the great leader in geographical discovery. 13. The Shape of the Earth. — Was the earth round or flat? This was an open question at that day. Such ancient writers as Aristotle and Ptolemy, scientists of the far past, had held that the earth waj^ round, and the best geographers of the fifteenth century, Columbus among them, accepted that belief. But this was not the case with the ignorant multitude or with many men who thought themselves learned. They believed the earth to be flat, and predicted dire disasters to any one who ventured too far from land. Thus they looked upon the torrid zone as a region of fire, where the very waters boiled. In addi- tion to this their fears conjured up further terrors, such as impenetrable fogs, frightful sea-monsters, and other horrors beyond the powers of fancy, which awaited those who should venture upon the ocean wastes.^ ^ The learned Spanish council before which Columbus laid his plans ridiculed him as the victim of a wild fancy. " Do you mean to tell us," they asked, "that on the other side of the earth the rain falls upward and men walk with their heads downward? If the earth were round, as you say, your ships, in going west, would sail down a curved surface, and would have to sail up hill to return to Spain. " This objection may seem absurd to us, but it was not so in that day, when nothing was known of the principle of gravitation. 8 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 14. The Theory of Columbus. — Columbus not only believed the earth to be round, but he was quite willing to test his belief, in a way no one else thought of doing, by sailing over the open ocean to the west, with the hope that he might reach far-off Asia by this route. He did not dream that any land lay between Europe and Asia, was ignorant of the real size of the earth, and imagined that a voyage of about four thousand miles would bring him to the island kingdom of Cipango — the modern Japan — of which Marco Polo had spoken. Columbus had other than scientific reasons for his belief. He had visited the island of Madeira and been told there of strange objects thrown ashore by the sea. These were pieces of carved wood, strange plants and seeds, canes long enough to hold four quarts of wine between their joints, and even the bodies of two men un- like any of the people of Europe in face and color. Westerly winds had brought these, and it was a just conclusion from this that they came from lands in the west. 15. Columbus Seeks Aid.— As has been said, Colum- bus was not alone in his belief in the roundness of the earth, but he was the first who had the daring to put his theory to the test. He was far too poor to under- take such a voyage at his own expense, and sought aid from the more enterprising nations. His first effort was with the authorities of his native city of KlXD OF IXSTRUMENT USED BY Columbus ix determining Solar Altitudes. 1484] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 9 Genoa, but they rejected his scheme as the product of folly. Then he sought Portugal, where he spent years in vain persuasion. King John, partly con- vinced by his arguments, but not willing to give him the reward he asked in case of success, secretly sent out a vessel to the west, but in a few days the captain returned, scared by stormy winds and what seemed to him an endless waste of heaving waters. 16. At the Court of Spain. — Incensed by the treachery of the Portuguese king, Columbus in 1484 sought Spain, then under the rule of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, and for seven years begged their aid in his enterprise. At length, despairing of help, he determined to seek France. But he was reduced to such straits that he had to stop and beg bread for himself and his little son at the convent of La Rabida, near the town of Palos. 17. Aid from Queen Isabella. — Fortune now turned in his favor. The prior of the convent, whom he had convinced of the correctness of his theory, wrote to Queen Isabella in his favor, and after some persuasion she w^as not only brought to believe in his plan, but even offered to pledge her jewels to raise the money needed. Cash was just then not abundant at the court of Spain, which for years had been engaged in a costly war with the Moors of Granada. Fortunately for the queen, she did not need to pledge her jewels, money enough being found in the treasury. Columbus ivas to raise a part of the sum needed, and this was advanced him by some friends at Palos. The vessels were purchased; food, water, and other needful material were obtained ; and the crews were enlisted 10 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1492 A Ship of the 15th Century. this being a very difficult part of the task, for the ignorant and superstitious sailors of that day were terrified at the thought of such a voyage. 18. The Voyage Begun,— When, on the 3d of August, 1492, the three small vessels provided — the Santa Maria, Pinta, and Nina — set sail, there were on board one hundred and twenty men in all, in addition to the Admiral, which title Columbus bore. Of these, ninety formed the crews, the others being priests and gentlemen of adven- turous disposition, men ready for any daring enterprise. Sailing first to the Canary Islands, where it was necessary to stop and repair one of the vessels which had been injured, on the 6th of September the three little craft headed due west and vanished from sight in the ''Sea of Darkness," as many then named the Atlantic Ocean. 19. The Terrors of the Voyage. — The voyage of Colum- bus was one of the most interesting in the world's history, but it must be dealt with here very briefly. The boiling seas, the black fogs, the frightful monsters predicted were not met, yet terrors assailed the souls of the crew. The compass ceased to point due north and they feared that this faithful friend was about to fail them. They entered what is known as the Sargasso Sea, where there are vast tracts of floating seaweed. Here the dread was of great shal- lows, where the vessels might be wrecked on hidden 1492] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 11 sand-bars or plunge into banks of clinging mud. Signs of land appeared, but they proved deceptive. Columbus deceived the crew as to the distance they had gone, hoping thus to allay their fears, yet as day after day passed without sight of land some of the men became mutinous and plotted to throw their Admiral overboard and return to Spain. The terrors of the sea had thoroughly frightened them. 20. Land is Seen. — Through all this Columbus main- tained hope and serenity, and as signs of land grew more frequent his hopes began to be shared by the crew. The eventful day came on the 12th of October, seventy days after they had left Palos. At ten o'clock on the evening of the 11th a light had been seen, which moved as if carried, and at two in the morning the joyful cry of ''Land!" came from the leading vessel. A sailor had seen signs of land in the moonlit distance. There was no more sleep on board for the remainder of that night. When day dawned all hearts beat high with joy when their eyes fell on a low, green shore, that looked to them a very paradise. The great- est of voyages was ended; the greatest of discoveries was made! 21. On San Salvador. — It was an island which had been reached, one of the Bahamas. Which of these it was no one is sure, but it was probably the one now called Watling's Island. Columbus named it San Salvador. He landed on it in the early morning of October 12, 1492, clad in armor and wearing a cloak of scarlet, embroidered with gold, while in his hand he bore the royal banner of Spain. Kneeling on the shore, he kissed the soil, his eyes wet with tears of joy, while 12 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1492 those of his crew who had plotted his death fell weeping before him and humbly begged forgiveness. Rising, he took possession of the new land in the name of the Spanish monarchs. The island was inhabited by a people of reddish complexion, unlike any he had ever seen before. They seemed a gentle people, who looked on their visitors with utter astonishment. To their The Landing of (oi.rMBTJS. simple fancy the whites came from the realm of the gods and their ships were great white-winged birds. 22. The End of the Voyage; what Columbus Believed. — From San Salvador a southward route was followed. Other islands, clad in summer verdure, appeared, and soon the great island of Cuba was reached. From this they sailed to another large and fertile island, which they named Hispaniola — the modern Hayti. Here the Santa Maria, the flagship of the expedition, 1493] HOW AMERICA WAS FOUND 13 was wrecked, leaving only the two smaller vessels for their return. A fort was built from the timbers of the wrecked ship, a colony left in it, and with the remain- ing vessels Columbus set sail for home, in the full belief that he had reached the shores of distant Asia. Supposing Cuba to be the mainland of India, he called the people Indians, a misleading title which has ever since clung to them. When the day of his death came he was still in the full belief that it was Asia to which he had come, and he never learned the full magnitude of his discovery. 23. The Return of Columbus. — On the 15th of March, 1493, the people of Palos were filled with surprise and joy to see slipping into their harbor the Pinta and Nina, with the adventurers who had long been mourned as lost. The news of the great discovery spread with marvellous rapidity and was everywhere received with acclamations. Columbus had proved what before was only a theory, that the earth is round, and took rank among the greatest of discoverers and thinkers. His journey to the king's court at Barce- lona w^as like a triumph. The crowds exulted, the bells were rung, and the monarchs received him as almost their equal. The natives and products of the new world brought with him were looked upon with deep interest and admiration. In the end the king and queen fell upon their knees and thanked God for the honor which had been vouchsafed to Spain. 24. Honors to the Discoverer. — Never did discoverer receive greater honors. Columbus, who had wandered through Spain almost as a beggar, now rode at the king's side, with the title of Don and the distinction 14 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY ri498 of a grandee of that proud kingdom. At sea he was an admiral; in the new world he was the king's viceroy, and was to receive a tenth of all the gold and other treasures the new land might yield, and an eighth of all the profits arising from trade. No discoverer had ever more reason to be proud and happy, for all Europe was filled with the story of his exploits. COLUMBrS BEFORE THE CoURT OF FeRDIXAXD AND ISABELLA. 25. Later Life of Columbus. — Columbus made three more voyages. In the second he discovered many more islands; in the third, in 149S, he reached the coast of South America at the mouth of the Orinoco; in the fourth, in 1502, he coasted along the shores of Honduras in North America. But in some respects he showed faults of character and he made many enemies. He offended the king and queen by sending five shiploads of the natives to Spain to be sold as slaves. Finally he lost his office of viceroy and was sent home from Hispaniola in chains. This act of a 1496-98] LATER VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY 15 new governor the king disavowed, but Columbus sank in public esteem, his former admirers treated him with neglect, and he died in 1506 forsaken and alone, the victim of an ungrateful king and people. 2. LATER VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY 26. New Enterprises. — Columbus had shown the way; it was easy for others to follow. The news of his great voyage spread through Europe and everywhere roused interest and curiosity. Though as yet there was no thought that a new^ continent had been discovered, many were eager to embark on the western route to what was supposed to be the coast of Asia, some hoping for glory, some for gain. 27. North America Discovered. — One of the most famous of those who followed Columbus sailed from England. Like Columbus, he was an Italian by birth, though then living in Bristol, England. John Cabot was his name. In 1496 he proposed to Henry VII., the king, to visit the new-discovered country, and in May, 1497, with one ship and a few men, he set sail. As Spain had found and claimed the south he directed his course to the north, hoping to reach India or China by that route. On the 24th of June Cabot saw land. Just where it was we are not sure. It may have been Labrador or may have been some coast farther south, such as Cape Breton Island, but however that be, he w^on the honor of being the first to see the American continent, which was not reached by Columbus until the following year. In 1498 his young son Sebastian, who had probably been with him on this voyage, 16 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1498 sailed for America with several ships, and traced the coast from the region of icebergs as far south as Cape Hatteras, or possibly farther still. All the land dis- covered he claimed for Henry VIT. of England, and on this claim the later settlements of England were based. 28. Honor to the Cabots. — Little profit came to the Cabots from their discovery, but they gained much honor from the people, who hailed John as "The Great Admiral," and his son as ''The Great Seaman." The latter tells us of seeing savages dressed in skins, stags of great size, bears that caught fish with their claws, and such multitudes of codfish that the ships were checked in their speed by the crowding fish. These w^aters have ever since been a great codfishing region. Sebastian afte/wards made an important voy- age of discover}^ in the service of Spain. 29. The Line of Demarcation. — Two years after the voyage of Columbus, Spain and Portugal began to quarrel about their rights of discovery. Portuguese ships had reached the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands, west of the African coast, and the king desired the privilege of making further explorations in the west. Decision on this mooted point was left to Pope Alexander VL, who drew on the map a meridian line three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, declaring that all heathen lands lying east of this line should belong to Portugal, all west of it to Spain. As it chanced, this line ran through the eastern part of the later discovered Brazil, and it was due to this that Portugal fell heir to Brazil, while 1500J LATER VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY 17 all the rest of South America was taken possession of by Spain. The line of demarcation also gave North America to Spain, but England and France, in later years, paid no heed to the Pope's decision. 30. The Discovery of Brazil. — Portugal had a further claim to Brazil, since this country was first discovered by a Portuguese mariner. In fact, if Columbus had not discovered America when he did, chance might have given the honor to Cabral, a captain in the service of Portugal. While on his way to India with a fleet in 1500 Cabral sailed far to the west, and high winds drove him so far out of his course that the coast of Brazil came within view. This lay east of the Pope's '4ine of demarcation" and Cabral therefore claimed it for Portugal and sent one of his ships home with the news of his discovery. In the following year an Italian mariner named Amerigo Vespucci, who had already crossed the ocean in the service of Spain, was engaged by the king of Portugal to explore this coast. He traced it southward for about eighteen hundred miles, reaching and entering the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. This voyage is of interest for two reasons. It led to the possession of Brazil by Portugal and also to the naming of America. 31. How America was Named. — It was in this way that America received its name: — Vespucci wrote a report of his voyage which was read with great interest in Europe. Published in 1504, it was made use of in 1507 by a German geographer named Martin Waldsee- miiller, in a little book called ''An Introduction to Geography." In this he said: ''And the fourth part of 18 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY [1513-19 the world^ having been discovered by Amerigo or Ameri- ciis, we may call it Amerige or America." And by the latter name the entire continent has since been called. 32. Balboa and Magellan. — Two more great discoveries need to be mentioned. One of these was made by Balboa, a Spanish adventurer, who crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and was the first to gaze on the great ocean which lay beyond. This vast expanse of water, now known as the Pacific Ocean, he named the South Sea. Wading into its waters with sword and banner in hand, he claimed it and all its bordering countries for the king of Spain. He was thus the first to prove that America is a continent distinct from Asia. This was more fully proved in 1519, when Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese in command of a Spanish fleet, sailed through the strait which bears his name and across the vast ocean beyond to the Philippine Islands. Here he was killed, but one of his ships returned to Spain by way of the Cape of Good Hope, thus completing the circumnavigation of the globe. In this way, for the first time, man learned the true dimensions of the earth on which he lived. ^ This needs some explanation. It had long been supposed that the world consisted of four parts, three of which were Europe, Asia, and Africa. As the land discovered by Columbus was sup- posed to be Asia, it was thought that ^^spucci had discovered a continent south of Asia, the missing "fourth part of the world." Thus it was to this land, now known as Brazil, that the name America was first given. It was afterwards applied to all South America, and finally to North America as well. Thus, without any intention of depriving Columbus of the honor that of right belonged to him, the name America was given to the whole conti- nent. THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 19 3. THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 33, The True Americans. — When Columbus landed on the island of San Salvador he saw there men and women whose features and reddish-colored skin dif- fered from those of any people he had ever before seen. They were the natives of the New World, the true Ameri- cans — not Indians, as he called them, that is, not natives of India, as he supposed them to be. As the continent has been wrongly named, so has its people. In justice to its discoverer it should have been named Columbia and its people Columbians, but it has been shown above why this failed to be done. It is our pur- pose to say something about these people, the native inhabi- tants of the United States, who had been here for untold centuries before the whites came, and whose story is therefore pai't of that of the country with which we have to deal. But as we know very little about their earlier history, we can speak here only of their manners and customs. 34. What the Whites Found. — When people from Europe first came to this country they found it very different from its present appearance. Instead of a vast open country, covered with roads and farms and with A Native American. 20 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY cities and towns at close intervals, what they saw was a mighty forest, containing multitudes of deer and smaller animals, and inhabited by a race of hunters whom they called red-men, from the color of their skins. In place of roads there were only the trails or paths which these hunters made in their forest journeys; in place of towns only villages of rude huts or wig- wams: in place of farms only small fields of Indian- corn or beans. There were no horses, cows, or sheep; no carriages, carts, or railway trains: no mines or workshops; all was in a state of nature, and destitute of what we call the industries and arts of civilization. 35. The Savage and Barbarous Indians. — These people are usually called savages, which word means the very lowest of men, those who live solely by hunting, who know nothing of agriculture, and have only the simplest kind of government, when they have any at all. There were people of this kind in \orth America, but they were found only west of the Rocky Mountains or in the far north. Those found in the eastern part of the country were in what is called the barbarous state, that which lies between the civilized and the savage. They tilled the fields to some extent, they dwelt in villages and had some simple industries, and they were organized into tribes and clans and had certain forms of government. Far south, in Mexico and Peru, were nations with many of the arts of civilization, and in the southwestern part of the United States were others with a few of those arts. These were the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico and Arizona, where their descendants still live and retain many of their old customs. THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 21 36, The Work of Men and Women.— There was work to be done in an Indian village, work in building the wigwams, in planting and harvesting the crops, in attending to the duties of the household; but it was not done by the men, all work of this kind being left to the women. The men were hunters and warriors; they were ready to fight their enemies, to seek food in the forest or the rivers, to build their simple canoes; but they were too proud or too lazy to do any of the every- day labor of life. On the hunt or the war- path they were very expert. Their senses were acute and they covild track their prey along a trail where a white man could not see the slightest mark. They had great boldness, caution, and endurance, were fond of war, and were very cruel to their foes. Their greatest honor lay in the scalps which they tore from the heads of the living or dead, and their greatest delight was in burning their prisoners to death, with ever}^ torture of which they could think. 37. Indian Wigwams and Houses. — The Indian wig- wams spoken of were round huts made of upright poles, drawn together and fastened at the top. These were covered with the skins of deer or other animals, or with bark or woven mats. Fire was made in a clay or stone pit in the floor, and the smoke made its way Copyright 1904, by Win. H. Ran. Indian Girl Weaving Blanket. 99 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY out through a hole in the roof. There were other kinds of dwellings. Those of the Iroquois tribes of New York were buildings several hundred feet long, covered with bark and divided by partitions into apartments, in which many families lived, sometimes from thirty to fifty in a single house. In parts of the south there were circular dwellings of this kind, the partitions An 1m>ian \\ u.m A^'. being made of mats running from the centre to the outer wall, thus making three-sided family apartments. The Mandan tribe of the upper "Missouri also had round houses. These were covered with clay, which hardened in the sun and made them fire-proof. 38. Farming and Other Tools. — In order to break the ground for planting, the only tool they had was the hoe, made of sharpened stone or bone fastened to a handle of wood. The plants grown by them were maize, pumpkins, beans, squashes, and other eatable vegetables. Tobacco was also grown, they being ver}^ fond of smoking this pungent weed. The Iroquois tribes had corn-fields and in later years apple and THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 23 peach orchards, and laid up for winter use stores of corn, beans, and squashes. As they had no iron, their tools were all made of stone, horn, bone, wood, or shell. In addition to hoes, they used stone axes and hammers, scrapers to prepare skins for use as clothing, needles of bone, wooden paddles for their canoes, and other implements of the same simple kind. Pipes for tobacco-smoking were made of a kind of soft stone, hollowed out at the bowd and with a hole pierced through the stem for the smoke to pass through. 39. Weapons of War. — The weapons of the Indians were of the same simple kind. The principal one was the bow and arrow, sharp pieces of flint or other sub- stance being used for arrow points. They also used war-clubs of hard wood, tomahawks or hatchets of sharp-edged flint with w^ooden handles, and flint knives to cut the scalps from the heads of the dead or wounded. These native w^eapons were soon thrown aside when they became familiar with the iron weapons and the firearms of the whites, for which they eagerly traded their furs. Some of them thought that gun- powder was a sort of seed, and planted it in the ground with the hope that it would grow. A Wampum Peace Belt. 40. Clothing.— In winter the Indians wore deerskin clothing, though some tribes wove a coarse cloth for this purpose. In summer very little clothing was 24 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY worn. MoccasiDs, or shoes made of buckskin, were worn on their feet. These were soft and pliable and enabled them to walk noiselessly. A showy feather head-dress was often worn, and beads made of sea- shells were used as ornaments. These were called wampum and the natives used them as money. In times of war they painted their faces so as to look as ferocious as possible. 41. Furniture and Cooking= Vessels. — The natives, as we have said, lived in a very simple manner. Most of their time was spent in -the open air and very little furni- ture served them. For bedding they used mats or skins, but chairs and tables were unknown, the ground being used instead of these. Vessels of earthenware or soapstone were used for cooking, though some tribes had wooden vessels. These they filled with water and threw in hot stones till the water boiled. Then their food was dropped in to cook. Some of them even used willow baskets, so closely woven that they would hold water, for the same purpose. 42. Travel. — The natives of America had no beasts of burden and were obliged to travel on foot. The horse and ox were not known in their country until they were brought by the whites. They had the bison or buffalo, but had never tried to tame it, and By courtesy of the Chicago & Northwestern E. R. Co. Indian Snow-Shoe. THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 25 Building a Birch-Bark Canoe, used it only for food. In winter, when the snows were deep, they travelled on snow-shoes, and in summer used their soft and noiseless moccasins. Wherever there was a river or lake the canoe was much employed. This was very light, its strong wooden frame being covered with flexible birch-bark, closely sewn and made water-tight with pitch. Some of the tribes had much larger canoes, made by hollowing out tree- trunks, and capable of holding a considerable number of persons. 43. Number of Indians. — It might be imagined that this great country, which now holds more than eighty million people, was large enough to support a very large number of Indians. But people who live chiefly by hunting cannot be numerous, since it takes much more ground to find food for a hunter than it does for a farmer. It has been estimated that in the past times only a few hundred thousands lived in all the country east of the Mississippi River. 44. Groups or Families. — The Indians were divided into several large groups or families, differing in language and in other ways. The warlike Iroquois group lived chiefly in New York. North and south of it, and extending westward to the Mississippi, was the great Algonquin group, and in the Gulf State region the Muskoki or Mobilian group. West of the Mississippi were the Dakota and other groups. 26 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 45. Tribal Organization. — The large groups were divided into tribes, often hostile to each other. In eastern Pennsylvania were the Delawares, of the Algonquin family. In central New York were the Mohawks, Senecas, etc., of the Iroquois famil3^ Else- where were many other tribes. Each tribe was divided into smaller bodies or clans, which were known by the names of animals, such as Bear, Wolf, Turtle, etc. The animal after which the clan was named was held sacred by its members, who believed that they had descended from one of these animals, the spirit of which protected them. A sachem, or civil magistrate, was at the head of each clan, and a council of the sachems governed the tribe, settling all important questions. There were also many war chiefs, who had a voice in deciding questions of war. These were selected from the bravest warriors and elected to their positions, women as well as men voting in the elections. 46. Religion. — In reading about the Indians we meet with much about the Great Spirit, the all-wise, good and powerful, and of the happy hunting-grounds to which the spirits of the brave would pass. But many think that this idea of the Great Spirit came to them from the priests of the white men and was not native to them. Their chief worship w^as of their dead ances- tors, but they also worshipped the sun, the winds, the lightning, etc. They looked on the lightning as a great snake, and to them the snake was sacred. Some of the southern tribes had temples dedicated to the sun, and kept in them a sacred fire, which was never allowed to go out, lest great misfortunes should come. The only priest was the medicine-man, who was THE NATIVES OF AMERICA 27 thought able to control evil spirits by magic rites. Dancing played a great part in their religious cere- monies, as well as in affairs of the harvest, war, etc. 47. The Mound=Builders. — In many parts of the west and south are mounds of earth, some of them very large, built by the Indians of the past. Some of them represent men or animals, there being one in Ohio in the shape of a serpent which is one thousand feet long. Many of the smaller g^^^^Br--- mounds have been found to S^^^HUH contain relics, such as stone ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ tools and weapons, water-jugs, Mj^^^^^^^^^^^^^ kettles, carved pipes, ^I^^^I^^^^^^V many other objects. Pieces ^^^^^H^^^^^^^ of copper are found, and it is ^^^^^^^^^^^T known that the Indians had ^^^^^^^^^ mines of this metal near Lake pottery from a mound- Builder's Grave. Superior. It was long believed that the Mound-Builders were a separate race, of higher civilization, but it is now thought that they were the ancestors of the present Indians. The Indians of the south, when first known, had such mounds still in use, on which their temples and council-houses were built. 48. The Pueblo Indians. — Something was said before about the Pueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, and these are a very interesting people. They build large houses of flat stones or sun-dried bricks, known as ^'pueblos," some of which are four or five stories high and large enough to hold a whole tribe, of 3,000 or more people. Each story is smaller than the one below it, and the stories rise one above another like great steps. They have no doors or windows, being 2S THE ERA OF DISCOVERY entered from holes in the roof, which is reached by hidders. This is probably done as a protection against enemies, and some of their houses are built on the tops of high and steep hills, known as mesas, and very difficult to climb. 49. Agriculture. — The Pueblo Indians raised large crops of Indian-corn, and as their country is one of little rain they learned to irrigate it, carrying the w^ater of the rivers to their lands b}^ means of ditches. They had no domestic animals, but their descendants, the Moquis and Zuiiis of to-day, keep flocks of sheep and other animals introduced bv the whites. Rnxs OF THE Cliff-Dwellers' Homes. 50. The Clift=Dwellers. — Some of the natives of the southwest lived in crevices in the rocky sides of cleep ravines, which could only be reached by a steep and difficult climb. Stone dwellings were built in these situations, some of which are now quite inaccessible. Food was probably grown in the ravines below, but these have now so little rain that no food can be grown there, and the Clifif-Dwellers have disappeared. SUMMARY OF EVENTS 29 SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 1000. About the year 1000 A.D. the daring seamen of Northern Europe, who had previously discovered Iceland and Greenland, reached the continent of America at a place they named Vinland. After a few years their settlement here was abandoned and the story of it was gradually forgotten. 1492. Christopher Columbus, with three small vessels, sailed from the port of Palos, Spain, August 3, 1492, with the hope of finding the continent of Asia by sailing westward across the ocean. What he accomplished was to find a new continent and prove that the earth is round. On October 12, 1492, Columbus reached land at one of the Bahama Islands. He discovered Cuba and other islands, and was highly honored on his return home with the story of his wonderful voyage. He made several other voyages and discovered the con- tinent of South America, but he lost favor with the king and queen of Spain, and the discoverer of a new world was permitted to die in neglect. 1497. John and Sebastian Cabot sailed from England and dis- covered the North American continent about the latitude of Labra- dor. Sebastian on a second voyage sailed far down the coast, and this became the basis of England's claim to this part of the New World, as America was then called. 1418-1500. The Portuguese explored the coast of Africa and reached India by saihng around that continent. One of their ships reached Brazil in 1500. Brazil was explored by Amerigo Vespucci, and an account of this voyage, -written by him, led to that region receiving the name of America. This name was afterwards given to the whole double continent, and the name of Columbus is now used for only a small part of it, the republic of Colombia, in South America. 1513-1519. Balboa, a Spanish adventurer, crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and discovered a great ocean, which he named the South Sea. IMagellan, a daring mariner, sailed around South America in 1519 and crossed this ocean, which he named the Pacific. One of his ships returned to Spain, after sailing around the earth. REFERENCE BOOKS. 1. Fisk's Discovery of America. 2. Irving' s Columbus. 3. Winsor's Am,erica. 4. Ellis's The Red Men and the White, PART II THE ERA OF EXPLORATION 1. THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 51. The First Landing on United States Soil.— In the early discoveries no one landed on the shores of what is now the United States and no one saw those shores except Sebastian Cabot and his crew. It was in 1513, twenty-one years after the discovery of America by Columbus, that the foot of a white man was first set upon this great domain, though the Spaniards were already busy in making settlements and seeking gold farther to the south. 52. The Fountain of Youth.— It was a strange idea that led the Spaniards to this northern region, the fable of a magical fountain, which would give perpetual youth to any one who drank from its waters. The old fable placed this living spring somewhere in Eastern Asia, but, as the Spaniards believed that it was Asia they had reached, it was natural for them to seek in the new land the wonderful Fountain of Youth. 53. Florida Discovered and Named. — Among those who had faith in this magical fountain was a Spanish knight and soldier named Juan Ponce de Leon, who had been governor of the island of Porto Rico. From stories told him by the Indians he gained the idea that a fountain with these strange powers lay not far to the north, and, as he felt age creeping upon him, he grew 30 1513] THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 31 eager to bathe in its magic waters and bring back his lost youth. He therefore got ready an expedition and sailed north, passing through the beautiful Bahama Islands and on Easter Sunday of 1513 coming within sight of a verdant coast which he named "Terra de Pascua Florida" (Land of Flowery Easter). This land has ever since been known as Florida. De Leon Fighting the Natives of Florida (froni an old print). 54. What De Leon Found. — That the okl knight landed and made an earnest effort to find the fabled fountain we may be sure, but the waters of youth were not in that land, and he returned in sad disap- pointment. He came again in 1521 and now sought to plant a colony in Florida, but the Indians there were more warlike than those of Cuba, and he was driven off with a mortal wound. Thus he found death instead of youth in the flowery land. 32 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [152S 55. De Narvaez and De Vaca. — Other Spanish advent- urers visited various parts of the coast/ and in 1528 an overland expedition in search of gold was made by Panfilo de Narvaez, who landed in Florida and made his way inland. Instead of gold, he and his men found misfortune, hunger, and death. Of the four hundred in the expedition only four escaped death, and this through being made prisoners by the Indians of the Texas coast. These four — an officer named Cabeza de Vaca, two sailors, and a negro — made a wonderful journey and had remarkable adventures, passing westward from tribe to tribe, until they had travelled more than two thousand miles. Finally, eight years after their capture, they reached the Gulf of California. Here they found some Spaniards from Mexico, which had been conquered by an adventurer named Cortez fifteen years before. De Vaca was the first to discover the great width of the continent. 56. De Soto's Expedition. — We have now to speak of the two greatest expeditions made by the Spaniards into what is now United States territory. One of these was made by a Spanish soldier named Fernando de Soto, who had helped Pizarro in the conquest of Peru and in 1539 was Governor of Cuba. It was the lure of gold that led him to Florida with his nine ^ One of these of a date a few years eariier was an adventurer named ^^asquez de Ayllon, who sought the coast north of Florida with the purpose of kidnapping natives to use as slaves on the plantations. This enterprise was not successful and he came again in 1526 with six hundred people and tried to found a colony. In this also he failed, the settlers dying from hunger and disease or being killed by hostile Indians. 1539] THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 33 ships, nearly six hundred men, and more than two hundred horses. He hoped to find somewhere in this region a rich and populous kingdom, like that which Pizarro had found in Peru, but he was destined to bitter disappointment. Taking with him bloodhounds to hunt the Indians and chains to fetter them, burning their villages, plundering their granaries, and treating De Soto Discovering the Mississippi. them as slaves, he roused their bitter hostility and his journey was one of continuous battle. Where he might easily have made friends he made bitter enemies. 57. Discovery of the Mississippi. — Landing at Tampa Bay in Florida in 1539, De Soto's journey was a very slow one, for he was opposed at every point by the Indians, whom the Spaniards infuriated by their cruelty. For two years the explorers wandered about, journeying more than fifteen hundred miles 3 34 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [1541 without finding gold or any trace of a civilized nation. They were much reduced in numbers when,, in 1541, they reached the bank of the mighty Mississippi, being the first white men to gaze on that noble stream, though De Vaca had seen one of its mouths some years before. 58. The Fate of the Explorers.— Crossing this stream, half clad and worn with long wanderings, the Span- iards roamed up its western side and far inland, return- intr to the Mississippi near the mouth of the Red River in May, 1542. Here De Soto, exhausted by hardship and suffering, died, and was buried at night under its waters. The remnant of his men built boats and made their way down the river, finally reaching the Spanish settlements on the coast of Mexico. Nearly half of the expedition had perished and those who escaped were a half-naked, half-starved, and sadly dis- appointed remnant of tlie proud treasure-seekers. 59. Coronado's Expedition.— While De Soto was thus wandering in the east, another explorer was wander- ino" in the west. Cortez had sent expeditions as far as California, which sought in vain for gold. But Cabeza de Vaca, in his long journey, had heard stories of rich cities in the north, and a monk sent out to spy the land came back with extravagant fancies of the wealth of these cities. Inspired by these tales, Francisco de Coronado, governor of a northern province of Mexico, led an expedition, consisting of more than a thousand Spaniards and Indians, into this region in 1540. All he found were the poor natives of the pueblo settle- ments. Deeply disappointed, yet lured on by false tales, he journeyed with part of his men still farther north, 15tU] THE SPANISH AND FRENCH IN THE SOUTH 35 reaching, as is supposed, what is now the Platte River in Nebraska. It is a singular coincidence that about this same time De Soto was in Missouri, a few hundred miles to the east. Coronado returned to Mexico in 1542, cured, let us hope, of his thirst for gold. 60. The Huguenots and Port Royal. — The Spaniards were not the only explorers of the south. Twenty years after the death of De Soto a small party of Huguenots, or French Protestants, led by Jean Ribault, sailed to Florida and sought to plant a colony at what is now Port Royal, South Carolina. They had been sent by Admiral Coligny, the great Hugue- not leader in France, as the vanguard of a French Protestant colony in America. But, less than thirty in number, they soon grew weary and homesick and built a rude vessel, in which they set sail for home. 61. Menendez and the Huguenots. — In 15G4 a second expedition was sent out, which built a fort on the St. John's River in Florida. Here they were encroaching on territory claimed by Spain, which had made several unsuccessful efforts to plant colonies in Florida. In 1565 Pedro Menendez, a Spanish naval officer, was sent to drive out these French intruders. He landed and built a fort about twenty miles south of the French settlement, naming it St. Augustine. Then he marched to the French colony, took it by surprise, and slaugh- Coiutesy of A. Stuplotou, Carlisle, Pa. Huguenot Bible. 36 THE ERA OF EXPLORATION [1565 tered without mercy all he found there, men, women, and children alike. 62. The Massacre at St. Augustine. — Meanwhile Ribault had put to sea with a force to attack the Spaniards; but a tempest wrecked his ships, his men barely escaping with their lives at a point not far from the Spanish fort. Menendez learned of this on his return and treacherously induced Ribault to surrender, with about one hun- dred and fifty of his men. Once in his hands, they were ruth- lessly massacred, on the plea of their being heretics. The remain- der of Ribault 's force, two hundred in num- ber, afterwards sur- rendered. The lives of these were spared, but they were made slaves for life. Thus in treachery, blood, and slaughter was founded St. Augustine, notable as the oldest town in the United States. 63. The Slain Huguenots Revenged.— When the news of this outbreak reached France there was great indignation, even among the Catholic enemies of the Huguenots, and Dominique de Gourgues, a wealthy French Catholic, resolved to revenge his slaughtered Copyright by Underwood in ItUU). he enforced them with a sternness that went far to ruin the planters. As they could not buy or sc^ll outside of iMigland, they were forced to accept for their tobacco what the English UK^rchants chose to give, and t(^ j^ay for tlu^ir sugar, cloth, and other goods what the English merchants chose to ask. 1073J VIRGINIA 69 129. Berkeley as Governor. — When Charles II. became king Berkeley was sent back as governor, and he now ruled in a despotic manner that made the people bitter against him. As the House of Burgesses then in session was friendly to him, he would not permit a new one to be elected, but kept the old one in existence until lOTo. This was bad enough, but it was not all. In 1673 the king, in his profligate way, gave the whole- of Virginia, which thcMi contained forty thou- sand colonists, to two of his favorites, Lords Ai'lington and Culpe- pei', with utter disre- gard of the rights and privileges of the colonists. 130. The People Re= bellious. — The king's gift made the people rebellious. Their taxes were enormous, the Navigation Laws had robbed the crops of much of their value, the assembly did not represent them, and now their whole country had been given to two i)rofligate English courtiers. It is not surprising that they felt like striking for their lost liberties. 131. The Indian Troubles. — It was tlie outbreak of the Indians in 1676 that gave the colonists their op- l)oi'tunity. This was their own fault. They had treated the Indians with much injustice, and these retaliated Ql'ARRKT. BETWKKN BaCON AND BERKELEY, 70 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1676 in their own way by attacking and killing the frontier settlers. Governor Berkeley was appealed to for aid, but he would not give it. He was afraid to call out a military force lest it should turn against him. The planters then raised a small force of their own and put at the head of it a young planter named Nathaniel Bacon, who had recently come from England. Bacon .marched against and defeated the Indians. This action of Bacon and the planters infuriated the governor, who de- nounced the young captain as a rebel. 132. Bacon's Rebel= lion. — The tyrant gov- (M-nor found the man he called a rebel more than hismatch. Bacon at once ri^turned, and the people so strongly su])ported him that B(Mkeley was not only forced to grant him the commission he asked for, l)ut also to call for the election of a lu^w House of Burgesses. Of this Bacon was elected a member. Raising a new force, Bacon again marched into the Indian country, but he was no sooner out of sight than Berkeley issued a procla- mation in which he was called a traitor and his men rebels. The affair ended in the young captain march- ing upon Jamestown, which he captured and bui-ned to the ground^ sonu^ of th(^ patriots under him setting Old Churi h Towkr at Jamestown. 1676] VIRGINIA 71 fire to their own houses, that they might not shelter the adherents of the tyrant. Such was the end of the first English town in America, for Jamestown was never rebuilt. 133. Berkeley's Revenge. — Nathaniel Bacon was a born leader, but, unfortunately, he took sick and died immediately after these events (October 1, 1676). Their leader gone, the troops dispersed, and Berkeley, who had taken to flight, returned, bent on a deadly revenge. He acted without mercy, hanging more than twenty of the principal citizens with hardly the form of a trial. ^ Thus ended this first American rebellion which, singularly enough, preceded by just a century the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 134. Later Events. — Berkeley was recalled by the king, who reprimanded him so sharply for his acts that the old tvrant died of a broken heart. He had ruled over Virginia as Charles I. had sought to rule over England. Lord Culpepper came out in 1680 to rule the province which the king had given him. It was his purpose to get as much money out of it as he could, but the king recalled him and revoked his grant. With this the troubles in Virginia ended and all went well for many years, while the people grew steadily in numbers and wealth. ^ Berkeley treated his captives with insulting derision. Drum- mond, one of Bacon's chief supporters, fell into his hands. "You are very welcome, Mr. Drummond, " he said. "I am more glad to see you than any man in Mrginia, you shall be hanged in half an hour." And he was. Charles II., when he heard of these acts, said: "That old fool has hung more men in that naked country than I did for the murder of mv father. ' 72 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 3. NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES PLYMOUTH. 135. New England Visited and Named.— We have seen how the London Company was successful in founding a colony. The Plymouth Company had less success. Many ships crossed the ocean to what was then called North Virginia, but none brought men to form a settlement. Captain John Smith, five years after he had left Jamestown, explored the coast and made a map, naming the country New England. He never went back to Virginia. 136. The Pilgrims. — Thirteen years passed after the settlement of Jamestown before a colony was founded in New England, and then this was done by a little band of men and women who were fleeing from religious persecution, and spoke of themselves as ''pilgrims journeying to a far land. " From this the}^ have since been known as the Pilgrims. They were the first people after the Huguenots in Florida to seek a land where they could worship God in their own way without being treated as criminals or heretics. 137. The Separatists. — These people were also called Separatists, because they had separated from the Church of England, the religious body supported by the government, and adopted a new system of worship. For this they were treated so badly that they left England and went to Holland, a land of much religious libertv. But thev did not like the idea of their children ceasing to be English, as might have happened in this foreign land, so some of them asked and obtained from the London Company the privilege of emigrating to its domain in America. They also borrowed money 1620] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 73 from some London merchants, which they agreed to pay back by the fruits of their Labor during the next seven years. 138. Voyage of the Mayflower.— In July, 1G20, this little band of wanderers left Holland in the ship Speedwell and sailed to Southampton, England, where they had engaged a vessel called the Mayflower. They now sailed in both vessels, but the Speedwell leaked so badly that they had to seek harbor in the On the Mayflower, Proving etown Harbor, Nov. 21, 1620. port of Plymouth. From this place, on September 16, 1620, the band of pilgrims — one hundred and two in all, men, women and children — set sail in the Mayflower. The weather proved stormy and it was November before they reached the American coast, which they first caught sight of at Cape Cod. 139. A Change of Plan. — They had intended to settle somewhere near the Hudson River, but, as the storms continued, they entered a harbor within the shelter of the cape, and here dropped anchor on the 21st of 74 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1620 November. They were now within the territory of the Plymouth Company, in which they had no authority to settle, but they had had quite enough of the sea and well knew that the company would be glad to have settlers upon its lanci, so a boat party was sent out to explore the coast for a suitable site. 140. A Compact of Government.— The King had refused to give the Pilgrims a charter, so, like true Englishmen, they determined to govern themselves. With this in view, they held a meeting in the cabin of the ship, and there formed a compact of government, one of the first ever made by common people for themselves. They decided that the laws should be made by all the people, who should meet, discuss, and vote upon things needful. This system still exists in New England, where the people of small localities meet and make laws to govern their local affairs. It is known as the ''town meeting.'' John Carver, one of their party, was chosen as governor. He, with the aid of a council, was to enforce the laws made by the people. 141. The Landing of the Pilgrims. — The boating party, after searching along the coast, selected a place which John Smith had visited and had named Plymouth upon his map of New England. As they had sailed from Plymouth in England, this name seemed to them a token of good fortune, and they landed from their boat on a granite boulder which has ever since been cherished as the stepping-stone by which civilization entered New England. The date of this landing was December 21, 1G20.. A few days later the Mayflower sailed over to the chosen place, and the ocean- weary people gladly set foot on the shore of the New World. 1621] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 75 142. Captain Miles Standish. — It is an interesting fact that, as the settlers at Jamestown had brought with them a bold soldier, Captain John Smith, so this little band of religious fugitives also brought with them a valiant warrior, Captain Miles Standish, who was to take an important part in their enterprise and win much fame for himself in New England history. 143. The First Winter. — Like the Jamestown people, the new settlers had much to contend wit-h. The landing was made in the depth of winter and they had only a small allowance of poor food and little shelter from the bitter cold. They built a large log hut, but so many were sick that this soon be- came a hospital, and by the time spring weather came half the little compan}^ were dead. Among these sword. pot axd^platter of miles w^as John Carver, their governor. They were afraid of the Indians and did not wish them to know of their losses, so the graves were levelled and Indian corn was planted over them. Their case was like that of the Spaniard De Soto, who was buried in the Mississippi to prevent the Indians from learning of his death. 144. The Pilgrim Leaders. — In April, 1621, the May- flower set sail again for England. But the Pilgrims had come to stay, and, despite their hardship, not a man or woman went back. They elected a new governor, William Bradford, whom they liked so well that he was re-elected every year, except for five 76 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT 1621 years when he declined to serve, until his death in 1657. Another of their leaders was Elder Brewster, who expounded the Gospel for his small flock; and a third was Mihvs Standish, their stout-hearted warrior. 145. The Indians. —Some of the Indians did not like to see these white strangers settling on their land. Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoags, became their friend and made a treaty with them which was not broken until 1675. But Canonicus, chief of the Nar- March of Miles Standish. ragansetts, was hostile to the strangers, and to let them know that he was ready to fight them, he sent them a bundle of arrows tied with a snake skin. When Governor Bradford received this threatening present he filled the skin with powder and bullets and sent it back to the chief. This filled the savages with alarm. They had seen what the white mcMi's guns could do, and fancied that they had the power of using thunder and lightning. So Canonicus decided he had Ix^tter let them alone. 1622J NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 77 146. Exploits of Miles Standish. -Captain Standish was quite ready to fight the Indians. When he was told that some of them had made a i)k)t to kill all the whites, he sought their leaders with a few brave followers, seized the plotters, and killed them with their own knives. At a later date, when a man named Morton settled with about thirty others at a place near by, which he named Merrj^ Mount, and began a career of drinking and dancing, the Pilgrims sent Captain Standish to put an end to these wild revels. The bold soldier wasted no words on them, but seized Morton and shipped him back to England.^ 147. The Progress of the Pilgrims. -At first the Pilgrims cultivated the land in common, as the Jamestown settlers had done. But they soon found this unwise and divided it up into family tracts. But the land was not rich, and they decided that the fur trade and fishing were more profitable. They grew in members very slowly. Ten years after their landing there were only three hundred persons in Plymouth. But they had succeeded in paying off their debt to the London merchants, were at peace with the Indians, and were content and happy. Their population never became great, for they had rivals at Boston in the north, who ^ Captain Standish was not a member of the Pilgrim community, but they had brought him along as their military leader. He was a short, stout man, of hot and hasty temper. His wife died during the first winter at Plymouth, and, as tradition tells us, he fell in love with a pretty maid named Priseilla. Being more afraid of a girl than of an Indian warrior, he sent his friend John Alden to speak to her for him. But the fair maid answered, " Why not speak for yourself, .h)hn?" John did so and Miles lost his lady love. He found another, and this time spoke for himself and won her. 78 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1628 had a much better harbor and gained population more rapidly. In 1691 the Boston colony absorbed that of Plymouth. It is of this second colony, known as the Colony of Massachusetts Bay, that we must next speak. MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 148. The Puritans. — The Pilgrims were not the only religious body that found England an unpleasant country to live in. There was a much larger body of religious people who had not separated from the Church of England, but did not like the way things were done in it. They said it ought to be purified, and so they became known as Puritans. They were treated badly by the king, but in time they grew so powerful in England that they drove Charles I. from his throne and ruled England under their leader Cromwell. But long before this many of them, fol- lowing the example of the Pilgrims, had come to America. 149. The Puritan Emigration. — Small parties of Puri- tans sought New England from time to time after the Pilgrim settlement, making themselves homes at places on the shores of Massachusetts Bay, north of Plymouth. John Endicott brought over a larger party in 1628 and settled at a place which he called Salem, a Bible name meaning '^ Peace." These were in advance of the large settlement made at Boston in 1630. 150. A Colony Chartered. — A number of the leading Puritans in England, seeing what was being done, decided to form a colony on a larger scale and bought from the Plymouth Company an extensive tract of 1630] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 79 land, stretching from three miles south of Charles River to three miles north of the Merrimac. Inland it had no fixed limit. They also applied to Charles I. for a charter and he gave them a very liberal one. They were granted the right to elect their own governor, deputy governor and council, the latter being free to make laws for the colony. The only restriction made by the king was that these laws should not conflict with the laws of England. 151. The Charter Taken to America.— There was noth- ing in the charter to say where the company should hold its meetings, and soon after receiving it they decided to take this valuable paper to America. The king did not object. The Puritans were giving him trouble at home and it is likely he was glad to get rid of as many of them as chose to go to America. In his view, their room was better than their company. 152. The Settlement of Boston. — In 1630 the great Puritan migration began. John Winthrop, one of the chief men among the Puritans, was its leader. Eleven ships, with nearly one thousand persons and many horses and cattle, crossed the ocean, Winthrop coming with them as governor of the new colony. The charter was also brought, so they did not need to be governed from England. The first landing was made at Salem, but they soon went to Charlestown, and then to a hilly peninsula on the opposite side of Charles River. From three peaks found here they named the place Trimoun- John Winthrop. 80 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1631 tain or Trcniont: but a year later they called it Boston, from the English town whence many of them had come. 153. The Colony Develops. — As in all the early settle- ments, sickness and death attacked the people at Boston in their first year, but the colony soon began a rapid growth, and in four years it numbered about four thousand people. In ten years there were about twenty thousand, occupying a number of towns and villages. The settlers usually came as church congre- gations, led by their own pastors, and each new party was apt to start a town of its own. 154. Industries of the Colony. — The land was poor, but fish were abundant, lumber and furs were to be had in plenty, and the pigs and cattle brought over soon multiplied, so that the people quickly found themselves prosperous. Codfish were plentiful, ship-building became an active industry, and before many years a profitable trade had grown up with the West Indies. 155. Puritan Bigotry. — When the Puritans left for America they were still members of the Church of England, though they did not like many of its doc- trines and ceremonies. In America they broke loose from it completely and formed a church system of their own. They were so bitter against the Church of England that when two of its members came to Salem they were sent back. In fact, these pious Puritans were very intolerant, and quite as ready to persecute those who disagreed with them in religious matters as the Church of England had been. They were bigoted enough to think that their way was the only right way, and they had no room in their colony for those who claimed the right to think for themselves. 1631] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 81 156. System of Government. — Each village made laws for itself, the town meeting system of Plymouth having been adopted. In 1G31, the year after their coming, they decided that only church members in good stand- ing should have the right to vote. This was well enough at first, but it made the ministers the ruling people in the colony, and brought about a narrow way of thinking that in time caused trouble, for people with views different from theirs soon came into the colony. Two of these were the famous Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, of whom we shall speak later. 157. The King and the Bostonians. — Charles I., the English king who had given the Puritans their charter, became dissatisfied when he saw the people of Massa- chusetts doing very much as they pleased, and seem- ingly building up a little republic of their own. This did not suit him, for he was much of a tyrant, and in 1G36 he decided to take back the charter he had given them and make certain English noblemen the lords of their land. The news of what he proposed started a small rebellion in Boston, the king's act making the people so indignant that they were ready to fight for their rights and their charter. Forts were built and mounted with cannon, military companies were formed and a beacon light was set up to warn the villages if a king's ship should approach. Fortunately for them, King Charles had now stirred up so much trouble at home that he had no time to carry out his plans abroad, and the colonists were left to rule themselves as before. 158. The Coming of the Quakers. — Before many years the Puritans in Boston had troubles of a different kind. 6 82 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1656 A new religious sect had appeared in England, called in derision the Quakers, which opposed all forms and ceremonies in religion. They were greatly persecuted, but their zeal could not be checked. Two women of this sect came to Boston in 1G56, bent on making converts. The horrified Puritans seized them and thrust them into jail, boarding up the win- dows of their cell so that no curious per- sons might hear what thev mio;ht have to say. The books they brought with them were burned and they were put on board ship and sent back to Eng- land as soon as this could be done. 159. The Persecution of the Quakers. — The Friends, as these people called them- selves, were not to be stopped so easily. Soon others landed in Boston and insisted on making their doctrines known. They were banished on penalty of death, and two of them who returned were hanged. Two others were hanged later. This was worse than had been done in England, and many of the people of Boston grew so indignant that the magistrates did not dare hang some others thev had condemned. But the l^KHtsKCl riuN ol' i'H I', i-^l AKKK>. 1661] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 83 Quakers were fined, imprisoned, flogged, branded with the letter H (meaning Heretic), bored through the tongue with hot irons, and whipped at ^Hhe cart's tail" from village to village. 160. The Provocation to Severity. — This was strange treatment of Christians by Christians, though the newcomers did much to provoke the Puritans to severe measures. Their religious zeal was so great as to make them almost insane. Some smeared their faces with black paint and ran howling through the streets. Others broke into the meeting houses on Sunday, dressed in sackcloth and with ashes on their heads, and called the ministers hy])o- crites and deceivers, bidding them to come dow^n from theii" pul- pits. Some committed still worse excesses, and it is little wonder that their actions made the Puritans furious. But persecution only made them more persistent, and after Charles LI., in lOGl, forbade any further punishment of Quakers the excitement quickl}' died away. 161. The Salem Witchcraft. — It is well here to speak of another- outbreak of persecution which came about thirty years later. For centuries before there had been a strong belief in witchcraft in p]urope and Thk Witch Hottsk, Salem. 84 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1692 thousands of poor wretches had been put to death as witches. In 1692 this foolish delusion made its ap- pearance in America. In Salem some young people were seized with fits and acted in an odd way. The doctors and ministers said they were bewitched, and several poor women of the town were charged with the crime and put in jail. The excitement quickly grew, the people went into a panic of fear, and before the excitement ended nineteen persons had been hanged i i § I- Old Harvard College (from etching by Paul Revere). as witches. One old man, who would not plead either ''guilty" or "not guilty," was pressed to death under heavy weights. For about a year this delusion con- tinued, then their lost wits came back to the people and the persecutions ceased. With them all signs of witchcraft vanished. 162. The Development of Education. — It might be thought from the witchcraft outbreak that the people of New England were very ignorant and superstitious. Yet people were put to death for witchcraft in Europe 163S] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 85 for many years later, five of them in England as late as 1722. And education had not been neglected in the new colony. Schools were early established, a free school being founded in 1639 and a printing press being set up in the same year. Before this time Harvard College had been founded, taking its name from John Harvard, who gave it a valuable library and a large sum of money in 1638. Care was taken that all children should be taught to read. 163. Dealings with the Indians. — During most of the time mentioned the settlers in Massachusetts had been on friendly terms with the Indians, treating them well and paying them for their lands. But there" were wars between the tribes, and in some of these the settlers took part and thus made other tribes their enemies. Massasoit, the Wampanoag chief, who had agreed to keep peace with the Pilgrims at Plymouth, kept his word faith- fully. But after his death his son Philip was badly treated by some of the whites and resolved on re- venge. 164. King Philip's War. — King Philip, as the new leader of the Wampanoags was called, was shrewd and wary, and formed a secret plot for the extermina- tion of the whites. He saw them increasing so rapidly that he feared that unless they were destroyed the red (Jopyright 1887 by W. L. Williams. Old Fokt of the Puritans. 86 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1675 men would be. Other tribes were brought into the plot, and in June, 1675, a terrible outbreak began, some villages of the Plymouth colony being attacked and many of their people killed. The war continued for more than a year, with desperate fighting and great bloodshed. 165. The Outcome of the War. — After the settlers had defeated the Wampanoags, Philip led the Nip- mucks to deeds of blood. The Narragansetts were also brought into the conspiracy, but before they were ready to take the warpath their stronghold was attacked and burned and about a thousand of them were slain. Those who were taken alive were sold as slaves to West India planters. In 1676 Philip was killed and the war ended. While it lasted a dozen towns were destroyed and more than forty others had been scenes of fire and bloodshed. Of the colonists, more than a thousand men and a great many women and children had perished. After this desperate war there were no more troubles with the Indians of that section. MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 166. Gorges and Mason. — The early history of North- ern New England is closely connected with that of Massachusetts. The first permanent settlement there was made at Pemaquid Point, east of the Kennebec River, about 1626, and before this two Englishmen, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Mason, obtained a grant of the region lying between the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers. After some fishing villages had been built, they divided the land between them, Mason taking that west of the Piscataqua River, 1679] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 87 which he named New Hampshire, after Hampshire in England, and Gorges that east of the river, naming it Maine — perhaps as the "main" land, as distinguished from the many islands off its coast. 167. Settlements Formed. — Saco, Biddeford and Port- land were settled in Maine from 1630 to 1632, but Gorges paid little attention to his province, and in 1652 his heirs sold it to Massachusetts. It remained thus connected until 1820, when it was made into the present State of Maine. New Hampshire gained independence much earlier. The first settlement within its borders was a fishing village near Ports- mouth, and Dover was settled about the same time. By 1641 there were four settlements, which were annexed to Massachusetts in that year. But they were separated in 1679 by Charles II., who made of them, with the country in the interior, the royal province of New Hampshire. From this time on it contmued a separate colony. RHODE ISLAND 168. Roger Williams. — The settlement of Rhode Island came into being through the intolerant bigotry of the Puritans. They found it not easy to tie every- body down to their own narrow views. One of the rebels was Roger Williams, pastor of a church in Salem, who had a strong belief in freedom of thought. No man, he said, ought to be forced to pay taxes to sup- port a minister. Every man, as he claimed, had the right to worship God in the way his conscience bade him. As for the land in America, he said that it belonged to the Indians and the king had no right to give it away. 88 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1635 169. Williams Forced to Flee. — These doctrines alarmed the Puritan clergy and magistrates. They ordered Williams to leave the country, and, to prevent being arrested and sent to England, he fled into the wilder- ness. This was in the winter of 1635, a bitterly cold one, but Williams had made the Indians his friends and they gave him food and shelter. In the spring of Roger Williams Sheltered by the Najrragansetts (from an okl print). 1636 he reached the lodge of Massasoit, the Indian chief, who gave him shelter and presented him with a tract of land on Narragansett Bay. Joined here by five friends, he and they built houses at a place he named Providence. In 1639 he founded there the first Baptist church in America. So many had joined him by this time that Providence already had a considerable population. 1636J NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 89 170. Anne Hutchinson. — -Roger Williams was not the only one whom the Puritans refused to let live in their colony. Many besides him were forced to seek shelter elsewhere and chief among these was a woman, Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. Well educated and of much native ability, Mrs. Hutchinson held opinions about '^ grace" and ''good works" which differed from those of the Puritans. In 1636 she startled them by beginning a series of weekly lectures, in which she advocated her peculiar views. Her influence became so great that some soldiers raised to fight the Indians would not serve because their chaplain's views did not agree with those of Mrs. Hutchinson. 171. Rhode Island. — The Boston authorities decided that this woman preacher was worse than Roger Williams and ordered her to leave the colony. She followed in the track of Williams, with a number of her friends, who bought from the Indians the island of Aquidneck, in Narragansett Bay, which soon became known as Rhode Island. At the northern end of this they founded the town of Portsmout?i, and Newport was begun soon after at its southern end. 172. A Growing Settlement. — The stern rule of the Puritans helped to people this new colony, every one holding liberal opinions being driven from their midst. Under Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson there was no interference with the opinions of any one, and all who found the religious atmosphere of Boston hard to breathe made their way to this land of freedom of thought. With these newcomers Williams shared the lands given him by the Indians, keeping only two small fields for his own use. 90 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1644 173. A Charter Granted. — Roger Williams had no claim to the land he occupied other than that given by its old owners, the Indians. To win the king's assent he went to England in 1644 and obtained a charter from Charles I. Under this charter the different settle- ments in his colony were united into one province, which was named the '^Providence Plantations." In 1663 Charles II. gave a new charter, and in this was used the name ''Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." Finally, as is well known, the name of Rhode Island was used for the whole district. 174. A Liberal Grant. — The second charter was exceed- ingly liberal, the powers of legislation and suffrage given by it being so broad that no new constitution was needed when the colonies became free. In fact, it remained in force as a state constitution until 1843. It was finally abrogated on account of its property qualification for suffrage. 175. Religious Liberty. —The striking feature in the Rhode Island government was that of full religious liberty. When Williams came back from England he had laws passed which guaranteed to everybody freedom of faith. There was no restriction to Chris- tians, since Jews, Turks, and any one else were free to worship in their own way. It is truly said that it was "the first legal declaration of freedom of conscience ever adopted in Europe or America." CONNECTICUT . 176. The Valley of the Connecticut. — As the settlers spread westward from the seashore of New England, they were naturally attracted by the beauty and fertile 1633] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 91 soil of the valley of the Connecticut River (an Indian word meaning ''Long River"). Not only the Puritans of Massachusetts but the Dutch, then settled on the Hudson, made their way to its banks, both drawn to it by the hope of a valuable fur trade. 177. The Dutch Fort. — In the summer of 1633 a small ship from Plymouth came to the mouth of the Con- necticut and sailed up its fine stream. Proceeding for some fifty miles up the river, they were surprised at seeing before them a fort, mounted with cannon, and with Dutch soldiers on the walls. ''Go back or we will fire," was the hail. But the Pilgrims did not go back and the Dutch did not fire, and soon the new- comers had a house on the site of the present town of Windsor and were trading for furs with the Indians. 178. Saybrook Settled. — These were the first move- ments to take possession of this region. In 1635 more active efforts were made. The English Earl of Warwick had obtained from the king a grant of the Connecticut Valley, which he soon made over to Lord Brooke, Lord Say-and-Seal, and others. John Win- throp, son of Governor Winthrop, of Massachusetts, made his way thither in the interest of the new pro- prietors, and built a fort at the mouth of the river which he called Saybrook, after his patrons. This shut out the Dutch from their fort up the river and they were obliged to abandon it. 179. An Overland Migration. — The people of Massa- chusetts were now alive to the value of the Connecticut Valley, and in 1636 a party of more than a hundred set out overland from Newtown (now Cambridge) for "The West," as they called it, travelling on foot 92 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1639 and driving their cattle and hogs through a wiklerness without roads or bridges. Two weeks brought them to the site of the Dutch fort, which they named New- town. The next year it was given its present name of Hartford. These people were led by their pastor, the Rev. Thomas Hooker, who, like Roger Williams, did not like the Puritan methods. He did not believe that a few leaders had the right to govern the whole people. 180. A Republic Formed. — Another settlement was made named Wethersfield, and by 1639 there were so many people in this section of Connecticut that they thought it time to have some settled form of govern- ment. So the people of the three towns of Windsor, Hartford and Wethersfield met at Hartford and drew up a written constitution. In this no mention was made of the king of England or of the company w^hich had been granted the Connecticut Valley. Practically it formed a republic in the wilderness, which became known as Connecticut. In it the Puritan government by church members was done away with, and every freeman was given the right to vote. In this way Thomas Hooker carried out his liberal views. 181. Trouble with the Indians. — Before this was done there was war in the young colony. The Dutch had ill-treated the Indians and had built their fort to defend them from the enmity of the Pequot tribe, which occupied that region. The savages were angry at seeing new companies of white men settling in their country and tried to get the Narragansetts to join them in a general war against the Enghsh. Roger Williams learned of this and visited the Narragansett chief, 1637] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 93 with whom he had much influence, and persuaded him to keep peace with the whites. Thus the Pequots were forced to act alone, and this they did by waylaying and killing settlers, until thirty of them had been killed, some being burned alive in the cruel Indian way. 182. The Pequot War. — In the spring of 1637 a force of about on(5 hundred and eighty men, including seventy Mohcgan warriors, enemies of the Pequots, was sent :.!B.:i^ «'. ^-Jlj^ Attack on the Pequot Stronghold. against their stronghold, a stout stockade on the Mystic River which they thought could not be taken. It was captured by surprise before daydawn, the entrances being seized and a firebrand hurled on the wigwams. The flames spread so rapidly that the English were in danger, and more than four hundred of the warriors perished. Those who escaped were pursued and nearly all slain. Almost in a day one of 94 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1641 the most warlike of the Indian tribes had been de- stroj^ed and a lesson was taught the savages which was long remembered. 183. A New Colony. — While this war was going on a large company of settlers, many of them men of wealthy arrived at Boston from England, led by their pastor, the Rev. John Davenport. What they had in view was to form a little state of their own, governed only by the laws to be found in the Bible. As the laws of Moses said nothing about trial by jury, they would not accept even this. Boston was not to their taste and in the spring of 1638 they sailed for the Con- necticut coast, where they founded the town of New Haven in a pleasant harbor which they entered. In the following years three other towns, Milford, Guilford and Stamford, were founded, and the four towns in 1641 formed a little confederation known as the New Haven Colony. In this, as at Boston, only church members were allowed to vote. So the newly settled territory had two colonies, separate in name and organization, and with different ideas of popular rights. As Rhode Island was formed of two colo- nies and had two capitals, so also had Connecticut. THE NEW ENGLAND UNION 184. The Confederated Colonies. — In 1643 took place the first union of colonies for mutual aid ever made in America. Its purpose was defence against the Indians or the Dutch, in case of attacks by these, and it consisted of the four colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven. Rhode Island was left out on account of the enmity felt 1643J NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 95 towards Roger Williams and his followers. The con- federation was named '^The United Colonies of New England," two commissioners being chosen from each colony to form a board of management. The powers of this board were to call out troops when needed and to settle disputes between the colonies. 185. Civil War in England. — In the years that followed great events took place in England. Civil war broke out, and Charles I. was driven from his throne, tried for his life and beheaded. Cromwell, the leader of the people, was made Lord Protector of the kingdom. In 1660, after Cromwell's death, the king's son was called to the throne as Charles II., and one of the first things he sought to do was to seize and execute the judges who had condemned his father to death. Two of these, named Goffe and Whalley, had sought safety in New Haven, w^here Davenport, the minister, aided them. Their capture was ordered and they were much sought for, but they were never found. 186. Charles II. and the Puritans. — To punish New Haven for the bold act of concealing these men, the king in 1662 suppressed it as a colony and attached it to Connecticut. But he gave that colony a very liberal charter and granted Rhode Island a similar one. As for Massachusetts, he was displeased with its intol- erant spirit and ordered it to permit the Episcopalians to worship there. The stern Puritans paid no heed to his order, and for a time seemed in danger of losing their charter, but events in England just then kept the king too busy to attend to them. 187. The Charter Annulled. — For more than twenty years after this the colonists were left alone to grow 96 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1684 and prosper and to govern themselves much as they pleased. But trouble was brewing for them. In 1679 New Hampshire was separated from Massachusetts by the king and made a royal province. By 1684 Charles II. had grown so angry with the people of Massachu- setts, who defied his laws and orders, that he declared their charter of no avail. He proposed to give them a new one which would bring them more directly under the royal authority, but before it could be prepared he died and his brother, James II., came to the throne. 188. Andres and the Charters.— The liberties of the colonists were now in danger, for the new king was disposed to reign as a tyrant over all his subjects. Sir Edmund Andros, a man of his own type, was sent abroad as governor of New England and New York, with absolute powers. He was bidden to seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, which were far too liberal for the king's liking. Andros sent orders from Boston for the delivery of these charters, but they failed to come. Then, in 1687, he pro- ceeded with a strong force of soldiers to Hartford and sternly ordered its authorities to deliver their char- ter into his hands. 189. The Charter Oak. — The tradition is that while the "•overnor and the assemblv were discussing the sub- ject, they begging him to leave them their charter and The Chartek Oak. 1687] NEW ENGLAND AND ITS COLONIES 97 he curtly refusing, while the valued paper lay on a table near them, the lights in the room were sud- denly extinguished. When they were lighted again the charter had disappeared. It had been seized, it was said, by a Captain Wadsworth, a bold soldier, who hid it in a hollow oak tree, which was long famous as the Charter Oak. Andros, furious at this, declared the charter New England and New Netherland. government at an end, and wrote the word ''Finis" at the end of the last page of the Assembly's minutes. 190. The Charter Restored.— Fortunately for the colonies, James II. was soon after driven from the throne and William III. became king. When the news 7 98 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1692 reached Boston the people seized the tyrant Andros, put him in prison, and restored their ohl government. In Hartford the lost charter reappeared, the assembly met again, and the word '^ Finis" was erased from their minute book. For the time all went on as before in Massachusetts, while Connecticut and Rhode Island were allowed to keep their charters and elect their governors. 191. Changes in Massachusetts. — In 1G92 the new^ king took Massachusetts in hand. He did not seri- ously interfere with its freedom, except that he ordered that people of all Christian beliefs should have the power to vote and hold ofhce and have their own churches, thus putting an end to the old intolerance. Aside from this, he let the free government stand, with its town meetings and legislature, but in the new charter he gave them he took from the people the election of the governor, keeping this in his own hands. The new charter added Plymouth and Maine to the colony of Massachusetts, and also Nova Scotia, which was then in English hands. It cannot be said that the royal governors greatly enjoyed ruling over Massa- chusetts. Their salaries were voted by the General Court or legislature, so they w^ere in a degree under public control, and there were frequent quarrels, continuing until 1775. 4. NETV" YORK AND NEW JERSEY NEW NETHERLAND 192. The Dutch Settlement.— In former chapters it was told how a Dutch ship under Henry Hudson sailed up the river since known by his name, and 1623] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 99 trading posts were built on the island at the river's mouth. Other trading posts were built up the river, and a ''stone house" named Fort Nassau was erected on the spot where the city of Albany now stands. As the country of the Dutch, known to us as Holland was called by them Netherland, they named this country New Netherland. 193. The Fur Trade. — The Indians had valuable furs to sell and many vessels crossed the ocean to obtain them, agents being left on the Hudson to deal with the natives. But these were mere traders, and it was not until 1623 that a regular colony was sent to take possession of the country. 194. The New Netherland Colony. — The colonists sent out settled at several points on the Hudson, called at that time the North River, and on the Delaware, which they called the South River. A small settle- ment was also made on the Connecticut, at the place afterwards named Hartford. 195. New Amsterdam. — As the fur trade proved profitable, so many settlers arrived that in 1626 a governor named Peter Minuit was sent to take charge of them. To prevent trouble with the Indians he bought Manhattan Island from them, paying for it in beads, buttons and cloth worth about twenty-four dollars in all. To-day that sum would buy very few square feet of ground anywhere on the island. He built a small village, with a fort and warehouse, calling the place Manhattan, after its Indian name. After- wards it was given the name of New Amsterdam. The Dutch were always shrewd enough to buy their land from the Indians, paying for land and furs alike 100 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1626 with things of no great value, such as knives and hatchets, beads and buttons. They made a treaty of friendship with the powerful Iroquois tribes of New York and took great care to keep on friendly terms wdth them. New Amstkrdam. 196. The Patroons. — The government of Holland had made a grant of New Netherland to a trading corpo- ration called the West India Company, and it was due to this that the land was rapidly settled. Any man who could bring out fifty settlers was offered a tract of land sixteen miles wdde on the Hudson, or eight miles if on both sides of the river. It might run a long distance back from the stream. These land- holders were called '^Patroons," and were required to pay the Indians for their land. They ruled on their estates like little kings, for the peo})le under them 1645] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 101 were given no political rights. The richest of them, a man named Van Rensselaer, had an estate twenty- four miles wide on each side of the Hudson and twice that distance back, over all of which he was absolute lord. 197. An Indian War. — Several governors followed Peter Minuit, and one of them, named Kieft, who had a sharp temper and a lack of wisdom, made enemies of the Indian tribes in the vicinity. As a result a fierce war began in 1643 which lasted two years and nearly ruined the colony. Many of the settlers were killed, and they would all have been driven out if the powerful Iroquois had not continued friendly. These were at war with the French in Canada, and traded furs with the Dutch for muskets and ammunition. It had not been many years before when they first learned the power of the gun in their battle with Champlain and the Hurons, but they were quick to make use of this new weapon. 198. Peter Stuyvesant. — At the close of the Indian war, in 1645, the notable Peter Stuyvesant was sent out as governor of New Netherland. '^Old Silverleg" the people called him, for he had lost a leg in the wars and wore a wooden one bound with silver. He was honest and had good sense, but he was also hot tem- pered and arbitrary, and when the people asked the right to vote their own taxes he sternly refused. He also ordered them all to attend the Dutch Protestant Church and was ver}^ cruel to some Quakers who entered the colony. Orders came from Holland that everybody might worship as they pleased, but crusty "Old Silverleg" paid little heed to them. 102 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1664 New Amsterdam about 1667. 199. On Manhattan Island.— Only a small part of Manhattan Island was then occupied. Stuyvesant fortified New Amsterdam by building a high and strong palisade across from river to river on the line of the present Wall -Street. Within this w^ere about one thousand persons, some of them English and French and many of them negro slaves. But in the years that followed the place grew fast in wealth and population, and soon passed beyond the wall. 200. The English Claim.— Though the Dutch claimed this country on the basis of its discovery by Henry Hudson, the English had an older claim based on the voyage of the Cabots. And they had the better claim, according to the practice of those days, of greater strength on the seas. The English were active and enterprising and did not hesitate to encroach upon the territory of New Netherland. And they were far from pleased to have the Dutch intrude between their colonies of New England and Virginia and occupy the valuable region of the Hudson, with its splendid harbor. 201. The Taking of New Amsterdam. — One day in 1664 an English fleet suddenly appeared in the harbor of New Amsterdam and demanded the surrender of the city. King Charles II., in disregard of the rights of the Dutch, had secretly granted this whole region to his brother, the Duke of York, who at once sent 1673] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 103 four vessels, with a strong body of soldiers, to take possession. Stuy vesant was furious. He swore soundly that he would never surrender to these island pirates. But he could not help himself. His military force was much smaller than the English, and the people, whom he had angered by refusing them any political rights, were not inclined to fight for him. So he was obliged to yield. Down came the Dutch flag; up went the English; New^ Amster- dam ceased to be, and New York took its place, named after the new proprietor. NEW YORK 202. The English Government. — The peo- ple of New Amsterdam found themselves little better off under their new master. They hoped to have the privilege of making laws for themselves, as was done in the other English colonies, but this was denied them, and when they protested against being taxed without a voice in the matter, their protest was burned by the common hangman. They were therefore not displeased when in 1073, during a war between England and Holland, their old master got possession again. But during the next year the Dutch traded ofT New Nether- By permission of the New York Historical Society. Peter Stuyvesant Considerixg Summons 1*0 Surrender New York. 104 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1685 land for an island province in the Pacific and England came permanently into power. 203. The People's Rights.— The Duke of York did not believe in popular government, but the demand for it became so strong that in 1G83 he permitted the people to elect an assembly of their own. In 1G85 he became king and at once took away this right. New York was made a roj^al province under the tyrannical Sir Edmund Andros, the man who sought to take away the charter of Connecticut. Fortunately for the people, the reign of James soon came to an end. 204. The Leisler Outbreak. — When the people of New York learned that King James had fled, and that the Prince of Orange was on the throne as William III., there was a change. At that time there were two parties in the city, one the rich merchants, patroons and officials, the other the poorer people. The leader of the latter was a German merchant named Jacob Leisler. Suspecting the aristocratic party of treacher- ous purposes, Leisler at once called out the militia, captured the fort, and took possession of the city in the name of King AVilliam, dispersing the council and setting up a new government of his own. 205. Leisler Becomes a Despot. — For two years Leisler governed the city. But he became so despotic as to make enemies in his own party, while he imprisoned members of the opposite party and seized their prop- erty. Complaints reached King William, and in 1G91 he sent out Governor Sloughter to rule the colony. Ingoldsby, the governor's lieutenant, arrived first and bade Leisler surrender the city. Leisler refused and a fight took place, in which some soldiers were killed. 1691] NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY 105 The next day Governor Sloughter arrived, and Leisler, deserted by his party, was arrested, found guilty of treason and hanged. This uncalled for severity was bitterly resented by the popular party, which long afterwards continued to oppose the rulers.^ 206. Later Events. — At this time the seas were infested with pirates, who became very bold and daring. Gov- ernor Fletcher was suspected of aiding them, but Governor Bellamont, who succeeded him, determined to suppress them, and sent out a strong ship under Captain William Kidd for this purpose. As it proved, Captain Kidd turned pirate himself and grew famous through his depredations. He was seized at length and was hanged in London in 1701. After this period New York developed quietly, the people advancing in the right of self government. For a long time there was a contest between the governors and the people, but the latter steadily gained strength. NEW JERSEY 207. The New Jersey Country. — The New York region was not the w^hole of New Netherland. The country now known as New Jersey, south of the Hudson and between the ocean and Delaware Bay and river, was also claimed by the Dutch and partly settled. They had crossed the Hudson and founded a trading post at Bergen about 1618, and soon afterw^ards sailed up ^ Leisler had opposed Ingoldsby because the latter could show no authority for his action. Sloughter did not intend to execute him, but Leisler 's enemies made the new governor drunk at a dinner party, got him to sign the death warrant while in this state, and hung Leisler before the governor became sober. 106 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1681 the Delaware and built a fort on the site of Camden. This they named Fort Nassau — the old Fort Nassau, at Albany, having been replaced by Fort Orange. 208. The New Proprietors. — When the Duke of York seized New Netherland he granted the region here spoken of to two of his friends, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. It was named New Jersey by Car- teret after the island of Jersey, in the English Chan- nel, of which he had been governor. Liberal terms were offered and settlers came, Elizabethtown and Newark being early founded. 209. Berkeley's Province. — While Carteret held the eastern section, that of Berkeley lay in the southwest, and here there arose so many disputes with earlier settlers that in 1674 he sold his share of the province to two Quakers named Byllinge and Fenwick. William Penn, the famous Quaker who was to become pro- prietor of Pennsylvania soon after, bought Byllinge's share in 1677, in company with some others of his faith. Salem and Burlington were founded and the Indians were paid for the land taken. In 1681 Penn and his company of Friends bought East Jersey from the heirs of Carteret, so that they now controlled the whole province. It was the- first step taken to make a place of refuge in America for the persecuted Quakers. 210. The Usurpation of Andres. — When Edmund Andros was made governor of New York he claimed New Jersey also, disregarding the rights of the pro- prietors. An assembly met at Salem in 1681 and made a code of laws, but trouble began again when James II. became king and Andros was once more appointed governor. Finally the proprietors, weary of the quar- 1638] PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 107 rels, surrendered their claim to the crown, and New Jersey was made a royal province under the governor of New York. In 1738 it was separated from New York and given a governor of its own. 5. PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 211. Along the Delaware. — While flourishing settle- ments were being made in the north and the south, the fertile and promising mid-region, that traversed by Delaware River and Bay, was greatly neglected. The settlement of New Jersey, as has just been shown, proceeded very slowly, and the same was the case with the regions lying west of the Delaware. 212. The First Settlers. — In 1611 Lord Delaware, then governor of Virginia, took refuge in the bay during a severe storm, and from this his name has been given to the stream which the Dutch called the South River, and to the bay into which it flows. A small Dutch colony was planted near the site of Lewes, at Cape Henlopen, at an early date, but its people got into a quar- rel with the Indians and were swept away. Shortly afterwards some Swedes came over and occu- pied the same region and in 1638 the King of Sweden sent over a colony, which paid the Indians for the land and settled at various points along the river, naming the country New Sweden. Copyright 1908 by W. H. Eau. Interior of Old Swedks Church, Phila. 108 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1665 I 213. The Dutch on the Delaware. — The Dutch at New Amsterdam did not like to see the Swedes taking possession of a region which they claimed as their own, and in 1055 Peter Stuyvesant sent a body of soldiers to the Delaware, who took possession of the Swedish settlements. The Swedes remained, but now under Dutch rule. Finally, in 1665, after New Amster- dam had been taken by the English, the country on the Delaware was claimed for the Duke of York. C'dpyiiiilit liUtd by Violet Oakley from Copley Print, ('opyright 1906 by Curtis it C'oiuptiny. Pknn's Vision ok a Land of Freedom. 214. William Penn. — Up to 1680 no very active effort was made to settle this promising country. Its final settlement was due to William Penn, a leader among the Friends, or Quakers as they wer^ commonly called, a sect which, in spite of persecution, had then become numerous in England. As we have seen, they were persecuted in America as well as in England, and needed a place where they might dwell in peace. New Jersey was bought for them by Penn and others, 1681] PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 109 but the governor of New York troubled them tlierc and Penn wanted a region under his own control where those of his faith couhl dwell in peace. 215. Penn's Woodland. — William Penn was the son of an English admiral, to whom the government had owed a large sum of money. As the king, Charles II., did not seem likely to pay this money, and as Penn had joined the Society of Friends and wanted to help them, he asked the king to dispose of his father's claim by granting him some land in America. King Charles was quite ready to pay his debts by giving away prop- erty which he did not own, so, in 1()81, he made Penn proprietor of a great tract of land lying west of the Dela- ware river, to which he gave the name of Pennsylvania, a title equivalent to '^Penn's Wood- land." The Duke of York, who was friendly to William Penn, added the region now known as Delaware to the grant. 216. The Pennsylvania Charter. — A charter was given to Penn, but it was less liberal than those given to the New England colonies. Laws might be passed by the Assembly, but they must be approved by the king, who also retained the right to lay a tax on the province — which he never did. By way of quitrent the king claimed from Penn two beaver-skins annually and one- fifth of all the gold and silver the region might yield. Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, no THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1682 217. The Coming of Settlers. — Settlers soon came in numbers. Before the first year passed nearly thirty vessels laden with emigrants reached the new province. Penn came himself in 1682 in the ship Welcome, bringing with him a hundred English Friends to found a city the site of which had already been chosen. 218. The City of Philadelphia. — A desirable piece of land lying between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers was selected for this city, and given the name of Pknn's Landing at Essex House, Chester. Philadelphia, "or Brotherly Love." The streets were to be broad and to cross each other at right angles, and those running from river to river Penn decided to name after the trees of the forest. So to-day we find there such names of streets as Chestnut, Walnut, Spruce, Pine, etc. 219. The Great Law. — Landing at a Swedish village called Upland, to which Penn gave the name of Chester, he called together an asseml)lv of the PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE 111 people then in the land and passed what he called ''The Great Law'' for the government of the colony. The terms of this law were very liberal. Its religious features were nearly as broad as those of Rhode Island. Every person could worship God as he pleased though only believers in Christ could vote or hold office. The people were free to make their own laws, and no man could be put to death except for murder Treaty Elm on thk Delaware. or treason. At that time there were dozens of crimes for which people could be hung in England. Each prison was to be made a workshop and place of refor- mation, then a new idea in prison management. 220. The Land Purchased. — From Upland Penn pro- ceeded to Philadelphia, where he found the settlers already busy in building themselves homes. A few Swedes had settled on the site of the new city and to these he paid fair prices for their property. As 112 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1684 for the truo i)ropnetors, the Indians, he called them together and agreed to pay them for all the land he needed. It is said that a council was held with them under a great elm tree near the city and a treaty made. During the many years of Quaker rule in Philadelphia Pcnn's agreement with the Indians was faithfully kept. Voltaire has said: ''This was the only treaty never sworn to and never broken." 221. The Colony Grows Rapidly. — No hardship came to the first settlers, as in several other colonies. People came in numbers, attracted by the liberal laws, the cheapness and fertility of the land, and the absence of persecution. Pennsylvania grew more rapidly than any o t her colony had grown. When Penn returned to England in 1GS4 there were already three hundred houses in Philadelphia and seven thousand people in the colony. Among these was a considerable party of Germans, wlu^ bought a large tract of land and settled a place called Germantown, now included in Philadelphia. j\lany AA'elsh Friends also came and took up lands near the city. 222. Penn in Trouble. — Though Penn's colony thus grew prosperous ami tiourishing, many troubles awaited him. In 1092 his province was taken from him on account of his friendship for James II., the king who had recently been driven from England. It was soon l.i i...v lU v.-,. rHIl.ADKLPHIA. Erected for William Penn. 1699] MARYLAND 113 restored to him, but new troubles were to come. He visited Philadelphia again in 1699, found it quite a large city for that day, and gave its people a new constitution, still more liberal than the old one. But he found it difficult to collect his rents from them and fell so deeply in debt that he had to mortgage his province to raise money. In the end he was im- prisoned for debt. He died in 1718, leaving the province to his sons. They derived much more benefit from it than he had ever done. 223. The Delaware Province. — Though the Duke of York had added to Penn's grant the regions which be- came known as 'Hhe three Lower Counties on the Dela- ware," they were never closely united to Pennsyl- vania. Their people early became dissatisfied and withdrew from the union. Governor Fletcher, of New New York, who governed the country during Penn's brief removal, reunited them to Pennsylvania in 1693. But other disputes arose and in 1703 Penn gave Delaware an assembly of its own, though it remained under the governor of Pennsylvania. This was the state of affairs until 1776, when Delaware was made a separate state. 6. MARYLAND 224. Religious Liberty. — We have seen how much the desire for freedom of worship had to do with the set- tling of America. It was this that brought the Pilgrims and the Puritans to New England and which led to the settling of Rhode Island. It was this that brought William Penn and the Friends to Pennsylvania. And it was this that brought the Catholics to Mary- land — though they did not long enjoy there the liberty they sought. 114 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1634 225. Lord Baltimore. — George Calvert, Lord Balti- more, a Catholic nobleman who was greatly dis- satisfied with the ill-treatment given to Catholics in England, early formed the idea of founding a home for them in the New World. He first tried New- foundland, but found the climate there too severe. He then sailed to Jamestown, but soon learned that his people would not be welcomed by the Protestants of that locality. Then he made his way up Chesapeake Bay, and found an unsettled country north of the Potomac, with which he was delighted. 226. The Maryland Province. — On his return to Eng- Land Lord Baltimore applied to the king, Charles I., for a grant of land on the North Chesapeake and readily obtained it. Charles was so friendly to him that he named the proposed colony Maryland in honor of his queen Henrietta Maria, and gave Lord Balti- more the greatest authority ever granted to a colonizer. There was conferred upon him the title of ''Lord Proprietary of Maryland," and he was authorized to coin money, select judges, appoint noblemen, and nominate or have elected an assembly that could make laws without asking the king's approvaL The governor and assembly were also granted the sole right to lay taxes on the people. He was virtually made an independent ruler. 227. St. Mary's Settled. — George Calvert died before the charter was made out, and his son Cecilius, the second Lord Baltimore, became " Lord Proprietary. He sent out his brother Leonard in 1G34 with about three hundred people, who founded the town of St. Mary's, on the Potomac near its mouth. The Indians 1645] MARYLAND 115 who lived there sold their land to the new settlers and taught them how to plant and raise corn, so that they did not suffer from hunger or Indian hostility. 228. Freedom of Worship. — As in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, religious liberty w^as decreed here, all Christians being made citizens of the colony. The combination of political and religious freedom was a great attraction, and settlers came in numbers, many of them Protestants. Tobacco was raised with profit, grain was grown in the interior, and several towns were found(Hl, so that Maryland was soon in a prosperous condition. 229. The Clayborne Claim. — Trouble came to the colony through a Virginian named William Clayborne, who had formed a fur-trading post on Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay. This was within the limits of Mary- land, but Clayborne refused to acknowledge the author- ity of the Calverts. This led to a quarrel and fight in which he was defeated and driven from his island. 230. Colonial Warfare. — Clayborne came back in 1()45, about ten years later. By that time many Puritans had settled in the colony, and the turbulent Virginian stirred these up to attack the Catholics. For two years after that a state of war prevailed in Maryland and the governor was forced to flee. He returned in 1646 and Clayborne was once more driven from the col- ony. In 1654 the trouble began again and a battle was fought near the site of Annapolis, in which Clayborne and the Puritans were victorious. An assembly was convened, which repealed the act granting freedom of worship and prohibited Catholic worship in Mary- land. 116 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1691 231. Cromweirs Decision. — As will be seen, those to whom Lord Baltimore had given homes and freedom in Maryland became his enemies. Fortunately for him, Cromwell, then in power in England, saw the justice of his claim and in 1658 restored to him his province. Freedom of worship was also re-established and for many years peace and prosperity prevailed. 232. The Protestants in Power. — In 1689, after William III. came to the throne, severe laws w^ere passed against the Catholics and the Protestants became masters in Maryland, the Calverts being again deprived of their province. Mary- land was declared a royal province in 1691, the Catholic worship was for- bidden, and the Church of England was given precedence. St. Mary's ceased to be the seat of government, Annapolis taking its place. Like Jamestown in Virginia, St. Mary's in time was deserted, and hardly a trace of it now exists. 233. The Calverts Return to Power. — Once again, in 1715, the rule of the Calverts was restored, under the fourth Lord Baltimore. But he had become a Protestant, so there was no religious change and the old free- dom of worship was at an end. The Calverts continued in power until 1776. 234. The Mason and Dixon Line. — A dispute having arisen as to the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland, two English surveyors named Mason and One of the Five-Mile Stones Marking the Mason and Dixon Line (from photograph of orig- inal in possession of Mary- land Historical Society). 1763] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 117 Dixon were sent out in 1763 to establish the true boundary. They ran a line due west from the north- east corner of Maryland for nearly three hundred miles, setting up at every fifth mile a stone with the arms of William Penn on the north and those of Lord Baltimore on the south. In after years Mason and Dixon's line became famous as the dividing line between the free and the slave states. 7. CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 235. The English Field of Settlement. — It has been shown in previous chapters how the English people gradually took possession of the Atlantic coast of the present United States during the seventeenth century. There was one large part of the coast, however, to which little attention was paid in the early period, that between the English settlement of Virginia and the Spanish settlement of Florida. Here, a settle- ment was made before that of Pennsylvania. 236. Settlers in Carolina. — The first white men to reach this section of the country — after the unfortu- nate Huo;uenots of a centurv before — were some farmers and others who strayed southward from Virginia. About this time Charles II., a profligate English king, was giving away land in America very freely. As we have seen, he gave the Dutch settle- ment of New Netherland to his brother, the Duke of York; Pennsylvania to William Penn; Virginia to two of his companions, Lords Culpepper and Arlington; and he also gave the great tract south of Virginia to eight noblemen. Lords Clarendon, Albemarle and others. This grant was made in 1063. 118 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1670 237. Several Colonies Formed. — These people had no thought of settUng the land themselves, like William Penn. All they wished was to gain profit from it. They were given a very liberal charter, in which relig ious freedom to colonists was assured, and this helped to bring settlers. The people already there were formed into a colony named Albemarle, and some settlers from the West Indies formed another colony named Clarendon. Further south a settlement was made in 1670 on the banks of Ashley River. Ten years later it was moved to a location between the Ashley and Cooper rivers, which was named Charles- town, after the king. It is now the city of Charleston. 238. Naming the Country. — When the Huguenots had settled on the southern coast a century earlier they called their settlement Carolina, after Charles IX. of France. The new proprietors adopted the same name, now applying it to Charles II. of England. The word Carolus (Latin for Charles) was the source of this name. 239. A Refuge from Persecution. — The religious hberty offered settlers had the good effect of bringing to the new province persecuted Christians from several countries. These included many Huguenots, fleeing from persecution in France, and a large number of Germans from the Palatinate, a German province which had been invaded and desolated by French armies. Later there came many Scotch-Irish and Highlanders, and also some Dutch from New York, dissatisfied with English rule. 240. A New Constitution.— Though religious liberty was granted in Carolina, political liberty was forbidden. The eight proprietaries, seeking a form of government 1693] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 119 for their province, applied to John Locke, an eminent EngUsh philosopher, to make them a constitution. Ignorant of the conditions of settlement in a wilder- ness, he drafted a plan which became known as the "Grand Model," which he and the company looked upon as a splendid piece of work, but which the people of the colony justly regarded as a scheme to reduce them to slavery. 241. The Grand Model.— The Grand Model scheme arranged for a nobility of landholders, — lords, earls, barons, etc.^but it made slaves of the poorer people, who were not allowed to vote or to hold land, and could not even leave the plantation they worked on without permission. And their children were to be held in the same servitude. 242. The People Revolt. — Though the proprietaries thought the Grand Model admirable, the people thought it abominable. When an attempt was made to put it into effect, the people refused to submit to its absurd provisions. For twenty years a state of rebellion existed, during which governors were driven out and others chosen by the people. Heavy taxes had been laid, but these it was found difficult to collect. In the end the people won and in 1693 the Grand Model was abandoned. It was one of those supposed perfect pieces of machinery which will not work. 243. Carolina Divided. — In those days of poor roads and slow travel Carolina was too large for one colon3\ Members of the assembly could not easily reach a single capital, so it became necessary to have two capital cities and two assembhes. Usually, also, there were two governors. There was litth^ peace and (piiet in 120 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1729 Carolina until 1695, when John Archdale, a Quaker, was sent out to govern both sections of the colony. He was just, honest and sensible and the troubles ceased. The taxes were reduced, the people given the right to vote, and prosperity came to the region. 244. A Royal Province. — In later years, under new governors, the old dissension returned, and there were so many complaints and so much disturbance that the proprieta- ries grew weary of the strife, and in 1729 sold out their claims to the gov- ernment. Carolina was now form- ally divided into two colonies, which were given the names of North Carolina and South Caro- lina, these being made royal provinces. 245. Sources of Prosperity. — The Carolinas grew slowly. The people of North Carolina were poor antl scattered, depending largely on the production of pitch, tar and turpentine from their widespread pine woods. South Carolina did much better after 1693, when a bag of rice was brought to Charleston by a vessel from Madagascar and planted as an experi- The Carolinas -ind Georgia. 1711] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 121 merit. It did so well that the culture of rice was begun and became very profitable. Indigo, which was planted in 1743, also proved a valuable crop, and the popula- tion grew with some rapidity. 246. The Tuscarora Indians. — Few of the colonies in those days escaped trouble with the Indians, the true owners of the soil, who naturally viewed with doubt and hostility the coming of the whites, feeling that they were being crowded from their native lands. In North Carolina was a powerful tribe called the Tuscaroras, a section of the Iroquois family of New York, the strongest and most warlike of Indian con- federacies. With those hostile relations arose. 247. Massacre and War. — Enraged by the encroach- ments of the whites, the Tuscaroras suddenly attacked the settlers and in one night in 1711 killed one hundred and thirty of them. Their murderous work could not be checked until a strong party of whites and friendly Indians from South Carolina came to the aid of the settlers and drove back their foes. In the next year they broke out again, but this time were so thoroughly defeated that they left the country and made their way north to join their brother tribes in New York. These, formerl}^ called the ''Five Nations," were after- wards known as the ''Six Nations." 248. The Region South of the Savannah. — The south- ern part of the Carolina grant, that lying south of the Savannah River, was the latest portion of the coast to attract settlers. It was a dangerous district, for the Spaniards of Florida laid claim to it, and their nearness made it unsafe for settlers. Not until after Carolina became a royal province was an attempt made to 122 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT [1732 colonize the section, and this had to be done in force, for a colony in that region needed to be a sort of mili- tary outpost. 249. Oglethorpe and the Debtors. — At that time imprisonment for debt was so common in England that some of the prisons in London were filled with poor debtors, who were unjustly and often cruelly treated. This was observed by General James Oglethorpe, who felt such pity for the unhappy prisoners that he proposed to pay the debts of some of the most deserving, transport them and their families to America, and give them a new start in life. 250. Savannah Founded. — In 1732 George II., a new king of England, gave Oglethorpe a grant of this district, and in the following year a company of released debtors was taken out and settled near the mouth of the river forming the southern boundary of South Carohna, the settlement and river being named Savannah, a Spanish word meaning the same as prairie, or treeless plain. Oglethorpe went with them, and for a year lived in a tent, set up under four pine trees. A man of justice and discretion, he paid the In- dians for the land taken, and treated them so well that they continued friendly. 251. Georgia and Its Progress. — Oglethorpe named his colony Georgia, after the king. Other settlers soon followed the debtors, some of them persecuted Protes- 1 Oglethorpe. 1752] CAROLINA AND GEORGIA 123 tants from Germany, some of them oppressed Scotch Highlanders. Rice and indigo were planted, a brisk trade arose in lumber, and the silk industry was started, though it did not prove profitable. 252. Unjust Laws.— A ready-made constitution was given this colony, as had been done in the case of the Carohnas. It did not work any better than the Grand Model. The people were not allowed to govern them- selves, and no Roman Catholics were permitted to enter the colony. ^Yomen, since they could not serve as soldiers, were not allowed to own land, and men could own very little. Slavery was prohibited. 253. Georgia a Royal Province.— Georgia was sur- rendered to the <>,rown in 1752, and was afterwards a royal province. This was due to discontent with the laws that prohibited the importation of rum from the West Indies and negroes from Africa, and also those regarding land holding. So many complaints were made that the trustees of the colony were glad to get rid of it, and not until the unsatisfactory laws were repealed did the colony prosper. 254. War with the Spaniards. — As was expected, the Spaniards of Florida were hostile to this settle- ment. In 1742 they invaded it with a large fleet and a powerful army, landing on St. Simon's Island and proposing to take Oglethorpe's forts and conquer or desolate the colony. Oglethorpe's force was much weaker, but by a shrewd stratagem he frightened the enemy and caused them to withdraw in panic flight. In the following year Oglethorpe repeated his attack on St. Augustine. As before, he failed to take it, but his vigor put an end to Spanish invasions. 124 THE ERA OF SETTLEMENT SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 1607. The first successful English colony was founded at James- town, Virginia, by a company of settlers who owed their success largely to Captain John Smith. The cultivation of tobacco brought prosperity to the colony, and in 1619 it was permitted to make its own laws. Leading events were Indian outbreaks in 1622 and 1644, and an insurrection against a tyrannical governor in 1675, known as Bacon's Rebellion. 1609. Henry Hudson, in the service of Holland, sailed up the river bearing his name, and the Dutch colony of New Netherland was formed, embracing the country from the Connecticut River to the mouth of Delaware Bay. This region was taken from the Dutch by the English in 1664 and named New York after the Duke of York, its new proprietor. New Jersey was part of the Duke of York's claim, and was given to two of his friends, who sold it to a company of English Quakers. It was made a royal province in 1702, and was separated from New York in 173S. 1620. The Pilgrims, an oppressed religious sect from England, settled Plymouth in 1620, and the Puritans, another sect, settled Boston in 1630, both seeking freedom of worship. The Puritans were very intolerant, drove out Roger Williams, who settled Rhode Island in 1636, persecuted the Quakers who came to Boston, and hung many people for witchcraft in 1692. King Philip, an Indian chief, began war against them in 1675, but was defeated and killed. Elaine, New Hampshire and Connecticut were settled, and very liberal charters were given to Connecticut and Rhode Island, which Sir Edmund Andros sought to take from them in 1687. 1634. Lord Baltimore sent a colony of Roman Catholics to America, who settled in iVLaryland. William Clayborne, a Vir- ginian, joined with Puritan settlers, brought civil war into the colony and overthrew the government. ^laryland was made a royal province in 1691 and the Catholic worship forbidden. It was restored to the Baltimores in 1715, the then Lord Baltimore being a Protestant. 1638. A Swedish colony settled on the Delaware River and named the country west of the river and bay New Sweden. Their colony was captured by the Dutch in 1654, and was seized for the SUMMARY OF EVENTS 125 Duke of York in 1665. In 1681 it was granted by Charles I. to AVilliam Penn, who founded Philadelphia in 1682, gave the people political and religious liberty and formed the most flourishing colony in America. Pennsylvania and Delaware were combined under one governor until the Revolution. 1663. The Carolina country was granted to eight noblemen, who founded colonies in the north in 1663 and 1664 and in the south in 1670, the latter becoming the city of Charleston. An oppres- sive government was formed. This the people would not yield to and political freedom was gained. The cultivation of rice and indigo made the colony prosperous. In 1729 it was made a royal province and divided into Xorth and South Carolina. 1733. The Georgia country was granted to James Oglethorpe in 1732, and a colony of debtors from English prisons was formed there in 1733. Many Germans and Scotch came to the country, and the growth of rice and indigo brought prosperity. The Spanish from Florida invaded the country in 1742, but were defeated. In 1752 Georgia was made a royal province. TOPICS FOR REVIEW. Oral or written composition. 1. The Aborigines of America. — Their personal appearance — social condition — occupations — homes — their tools and weapons — clothing — furniture and cooking utensils — means of travel — their government — religion — the INIound Builders, Pueblos, and Cliff- Dwellers. 2. Struggle for Supremacy in America. — The European nations engaged — what each did — what each claimed — conflicting clninis — the settlers of Virginia — Pilgrims and Puritans — Dutch and English in New Y^ork — William Penn's colony — other settlements. reference books. 1. Doyle's The English in America. 2. Fisk's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. 3. Coffin's Old Times in the Colonics. 4. Fisher's Colonial Period. 5. Lodge's English Colonies. 6. Fisher's The Mak- ing of Pennsylvania. 7. Robert's New York. 8. Cooke's Virginia. 9. ScharVs Maryland. 10. !^oore's North Carolina. 11. Jones's Georgia. PART IV. THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 1. KING WILLIAM'S WAR (1689-1697) 255. Rival Settlers in America. — The English colonists in America had more to contend with than the diffi- culties and perils laid by nature in their path. War came to add to these perils. Their contests with the Indians have been described in former pages, but they had European rivals, the Spaniards in the south and the French in the north and west, who were ready to fight for the possession of the country. As a result severe and sanguinary wars ensued. 256. War in Europe and the Colonies. — In 1689, war broke out between England and France in Europe and its effects were immediately felt in the colonies. Count Frontenac, an old but able man, was appointed governor of Canada by the French king and ordered to descend the Hudson and capture New York. For- tunately for the English, they had allies in the region to be traversed, the Iroquois Indians, who had bit- terly hated the French ever since their defeat by Champlain eighty years before. They now attacked Montreal and gave the French so much to do at home that the proposed invasion was given up. 257. The Massacre of Settlers. — All that Frontenac was able to do was to send out raiding parties of French and Indians, whose work was confined to brutal but useless slaughter of English settlers. The village of 126 1690] KING WILLIAM'S WAR 127 Schenectady, in New York, was attacked at midnight in February, 1090, and nearly all its people were killed, a few escaping in their night clothes and making their way to Albany, sixteen miles away. In the fol- lowing years several villages in New England were similai'ly treated, more than a hundred people being slain at Durham, New Hampshire, in 1094. All along The Attack on Havkrhill. the border similar needless and frightful massacres prevailed, though not without some reprisals. In the attack on Haverhill, Massachusetts, a Mrs. Hannah Dustin was taken captive. She turned on her captors and, with the aid of another woman and a boy, killed them all while they slept, returning in triumph with ten gory scalps. 258. The English Invade Canada. — While the French were thus cnUsting the Indians in their aid, the northern 128 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1697 colonies joined in naval and military expeditions against Canada, a naval force being sent from Boston against Acadia and Quebec and a military force from New York and Connecticut against Montreal. They both proved failures, the land force not even reaching Canada. 259. The French and Iroquois. — The only event of actual military importance in this war was an attack made by Frontenac upon the Iroquois, who had frustrated his attempt upon New York by their inva- sion of Canada. Assailing them in their own country, he wrought such havoc there that, after four years of war (1093-97), the proud Iroquois were forced to beg for mercy and their military power was greatly reduced. 2. QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-1713) 260. A Second War. — Peace returned to America with the close of the war in Europe in 1G97, but a second war broke out in the reign of Queen Anne, which continued for twelve years and was attended in America by the same useless slaughter of helpless villagers as before. Deerfield and Haverhill, in Massa- chusetts, were attacked by parties of French and Indians, and many of their people slain or carried into captivity. 261. Acadia Conquered.— On the English side Port Royal and Acadia were occupied and were retained by the conquerors after the war, the name of Port Royal being changed to Annapolis, in honor of the English queen. An expedition was also sent against Quebec, but it was checked by a violent storm at the mouth of the St. Lawrence, many of the ships being destroyed and a thousand men drowned. 1744] KING GEORGE'S WAR 129 262. War in the South. — Spain was allied with France in this war, and in 1702 an expedition from South Carohna took and plundered St. Augustine, while in 1703 the Indian allies of the Spanish were severely punished. Three years later a combined fleet of French and Spanish vessels attacked Charleston, but they were repulsed with heavy loss. 263. An Indian Invasion. — One of the greatest Indian wars in the South took place at the end of this period. A confederation of the tribes was formed in 1715 with the purpose of sweeping all the whites into the sea. Seven thousand Indians marched upon South Carohna, but they were met by Governor Craven with twelve hundred men and completely defeated. 3. KING GEORGE'S WAR (1744-1748) 264. Years of Peace and Growth. — During the thirty years that followed Queen Anne's War, peace prevailed and the colonies grew in numbers and strength. The English settlements extended more deeply into the interior and the French added to their hne of fortified posts along the lakes and the Mississippi, and founded the city of New Orleans. In 1743, during the reign of George II., war again broke out in Europe, and as before extended to America. 265. The Fortress of Louisburg. — This war was not attended with the Indian massacres of the preceding ones, but it was marked by an event of more military importance, the capture of Louisburg. This, a sea- port on Cape Breton Island, had been fortified by the French at an expense of five million dollars, and was thought strong enough to defy any assault. Yet it 9 130 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1745 was taken by a force of four thousand New England militia, aided b}^ four English warships. 266. Louisburg in British Hands. — The expedition against this powerful fortress, with its walls of solid masonry, thirty feet thick, was composed of farmers and fishermen, led by a militia officer, Colonel WilUani Pepperell of Maine. It seemed so hopeless a scheme that Benjamin Franklin, with all his trust in American daring, said that Louisburg was far too hard a nut for their teeth to crack. Yet after a six weeks' siege the great fort fell, on June 17, 1745, much to the surprise of Europe and the consternation of France, but greatly to the delight of Boston, which had supplied most of the funds for the expedition. 267. The Cause of the Victory. — The victory was due less to military science than to the dash and courage of the assailants, and was greatly aided by the weakness of the garrison and the incompetence of the commander. It is of interest to state that the drums that beat the triumphal march as the victors marched into Louisburg on June 17, 1745, were the same that beat at Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, exactly thirty years later. 268. The Fortress Restored. — A powerful expedition was sent by France the next year for the recapture of the fortress, but it failed through injury to the fleet by storms and weakening of the troops by sick- ness. At the end of the war, however, Louisburg was restored to France in exchange for Madras in India, which France had taken from England during the war. The New Englanders, who had spent large sums in equipping their expedition, were furious when the 1750] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 131 prize of their valor was thus traded for a heathen city thousands of miles away, especially as Louisburg had been a nest of French privateers which preyed upon the fishing craft of the colonies. 4. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754-1763) 269. A Critical Period. — We have now reached a critical period in American history, one of leading importance, as in it was to be deter- mined whether France or England should be the dominant power in North America. The wars so far mentioned were side issues, in which the col- onies had no real interest, and into which they should not have been drawn. But a war was about to come that origi- nated in America, and in the outcome of which the later history of the United States was deeply involved. This was the bitter contest that be- came known in history as the French and In- dian War. 270. Conflicting Claims. — For nearly a century and a half the colonies of England and France had been extending in America, the EngUsh along the coast and French Settlements in the West and South. 132 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1750 the French along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi to the Gulf. Though the latter lay within the region claimed by the English, they paid no attention to it, and the colonists of each nation pursued their course undisturbed until the expansion of the English settlements westward and the movements of the French towards the valley of the Ohio brought them almost into contact. By 1750 a contest for the possession of this rich domain had become next to inevitable. Colonial Territory before the French and Indian War. 271. The Advance of the Rivals. — The French had far the easier route to the interior, that of the splendid waterways of the St. Lawrence, the lakes, and the Mississippi, and had pushed their way westward and southward until thev had more than sixtv military posts along the lakes and the river. The Enghsh, 1750J THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 133 on the contrary, faced an unbroken wilderness, backed by a broad mountain region, and their expansion west- ward was one of hardship and difficulty. Farther north, where the country was more open, the warlike Iroquois closed the path. While friendly to the English, they were jealous of intrusion. 272. The Ohio Valley. — Such was the state of affairs when the middle of the eighteenth centur}^ approached. The rich valley of the Ohio was the battle ground towards which the vanguard of each army of inva- sion was directed. Here the two forces were certain before many years to come into hostile contact. Both France and England claimed this untrodden region. France by right of La Salle's discoveries, England by a claim based on the voyages of the Cabots, under which charters had been granted to the Pacific.^ 273. The Ohio Company. — The English were the first to move towards the Ohio. Their outposts had reached the mountains, and prospectors had crossed these to the western country, from which they brought back alluring stories of its wealth and fertility. In 1748 an association was formed for the purpose of settling this rich region. This, called the Ohio Company, obtained from the king a grant of half a million acres of land in the Ohio valley. Among its stockholders were Lawrence and Augustine Washington, elder brothers of the afterward famous George Washington. ^ No thought was given to the rights of the real owners of the region, the Indians. "Where is our land?" they asked. "The English claim all on one side of the river, the French all on the other. Where does the land of the Indian lie ?" To this plaintive demand there was no reply save that of the rifle and the cannon. 134 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1753 Tk, Turn A toi'i Conf.uim 274. The French Build Forts.— In 1750 the Ohio Com- pany sent out surveyors, whose work extended down the banks of the Ohio as far as the site of Louisville. These movements alarmed the French, who felt that if active steps were not taken they would lose the Ohio countr3^ They at once began their favorite occupation of building forts. One was built at Crown Point on Lake Champlain, to control the pass through the mountains by way of the eastern lakes. Farther west, a fort was built at Presque Isle on Lake Erie; a second at Le Bceuf, on French Creek, south of the lake; and a third at Venango, on the Alleghany River, at the mouth of French Creek. These were steps on the way towards the upper waters of the Ohio. 275. Governor Dinwiddle Takes Action, — Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia, who was interested in the Ohio Com- pany, took quick alarm. Unless the advance of the French was checked the interests of this company would be imperilled. Its surveyors had already been seized by the French and a British outpost on the Miami destroyed. In 1753 he sent a messenger to the French forts to order their removal from what he claimed as Virginian territory. He chose for this mission a young man then only twenty-one years of age, too young, as would seem, for a mission that seemed to demand the experience and discretion of a mature man. Copy of Pen- manship BY WHICH Washington's Handwriting was Formed. 1753] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 135 276. Washington's Mission to the French. — The young envoy, George Washington by name/ was in several respects well fitted for the task before him. He was familiar wiih Indian ways, and versed in woodcraft. Youth and strength were needed, for there lay before him a journey of over a thousand miles through the unbroken wilderness. Discretion and judgment were necessary, for he had to deal alike with Indian chiefs and French officers, and to l(\arn what the French were doing and proposed to do. All these requisites he had, as events proved. 277. A Successful Enterprise. — Washington did his work remarkably well. As had been expected, the French refused to retire, but he learned that they were preparing for a further advance down the Alleghany in the coming spring. He learned other things concerning their designs, won the friendship of the Indian chiefs, and returned in safety after endur- ing great hardship, in which he narrowly escaped being shot by a treacherous Indian and being drowned while crossing the Alleghany amid floating ice. 278. Fort Duquesne. — The place where the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers join to form the Ohio had been closely observed by the young surveyor, * George Washington, born in Mrginia, February 22, 1732, was a descendant of John Washington, who came to America about 1657. As a youth he was noted for truthfulness and accuracy, and the same characteristics marked his whole Hfe. He began the business of a surveyor when sixteen years of age by surveying the lands of Lord Fairfax in the Shenandoah Valley. At nineteen he was appointed adjutant general, with the rank of major, in the Virginia mihtia. His subsequent history is that of his country during his career. 136 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1754 and he reported it as an excellent location for a fort. In the spring of 1754 a party was sent out to build one, but before they had made much progress a strong body of French descended the Alleghany in canoes, drove the workmen away, and completed the fort for themselves, naming it Fort Duquesne. By Permission of the Union Leagiie, Philadelphia. Washington Presenting Gov. Dinwiddie's Letter to Chevalier Legardeur DE St. Pierre, 1753. 279. Washington's First Military Duty. — A colHsion was imminent. The English must act promptly or retire in baffled defeat. Governor Dinwiddle showed no lack of promptitude, but at once sent out a force of militia, in which Washington, as a reward for his efficient service, was made second in command. 1754] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 137 Washington Crossing thk Ali.k(;hany River on Raft. Hurrying forward with a reconnoitering corps, he met a party of French skulking in the woods. As their secrec}^ denoted hostile intentions, they were fired upon and their com- mander was killed. This event (May 28, 1754) was the opening scene in the most im- portant of American colonial wars. 280. The Surrender of Fort Necessity. — Colonel Frye having died on the march, Washington took command and, finding the French too strong, took refuge in a stockade which he built at Great Meadows and named Fort Necessity. Attacked here by a strong force of French and Indians, he was forced to sur- render after a sharp resistance, he and his men being permitted to return home with their arms and effects. 281. England and France Send Troops.— The tidings of this hostile encounter roused wide-spread excite- ment. In England and France it was evident that a severe struggle was at hand and both prepared for the contest. General Braddock, an officer skilled in Euro- pean warfare, being sent to Virginia with two regi- ments of British soldiers, while the French also despatched troops. 282. Franklin at Albany.— While George Washington was beginning the work of a soldier, Benjamin Frank- 138 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1755 lin, another of America's greatest men/ was beginning his career as a diplomat. At a convention of dele- gates from the colonies, held at Albany in 1754, he made an earnest effort to bring about a union among them. It was the first attempt of this kind and it failed, despite his endeavors. The colonies feared they would lose some of their power and be involved in unforeseen dangers. The British government also rejected the plan, fearing that union might make the colonies too Franklin. pOWCrful. TllUS, dcspltC Fraukliu's energetic efforts, they remained dis- united during the French and Indian War. 283. Braddock's Defeat. — Adding a force of Virginia militia to his regulars, General Braddock began his march upon Fort Duquesne in the summer of 1755, Washington going with him as a member of his staff. The progress was very slow, much time being spent in making roads through the forest. At length a point ten miles from the fort was reached, and the army entered a deep ravine, the sides of which were thickly covered with underbrush. Suddenly from this the war-whoop sounded and a shower of bullets was ^ Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston in 1706. He became a printer and writer, and went to Philadelphia when seventeen years of age. There he was long in business as printer and publisher, was a very active and useful citizen, founding several important institutions, and gained great fame by proving that lightning is due to electricity in the clouds. He was appointed Postmaster- General for America in 1753 and during the remainder of his life was very prominent and useful in the political affairs of the country. 1755] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 139 poured into the ranks. The Virginians, accustomed to this kind of warfare, at once sprang for cover, to fight the savages in their own way; but Braddock obsti- nately forbade his men to do the same, and kept them in their ranks, wasting their fire, while they were falling rapidly before the bullets of the hidden foe. At length he fell with a mortal wound and his men broke and fled in dismay, Washington, at the head of B haddock's March. the Virginians, covering the retreat. The young officer won great credit in this disastrous affair, which he passed through without a wound, though two horses were shot under him and four bullets pierced his clothes. 284. The Lake George Battle. — The war spirit had now spread throughout the northern colonies, and shortly after the defeat of Braddock a hotly-contested battle took place on the shores of Lake George between the French in their advance towards the Hudson and a colonial and Indian force led by Sir William Johnson. 140 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1755 The French were defeated, but were permitted to retire unmolested to Crown Point. Instead of pursuing them, Johnson contented himself with building a fort, which he named Fort William Henry, at the southern end of Lake George. The French retahated by building Fort Ticon- deroga at the northern end. 285. Expulsion of the Acadians. — In the same year (1755) an act was committed by the Eng- lish which is usually looked upon as a piece of unwarranted cruelty. They held the part of Acadia now known as Nova Scotia, and sent a successful expedition against the remainder, now New Brunswick. Finding that the set- tlers here were giving aid and information to their countrymen, the French, the Eng- lish determined to expel from the country all those who would not take an oath of allegiance to the English king. Most of them refused this, and more than six thousand of the helpless settlers were forced on shipboard to be dis- tributed among the English colonies, their homes being burned and their farms laid waste to prevent their return. Many of these exiles found new homes in the French settlement of Louisiana. Though The Fort Duquesne Campaign. 1756] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 141 efforts have been made to justify this act on the score of niiUtary necessity, it is not easy to beUeve that so cruel a deed could not have been avoided. 286. The Spread of the War. — While Europe had formerly sent war to the colonies, the colonies now The Seat of War in New York. sent war to Europe. The war between the colonies extended to England and France in 1756 and later spread over Europe and to the colonies in India. It is known in history as the Seven Years' War, and became one of the world's most famous contests. 287. Montcalm's Victories. — In 175() the Marquis de Montcalm, an able French officer, was placed in com- mand in America, and began operations by capturing the English post at Oswego, which gave him large stores, many prisoners and the control of Lake Ontario. 142 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1758 In the following year he led a large force down Lakes Chaniplain and George and captured Fort AVilliam Henry. Here a lamentable affair took place. The Indians who formed part of Montcalm's army fell upon the unarmed prisoners and massacred large numbers of them, despite all the efforts of the French officers to prevent them. 288. The British Repulsed at Ticonderoga. — In 1758 General Abercrombie, then in command of the British forces, made a vigorous effort to take the strong French fort at Ticonderoga, leading fifteen thousand troops against it, while Montcalm held it with less than one- third that force. Yet the British were repelled, with heavy loss. 289. The French Triumph. — Four years had now passed since the outbreak of the war and the French had won in every locality except Acadia. This was due to their military activity and the large forces sent from France. The English colonies at that time had a population ten times as great as the thinly-settled French domain, but the conduct of the war on their part had not equalled that of the French in energy and skill. 290. A New Policy. — A change began in 1758. Wil- liam Pitt, the new Prime Minister of England, deter- mined to win, and sent large bodies of troops to America, while keeping the armies of France occupied in Europe. The defeat at Ticonderoga was the only failure in the new policy. The stronghold of Louis- burg, on Cape Breton Island, was a second time taken, and was now retained. Fort Duquesne had been left to the French since the defeat of Braddock's army, but now a successful expedition was sent against it. 1759] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 143 291. Fort Duquesne in English Hands. — During the period after Braddock's defeat Washington had been kept busy fighting with the Indians, whose success had made them bold and who made many attacks on the frontier settlers. When General Forbes marched against Fort Duquesne, Washington joined liim with his Virginians. Yet the march was so slow and so much time was wasted in road-making that winter came on and Forbes decided to abandon the enter- prise. Washington, greatly dissatisfied with this feeble policy, and convinced that the French garrison was weak, asked permission to advance on the fort with his Virginia troops. Permission being given, he led his trained frontiersmen in a rapid march through the forest and (juickly reached the vicinity of the fort. Alarmed at his approach, the French set fire to the place and fled. Wash- ington's men were quickly within the works, the flames were extinguished and the stronghold was saved. Its name was changed to Fort Pitt, in honor of the great English statesman. 292. The Campaign The Sikge of Quebec. of 1759. — Encouraged by these successes, the English made a vigorous campaign in 1759, capturing all before them. Their army now greatly outnumbered that of France and Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point 144 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1759 were abandoned by their French garrisons, Niagara and Oswego were occupied, and the control of Lake Onta- rio was regained. The French were on every side driven back and Canada was invaded, the seat of war there being its stronghold of Quebec. 293. The Siege of Quebec. — Against Quebec, the most powerful post left to France in America, the youthful General Wolfe was sent with an army of about eight The Heights of Abraham. thousand men. Behind the walls of Quebec, standing on a lofty bluff overlooking the St. Lawrence, lay Montcalm with a strong garrison. For three months Wolfe cannonaded the town and made vigorous efforts to take it, but in vain. Autumn came on; the time when the river would be closed by ice was at hand: Wolfe was in despair. 294. The Heights of Abraham. — The only place open to a land attack was on the northwest side, and here 1759] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 145 was so steep a precipice that no one thought of its being scaled by an army. Yet Wolfe learned that there was a narrow path up the cliff, and determined to make the attempt. When night fell on September 12, 1759, the ships' boats, laden with troops, floated silently and unseen down the stream. On reaching what is now known as Wolfe's Cove, the men landed and began to clamber up the narrow path. Wlien the morning of September 13 dawned Montcalm was astounded to learn that a British army of five thousand men stood on the supposed inaccessible Heights of Abraham. Taken by surprise, he marched upon them at once, hoping to dislodge them before more could reach the summit or many cannon be drawn up. The British were veterans, the French mostly colonial militia. In the battle that followed a terrific fire from the British ranks, followed by a bayonet charge, put the French to flight, Montcalm falling in the retreat. Wolfe had also received a mortal wound and lived only long enough to learn that he was the victor.^ ^ While Wolfe lay bleeding with a mortal wound he heard the exultant cry, ''They run ! they run ! " " Who run? " he asked. "The French!" "Now God be praised, " he said, "I shall die in peace." In a few minutes he expired. Wlien Montcalm was told that his wound was mortal, he said, "So much the better. I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec. " 10 Death of General Wolfe. 146 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1763 Five days later the city surrendered and the power of France in America was fatallv weakened. 295. The Conflict Ends. — In the following year the French made a strong effort to reconquer Quebec, but the siege was raised on the approach of a powerful English fleet. Montreal was now assailed and quickly surrendered and the conflict ended. England had become master of all Canada. The only possessions remaining to France in North America were the posts on the Mississippi and the Gulf. 296. A Treaty of Peace. — In Europe the war continued for two years more, peace not being declared until 1763. The treaty of peace put an end to the dominion of France in America. All Canada was yielded to England except two small islands near Newfoundland, held for fishing purposes. There were other changes of much importance. Spain had joined France in the closing years of the war and in 1762 England had captured from that country Cuba and the Philippine Islands. These were now given back to Spain in exchange for Florida. As Spain had thus lost Florida through her alliance with France, the latter made over to her all its possessions on and west of the Mississippi, as a reward for her aid. As a result the territory of the present United States now belonged to England and Spain, England holding the whole country east of the Mississippi except New Orleans, Spain all west of that river. Thus a most significant change had been wrought in the destinies of America. 297. The Indians Rebel. — There was one party to the contest whose rights were quite overlooked in the settlement. These were the Indian allies of France in 17t)3] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 147 tier forts and their slain or the war. They were friendty to the French, but feared and hated the Enghsh, and were not content to yield to their control. Pontiac, a leading chief of the Ottawa tribe, organized a great tribal combination with the hope of expelHng the English and restoring the country to its old masters. It was a natural but hopeless effort. 298. The Indian War. — Pontiac's plan was to fall at once on all the English ___ forts and take them by surprise. In May and June, 1763, the blow fell. Eight fron- were taken garrisons c a p t u r e d . Only Fort Pitt and Detroit escaped. Many of the frontier settlers were murdered and thousands fled in terror. For two years the war continued, its principal fight being at Bushy Run, in Pennsylvania, where Colonel Bouquet severely defeated the savages. The contest came to an end in 1760, the mastery remaining with the whites. 299. The Results of the War. — The great colonial war described had cost the colonists heavily. They had lost fifty thousand men, had spent many milhons of dollars, and had suffered severely from Indian raids. Yet they had gained more than they had lost. Copyright 1902 by Detroit lM],i|.>f;rai)hi( (' Old Block House. 148 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS [1763 Their great rival had been driven from the land, they had raised money, recruited armies and fought bat- tles independently of England. They were evidently quite capable of taking care of themselves. During the hotly-contested war many officers and soldiers had been trained in military service, among the former Colonial Territory after the French and Indian War. being such men as Washington, Putnam, Arnold, Stark, Montgomery, and others of later fame. Much valuable preparation had been made for a greater contest soon to come. 5. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 300. Home Life. — In addition to the public life, it is of importance to speak of the home life of the people of the colonies; about their houses, dress, food, and occupations, and the state of the country during colonial times. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 149 301. The Population. — This country then was different in many ways from what we see it to-day. Its whole population was probably much less than may now be seen in the one city of New York. The cities were small, Philadelphia, the largest, having only about twenty thousand people. Very few of the people had crossed the Alleghany Mountains, the great region bevond which was a forest-covered wilderness. And CoNESTOGA Wagon. everywhere, back from the sea-coast regions, the colonists were very thinh^ settled, and the country was largely left to the Indians and the beasts of the forest and prairie. The people were chiefly of English descent, though many Germans and Swedes had settled in Pennsylvania, Dutch in New York, Irish and Scotch in most of the colonies, and French Protes- tants in South Carolina, so that the races of most of Europe arc mingled in the Americans of to-day. 150 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 302. Modes of Travel. — The people rarely left their homes, for the means of going about were very poor. The roads were few and hard to travel and it was not easy to get about except by boat. Inland travel was chiefly done on foot through the woods or on horse- back over rude bridle paths and roads. People went about so little that even in Philadelphia, the largest city, a stranger was looked upon with curiosity. When A Colonial Stage Coach. goods needed to be transported, this was done largely on pack-horses, but the farmers of Pennsylvania in time came to use numbers of the famous Conestoga wagons, large, canvas-covered vehicles, drawn by six or eight horses. In 1753 it took Washington forty-two days to travel five hundred and sixty miles. Now this journey can be made in less than a day. 303. Stage Coach Lines. — It was late in the eighteenth century before stage travel began. Between Phila- delphia and New York the first stage was a wagon LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 151 that ran twice a week. The roads were so bad that it did not average more than three miles an hour. In 1766 coaches made the journey in two days, and these were thought so swift that they were called ''flying machines." In wet weather the coaches often stuck fast in the mud, and had to be pulled out with the aid of the passengers. In 1789 it took a week to travel from Boston to New York. As there were no bridges all rivers had to be crossed in boats. 304. Water TraveL — The easiest way of getting about was by water, up and down the rivers in boats and along the coast waters in sailing vessels. At an early date the New England shippers were sending trading vessels to the West Indies and fishing craft to New- foundland, and in time Yankee ships were to be seen in every foreign port, and were thought to be much superior to European vessels both in speed and strength. By their aid a valuable commerce was built up. 305. Postage. — As may be judged from the difl^iculty of travel, the sending of letters was a slow process. The first mail route in this country, started between New^ York and Boston in 1672, took a month for a round trip. In 1729 the mail was taken between New York and Philadelphia once a week in summer, but only once a fortnight in winter. The mails were carried in saddle-bags by men on horseback, the carriers jogging along slowly and often knitting stockings to pass the time. Aside from these regular routes letters were sent only when enough had collected to pay the cost of carriage. As late as 1790 it took two days to send a letter from Pliiladelphia to New York. Now it takes but two hours. 152 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 306. Postal Rates. — The cost of sending letters was so great that few were written. In 1792 it cost eight cents for a single letter sheet sent forty miles or less, ten cents if more than forty miles and less than ninety miles, and twenty-five cents for the distance from New York to Richmond. Two sheets were charged double. To us, who can send letters for two cents to all parts of the country and to England and Germany, these rates seem prohibitory. 307. The Houses of the People. — In the early days of the country the people did not enjoy much comfort. Their houses were usu- ally built of logs, with steep, thatched roofs. The best part of the house was its great fireplace, piled in win- ter with blazing logs, over which the cook- ing was done, and around which the family loved to gather. The kitchen in those days was the favorite hving room. Swinging cranes bore pots over the fire, and spits and skillets were used for cooking on the hearth. Some houses had large brick ovens, which were heated with blazing wood and held the heat for hours. Baking was done in these. 308. Houses of the Wealthy. — In later years larger and better houses were built and wealthy people often had costly dwellings of brick or stone, the apartments finely panelled with mahogany or other rich woods, Fireman's Hat. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 153 hung with tapestry and adorned with pictures. But the best of these dwellings were cheerless in winter except before the wood-fire on the hearth. 309. In New York and the South. — The Dutch houses in New York were built like those of Holland, of wood or small black or yellow bricks, with gable ends facing the street. They were generally one and a half stories high. There was a great brass knocker on the door and, instead of carpets, the floor was covered with sand, swept into lines and patterns with the broom. The houses in Philadelphia were usually two stories high, with gardens and orchards around them, the side- walks often paved with flagstones, then very rare in cities. In the south the planters built large, showy mansions, with broad stair- d, 1 1 . , n Fire Bucket of 1802 mantels and wainscots of carved mahogany. The furniture was rich and costly, and gold and silver plate might be seen in abundance on the sideboards. 310. Furniture. — The furniture, of course, was gov- erned by the means of the house-owners. It was usually home-made and not very abundant. Oiled paper often took the place of glass in the windows, and when glass was used the panes were small and diamond-shaped. Carpets were almost unknown and clocks were rare, time being usually guessed from the movement of the sun. The best room, with its fine 154 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS furniture and ornaments, was kept closed except on great occasions, the family living in the cheerful kitchen, with its dresser set with pewter dishes, its massive dining table and chairs or stools, its bunches of herbs and strings of dry- ing apples hanging from the low joists, and occasionally a tall wooden clock in the corner. When out of the light of the hearth-fire, only home-made tallow candles were used for lighting. 311. Food.— What did the people eat and what did they wear? These are the questions which next come before us. Food was usu- ally plentiful enough, but was of no such variety as we enjoy to-day. It was mostly the product of the Fresh meat was rare, salt meat and fish being the stand-by in winter. Wheat was too dear for general use, and rye and Indian corn meal were used for bread and cakes. There was little variety of vegetables, and tea and coffee were not much used. The home orchard supplied fruit. Phila- delphia was noted for its abundance of fruit, peaches being so plentiful that the people fed their pigs on them. 312. Dress. — The clothing worn varied to suit the climate and occupation. In New England the Puritan Wii.MAM Pknn's Writing Dksk. home garden and farm. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 155 gentry dressed quite plainly, wearing knee-breeches and short cloaks, with ruffs around their necks and steeple-crowned hats. For great occasions they had high boots rolled over at the top, . ^ rich belts and buttons of gold or silver. The women wore silk dresses and hoods, lace handker- chiefs and other finery for Sun- days, but dressed in homespun during the week. Working men dressed much more plainly, their breeches being of leather or coarse cloth, their jackets of red or green baize. All were forbidden by law to wear clothing too fine for their station, and the constables were ordered to observe and report all such. The Dutch in New York wore the native Holland dress, consisting of several pairs of knee-breeches, one over the other, which gave them a very baggy appearance. Large buckles were worn at the knees and on the shoes and great brass or silver buttons on the coats. The women wore a number of short and bright-colored skirts, with colored stockings and high-heeled shoes and a white muslin cap on the head. In Virginia the wealthy planters and citizens dressed showily, with three-cornered cocked hats, long velvet cloaks with lace ruffles at the wrist, knee-breeches, white silk stockings, and shoes with silver buckles. The hair was worn long, powdered with white, and tied in a twist or queue with a black silk ribbon. Tlie women COSTUMK.S OF THK I'lI.GKIMS. 156 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS wore rich brocades or thick silks and also powdered their hair. This was the state dress. Usually they dressed more simply, and the common people very plainly. 313. Drinking Habits. — Drunkenness grew to be a crying evil in the colonies, north and south ahke, the use of intoxicating liquors becoming very common. Rum was imported largely from the West Indies and whiskey and hard cider were used much on the farms. It was common to take five or six glasses of liquor a day, many taking more. Drink was served on every occa- sion. A jug of whiskey was supplied to the hands getting in hay, and a large quantity was necessary for those who aided in raising the timbers of a house. All classes drank, even the clergy. No bargain could be made without a dram, and the sideboard with its decanter and glasses was looked upon as a necessary piece of furniture. In early New England only men of good character were allowed to keep a tavern and these were forbidden to sell liquor to habitual drunkards. The laws of Con- necticut, in early days, forbade the use of tobacco by any one under twenty, and prohibited any man from using it more than once a day. But in time these laws became dead letters and drinking very common. A Colonial Dress of 17G0. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 157 314. Amusements. — The people had their amuse- ments, including dancing and feasting, quiltings, huskings, sleigh-rides, hunting excursions, and out- door sports of various kinds. The holidays were thanksgiving and fast days, election and training days, while weddings were times of feasting and enjoyment Old Grist Mill with Watkr Power Wheel. and even funerals were followed by profuse feasts. But such a thing as a theatre was unknown and there was very little music. In the south gambling became common, and horse-racing and cock-fighting were favorite amusements. 315. Southern Hospitality. — Tn the great ^ manor houses of the south, often far separated from the 158 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS Some of Benjamin Franklin's China. cities and from each other, the coming of a stranger who might bring news of the outside world was warmly welcomed. A servant was often posted on the high- way to look out for any re- spectable traveller and invite him to stop and spend the night at his master's mansion. Here he would be treated to the best, and perhaps have a hunt or other sport for his en- joyment the next day. This be- came so common that the inns were little patronized and in consequence were very poor. 316. Occupations. — The people were kept very busy, for there was much to do and little and poor machinery to do it with. Farm work was hard, especially in New England, where the soil was poor, and yielded only scanty crops of Indian corn, beans and garden vegetables. While the men were kept busy out of doors, the women were as busy within, the spinning-wheel and hand-loom being kept in active use, since home-spun clothing was the com- mon wear. Farther south, where ample crops of wheat, tobacco and rice were grown, there was far more leisure. Slaves were kept in all the colonies, and in the south they did so much of the work that the planters came to look upon handwork as degrading. Old Spinning-Wheel. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 159 317. Laws and Penalties. — The laws were severe and many of the penalties cruel. Even for small offenses men were put in the stocks or the pillory, their hands, feet, and necks being fastened in wooden frames and they exposed to abuse or ridicule. A common scold might be gagged and seated before her door for public scorn. In Virginia and some other colonies ducking stools were in use, the ^ ^ scold being dipped into a pond or stream. The whipping-post was also in common use, and other ordinary punish- A Hackle. ments were cropping or boring the ears and branding with a hot iron. There were many offenses punishable with death, as many as seventeen at one time in Virginia. In early New England disrespect to parents might be punished with death, though it cannot be said that it ever was. 318. Military Service. — In the colonies mihtary service was a necessity of the situation. With the constant peril of Indian attacks, every man had to possess some of the training of a soldier. In New England every man or boy of sixteen or over had to undergo military training. Matchlocks, the guns of that day, were clumsy weapons. They had to be fired with a slow-burning match. Afterwards the flint and steel, with their spark of fire, replaced the match. The guns at first were so heavy that each soldier had to cany a forked stick, on which he would rest his gun when firing. Helmets and breast-plates were worn, and coats quilted with cotton wool, through which no arrow could pass. 160 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 319. Religious Customs. — Much more might be said about the manners and customs of the colonists, but we must here confine ourselves to their religious and political conditions. America taught a lesson in reli- gion to the world. It was the first country in which complete religious liberty existed. This was the case in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania, in which every one was free to hold any religious opinions he pleased. It was the case also for a time in Maryland. Freedom of worship existed in the Carolinas, but was not found Steel, Flint, Tinder Box and Sulphuk Matches. in Virginia and New York, and especially not in Massa- chusetts, where the Puritans spent much of their time in trying to make everybody believe and worship in one way. 320. Puritan Church Customs. — On Sunday morning the people of Massachusetts were called to church by the beating of a drum, or the sound of a horn or bell. There were laws to punish those who did not go. Here they had to listen to prayers and sermons hours long, with the constable on the lookout to waken any one who went to sleep. The old people, the young 11 LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 161 men, and the young women had each a fixed place, while the boys sat in the gallery or on the pulpit stairs and were closely watched by the constable. 321. Cheerless Churches. — The people did not have such comfortable churches as we have to-day. They sat on hard, rude benches, and had no means of heat- ing the church. Some of the more delicate took with Mtd^mmi,.. A Colonial Church. them heated stones or hand-stoves, but for most of them the church was a shivery place on cold winter days. In early times the church was often a fort also, and the men made their way to it with muskets on their shoulders. The Indians were not to be trusted, and even in farming the gun was kept close at hand. 322. Strict Sabbath Keeping. — The Sunday laws were very strict. No one was permitted to work, ride, or amuse himself on the Sabbath. To walk in the street, 162 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS A Foot-Stove. except to church, was against the law. A woman who smiled in church was threatened with a whipping, and a person absent from church for more than one Sunday might be fined, whipped, or set in the stocks. Swearing was prohibited and the swearer was likely to have his tongue pinched by a split stick. We have told elsewhere how Captain John Smith punished swearers in Virginia by pouring cans of cold water down their sleeves. 323. Political Liberty. — Despite the strictness in New England and some of the other colonies, the Enghsh settlers in America set the world a lesson in religious liberty rarely before seen. It was the same in political affairs. Nowhere else was there a government by the people equal to that which the Pilgrims established in Plymouth and the Puritans in Boston. The town- meeting system was the true government ''of the people, by the people and for the people" spoken of by Abraham Lincoln. It was much the same else- where. The people of Virginia were making their own laws before another colony was founded. In Pennsylvania and Maryland the fullest free govern- ment was given to the people, and only in New York, Carolina, and Georgia was any attempt made to deprive the people of pohtical rights, and these at- tempts soon failed. Thus, while in the French and LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 163 Spanish colonies the people had no political rights at all, in the English colonies they enjoyed very much freedom. 324. Forms of Government. — Three forms of govern- ment prevailed, the Charter, the Proprietary, and the Royal. Three of the colonies, Massachusetts, Con- necticut, and Rhode Island, were under charter govern- ment, which gave them the privilege of electing their own governors and legislatures, taxing themselves, and making their own laws. While under the dominion of Great Britain, they were independent in all matters Pine-Tree Shilling. of government. Under its second charter Massachu- setts lost the privilege of electing its governor, but retained its other rights. 325. Proprietary Government. — Of the colonies under the control of proprietors, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland possessed all the pohtical privileges of the charter governments except that of electing their governor, who, with his council, was appointed by the proprietor. For a time New York, New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia were under proprietors and had Httle political freedom, but in time these became royal provinces and gained much more liberty. 164 THE ERA OF COLONIAL WARS 326. Royal Government. — Virginia, and New Hamp- shire from the time it was made a separate colony, were under roj^al government throughout, they hav- ing no charters and being under governors appointed by the king. He also appointed the council, which had a share in the law-making power, but the lower house of the Assembly was elected by the people. All the colonies had two legislative bodies except Pennsylvania, which had but one law-making Assembly, the council being executive only and having no voice in legislation. This continued until 1790, when it adopted the two-house system of the others. Later on New York, New Jersey, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia came under the roj^al form of government. 327. The Lesson Taught by America. — Thus we may say that the English colonies in America served as an object lesson to the French and Spanish colonies and to the nations of Europe in civil and religious liberty. It was a lesson these countries were slow in learning. It is yet not fully learned. But the example of this country has had a great influence upon the remainder of the world, at first in France, then in the rest of Europe and America, and of late years in Japan and China, so that our country has been the beacon light of freedom to the whole civilized world. SUMMARY OF EVENTS 1689-1697. War in Europe affects Ameriea. Terrible massacres by French and Indians of the Enghsh colonists. Canada invaded ^\'ithout result. Frontenac attacks the L'oquois tribes and forces them to beg for mercy. 1702-1713. A second war in Europe between France and Eng- land leads to new massacres of English colonists in America. LIFE IN COLONIAL TIMES 165 Port Royal is taken and named Annapolis. A naval expedition against Quebec fails. There is war with the Spanish and Indians in the south. 1740-1748. The fortress of Louisburg is captured by New Eng- land colonists. The Spaniards invade Georgia and are driven out. Louisburg is returned to France. 1750. Conflicting claims of England and France in America. Movements towards the Ohio Valley. The Ohio Company sends out surveyors. French forts are built. 1753. George Washington is sent to the French forts. Results of his journey. Fort Duquesne is built. Washington builds Fort Necessity and is forced to surrender. Franklin at Albany in 1754. 1755. Braddock's march and defeat. The battle at Lake George. The people of Acadia expelled. 1757. Capture of Fort William Henry and massacre of its gar- rison. The Seven Years' War begins in Eiwope. 1758. A British army repulsed at Fort Ticonderoga. Louisburg taken by the English. Washington captures Fort Duquesne. 1759. Ticonderoga and other French forts taken. Quebec besieged by General Wolfe. Battle on the Heights of Abraham and capture of Quebec. 1760-63. Montreal taken and the war ends in America. In the treaty of 1763 Canada is yielded to the English. Spain loses Florida and gains the Louisiana territory. North America is divided be- tween England and Spain. The Indians rebel under Pontiac and take many forts. They are finally defeated. Results of the war. TOPICS FOR REVIEW. Discuss orally or in written composition. The Colonies in America. — When and by whom settled — pur- pose — important persons — interesting incidents. Colonial Wars. — Events of King William's war — of Queen Anne's — of King George's — cause and character of the French and Indian war — Washington's part in it — the taking of Quebec — results of the wars. Colonial Life. — The people — travel — postal affairs — houses — food — churches — "government. PART V THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 1. CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 328. After the War With the French.— The close of the French and Indian War left the colonies in debt. But they had got rid of an active and threatening rival, had added greatly to their area, and had before them the promise of a broad and undisturbed develop- ment. Yet there existed conditions that were soon to give them serious trouble. England had suffered as well as the colonies, and naturally wished to make these, in some way, repay a part of the costs of the war. The Americans would probably have made no objection to this if they had been approached in the right way and been themselves permitted to vote the requisite funds. But this was not the method of deahng with colonies in those days, and England adopted a plan of action that had undreamed of and disastrous results. The course pursued by the king and parhament and its consequences are the historical events with which we have next to deal. 329. George III. on the Throne.— In 1700 a new king, George III., ascended the Enghsh throne. A man obstinate in disposition and with an exaggerated idea of the royal prerogative, he was not well fitted to deal with a people as sensitive on the subject of pohtical liberty as the Americans. Seconded by docile ministers and by a Parliament that had little regard for the rights 166 1760] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 167 and feelings of the colonists, he (luickl}^ made mischief for himself and his subjects. 330. The Navigation Acts. — No one at that time seems to have understood that prosperity in trade depends upon freedom from restriction. It was held that colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country and could be dealt with as the authorities saw fit. In consequence, what were known as Naviga- tion Acts had long been in existence and had been made more stringent as time went on. These laws forbade the colonists to trade with any country except Great Britain, and were afterwards extended to require that trade should be confined to British ships. The colonies were even forbidden to trade with one another in their own ships. 331. Manufactures Prohibited. — Other stringent laws related to manufactures. The colonists were pro- hibited from using their own wool to weave cloth for themselves or their own iron to make nails and plough- shares. All raw material must be shipped abroad to be made into goods in British workshops and returned in British ships. Grain and other farm produce, how- ever, could not be shipped, since these might interfere with the business and profits of British farmers. A high tariff was therefore placed on the products of the fields so that colonial farmers could not compete with those of England. 332. The Laws Defied. — Laws of this kind had existed for a century before the time to which we have now come, but they had long been of little account. Ships were still built in American yards and trade went on with the West Indies and European ports despite 168 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1763 British prohibition. And many things were made in American workshops also, in disregard of the laws. 333. Writs of Assistance. — George III. and his ministers determined to put a stop to smiigghng, as this trade with foreign lands was called. Boston was full of smuggled goods, and 'Svrits of assistance" were issued, which gave the officer of customs the right to break into any warehouse and dwelling and search it from garret to cellar for such goods. Little was gained by this process, but it served to irritate the Bostonians, who bitterly resented having their houses broken into. And in spite of the writs and searches smuggling went on and American shipping ploughed the seas. 334. What Parliament Proposed. — The British ministry next took the step of asking America to provide money for its own defence. It was proposed to send troops from England for the defence of the colonies, whose expenses the Americans were to pay. They were also to pay the governors, judges and crown attorneys. To this there was no serious objection, but to the manner in which it was proposed to carry it out the objection was very serious. The money was to be raised by taxes over which the assemblies of the colonies had no control, and to be expended by the king, who might use it in a way to make the officials independent of control, and even, if he saw fit, for purposes of bribery and corruption. Against this the colonists vigorously protested. They had hitherto taxed themselves and spent their own money in their own way, and they had no intention of giving up this privilege. 335. The Stamp Act. — The British government, find- ing the Americans in this obstinate mood, now sought 1765] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 169 to raise money in a new way. In 1765 what is known as the Stamp Act was passed. It was decided that stamps should be affixed to all pubhc documents, legal papers, newspapers, etc., the stamps being sent from England and sold at prices ranging from a half- penny to twelve pounds, according to the value of the document. 336, How the Stamp Act Was Received. — This Act would hardly have been passed if Parhament had foreseen how it would be received. It filled the American people with indignation. It was a new way of depriving them of the right of taxing themselves, and to this they would not submit. Mobs attacked the houses of British officials. The leading orators de- nounced the Act as tyranny. The 1 ,. /.x /-\, ' , 1 I cc rry -A- Stamp-Act Stamp. doctrme or James Otis, that lax- ation without representation is tyranny," became the watchword of the people and the text of the orators, and they did not hesitate to speak in the plainest language.^ 337. The Stamps Rejected. — When the time came to put the law into effect no one would use the stamps. ^ Patrick Henry, an eloquent young lawyer of Virginia, was especially daring in his remarks. He declared before the ^"irginia assembly that its members alone had the right to tax the people of Virginia and that they were not bound to obey any law not made by their own representatives. He went on to allude to tyrants in these ringing words. — "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third — " Cries of "Treason" inter- rupted him. Pausing a moment, he added impressively, "May profit by their example. If that be treason, make the most of it. " 170 THE ERA OF REVOi^UTION [1766 Many of them were seized and burned and the stamp agents forced, to resign. Newspapers were issued with a skull and cross-bones instead of the stamp. Legal papers were hold to be good without being stamped. The excitement went so far that people refused to use any article of British manufacture, and business with the colonies fell off so greatly that appeals were sent to Parliament to repeal the law. Parliament Patrick Hknhv Ain)KKssiN(i i'hk Virci.ma Asskmbi.i. was astounded. No such resistance had been looked for. But the Americans would not use the stamps and were busy making goods for themselves, and thus injuring British trade, so there was nothing to do but to withdraw the offensive law. 338. The Colonists and the King. — All this did not teach the king and his advisers the necessary lesson, that the American people would pay no taxes except those imposed by their own representatives. George 1767-70] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 171 III., in his obstinate way, decided that he had the right to tax them and that he would use it. Matters were bad enough; he proceeded to make them worse. 339. New Taxes. — In 1767 laws were passed laying duties on glass, paper, lead, paints, and tea, and troops were sent to America to enforce these laws, the people being ordered to shelter and feed these soldiers. The Assemblies of New York and Massachusetts refused to tax the people for any such purpose, and in conse- quence were forbidden to hold any sessions. The other Assemblies were also defiant, and were dis- solved so often that for several years hardly any business could be done. The people did nothing except to desist from using English goods, but this was sufficient, the trade to New England falling off one-half and that to New York almost disappearing. 340. The Boston Massacre. — The king and Parlia- ment were fast making rebels out of loyal people. Two regiments of troops, under General Gage, were sent to Boston in 1768. The people received them defiantly and refused them quarters, so that they were obliged to camp on Boston Com- mon. Two years later, on March 6, 1770, some of these soldiers fired on a mob that had abused and taunted them. This affair, called the "Boston Mas- sacre," created so fierce an excitement, that it became The Boston Massacre. 172 THE ERA OP REVOLUTION [1773 necessary to remove the troops from the city to one of the islands in the harbor. Four persons had been killed and the soldiers concerned were tried for murder. They were defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy, lead- ing patriots, who felt that they had been driven to their act. All were acquitted but two, who were found guilty of manslaughter and sentenced to be branded on the hand. 341. The Tax on Tea. — George III. was still obsti- nately bent on taxing the colonists and thus asserting his prerogative, and while most of the obnoxious laws were repealed, the tax on tea was retained. ''There must be one tax to keep up the right," said the king. To make this tax palatable to the Americans, the duty paid on tea in England was removed from American tea, so that, even while paying the three pence tax per pound, the Americans would get their tea at a lower price than they had been paying, or than was paid at that time in England. 342. The People Unyielding. — King George was still ignorant of the temper of the American people. Their irritation had steadily grown, and his device of seUing them taxed tea at a lower price than they had paid for untaxed tea did not pacify them. The principle of taxation without representation remained, and to this they would not submit. No tea being ordered from America, several cargoes were sent over in 1773, in the hope that they would find buyers; but they were everj^where rejected. At Philadelphia and New York the ships were ordered away. At Charleston the tea was landed and stored in damp cellars, where it rotted unbought. At Annapolis a tea shi}) was burned. 177;iJ CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 173 343. The Ships at Boston. — When the tea ships reached Boston they were ordered away, but the collector of that port refused to let them go and preparations were made to unload the vessels and Faneuil Hai.l. store the tea. This was prevented in a dramatic way. A town-meeting was held in Faneuil Hall on Decem- ber 16, 1773, at which Samuel Adams ^ presided. The debate had ended and evening had fallen when Adams rose and said, ''This meeting can do nothing more to save the country." ' Samuel Adams, born in Boston in 1722, was the leader of the people of that town in the cause of liberty. Always poor, he could not be bought, and when pardon was offered by General Gage to the American patriots, he and John Hancock were excepted. He was a member of the First Continental Congress, which he had been the first to propose. 174 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1773 344. The Boston Tea=Party. — The words of the speaker found an echo in a war-whoop on the street and a part}^ of men dressed as Indians ran past the hall towards the wharves. Here they boarded and took possession of the vessels, hoisted up the tea chests from the hold, broke them open and poured their contents into the water. In two hours' time the work was over, and the tea all gone to the fishes. The Boston Tea-Party. 345. The Intolerable Acts. — Bitterly incensed by this defiant deed, the king, instead of taking warning before it was too late, had acts passed in Parliament which served only to add to the indignation of the people. These — called in America the ''Intolerable Acts'' — closed the port of Boston until the lost tea should be paid for; gave soldiers or officials accused of murder the right to be sent to Nova Scotia or England for trial; made the governor of Massachusetts an absolute 1773] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 175 ruler; and placed all the country west of the Alle- ghanies under the government of Canada. 346. Boston in Distress. — The closing of the port of Boston put an end to the commercial business of that city and caused deep distress. Food grew very scarce and supplies were sent from other cities, the whole country sympathizing with Boston in its resistance to tyranny. Not only food, but money, was donated, Bos- ton being regarded as a martyr in the cause of liberty. 347. New Troops in Boston. — Blind to the evidences of disloyal sentiment shown everj^where in the colonies, the king took further steps in the effort to bend the people to his will, still blind to the fact that he was fast driving them into rebellion. General Gage was sent back to Boston, with four regiments of troops and several batteries of artillery, and the despotic step was taken of making him governor of Massachu- setts — though no patriot ever recognized him as such. 348. Committees of Correspondence. — The people of Massachusetts were practically without a government, their assembly having for several j^ears been dissolved, and they being placed under mihtary rule. In this dilemma a plan suggested by Samuel Adams was adopted. Each town appointed a committee to confer with committees of other towns on matters of govern- ment. These he called ''Committees of Correspond- ence," and said that a meeting of all would consti- tute a ''Provincial Congress." This step was taken in 1772. In 1773 Dabney Carr, of Virginia, proposed and arranged for Committees of Correspondence between the several colonies. Only one step farther was needed to bring into being a Continental Congress. 176 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1774 349. Steps Toward Union. — As may bo seen, the colonics were being driven towards the union they had so long resisted. Franklin's convention in 1754 had failed to bring them together. A second step was taken in 1705, when a '^Stamp-Act Congress" was convened. These were delegates sent from the colonies to New York to consider the situation and appeal to the king for American rights. The final step was taken in June, 1774, when Samuel Adams proposed in the General Court at Salem that a Continental Congress should be chosen, to meet in Philadelphia on Septem- ber 1, of that year. 350. The First Continental Congress. — The idea was welcomed. All the colonies chose delegates except Georgia, where the governor prevented the Assembly from acting. On September 5, 1774, this significant rej^-esentative body met in Carpenters' Hall,^ Phila- delphia, and began its deliberations. It consisted of fifty-five delegates, the vanguard of the American Congress which has since that period been in existence. Among its delegates were such men as George Wash- ington, Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, Samuel Adams and John Adams of Massa- chusetts, and leading men from the other colonies. 351. The Acts of the First Congress. — There was nothing disloyal in the acts of the Congress. It peti- tioned the king to redress the wrongs of the colonies, * Carpenters' Hall was built by the association known as the Carpenters' Company in 1724. After the sessions of the first Con- gress it was used for various public purposes, and is still in exist- ence, carefully preserved as a precious historical monument of the United States. 1774] CAUSES OF DISCONTENT IN THE COLONIES 177 sent addresses to the people of Great Britain, Canada, and the colonies, and drew up a declaration of rights. Among these was the right to make all laws and to levy all taxes in the colonies. It also agreed to stop all trade with Great Britain and proposed to put an end to the slave trade, which the English government then fostered. This done, the Congress adjourned First Praykr in the Continental Congress. October 26, 1774, after providing for another Congress to meet May 10, 1775. The first definite step towards union of the colonies had been taken. No backward step was to follow it. From that Congress grew the United States of America. 352. The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts. — A Provincial Congress met in Massachusetts in October, 1774, the acts of which were far more defiant of British authority. Provision was made for the collection of 12 178 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1775 military stores, and this immediately began. Through- out the colony the people were organizing and drilling, and twenty thousand men were called out by the delegates, one-third of them being ''Minute-Men" — men ready to march and fight on a minute's notice. Similar movements were made in other colonies. From Boston to Savannah defensive measures were adopted, the warlike spirit being everywhere awakened. Patrick Henry echoed the general sentiment when in March, 1775, he uttered these memorable words: *'As for me, give me liberty or give me death!" 353. Rebellion Declared. — The peril of the situation was recognized in England. In February, 1775, Parliament declared that rebellion existed in Massa- chusetts, and a fleet antl several thousand additional soldiers were sent to Boston to suppress it. The country was on the verge of war. A hasty act might at any moment precipitate hostilities. 2. THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 354. General Gage's Movements. — In the early months of 1775 the situation around Boston grew acute. Gen- eral Gage, alarmed at the rebellious spirit of the people, fortified Boston Neck and sent expeditions to seize collections of military stores that had been made near that town. In April he engaged in a more serious enterprise, that of arresting the patriot leaders, Samuel Adams and John Hancock, who were at the village of Lexington, ten miles away, and destroying some military stores at Concord, twenty miles away. 355. Paul Revere's Ride. — It had been intended to keep this expedition secret, sending it out late at MAP OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR I t-l L-l SCALE OF MfLES 1775] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 179 night and guarding the roads around Boston with mounted patrols. But the patriots discovered the design and sent out mounted messengers to warn the threatened district. Chief amon.2: these was Paul Revere, who was sent to Lexington and Con- " rl cord. On the night of ^^^^^ April 18 the troops, eight hundred in num- ber, began their march, and Paul Revere set out on his famous ride. Escaping the patrols s t a t i o n e d upon t he road which he fol- lowed, he went swiftly on, warning the people of the coming of the wakened Adams and Paul Rkvkre's Ridk. Lexington he soldiers. At Hancock and told them of their peril. He was stopped by a patrol of British officers before reaching Concord, but succeeded in sending on word by a messenger to that point. ^ 356. The Firing at Lexington. — As a result of Revere's activity the troops met with failure and disaster. On reaching Lexington in the early morning of April 19, they saw a body of minute-men drawn up on the * An engraver by trade, Paul Revere was an earnest patriot, and had ah'eady made long journeys in the })ubli(' service. On this occasion he is said to have waited in Charlestown beside his horse until he saw signal lights flash from the steeple of the old North Church. These told him that the troops were on the march and he at once mounted and rode awav on his mission. 180 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1775 village green. Major Pitcairn, commanding the ad- vance, rode up to them, crying out: '^Disperse, you rebels! Throw down your arms and disperse!" As they did not move, he ordered his men to fire. The guns rang out, and seven of the Americans fell dead. Tt was a direful discharge. With it the Ameri- can Revolution began. The Battlk op Lexington. 357. The Fight at Concord. — The soldiers hurried on to Concord, but the alarm had spread fast before them and when they reached there most of the stores had been removed. The minute-men, who were out in force, held the bridge and did not hesitate to fire back. Men fell on both sides, the patriots held their ground, and the British were obliged to retreat. 358. A Day of Terror. — While the soldiers tarried at Concord, the farmers and villagers were hurrying to 1775] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 181 The news of the slaughter and filled the hearers with wall and tree bullets poured The retreat became a flight the scene, arms in hand, at Lexington spread fast fury. From behind every upon the retreating troops and before Lexington was reached many of the soldiers had fallen. Here reinforcements met them and they had a brief interval of rest. When they set out again the fusillade was resumed, and before they reached Boston nearly three hundred of them lay dead or wounded on the road. 359. The Siege of Boston. — Still the news spread and still the minute-men marched, with Boston as their goal. John Stark of New Hampshire, a soldier of the French war, set out in haste at the head of a company of his neighbors. Israel Putnam, another tried and valiant soldier, left his work in the fields, mounted his horse, and rode at speed for Boston. From all sides they came, and within three days Boston was besieged by sixteen thousand men. The tocsin had sounded. New England was in arms, the war had begun. 360. Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga. — Not only to Boston, but elsewliere, the patriots marched. Ethan Allen, of Vermont, led a force of ''Green Mountain Boys" upon the famous Fort Ticonderoga and took posses- LiNE OF THE Minute-Men at Lexington, Mass. 182 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1775 sion of it without a shot.^ Two days later Seth Warner captured the fort at Crown Point. These were well stored with cannon and ammunition, supplies which were sorely needed at Boston. 361. The Second Continental Congress. — On the same 10th of May, 1775, in which Fort Ticonderoga was captured the new Con- gress met in Philadel- phia, in the historic building now known as Independence Hall, and began its delibera- tions, with John Han- cock, the Boston patriot, for its presi- dent. Since the meet- ing of the former Congress affairs and the state of public opinion had changed. Then the country w^as at peace; now it was at war. Congress no longer appealed to king and Parliament, but called for recruits from the colonies and chose George Washington as commander-in-chief of the Continental army. It also ordered the issue of two million dollars in paper money. The outbreak at Boston was an act of war that found CoNt'ORI) BrIDGK. ^ Ethan Allen led his men into the undefended fort and broke into the room of the commander, demanding an immediate sur- render. "By whose authority?" asked the astounded officer. *'In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," was the stern reply. There was no resisting this demand and the fort was given up. 1775] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 183 support in all the colonies, and conciliation was no longer sought. 362. Bunker Hill. — Events moved rapidly. General Artemas Ward was appointed commander of the army at Boston. Fresh troops came from England under General William Howe, who replaced General Gage. The new commander quickly took steps to fortify the heights known as Bunker and Breed's Hills, which overlooked and commanded the citv. But the Ameri- RuiNS OF Fort Ticonderoga. cans had preceded him. On the morning of June 17 he was astounded to learn that the '^rebels" had occupied and intrenched these heights and threatened the city from behind their works. 363. The Battle of Bunker HiH. — Howe at once saw that he must take these works or leave Boston with his army. Before daybreak the ships in the harbor opened fire on the works. The forts soon followed. Noon had passed before the British were ready to attack. Then about three thousand men landed in Charlestown and began the march up to the 184 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1775 intrenchments, behind which lay some fifteen hundred men under Generals Putnam and Warren and Colonel Prescott. The Americans had little ammunition and withheld their fire. ''Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes" said Prescott. When the word came the mus- ketry blazed out and the British fell by hundreds. Down the hill they went, driven as if by a storm of iron hail. Again they charged, and again were driven back. With diffi- culty they were brought to the charge a third time, and now found the Americans destitute of powder. Yet they fought stubbornly, using the butt-ends of their muskets as war clubs. Howe won the hill but with a loss of more than a thousand men. The American loss was less than five hundred, many of them only slightly wounded. But among the dead was the heroic General Warren, a man whose death was deeply felt. Boston and Vicinity, 1775] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 185 364. Washington Takes Command. — On the morning of July 3 General Washington, who had now reached the army, sat on his horse under a great elm near Harvard College and saw the patriot troops march past. Brave they were, but undisci- plined, about fourteen thousand men in all, but with few muskets and cannon and little pow- der. A great task lay be- fore the new comman- der, to make soldiers out of this raw material and obtain arms and ammunition for them. 365. Canada is Invaded.— Congress was alert. Learn- ing that the British leaders in Canada proposed an invasion of New York, an expedition was sent to Canada, General Montgomery descending Lake Cham- plain and taking Montreal, and Benedict Arnold leading a force through the unbroken Maine forests. Joining their forces they laid siege to Quebec, on which an assault was made on the last day of 1775. The attack failed, Montgomery being killed and Arnold wounded. The siege was kept up until spring, when the army withdrew. The costly expedition had proved an utter failure. 366. Congress and the King.— Congress sent a petition to London in the summer of 1775, asking the king for reconciliation. George III. responded by calling for A Drum Used at Bunker Hill, (in the Bostonian Society Rooms). so THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [177G V()linit(MM-s to put down tlio robcllion in America. As those (lid not eonie as fast as he hoped, he hired Ger- man troops, obtaining nearly twenty thousand men . from tlie rulers of Hesse- Casscd ami other small German states. The hir- ing- of these Hessians, as they were called, exasper- ated the Americans and they resolved to fight to the bitten- end. 367. Washington's Deci= sivc Step. — ^A\^ a s h i n g t o n kv\){ up the siege of Boston during tlu^ autumn and winter, drilling the men and seeking for arms. Early in 1771) fifty cannon fi'om Ti(*ond(M-oga reached tlu^ camp, hauled thither on ox-sleds through tlu^ roadless forest. He at once took a d(H'isive step. Dorchester Heights, which overlooked Boston as did Bunk(U' Hill, renuiincnl unoccupied. On the morning of March 5 the British, to their surprise and dismay, found it occupied and intrenched. 368. Boston Evacuated. — General Howe was in a (juandary. The works looked strong. Yet he must take them or leave Boston. The memory of Bunker Hill l)eing in his mind he was afraid to repeat the experiment. So on March 17 the Britisli army took the only alterna- tive left it, nuirched on board its ships and sailed away to Halifax, while the Continental army marched into Boston. No hostile armvever set foot in its streets again. A HkSSI \\ II KI.MKT, 1776] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 187 369. Fort Moultrie Defends Itself. — For a tinu^ America was free from British soldiers. Washington, fearing that an attack would be made on New York, marched his army to that city in April. But Charleston was the next city assailed. On June 28 the British fleet sailed into Charleston harbor and made an attack on Fort Sullivan (since known as Fort Moultrie). Built of the soft and spongy palmetto logs, the cannon balls did no damage to the fort, while the fleet lost heav- ily from the fire of Colonel Moultrie.' Troops landed and attacked the fort in the rear, but the fire of the riflemen drove them off. In the end the fleet set sail, carrying away its dead and wounded, and Charleston was saved from a foreign foe for more than two years. 370. All the Colonies in Arms. — The war was not confined to Boston and Charleston. Arms and ammu- nition were seized by the people in all parts of the South. In Virginia Lord Dunmore, the governor, seized some powder belonging to the colony and was forced to return it. Taking refuge on a British man-of-war, he attacked the patriot forces in October, 1775, at Great Bridge, near the Dismal Swamp. Being defeated, he in revenge burned Norfolk, a city of six thousand inhabitants. 371. Movements Towards Independence. — Whih* these military events were taking i)lace, political events of ' During the fight a ball struck the flag-staff of the fort and the colors fell outside the walls. Sergeant Jasper leaped down, lieediess of the plunging balls, seized the flag, tied it to a new staff, and raised it again. Offered a lieutenant's commission for liis bravery the next day, he refused it, saying, "I am only a sergeant: I am not fit for the company of officers. " 188 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1776 equal importance went on. In May, 1775, the people of Mecklenburg County, North CaroHna, inspired by the news from Lexington and Concord, issued a series of resolutions, in which they declared themselves free from allegiance to the British crown. On April 12, 177(3, North Carohna authorized its delegates in Congress to vote for independence. On May 4 Rhode Island, with marked boldness, virtually declared itself a free Commonwealth. On May 6, Virginia took a like step. Other colon- ies took similar signifi- cant action. The sentiment for freedom from Great Britain seemed to inspire them all. 372. Common Sense. — When the king's proclamation calling for volunteers to put down the rebellion reached America, it was answered by a remarkable pamphlet, entitled ''Common Sense," pub- lished in Philadelphia by the celebrated Thomas Paine. This boldly declared that the time had come for a " final separation" from Great Britain. It was read through all the colonies and was so stirring in tone that it filled many minds with the thirst for liberty. 373. Congress Takes Action. — This sentiment in the colonies could not fail to be reflected in Congress, and steps towards a declaration of independence were ^■H ■■ ■ B K ^1 H I .-^ m < M 5 j^ ■ ^A .1^^ ffl W '' ''1 f'^"" sCSips^ H| 1 "^,^1 X L^ N| H 1 HE^ M ^^BHk,^! WBt iypi^^«K "^^ ^l3 UPb^mbP w^ m^m The Co\fMiTTEK on the Drci.aratton. 177b] THE COLONIES IN REBELLION 189 soon taken. In June, 177G, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered the following resolution, 'Hhat these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, Free and Independent States." It was seconded by John Adams, and a committee, consisting of John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sher- man, and Robert R. Livingston, was appointed to consider and draw up a declaration in which that resolution should be suitably embodied. 374. The Declaration of Independence. — Thomas Jeffer- son, a man noted for his broad views and literary skill, was chosen to prepare the declaration, and on July 2 Lee's resolution was adopted by the vote of the delegates of twelve colonies (those of New York not voting). On July 4, 177G, the final action was taken, the Declaration of American Independence, as pre- sented by the committee, being formally adopted by Congress, and signed by John Hancock, the President of that body, in that bold hand which, as h(! said, ''The King of England can read without spectacles." 375. The Declaration Signed. — The other delegates followed the President in signing. The new^s of this act filled the people with joy. The legend is that the Liberty Bell in the old State House was rung until it filled the city with its gladsome peal. With the signatures to that document the United Colonies of Great Britain passed out of existence; the United States of America took their place.' ^ As they signed John Hancock said, "We must be unanimous: there must be no pulling in different ways: we must all hang to- gether." "Yes," rephed Franklin, "we must all hang together, or else we will all hang separately. " 190 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1776 3. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 376. The British Plans. — Independence had been declared in the councils of the nation: it now had to be won in the field. The British military leaders had formed a definite plan of action to subdue the rebel- lious colonies. This was to attack and take New York and to gain control of Lake Champlain and the Hudson by means of an expedition sent from Canada. By this it was designed to cut ofT New England from the rest of the country and deal with the two sections in detail. 377. Arnold on Lake Champlain. — The first part of this plan succeeded; the second failed. The retreat of Arnold from Quebec and Canada opened the path to the British, and in the autumn of 1776 Sir Guy Carleton ascended Lake Champlain with a fleet and army to attack Fort Ticonderoga. General Arnold opposed him with a smaller fleet and on October 11 an obstinate battle took place on the lake. Arnold lost the battle, but gained his end. He escaped with his men after handling Carleton so severely that he was obliged to abandon his purpose and return to Canada. 378. The Battle of Long Island. — Before this date Howe had reached the vicinity of New York, with a fleet carrying an army of more than twenty-five thou- sand men. Washington awaited him behind works of defence on Long Island, south of Brooklyn, but these were occupied by an army in every way weaker than the force it had to meet. On August 27 Howe attacked these works, outflanked them by a long march, and defeated the American army, which fell back to the works on Brooklyn Heights. While Howe lay before 1776J THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 191 these, hesitating when and how to attack, Washington skilfully withdrew the troops to New York on a dark and foggy night. When the next day dawned the British looked for their foes in vain. Not a man of them remained. 379. New York Occupied.— With Long Island lost and the rivers open to the British fleet, New York could not be held. Part of the fleet sailed up the East River and landed troops in Washington's rear. To prevent being shut up in the city, he made a hasty retreat, abandoning New York to the enemy, but holding the country to the north. 380. Forts Washington and Lee.— For two months the armies faced each other, with no engagements except an indecisive one at White Plains. But Forts Wash- mgton and Lee, two works built to command the Hudson River, were in danger, the former especially, as it was on the New York side of the stream. Wash- ington ordered it to be abandoned, but for some unfortunate reason his order was not obeyed and the fort was stormed and taken by the British, with its garrison of more than two thousand five hundred men. Fort Lee, now useless and in danger, was abandoned, but. the river was not left open to the British fleet, a new work being built, in a commanding position, at West Point. 381. The Retreat to the Delaware. — Lord Cornwallis, with a strong force, had now crossed the Hudson with the probable purpose of marching on Philadelphia. Washington prepared to oppose him, and ordered General Charles Lee, then at Northcastle, east of the Hudson, to join him with the seven thousand men 192 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1776 under his command. Lee failed to do so and Wash- ington, being too weak to face Cornwallis,, was forced to retreat, keeping before the enemy in his march across New Jersey and breaking down the bridges as he went. He finally reached The New Jersey Campaign. the Delaware, seized all the boats for a long distance up and down the stream, and crossed to Pennsylvania, leav- ing Cornwallis unable to follow unless the river should freeze. 382. A Period of Dread. — The American cause now looked very dark. Newport had fallen as well as New York. Congress had fled in fear from Phila- delphia. Washington's army was small, ragged and disheartened. Few recruits came in. Many believed that the revolution was near its end and the triumph of Great Britain at hand, and a general feeling of depression existed. 3S3. The Battle of Trenton. — Washington was one of those who did not despair. But he knew that a bold 1776] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 193 stroke was needed to restore the confidence of the people. On Christmas night of 177G he crossed the Delaware in the midst of floating ice, while a storm of snow and sleet fell on his ragged men. Nine miles they marched to the south through the storm and at daybreak fell upon a Hessian force stationed at Trenton, taking them so by surprise that little resistance was made. Their colonel was mortally wounded, one Washington Crossing the Delaware. thousand prisoners were taken, and the Americans lost but four men — two of whom were frozen to death. 384. Hope Follows Despair. — The result of this un- looked for victory was electrical. As the news spread depression gave place to hope. The soldiers whose time was about to expire agreed to remain. New recruits came in. The view of the situation had completely changed and the British, in alarm, hastily withdrew their detachments from neighboring New Jersey towns, lest these might meet with the same fate. 13 194 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1776 385. The Fight at Princeton. — Cornwallis, then in New York, hurried to Trenton, and on the 2d of January faced the Americans, intrenched with a weaker force behind a small stream. Feeling sure of success, he deferred his attack till the next morning, but was early awakened by a noise that sounded to him like distant thunder. What he heard was the guns of Washington's army, who had marched away during the night, leav- ing his fires burning, and had fallen on a British force stationed at Princeton. These he defeated, taking two hundred prisoners, and then marched to the heights about Morristown, where he intrenched himself in a strong position. 386. Results of the Victory. — By one bold stroke Washington had saved Philadelphia and reversed the whole situation. The British plan of campaign was destroyed. With Washington in that position, ready to fall upon any outlying force, Howe was obliged to give up his designs upon Philadelphia, withdraw his troops and leave Washington master of the field. In Europe the news of this skilful and daring movement caused a radical change of opinion. Those who beheved that the American cause was lost changed The Spirit of '76. 1777] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 195 their views, and France, which had not forgotten its late disasters at British hands in America, viewed the situation with pleasure and began to think of avenging itself on Great Britain by lending aid to the colonists. The Marquis de Lafayette, a young nobleman, fitted out a ship at his own expense and offered himself to Congress as a volunteer and other able European soldiers followed him to America. 387. The British Plans for 1777.— In 1777 the British planned a campaign similar to that attempted in 1776. An expedition was to make its way southward from Canada by way of the lakes and be joined by a force sent up the Hudson by Howe. The latter also pro- posed to renew his attempt to take Philadelphia, hop- ing to occupy that city before aid from him would be needed in the north. This unwise effort to do too much resulted in the most serious disaster that could well have befallen the British armies. 3SS, Howe's Expedition. — While General John Bur- goyne was making his way in boats up Lake Cham- plain, and Colonel St. Leger, with a force of British and Indians, had set out on an overland march from Oswego, on Lake Ontario, Howe sought to march across New Jersey to Philadelphia. Finding Washing- ton too alert, he gave up this project and determined to proceed by sea to the head of Chesapeake Bay and march from there upon Philadelphia. 389. Brandywine and Qermantown. — All this took time, and it was September 11 when the British army, eighteen thousand strong, reached Brandywine Creek, where Washington awaited with eleven thousand men. Howe proved too strong and Washington was driven 196 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION ri777 Chkw Housk, (Ikkmantown. back with considerable loss. The British soon after occupied Philadelphia, where Washington attacked them on October 4. I This affair took place at Germantown, just north of the city. It was well planned and promised success, but a dense fog and the occupation of a large stone house (the Chew House) bv the Brit- ish led to its failure, the Americans being forced to retreat. 390. Burgoyne's March. — While Howe was thus engaged, Burgo3^ne, to whom he had not given the promised support, was following no path of ros(\s. The hounds of war were hot upon his track. He had been successful in taking Fort Ticonderoga, and finally reached Fort Edward, on the uppc^r Hudson, General Schuyler, in command of a snuill American arni}^, retiring slowly before him. But Burgoyne was now feeling the need of supplies, and had at every step a larger army to face, for Schuyler was fast gaining reinforcements. Learning that the Americans had gathered a supply of stores at Bennington, Vermont, Burgoyne despatched Colonel Baum, with a thousand men, to capture these badly needed supplies. Baum's men were mostly Hessians and their commander knew little of American warfare. 391. The Battle of Bennington. — Colonel Stark, a veteran of the French and Indian War, awaited them 1777] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 197 with a force of Green Mountain Boys, gathered in haste. The old soldier handled the men under his command with such skill that by the 10th of August he had the enemy surrounded. ''There are the red-coats," said the veteran; 'Sve must beat them back to-day or Betty Stark is a widow." Beat them they did, so severely that only about seventy of them got back to Burgoyne. The remainder were killed or captured. 392. St. Leger^s March. — The Iqss of Baum and his men was followed by a still greater mis- fortune. St. Leger, who pro- posed to meet l^ui'goyne at Albany, and who had been joined on his march by a strong body of Mohawk warriors, was having adventures of his own. His first task was to capture Fort Stanwix, an American out- post work on the Mohawk River. The fort had a weak garrison, and General Herkimer, who marched to its relief, fell into an Indian ambuscade near Oriskany, and was mortally wounded and his men severely handled. While St. Leger and the Indians were absent in this engagement a sortie was made from the fort anrl his camp taken and sacked. Fiv(^ British flags were captured and these were hung upside down above the Burgoyne's Route. 198 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1777 fort while over them waved a rudely made flag of stars and stripes, fashioned from scraps of a blue jacket and a white shirt, with some bits of red flannel. It was the national American flag, recently adopted and here first displayed in the American army/ 393. Arnold's Stratagem. — Schuyler, learning the peril of the garrison, despatched General Arnold with twelve hundred men for their relief. Arnold, who knew something of Indian nature, sent before him a half-witted Tory, with instructions to scare the Indians with tales of a great American force near at hand. The envoy did his work well, declaring that he had barely escaped from a vast host, and showing bullet holes in his clothes which he declared he had received in his flight. His tale so alarmed the Indians that they broke into a wild flight. The panic spread to the British, who followed in such hot haste as to leave their tents and artillery behind. Arnold had defeated an army by the mere news of his coming. 394. Burgoyne in Peril. — The loss of Bauni and St. Leger, and the failure of Howe to send a force to his ^ Several flags had so far been seen, one with the device of a rattlesnake and the injunction, "Don't tread on me!" also Patrick Henry's words, " Liberty or death. " The flag first used in Massa- chusetts bore a pine tree and the words, "An appeal to heaven." Colonel Moultrie's flag at Charleston bore a silver crescent and the word "Liberty." Washington's flag at Cambridge had thirteen red and white stripes, and the British' Union Jack in the corner. Another flag had the thirteen stripes with a rattlesnake undulating across them. Finally, in June, 1777, the one now in use was adopted, with thirteen stars to replace the Union Jack. It was first shown at sea on Paul Jones's ship, the Ranger. The number of stripes is still retained, but a new star is added for every new State. 1777] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 199 aid, proved fatal to Burgoyne. He had reached a position from which it was difficult either to advance or retreat, while the hoped-for aid from Howe did not come. Through the arts of political enemies General Schuyler was about this time removed from his com- mand, and General Gates, a very unfit man, sent to replace him. Fortunately Schuyler had already got Burgoyne into a trap from which he could not escape. 395. The End of the Campaign. — On September 19 a battle was fought at Freeman's Farm, near Saratoga. It ended in both parties holding their ground. Two weeks later Burgoyne, now in despair, again attacked the Americans, losing heavily. Retreating to Saratoga, he was there closely besieged. His provisions were gone, the Indians and Tories had deserted, nothing remained but to surrender. This he did on October 17. 396. Effect of Burgoyne's Surrender. — The surrender of Burgoyne was the turning point in the struggle for independence. It filled the Americans with confidence. It filled the English with despair. Lord North, the mouthpiece of the king, now offered the Americans peace, promising everything but independence. He was too late, the Americans would accept nothing less than independence. They had won at Saratoga what has been classed among the decisive battles of the world, and had every reason to feel triumphant. 397. The Winter of 1778. — Washington and his men needed something to inspire them with hope during the succeeding winter, for it was one passed under conditions of dreadful privation and suffering. While the British army lived in comfort in Philadelphia, the American army spent an intensely cold winter at 200 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1778 Valley Forge, north of that city, where they sadly lacked shelter, food, and clothes. On December 23 Washington wrote that nearly three thousand of his men were ^^ unfit for duty, because they were barefoot and otherwise naked." Their sufferings continued during the winter, aggravated by the neglect of Con- gress to attend to their wants. In fact, an intrigue was organized to deprive Washington of his command and to give it to Gates, then in high favor because Winter Quarters at Valley Forge. of his capture of Burgoyne's army. Fortunately for the country this effort failed. As later events proved, its success would have been ruinous. 398. A Treaty with France. — While the army suffered, events favorable to America were taking place. Ben- jamin FrankUn, then the United States representative in France, where his scientific attainments gave him great influence, was seeking to make that country the ally of his own land. The surrender of Burgoyne brought him success and on February 6, 1778, a treaty 1778] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 201 was signed in which France recognized the independ- ence of the United States and promised assistance in its struggle for freedom. 399. The Aid of France. — France lost no time in sending the promised aid. A powerful fleet, carrying four thousand troops, entered Delaware Bay in July, hoping to capture the British fleet, but it had taken Benjamin Franklin at the Court of France. the alarm and fled. The army quickly followed it. Sir Henry Clinton had now succeeded Howe in com- mand and, fearing to be shut up between the Americans and the French, he hastily evacuated Philadelphia. 400. The Battle of Monmouth. — Washington, who was keenly alert to every movement of the enemy, lost no time in following the British across New Jersey, bringing them to bay at Monmouth on June 28. The Americans would undoubtedly have been victorious 202 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1778 but for the misconduct of General Lee, who ordered a retreat when success was most promising. Washing- ton rode up during the retreat, upbraided Lee bitterly for his cowardly act, and himself led the men against the foe.^ He was too late to win the hoped-for triumph but during the night Clinton marched his men secretly to Sandy Hook, whence he made his way to New York. 401. Later Events. — The battle of Monmouth was the last important one in the North, but there were other events of interest in that section. The patriot forces had not only the British to contend with, but there were many Tories — British sympathizers — in the coun- try, who had taken arms in the cause of the invaders, and the Iroquois Indians were allies of the British in the war. In July, 1778, a band of these Indians and Tories made their way into the peaceful valley of Wyoming, in Northern Pennsylvania, and committed frightful devastations, slaying and burning all before them, and forcing the women and children to flee for safety into the wilderness. 402. Sullivan's Campaign. — For this and other atroc- ities committed by the Indians General SuUivan was ^ Charles Lee was of English birth, but had served the colonies in the French and Indian War, and afterwards ser\'ed in Europe. Seeking the chief command, he was disappointed in being made second in command to Washington and jealousy made him insub- ordinate. After failing to join Washington in the campaign against Cornwallis, he was taken prisoner by a British scouting party, and while in New York, as has recently been learned, he acted the traitor, giving Howe information about Washington's plans. He was subsequently exchanged and rejoined the army, but his action at Monmouth led to his being tried and suspended, and finally expelled from the army. 1779J THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 203 sent against them in 1779. He met and completely defeated them at Elmira and then marched into their country and utterly devastated it, burning their villages, destroying their granaries, and leaving them without food for the winter that followed. The blow was one from which they never recovered. 403. Clark's Expedition. — Previous to this, similar Indian depredations in the west had brought about an important operation in that quarter. Governor Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, had offered a reward for all scalps brought in, a ruthless offer that led to many scenes of butchery on the frontier. A stop was put to this savage work by Colonel Clark, a stalwart Virginian, who led a force of Kentucky hunters into the territory of the northwest, took several of the former French frontier settlements, and finally, after a desperate march through the over- flowed lands on the Wabash, captured Vincennes and made Hamilton himself prisoner. This success had much to do with saving the northwest to the United States in the subsequent treaty of peace. 404. The Storming of Stony Point. — An important event of 1779 was a successful assault on the British fort at Stony Point on the Hudson. It was led by General Anthony Wayne. On a dark night Wayne led his men with unloaded muskets over a causeway that crossed the marshes to the fort. Thence they rushed on the enemy with the bayonet and in a few minutes the fort was in their hands. Removing its valuable stores and destroying the works, the victors returned to their camp. 405. Paul Jones and the Bon Homme Richard. — During the war the American operations on the ocean had 204 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1779 John P.vur. Jonks. principally been in the taking of prizes. The most successful commander was John Paul Jones, a Scotch- man who had entered the American service. His most brilliant exploit took place on September 23, 1779, off the English coast. With the Bon Homme Richard and some smaller ships supphed by France, he met the Serapis, a frigate much his su- perior in guns and efficiency. But Jones was a man who did not know when he was whipped. He fought on until his vessel was ready to sink, while its upper works were on fire. In the end the Serapis was forced to surrender, and Jones transferred his men and colors to the prize, leaving his own riddled ship to sink. It was one of the most famous sea-fights in all history and Paul Jones is ranked among the great- est of naval heroes. 406. Benedict Arnold's Treason, — The final important event of the war in the North was one of shame and treason. Benedict Arnold, one of the ablest of the American generals, who had shown his bravery at Quebec, on Lake Cham plain, and in the Saratoga campaign, ended his career by turning traitor. Left in command at Philadelphia after its evacuation by the British in 1778, he lived in extravagance and ran deeply into debt, resorting in consequence to acts of rapacity. A court-martial was called to investigate his official conduct and sentenced him to receive a reprimand from the commander-in-chief. Although this was administered by Washington in very mild and conciliatory terms, Arnold, incensed at this inquiry into 1779] THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 205 his conduct, grew revengeful and resolved on an act of treason. Asking Washington for the command of the im- portant fortress of West Point, on the Hudson River, he laid plans for the surrender of this post to the British. 407. The Capture of Major Andre. — General Clinton sent Andre, a young major of his army, to confer secretly with the traitor. But on Andre's return overland he was captured by i)atriot scouts and i)roof of the plot was found on his person. Arnold fled. Andre was hanged as a spy, despite all Clinton's efforts to save him. Arnold joined the British army and did all he could to injure his native land. His later years were spent in shame and remorse and he* died an object of general scorn and contempt. 408. The State of the Colonies. — Four years of war in the North had brought the British only the i)ossession of two towns. New York and Newport. Everywhere else the colonists had held their own, but not without great loss and suffering. Many things were amiss. The colonies were not closely united, and there was no definite system of finance. The paper money issued by Congress had no substantial basis and sank in value until it became almost worthless. Congress grew weak and inefficient and no regular system of taxation was adopted. In some of its moments of urgent need the army was supported by loans made by a patriotic merchant of Philadelphia, Robert Morris. With the lack of system in the colonies, the feebleness shown by Congress, and great scarcity of means, the surprising thing is that the invaders made so little progress. This was mainly due to the inefficiency of their generals and the masterly generalship of their able opponent, George Washington. 206 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1778-1780 4. THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 409. The South Invaded. — Hitherto, except for the attack on Fort Moultrie, the war had not extended south of Pennsylvania. But in 1778 the British carried their arms to the South, as if they despaired of winning the North and hoped to capture and hold the southern colonies. Savannah was taken in Decem- ber, 1778. Augusta was next captured, and Prevost, the British general, advanced on Charleston. Finding himself pursued by General Lincoln with a strong force of militia, he abandoned the enterprise and returned to Savannah. Here in September, 1779, he was attacked by General Lincoln, aided by the French fleet. The at- tempt proved a disastrous failure. The Americans were repulsed with a loss of more than one thousand men. 410. Charleston Taken.— In the spring of 1780 Charles- ton was attacked by General Chnton with a powerful force. For forty days General Lincoln stood out against a terrific bombardment by land and sea. On May 12 he surrendered and the leading city of the South fell into British hands. 411. South Carolina Overrun. — Leaving General Corn- waUis in command at Charleston, Chnton now returned to New York, which city had been threatened by Washington since the battle of Monmouth. Expedi- tions were sent in various directions by Cornwallis throughout South Carohna, meeting with little resist- ance except that of the partisan commanders Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and others. But these were so bold and active that they greatly annoyed the invaders and made the State a very hot place to hold. 1780] THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 207 412. Gates at Camden. — After vigorous efforts an army was raised in North Carolina. It was put under the command of General Gates, who now proved himself sadly incompetent. Meeting the British at Camden, South Carolina, on August 16, 1780, the militia under his command broke and fled and the few regiments of regulars were overwhelmed. The army was so broken and scattered that Gates, who had shown himself inca- SiEGE OF Charleston. pable in the battle, reached a place eight}^ miles distant without a soldier in his train. Sumter's force was similarly dispersed two days later by the cavalry of Tarleton, the British hard-riding dragoon. With the exception of Marion's men, no patriot forces remained in South Carolina. 413. The Fight at King's Mountain. — The first ray of hope came on October 7, when a force of British and Tories, eleven hundred strong, was met on King's Mountain by a body of frontier riflemen, hastily 208 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 1780 gathered in the new settlements of Tennessee. Their attack was vigorous and successful, the invaders being totally defeated, more than four hundred and fifty of them falling, and the rest being taken prisoners. 414. Marion, the Swamp Fox. — This success was ably seconded by Marion, the most vigiliant and active of the partisan leaders, known as the Swamp Fox from his custom of lurking in swamps and forests with his small body of follow- Gen. Marion and the British Officer ers, and sallying out unexpectedly upon detached parties of the foe. In this way the enemy was bitterly annoyed and suffered considerable losses, while all efforts to capture the Swamp Fox proved futile.^ 415. General Greene in Command. — Gates having proved a failure, Nathaiiael Greene, next to Washington the ablest of the American generals, was appointed to succeed liim. With Greene were three efficient Vir- ginians: Daniel Morgan, the famous rifleman leader; William Washington, a cousin of the commander-in- ^ The story is told that a British officer who was sent to nego- tiate an exchange of prisoners with Marion, found him on a sort of woodland island in the swamps, and was invited to share his dinner. The dinner consisted of sweet potatoes, roasted and served on pieces of bark. On his return the officer resigned his commission, saying that it was useless to fight against men who were content to live on roots while fighting for their country. 1781] THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 209 chief; and Henry Lee, a dashing cavalry leader, known as Light-Horse Harry, and father of General Lee of the Civil War. But very few men were in arms, and it took active efforts to gather about two thousand men, these being only half clothed and half supplied with arms and food. 416. The Battle of Cowpens. — With these new men at the helm, the tide began to turn. Morgan, with nine hundred men, met a superior force under Tarleton at Cowpens, South CaroHna, January 17, 1781, and handled the British so roughly that Tarleton's force was nearly annihilated, while the Americans won their victory with very little loss. 417. Masterly Retreat. — And now Greene's skill and ability were shown. Morgan, pursued by Cornwallis, crossed the Catawba and joined Greene, who made a most skilful retreat before his powerful antagonists, crossing the Yadkin and finally the Dan, and drawing the enemy across North Carolina to the borders of Virginia. When Cornwallis, drawn much too far from his base of supplies, gave up the pursuit and turned to retreat, he found Greene hot on his track, harassing him at every step. 418. Guilford Court=House. — At Guilford Court-House, now Greensboro, North Carolina, Greene felt strong enough to venture a battle. In this the militia broke and fled, but the Continentals held their ground, and though they were finally forced back, the British had been dealt with so severely that no pursuit was at- tempted. Cornwallis, in fact, was in no condition for a further fight or a return to Charleston and was forced to retreat to Wilmington, North CaroUna, which he reached in very bad plight. 14 210 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1781 419. iiobkirk Hill.— Greene soon gave up the pursuit of Cornwallis and made his way southward, where he was joined by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens at Hob- kirk Hill, near Camden, South Carolina. Here on April 25, 1781, he was attacked by Lord Rawdon and defeated. But Rawdon did not find his victory much of a success over his vigilant enemy, for he soon with- drew to Charleston, leaving South Carohna to be occupied by his enemies. 420. The War Ends in the Carolinas. — Greene was so active that one after another of the British posts fell into his hands, and though he was defeated in a fight at Eutaw Springs, the British, as before, found it expedient to retreat. Greene's activity, and the daring of Marion, Sumter and others of his aids, quickly com- pleted the work of con- quest, and by the end of the year the British were closely shut up in Charleston and Savannah. 421. The Campaign in Virginia. — Cornwallis did not find it ex- pedient to return to South Carolina. From his position at Wil- mington it was easier to reach Virginia and take part in the fighting that was going on there. Benedict Arnold was ravaging the Vir- ginia plantations, a small force under Lafayette alone opposing him. Cornwallis now took chief command, COUNWALLIS'S HKAnun'Ain KHS AT YOHKTOWN. 1781J THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 211 but after a campaign of destruction, finding Lafayette reinforced, he made his way to Yorktown, on York River, near the Chesapeake Bay, and there fortified himself to await expected reinforcements from New York. It was a movement rife with disaster, as he was soon to discover. 422. Washington's Opportunity. — During all this period Washington had kept near New York, watching Clinton. But at this juncture a large French fleet arrived from the West Indies. A considerable body of French troops had also joined the American army. A splendid oppor- tunity for a master stroke presented itself to Wash- ington's alert mind and he accepted it with the quick decision of a great soldier. Sending orders to the French fleet to sail to the Chesapeake, he broke camp himself, making strategic movements as if he intended to attack New York, and then marching with all speed southward. Reaching the head of Chesapeake Bay, he transported his army by vessels to the vicinity of Yorktown, which was quickly invested. 423. The Siege of Yorktown. — This skilful manoeuvre caught Cornwallis in a trap. He suddenly found Yorktown surrounded by a strong army while a power- ful French fleet closed the Chesapeake and cut off aid from that direction. No reinforcements had come from Clinton and his situation quickly became Headquarters of Gen. Waahinpyton Headquarters of Gen. Knox Siege of Yorktown, 212 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION [1781 desperate. For a week his works were bombarded by army and fleet, then CornwaUis, finding escape im- possible, surrendered his army of seven thousand men. On October 19, 1781, the captive army marched from the works and Cornwallis delivered up his sword. 424. "It is All Over."— ^' It is all over!" cried Lord North, when he received the news of this disaster. Surrender of Cornwallis. Soon after he resigned his post of prime minister, and a new ministry, one in favor of peace, took the reins of government in England. 425. The War Ends. — The king and Parliament ac- cepted the inevitable. It was evidently impossible for them to subdue the colonists. Little further fighting took place. Parliament, in March, 1782, resolved to close hostilities. Savannah was evacuated in July and Charleston in December. New York was held until the negotiations for peace should end. 1783] THE WAR IN THE SOUTH 213 426. The Treaty of Peace. — A treaty of peace, nego- tiated on the part of the United States by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Ja}^, was signed at Paris September 3, 1783, and the independence for which the country had fought so long was gained. On November 25 the British sailed away from New York and Washington marched in. He soon after resigned his commission and reached Mount Vernon in time to spend a joyous Christmas at his home. Thus ended in triumph the long struggle for American independence. SUMMARY OF REVOLUTIONARY EVENTS. 1760-1773. An attempt is made to tax the Americans, who refuse to pay any taxes not laid by their own assemblies. A stamp tax is passed, but the people defy it and destroy the stamps. A tax is laid on tea, but the tea ships are ordered away and the tea sent to Boston is thrown overboard. 1773-1775. The first Continental Congress meets. Soldiers are sent from Boston to Lexington and Concord, but are attacked by the people, who besiege Boston. A battle is fought at Bunker Hill. Con- gress makes Washington commander-in-chief. 1776. The British evacuate Boston and are repulsed at Charleston. A Declaration of Independence is made on July 4. Washington's army is defeated on Long Island and New York taken by the British. Washington retreats to the Delaware, and on Christmas attacks and captures a Hessian force at Trenton. 1777. Burgoyne marches from Canada and Howe sails to Chesa- peake Bay, defeats Washington and captures Philadelphia. Burgoyne is defeated and forced to surrender at Saratoga. 1778. Washington's army pass a terrible winter at Valley Forge. A treaty is made with France, a French fleet is sent to the Delaware, and the British leave Philadelphia. Washington follows and fights them at Monmouth. Settlers are massacred by Indians at Wyoming. The British invade the South and take Savannah. 1779. General Wayne storms and captures Stony Point. Paul Jones wins in a famous sea fight off the coast of England. The British defeat General Lincoln at Savannah, 214 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION 1780. Charleston is captured by the British fleet and army and South Carohna is overrun, General Gates being badly worsted at Camden. At King's Mountain the frontier riflemen win a notable victory. Marion and Sumter keep up the fight. 1781. Morgan defeats Tarleton at Cowpens. Greene retreats and draws Cornwallis to the Virginia border, then fights him at Guilford. South Carolina is recovered. Cornwallis invades Virginia and encamps at Yorktown. He is besieged by Washington and forced to surrender. 1782-1783. Parliament votes to discontinue hostilities, and on September 3, 1783, a treaty of peace is signed at Paris, in which the independence of the United States is fully recognized. TOPICS FOR REVIEW. Oral or written. 1. Discontent in the Colonies. — Old ideas of the use of colonies — causes of discontent — the claim of the right of taxation — resistance of the tax on stamps and tea — the Continental Congress — Paul Revere and Lexington. 2. The American Revolution. — The siege of Boston — the Dec- laration of Independence — leading events in the war — duration — how success was gained — result of the conflict — its famous leaders. reference books. 1. Winsor's Handbook of the Revolution. 2. Lossing's Field Book of the Revolution. 3. Bancroft's United States. 4. Greene's American Revolution. 5. Fisk's Critical Period of American History. 6. Dodge's George Washington. 7. Tyler's Patrick Henry. 8. Morse's Benjamin Franklin. 9. Fisher's Struggle for American Independence. PART VI. THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 1. THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE 427. Boundaries of the New Nation. — With the signing of the treaty of peace in 1783, the United States was fairly launched upon the world, its freedom as a nation won, its independence everywhere acknowledged. Though of small extent, compared with its present area, it already had space enough to contain a great nation. Under the terms of the treaty its territory extended from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River, and from Canada to Florida. The region west of the Mississippi was held by Spain, as also Florida, which Great Britain now restored to its original owner. This shut off the United States from access to the Gulf of Mexico, since Florida then extended in a strip fifty miles wide along the gulf coast to Louisiana. Thus on all the south and west the new nation was bounded by Spanish territory, while British territory bounded it on the north. 428. The Population of the Country.— ^At the period of the Revolution the population of the colonies is esti- mated to have been more than two and a half millions. These were mainly concentrated between the moun- tains and the sea, few settlers having yet found their way across the mountain barrier to the broad plains of the West. A few years before the Revolution James Robertson had begun the settlement of Tennessee, ^215 216 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1790 Daniel Boone had made his way into the wilderness of Kentucky, and a small outpost of adventurers had penetrated into the Ohio country, but it was not until after the Revolution that the settlement of this great region gave indications of rapid progress. 429. Condition of the People. — Though after the sur- render at Yorktown peace succeeded war, the country was still in a desperate strait. Its commerce w^as destroyed, its trade and manufactures were of slight importance, many of its towns and villages were ruined, its paper sub- stitute for money was ' }m ^^ tf^ almost worthless. The Wt** 2^^^ ^M treasury was empty of real money and Con- gress was unable to pay its debts. During the war some money liad been borrowed in Europe, but Congress depended mainly on paper currency, which sank in value until by the summer of 17S0 it took one hun- dred and fifty dollars of it to buy a bushel of corn and two thousand dollars to obtain a suit of clothes. Only for the help of Robert Morris in raising money to aid the army in its final campaigns, Washington could not have made his march to Yorktown and the war for independence might have failed. 430. Where the People Dwelt. — At the date of the first census, in 1790, tlie population had reached nearly four millions, Virginia, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Massachusetts then being the most populous states, One of Robert Moukis's CW Tkams Transporting Monky. 1790] THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE 217 while Philadelphia, New York, and Boston were the leading cities. The population was largely confined to the sea-coast region, most of the interior being still a forest-covered wilderness. The towns were small and far apart, being most numerous in New England. In the South, with the exception of Baltimore, Charleston, Savannah, and a few other coast towns, one saw only a country of farms and plantations with some scattered villages. 431. Settlement of the West. — In 1790, when the census was taken, an army of sturdy pioneers was invading the West. Tennessee and Kentucky had been settled so actively that they now contained about one hundred thousand people, and many hardy settlers had rhade their way into the Northwestern Territory. In 1788 Cincinnati was founded and about ten thousand immi- grants reached Marietta and its vicinity. 432. The Pioneers of the North.— The Ohio offered an easy channel of communication from the mid-region, but the pioneers from the northern country had to advance overland and with much more difficulty. Their vanguard was a line of emigrant wagons, the drivers of which were obhged to make roads for themselves as they advanced. They would halt at a promising place, clear off the trees, build rude log houses, and cultivate the land for a year or two; then, as the settlement began to thicken, would take to their wagons again, leaving their clearings for those who followed. It was like a great army of invasion, before whose advance the forest fell and the Indians unwillingly retired. In its rear farms appeared and towns and villages sprang up. 218 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1790 433. The Work of the People. — Most of the people were engaged in agriculture, sheep and corn being the lead- ing products of the New England farms, while the Middle States became famous for wheat, and on the great plantations of the South large crops of tobacco, rice, corn, etc., were grown. Cotton did not become a leading crop until after 1793, when the cotton gin was invented. North Carolina yielded much pitch, tar, and turpentine, while the supply of lumber in all quarters seemed inexhaustible. This formed the principal fuel of the country, though near the mines soft coal was burned. 434. Manufactures and Commerce. — Though the old restrictions to manufacture and commerce had passed away with the British rule, these industries only slowly developed. While the farmers tilled the ground with poor tools, their wives and daughters spent their spare time in spinning and weaving at home. In the winter the men busied themselves in making their farming implements and articles of furniture, hammering out nails for their own use and forging rude iron plates for ploughshares. Commerce showed some activity, espe- cially in New England and in the ports of New York and Philadelphia, but the American manufacturers found the competition with England severe, and the few workshops that existed could hardly compete with the cheap British goods. Yet tobacco and other products of the land brought high prices and the wealth of the country soon increased, people beginning to live in finer houses, dress better and buy superior furniture. 435. Within the Cities. —Tn 1790 Philadelphia had about forty-two thousand inhabitants. New York 1790] THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE 219 thirty-three thousand, and Boston eighteen thousand. Charleston and Baltimore were the largest cities of the South, Savannah being still quite small. The cities resembled country towns, Boston, for instance, having unpaved streets and no flagged sidewalks. There were some handsome dwelHngs, but most of the houses were not what we would now call comfortable. In New York oil-lamps were used to hght Broadway at night and it was thought a splendid avenue, though it was a short one, soon running into the open country. Philadelphia, with its broad, straight streets, contrasted favorably with the narrow and crooked thoroughfares of Boston and New York. 436. Life on the Frontier. — In the country, where the bulk of the people lived, manners were more primitive and life much ruder. Hard work faced the farmer and his family the whole year through. The frontier settlers passed rough, severe lives, their houses being small and rude, furniture plain and scanty, and most of the comforts of civilization want- ing. They had to grind corn for bread between two stones and obtain meat by aid of the rifle. When at work their guns were always left close at hand, for the redman of the forest was an ever present danger. 437. Wealth or Poverty. — In those days there were few wealthy and few very poor people, the means of the inhabitants being largely equal. Very few had an income of as much as ten thousand dollars a year, and the people as a rule were simple in their manners, expen- Pine-Tree Lan- tern. 220 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1783 sivc living being rarely indulged in. But the rich people of the cities made considerable display, dressing more showily than the same class does to-day. The gentle- men, on occasions of state, wore white satin vests and white silk stockings, with velvet or broadcloth coats, while the ladies dressed in rich silks or satins, and had their hair treated with powder and pomatum and raised like a tower above their heads. Snuff-taking was common among gentlemen, and to offer the snuff'-box was an ordinary act of politeness. 438. Social Life. — Fine balls were given, and at Presi- dent Washington's receptions the pomp and show* rivalled that of the courts of Europe. Music was enjoyed, but the theatre was considered immoral and was little j^atronized. Amusements were few and simple and books and newspapers scarce. Education had not yet made much progress, and the art of read- ing was not the ordinary accomplishment it is to-day, while the long hours of labor left little time for recrea- tion or home study. 2. FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 439. Discontent in the Army. — The treaty of peace came none too soon, for the new republic was in a serious condition financially and politically. Great discontent existed in the army on account of the soldiers being unpaid, and in 1781 there had been a meeting among the troops on this account. In June, 1783, a band of drunken soldiers in Philadelphia became so violent in their demands for pay that Congress fled from the city in alarm. The mutinous feeling spread widely through the army, some of its officers going so far as to 1783J FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 221 oStat£ASM:Cg| %vent^ Dollars. , No.^^^ t& Bearer to receive TWENTY Spanijh MTLLCD DOLLARS / A^^- fJv. ort&'^aCy.et^ereo^i '" '" /)» Gold CT* SiJver, occvnL'ng to a. Rc/ch- lidion/toSed $ji x ask Washington to make himself king, a proposition which he rejected with indignation. Others proposed to seize the government and hold it until they should be paid, but Washington prevailed on them to desist from this treasonable scheme. On April 19, 1783, the eighth anniversary of th(^ fight at Lexington, the soldiers were sent home on furlough, and the army was disbanded in November of that year. 440. Popular Discontent. — Congress had been given no power to tax the people, and the States found it difficult to raise money from them under the Bl^^EIS^ depressed condition of affairs. Many of the people were so laden with debt as to be un- able to pay taxes, and this was especially the case in Massachusetts, where the farmers had been made poor by the war, many of them being hard pressed by their creditors. 441. The Shays Rebellion. --This state of affairs 1(^1 in August, 1780, to a revolt, in which two thousand men joined, under the leadership of Danifd Shays, a captain in the late war. First surrounding the court-house and putting an end to all actions for debt, th(^y became emboldened by success and began to burn and plunder, finally attacking the arsenal at Springfield. After some time a force was collected and the outbreak was re- pressed in February, 1787. Continental Paper Money. 222 THE EAULY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1781 442. The Articles of Confederation. — Politically the country was in a weak and disorganized state. Though it had been named the United States of America, it was very feebly united. In 1777 Congress had adopted what were called ''Articles of Confederation and Per- petual Union." These had been ratified by all the Stat(^s by 1781, but the Confederation was far from being a close union, each state claiming still to be a sovereign commonwealth and httle power being given the central government. \\ A..lil.\l. lO.N AM) l.Al- AVi;i'J'i; A i' All'. \'n.M 443. The Weakness of Congress. — The Articles gave Congress no power to lay taxes or to call out soldiers. It could only ask the States for men and money and wait until they chose to give them. If it borrowed money, it had no means of repaying it; if it made a treaty, it had no power to enforce it; it could merely recommend and must depend upon the States to act. 17.S51 FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 223 And this the latter were slow in doing. There was a heavy war debt, but they failed to raise money for its payment. Of the taxes assessed on the States in 1783 only one-fifth had been paid in 1785, and Congress was left penniless before the demands of the country's creditors. Washington's significant remark, ''We arc one nation to-day and thirt(Hm to-morrow," clearly expressed the situation. There was no actual union; the States were jealous of one another and of Congress; it was a (juestion whether in the end there would be one strong nation or thirteen weak ones. 444. State Quarrels. — Aside from the failure to support Congress, tlun-e were quarrels between the States upon boundary and other (juestions, and some of them began to interfere with freedom of trade with one another, exacting tariff charges at their borders and passing laws that restricted freedom of navigation. They were acting in these respects, as Washington had said, like separate nations. 445. The Treaty with England Ignored. — It had been agreed in tlu^ treaty of peace that the property of Tories should be respected and that British merchants might collect debts due in America. This agreement was not kept and the Tories were treated so badly that within two years more than one hundred thou- sand of them left the country. Parliament having to pay many of them for their losses. In retaliation the British government n^fused to deliver several military posts on the northern frontier and passed laws injurious to American commerce. The lack of commercial unity between the States prevented them from taking steps to preserve their trade. 224 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1785 446. The Northwest Territory. — As may be seen from the above statement, the new nation was by no means strong or soundly united. Congress had only one means of meeting its engagements, this being its possession and control of the Northwest Territory, the wide area of land lying north of the Ohio and west of the Alle- ghany Mountains. Several States had claimed this territory, in whole or in part, but some of those which had no claim to it had objected to signing the Articles of Confederation unless this territory should be yielded to the United States. 447. The Claims Yielded. — Maryland was most persist- ent in this demand and refused to enter the Confedera- tion until all the States had agreed to yield their claim.s to western lands. This was finally done, Maryland signed January 30, 1781, and the first Congress under the Confederation met on March 2 of that year. It replaced the Second Continental Congress, which had continued until that time. The claims in the Northwest were all given up — with some small reser- vations — by 1785, and the Southern States also gradually yielded their claims on western territory, Georgia, the last, doing so in 1802. 448. The New Congress. — The Congress called under the Articles of Confederation was restricted to not less than two or more than seven members for any State. In it were concentrated all the powers granted by the States, legislative and executive 'alike, there being no president or executive department. Its main difficulty lay in lack of funds. Though the great regions of fer- tile land put at its disposal by the abandonment of the Northwest claims promised it a considerable future rev- 1786] FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 225 enue, it was not yet available and Congress found itself sadly hampered by debts which it was unable to pay. 449. Congress Fails to Obtain New Powers. — Congress, aware of its weakness, and feeling that the country was in a critical condition, which could not safely continue, asked for an amendment to the Articles of Confederation giving it the power to lay a duty on imported goods. To this most of the States agreed, but some of them refused and the matter fell through. At this refusal the leading statesmen of the country were in despair, and Washington felt hopeless of the future of the country. Fortunately there was one saving feature in the situation. This was the military weakness of the States, and their fear that if disunited they might be attacked one by one by England, and lose their hard-won independence. Here was an im- pending danger that prevented them from going too far in their national aspirations, and made some form of union indispensable. 450. A Series of Conventions. — The need of increasing the powers of the central government had grown so evident that a movement in that direction was made almost without intention. A meeting was held at Mt. Vernon in 1785 to consider the rights of Virginia and Maryland in the waters of Chesapeake Bay, and this led, at the suggestion of James Madison, to a conven- tion of delegates from the States at Annapolis in 1786 to take steps for the general regulation of commerce. A discussion upon the unsatisfactory state of the country took place at both these conventions, and th© need of a stronger government was so deeply felt that a new convention, with wider aims, was called to meet 15 226 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1787 at Philadelphia in 1787. This, due to Alexander Hamilton, had for its purpose an extension of the powers of the central government. 451. The Constitutional Convention. — The convention of 1787 was the most momentous in its results of any ever held in our country. Feeling its importance, and now fully realizing the necessity of some definite action, Interior of Independence Hall. all the states but Rhode Island sent delegates, these including the ablest men in the land, some of them among the ablest statesmen any land has ever known. Washington was chosen its president. Its member- ship included Franklin, Hamilton, Madison, Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris and others of high repute. Its sessions, beginning May 25, and ending September 17, 1787, were held in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, in which the Declaration of Independence had been signed eleven years before. 1787] FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 227 452. Purpose of the Convention. — There were differ- ences of opinion among the members regarding the pur- pose and powers of this convention. Many held that it had authority only to revise the Articles of Confedera- tion, but Hamilton declared that any such revision would be useless, and that a completely new system of federation was needed. His opinion was accepted and the sessions began. 453. Behind Closed Doors. — The work of the conven- tion was performed in secret. Its sessions continued for four months. Some of the delegates were so persistent in their demands for State privileges that only the feeling that the safety of the country demanded some final action prevented a disruption of the body. In the end, by a series of compromises, a harmonious result was reached and the Constitution of the United States came into being. These compromises were the following: 1. The small States feared being outvoted by the large ones. This was avoided by giving all of the States equal representation in the Senate. 2. The States as sovereign bodies had alone been represented in the preceding Congress. An elective House of Representatives was now provided to take care of the rights of the people. 3. The Franchise demands of slave holding States were settled by counting every five slaves as the equiv- alent of three white men in fixing the basis of repre- sentation. 4. The necessity of an Executive head to the govern- ment was met by providing for the election of a Presi- dent and Vice President. 228 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1788 5. A balance wheel to Congress was provided in the Supreme Court, it being decided that any law which this court should pronounce to be out of accordance with the Constitution should cease to be effective. The remarkable document produced by the con- vention was signed September 17, 1787, and sent to Congress for transmission to the States, where it gave rise to strenuous debates. No such thorough and revo- lutionary work had been looked for, and, while it met with much approval, many feared that it would lead to undue control of the States by the central govern- ment, and it was vigorously opposed even by such ardent patriots as Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams. These, with other strong advocates of State rights, became the leaders of a strong party in opposition, but the party which became known as the Patrick Henry. it i • Federalist earnestly advocated it, believing that a strong central government was necessary for the preservation alike of the States and the Union. 454. The Constitution Ratified. — The strongest oppo- sition to the new Constitution arose in New York and Virginia, but one by one the States ratified it, nine States, the number fixed upon to make it the law of the land, doing so by June 21, 1788. It was not rati- fied by Rhode Island until May 29, 1790, though it had then been in effect for two years. The public ap- preciation of it was shown in popular processions, in which the Union was indicated by the "Ship of State" and other emblems. 1788J FROM CONFEDERATION TO CONSTITUTION 229 455. Character of the New Government. — There was much reason for the enthusiastic acceptance by the people of the new Constitution. Under it a strong government had replaced a weak one. While each State retained control of its internal affairs, all powers of general government were given to Congress and the President. These were authorized to form and control an army and a navy; to make and enforce treaties; to declare war and conclude peace; to coin money, lay taxes, regulate commerce, and make laws for the nation at large. No State could now make laws which would infringe upon the rights of other States. 456. Features of the Constitution. — The new govern- ment embraced three bodies: one to make laws, one to execute them, and one to decide that they were in agreement with the Constitution. Congress, the legislative or law-making body, con- sisted of a Senate, elected by the State legislatures and representing the States, and a House of Representa- tives, elected by and representing the people. The executive body consisted of a President, to execute the laws and represent the nation in its dealings with foreign powers, and a Vice President, who served as President of the Senate. The President had the power to veto or annul any act of Congress of which he did not approve, but it could be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote of both houses. The duty of the Supreme Court, consisting of a number of eminent judges, was to consider all acts of Congress the validity of which was called in question, and decide wdiether or not they were in accordance with the requirements of the Constitution. If not 230 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [17S9 found so, they ceased to be laws, it being requisite that every law, whether of the nation or the States, must agree with the terms of the Constitution. 3. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION From 1789 to 1797 457. The First Presidential Election. -The Constitution having been ratified, it became necessary to elect a President and Congress to replace the Congress of the Confederacy. The controversy over the ratification of the Constitution had divided the people into two parties, the Feder- alist and the Anti-Federalist, but botli of these fixed upon George Washington as the only man to be considered for the Presidency. As it was held that the country owed to him its independence, it was felt that on him alone should be con- ferred the highest honor in its gift. Elections were held in ten of the States and Washington w^as chosen unanimously. John Adams was elected Vice President.^ 458. Washington's Journey. — When news of his elec- tion reached Washington, he left his home at Mt. Vernon and journeyed to New York, the city selected as the * By the terms of the Constitution votes were cast, not directly for the candidates, but indirectly for a number of electors in each State, who afterwards met and cast their votes for two persons, the one receiving the highest number of votes l^eing declared Presi- dent, the other Vice President. As tliis system proved unsatis- factory in operation, it was soon changed for the i)resent system, in which votes are cast for both President and Vice President. Georgk Washington. 1789J WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 231 temporary seat of the new government. His journey was like a triumphal procession, the people thronging to see him pass, building arches of honor, and strewing flowers on the roads over which his carriage moved. 459. The President Inaugurated. — The 4th of March, 1789, had been selected as the day on which the new government should begin, ^ but in those days of poor Washington Deliverini; his In aicitrai, ArjDUESs in New York. roads and difficult travel Congress came together slowly and the inauguration of Washington was delayed until April 30. He took the oath of office on the ^ The Congress of the Confederation had appointed the first Wednesday in January, 17S9, as the day to choose electors, the first Wednesday in P'ebruary as the day of meeting of the electors to elect a President, and the first Wednesday in March as the day for the President to take his seat. As this happened to be the 4th of March in that year, this became the fixed date for the beginning of the Presidential term. 232 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1790 balcony of Federal Hall in New York City, in which the new Congress was then in session; the ringing of bells and firing of cannon testifying to the joy of the people, from whom went up a ringing shout of, ''Long live George Washington, President of the United States!" 460. The Cabinet Formed. — Washington selected as his advisers and assistants in his new duties, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of Foreign Affairs (now called Secretary of State), Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph as Attorney-General. These, with later Secretaries, afterwards became known as the President's Cabinet. One of the first acts of Congress was to select a permanent place for its meetings, Philadelphia being chosen for the ten years 1790-1800, after which the national capital was to be removed to a new city, to be built on the Potomac River and named Washington in honor of the President. 461. Amendments to the Constitution. — It was early evident that the makers of the Constitution had failed to cover the whole field of pubhc affairs, and it soon became necessary to add a number of amendments, most of them intended to guard the rights of the people and the States. Twelve such amendments were pro- posed in 1791, and ten of them adopted. One was adopted in 1798 and one in 1804. There were no other amendments until after the Civil War. 462. New States. — Before the century ended three new States were added to the original thirteen. The Green Mountain region, lying between New Hampshire and New York, had been claimed by both of these States, 1790J WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 233 but its people vigorously resisted these claims, which were given up by 1789. The territory was admitted as the State of Vermont in 1791. Kentucky, which had been held by Virginia as a county, was made a State in 1792, and Tennessee, originally a part of North Carolina, was admitted to the Union as a State in 1796. 463. The Question of Finance. — Among the difficulties which confronted the government, the most important was that of revenue. The Continental currency had disappeared from circulation, the treasury was empty, and the country had no credit abroad. The States were too deeply in debt themselves to come freely to the aid of Congress. This difficulty had confronted the nation since the days of the Revolution and it now demanded prompt and adequate solution. 464. Hamilton's System of Revenue. — Fortunately for the nation, it had as its Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, a genius in finance.^ He saw^ at a glance the proper means to supply the needed funds, and persuaded Congress to assume the debts of the States, amounting to more than twenty million dollars, so that the total burden of State and national debt, about seventy-five millions in all, should lie on the general government. To meet it, he sought to avoid the unpopular measure of a direct tax, and estabhshed an indirect one by having a moderate duty laid on 1 Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies, came to the American colonies as a boy, and served as a soldier in the Revolu- tion, becoming Washington's aide-de-camp. A man of remarkable ability, it was due to his efforts that the Constitution was ratified bv New York. He was killed in a duel with Aaron Btht in 1S04. 234 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1791 imported goods. As our commerce was then large, a low tariff soon yielded enough for the immediate needs of the government, while it had the healthy effect of encouraging American manufactures. 465. American Credit Restored. — The surplus from the tariff" and the funds arising from the sales of public lands enabled the nation gradually to pay its debts, and by re-establishing its credit reduced the demand A Reception by Lady Washington. for immediate payment. Now that interest was promptly paid and the ability of the nation to meet its obligations was assumed, its creditors were quite willing to let their claims stand as investments. Addi- tional financial measures were the founding of a United States Bank in 1791 and a mint for the coin- age of money in 1792. So successful was Hamilton in his financial measures that Daniel Webster after- wards said of him: ''He smote the rock of the national 1794] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 235 resources, and abundant streams of revenue burst forth. He touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprung upon its feet." 466. The Whiskey Rebellion. — The only direct tax laid by Hamilton was on whiskey, one of the few prod- ucts which now pay such a tax. Objection was raised to this tax by the makers of whiskey, and in western Pennsylvania, where it was produced in large quanti- ties, the distillers rebelled. In 1794 they broke into open insurrection, and gathered such a party of sup- porters that it was necessary to send an army of fifteen thousand troops to restore order. When the soldiers appeared, the outbreak subsided, and the resistance to paying the tax disappeared. 467. War with the Indians. — At the time of the out- break of the distillers real war was going on in the west, where the Indians had become hostile to the settlers, partly, as was thought, through the agency of traders and agents from the military posts still held by the British in the lake region. The war with the savages was badly managed and serious disasters fol- lowed. General Harmar was defeated by them in two battles in 1790, and General St. Clair was ambushed and severely beaten in the following year. Their success so emboldened the natives that decisive measures became necessary if the western country was to be held. General Anthony Wayne, the hero of Stony Point, was sent against them with a powerful army. Warned by the errors of his predecessors, he took every precaution, and, in a desperate battle fought on the Maumee in 1794, he utterly routed the savage hosts. He then laid waste their countiy for 236 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1792 fifty miles around and forced them to conclude a treaty, in which they gave up a large tract of land. 468. Washington Re=elected. — By 1792, when the time for a second Presidential election came, there were two well-defined parties in the country, the Federal, headed by Hamilton, and the Republican, which succeeded Indian W ahfakk on the Frontier. the Anti-Federalist, and was headed bv Jefferson. This was later known as the Democratic-Republican, and finally as the Democratic party. As such it still exists. Its members opposed the pohcy of the adminis- tration, but AVashington and Adams were re-elected by large majorities. 469. Troubles with England. — Since the treaty of 1783 the difficulty with England about the Tories had 1795] WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 237 continued. The government had agreed to recommend the States to pay for the confiscated property of these refugees and also to pay the old debts due British merchants. No payments were made, however, and harsh treatment forced thousands of Tories to leave the countr3^ In return for this failure to keep the terms of the treaty Great Britain held on to Detroit and other ports on the lakes. There were other troubles. War then existed between England and France, and the British war-vessels began to seize American ships dealing with French ports, holding that their cargoes were contraband of war, and also to carry off sailors from American vessels, claiming that these were British subjects. 470. John Jay's Treaty. — These sources of dispute led to a treaty in 1795, in which John Jay, late Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and a man of distin- guished abihty, acted for the United States. All the subjects of dispute were settled except that of the impressment of American sailors. But this had raised such bitter feeling that great excitement arose when the terms of the treaty were made known. Jay was burned in efhgy, the British minister was insulted, and Hamilton, who favored the treaty, was stoned at a public meeting. Yet Washington, feeling that the treaty was the best that could then be had, spoke in its favor, and it was concurred in by the Senate in spite of bitter opposition in that body. 471. A Treaty with Spain. — A treaty was also made with Spain, which secured to Americans the free naviga- tion of the Mississippi River, New Orleans being made a port of deposit for the western States. 238 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1797 472. Washington Retires from Office. — As the end of Washington's term approached he was strongly solicited to become a candidate for a third term. On his refusal, John Adams was elected President, with Thomas Jefferson for Vice President, and Washington retired from pubhc life on March 4, 1797. During his admin- istration the United States had overcome its financial difficulties, grown prosperous industrially, and won the respect of foreign nations. He took leave of the people in a farewell address filled with patriotic and statesmanlike sentiments, and which has become one of the famous State papers of the nation. Less than three years later this noble patriot, the '' Father of his Country," passed away from the scene of his long labors. 4. JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION » From 1797 to 1801 473. Favorable Conditions. — When the new President took office, on March 4, 1797, all looked bright and promising. The national debt had been funded and much of it paid, the revenue w^as abundant for the needs of the government, the Indians were quiet, the relations with England were no longer hostile, and the ^ John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735. An ardent patriot, he served in both Continental Congresses and was on the Committee that drafted the Declaration of Independence. He long served the country abroad, aided in making the treaty of peace of 1783, and was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. After serving as Vice President and President, he died on the fiftieth anniversary of American independence, July 4, 1826. His last words were "Thomas Jefferson still survives." By a remarkable coincidence Jefferson died on the same day. 1798J JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 239 commercial and agricultural interests of the country were rapidly developing. Manufacture also was mak- ing some progress. 474. Hostile Relations with France. — The first indica- tion of trouble arose with France, which country had just passed through a terrible revolution, and was bitterly hostile to Great Britain. The treaty with the latter country greatly displeased the French govern- ment, which held that the United States was under obligations to France and should not have made terms of peace with its opponent without consulting it. When Adams was elected President, instead of Jefferson, who was friendly to France, the revolutionary leaders of that country grew so incensed that they ordered the American minister to leave the country. This was almost equivalent to a declara- , , 1 John Adams. tion of war, and in fact the French cruisers had already begun war on American commerce, a large number of merchant vessels having been seized. 475. Efforts to Avert War. — President Adams, feeling that the country was in no condition for war, sought to avert hostilities by sending envoys to France, who were instructed to negotiate a treaty, if possible. But they were treated with indignity, while private suggestions were made that it would be wise for them to conciliate the French government by a present of a quarter million of dollars. Charles Pinckney, one of the envoys, indignantly replied, ''Millions for defence; not one cent for tribute," and the negotiations ended. 240 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1799 476. Preparations for War. — When the correspondence with Prince Talleyrand, the French minister, was made public, the indignation in the United States was extreme. Pinckney's saying, '^ Millions for defence; not one cent for tribute, " became the war-cry of the people. Congress took steps to increase the army and navy, and Washington reluctantly consented to accept the command of the army in case of necessity. War seemed at hand. 477. Naval Warfare. — As the French raids upon American ships continued, orders were given the navy to retaliate by attack- ing the armed ships of France. As a result several naval battles took place. In Febru- ary, 1799, the frigate Constellation attacked and captured the French frigate L'Insurgente, and somewhat later the same vessel captured the La Vengeance, a war-ship of heavier armament. The French authorities, astonished and dismayed by these unlooked-for disasters, quickly changed their attitude. Napoleon Bonaparte, who had now come into power in France, was in favor of peace, and a satisfactory treaty put an end to the trouble. 478. The Alien and Sedition Laws.- -In 1798 Congress passed two laws which gave rise to much adverse feel- FlGHTING THE FRENCH. 1799] JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 241 ing. One of these, the Alien Law, gave the President power to banish from the country any foreigner whom he considered dangerous, and to imprison him if he should return. The other, the Sedition Law, gave the government the right to punish by fine and imprison- ment any one who should publish anything false or malicious against Congress or the President. This was aimed at the newspapers hostile to the administration, which had violently abused President Adams, and even Washington before him. 479. Popular Opposition, — These laws aroused bitter opposition, and were widely denounced as unconstitu- tional, since they interfered with personal liberty and freedom of speech. The Sedition Law was enforced on several occasions and did great injury to the Federal party, then in power. 480. Death of Washington. — In December, 1799, while attending to some duties on his estate, Washington became wet in a storm, a severe cold resulting. Fever followed, and on the night of December 14 he died. Thus passed away in his sixty-eighth year the noblest man of his country, the one justly eulogized as ^^ first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." The whole country united in paying honor to his memory, and his tomb at Mt. Vernon has become a hallowed shrine to patriotic Americans. 481. The 1800 Election. — Party feeling ran high throughout the Adams administration, the opposition party growing in strength and the Federal party losing many of its adherents. The unpopular Alien and Sedition Laws injured it greatly, and by the time of the Presidential election of November, 1800, its strength 16 242 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1800 had so decreased that Adams was defeated for a second term, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, candidates of the Democratic-RepubHcan party, being successful. 482. A Defect in the Constitution. — When the elec- torial vote was counted it appeared that Jefferson and Burr had each received seventy-three votes and Adams sixty-five. This revealed a defect in the Constitution, since Jefferson and Burr had an ecjual claim on the Presidency, and it became necessary for the House of Representatives to decide between the two candidates. Though Jefferson was the stronger in the House, there were Federalist intrigues against him, with the result that his election was confirmed only a fortnight before the end of Adams's term. 483. The Twelfth Amendment.— It might easily have happened that the country would have been left for a time without a President. Here was a danger that needed to be averted and this could be done only by an amendment to the Constitution. Such an amend- ment was prepared and finally passed in 1804. Under it the decision as to who should be President and who Vice President was taken from the Board of Electors, and provision was made that candidates should be nominated expressly for President and Vice President. This did away with all danger of any similar complica- tion in later elections. 5. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION From 1801 to 1809 484. The New Capital. — In 1800, the year of Jefferson's election, the capital of the United States was removed from Philadelphia to Washington, the new capital 1801] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 243 city on the Potomac^ John Adams removing thitlicr during the last year of his term of office. This city had been laid out on a magnificent scale, but as yet had only a few hundred inhabitants. The capitol building was erected on an elevated place in the centre of the new city. 485. Inauguration of Jefferson. — Thomas Jefferson ^ was a ''man of the people," one in full sympathy with the ''republican simplicity" he had observed in revolu- tionary France. His inauguration took place in the new capitol and was conducted without any cere- monious display, while he was always read}^ to meet any citizen on the standard of perfect equality. In this he differed from Washing- ton and Adams, who had felt it due to their position to keep up some degree of pomp and ceremony. <=> ^ i- '^ Thomas Jefferson. 486. The Message to Congress. — It had been the custom of Washington and Adams, when they wished to communicate with Congress, to do so in person, addressing the Houses from the floor. Jef- ferson introduced the practice of writing his messages ^ Thomas Jefferson was born in Virginia April 2, 1743. He studied law, became a member of the House of Burgesses of Vir- ginia and of the Continental Congress, and was the author of the Declaration of Independence, America's most famous State paper. He was governor of Virginia during the Revolution, Minister to France in 1785, Secretary of State under Washington, Vice Presi- dent under Adams, and President for two terms. He died on the same day with Adams, July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration he had written. 244 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1801 and sending them in to be read, and this method has been followed by all later Presidents. 487. The Barbary Pirates. — One of the earliest events of the new administration was a war with Tripoli, one of the piratical Barbary States of Northern Africa. These lawless nations had long been in the habit of preying upon the commerce of other countries in the Mediterranean, and the maritime nations of Europe had escaped their depredations by paying annual trib- ute to their rulers. The United States had consented to do the same in 1795, after its commerce had suffered much from the raids of the Moorish pirates. In 1801 the Bashaw, or ruler, of Tripoli demanded a larger tribute from this country, threatening war if it was not paid. 488. War with Tripoli. — This demand was more than President Jefferson was prepared to submit to. Instead of sending tribute, he sent a fleet of war-vessels to the Mediterranean and bombarded the cit}^ of Tripoli. The war continued until 1805, by which time the Ba- shaw was glad to make peace and remit the tribute. The other Bar- bary states soon followed his ex- ample and the United States ceased to be troubled by them. During the war the frigate Philadelphia ran aground in the harbor and was seized b}^ the Tripolitans. It was subsequentl}^ destroyed by Lieutenant Stephen Deca- tur, who made a night expedition into the harbor, drove the Tripolitans overboard, and set the ship on fire, escaping without the loss of a man. Stephen Decatiiu. 1802] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 245 489. Louisiana. — The most important event of Jef- ferson's first term was the purchase of the great terri- tory of Louisiana, embracing the vast tract between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. This region, early claimed and partly occupied by France, had been transferred to Spain at the close of the French and Indian War. Its eastern section was of much importance to the United States, since those who held it controlled the navigation of the Mississippi River and could cut off access to the Gulf of Mexico. The rapidly increasing settlers in the west were already protesting against the obstructions made by Spain to their river commerce and it was probable that in time they would go beyond protest. 490. Negotiations with France. —In 1801, by a secret treaty, Spain returned the Louisiana territory to France. Jefferson learned of this in 1802, and in the following year sent James Monroe to France as a special envoy to negotiate with that country for the purchase of the island of New Orleans, the site of a city which commanded the navigation of two branches of the Mississippi. This was rendered necessary by the action of the Spanish commandant, who still held New Orleans in 1802 and had issued an order closing that port against American vessels. 491. The Louisiana Purchase.— Fortunately, Napoleon Bonaparte, then in control of French affairs, was badly in need of money, and, though at peace with England, was in imminent danger of war with that country. In such a case, the powerful British fleet was very likely to rob him of this distant province. Therefore, when Monroe made an offer of two and a 246 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1803 half millions of dollars for the island of New Orleans, he was surprised by a proposal from the French minis- ter to sell to this country the whole region of Louisiana. This was far beyond what Jefferson had contem- plated. When he heard from his commissioner that the offer had been accepted, subject to his concurrence, on the tei'ms of fifteen million dollars for the entire tract, he did not hesitate to close the bargain. He recognized the immense advantage such an acquisition must prove to this country, the area of which would be more than doubled by sign- ing the agreement. This he did without loss of time, Congress sanctioned the appropriation necessary, and the great purchase was made. 492. An Unknown Country. — Little was known of the count rv thus secured. It was still mainly occupied by Indian tribes, in full pos- session of the land. Beyond the Rocky Mountains lay another great country of which almost notliing was known. Only its coast had been visited, except that in 1792 Captain Gray, of Boston,- had discovered and sailed up a great v'wvy iu that region, which he named the Columbia from the name of his ship. But no nation took the trouble to lay claim to that far-off wilder- ness, and its native inhabitants remained undisturbed. 493. The Lewis and Clark Expedition. — With a natural desire to learn something about the great region he had SiGNiNt-j THK Contract forthk Pur- THASK OK Ia^ITISIANA. 1804] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 247 purchased, President Jefferson in 1804 sent out an expedition under Captains Meriwether Lewis and Wil- liam Clark to explore it, not only to the Rocky Moun- tains but to the distant Paciiic. Starting from St. Louis, then a small village, they made their way in boats up the Missouri to its head-waters. Crossing the mountains with difficulty, they found on the opposite side the waters of another stream, down which they made their way to the Pacific Ocean. It proved to be the Columbia River, which Captain Gray had dis- Froiii llcisiutT - lliMoiv oi Mississiiipi \iillf_v (_Hi>UL;htoii \ .'Millliii Co.) A\ Ohio Flat-Boat. covered and named. The explorers returned in 1806 and published a highl}^ interesting account of their journey, and of the people, wealth and wonders of the country traversed. Their report put an end to all doubt of the value of President Jefferson's purchase. 494. Ohio Admitted to the Union. — In addition to the vast acquisition of territory described, a new State was added to the Union during Jefferson's first term. This was Ohio; the first State formed out of the Northwestern Territory. First settled at Marietta in 1788, Ohio had a population of nearly fift}^ thousand in 1800, and was admitted to the Union in 1803. 248 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1804 495. The Election of 1804. — At the end of his first term President Jefferson had become so popular that he was again nominated and received nearly the whole electoral vote. This was partly due to the great pros- perity of the country under his administration and the vast addition he had made to the area of the United States. George Clinton was elected Vice President. Aaron Burr, the former Vice President, had ruined his reputation by disgraceful political intrigues, and had killed the famous statesman, Alexander Hamilton, his political opponent, in a duel, an act which aroused against him the deepest indignation. 496. Burr*s Later Career. — His political career at an end, Aaron Burr indulged in questionable schemes, forming a plot to seize Texas, then part of Mexico, and found an independent nation in the southwest, with New Orleans for its capital. His design being suspected, his expedition was broken up and he was arrested on a charge of treason. He was tried in 1807 and was acquitted, as there was no legal evidence of his guilt. But few believed in his innocence, his influence was at an end, and he sank into poverty and obscurity. 497. Public Improvements. — Among the important events of Jefferson's second term was the voting of money by Congress in 1806 for a national road to the west, starting from Cumberland, Maryland, and the passage of a bill for the abolition of the slave trade on January 1, 1808. This was in accordance with a provision in the Constitution (Art. I., Sec. 9). A highly important invention was also made, that of the steamboat, by Robert Fulton, whose first boat, the 1807] JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 249 Clermont, was launched on the Hudson in 1807. It was a rude and clumsy affair, but it made its way from New York to Albany against wind and stream in thirty- two hours, and before many years the steamboat was in use on many of our rivers.^ 498. Interference with American Commerce. — During Jefferson's second term war raged violently between France and England and the commerce of America was much interfered with. England seized vessels trading to ports under French influence, and France did the same with those sailing to British ports, so that all commerce with Europe was unsafe. And an offense that roused still more indignation in this country was the stoppage of American vessels on the high seas and the impressment of sea- ^i , ,./ ./ ,/, \^ ^\ '' men from them on the charge, often a false one, that they were British subjects. 499. The Chesapeake Affair. — So insolent did some of the British captains become in these acts of outrage that in 1807 the British frigate Leopard had the assurance to hail the American frigate Chesapeake and demand permission to search her crew. When this was refused, the Leopard fired several broadsides into the Chesa- peake, killing and wounding more than twenty of her men. The captain of the Chesapeake, who was taken ^ A steamboat had been placed on the Delaware by John Fitch in 1790 and ran for some time, but failed to attract attention. Fulton's success lay in the use of side paddle-wheels. The screw- propeller, now so widely used, was of much later in^'ention. John Fitch's Steamboat. 250 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1807 utterly by surprise, and had not a gun in readiness to return the fire of the Leopard, was obhged to haul down his flag to save his ship from being sunk. Officers from the Leopard carried off four of liis men, claiming that they were deserters from the British navy. This act would probably have led to war if England had not been prompt to disavow it. 500. The Embargo Act. — There might have been war in any case had this countr}^ been in condition for ^■■•T"^ RoBKRT Fulton's Stkamhoat, Clkumont, 1807. hostilities. In retaliation for the insult to the American flag the President issued a proclamation prohibiting British cruisers from entering American ports, while Congress passed an Embargo Act, which forbade any commerce with foreign nations, only the coasting trade being permitted. It was believed that this would seriously injure England and France, but it did still more injury to this country, since it put an end to American foreign trade. 501. The Non=Intercourse Act. — Tlie Embargo Act continued in efT(^ct for two years, 1807-1809. It had only one beneficial ett'ect, that of a rapid development 1809] MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 251 of American manufactures. The injury caused by it in New England was so serious that it appeared as if that section might secede from the Union. It was therefore repealed and a Non-Tntercourse Act passed in its place. This cut off all commerce with England and France, but permitted American ships to trade with all other countries. 502. The Election of 1809.— The passage of the Non- Intercourse Act took place early in 1809, just before the close of Jefferson's second term. He was still popular, and there was a wide demand that he should become a candidate for a third term, but he followed Washington's example in refusing, and James Madison became the candidate of his party, George Clinton being renominat(Ml for Vice President. Charles C. Pinckney was th(^ candidate of the Federal party. Madison was elected by one hundred and twenty-nine electoral votes against forty-seven for his opponent. G. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION From 1809 to 1817 503. A Protective Policy. — President Madison ^ was strongly in favor of protecting American industries by a tariff against foreign competition, and on his inauguration on March 4, 1809, he wore, as an example of the products of his country, a suit of cloth made in ^ James Madison was born in Viri^inia in 1751, and was a promi- nent member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787, where he did fsuch excellent work that he was called the "Father of the Constitution." His notes on the convenlion i!;ive us oui- chic^f information of what took i)la('e in that body, and lie was very active in having the Constitution ratified by ^'irginia. He served as Secretary of State under Jefferson. 252 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1810 American factories from the wool of American sheep. Events, however, prevented him from carrying out the pohcy he thus advocated. The country was rapidly drifting towards war, and though Madison was the reverse of warlike in disposition, circumstances proved too strong for his inclination. 504. Napoleon's Duplicity. — In 1810 an effort was made by Congress to induce England and France to repeal their decrees against commerce so far as they affected American trade, offering, if this were done, to repeal the Non-Intercourse Act. Napoleon took a crafty advan- tage of this, falsely informing the United States that he had revoked his decrees. Congress at once repealed the Act so far as France w^as concerned and many American merchant ships sought French ports. The first that came were well treated James Madison. and a large number of others fol- lowed. But Napoleon had secretly advised his admi- ralty officials to pay no heed to his public announce- ment, and suddenly all the American vessels in his ports were seized and their contents confiscated. Thus by an act worthy of a brigand the autocrat of France robbed peaceful American citizens of property worth millions of dollars. 505. Hostile Relations. — Napoleon's act of piracy was sufficient justification for the United States to pro- claim war against France, but England had given still deeper provocation by its continued seizure of seamen from American ships, and public opinion was 18111 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 253 divided between the weight of these double injuries. Between 1803 and 1812 more than nine hundred American vessels were seized by British cruisers on various pretexts, and in all more than six thousand seamen were impressed to serve in the British nav3^ On every side arose the war-cry of '^Free-trade and sailors' rights." 506. The Chesapeake Avenged. — In 1811 occurred an event that gave great satisfaction to the war-party. British war-vessels were cruising in our waters to seize merchant ships on the pretext of their carrying goods that were contraband of war. One of these, the sloop-of-war Little Belt, was hailed by the American frigate President and insolently rephed to the hail with a cannon shot. The reply of the President was a broadside. After the Little Belt had thirty-two men killed and wounded its captain thought it wise to return a civil answer to the hail. This was looked upon as a fitting retahation for the attack on the Chesapeake. 507. Indian Hostilities. — There was trouble on land as well as on water. The Indians had become hostile, incited, as was beheved, by British officials in Canada, who were also accused of furnishing them with arms. In 1811 Tecumseh, a leading chief of the Shawanese tribe, combined a number of tribes against the whites. General William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana Territory, led a force against them, which was treach- erously attacked at night when in camp near the Tippecanoe River. The soldiers defended themselves bravely, and at daybreak completely routed the savages by a bayonet charge. Tecumseh was at this time in the South, engaged in inciting to hostilities the 254 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1812 tribes in that section. Before his return war had begun and he and his foUowers openly joined the British. 508. A Declaration of War.— During these events the feeUng of provocation against Great Britain steadily grew. That country was looked upon as the ancient enemy and France as the ancient friend of the United States, and the British seizure of seamen from our ships was more galling to American pride than Napoleon's piratical policy. The FedcM-alist })arty was opposed to Battm-: ok Tippkcanok. vVar, as were also the merchants and fishers of New Eng- land, who feared serious damage to business. But as a rule the war-spirit ran high, and Henry Clay, John C. Calhoun, and other ardent and able young orators warmly advocated it in Congress. President Madison hesitated, but he was brought over to their views, and on June 18, 1812, Congress ck^clared war against Great Britain. 509. The State of the Country. — The country was poorly prepared for such a step. Its army was small and undis- 1812] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 255 ciplincd, its generals lacked experience and ability, its navy comprised only twelve vessels of any strength, against which its opponent cauld send a thousand, many of them heavily armed ships of war. Yet the provocation to hostilities had been great, and people seldom weigh consequences when stirred to indignation. 7. THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 510. The Seat of War. — Canada was the outpost of Great Britain in America and upon its borders a great part of the land war took place. A second field was the ocean, and while the Americans fared poorly upon the land, they were r e m ar k a b 1 y s uc c (>ss ful upon the w^atery realm. 511. A Disgraceful Sur= render. — Thc^ war opened with a disgraceful event. General William Hull, an officer who had served gal- lantly in the Revolution, led a force of militia to Detroit, mak- ing a road two hundred miles through forests and swamps as he advanced. At Detroit he was besieged by a strong force of British and Indians undcu' General Brock. Without waiting for a gun to be fired by the enemy Hull hoisted the white flag of surrender and gave up the fortress and town to the foe, and with it control of the Territory of Michigan. Battle-Fields on the Niagara. 256 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1812 512. HulPs Sentence. — Bitter indignation followed this act, Hull being stigmatized as a second Benedict Arnold. He was tried by court-martial, found guilty of cowardice, and sentenced to be shot, but the Presi- dent pardoned him on account of his services in the Revolution. Hull had reached Detroit before he knew of the declaration of war, was short of provisions and powder, and was to a large extent a victim of the faults of others. Such is the opinion of recent historians. He claimed that he surrendered to save the women and children of Detroit from the horrors of Indian massacre. Thk Perils of the Wilderness. 513. Queenstown and Toronto. — Other attempts on Canada were equally unsuccessful. General Van Rensselaer attacked Queenstown with a small force of militia and was easily repulsed, and General Dearborn marched upon York (now Toronto), which was taken by General Pike and its Parliament House burned. Pike was killed by an explosion of the magazine. 1812] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 257 514. Harrison's Campaign. — The capture of Detroit opened the Northwest to British invasion, and attacks were made on frontier forts in Ohio and Indiana. General Harrison marched to the recovery of Detroit, but his advance-guard was defeated in January, 1813, by a force of British and Indians on Raisin River, the wounded being massacred by the savages. Harrison was obhged to return for fresh troops. 515. Causes of Failure. — AVith the exception of the unprofitable capture of York, the land campaigns of the first period of the war had proved complete failures. This was largely due to haste and lack of adequate preparation. The regular army was small and the militia were poorly equipped, lacking in supplies, and devoid of discipline. The invasion of Canada, which had been attempted from several quarters, had failed, the Territory of Michigan was lost, and Ohio was in' danger of invasion. Such was the state of affairs on land more than a year after the declaration of war. 516. The War on the Ocean. — Yet the war-party in America was not discouraged, their losses on land being counterbalanced by splendid and unlooked-for suc- cesses on the ocean. England had long claimed the proud title of ^^ Mistress of the sea," but this honor was cjuickty taken from her by American sailors in a series of brilhant victories, beginning on August 13, 1812, when the frigate Essex captured the sloop-of-war Alert in an eight minutes' fight and without the loss of a man. 517. The Constitution and Guerriere. — Six days later a fight on more equal terms took place in the Gulf of St. Lawrence between the frigate Constitution, under Captain Isaac Hull, and the British frigate Guerriere. 17 258 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1812 The two ships were equally matched, yet in half an hour the Guerriere had lost a hundred men and was a mastless wreck, while the Constitution had lost but fourteen men and was still in good fighting trim. The prize was sinking, and hardly had her crew been taken off when she plunged beneath the water. The CONSTITITTION and C.tn'.URlKRK. 518. other Victories at Sea.— Ocean victories followed in rapid succession. On October 13 tlie American sloop Wasp captured the British sloop Frolic. On the 25th the frigate United States captured tlie frigate Macedonian. On December 29 the Constitution, now under Captain Bainbridge, won anothei* notable vic- tory, reducing the British frigate Java to a total wreck with a loss of two hundred and thirty men. In Feb- ruary, 1813, the sloop Hornet met the ship Peacock, and punished her so severely that she sank before her crew could be taken off. 1813] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 259 519. The Cause of American Victory. — In six months the Americans had taken more British ships than the French had done in twenty years and the naval author- ities of Europe stood astounded. The fighters, however, well knew the caust^ of their success. Their ships were better built, their men better trained, their guns heav- ier, their gunners better marksmen. Tilvery shot told. There was no firing at random, as in the British ships. Their crews were larger also, and these mainly the hardy fishermen of New England, who had made the sea their home. 520. "Don't Give Up the Ship."— The British won their first success on June 1, 1813. Captain Lawrence, of the frigate Chesapeake, had been challenged by the Shannon, a well-appointed British frigate. The brave but indiscreet Lawrence sailed from Boston harbor with a hastily gathered crew and a ship in no proper condition for fighting and met in the Shannon one of the best manned and commanded of the British ships. As a result the Chesapeake was quickly cap- tured, Lawrence being mortally wounded. As they carried him below he cried, '^ Don't give up the ship!" This dying appeal became the motto of the American navy. 521. The Essex Captured. — Tliere was only one other American war vessel captured during the whole war. This was the Essex, under Captain Porter. After a year's cruise in the Pacific, in which he took man}^ prizes. Porter was attacked in March, 1814, under very unfavorable conditions, by two British frigates in the harbor of Valparaiso. After a long and des- perate resistance he was obliged to surrender. 260 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1813 522. The Constitution's Last Victory.— In February, 1815, the old Constitution, which already had won such fame, was attacked by the British frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, off the coast of Madeira. After a forty minutes' battle she captured them both. Not until harbor was reached did they learn that the war had ended before their fight took place. 523. The Privateers. — More victories were prevented by the great size of the British navy, which enabled it in the latter part of the war to blockade many of the American fighting ships in port. But numbers of privateers made their way out and during the war captured more than a thousand prizes. On the other hand, many American merchant ships were taken, but in this field of warfare the British were largely the losers, they having many more merchantmen afloat. 524. Perry on Lake Erie. — While the American navy was thus winning laurels on the ocean, victory came to it also on the inland lakes. In the summer of 1813 the British controlled Lake Erie with a fleet of six well- armed vessels. Captain Oliver Perry was sent to build a fleet to meet them. This he did with remarkable rapidity, cutting down forest trees which in a few weeks were converted into ships. Some other vessels were obtained, cannon were brought from Pittsburg, and soon he set sail in search of the British ships with nine vessels, armed with fifty-four guns. The flag which flew at the head of his flag ship, the Lawrence^ bore Captain Lawrence's words, ''Don't give up the ship. " 525. The Battle of Lake Erie. — The two S(|uadrons met on September 10, and a fierce battle took place, in which 1813] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 261 the Lawrence was reduced to a wreck and nearly all her crew were killed or wounded. Perr}^, with the flag bearing Lawrence's words, daringl}^ crossed on a boat under a hot fire to the Niagara, and in this fresh ship he made a splendid charge through the enemy's line, firing right and left into their shattered vessels. In fifteen minutes more the victory was won. His famous Perry on Lake Erie. despatch, ''We have met the enemy and they are ours/' roused the country like an electric shock. It lifted the young commander from obscurity to fame. 526. Battle of the Thames. — General Harrison had by this time returned with a fresh army and was facing General Proctor and his Indian ally Tecumseh at the western end of Lake Erie. On receiving the news of Perry's victory he at once crossed into Canada and followed the enemy, who had hastily retreated. He came up with them on the river Thames. Proctor 262 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC U814 fled; his men surrendered; Tecumseh was killed: the field was won in that section. Detroit was soon after recovered and the war ended in the West. 527. The Niagara Campaign.— In 1814 Canada was again attacked on the fine of the Niagara River, this time with a well-trained army under Generals Brown, Ripley, and Scott. Scott won a bril- liant victory at Chip- pewa on July 5 and another was won at Lundy's Lane, opposite Niagara Falls, on the 25th. These victories, how- ever, yielded no useful results other than to restore American confidence. NoKTHERN Battle-Fields of the War of 1812-15. 1814] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 263 528. The Lake Champlain Victory. — In September, 1814, the British made a vigorous attempt to invade New York, by way of the often-tried hne of Lake Champlain. The war with Napoleon had ended, and thousands of the best troops of Great Britain were sent to Canada, and put under General Prevost, who marched to the head of the lake, where a large squad- ron of armed vessels had been collected. Commodore McDonough meanwhile had collected a squadron of fourteen vessels, and with these he fought the British at great odds and won a splendid victory. The British fleet was so badly beaten as to be nearly destroyed. Prevost with his veterans saw the fight from the shore and at its end retreated in such haste as to leave their sick and most of their stores behind. 529. Washington Captured. — The British plan had been to invade the country at once on the north, the east, and the south. The invasion from the north, as we have seen, had signally failed. It was little more successful elsewhere. Troops were landed on the New England coast and a number of towns taken and plundered. In July, 1814, a strong fleet entered Chesa- peake Bay and landed an army, which marched upon Washington. The militia force gathered to meet the invaders was put to flight, and the national capital was entered on August 24. The President and his family had fled. 530. Public Buildings Burned. The captors did shame- ful work, from which the British nation gained neither profit nor renown. They burned the Capitol, the President's house, and most of the pubhc buildings, the records of the government being destroyed. This 264 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1814 act of vandalism had been ordered by the British government on the sorry plea that the Parliament House at York, Canada, had been burned. But this was the act of a general heated in fight, not the calm decision of a government. From Washington the fleet proceeded to Baltimore and attacked Fort Mc- Henry, but Baltimore was prepared and the foe was driven off. During the assault Francis S. Key wrote the stirring song of the " Star-spangled Banner," since then the national anthem of the United States. 531. Jackson and Creek Indians. — The final event of the war was an attack upon New Orleans. It was assailed b}^ General Paken- ham, an able offi- cer, with an army of twelve thousand veterans, and was defended by General Jackson with about half as many men. Jack- son had just been victorious in a war against the Creek Indians, who, instigated by Tecumseh, had taken Fort Mimms and murdered the garrison and all the women and children in the fort. After a long contest, in which many battles were fought, Jackson decisively defeated them in a severe engagement at Tohopeka and forced them to beg for peace. New Orleans and the Creek War. 1815] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 265 532. Strange Intrenchments. — On reaching New Orleans Jackson hastily threw up intrenchments, in which cotton bales were used to some extent. The British used sugar hogsheads for the same purpose. Fortifica- tions of this kind were more curious than useful. The cotton was soon set on fire, and was quickly replaced with a bank of earth. The sugar hogsheads proved no better suited for defence. Battle of N i.v; uici.... 533. The British Assault.— After some preliminary fighting, Pakenham made an assault in force on January 8, 1815. But his men had the sharp-shooters of the w6st to face and fell in multitudes, while the Americans were almost untouched. Pakenham was killed and twenty-six hundred of his men fell dead or wounded, while the American loss was only eight killed and thirteen wounded. 534. A Treaty of Peace. — This sanguinary battle, as the event proved, was wholly unnecessary, as a treaty 266 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC [1815 of peace had been signed at Ghent, Belgium, two weeks before. But in those days news travelled slowly and the war went on for several weeks after peace had been declared. Sailing vessels were the only means by which news could be sent across the ocean at that time. The treat}^ left affairs much as they were before. The British did not give up the right of impressment, but there was no fear that they would again venture to seize American sailors. 535. War with Algiers. — During the war with England the Dey of Algiers had taken the opportunity to seize some American vessels and enslave their crews. In 1815 Commodore Decatur was sent with a fleet to punish him. He captured two of the Algerine ships, sailed into the harbor of Algiers, and forced the Dey to sign a treaty giving up all American captives and agreeing to cease all attacks on American commerce. Tunis and Tripoli did the same, and since then there has been no trouble with the Barbary States. 536. The Second National Bank. — After the war, business was depressed and the government was seri- ously in debt. The old National Bank had been closed in 1811, but a new one seemed needed, and one was chartered in 1816, to run for twenty years. It did good service in helping to restore prosperity to the country. 537. New States. — Two new States were added during the Madison administration, Louisiana in 1812 and Indiana in 1816, making the number nineteen in all. 538. Monroe Elected President. — Madison had been re-elected President in 1812, with Ell)ridge Gerry for Vice Presider' . In 1816 James Monroe and Daniel D. 1816] THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 267 Tompkins were nominated by the Democratic-Repub- lican party, and Rufus King by the Federal party, which made no nomination for Vice President. Monroe received an overwhelming majority. The Federal party had grown very weak, and nothing was heard of it after this election. SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 1783-1787. Boundaries and progress of the nation. Condition and enterprise of the people. Industrial and social life. Military and popular discontent. Weakness of Congress and financial difficulties. Congress is granted the Northwest Territory. The Constitutional Convention is called, and the Constitution ratified. The main features of the Constitution. 1789-1797. Washington is made President. His inauguration and cabinet. Hamilton relieves the country from its burden of debt. The western Indians make war and are defeated. A treaty made with England. Washington's retirement and his farewell address. 1797-1801. John Adams is inaugurated as President. Hostile relations with France lead to a naval war. Unpopular laws injure the Federal party. The death of Washington. The election of 1800 and the contest for the Presidency. The Constitution is amended. 1801-1809. Thomas Jefferson is inaugurated President in Washington city. A successful war is fought with Tripoli. The Louisiana territory is purchased from France. Lewis and Clark are sent to explore it. The treasonable career of Aaron Burr. England and France interfere with American commerce, American sailors are impressed for the British navy and a warship is fired upon. Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts are enacted. James Madison is elected President. 1809-1812. Madison's tariff policy. Napoleon seizes American merchant ships. The British continue to impress American sailors. The frigate President avenges the Chesapeake. The Indians are defeated at Tippecanoe. War is declared against Great Britain. 268 THE EARLY ERA OF THE REPUBLIC 1812-1815. Canada is invaded, Hull surrenders, and other leaders fail. Defeat on land and victory on the ocean. The famous deeds of the Constitution and other ships. Loss of the Chesapeake and the Essex. Victories of Perry on Lake Erie and Harrison on the Thames River. The Niagara and Lake Cham- plain victories. Washington is occupied and its public buildings are burned. Jackson quells the Creek Lidians and defeats the British at New Orleans. War with Algiers. James Monroe is elected President. TOPICS FOR REVIEW. Oral or written. 1. The New Nation. — Its extent at the close of the Revolution — population — condition of the people, financially and socially — form of government. 2. Colonial Government. — Forms — character of each — colonies in which each form prevailed. 3. The Federal Government. — The Articles of Confederation — weakness of the government — the Constitutional Convention — features of the new government. 4. The Early Administrations. — Hamilton's system of finance — cause of naval war with France — the Louisiana purchase and its ad- vantages — troubles with England and the embargo. 5. The War of 1812 — principal events — America's naval supremacy — the burning of Washington — result of the war. 6. Prominent Characters of the Period — A brief sketch of each. 7. Interesting Incidents of the Period. reference books. 1. McMaster's United States. 2. Johnston's American Politics. 3. Schouler's Thomas Jefferson. 4. Bryce's American Commonwealth. 5. Roosevelt's Naval War of 1812. PART VII THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION 1. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION' From 1817 to 1825 539. A One=Party Era. — It was a unique period in the history of our country that followed the war with Great Britain, a period in which the party spirit van- ished and for a season all the Ameri- can people were of one political faith. The old party questions had vanished, no new ones had arisen to take their place, and for the only time in the history of our countr}^ political harmony prevailed. While in his first election Monroe had a very large majority, in his second election, in 1820, he was the only candidate, and he would have received the entire electoral vote had not one elector voted against him, saying that the honor of a unan- ' James Monroe, like all the Presidents before him except Adams, was a native of Virginia, where he was born in 1758. At the age of eighteen he entered the army of the Revolution, and served with distinction under Washington at Brandywine, Oermantown, and Monmouth. He studied law, became active in political affairs, was appointed minister to France, Spain, and England in succession, and as special envoy to France, arranged the purchase of Louisiana. He was a plain, honest man whose chief aim was the good of his country. He was the third President ^o die on July 4, this taking place in 1831. James Monroe. 270 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1816-24 imous vote ought not to be given to any President after Washington. 540. A Commercial Invasion. — The close of the war led to unforeseen conse(iuences. England made a new invasion of the United States, this time a commercial one, and the small and poorly equipped factories which had arisen in this country during the war found them- selves brought into unequal com})etition with the well- develo])ed workshops of Great Britain. The products of English looms were sent here in vast quantities and sold at very low prices, as if with the purpose of break- ing down the American manufa^ctories and forcing the people to depend upon England for their goods. 541. The Tariff Question Arises. — There was only one available method of overcoming this business trouble, which was causing deep distress in some sections. The tariff had been applied hitherto chiefly to the raising of revenue^ but it was now claimed to be neces- sary for the protection of the infant industries of the country against foreign competition. Petitions for such a i)rotective tariff poured in upon Congress, and one was passed in 1816, increasing the rates of duty on cotton and woolen goods. Thus was inaugurated that question which has since ])een a leading one in American i)()litics. 542. The Tariff of 1824.— The new tariff did not check the influx of foreign goods, as had been hoped, and in 1824 the (juestion became prominent again. The tariff of 1810 had been supported by many Southerners and opposed by many of the merchants of New^ Eng- land, who had large commercial interests. By 1824 a change had taken place, the South now advocating 1819J MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 271 froe-traclc as best suited to its agricultural interests, while manufactures had greatly develoi)ed in New England, and with them had arisen a large party in favor of protection. It was evident that the '^Era of Good Feeling," was nearing its end, and that party spirit would soon grow active again. 543. The SIave=Holding Question. — The tariff question was not the only one that arose to divide public opinion, the slave-holding question also becoming prominent. In the early days of the country negro slavery was common in all the States, but slaves were less numerous in the North, where they were of little use, being kept chiefly as house-servants, than in the South, where they were largely employed as field- hands. This was especially the case after the cultiva- tion of cotton began. Slavery was early abolished in the Northern States, immediate or gradual abolition having been provided for in all these States by 1 804. It was not a popular institution in the South until after 1793, when the invention of the cotton-gin led to a rapid increase in the growth of the cotton plant and the need of large numbers of laborers for its cultivation. 544. New Territory Added. — In 1787, when the North- west Territor}^ was organized, a bill was passed for- ever excluding slavery from that region. When the Louisiana purchase was made in 1803 this question arose again. Should slavery be admitted to the region west of the Mississippi? The South advocated this; the North opposed it; but the question remained an open one until 1819, when a proposition was made to admit Missouri as a State. 272 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1819 545. Growth of the Union. — Several new States were admitted during Monroe's first term. Two of these were Southern States, Mississippi, admitted in 1817, and Alabama in 1819. A Northern State, Illinois, was admitted in 1818. Soon after two other Territories applied for admission as States, Maine and Missouri. This gave rise to one of the most bitterly contested questions the country had yet known. 546. The Missouri Compromise. —There were now twenty-two States in all, eleven slave and eleven free. This gave the two great sections of the countrj^ an equal representation in the Senate, and this equality the South was naturally anxious to preserve. As Maine would make a twelfth free State, the Southern members contended that Missouri should be admitted as a slave State, and thus preserve the balance. Many Northern members who objected to the extension of slavery strongly opposed this. A long and bitter debate followed. Never had there been so much adverse feeling displayed in Congress. Hostile political relations were replacing the era of peace. The debate ended in 1820 in a bill introduced by Jesse B. Thomas, of Illinois, and strongly supported by Henry Clay,^ a Southern member, who felt that ^ Henry Clay, one of America's greatest orators and statesmen, was born in Virginia in 1777. He was elected by Kentucky to the House of Representatives in 1809, and became its Speaker in 1811, a post he long held. He became Secretary of State under John Quincy Adams, was elected a member of the Senate, and was three times an unsuccessful candidate for the Presidency. He gained distinction as the originator of several important compromise bills. He died in 1852, 1820J MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 273 the deadlock in Congress could be broken only by a compromise. This bill proposed that Missouri should be admitted as a slave State, but ^ ^v. that slavery should be forbidden in an}^ other part of the Western country that lay north of the paral- lel of 36° 30'/ This was the fa- mous Missouri Compromise, which removed the slavery c^uestion from national politics for a period of thirty years. As a consequence Maine was admitted in 1820 and „ ^ Henry Clay. Missouri in 1821. 547. The Florida Indians. — The tariff and slavery questions were the prominent ones of the Monroe administration, but there were others of equal impor- tance. One of these had to do with Florida, then held by Spain, the Indians of which, aided by runaway slaves and other lawless characters, made raids into Georgia and Alabama and brought on a condition of border warfare. 548. Jackson Invades Florida. — Complaints were made to Spain, but the trouble continued, and finally Gen- eral Jackson, the hero of New Orleans, was sent by the President to deal with this affair. Pie was given permission to pursue the enemy across the border, but was not to attack any Spanish post without orders from Washington. Jackson was a headstrong man who paid little heed to orders. With a force of four thousand men, many of them Creek Indians, he pursued the Seminole Indians into Florida, drove them from point to point, 18 274 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1819 and seized several Spanish forts and towns on the plea that their commanders were aiding the enemy. Two British traders were arrested on the charge of supplying the Indians with arms, and were tried and executed, though the evidence against them was far from complete. 549. The Purchase of Florida. — Jackson thus, in a short time, brought this country into hostile relations with both Spain and Great Britain. Trouble was likely to arise, but as Spain saw plainly that Florida was sure to prove a troublesome possession, it offered in 1819 to sell that province to the United States for five million dollars. The offer was accepted, and the United States by this means gained an extension of its territory to the Gulf of Mexico. Spain also gave up all claim to the country lying west of the Rocky Mountains and north of the 42° parallel of latitude. This afterwards became known as the Oregon country. 550. The National Highway. — In 1806, as already stated, a great national highway to the west had been started. This ran from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, in northwest Virginia. It was now extended into Ohio and gradually carried west, finally reaching the Mississippi by aid of the State governments. It was a broad and solid road, over which, in the days before the coming of the railroad, there moved west- ward a seemingly endless train of emigrant wagons. 551. The Erie Canal. — The greatest public improve- ment of the period was one carried out by the State of New York. This was the Erie Canal, which was begun in 1817 and completed in 1825. This great work was three hundred and sixty-three miles long, I 1823] MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 275 stretching across the state from Lake Erie to the Hud- son River, and carried up hill-sides by locks and across rivers by aqueducts. It proved of immense advantage to New York, vast quantities of grain and merchandise passing along it at greatly reduced freight charges. Transportation by Canal Boat. 552. The Spanish Colonies Rebel. — We have now to speak of an event that gave the Monroe Administra- tion its greatest title to renown. During it the Ameri- can colonies of Spain were fighting for freedom and one after another won independence. Spain sought in vain to subdue the revolutionists and there was serious danger of some of the other nations of Europe coming to her aid. If they did so they would be likely to seize some of these colonies for themselves. 553. The Monroe Doctrine. — This state of affairs led to the famous state paper known as the '^Monroe Doctrine." The statesmen of the United States watched these events closely, fearing that they might 276 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1824 give them neighbors more dangerous than Spain, and in 1823 President Monroe took a decided step. In his message to Congress in December of that year he spoke to the nations of Europe in the plainest language, declaring that the United States considered the American continents to be no longer open to coloniza- tion, and that this country would resent any attempt of a European power to interfere with an independent American country/ 554. The Effect of Monroe's Words.— This plain state- ment had an immediate effect. The powers of Eiirope which had been secretly plotting to aid Spain at once drew back. There was no further thought of inter- ference in the rebellion of the Spanish colonies. It was a small thing to help Spain; it was a large one to enter into war with the United States. Russia, the only country which had made any show of taking possession of new American territory, and which was threatening California, by a treaty made in 1824 aban- doned all claim to the Pacific coast region south of latitude 54"^ 40', the southern boundary of Alaska. 555. Lafayette Visits America. — In 1824 an interest- ing event took place, General Lafayette, the most distinguished foreign hero of the Revolution, and the 1 The Monroe Doctrine declared "That the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power. " It further declared that any attempt by an European power to oppress or control an independent American nation would be regarded as "the manifesta- tion of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. " This was a diplomatic way of declaring that such an attempt would be resisted by force of arms. 1824] MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 277 special friend of Washington, visiting this country. This was done at the request of Congress and on the invitation of the President. Forty years had passed since he left this country. He was now nearly seventy and one of the last surviving aides of Washington, and the whole country rose to do him honor. Never was there a more enthusiastic reception. He spent more than a year in this country, visiting every State and meeting many of his old comrades in arms. Con- gress repaid him for the money he had spent in the American cause by voting him two hundred thousand dollars and twenty-four thousand acres of land, and sent him back to France in a new frigate named in his honor the Brandywine, after the battle in which he had taken part. 556. The Change Seen by Lafayette. — Since Lafayette's departure in 1782 the States had grown to twenty- four, the less than three millions of people to nearly elever millions, and immense progress had been made in all lines of industry. The flag of the United States was seen in every sea and Europe was clothed with its cotton and fed with its grain. Peace and prosperity ruled and the country had started on a great career. When he had left this country it was weak and poor, exhausted by a great war and destitute of a strong government. Bounded then by the Mississippi River, it now extended to the Rocky Mountains and was soon to reach the Pacific Ocean. Cut of!* then by Spain from the waters of the Gulf, these now formed its southern boundary. It possessed a vast and rich domain, large enough to become one of the greatest nations of the world, and needed only time to achieve this destiny. 278 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1824 2. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION ^ From 1825 to 1829 557. The Election of 1824. — In the Presidential contest of 1824, though there was but one political party, there were four candidates nominated by their political friends. This led to an unlooked-for result. Andrew Jackson was the choice of the people, receiving ninety-nine elec- toral votes, while John Quincy Adams received eighty- four, William H. Crawford forty- one, and Henry Clay thirty-seven. But the Constitution requires a majority of the whole electoral vote to elect a President, and as Jack- son (lid not obtain this, the election was thrown into the House of Rep- resentatives, which was required to choose one of the highest three can- didates. As Henry Clay could not John (Juincy Adams. ^ ^^ "^ be chosen, his friends supported Adams, who was elected. John C. Calhoun, a popular orator and statesman of South Carolina, was made Vice President. 558. Party Feeling Arises. — Much hostile feeling fol- lowed this settlement of the Presidential question. Jackson's friends declared that he had been dealt with ^ John Quincy Adams, son of John Adams, was born in Massa- chusetts in 1767. From 1803 to 1809 he was a member of the Senate, and was afterwards Minister to England and Secretary of State. He was the only President that retui-ned to Congres.^ serving as a Representative with much honor and respect from 1831 until his death in 1848. His ability in debate won him the title of "the old man eloquent. " 1828] JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 279 unjustly, and as the new President appointed Henry Clay Secretary of State, they believed that this was done to reward him for the votes of his friends. In later years this feeling went far to prevent Clay from being made President. 559. The Development of New Parties. — The '^Era of Good Feeling" was at an end. The one party which had existed for eight years was now divided into two, on the questions of the tariff and State rights. The party long known as the Democratic-Republican now dropped the latter part of its name, and became known as the Democratic party. It advocated low tariff and increased power in the States. The new party which arose in opposition took the name of National Repub- lican, and advocated a protective tariff, public im- provements at government expense, and an increase in the powers of the national government. This was the party supported by the new administration. Its general princi- ples were much the same as those of the existing Republican party. 560. A Tariff Increase. — ^The new party made its power felt in 1828 by passing a tariff law, higher than that of 1824. Especially high duties were laid on wool and hemp. This tariff was not favorably re- ceived and its enemies were bitter against it, calling it the 'Hariff of abominations." The South opposed it strongly, and Vice President Calhoun, an earnest Democrat, went so far as to suggest tliat South Carohna should declare it ''null and void" within John C. Calhoun. 280 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1819-26 that State. Four years later his words bore fruit, for South Carolina attempted to nullify the tariff, that is, to declare it of no effect within the State limits. 561. Internal Improvements. — President Adams was a strong advocate of internal improvements at the expense of the government. The national highway to the West, of which we have spoken, was one of these, and he desired Congress to vote money for public roads, canals, and fortifications, a national university, etc. Several such bills were passed, but the opposition to them was strong and years elapsed before the views of Adams gained active support. 562. The Creek Indians Removed. — The policy of the Government towards the Indians has long been to remove them from their old hunting grounds and gather them in reservations, where they cannot interfere with the expansion of the white population. At an early date the people of Georgia sought to have the Creek tribes thus removed from their midst, and in 1802 the government promised to do this. The Indians, however, bitterly opposed removal, and nothing was done until 1819, when Georgia demanded that the government should keep its word. The Creeks refused to consent until 1825, when some of their chiefs agreed to cede their lands and accept new ones beyond the Mississippi. AVhen this act became known to the tribe they repudiated the treaty, put the treacherous chiefs to death, and threatened war if an attempt was made to remove them by force. But in 1826 they were induced to sign a new treaty, parting with most of their lands and accepting new ones in Indian Territory, a large tract which had been set aside for Indian occupation. 1826] JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 281 563. The Cause of Temperance. — Drunkonnoss was a very common ovil in Colonial times and in the early period of the republic. Opposition to it grew sh)wly, but it was not until 1820 that public sentiment was strongly aroused. Then a wave of tem])erance senti- ment swept over the country, and in tlu^ following years many thousands signcnl the pledge to abstain from intoxicating liquors. The State of Maine was the first to prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxi- cating drinks. Some other States followed, but the prohibition movement gradually died away. It has of late years arisen again, a very active move- ment against the sale of liquor being in progress in many of the States. At present prohibition exists in eight States, and in many others the sale of liquor is greatly restricted, it being forbidden in some cases in so large a number of counties and towns as to amount to a virtual prohibition. 564. The Anti=Masonic Party. — There is only one other event of the Adams administration that need be mentioned. This was the development of a new political party, called the Anti-Masonic. A man named Morgan, a member of the society of Freemasons, wrote a book in 1826, in which he professed to reveal the secrets of the society. He soon disappeared and many believed that the Masons had murdered him. The feeling against them was very strong, and a party arose demanding that no Freemason should be allowed to hold ofhce. It nominated a candidate for the Presidency in 1832, but little was heard of it after that date. 282 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1828 3. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION! From 1829 to 1837 565. The Election of 1828.— At the time of which we are speaking Andrew Jackson was the popular military favorite. Hitherto the Presidential chair had been filled by trained statesmen, but men now said that there was danger of an aristocratic class aris- ing, and that a man of the people was needed as President. Jackson was such a man, but it was his mili- tary glory that gave him success, as also the feeling that he had been unjustly depriveti of the office in 1824. He was therefore nominated again in 1828, and this time was elected by an electoral majority of ninet3^-five. John C. Calhoun was again elected Vice President. 566. Character of Jackson. — A man of great obstinacy and always sure he was right, Jackson could not be moved from any course he decided to pursue. His good quality was honesty. He meant well in all he did, but he lacked experience and judgment in political affairs, Andrkw Jackson. ^ Andrew Jackson was born in North or South Carolina (it is not sure which) in 1767. An active, athletic lad, he was taken prisoner by the British at the age of fourteen and was wounded by an officer whose boots he refused to clean. He studied law and settled in Tennessee, where he became a leader and was sent to Con- gress in 1796. Taking an active part in military affairs, he was chosen to command in the war against the Creeks, and at the battle of New Orleans in 1814 he won high fame, which was added to by his arbitrary dealings with the Spanish in Florida. After his term as President he retired to private life, and died in 1845. 1830] JACKSON' S ADMINISTRATION 283 and was never open to conviction. Thus his Cabinet officials had a very shght influence in the affairs of government, he ruling with an inflexible will. 567. Rotation in Office. — In previous administrations few removals of capable office-holders had been made, whatever their political opinions. Jackson took a different view. Believing that the members of his party had a right to the offices under him, he turned out of their positions all office-holders of the opposite party without regard to their ability. This system was known as ^'rotation in office," and became designated as the "spoils system," from a remark of Senator Marcy in 1834, to the effect that politics were conducted on the military principle that "to the victors belong the spoils." From 1789 to 1829 less than a hundred removals from office had been made and some of these were for theft. Jackson dismissed fully two thousand, filling their places with members of his own party. The evil custom thus inaugurated of replacing faithful public servants by untried aspirants for office con- tinued until the development of the Civil Service Reform, more than fifty years afterwards. 568. The Nullification Movement. — The most important event in Jackson's first term was the hot controversy in Congress over the tariff and the nullification move- ment in South Carolina. The bitter opposition of the South to the tariff of 1828 1(m1 to a remarkable debate in 1830, in which Daniel W(^bster, Senator fi'om Massa- Daniet. Webster. 284 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1832 chusotts, an orator of remarkable powers, distinguished himself by the ablest speech ever heard in that body. It closed with the striking words '^ Liberty and Union, one and inseparable, now and forever." A new tariff bill was passed in 1832, in which the average rate of duty was decreased. But the South was still dissatisfied, for the principle of protection to Ameri- can manufactures liad been retained. As a result South Carolina now took the course which Calhoun had sug- Daniel Webster AnnRESSiNO the U. S. Senate. gested four years before. A convention was held which declared the tariff null and void, forbade the collection of duties within the State, and threatened to secede from the ITnion if this action was interfered with. 569. Jackson and the Nullifiers. — While President Jack- son was of Southern birth and an advocate of low tariff, he did not believe in secession nor refusal to obey the laws. He issued a strong proclamation, saying that resistance to an Act of Congress would not be permitted, and sustained his words by ordering a naval and a military force to proceed to Charleston. 1832] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 285 This put an oiid to the secession movement, and the duties were collected in Charleston as usual. But to do away with the cause of dispute Congress passed a new tariff bill, providing for a gradual reduction of duties until 1842, when they would reach the status of a tariff for revenue only. This was a compromise sug- gested by Henry Clay. 570. A Surplus of Money. — Never before or since has the country been so free from need of money as it was at that tim(\ The debts r e m a i n i n g fro m the Revolution and the War of 1812 had all been paid, the country was free of debt, and a considerable s u r p 1 u s lay in the treasury. ,_,, , , , .,, ,, . Thio Caittoi, at Washington in 1831 What to do with this became a question. It was finally decided to divide it among the States and twenty-eight million dollars were thus distributed. Soon after the revenue fell off, the needs of the government increased, and it was again in debt. It has been in debt ever since. 571. The United States Bank. — One cause of this change in financial conditions was the following: The United States Bank, chartered for twenty years in 1810, would cease to exist in 183() unless a new charter was granted. A charter was applied for in 1832, and Congress passed a bill granting the recjuest. But the President, who had been opposed politically by the bank, vetoed the bill, declaring that the bank was growing so powerful as to be dangerous to the country. 286 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1833 572. The Deposits Removed. — Jackson was elected President a second time in 1832. This gave him an opportunity to destroy the power of the bank, from which he removed the government funds in 1833, distributing them among certain State banks, which the people called '^ pet banks." Though the Senate censured him for this act, as an unconstitutional exercise of authority, he held to his point, and the United States Bank was ruined. 573. A Period of Speculation. — The bank may not have been necessary to the countr}^ but the government money was safer in its vaults than in those of the banks to which President Jackson consigned it. These loaned out the money freely to merchants and others, who used it for speculative purposes. Thus there grew up a wild speculation in western building lots. New cities were planned to be built in a few months and what is now known as a boom began. The desire to grow rich suddenly infected thousands, and led to reckless buying and selling on credit. This mania for speculation brought about a disastrous result, which showed itself in the next administration. 574. War with the Indians. — On all sides pressure was now made on the Indians. The West was being rapidly settled, and its original inhabitants found their homes disturbed and their rights disregarded. War was the natural consequence. A chief named Black Hawk led the tribes of Illinois and Wisconsin against the set- tlers in 1832. The outbreak was soon put down and the Indians were forced to sign a treaty in which they gave up about ten million acres of land. For this they were to receive annual supplies and an annuity in money. 1833-42] JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 287 575. The Cherokees and Seminoles. — There were Indian troubles in the South also. The Cherokees of Georgia and the Seminoles of Florida were in the way of the whites, and efforts were made to deal with them as the Creeks had been dealt with. The Seminoles resisted and a war began with them in 1835 which lasted for nearly seven years. Osceola, their chief, was captured by treachery, and died in confinement, but the war dragged on until 1842. In the end most of the Seminoles were removed to the Indian Territory, but some of them remained and their descendants still survive in Florida. As for the Cherokees, they were taken by force to the Indian Territory in 1838 and under such conditions that neaily four thousand of them died in the removal. They were paid a large sum for their lands, but they were forced to accept the treaty, the whole affair being a flagrant example of the cruelty with which the whites have frequently treated the Indians. 576. Steps of Progress. — During Jackson's administra- tion two new States were admitted, Arkansas in 1836 and Michigan in 1837. Another interesting event was the giving the name of Chicago in 1833 to a small frontier settlement on Lake Michigan. It then con- tained about 500 inhabitants. It now contains nearly two millions. Other steps of progress included the introduction of the railroad, of which two thousand miles had been built by the end of Jackson's term of office, and the invention of the screw-propeller, the McCormick reaper and the Nasmyth steam-hammer. Gas was taking the place of oil for lighting, water- works were replacing wells, and chief among the smaller inventions was the useful friction match. 288 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1831-36 577. The Abolition Movement. — But while industrial progress was thus active, trouble was brewing in another direction. There had long been a strong opposition to the extension of slavery; there now grew up an opposition to its very existence, in the development of the Anti-Slavery or abolition party. The active work of this began in 1831, when William Lloyd Garrison started in Boston a newspaper which Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way. he called the Liberator, in which he advocated the "immediate and unconditional emancipation of every slave held in the United States." The movement was young as yet and met with strong opposition in the North, a mob on one occasion drag- ging Mr. Garrison through the streets of Boston with a rope tied around his body. But it was destined to grow, and very serious consequences were to arise from it in later years. 578. The Election of 1836.— In 1836 the candidate of the Democratic party was Martin Van Buren, who had been Vice President during Jackson's second term. 1837] VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 289 The National Republican had been replaced by a new- party, which took the name of the Whig party, and this nominated Wilham Henry Harrison, a soldier of the war of 1812. Jackson used all his influence in favor of Van Buren, who was elected with the large majority of one hundred and seventy electoral votes. 4. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION^ From 1837 to 1841 579. A Reign of Speculation.— The fall of the United States Bank was followed by the rise of a multitude of State banks, many of them with little capital and issuing notes which they were not likely to redeem. These became known as ' Vild-cat banks." Those which were favored by Presi- dent Jackson received the deposits of public money which he distributed, and this money was loaned freely to speculators, who used it for deals in western lands and many ^ , , . , Martin Van Buren. other uncertain ventures. 580. Dealings in Government Lands. — Much of the land dealt in belonged to the government, and when Presi- dent Jackson learned that it w^as being paid for in ^ Martin Van Buren, born in the State of New York in 1 782, became prominent as a lawyer, and took an active part in political affairs, becoming a leader of the New York Democracy. In 1821 he was elected to the Senate and in 1824 was made governor of New York. During Jackson's first term he served as Secretary of State and in the second term succeeded Calhoun as Vice President. After his term as President, he was a candidate again in 1840 and 1848, but was defeated. He died in 1862. 19 290 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1838 notes likely to become worthless, an order was issued that only gold should be accepted in payment for public lands. This took place near the end of Jack- son's administration, and was the source of serious trouble in that of his successor. 581. The Panic of 1837.— In 1837, shortly after Van Buren took his seat, a large New Orleans business house, engaged in speculative ventures, failed. This caused wide-spread distrust. New failures came in rapid succession. The land for which high prices had been paid suddenly sank in value. It was offered for sale, but no one was ready to buy and disaster spread rapidly. Within ten days more than a hundred New York merchants were on the verge of ruin. The bottom dropped out of the speculative boom, the recently high- priced lands and securities became a drug on the mar- ket, and within two months the failures in New York City alone reached the great sum of one hundred million dollars. 582. A Great Business Depression. — The State banks quickly felt the trouble. Their notes came back in numbers for payment, there was no gold or silver in their vaults to redeem them, and the banks began to fail on all sides. Gold and silver vanished from cir- culation, the bank notes lost their value, and the government had to pay its own debts in paper money. A frightful depression in business followed, the greatest the country had yet known. Mills and fac- tories closed their doors on all sides and thousands of workmen were left idle. Even the States felt the pressure, many of them having borrowed large sums from Europe for public improvements. Seven of the 1840] VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 291 States were unable to pay the interest on these debts and one of them, Mississippi, refused to pay either interest or principal. In consequence American credit greatly suffered. 583. The Sub=Treasury System. — A year passed before the panic ended, and then business very slowly recov- ered. Several years passed before prosperity came back. One result was that the administration grew afraid of depositing the government money in irre- sponsible banks, and recommended that a national treasury, to receive the public funds, should be estab- Hshed in Washington, with branches, or sub-treasuries, in the principal cities. There was strong opposition to this plan. The banks wanted the money and used all their influence in its favor. Adopted in 1840, it was repealed the next year. Adopted again in 1846, it has since re- mained in force. It has the one bad effect of with- drawing large sums of money from circulation, which is apt to add to the trouble in what are known as hard times. Of late years Congress has been seriously considering the best method of overcoming this difficulty. 584. The Election of 1840.— The Van Buren adminis- tration, as may be seen, was one of deep public distress. This was in no sense the fault of the President or his party, but when he was nominated again, in 1840, it stood in the way of his election. The Whig party had again selected as its candidate the popular soldier, William Henry Harrison, and his name now swept the country. He had won the battle of Tippecanoe, had lived in a log cabin and was fond of hard cider, and in 292 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1841 the campaign he was greeted as the ''Hero of Tippe- canoe," hard cider was drunk in profusion, and log cabins were a great feature in the meetings. He was elected over Van Buren, with John Tyler for Vice Pres- ident, receiving the large majority of one hundred and seventy-four electoral votes. 5. THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATION ^ From 1841 to 1845 585. The Death of the President.— For forty years, since Jefferson's election in 1800, the Democratic party had been in power. Though it was defeated in 1840, its opponents did not long remain in control. Presi- dent Harrison held his office for a very brief period, dying on April 4, 1841, one month after his inaugu- ration. He was a man advanced in years and not accustomed to the strain of political life, and the opinion is entertained that the William Henry Harrison ^ importunity of office seekers caused his death. He was succeeded by Vice President Tyler who, though elected by the Whigs, held Democratic opinions, which he soon made manifest to those who had supported him, so that the Whig administration had only a month's actual existence. 1 William Henry Harrison, born in Virginia in 1773, the son ot a governor of that State, had won his fame in the army, which he entered in 17<)1. He took part in Wayne's campaign against the Indians, put down the outbreak under Tecumseh, and defeated the British in the battle of the Thames in 1813. He served as governor of the Territory of Indiana and as a member of Congress, was candidate for the Presidency in 1836 and was elected in 1840. 1841] HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATION 293 586. Tyler as President. — The political sentiments of John Tyler ^ were quickly shown. Harrison had called an extra session of Congress to consider the financial condition of the country, and a bill was passed for the estabhshment of a new Bank of the United States. To their dismay, it was vetoed by President Tyler. Another bill was passed to meet his objections, but he vetoed this also. The President's action led to a quarrel with the Whig party, then led by Henry Clay. They called him a renegade, and all of Harri- son's Cabinet resigned except Dan- iel Webster, Secretary of State, who was prevented from doing so by the fact that he was negotiat- ing a treaty with Great Britain. 'Until 1843 an open conflict existed between Tyler and the majority in Congress. Then the Democrats gained a majority and the power of the Whigs was for the time at an end. 587. The Treaty with Great Britain. — The treaty which Webster, as Secretary of State, was negotiating had to do with the boundary line between the United States and Canada, which had hitherto been a source John Tyi^kr. 2 John Tyler was born in Virginia in 1790, and became a promi- nent member of the State Rights party, the Southern branch of the Whigs. He was the first Vice President to succeed to the Presi- dency, and in this position offended the Northern Whigs by advo- cating free trade. He was president of the peace convention at Washington in 1861, then joined the Confederacy and died in 1862 as a member of the Confederate Congress. 294 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1841 of dispute. By it a boundary was established from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. Nothing was then done with the boundary west of the Rocky Mountains, for little thought was yet given to the Oregon country, to which both the United States and Great Britain laid claim, but which neither seemed to think of importance. Residence of President Houston, of Texas, 1836 (while the Capitol was being built). 588. The Oregon Country. — Soon after, however, this question became prominent, for emigrants from the States were now crossing the Rocky Mountains into Oregon, while the Hudson Bay Fur Company sent British agents into that country. Near the end of the Tyler administration the Oregon problem became a source of excitement, the claim of the American people now extending to the parallel of 54° 40', the southern boundary of Alaska. For a time the pohtical war- cry was ''Fifty-four forty or fight," but in 1846 a 1836] IlARllISON AND TYLKU ADMINISTRATION 295 treaty was made which fixed the boundary at 49° N. latitude. This gave the Oregon territory to the United States and the northern country, now British Columbia, to Great Britain. 589. Emigration to Texas. — An equally important ques- tion arose in the southwestern section of the country, where Louisiana bord- ered on the Mexican province of Texas, the boundary line being the Sabine River. Many people from the South- ern States crossed this boundary into Texas, and by 1836 the Ameri- cans greatly exceeded in number the Mexicans in that thinly settled country. 590. Texas in Insurrection. — The United States sought to purchase Texas in 1827 and 1829, but Mexico refused to sell, and treated the settlers in an oppressive man- ner. This led in 1836 to a revolt against the Mexican government. General Samuel Houston leading the revolting forces. General Santa Anna,^ military dicta- tor of Mexico, attempted to suppress the rebellion, Till'; Ai,AM<> ^ Santa Anna's method was that of massacre. One party that surrendered were shot down in cold blood. At San Antonio a body of Texans, among them the celebrated hunter Davy Crockett, had taken refuge in a mission-house known as the Alamo, where they defended themselves bravely. Few of them remained alive when a surrender took place, and these were instantly killed by order of the Mexican leader. "Remember the Alamo" was the war-cry of the Texan army at San Jacinto. 296 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1845 but met with an overwhelming defeat at San Jacinto, being taken prisoner and forced to acknowledge the independence of Texas, which was organized into a separate republic. 591. The Annexation of Texas. — In 1837 the new repub- lic of Texas applied for admission to the United States. The South favored it, as a field for expansion, the North opposed it, fearing trouble with Mexico. The question remained unsettled for years. Finally, in the year 1844, the annexation of Texas became the cam- paign cry of the Democrats, under which they elected James K. Polk to the Presidency. As the people had thus expressed their will at the polls, an annexation bill was passed in Congress and was signed by Presi- dent Tyler. Texas accepted the offer and was admitted to the Union as a State in December, 1845. 592. The Rhode Island Contest. — In addition to these events of leading importance, several of more local interest took place during President Tyler's term of ofhce. One of these had to do with the State of Rhode Island. The government of this State had continued under the charter granted by Charles 11. in 1663, and this gave the full right of suffrage only to the oldest sons of voters, all others needing to possess a certain amount of property. Under this about two-thirds of the people were deprived of the right of voting. 593. The Dorr Rebellion. — A new constitution, doing away with this injustice, was prepared by the non- voters in 1841, but was rejected by the legal voters. Both parties now elected governors, the reform party choosing Thomas W. Dorr. When the latter attempted to perform the duties of his office the militia was called 1840] HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATION 297 out to prevent him, and his attempt to seize the State arsenal led to his having to flee from the State. But the reform movement led to the granting of a new constitution, which went into effect in 1843. When Dorr returned to the State in 1844 he was arrested for treason and sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was soon pardoned, however. The constitution of Rhode Island, as now existing, grants fuller suffrage privileges than the Dorr party demanded. 594. The Anti=Renters. — New York also had a diffi- culty coming down from Colonial times. Some of the lands of the old Dutch patroons were still held by their descendants, who collected rent from the settlers. The rent was a very light one, consisting of " sl few bushels of wheat, three or four fat fowls, and a day's work with horse and wagon, per year," but it was resisted as illegal. About 1840 many of the tenants refused to pay rent, and riots broke out, in which rent-payers were tarred and feathered and some of the officers who served warrants were killed. It was necessary to call out the militia to put down the rioters. Gradually the dispute was ended by the tenants buy- ing the rights of the proprietors, and this vestige of patroon rule passed away. 595. The Rise of the Mormons. — A matter of a differ- ent kind had for some years been causing disquiet. This was the rise of a new religious sect, started in 1830 by Joseph Smith, of. New York, who pubfishcd a work called the '^Book of Mormon," which he said contained a new revelation to mankind. He soon gained followers, who made their way west, and in time began to build a city in Illinois, called Nauvoo, on the banks of the Mississippi. 298 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1843 The main cause of the trouble that followed was another revelation which Smith professed to receive in 1843, in consequence of which he advised his fol- lowers to marry as many wives as they chose. This roused the surrounding people to violence, which the Mormons in Nauvoo, about fifteen thousand in number, resisted. As a result, Smith was arrested and impris- oned, and a mob broke into the prison and killed him and his brother. 596. The Mormons Emigrate. — Brigham Young suc- ceeded Smith as Mormon leader. An able and vigorous man, he determined to lead his followers to a place in the far west where they could live alone in the way they deemed proper. Setting out in 1846, in 1847 they reached the region now known as Utah, settling in the vicinity of the Great Salt Lake. It was a barren coun- try, but the Mormons made it fertile by bringing water from the mountains, and now there is no more prolific region than that near Salt Lake City. 597. Important Discoveries. — In 1844 one of the most signal of discoveries was made, that of electric tele- o-raphy. Samuel F. B. Morse, who had been experi- menting for years, in this year completed a telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington, and sent the significant message, ''What hath God wrought!" Another discovery of importance was made by Dr. Wilham T. G. Morton, of Boston, though others claimed the honor of the discovery. This was the principle of anaesthesia, or the causing of artificial sleep by breathing the vapor of ether. Before this time surgical operations had been attended with great pain. They could now be performed without 1844] POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 299 suffering. Thus the use of ether and other sleep inducers has proved of the greatest benefit to mankind. 598. Emigration. — Emigration from Europe to the United States had now become great, and was adding rapidly to the population. Regular lines of steamships crossed the ocean, and people poured into the country, at the rate of over three thousand weekly. Between 1840 and 1850 nearly two millions of settlers arrived, twice as many as had come in forty years before. 599. The Election of 1844.— In 1844 the Whig party nominated the favorite Southern orator, Henry Clay, for its candidate. It was his third nomination, and this time there was the strongest expectation of his election. It was lost through his failure to acknowledge his honest opinions., He did not favor the annexation of Texas, but would not say so for fear of losing South- ern votes. As a result he lost the State of New York by a small majority and James K. Polk, the Demo- cratic candidate, was elected. 6. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION^ From 1845 to 1849 600. The Texas Boundary Question.— Texas, as already stated, was accepted by a bill passed at the end of Tyler's administration, and was admitted to the * James Knox Polk was born in North Carolina in 1795. He served fourteen years in Congress as a member from Tennessee, and was Speaker of the House for four years. In 1839 he was elected Governor of Tennessee. His was the first instance of the choice of a "dark horse" in a Presidential nomination, that is, of a man of no special prominence who is chosen as a compromise between opposing interests. He strongly favored the annexa- tion of Texas, which was the leading question in the contest. He died in 1849, a few months after the end of his term. 300 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1846 Union in December, 1845. This act brought war upon the country. Though Mexico had not sought to win back its lost province, it bitterly resented its annexation by the United vStates, and was ready to fight for its recovery, and the question of the boundary between Texas and Mexico soon led to war. Texas claimed the Rio Grande River for its southwest boundary. Mexico said that the Nueces River was the true boun- dary. Between these rivers was a wide strip of land which both coun- James K. Polk. tries claimed and sought to occupy. 601. The War Begins. — In the spring of 1846 General Zachary Taylor, then at Corpus Christi, on the Nueces, with a body of troops, was ordered to proceed to the Rio Grande. The Mexicans bade him retire, and on his refusal sent troops across the river. On April 24 a fight took place between the hostile forces, and on May 8 and 9 there were sharp contests, the Mexicans being forced to retreat across the river. On May 13, on the news of the first fight being received at Wash- ington, a declaration of war was made and Congress called for fifty thousand volunteers. 602. The Invasion of Mexico. — General Taylor at once crossed the Rio Grande and took possession of the town of Matamoros. Receiving reinforcements in September, he marched into the country and on the 24th captured the stronghold of Monterey after four days of desperate fighting. Meanwhile General AVin- field Scott had been ordered to advance on the Mexican POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 301 302 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1847 capital by the way of the seaport of Vera Cruz, and in making up his force many of Taylor's men were taken. 603. Taylor at Buena Vista. — Taylor, thus left with only about 5,000 men, was attacked on February 23, 1847, by Santa Anna, the Mexican leader, with a force of 20,000. Taylor was stationed in a mountain pass at Buena Vista, when the Mexicans suddenly came upon him. He had a strong position and held his ground so firmly that the Mexicans were defeated with heavy Battle of Buena Vista. loss. This, the most spectacular battle of the war, made Taylor the popular hero of the contest. 604. Scott's Campaign.— Scott's line of advance was by sea to Vera Cruz, which city was bombarded and taken March 27, 1847. Then he led his army on a two hundred miles' march through the heart of the country, winning several victories on the march, and reaching the vicinity of the City of Mexico in September. Here some hard fighting took place, ending with an assault on the strong hill fortress of Chapultepec, which was taken by storm on September 13. The next day the 1848] POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 303 army inai'ched into the city and hoisted the American flag over the ancient palace known as the '^ Halls of the Montezumas." The war was now practically at an end, the American forces having not once been defeated. 605. Kearney and Fremont. — We have not yet told the whole story. General Stephen W. Kearney had marched overland to New Mexico, taking the city of Santa Fe and occupying the country. At the same time Cap- The Battle of Chapultepec, (from painting of James Walker in the Capitol at Washington.) tain John C. Fremont had invaded California, to which a naval expedition had also been sent. When the war ended these great regions were in American hands. 606. The Results of the War. — A treaty of peace was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico, February 2, 1848. In it Mexico gave up all claim upon Texas, and yielded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and California, then occupied by American troops. The United States agreed to reimburse Mexico for this territory by a payment of $15,000,000 and by assuming a debt of about $3,500,000 due by Mexico to 304 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION [1848 American citizens. In 1853, five years later, to settle a dispute about the boundary, the United States paid Mexico $10,000,000 for a tract in the south of New Mexico and Arizona. This transaction, negotiated by James Gadsden, became known as the Gadsden Pur- chase. As a result of the war the United States had thus gained more than 590,000 square miles of new terri- tory, or, including Texas, more than 965,000 square miles. Mexico, in all, lost more than half its territory, though this was a thinly settled and unproductive half. 607. Gold Discovered in California. — As it proved, Mex- ico was ignorant of the real value of the region it had lost. In January, 1848, just before the treaty of peace was signed, a man engaged in digging a mill-race in the Sac- ramento Valley discovered in its gravel deposits shining particles of gold. The news of this valuable discovery spread. The search for gold became active and it was widely found. '^Gold was everywhere," we are told, ''in the soil, in the river sand, in the mountain rock." San Francisco, then a town of four hundred inhabitants, was deserted by those in search of the yellow treasure. 608. The Gold Fever. — The desire to grow rich rapidly spread through all the country and thousands sought the land of gold, some going by water, some crossing the mountains and plains. In a brief time the popula- tion of San Francisco grew to twenty thousand, while a far greater number flocked to the mines. Within seven years from the discovery of gold nearly five hundred million dollars' worth had been obtained. Then many of the people turned to the cultivation of the soil and found in the fruits and farm products of California a richer source of wealth than in its mines. 18481 POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 305 609. Admission of New States. — During the Polk administration three new States were added to the Union. Florida had been admitted on the last day of President Tyler's term, and Texas, as already stated, in December, 1845. Iowa was added in 184G and Wisconsin in 1848. These made the number of slave and free States again equal, there being fifteen of each. But the equality ended here, for no slave States were afterwards added to the Union. San Francisco about 1835. 610. The Election of 1848. — When the time came for a new Presidential contest there were three parties in the field. To the Democratic and Whig parties was added a Free Soil party, made up of those who opposed the exten- sion of slavery. It nominated Martin Van Buren for President. The Democratic candidate was General Lewis Cass, while the Whigs chose the popular hero of the late war. General Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore being selected for Vice President. The Whigs were successful, Taylor receiving a majority of thirty-six electoral votes. 306 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATION SUMMARY OF EVENTS. 1816-1824. England invades America with goods and to prevent this protective tariffs are passed in 1816 and 1824. A dispute arises about the extension of slavery and is settled in 1820 by the Missouri Compromise, which limits slave territory. General Jackson invades Florida on account of Indian raids, and Spain sells that country to the United States. The revolt of the Spanish provinces leads in 1823 to the celebrated Monroe Doctrine. Lafayette visits America. 1824-1828. The 1824 election goes to the House and Jackson, who has the highest electoral vote, is defeated by Adams. The "Era of Good Feeling" ends and party spirit develops. The protection tariff of 1828 arouses violent opposition in the South. The Creek Indians are removed from Georgia. A temperance crusade begins. 1829-1836. Jackson introduces the ''spoils system" in office- holding. South Carolina seeks to nullify the tariff bill, but Jackson enforces the law, and a compromise tariff is enacted. The charter of the United States Bank is vetoed and the bank ruined by the removal of the government funds. Indian wars break out in the West and South. A movement for the abolition of slavery is instituted. 1837-1840. A period of wild speculation in Western lands has arisen from the development of 'Svild-cat banks" and the distribution among them of the government funds. It is followed by a great finan- cial panic, beginning in 1837 and causing great distress. The sub- treasury system is adopted for the safeguarding of the public funds. 1841-1845. President Harrison dies in office and Tyler succeeds to the office; the first instance of a Vice President becoming President. The Whigs lose their power in the government. An important boundary treaty is negotiated with Great Britain. Texas revolts against Mexico, wins its independence, and is annexed by the United States. Rhode Island gives up its old charter con- stitution. The Mormons rouse opposition and emigrate to Utah. 1846-1848. Henry Clay is defeated for the Presidency on account of the Texas annexation question. This question leads to war with Mexico, in which that country is defeated and loses a large part of its territory. The chscovery of gold in California brings about a rapid settling of that new section of the United States. PART VIII A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY 1. TAYLOR'S' AND FILLMORE'S^ ADMINISTRATIONS From 1849 to 1853 611. The Slavery System. — The period to which we have now come was one of the most critical in the history of the United States, one which led to the great civil war that for four years desolated the country. The cause of this was the system of negro slavery which prevailed in the Southern States, and which led to excited debates in Congress and intense feeling through- out the country. It is this subject to which the course of our history now brings us. ^ Zachary Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784, his parents soon after removing to Kentucky. He was made a lieutenant in the army in 1808, served in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk and Seminole Wars, and was a major general in command in the Mexican War. Here his simplicity of maimer and (quickness of action gained him the title of "Old Rough and Ready.'' He knew nothing of politics, but filled the Presidential office acceptably during his brief term. 2 Millard Fillmore was born in New York in 1800. He practiced law and took part in Whig party affairs, and was successively elected to the New York Assembly and to Congress. He was serving as Comptroller of New York State when nominated for Vice Presi- dent. While esteemed for ability aiid integrity, he lost popular- ity with his party by signing the Fugitive Slave Bill. He was nominated for the Presidency by the American party in 1856 and died in 1874. 307 308 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1848 612. The Abolition Movement. — The Missouri Com- promise of 1820, from which so much was hoped, met with opposition as time went on. The abolition move- ment, originated in Boston in 1831, and at first very unpopular in North and South alike, steadily gained adherents in the North, and by the time to which we have now come a strong anti-slavery party had arisen. Its strongest supporter in Congress was the former President John Quincy Adams, who from 1831 until his death in 1848 kept up its discus- sion, much to the annoyance of a Zachary Taylor. majority of the members. 613. The Extension of Slave Territory. — The Missouri Compromise prevented the introduction of slavery into any part of the western country north of 36° 30', but the region south of this latitude was open to its extension, and it was for this reason that the South favored the annexation of Texas. It was, indeed, proposed to divide Texas into four states and thus give the South a stronger representation in the Senate, but no steps towards this were ever taken, though Texas was much larger than any of the other States. 614. The Wilmot Proviso. — The result of the war with Mexico was a large acquisition of n(>w territory into which slavery could legally l)e introduced. This acquisition was foreseen when the war began, and in 1846 David Wilmot, a Democratic member from Pennsylvania, offered an amendment to the appropria- tion bill before Congress, to the effect that slavery 1850] TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS 309 should be prohibited in the territory Ukely to be ac- quired from Mexico. This amendment, known in history as the '^Wihuot Proviso," gave rise to a heated debate, and the fact that the majority defeating it was small showed that the anti-slavery sentiment had become strong in Congress. 615. The Political Problems of 1850. — In the first year of the Taylor administration the question dealt with Henry Clay's Speech in the Senate in 1850. in the Wilmot Proviso arose again. The Mexican terri- tory had now been acquired; California, which had rapidly grown populous, was demanding admission as a State: New Mexico and Utah were in condition to be organized as Territories, and the status of slavery within their borders became the chief problem before Congress. There were other questions also, the South demanding a more efficient law for the return of run- away slaves to their owners, and the anti-slavery 310 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1850 party in the North complaining that slave-holding was permitted within the city of Washington. 616. The Compromise of 1850. — Those questions, as may well be supposed, gave rise to long and heated debates. Threats of secession were made on both sides. Moderate men sought to bring about a satis- factory settlement, and this was finally achieved by Henry Clay, the author of the Missouri Compromise of thirty years before, who now offered a new compromise measure. This became known as the ''Omnibus Bill," from the many provisions it contained. These were the following: 1. California should be admitted as a free State. 2. New Mexico and Utah should be made into Territories and the question of the admission of slavery be left for their people to decide. 3. Texas should give up a part of the territory it claimed in the west and be paid ten million dollars as a recompense. 4. The slave-trade should be prohibited within the District of Columbia. 5. A stringent law for the return of fugitive slaves should be passed. This bill could not be dealt with as a whole, but all its sections were adopted in succession, and many received it with satisfaction, believing that it would bring to an end the dispute about slavery. Such was the belief of Clay, who died two years later. He failed to foresee what time would bring forth. 617. The Fugitive Slave Law. — It was the law for the return of i-unaway slaves that first made trouble. It was very stringent, no negro arrested being allowed i 1850J TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATIONS 311 to testify in his own behalf or to claim trial by jury, while all persons called upon by the United States mar- shal for aid were required to assist him. Any one who aided a fugitive to escape could be fined and imprisoned. In the last two provisions the law failed. Few per- sons in the North were willing to aid in an arrest. Many assisted in the escape of slaves, the secret methods emplo3^ed by them becoming known as the ''Underground Railroad." In some cases the attempt to capture fugitives gave rise to riots, while slaves who had been seized were rescued. The law added much to the strength of the anti-slavery party, and in many States personal liberty laws were enacted, with the purpose of obstructing its operation. 618. The President Dies. — While these events were in operation the President died, passing away on the 9th of July, 1850. Vice President Fillmore succeeded him. In this respect the Whigs were very un- fortunate, both the Presidents elected by them dying after a brief term of service. Several of the great statesmen and orators of the country died during this administration, Calhoun dying a short time before the President MiLLAKI) I' ILLMORE. and Clay and Webster in 1852. 619. The Country Develops. — During Fillmore's term of office little of ])olitical importance took place. Clay's compromise bill having for the time brought harmony to Congress. Meanwhile the country was rapidly developing in population, railroads, telegraphs. 312 A PEIUOD OF CONTROVERSY [1852 and manufactures, and the broad region of the West was being widely settled. Invention was also active, the sewing machine and the india-rubber process being its most important productions. In 1849 a new department, named the Department of the Interior, was added to the government and given charge of all such interests as the public lands, pensions, census, education, and Indian affairs. In 1852 an important postal reform was made, the rate of postage on hitters being reduced to three cents per half-ounce for all parts of the country except the extreme West. The story of postal service before this period is interesting. The first regular mail route was instituted in 1072, between New York and Boston, a month being occupied in the round trip. In 1792 the rate was made eight cents for a letter under forty miles, ten cents under eighty miles, and so on. In 1845 it was five cents per half-ounce for three hundred miles, ten cents for a greater distance. In 1852 the rate was changed as above stated, in 18G3 it was made three cents for all distances, in 1883 it was made two cents per half ounce and in 1885 two cents per ounce. 620. The Election of 1852. — In the Presidential elec- tion of 1852 the same parties as in 1848 nominated candidates — the Whig, the Democratic, and the Free goil — General Winfield Scott being the Whig candi- date, Franklin Pierce the Democratic, John P. Hale the Free Soil. The last received no electoral votes, and Scott obtained but forty-two. Pierce received two hundred and fifty-four, and was thus elected by a very large majority. 1853] riERCE'S ADMINlSTliATION 313 2. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 1 From 1853 to 1857 621. The Slavery Contest Reopened. — Tho slavery con- test, which had been t('ini)()rarily closed by the com- promise of 1850, was opened again under the Pierce administration, and the dispute soon gained new bitterness. The event which brought it again into [)romi- nence in Congress was a bill advo- cated by Stephen A. Douglas, an influential Democratic Senator from Illinois. This proposed the organiza- tion of two new Territories from tlui Louisiana Purchase, west of Missouri and Iowa, the northern to be called K^.^^.m p.KurK. Nebraska, the southern Kansas. 622. The Kansas=Nebraska Bill.— These Territories lay north of the parallel of 30° 30', and therefore, under the terms of the Missouri Compromise, could not l)e made into slave States. But Douglas threw a ])ombshell into the ranks of the anti-slavery party by proposing that the new Territories should be open to slavery if their inha])i- tants desired it. This feature of the bill created much excitement. Northern members said it was a breach of faith and a virtual repeal of the Missouri Compromise. But the pro-slavery members were in the majority and the bill passed and was signed by the President. 1 Eranklin Pierce was a native of New Hampshire, born in 1804. Making ilu; law his profession, he was elected by the Demoeratie party to the House of Representatives in 1833 and to the Senate in 1837. He took part in the Mexican War as colonel and bri<^:Hlior- general. He was a zealous ])ro-slavery Democrat, but cs])ous('(l Uie cause of the North in the (^ivil War. He died in 18(')9. 314 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1855 623. The Fight for Kansas. — Neither party expected what followed. The aboHtion party at once took steps to defeat the purpose of the bill by colonizing Kansas with their adherents. The pro-slavery party also sent colonies into the new Territory. Their hostile feeling soon led to contests in which blood was shed. Lawrence, a small town founded by the anti-slavery settlers, was attacked and plundered by the opposing forces. In return a party of anti-slavery men, led by an old man named John Brown, marched against and killed several of their opponents, crossed into Missouri, destroyed property, freed a number of slaves, and finally shot one of the slave-holders. 624. How the Contest Ended. — Acts of violence and bloodshed like this could not go on without arousing the entire country. From 1855 to 1858 war existed in Kansas, intensifying everywhere the hostility between the national factions. In the end the anti-slavery set- tlers won by force of numbers, all hope of making a slave State of Kansas being abandoned. It was ad- mitted as a free State in 1861. 625. Charles Sumner Assailed. — The state of affairs in Kansas was reflected in Congress, in whose halls a war of words raged, party spirit at times growing violent. In 185G this hostile sentiment led to an act of violence. Charles Sumner, a Senator from Massachusetts, and a leader in the anti-slavery ranks, made a vigorous speech on affairs in Kansas, in which he spoke severely of one of the Senators from South Carolina. Two days later Preston S. Brooks, a Representative from that State and a nephew of the Senator attacked, entered the Senate chamber after adjournment and made a 185G] PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 315 violent assault on Sumner while seated at his desk. He beat him over the head with a heavy cane, injuring him so severely that it was four years before he was able to resume his seat. 626. Brooks is Re-elected. — This act of personal vio- lence added greatly to the hostile feeling that pre- vailed. Congress passed a vote of censure on Brooks and a Washington court fined him. He at once resigned, but his constituents showed their approval of his act by immediately re-electing him. His return to Con- gress intensified the feeling of irritation in the North. Though there was as yet no expectation of war, the tide was setting decidedly in that direction. 627. The Republican Party Organized.— One effect of the trend of events was the formation of a new political party in the North. The passage^ of the Kansas- Nebraska Bill was followed by an election in which the opponents of slavery extension gained a majority in the House of Representatives. Known first as "Anti- Nebraska men," the slavery extension opponents soon organized into a party which took the name of Repub- lican. Into it came the remnants of the old Whig and Free Soil parties, which now ceased to exist, and also many Democrats who were opposed to the extension of slavery. The new party did not propose to attack slav- ery where it already existed, and it thus failed to win over the advocates of abolition. 628. The American Party. —In 1852 a party had arisen with the purpose of restricting immigration, and especially of putting an end to the evasion of the natu- ralization laws, by which many newcomers were quickly made citizens and often elected to official posi- 316 A PERIOD OF CONTROVEUSY [185G tions soon after landing. This party proposed to confine the suffrage to native Americans, or give it to foreigners only after long residence. The meetings of the party were held secretly and its members, when asked any questions about it, usually replied, ''I don't know." From this it became known as the ''Know Nothing" party. But under the exist- ing condition of national feeling people had little inclination to support any side issues, and after the election of 1850 this party disappeared. Commodore Perry Meeting the Commissioners at Yokohama. 629. The Opening of Japan. — Of the events of a non- political cliaracter which took place during the Pierce administration, the most important was the opening of Japan to foreign intercourse. For several centuries the ports of that empire had been almost completely closed to commerce, and a strong prejudice existed there, as also in China and Korea, against intercourse with foreign nations. In 1853 an effort was made on 1853-56] PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 317 the part of the United States to break down this policy of exclusion, Commodore Matthew C. Perry being sent with a squadron of war-vessels to Japan to endeavor to obtain a treaty of commerce. Though an eifort was made to repel him, his resolute persistence won, and in 1854 he obtained the desired treaty. This was a victory of much moment to the United States, as other luitions had tri(Ml to open Japan in vain, and the Japanese now honor tlie memory of Perry as the man who first set them upon the track of progress, which they have since so diligently pursued. 630. The World's Fair in New York. — Another event of intei'cst was the World's Vii'w hehl in New York in 1850. No such fair had hitherto been held outside of Franc(% except the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London in 1851. The New York Fair, while on a small scale, was us(^ful in making the people of this country acquaintcMl with many valuable European products not ])(^f()re known to them. It was also useful in showing the great progress which America had made in the invention of labor-saving machinery. Its power-looms, printing-presses, sewing-machines, reapers and mowers, and various other machines were as mucli of a revelation to Europe as various European jiroducts were to us. 631. The Election of 1856.— In the 1850 election the new Republican i)arty first entered the field of national politics, (dioosing foi" its candidate John C. Fremont, distinguished as the ^'Pathfinder of the West" and for his aid in the ac(iuisition of California. The Ameri- can party nominated Millard Fillmore, late President. The Democratic party chose for its standard bearer 318 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1857 James Buchanan; a prominent Democratic statesman of Pennsylvania. John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, was nominated for Vice President. In the election that followed, Buchanan won by a plurahty of fifty-two electoral votes, but the new party carried eleven out of the fifteen free States, thus showing an unexpected strength in the new can- didate for public support. The American party won only the State of Maryland. 3. BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION ^ From 1857 to 1861 632. Growth of Abolitionism. — James Buchanan took his seat on the 4th of March, 1857. He succeeded to a period of storm and stress. The hostihty between the two sections of the country was growing with dangerous rapidity, the anti-slavery party was fast gaining new strength, and the strong Repub- Hcan vote had alarmed the South- ern leaders. Far-seeing statesmen began to fear that war might result. 633. The Dred Scott Case. — Presi- dent Buchanan was only two days in office when a judgment was ren- Jamks Buchanan. " '^ dered by the Supreme Court of the United States which added greatly to the elements of discord. This was the settlement of what was known ^ James Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania in 1791. An able lawyer and Democratic statesman, he served in Congress 1820-31, was Minister to Russia 1832-34, and was in the Senate 1834-45. He was Secretary of State under President Polk and Minister to England under Pierce. He died in 1868. 1859] BUCHANAN'S ADISIINISTRATION 319 as the Drod Scott case. Dred Scott was a slave whose owner took him from Missouri to lUinois in 1834, and after four years there removed into Minnesota Terri- tory. After their return to Missouri Scott was whipped for some fault, and brought suit for assault and bat- tery, claiming to be a freeman, from his long residence on free soil. The case was tried in several courts and finally reached the Supreme Court, which gave a decision against Scott's claim to be a free citizen. It declared that slave owners had a right to take their slaves where they pleased, just as they could take any other artick^ of property. This decision startled the North, since it practically declared that slaves might be kept as such in any State of the Union. It seemed to open the whole country to slavery extension. 634. The John Brown Raid.— Two years afterwards an event occurred which threw fresh fuel upon the flames. John Brown, of whom we have spoken as a leader in the Kansas troubles, was an old man who regarded slavery with the hatred of a fanatic. In 1859 he led a party of fol- lowers as fanatical as himself to the vicinity of Harpers ■^'^"^ brown's fort at harpers Fkrry. Ferry, with the wild purpose of starting an insurrection among the slaves, fancying that if they had a leader they would rise against their masters and begin a war for freedom. One night in October he attacked and seized the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, with the view of making 320 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1857 this a rallying place for slaves, whom he expected to come in numbers to his aid. He utterly misunder- stood the sentiment of the slaves of Virginia toward their masters, and his hopeless enterprise quickly reached its natural end. In the capture of the arsenal some of Brown's followers were killed, and he and six others of his band were taken, tried, and hanged. Two only of the party escaped. This attempt found little support in the North, many men among the ardent abolitionists looking upon it as an act of folly or madness, though others looked ui^on Brown as a martyr. In the South it aroused fears of the horrors of a negro insurrection and did much to increase the stringency of the situation. 635. An Unhealthy State of Business. — Such were the political aspects of the situation. In the midst of them a new trouble suddenly appeared. It was a time of over-speculation and too great stimulation of business, due in a measure to the rapid increase in wealth arising from the gold production of California. Railroads were built more rapidly than needed; more goods were made than could be sold; undue credits were given; the whole business community was in an unhealthy condition. 636. The Panic of 1857. — The over-expansion came to a sudden end in the failure of a large business house of Cincinnati in August, 1857. Other failures followed, especially among the State banks, which had taken an active part in the speculative movement and which went down almost in a heap. Bank-notes became worthless and money almost vanished from circulation. Thousands of business men were ruined and multi- 1858] BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 321 tiulos of working people reduecnl to destitution. Several years elapsed before this state of affairs passed away. 637. An Ocean Telegraph. — There was one important scientific event of which we must speak in passing. This was the laying of an electric telegraph line under the Atlantic. Cyrus W. Field, a business man of New York, was the originator of this enterprise, which was completed in 1858, the cable composed of wires being LAYiNti THE Atlantic Cable. laid from Ireland to Newfoundland and a few messages sent across it. It then failed to work, but its })ossi- bility liad been proved, and Field continued his efforts until a successful cable was laid in 1866. 638. Two Citizens of Illinois. — The Presidential elec^ tion of 18()0 was the most momentous in the history of our country. It was preceded by a series of events of which it is important to speak, since they led to the nomination of the two leading candidates. These were ^21 322 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1858 citizens of Illinois, one of them b(ung Stephen A. Douglas, the Senator who had supported in Congress the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. The other was Abraham Lincohi, an orator whose fame was as yet local, but who in a few years was to win a national reputation. In 1858 these two men came into competition in a political debate that had national consequences. 639. The Status of the Candidates.— Mr. Lincoln had served in the Illinois Legislature and one term in Congress, but few had heard his name beyond the borders of his State, while Mr. Douglas had been for twelve years a member of the United States Senate and had been a candidate for the Presidential nomi- nation in 1856. He was seeking a re-election and Lincoln took the field against him as a candidate of the Republican party. 640. A Famous Debate. — Though Douglas was a favor- ite in his State, Lincoln had won reputation as an orator of great ability, and in the debate that followed he proved himself a man of remarkable powers. Though Douglas was elected by a small majority, Lincoln forced him to make statements about the Dred Scott decision that lost him favor in the South and ruined his chances for the Presidency. On the contrary, Lincoln took so decided a stand against slavery extension that his fame spread throughout the country and the Repubhcan party came to look upon him as one of its leading statesmen. 641. The Election Campaign of 1860. — Abraham Lin- coln was working for higher ends than the Senatorship. He knew his powers and the growing strength of his party, and when he afterwards spoke in the East men 1860J BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTUATION 323 were astonished by the depth of thought and power of expression of this western orator. As a result, when the RepubHcan convention met in 1860, Lincoln became its choice over all other candidates. Douglas was nomi- nated by the moderate section of the Democratic party, but the strong pro-slavery section was dis- satisfied with the stand he had taken in the debate with Lincoln, and nominated a candidate of its own, John C. Breckenridge, then Vice President under Buchanan. 642. Result of the Election. — The break in the Demo- cratic ranks assured the election of Lincoln. He won by a large electoral majority, while Douglas, though he had a large popular vote, received only twelve electoral votes. The Republicans thus, in their second campaign, had demonstrated their growing power by raising their candidate to the Presidency. 643. The Secession Movement. — When the news of Lincoln's election reached the South the effect was electrical. Fears of hostile legislation by Congress and unjust discrimination by the Executive were widely felt, and the South quickly began to take the steps which it deemed necessary for the safety of its institutions. South Carolina made the first move. In a convention held on December 20 an ordinance of secession from the Union was passed. Before the end of January, 1861, five other States — Georgia, Ala- bama, Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana — had fol- lowed its example. Texas seceded in February, making seven States which had withdrawn from the Union. 644. A Confederate States Government Founded. — On the 4th of February delegates from the seceding States 324 A PERIOD OF CONTROVERSY [1861 met at Montgomery, Alabama, and organized a new government, under the name of the ^^Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alex- ander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice President, these being two of the leading statesmen of the South. In March a constitution was adopted, one of its sections forbidding forever any attempt to emancipate the slaves. 645. A Paralyzed Government. — jkfferson Davis. While thcsc dccisivc steps werc be- ing taken in the South, the govern- ment at Washington seemed in a state of paralysis. President Buchanan taking no action. Though he did not believe in the right of secession, he held that he had no right to seek by force to keep any State in the Union. Compromises were offered in Congress, a peace conference was held in Washington, and other measures of conciliation were taken, but they all proved of no avail. The whole country waited anx- iously for the 4th of March, eager to learn what steps the newly elected President would take. 646. Events in the South. — While the North thus lay quiet, the South was active in preparation for coming events. Southern leaders left Washington, Southern officers resigned from the army, materials of war in the South were confiscated, the forts and arsenals in the seceding States were seized as Confederate property. Only three forts were left in Federal control. Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. Fort Pickens, at Pensa- 1861] SUMMARY OF EVENTS 325 cola, and Key West. Of these, Fort Sumter was threatened with bombardment. President Buchanan did nothing towards its defence except to send an unarmed steamer, the Star of the West, with men and suppHes. This was fired on and driven back. Such was the state of events when the critical date of March 4 arrived. SUMMARY OF EVENTS 1848-1852. Congress becomes active in the discussion of the question of slavery extension. The Wihnot Proviso seeks to pro- hibit the introduction of slavery into the newly acquired territory. The Compromise of 1850 fixes the status of slave territory and introduces the Fugitive Slave Law. Opposition arises in the North to the capture of fugitive slaves. President Taylor dies and Fillmore succeeds. Development of the country. 1852-1856. Douglas introduces the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Kansas becomes a seat of conflict between anti- and pro-slavery advocates. Charles Sumner is attacked and injured. Organiza- tion of the Republican and American parties. Japan is opened to United States commerce. The first American World's Fair held. 1857-1860. The Dred Scott decision and its effect. The John Brown raid and its purpose. The panic of 1857. The first ocean telegraph laid. The Douglas-Lincoln debate. The 1860 election campaign. 1860-1861. Abraham Lincoln elected by the Republicans. South Carolina and the Gulf States secede and form a new gov- ernment. The North quiescent, the South active. Fort Sumter is threatened with bombardment. President Buchanan's attitude. TOPICS FOR REVIEW. Oral or written. The Conflict of Parties. — The tariff question and nullification — the slavery contest — Missouri Compromise and Compromise of 1850 — the temperance agitation — Texas and the war with Mexico — new ter- ritory acquired — causes of the Civil War. PART IX THE CIVIL WAR 1. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION I From 1861 to 1865 647. Lincoln's Policy. — On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincohi was inaugurated President of the United States, and in his address on that occasion plainly indicated his pol- icy, which was to ''preserve, pro- tect and defend" the Union of the States, but not to interfere with the institution of slavery where it then existed. While he did not propose to begin war, he did propose to retake the forts and other national property which had been seized by the Confederacy. 648. Fort Sumter Bombarded. — For a month, no action was taken, the nation continuing in a state of in- tense expectancy. Then, on April 8, Lincoln noti- fied the Governor of South Carolina that men and Abraham Lincoln. ^ Abraham Lincoln was born in Kentucky in 1809, but Illinois was his home during most of his life. His parents were very poor and his education was scanty, yet he studied diligently at every opportunity, worked at a variety of employments, read law in his spare hours, and finall}^ won distinction as a lawyer. He was elected to the Legislature in 1834 and to Congress in 1846. The story of his later career is part of the history of the times. 326 1861] LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 327 provisions would at once bo sent to Fort Sumter. This was the signal for war. Jefferson Davis/ Presi- dent of the Confederacy, sent orders to bombard Fort Sumter if it was not at once evacuated. Major Anderson, in command of the fort, refused to evac- uate, and the guns of the batteries opened upon it. For two days this continued; then Anderson, being A Battkry Dirkctkd Against Fort Sumtkr. nearly out of food and ammunition, gave up the contest, leaving the fort April 14, under agreement with the besiegers, with his men and his flag. ^ Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate States, was born in Kentucky in 1808, and graduated from the West Point Military Academy in 1828, afterwards serving in the Indian War. He was elected to Congress in 1845, served with distinction in the IVIexican War, and became a member of the Senate in 1847. Sec- retary of State under President Pierce, he was re-elected to the Senate in 1S57, and remained there until his State seceded. He was President of the Confederacy throughout its existence, and lived for many years afterwards, dying in 1889. 328 THE CIVIL WAR fl861 649. The Effect in the North.— This event turned the tide. Hitherto the desire for a peaceful settlement had widely prevailed in the North. The firing on the flag changed the feeling; war-spirit ran high; the government was called upon on all sides to avenge the insult to the national standard.^ The President responded to the public feeling by issuing a call for Harpers Ferry, West Virginia. seventy-five thousand men to serve for three months. At that time few foresaw the greatness of the coming conflict and it was generally supposed that this number would be sufficient. 650. The Effect in the South. — The war-spirit in the South equalled that in the North, thousands has- ^ This had been predicted by Robert Toombs, Davis's Secre- tary of State, who strongly opposed the firing on Sumter, saying, "The firing on that fort will inaugurate a civil war greater than any the world has yet seen ... It puts us in the wrong; it is fatal. " Succeeding events proved the correctness of his opinion. ^#^^ y^'% LONGITUDE WEST 1861] LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 329 tening to enlist, while President Davis called for privateers to attack the merchant ships of the North. Lincoln responded by proclaiming a blockade of the Southern coast and announcing that privateers would be treated as pirates. A more significant evidence of Southern feeling was the secession of four more States, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas, which greatly widened the area of the Confederacy. The border States, Maryland, Ken- tucky, and Missouri, remained in the Union, thoi^gh efforts were made to carry out the latter two. 651. Military Movements. — In a week's time the coun- try had been carried from a state of peace into a state of war. Virginia militia seized the armory at Harpers Ferry and the navy-yard at Norfolk, and the troops hurrying south to the defence of Wash- ington were attacked by Southern sympathizers in the streets of Baltimore and blood was shed. This first conflict took place on April 19, the anniversary of the battle of Lexington. 652. Strength of the Combatants. — It is well to state here something about the comparative strength of the two sections thus arrayed in war against each other. In men the North was greatly the superior, hav- ing twenty-two million inhabitants as compared with five and a half millions of whites in the South. The North was also much stronger in railroads, manu- factures, commerce, and all the elements of wealth, and had the advantage in food production. 653. The State of the South. — Yet the South was not devoid of advantages. It possessed an immense territory, which offered excellent opportunities for 330 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 successful defensive warfare. Though it had few manufacturing plants, it had taken possession of the large supply of government material which lay within its borders. As for food, it was easy to divert its soil from the culture of cotton and tobacco to that of food plants. It had a number of experienced military commanders, including several of the ablest soldiers Cotton-picking. in the country. Thus, whatever its chances for ulti- mate success, it was in a position to wage a long and vigorous war. 654. Missouri and West Virginia. — Some of the most important military events of the first year of the war had to do with limiting the area of the Confederate States. A strong effort was made to carry Missouri out of the Union and hard fighting took place in that State, in which both sides won battles. The contest ended in a triumph for the Unionists. 1861] LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 331 In the western part of Virginia there was a similar struggle. Here there were few slaves and most of the people favored the Union. The fighting was severe, but ended in the Confederate troops being withdrawn. In the following year a convention of the people of that region was held and a State government adopted. The new State, under the name of West Vir- ginia, was admitted to the Union in 1803. It was a seri- ous loss to Virginia, as it comprised nearly two-fifths of its territory and more than one-fourth of its population. 655. Battle of Bull Run. — The fighting in Missouri and West Virginia was done by small forces and the first battle of leading importance took place in Virginia on July 21, at a place called Bull Run, from a small stream near Manassas Junction on the railroad running southwest from Washington. General Beauregard lay here in a strong position, threatening the capital city. He was attacked by a larger force, of over thirty thousand men, led by General McDowell. Beauregard was in danger of being overwhelmed by superior forces when he was reinforced by General Johnston, who commanded an army in the Shenan- doah Valley. The result was a defeat of McDowell's army, which soon became a disorderly flight. Wash- ington would have been endangered had Beauregard been able to follow up his success, but his troops had been sharply handled and were in no condition for pursuit. An interesting incident of this battle was the wall- like firmness with which General Thomas J. Jackson held his troops against the Federals, from which he gained his famous title of "Stonewall" Jackson. 332 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 656. The Effect of the Bull Run Battle.— This Con- federate victory filled the South with an enthusiastic hopefulness, while their defeat taught the Federals that they had taken a false view of the situation and that this was to be no '^ninety days' campaign." Congress was roused to action and hastened to vote a war appropria- tion of five hundred million dollars and to call out an army of five hundred thousand men, to be en- listed for three years. General George B. mcClellan. Scott, who had been made Com- mander-in-chief, felt himself too old to cope with the situation, and withdrew in favor of General George B. McClellan, who had won a reputation as an able leader in West Virginia. It was now evident that a great war was at hand. 657. Other Events of 1861. — During the remainder of the year General McClellan occupied himself in thoroughly drilling the army, seeking to make soldiers out of the raw material then in the ranks. Along the coast the blockade was gradually made effective and some important points were occupied. Near the end of the year the British steamer Trent, from Havana, was stopped by the war-ship San Jacinto, and James M. Mason and John Slidell, Confederate envoys to Europe, were taken from her. This act was applauded in the North, but it brought out a threat of war from England and the President ordered that the captives should be released. But the tables were turned when the British government permitted the 1862] LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 333 Alabama, a privateer built in England for the Con- federacy, to sail from an English port. The govern- ment at Washington stated in significant terms that it would not endure any more of this, and after this warn- ing no Confederate cruisers were allowed to leave British ports. 658. The Iron=Clad Merrimac. — As above stated, the navy-yard at Norfolk had early been seized by Vir- ginia troops. Chief among the vessels there was a United States frigate, the Merrimac. This had been sunk, but it was raised by Norfolk workmen, its deck cut down, and a sloping roof built, heavily plated with iron. An iron prow was added, for the purpose of ramming hostile craft. On March 8, 1862, this formidable vessel, the first iron-clad ever to be tried in actual war, steamed from Norfolk into Hampton Roads, where lay a fleet of five of the old type of war-vessels, large and power- ful, but, as was soon proved, unfit to cope with this new master of the wave. 659. The Fight in Hampton Roads. — The broadsides of the wooden ships-of-war were poured upon their iron- clad foe, but glanced off her sides ''like so many peas." Moving resistlessly on, the Merrimac struck the Cumberland with her terrible beak and the frigate sank with great part of her crew. The Congress was driven ashore and forced to surrender. The coming on of night saved the other ships. 660. Consternation in the North. — The news of this momentous event filled the North with consterna- tion. Never had there been anything like this be- fore. What was to save our ports from this dreadful 334 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 foe? But Congress was less alarmed, for it had been preparing for the coming of the Merrimac and a vessel was then on its way to Hampton Roads fitted to cope with her. 661. The Monitor. — Captain Ericsson, a Swedish engi- neer and inventor, had been building in New York a vessel of a new type. This lay low in the water, its flat, iron-clad deck rising just above the sur- face. In the centre of this rose a strong revolving tower, heavily plated with iron and carrying two very heavy guns. So peculiar was the appearance of this craft that it was spoken of as '^a cheese-box on a raft. " The Monitor and the Mekrimac. (From a Painting by W. F. Halsall, in the Capitol at Washington.) 662. The First Battle of Iron=Clads. — On the morning of March 9 the Merrimac steamed towards the Min- nesota, one of the wooden frigates, but found in its path this strange vessel, which had entered the Roads during the night. The battle that followed was one of giants. The Monitor's huge guns hurled balls that 1862J THE WEST IN 18G2. 335 made the Merrimac tremble to her keel, while her balls glanced harmlessly from the flat deck and round turret of the smaller craft. For four hours this strange duel went on, neither of the antagonists being seriously harmed. In the end the Merrimac withdrew, baffled but not disabled, and made her way into Norfolk harbor. She never left it again. Repairs were needed, but before these were completed the advance of the Union army com- pelled the Confederates to abandon Norfolk, and the great iron-clad was destroyed. The battle we have described was one of momentous significance, for it sounded the death knell of the wooden vessel in war- fare. Since then the fighting ships of the world have worn armor of iron or steel. 2, THE WEST IN 1862. 663. Plans for the Campaign. — There had been little in the nature of definite design, during the first year of the war, but the military authorities at Wash- ington entered upon the second year's campaign with fixed plans of action. There were four things they hoped to accomplish. One of these was the capture of Richmond, which had been made the capital of the Confederacy. A second was the occupation of Kentucky and the invasion of Tennessee. A third was the opening and control of the Missis- sippi, thus cutting off the three Confederate States west of that river. A fourth was an efficient blockade of the Southern ports. 330 THE CIVIL WAR [1861 By the end of the year all these but the first had been in great part accomplished. 664. Confederate Occupation of Kentucky. — During 1801 two Confederate armies, under Generals Polk and Zollicoffer, had invaded Kentucky, Polk taking position at Columbus, ZoUicoffer in the eastern section of the State. The Kentucky Legislature had been so far wavering in its action, hoping to keep the State neutral. But the invasion of its soil by Confederate armies put an end to tliis indecision, a resolution to remain in the Union being at once carried by a large majority. 665. Buell*s Successes. — The Confederate invasion of Kentucky was quickly followed by a Federal invasion under General Buell, whose left wing, under General Thomas, attacked and defeated Zollicoffer's army at Mill Springs in January, its general being killed. The fortified post at Bowhng Green was evacuated before Buell's advance and the Confederate occupa- tion of Kentucky in that quarter brought to an end. 666. Forts Henry and Donelson. — While Polk occu- pied a strong position at Columbus, on the Missis- sippi, two Confederate forts had been built on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, just south of the Kentucky boundary. Against these advanced Gen- eral Ulysses S. Grant, ^ then in command of the Federal ' Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio in 1S22. He became a student at West Point and after his graduation served in the INIexiean war, winning promotion. lie then retired to business life, in which he was not successful. When the ci^•il war began he found it difficult to get an appointment. First becoming Cap- tain of a volunteer company, he was soon i)romoted Colonel and shortly afterwards was made Brigadier General. The capture of Fort Donelson made him Major General. The remainder of his biography is part of the history of the country. 1862] THE WEST IN 1862 337 troops in that section. Ho was aided by Commander Foote, in command of a flotilla of iron-clad gun-boats. Foote steamed up the Tennessee, bombarded Fort Henry, and captured it before Grant arrived, its gar- rison retreating to Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland. This was strongly held, and repulsed the fleet after a three days' fight. But Grant invested it so closely and strongly that escape for the garrison was impos- fB "jH JH Sjk J^jffj m 1- -W| Mi $m h i"! gsb\ ^\--;._ 1 ' *-'ti. ^" ^^Wj l^" ' Gun and Moktar Boats on thk Mississippi. sible and after a vigorous effort to break his lines it was obliged to surrender, fifteen thousand strong. When Grant was asked what terms he would give, he replied, ''No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." This answer did much to enhance Grant's reputation in the North, his admirers saying that his initials "U. S." stood for ''Unconditional Surrender. " 667. Other Federal Victories. — General Polk was very strongly posted at Columbus, but the fall of 22 338 THE CIVIL WAR fl862 Forts Henry and Donelson made his position untenable and he was obhged to retire, his men falUng back to Island No. 10, a stronghold on the Mississippi. This was attacked by General Pope, assisted by Foote's squadron of river iron-clads, and after a three weeks' bombardment it surrendered, with its garrison of seven thousand men. These successes gave the Fed- erals full control of Kentucky. 668. The Invasion of Tennessee.— Though Tennes- see had seceded, the mountain district in the east was largely Unionist in senti- ment. Generals Buell and Grant hastened to follow up their Ibyville Mrmiitus isniion cy,a''" ^ ^ — v n^ rV l>o-' CK-vtMiijia r:^ Rome Battle-Fields of Kentucky and Tennessee. cesses by invading its central and western sections, Buell advancing and occupying Nashville, while Grant marched up the Tennessee to Shiloh, or Pittsburg ^862] THE WEST IN 1862 339 Landing, near the border line of Mississippi, where he awaited the coming of Buell. The Confederates had faUen back to Corinth, a raih'oad centre in the north of Mississippi, where a large army was collected, under Generals Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard, the victor at Bull Run. 669. The Battle of Shiloh. — Grant's position was a dangerous one, his camp being only a short distance north of Corinth. This was quickly proved, for he was surprised in his camp in the early morning of April (), the Confederate army suddenly emerging from the woods and falling on the Federal lines with all the Southern dash and vigor. The batth^ that followed raged fiercely for twelve hours, ending at night-fall on the river bank, when^ Grant's retreating regiments had the fire of the gun-boats to support them. The Confederates had taken three thousand prisoners and thirty flags, and had captured the stores in the Federal camp, but they had lost their able commander, Gen- eral Johnston, one of the most brilliant soldiers in the Southern service. On the following morning the Confederates renewed their attack, hopeful of a complete victory. But they found a fresh army to meet them, Buell's men having arrived during the night. This gave Grant the advantage, and after six hours' desperate fighting the Confederates were forced from the field, retiring to their intrenchments at Corinth. Thus ended the first great battle of the war, in which one hundred thousand men were engaged and more than twenty thousand fell. Its result was to leave nearly the whole of Tennessee under Federal control. 340 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 670. The Struggle for the Mississippi. — While these land movements were taking place a powerful fleet, under Commodore Farragut, had entered the Missis- sippi, which was strongly defended with forts, fire-rafts, and iron-plated river boats. After a vigorous bombard- ment, Farragut made a night run past the forts, cleared the stream of its other defences, and steamed in tri- umph up to New Orleans, which fell into Federal hands. l" AiiKAci r's Ki.in-.T Passinc; tiik Fours on the Mississippi. While this was being done, the Union gun-boats on the upper river made their way down to Memphis, which was seized and the fighting craft collected there were destroyed. Thus, with the exception of the Confederate posts from Vicksburg to Port Hudson, the whole river was in Union hands. 671. General Bragg*s Advance. — As will be seen, dur- ing the first half of 18()2 the Union armies and fleets had been uniformly successful in the West. In the late summer a vigorous effort was made by the Con- 1S62] THE WEST IN 18G2 341 federates to regain the lost States. General Bragg, at the liead of a strong army, left Chattanooga in south- east Tennessee and made a rapid mareli northward to- wards Louisville, on the Ohio. Only a hasty move- ment by Buell saved tliis eity from capture. Bragg's retreating army was attacked and severely dealt with at Perryville on October 3 by a force one hundred thousand strong. It continued its retreat unmolested during the niglit. 672. luka and Corinth. — Meanwhile the Confederate stronghold at Corinth had been ()('cu})ied by a Union army under Oen(»ral Rosecrans, and here two severe battles were fought, one at luka, in September, and one at Corinth on October 3 and 4. Th(^ Confederates fouglit with daring bravery, but Rosecrans lield his own and drove them back with heavy loss. 673. The Battle of Murfreesboro. — ^On the last day of the yc^ar was fought one of its severest battles. Bragg, then in wint(^r (fuarters at Murfreesboro in mi(hlle Tennessee, was attacked by Rosecrans, who liad rei)laced Buell in command. Bragg fought with fiery energy, and for a time had the best of the battle, but finally was driv(Mi back. A second battle, two days later, ended in his n^trcvat. In these sanguinary contests f(dl more than twenty thousand men. 674. Other Events in the West. — We have to record further only an unsuccessful expedition sent by Grant against Vicksburg, in which General Sherman was badly beaten; a battle at Pea Ridg(% Arkansas, won by the Union forces; and an outbreak of the Sioux Indians in Minnesota and Iowa, in which nearly a thousand of the frontier settlers were massacred. 342 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 3. THE EAST IN 1862. 675. The Peninsular Campaign. — The military plans for 18G2 included the capture of Richmond, Virginia, and a well-devised but unsuccessful effort was made to perform this, General McClellan taking an army south by water to the Yorktown peninsula, and General McDowell leading a second army over land. The fortification at Yorktown detained McClellan for a McClellan's Campaign. Yorktown to Richmond. month. It was then abandoned and its garrison fell back towards Richmond, fighting a battle at Wil- liamsburg on the way. 676. A State of Panic. — Something very like a panic existed in Richmond during the rapid advance of the Union forces and the ascent of James River by the Monitor and other vessels to within a few miles of the city. Consternation prevailed and an immediate attack might have won the city. But none was made, 1862] THE EAST IN 1862 343 McClellan preferring to await the arrival of McDowell, who was approaching. 677. Jackson in the Valley. — The plans of the Union- ists were completely overthrown at this juncture by the boldness and skill of the Confederate leaders. General Joseph E. Johnston, then commander-in- chief in Virginia, sent his able subordinate, Stonewall Jackson, with a strong force to the Shenandoah Valley, with the purpose of alarming the authorities at Washington and creating a diversion in that direction. Jackson's march was rapid and effective. The forces then in the Valley were driven back over the Potomac. Washington was in a panic. No one knew how many men Jackson had or what was his purpose. Fremont, then in West Virginia, was ordered to the Valley and McDowell's advance was stopped at Fredericksburg and his army diverted to the Blue Ridge. Jackson, aware of his danger, hastily returned, drove Fremont back at Cross Keys, met and defeated a part of McDowell's army at Port Repubhc, and then, having bril- liantly completed his work and prevented McDowell from ioinini>; t. „ t^ t McClellan, hastened back to Rich- mond, leaving the Federal authorities in dismay. 678. General Lee in Command. — Meanwhile a severe but indecisive battle had been fought at Fair Oaks, in the swampy region of the Chickahominy, in which General Johnston was severely wounded. A new com- y 344 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 mander being needed, General Robert E. Lee/ a man who was to gain world-wide fame for military genius, was chosen. 679. The Seven Days' Fight. — Lee lost no time in showing his ability. He at once despatched General Stuart on a cavalry dash around McClellan's army, in which great (Quantities of supplies were destroyed. He then, taking advantage of Jackson's return, made an attack in force upon the Union army, and for seven days the two armies werc^ lock(\l in deadly fray- McClellan was driven back from point to point, losing heavily, and slowly drawing in towards the James, abandoning his line of supply on York River. On July 1 he repulsed Lev at Malvern Hill, but con- tinued his retreat until he had gained a safe position on the James. Both sides had lost heavily, McClellan about sixteen thousand, Lee about twenty thousand men. But the victory rested with Lee, the siege of Richmond was raised, and general discouragement affected the North. President Lincoln called for three hundrcnl thousand fresh troops. 680. A Second Diversion. — Lee's activity did not cease. Feeling that Richmond was for the time safe from attack, he sent Jackson north again, this time ^ Robert Edward Lee was born in Virginia in 1807, a son of "Light Horse Harry," a famous cavalry leader of the Revolution. Graduatin*; from West Point in LS29, he served in the Mexican War, where he was promoted colonel for his (»ourage. At the out- break of the Civil War, he (Mitered the service of his State after its secession, fought in W(»st \'irginia and did engineering work in the Carolinas before being made connnander of the Army of Xortliern Mrginia. After the war he became president of the Washington and Lee University, where he «lied in 1870. 1862] TIIK EAST IN 18()2 345 against General Vo\)v, Ww victor at Island No. 10, who had been brought from the West and placed in command of the forces south of Washington. Tliis m o V e ni e n t had tlie de- sir cm 1 effect, General Mc- Clellan being ini mediately r e c ailed to Washington to reinforce Pop(\ Lee at once marched north to the aid of Jack- son, and the seat of war was su(ld(»nly chang(Ml to the vicinity of tlie national ca})ital. 681. The Second Battle at Bull Run. -Tlie armies uwi on th(^ old iuttkk-f.k.-us ..,.• vk- Bull Run battle-ficdd and fought V>""^' ^^"^■''^^'>- ^-^'^ ^ I KNNHVLVANIA. for three dsiys (August 28-30) ov(M' this ground, the contest ending in a disastrous (lcf(\'it of the Fculeral forc(>s. Only the strcMigth of (he dcfcMiccs of Washington and the arrival of McClellan's advance saved the capital fi-oni being taken. 682. Lee Invades Maryland. —Without a day's loss of time Tj(m^ led his victorious aiMuy noi-th into ]\Iarv- 346 THE CIVIL WAR [1862 land, hoping for recruits and possibly to win over that State to join the Confederacy. In these hopes he was disappointed. But Pennsylvania lay before him, and quick action was needed to save that State from serious disaster. 683. The Battle of Antietam. — All the troops at hand, about eighty-fiv(^ thousand in number, were placed under McClellan's command, and a rapid pur- Hai'i'i.k of Antietam. suit began. Lee had little more than fifty thousand to meet this powerful force. His route lay west, and Stonewall Jackson was sent on a hasty expedition against Harpers Ferry, where was a Union garrison of eleven thousand men. He attacked it with his usual vigor, forced it to surrender with its garrison, and reached Lee at Antietam on the Potomac just in time to take part in the coming struggle. McClellan's attack was made on September 17. The battl(% foi* tht^ numbers engaged, was one of the 1862] THE EAST IN 18G2 347 bloodiest in the war, the killed and wounded number- ing more than twenty-five thousand men. Neither side could claim a victory. Lee's movement north was checked, but he made no haste in retiring across the Potomac and did so without pursuit. 684. Burnside in Command. — McClellan's slowness in following Lee caused such great dissatisfaction in Washington that he was removed from command in November and replaced by General Burnside, who had shown much ability. Feeling that a battle was expected of him, the new commander marched to Fredericksburg and there on December 13 attacked Lee in strong intrenchments beyond the Rappa- hannock. It was a desperate and hopeless attempt, the slaughter being frightful and Lee's position too strong to be taken. Burnside's defeat led to his re- moval and replacement by General Hooker. 685. The Proclamation of Emancipation. — The partial success at Antietam gave President Lincoln the oppor- tunity to perform an act he had for some time con- templated. This was to proclaim the freedom of the slaves. In a proclamation issued on September 22, 1802, he announced that on the 1st of January, 1863, all the slaves in territory then in arms against the Union should b(^ free. lie had stated in his inaug- ural address that he had no intention to disturb the institution of slavery in the South, and that it was his sole purpose to preserve the Union. But it was evident now that to do this every available measure must be taken, the Confederacy having shown great power and resources, both defensive and offensive. The proclamation of emancipation was therefore 348 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 issued as a war measure, on the ground that the slaves were an element of strength to the seceding States and were being used at home to support the Confed- erate cause in the field. » 5 5, ^ 9W^- ^^,. "*^-x '■ » SitJNiNG THE Emancipation Proclamation. 4. THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 686, The East in 1863. — In 1863 efforts were made to carry forward the plan laid down for 1862. In the East, in addition to a number of minor engagements, two great battles were fought, the first ending in a victory for the Confederate, the second in one for the Union cause. 687. Battle of Chancellorsville. — General Hooker, who had replaced Burnside after the terrible defeat of the latter at Fredericksburg, did not venture a second attack on Lee's works, but tried to advance towards Richmond by aid of a flank movement. Marching up the Rappahannock, he crossed that river some 1S63J THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 349 distance above the town. But Lee's vigilance was not to be evaded. Though he had but forty-five thousand to Hooker's ninety thousand men, he boldly pursued him, and on May 2 the two armies met in a thickly wooded region known as Chancellorsville. Here a desperate battle took place. It was decided by a well-devised flank movement made by Stonewall Jackson, who fell upon and routed the Union right wing. The next day Hooker acknowledged defeat by recrossing the river. But the Confederate cause suf- ered a severe loss in the death of its ablest strategist, Stonewall Jackson, who was severely wounded and died a few days after the battle. 688. Lee's Invasion of Pennsylvania. — Lee's great vic- tory at Chancellorsville was followed by a brilliant and daring movement, an invasion of Pennsylvania, by which the cities of Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington were seriously threatened. The advance was made rapidly and secretly, by the route of the Shenandoah Valley, and only by forced marches was the L^nion army able to protect the imperilled cities. During the march General Hooker resigned on account of a difference of opinion with the War Department. He was succeeded by General George G. Meade. 689. The Battle of Gettysburg. — Lee's advance reached the small town of Gettysburg, in southern Penn- sylvania, on the 1st of July. Here it encountered a force of Union cavalry, and the fight became severe as reinforcements on both sides were hurried up. In the end the Federal troops were worsted and driven back through the town, taking u}) a strong position on high ground known as Cemetery Ridge. 350 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 At dawn of the following day Lee had the advan- tage in numbers, many of Meade's regiments being Plan of the Battle of Gettysburg. still a day's march distant. But Meade had much the stronger position and every effort to drive him from it proved unavailing. On July 3 a desperate 1803] THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 351 assault was made on Meade's lines. After two hours of severe cannonading, a great corps, fifteen thousand strong, under General Pickett, was hurled against the Union centre. They were met by a withering volley of rifle and cannon shot, against which no human power could stand. After friglitful slaughter the survivors fled and the terrible struggle was at an end. On July 4 Lee's retreat began. There was no rapid pursuit, and he reached and crossed the Potomac in safety. But he had left twenty thousand of his trusted Batti.k of Gkttysburg (by Rotliermel) . veterans on that fatal field, and the battle of Gettysburg has since been regarded as the turning point in the war. 690. The Western Campaign. — The fighting in the West during 18()3 centred about two vital points, Vicksburg, on the Mississippi, and Chattanooga, on the upper Tennessee. The first needed to be won before the opening of the Mississippi could be com- pleted. The second formed a post of vantage for the invasion of the Gulf States. 691. The Movement Against Vicksburg. — Grant's expe- dition against Vicksburg in 18()2 had ended, as 352 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 already stated, in Sherman's defeat. A second effort was made early in 1803, but without success. For two months Grant sought to reach the city from the north, but all his efforts failed. Then he took a bold resolve. Cutting loose from his base of supplies, he marched down west of the river, sending his gun-boats and supply-ships down the stream through a frightful storm of shot and shell from the batteries on the heights. Crossing the river below the city on April 29, he fought five battles in succession with the Confederate forces, in all of which he was victorious. Finally, General Pemberton having shut himself up with his army behind strong fortifi- cations a t V i c k s b u r g , Grant besieged h i m in that citv. For six weeks the siege continued, then, on July 4, lack of food compelled Pemberton to surrender. In this campaign the Con- federate cause lost ten thousand in killed and wounded and thirty-seven thousand in prisoners, with large military stores. It was a greater disaster than that at Gettysburg. A few^ days later Port Hudson surrendered and the Mississippi was open to the Union gun-boats from its source to the Gulf, while the three States west of the great river were cut off' from the Confederacy. Chant's Vicksbuug Campaign. 1863] THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1863 353 692. Battle of Chickamauga. — From Vicksburg the seat of war was now shifted to the east. After the battle of Murfreesboro General Bragg had continued to hold a strong line in middle Tennessee. From this post Rosecrans, by strategic movements, forced him to retire in June, 1863, and in September obliged him to leave Chattanooga and occupy the field of Chicka- mauga, farther south. Here on the 19th Bragg attacked the Northern army advancing against him, and on the following day drove its right wing in utter rout from the field. The left wing was saved from a similar fate by the stubborn tenacity of General Thomas, who held his ground until nightfall against repeated assaults. 693. Chattanooga Besieged. — Bragg now seized Look- out Mountain and Missionary Ridge, overlooking Chattanooga, and held Rosecrans and his army there in a state of siege, cutting off supplies until the army was suffering from lack of food. Thomas was ap- pointed to succeed Rosecrans and held the place as stubbornly as he had held the field of Chickamauga, awaiting the reinforcements which Sherman was bringing him from the west and Hooker from the north. Grant was also hastening to the scene, ^ having now been made commander-in-chief of all the west- ern armies. 694. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — Bragg having weakened his army in November by send- ing Longstreet to attack the mountain city of Knox- ville. Grant took instant advantage of the situ- ation. On the 24th Hooker attacked the works on ^ "Hold fast till I arrive," was Grant's telegram to Thomas. "We will hold the place till we starve," came back over the wire. 23 354 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 Lookout Mountain, (lashin.a; up \hv stcM'p hill, sweep- ing away its weak defences, and takinj;- the position with litth^ loss. On the following day Sherman, Thomas and Hooker joined in an assault in force on Missionary Ridge, rushing upward with su(di impetuosity that the Confederates were driv(Mi from their back irvii'i.i; oi' LooKour Mountain. guns and orccHi in d(^f(»at. The si(\ge of Chattanooga was at an (Mid. 695. The Siejic and Relief of Knoxvillc. — Grant had left^ Burnside, in command at Knoxvill(% to def(Uid himself against Longstrec^t until the battling at Chatta- nooga was at an end. Then he sent Shernum in hot haste to his i'(Ticf. The place was n^acduul on DeccMu- b(M- 1. Burnsidi^ had been severely pressed, but still held his own, and on the appearanc(^ of tlu^se rein- forccnuMits Longstnu^t raiscnl the si(^ge. With these successes the campaigns of 1803 ceased. Both in the east and tlu^ west the Union cause had won a decided advantag(\ Lee had met with a serious defeat at Gettysburg, the Mississippi had been opened, and the Federal armi(^s had gaintMl at Chattanooga a strong location for tlu^ invasion of the Gulf and Atlantic Stat(^s. 5. THE FINAL CHAMPAIGNS OF THE WAR 690. Grant in Command. — The Union armies had at last gained a soldiei- i\{{v<\ to try conclusions with General Lee. While Lee had shown himself a man 1S()1J TIIK FINAL CAMrAlGNS OV THE WAR :^55 of bi'illijint powers in the (\'isi, Ci\'ini luul sw('))i nil bc^forc liim in Ihr \v(\sl, jind liis inililary jihility had become so evident. Ihal on Mandi .'>, bSOl, he was proinotcMJ to lieutenant, hopeless retreat. Only about twenty-eight thousand remained. These were paroled, were supplied with food, and the cavalry were allowed to keep their horses, Grant generously saying, ''They will need them for their spring ])lowing and other farm work." 715. The War at an End. — Little remained to do. On April 26 Johnston surrendered to Sherman on the same terms that had been granted Lee. On May 4 General Taylor, in Alabama, surrendered the forces 366 THE CIVIL WAR [1865 under his command, and soon after the last of the armed Confederates gave up the struggle. An inter- esting event took place on April 14, five days after Lee's surrender, when General Anderson hoisted over Fort Sumter the flag which he had pulled down on that date four years before. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, with his family and cabinet, fled southward from Richmond with a guard of two thousand cavalry. But these gradually dispersed as he proceeded, and on May 11 he was captured at Irwinsville, Georgia. He was imprisoned for two years in Fortress Monroe, but was finally set at liberty without a trial. 716. The Presidential Election of 1864. — During these final events of the Civil War the date for another Presidential election came around. Lincoln was again the Republican candidate, Andrew Johnson, a War Democrat of Tennessee, being nominated for Vice President. General McClellan was nominated by the Democrats, their platform demanding that hostilities should cease, on the ground that the war was a failure and the South could not be subdued. Lincoln was elected by two hundred and twelve electoral votes to twenty-one for McClellan. 717. The Assassination of Lincoln. — Lincoln survived only long enough to see the war, with the conduct of which he had been so closely concerned, triumphantly ended. His career was brought to an end in a way that threw the nation, which had greeted with joy the return of peace, into a state of the deepest grief and indignation. On the 14th of April, while seated in a box at Ford's Theatre in Washington, he was 1865] THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR 367 shot by an actor named John Wilkes Booth, one of a party of conspirators who had plotted the death of the President and his nearest advisers, another of them attempting to kill Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State. This act of murderous folly, even more injurious in its effects to the South than to the North, was due to an insane idea of avenging the wrongs of the South, and perhaps with a desire for notoriety. The mur- derer was tracked to his hiding place and shot, four of his accomphces w^ere hanged, and others imprisoned for life. The funeral of the dead President^ — since then acknowledged as the greatest after Washington — took place on the 19th of April, 1865, which was observed as a day of mourning throughout the land, the body being interred at Springfield, Illinois, Lincoln's place of residence. 6. THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR 718. The Costs of War. — To meet the costs of this great struggle extraordinary efforts were needed on the part of the government financiers. Much money was obtained by means of the tariff', the rates of which were raised until they were nearly three times as great as during the Buchanan administration. In addition a system of internal taxes was adopted that brought in large returns. But it was impossible by taxation to meet the enormous expenses of the war, and the necessary funds could be obtained only by borrowing, the war ending with the nation deeply in debt and the paper money of the country worth little more than a third of its face value in gold. In the South the paper money issued fell in value till it was / 368 THE CIVIL WAR [1863 almost worthless and the people were put to the severest straits to obtain the necessaries of life. The total cost of the war, including property destroyed and the value of the freed slaves, has been estimated at not less than eight billion dollars. When the war ended the debt of the government was nearly three billion dollars. 719. The National Bank System. — In 1863 a law was passed establishing a system of national banks, to replace the old State banks so long in vogue. The notes issued by the new banks were made good by bonds deposited in the Treasury at Washington, so that no bank failures could lessen their value. This system still prevails. 720. Conscription of Soldiers. — The soldiers. North and South, were at first raised by volunteering; but as enlistment fell off conscription became necessary. The law was not severe, as any person drafted could be exempted by hiring a substitute or paying three hun- dred dollars for that purpose. Yet the law was strongly opposed, and in 1863 a serious draft riot broke out in New York, during which many buildings were burned and over two million dollars' worth of property de- stroyed. The mob gained control of the city and held it in terror for several days. In the struggle to put them down over twelve hundred of the rioters were killed. 721. The Strength of the Armies. — When the war ended there were more than one million Union soldiers under arms. The total number enhsted was much more than this. Probably more than six hundred thousand of both armies lost their lives from wounds and dis- ease, in addition to the many thousands disabled. 1865J THE COUNTRY DURING THE WAR 369 There are no statistics to show the numbers in the Confederate armies. 722. The Final Review.— On May 23 and 24 a grand review of Grant's and Sherman's armies was held at Washington. The column of soldiers was nearly thirty miles long and for two days it marched up the broad avenue from the Capitol to the White House to the sound of martial music and under the tattered flags that had waved over so many battle fields. In a few weeks after this these war-worn veterans returned to their homes and took up again the peaceful duties of citizenship, only some fifty thousand of the whole vast array being kept under arms. 723. The Results of the War. — A few words must suffice to state the leading results of this long and terrible struggle. It settled the question of secession. No State is likely hereafter to seek to leave the Union. It put an end to the institution of slavery and thus removed the principal cause of hostihty between the two sections of the Union. It showed the strength of the great repubhc and taught Europe that the Union of the States was far stronger than foreign statesmen were ready to admit. It estabhshed the high standing of this country among the nations and gave a great object lesson of the strength of the principle of republicanism. SUMMARY OF EVENTS 1861. Fort Sumter is bombarded and war begins. Missouri and West Virginia are retained in the Union. The battle of Bull Run and its effects. The first naval fight of iron-clads and its important results. 24 370 THE CIVIL WAR 1862. Plans of campaign. The invasion of Kentucky and strug- gle for its possession. (n*ant invades and holds western Tennessee. Farragut takes New Orleans. Bragg invades Kentucky and is defeated at Perryville and Murfreesboro. JMcClellan threatens Richmond. Jackson's exploits in the Shenandoah ^^alley are followed by the seven day's fight before Richmond. Lee threatens Washington and defeats Pope. Lee enters Maryland and fights a battle at Antietam. Disastrous defeat of Burnsidc at Fredericks- burg. Lincoln issues a i)roclamation freeing the slaves. 1863. Lee is victorious at Chancellorsville and is defeated at Gettysburg. Grant's expedition against Vicksburg successful, that city being taken and the Mississippi opened. Rosecrans is defeated at Chickamauga and besieged in Chattanooga. The siege raised by Grant, Bragg defeated and Knoxville relieved. 1864. Grant is made commander-in-chief. He fights with Lee from the wilderness to Cold Harbor and lays siege to Petersburg. Early's raid and his defeat by Sheridan. Sherman fights his way to and captures Atlanta. Hood is defeated at Nashville. Sher- man marches through Georgia, and takes Savannah. The Kear- sarge sinks the Alabama. Farragut takes Mobile. 1865. Fort Fisher is taken. Sherman marches north and occupies Charleston and Columbia. The Petersburg works taken and Richmond evacuated. Lee's army jnu'sued and forced to surrender and the war ends. Lincoln re-elected in 1864 and assas- sinated in 1865. The cost of the war. Conscription of soldiers and numbers in the field. The results of the war. TOPICS FOR REVIEW. Oral or written. Slavery in America. — Beginning — extension to all Ct)lonics — early feelings against it — effects upon political parties — fugitive slave law — Dred-Scott Decision — Kansas-Nebraska Bill — John Brown's raid — secession — emancipation of slaves. The Civil War. — Election of Lincoln and its result — secession of States — campaigns — important battles — principal leaders — duration — what the war settled. REFERENCE BOOKS. 1. Blain's TivcnUj Years of Congress. 2. Sainton's Decisive Battles of the War. 3. Y/ilson's Division and Reunion. 4. Greeley's American Conflict. 5. Grant's Memoirs. PAll T X PROGRESS OF TIIK NEW UNION 1. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION' From the Death of Lincoln to 1869 724. Character of the New President.— On April 15, ISOf), three hours after the death of Abraham Lincoln, the Vice President, Andrew Johnson, ([uietly assumed the duties of the office. A man of positive convictions and strong will, he adopted a course which was cer- tain to bring him into collision with Congress, which did not view kindly his usurpation of its powers in the establishment of new relations with the States of the South. 725. State Governments Organized. — Without call- ing Congress into extra session to deal with the (ques- tions sure to arise, President Johnson i)roceeded to dispose of them in his own way. On May 29 he issued ^ Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina in 1808, the son of a poor family. Apprenticed early to a tailor, he had little opportunity for education, not learning to write until after his marriage. Yet he was able and active, entered the i)oliticaI field and held several State offices. He was elected to Congress in 1843, and afterwards reached the dignity of Governor of Tennessee and United States Senator. While an ardent Democrat, he strongly opposed the secession of T(Mniessec, and in 1802 was made Military Governor of that State. His activity in this position won him the nomination for the Vice Presidency. After the end of his Presi- dential term he entered political life again and was elected to the Senate in 1875, but died during that year. 371 372 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1865 a proclamation of pardon to the people of these States, on condition that they would swear to ''faithfully support, protect, and defend the Constitution and the Union." As a result four of the late seceded States, Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Louisiana, organized loyal State governments, which were recognized by the President, who au- thorized the other States to call con- ventions for the same purpose. When this was done the President consid- ered that nothing further was needed and that the late seceded States were Andrew Johnson. again full members of the Union. 726. The Thirteenth Amendment. — One important step taken by the reorganized States was to ratify an amendment to the Constitution passed by Con- gress in February, 1865, while the war was still in progress. This abohshed slavery within the Union, thus completing the work of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. It was adopted by the requisite three- fourths of the States during the year and became a law on December 15, 1865. This amendment put a constitutional end to slavery within the limits of the United States, removing forever the instigating cause of dissension and hostile relations between the two great sections of the country. 727. Congress in Se.ssion. — When Congress again came together in December, 1865, it was evident that many of the members looked upon the late acts of the Executive as illegal usurpations of power, and it was not long before dissensions between the two branches 1866J JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 373 of the government appeared. The new governments in the South, finding that the recently emancipated negroes were Httle disposed to work, had passed laws with severe penalties to compel them to do so. Con- gress looked upon this as a movement towards a state of practical slavery and organized a Freedman's Bu- reau for the protection of the recent slaves. It went further than this when it passed a Civil Rights Bill, which gave the freedmen all the rights of American citizens except the right to vote. It also prohibited any Southerner from holding office unless he took an oath that he had taken no part in secession. 728. The Fourteenth Amendment. — The terms of the Civil Rights Bill were made a part of the organic law of the country by a new amendment to the Con- stitution passed in 1866, and ratified by the requisite number of States by 1868. This declared that no State should deprive any citizen of his rights; that all who had sworn to defend the Constitution and had taken up arms against it should be inehgible to office (unless made eligible by Act of Congress) ; that the United States debt should be valid, but no debt in- curred by insurrectionists should be paid; and that the basis of representation in any State should be dependent upon the number of male citizens permitted to vote. 729. Acts of Reconstruction. — What Congress might have done regarding the reconstruction of the seceded States but for the precipitate action of the President it is now impossible to say. As it was, a strong feel- ing of irritation existed in that body, the hastily formed States were not recognized, and various meas- 374 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1868 ures of conditional reconstruction were passed, all of which were vetoed by the President and all passed over his veto. Military governments were appointed for each State except Tennessee (which was admitted to the Union). These were to continue in office until new State conventions had been called, chosen by voters without regard to race or color, except that no Confederate leader could vote or be voted for. 730. States Readmitted. — Under this law the States of Alabama, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina, Arkansas and Florida were admitted to the Union and sent representatives to Congress in June, 1868. The remaining four States refused to accede to the law and remained under military rule. 731. Carpet=Bag Governments. — In the new govern- ments the more intelligent of the people were kept out of office, as few of them could take the '4ron-clad oath" that they had taken no part in secession. Of those privileged to vote, the freed slaves were in a majority in several of the States, and their ignorance of political matters led to an unfortunate state of affairs. Adventurers from the North — called '^carpet- baggers" from the satirical saying that a carpet-bag would hold all their possessions — solicited the negro vote and were elected to office. Many of the late slaves were sent to the State legislatures. The result was calamitous, the public funds were squandered or stolen, and the States involved nearly ruined. 732. The Tenure of Office Act. — The measure which led to a final breach between the President and Congress was the Tenure of Office Act, which forbade the Presi- dent to remove from office certain officials, including 1868] JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 375 the Cabinet officers, without the consent of the Senate. Disregarding this, Johnson asked Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War, to resign, and when he decHned removed him and appointed another man in his place. 733. The President Impeached. — When Congress met in December, 1867, the Senate refused to confirm the President's action and Stanton resumed his post. Johnson thereupon directed Thomas, the successor appointed by him, to perform the duties of the office. To set aside an Act of Congress in this way was a grave offense and led the House to as grave a decision. This was to impeach the President for high crimes and misdemeanors. So serious an accusation had never before been brought against a President of the United States. If sustained it would dismiss him from office in disgrace. The Senate sat as a high court of impeachment from March 5 to May 16, 1868, Chief Justice Chase, of the Supreme Court, presiding. The trial ended in the acquittal of the President, the vote in favor of im- peachment, when taken, being one less than the two- thirds necessary for conviction. 734. A Proclamation of Amnesty. — President Johnson had now less than a year to serve and there was little more friction. His chief new act of importance was a proclamation, issued on Christmas Day, 1868, granting ''full pardon and amnesty" to those who had taken part in the attempt to destroy the Union. This did not restore their political rights, since this could be done only by Congress. 735. The Invasion of Mexico. — During Johnson's term several other matters of importance took place, 376 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1865-67 which may be briefly mentioned. Napoleon III., Emperor of France, had taken advantage of the United States being involved in a civil war to invade Mexico, on pretext of collecting a debt. He proceeded to found an empire there, selecting as emperor Maximilian, an Austrian archduke. The American government bore this infraction of the Monroe Doctrine as quietly as possible until the war ended. Then, in 1865, Napo- leon was sternly bidden to remove his arniy. He finally did so, after much hesitation, but Maximilian remained. As a result the republicans of Mexico rose against him, defeated his army, and shot him as an unauthorized invader. With his fall the empire ended and the republic was re-established. 736. Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867 Russia offered to sell her territory on this continent, known as Russian America, to the United States, for the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars. The offer was accepted and this territory, since known as Alaska, has been a source of wealth many times repaying its original cost. 737. The Atlantic Telegraph. — Cyrus W. Field, who had failed in his effort to lay a successful ocean telegraph in 1858, sought to lay another in 1865, but it broke in mid-ocean and sank to the bottom. Mr. Field was not dismayed, but formed a new company and had a new cable made, which was laid in 1866. Then the cable of 1865 was raised by means of grappling irons and its broken ends spliced. Both cables worked admirably, and since that date there has been continuous tele- graphic communication with Europe. 738. The Election of 1868.— In the Presidential elec- i868] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 377 tion of 1868 General Ulysses S. Grant was chosen as the Republican candidate, Horatio Seymour, late governor of New York, being the Democratic nom- inee. As might have been expected. General Grant was elected by a large majority, Seymour receiving only eighty out of two hundred and ninety-four electoral votes. 2. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION From 1869 to 1877 739. Reorganization Completed. — Under President Grant the controversy existing between the executive and legislative branches of the gov- ^ - — ernment came to an end and the work of reorganizing the seceded States was completed. The chief measure in this direction was the passage of a new amendment to the Constitution, known as the Fifteenth Amendment, confirming to negroes the right to vote which they had of late enjoyed. It declared that the u™ses s. grant. right to vote should not be denied in this country '^on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This was adopted in 1870, the four States still out of the Union — Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi and Texas — being required to vote for it and the other recent amendments as a condition of readmission. This was done, and the restoration of the Union was completed in 1870. During the decade four new States had been admitted, Kansas in 18G1, West Virginia in 1863, Nevada in 1864 and Nebraska in 1867. 378 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1869-72 740. The Alabama Claims. — The restoration of the Union was' quickly followed by a demand upon Great Britain for redress for the injury inflicted upon Amer- ican commerce by the privateer Alabama, which had been built in England and sailed from an English port. This was referred to arbitration and settled in favor of the United States in 1872, Great Britain being required to pay damages in the sum of fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars. This is known as the ''Geneva Award," and is famous as a peaceful settle- ment of an international question which might easily have led to war. 741. A Transcontinental Railroad. — During the period with which we have been dealing railroads had been ex- MeDAL IsBUKD by CoNlJKKSS UPON COMPLETION OF THK UnION PACIFIC "RaII.ROAD. tended largely in this country, and Grant's first term was signalized by a notable event of this kind, the completion of the first railroad to the Pacific coast, the last spike of the pioneer transcontinental line being driven May 10, 18()9. This completed a line extending from New York to San Francisco, three thousand three hundred miles long, the longest railroad then in 1870-72] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 379 existence. To-day a number of such roads cross the continent and a traveler can go from the Atlantic to the Pacific in less than five days' time. 742. The Chicago Fire. — In 1871 took place the greatest conflagration ever known in this country, the terrible fire which almost destroyed the great city of Chicago. Fanned by a high wind, this fire swept through that city of wooden houses w4th railroad speed, more than three scjuare miles being burned over and two hundred million dollars' worth of property de- stroyed. It was followed about a year later by a de- structive fire in Boston, which caused a loss of eighty million dollars. The burned districts were rapidly rebuilt, more strongly and handsomely than before. 743. The Weather Bureau. — In 1870 was established the Weather Bureau, for the purpose of making and pubhshing accurate observations on the state of the weather. This has been of the utmost service to the agricultural and commercial interests of the country, in advising the people of the approach of storms, change of temperature, etc. At first connected with the Signal Service of the army, it has been a Bureau of the Agricultural Department since 1891. 744. Congressional Corruption. — In 1872 charges were brought against certain members of Congress of having received presents of stock in the Credit Mobilier Company, organized for the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad. For this stock they were to use their influence in its favor. A great abuse of the franking privilege, by which Congressmen and officials could send mail matter free, was also charged, and this abuse was brought to an end, an allowance for })ostage being made to eacli Congressman. 380 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1872-76 In 1873 a bill was passed which raised the salaries of the President, Congressmen and many government officials. To this no objection would have been made if they had not caused this increase of salary to date from 1871, thus adding to their pay for former work. This raised such a storm of disapproval that the '^Salary-grab Bill," as it was called, was repealed by Congress at its next session. 745. The Election of 1872.— In 1872 President Grant was renominated by the Repubhcan party, while a new party under the name of Liberal Republicans, which advocated civil service reform, nominated Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune. The Demo- cratic party accepted Greeley as its candidate, though he had been its active opponent, but he obtained only forty-seven electoral votes. There were several other candidates, but Grant was chosen by a large majority. Greeley died before the electoral votes were cast. 746. The Panic of 1873.— The four years of Grant's first term were years of prosperity, but the active speculative movement that had set in, largely in the direction of very rapid railroad building, led to a sudden change in 1873. In October a prominent banking house in Philadelphia, which had been sup- porting the building of the Northern Pacific Railroad, closed its doors, and failures in all directions followed. Factories ceased operations, banks failed to meet their obhgations, and a severe and widespread panic began, its effects not fully passing away for six years. 747. The Centennial Celebration. — During this period of business depression came the 4th of July, 1876, the centennial anniversary of the signing of the Decla- JJJ76] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 381 ration of Independence. It was celebrated by a great World's Fair, held at Philadelphia, the city m which the Declaration was signed. The exhibition was one of unsurpassed extent and beauty, the Main Hall alone covering twenty acres, while there were many other large buildings, filled with objects of art and industry In art objects Europe far surpassed this country, and in this direction the exhibition had a great educational value. In the results of inventive o-enius the United States was unsurpassed. The most strilving invention displayed was the telephone, then first exhibited. Ouster's Fight with the Sioux Indians. 748. Indian Troubles.— Indian troubles arose in the West during Grant's administration, as a result of attempts to remove the Indians from their old hunt- 382 PKOGHESS OF THE NEW UNION [1876 ing grounds. One war broke out in 1872, when it was sought to move the Modoc Indians of Oregon to a new reservation. They refused to go and retired to a region difficult to reach known as the ''Lava Beds," where for a year they resisted the troops. The few of them who remained at the end of this time were sent to Indian Territory. 749. The Sioux War. — The Sioux Indians occupied the Black Hills of Dakota. Gold being found in this region, the whites sought to take possession of it, but they were fiercely resisted by the Indians, under their warlike chief. Sitting Bull. The hostilities that followed led to a tragic incident. General Custer, a daring cavalry leader of the Civil War, attacked a large camp of the Indians on the Little Big Horn River with a much smaller force. The result was that he and his entire regiment were slaughtered by the savages. In the end Sitting Bull and his followers fled to Canada. 750. Colorado Admitted. — The State of Colorado was admitted in 1876, from which fact it is known as the ''Centennial State." Though in a mountain district, largely barren, its rich mines of silver and other minerals gave it a rapid growth. More recently gold was found in abundance, and it has now a yield of gold double that of any other State. 75 L The Election of 1876. — The Presidential elec- tion of 1876 led to a period of excitement without parallel in any other election. The candidates of the leading parties were Rutherford B. Hayes, Republi- can, and Samuel J. Tilden, Democratic nominee. When the vote was counted it was found to be very 1877] GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 383 close, the decision resting on the States of Florida and Louisiana. In these the largest number of votes were cast for the Democratic ticket. But the Returning Boards of those States, from whose decision there was no appeal, refused to count the votes of certain dis- tricts, saying that errors invalidated the returns. In consequence they claimed that the Republican ticket was elected. South Carolina was also claimed by both parties. 752. The Electoral Commission. — The Democrats of the country declared that Tilden had been elected and that the Returning Boards had illegally deprived them of their rights. The electoral vote being thus disputed, the case came before Congress for settlement, but the House had a Democratic and the Senate a Republican majority, and no agl'eement could be reached. In the end it was decided to refer the matter to an Electoral Commission, composed of five Representatives, five Senators, and five Judges of the Supreme Court. Of these fifteen seven were Democrats, seven Republicans, and one, Judge Davis, an independent in politics. Before the court sat Judge Davis was elected to the Senate and resigned from the Supreme Court, being replaced by a Republican judge. This gave the Republicans a majority and they voted to accept the decision of the Returning Boards, the result being that Hayes won the Presidency by a majority of one electoral vote. He was declared elected on the morn- ing of March 3. Thus ended a case that at one time almost threatened to lead to civil war, and for years afterwards caused bitter feelings. 384 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1877 3. HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION! From 1877 to 1881 753. Military Rule Ends in the South.— Though the Democratic party had opposed the election of Presi- dent Hayes, he adopted, in regard to Southern affairs, the pohcy they ad- vocated and one which was severely condemned by many Republicans. This was, to put an end to the mili- tary rule which had been maintained in much of the South since the war, and leave to the people of that sec- tion the full control of their own RuTHKHFOH., B. havks. affalrs. As a result the negro domi- nance in the Legislatures of the South came to an end. This policy was approved by the great mass of the people, as it put an end to the pohtical strife which had long prevailed. 754. Specie Payments Resumed. — President Hayes also advocated civil service reform, or the removal of office-holding from the control of political leaders, and the early resumption of specie payments. During the war gold had disappeared from circulation, and had increased in value till at one time a dollar in gold was worth nearly three dollars in paper. This differ- ence in value gradually grew less, and in 1875 Con- 1 Rutherford B. Hayes was born in Ohio in 1822. He studied at the Harvard Law School and was admitted to the bar in 1845. In the Civil War he served as major in the twenty-third Ohio regi- ment and rose to the grade of brigadier-general. He was elected to Congress in 1865, and was Governor of Ohio for three terms. After his Presidential term he lived in retirement until his death, which occurred in 1893 1873-1900] HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION 385 gress passed a bill providing that on and after January 1, 1879, the United States should redeem its paper money in coin. This announcement sufficed. When the time came few people asked for gold in exchange for their paper. Since that day the paper money of this country has been worth its face value in gold and the credit of the government has so increased that it can now obtain all the money it needs to borrow at low rates of interest. 755. Silver Coinage. — Up to 1873 only about eight million silver dollars had been coined in the United States. By a law passed in that year the coinage of silver dollars was stopped. But the finding of new and rich mines of silver led to an opposite law in 1878, providing that not less than two or more than four million silver dollars should be coined every month. This law continued in force until 1890, when a law was passed providing for a still larger coinage of silver. This law was repealed in 1893 and since then no silver bulhon has been bought for coining into money. In 1900 Congress passed a law making gold the sole standard money of this country, and the gold dollar the money unit. In consequence the market value of silver fell till the bullion value of a silver dollar was for a time less than fifty cents. 756. Railroad and Coal Strikes. — The first year of the Hayes administration was notable for several great strikes of working-men, the result of decrease in wages arising from the business depression. The strike of the railroad men was the most threatening and costly one ever known in this country. It spread widely through the Northern States and for two weeks there 25 386 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1880 was very little movement of trains, as no engineers or other workmen were to be had. The worst of the strike was in Pennsylvania, where it was joined by a great army of coal miners. Riots broke out, the worst of them being in Pittsburg. There a large number of freight cars were plundered and burned, railroad buildings set on fire, and the militia sent to suppress the riots were attacked by the mob. This outbreak did not end until more than three mil- lion dollars' worth of property was destroyed and nearly one hundred lives were lost. 757. Yellow Fever in the South.— In 1877 and 1878 a terrible epidemic of yellow fever broke out in por- tions of the South, causing a large number of deaths. Its worst centres were in New Orleans and Memphis, where little heed had been paid to sanitary laws. In 1878 more than fifteen thousand persons died, victims of this dread epidemic. Since that time new sanitary laws have been passed in these cities and they have become more healthful. It has also been discovered that a certain species of mosquito carries the germ of yellow fever and that by destroying these insects or preventing their attacks this fatal disease can be done away with, so that now yellow fever has disap- peared in some regions where it was formerly very destructive to human life. 758. The Election of 1880. — In the Presidential elec- tion of 1880 James A. Garfield, a distinguished states- man, and Chester A. Arthur were the Republican candidates. The Democrats nominated Winfield S. Hancock, a leading general of the Civil War, and William H. English. The Republican candidates won in the election by a majority of fifty-nine electoral votes. 1881] GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATION 387 4. THE GARFIELD' AND ARTHURS ADMINISTRATION From 1881 to 1885 759. The Reform Sentiment. — The feeling in favor of a reform in the methods of appointment to ofhce, on the basis of merit instead of pohtical service, had been growing for years and it found strong sup- port in the new President. As usual, he was beset by applicants for office, usually supported by members of Congress, and when he refused to appoint a collector of the port of New York, supported / by the Senators of that State, they . a n J ' -J James A. Garfield, both angrily resigned their seats. 760. Assassination of the President. — This action caused an excitement throughout the country, and especially among the office-seekers, a state of affairs that led to the murder of the President. On the 2nd of July, 1881, while President Garfield was standing * James Abram Garfield was born in Ohio in 183 L His parents were poor but he succeeded in gaining entry to Williams College, where he was graduated in 1854. He entered the army as colonel, in 1861, was made major general in 1863, and soon after was elected to Congress, where he became prominent as an able statesman. He was elected United States Senator in 1880, but before taking his seat was elected President. ♦ 2 Chester Alan Arthur was born in Vermont in 1830, graduated at Union College, became a teacher and then a lawyer and was quartermaster-general of New York State during the war. Ap- pointed collector of the port of New York in 1872 he served six years. Having served as Vice President and President, he unsuc- cessfully sought a renomination in 1884. He died in 1886. 388 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1883 in the railroad station at Washington, he was shot by a disappointed apphcant for office named Guiteau. The wound proved fatal. After lingering in suffering for many weeks, the sympathy of the people warmly drawn towards the patient sufferer, he died on the 19th of September, after a term of office of a little more than six months. Vice President Arthur succeeded him. 761. Civil Service Reform. — The dastardly assassi- nation of Garfield greatly hastened the reform in which he had been so strongly interested, Congress in 1883 passing a Civil Service Act. This was intended to take the appoint- ment to office out of the President's hands, a Board of Commissioners being appointed to examine candi- dates and give offices to those who passed highest. At first only a few of the offices were brought under the new law, but it has been extended chestkka.akthuk. ^^ntil it now covers nearly all posi- tions in the gift of' the government, and the old '^ spoils system," introduced by President Jackson, is practically at an end. 762. Arthur as President. — Vice President Arthur had been nominated for political reasons, and was looked upon as a man unfitted for the high office of President. But he had much more ability than he was given credit for, and filled the responsible posi- tiqn which came to him so unexpectedly to the satis- faction of the people. 763. Industrial Exhibitions. — During Arthur's term of office the progress of the South was shown by several interesting industrial exhibitions which were held in 1884] GARFIELD AND AUTHUll ADMINISTRATION 389 that section, at Atlanta in 1881, at Louisville in 1883, and, on a much larger scale, at New Orleans in 1884. That at New Orleans was named '^The World's Indus- trial and Cotton Centennial Exposition," and demon- strated the great progress the South had made since the war. In 1774 the South had exported eight bags — about equal to one bale — of cotton. In 1884 its export amounted to eight million bales, and its manufacturing industries had also shown a remark- able increase. As late as 1800 there were scarcely any manufactures south of Maryland. In 1884 there were millions of dollars invested in manufac- tures in the South. Since that date they have grown to hun- dreds of millions of dollars. 764. The Washington Monument. — A n o t h e r interesting event of this period was the completion of the great Washington Monument at the national capital. This was i)rojected shortly after the death of Washington, but the corner-stone was not laid until 1848, and the work not finished until 1885. It is an immense obelisk of white marble, five hundred and fifty-five feet high, and contains in its interior stones carved with appropriate designs contributed by the several states. Thk Washincjton Monument. 390 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1884 To this achievement may be added another triumph of engineering which took place during Arthur's term. This was the completion and opening to travel of the great bridge over the East River between New York and Brooklyn, the longest and most notable suspen- sion bridge existing at that time in the world. It was designed in 1869 by John A. Roebling, the builder of the first suspension bridge across the Niagara River at the Falls. 765. Standard Time. — Another event of importance was the adoption of what is known as standard time. In 1883 the area of the United States was divided from east to west into four sections, the same time to be used in all parts of each section, while the time would vary by one hour between two adjoining sec- tions. Thus when it is twelve o'clock in New York^ it is eleven in Chicago, ten in Denver, and nine in San Francisco. This system is of great use in railroad travel, as time-pieces can be readily changed to suit the standard time in each section. 766. The Election of 1884. — In the Presidential elec- tion of 1884 Grover Cleveland, Governor of New York, became the candidate of the Democratic party, James G. Blaine, a prominent statesman, of the Repubhcan party. The election was very close, the result depend- ing on the vote of New York, which went for Cleve- land by a few hundred majority. Blaine's cause was greatly injured by the extravagant attacks of some of his supporters upon the Democratic party. In this respect the election was much like that of 1844, when Clay was similarly defeated by a small majority against him in New York. 1888] CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION 391 5. CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION ^ From 1885 to 1889 767. The Interstate Commerce Act. — The most im- portant legislative act passed during the Cleveland administration was that known as the Interstate Commerce Act, enacted in 1887. Its purpose was the control of railroad traffic be- tween the States. A commission of five persons was appointed to over- see the execution of the law. It has been much employed in recent times against the great railroad corpora- tions, which have been accused and ^^^^^^ clevklano. at times convicted of illegal acts. 768. The Chinese Exclusion Act. — Another impor- tant law was that passed in 1888 to prevent Chinese laborers from entering this country. They were com- ing here in large numbers, and were regarded with great hostility by the working classes, especially in California, where they were accused of working for ruinously low wages and being for other reasons unde- sirable. The law is still in effect, and the number of ^ Grover Cleveland was born in New Jersey in 1837. His father dying and leaving him penniless, he studied law in Buffalo and was admitted to the bar in 1859. He began his political career in 1863 as successively assistant district attorney, sheriff, and mayor of Buffalo, and won so high a reputation for integrity in office that he received in 1882 the Democratic nomination for governor of New York. He was elected by a large majority and his increasing repu- tation for unswerving honesty won him the Presidential nomination in 1884. He died in 1908. 392 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1886 Chinese in this country is decreasing, as many have returned home and others cannot come, except by illegal methods, to replace them. 769. Important Events of 1886.— The lack of satisfac- tory provision for a successor to the Presidency in case of the death of both President and Vice President, led to legislation by Congress in 1886 fixing the succession in the following order: 1, Secretary of State; 2, Secre- tary of the Treasury; 3, Secretary of War; 4, Attorney General; 5, Postmaster General; 6, Secretary of the Navy; 7, Secretary of the Interior. The possibility of such a disaster was shown by the assassination of Presidents Lincoln and Garfield and by an occurrence in Chicago in 1886. During a strike of workingmen in that city, mostly foreigners, a meeting was held in which the speakers used such violent lan- guage that the police attempted to disperse the riotous assemblage. While doing so, a dynamite bomb was thrown in their midst, killing several and wounding many of the officers. The ringler.ders of the mob were convicted of complicity in the outrage. Four of them were hanged and the others imprisoned for life. 770. The Charleston Earthquake.— The most destruc- tive earthquake known to that time in the United States occurred at Charleston, South Carolina, in the summer of 1886. Many buildings were shaken down or otherwise badly damaged, the loss in property being over five mil- lion dollars. Fortunately, the loss in life was not large. 771. The Election of 1888.— In 1888 Grover Cleveland was again nominated for President by the Democratic party, and Benjamin Harrison, grandson of the former President Harrison, by the Republican party. Harrison was elected with a majority of sixty- five electoral votes. 1889] BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 393 6. BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION ' From 1889 to 1893 772. The Opening of Oklahoma. — President Harrison was inaugurated March 4, 1889, and shortly afterwards an interesting event took place. In the western section of the Indian Territory a large tract of land, not occupied by the Indians, had been purchased and set aside for white settlers. It was known as Oklahoma. The hour of noon on April 22 was fixed for its opening to settlers, and at that hour fifty thousand persons were waiting to take up claims under pi^.^,,„,„ tt.»»,«om O 1 rSENJAMIN MARKISON. the land laws of the United States. When the signal was given by a bugle blast a wild rush was made across the border, and before night much of the territory was staked out in claims and several towns located. Oklahoma was afterwards largely increased in size by the purchase of other lands from the Indians. 773. New States. — While Oklahoma Territory, after- wards to become a State, was being settled, the num- ber of States in the Union was rapidly increasing, no less than four — North Dakota, South Dakota, Mon- * Penjamin Harrison, born in Ohio in 1833, was a grandson of President William Henry Harrison and great grandson of one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. He graduated from Miami University, studied law, and entered the army in 1862 as second lieutenant, rising to the rank of brevet brigadier general. He was elected United States Senator in 1880. After his term as President, he ran again in 1892, but was defeated. Died in 1901. 394 PROGRESS OF THB: NEW UNION [1889 tana, and Washington — being admitted in 1889, and two others — Idaho and Wyoming — in 1890. This was the largest addition to our family of States made in any one administration. 774. The Johnstown Flood. — In the same year (1889) took place a disaster, the most destructive to human Hfe ever known in the United States. On May 31, a large dam on a stream in central Pennsylvania gave way and a torrent of water forty feet high swept The Johnstown Flood, down the valley of the Conemaugh River towards the city of Johnstown, several miles below. This busy seat of manufacture was almost entirely swept away, more than two thousand of its people being drowned and ten million dollars' worth of property destroyed. The whole country vied in sending supplies of food and money to the suffering survivors. . 775. The Sioux Indian Outbreak. — By placing the Indians on reservations and looking after their interests the government had for years avoided any trouble 1890] BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 395 with them. But in 1890 there was a disturbance among the Sioux arising from a behef that an Indian Messiah was coming to destroy the whites and avenge the wrongs done to red men. Several thousand of them gathered at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, where they fired on the troops who tried to deprive them of their firearms. A battle took place in which about two hundred were killed. This seems likely to be the last Indian outbreak, as they are rapidly developing into civilized habits. 776. The Pension List. — The custom of paying pen- sions to invalid soldiers had long existed in the United States, and in 1890 this system was extended by a law which granted a pension to all former soldiers who were unable to earn a living. This added greatly to the number of pensioners, and the payments in 1893 exceeded one hundred and fifty million dollars. A further law was passed in 1904 which placed all soldiers over sixty-two years of age on the pension list, and in 1907 the amount paid each old soldier was considerably increased. Therefore, though the vet- erans of the civil war are fast dying off, the total payments have very slowly decreased. 777. The McKinley Tariff.— The tariff of the Civil War period had remained almost intact to the time now reached. An effort had been made to pass a bill with lower rates during the Cleveland administration, but without effect, the Republicans controlling Con- gress. In 1890 a bill known as the McKinley Tariff, from its being introduced in the House by William McKinley, was passed. While some articles were made free, the tariff rates on many articles were much 396 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1890-92 increased. One of its features was the ^^reciprocity measure," by which certain articles were reduced or made free to countries which gave the same advantage to certain articles supplied by the United States. This applied chiefly to the nations of America. The McKinley bill was the first important change in the tariff that had taken place since the Civil War. 778. The Census of 1890. — The census of the people of the United States taken in 1890 showed a popula- tion of 62,622,250. The first census, taken in 1790, a hundred years before, had given a population of 3,929,- 214. Thus within a century the number of people had increased more than fifty-eight millions. 779. Important Anniversaries. — During the period from 1880 to 1890 a number of important historical anniversaries were celebrated, including in 1881 the centennial anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis, held at Yorktown; in 1882 the bicentennial anniversary of the landing of William Penn, and in 1887 the centennial anniversary of the Constitutional Conven- tion, both celebrated at Philadelphia; and in 1889, the centennial anniversary of Washington's inaugu- ration as President, held at New York. 780. The World's Columbian Exposition. — The occa- sions above named were followed by another of world- wide historical importance, the four hundredth anni- versary of the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492. This was celebrated in 1892 by a naval parade of all nations in New York Harbor and by processions and demonstrations elsewhere, but in particular by a great World's Fair in Chicago, the buildings, of which were dedicated in October with imposing ceremonies. 1892] CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 397 The Exposition was opened on May 1 of the follow- ing year and continued open for six months, during which time it was visited by many millions of people. It was organized on a splendid scale and in the beauty of its buildings and grounds and the attractiveness and educational value of its exhibits had never been surpassed. It was especially interesting in its display of the remarkable progress in electric lighting and power made since the Centennial Exposition of 1876. 781. The Election of 1892. — During President Harri- son's term of office a change came over the political aspect of the country, shown in 1890 by a great Demo- cratic triumph in the election of new members of the House of Representatives, and in 1892 by a similar triumph in the Presidential election. On this occa- sion the Democrats renominated Grover Cleveland, who had been President four years before, with Adlai E. Stevenson for Vice President. The Republicans renominated President Harrison, with Whitelaw Reid for Vice President. The People's Party, organized this year, its members generally known as Populists, also made a nomination, choosing James B. Weaver, of Iowa, as its Presidential candidate, and was strong enough to obtain twenty-two electoral votes. Cleve- land was elected, with an electoral majority of one hundred and ten votes. 7. CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION From 1893 to 1897 782. The Democratic Supremacy. — Since 1860 the Democratic party had never had a majority in all branches of the government. When it won its first 398 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1893 President, in 1884, Congress was divided between the two parties. In 1893 it had a majority in all branches, the Executive, the House, and the Senate, and was able for the first time to control legislation and pass laws in accordance with its principles. It was delib- erate, however, in doing so, a new tariff bill not being passed until 1894. Though this reduced the duties on many articles, it did not make enough change to please the President. While he did not veto it, he declined to sign it, letting it become a law without his signature. 783. A Great Business Depression. — The inaugura- tion of President Cleveland was quickly followed by a severe depression in business, which continued with little change throughout his term and caused great distress, failures being very numerous and hosts of workmen thrown out of employment. This and the reduction of wages, led to many strikes of workmen. Of these strikes the most important began in 1893 among the workmen in the Pullman car-building shops near Chicago and extended to the railroad men of that city, who refused to take out trains containing Pullman cars. This caused great interference in travel and led to the destruction of much railroad property. It was brought to an end by United States troops, whom the President sent to Chicago to maintain order and protect the movement of the mail-cars. 784. Tlie Sherman Act Repealed. — President Cleve- land was of the opinion that the business trouble was due to the large coinage of silver under the Sherman Act of 1890, which provided for the purchase every month of four and a half million ounces of bullion to be 1895] CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 399 coined into silver dollars. A law was passed stopping these purchases, but the large amount of silver bullion in the Treasury was allowed to be coined. 785. The Venezuelan Controversy. — A dispute had long existed in relation to the boundary line between British Guiana and Venezuela, in South America, and as Great Britain seemed inclined to settle the dispute by force, Cleveland called the attention of Congress to this matter, saying that this country, under the Monroe Doctrine, could not permit this unjust seizure of American territory to take place. The case was in- vestigated by a commission, and after a long debate Great Britain consented to submit it to arbitration. It was thus peacefully and legally settled, this being one of the great triumphs of the Monroe Doctrine. 786. Hawaii and Cuba. — There were several foreign questions to be settled. The people of Hawaii had rebelled again and . deposed their queen, and now asked for annexa- tion to the United States. This the President declined to grant, and the Hawaiian Islands were made a repub- lic. The President was also asked to accord the rights of belligerents to the insurrectionists in Cuba, who had rebelled against Spain and were having much success. This also he declined to do. A Nativk Hawaiian Hut. 400 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1896 787. Utah Made a State. — A new State, the forty- fifth in the American Union, was admitted in 1896. This was Utah, a territory which the Mormons had sought as a harbor of refuge in 1847, but which now had a large population of others than Mormons. The practice of polygamy among the Mormons — that is, the right of a man to have more than one wife — had been forbidden by law in 1882, and as this law was now obeyed Utah was accepted as a State, it being proclaimed on January 4, 1896. Its constitution gave the right of full suffrage to women. This already existed in Wyoming and Colorado and was adopted in Idaho in 1S96 and in Washington in 1910. 788. The Election of 1896.— When the Presidential year of 1896 came, the prevalence of '^hard times" for four years had a strong effect on the political situa- tion, people who are suffering from want of work being very apt to lay the blame on the party in power and to seek a change. The Republicans, under the idea that the trouble was due to the Democratic tariff policy, nominated William McKinley, the originator of the protective tariff of 1890. The Democratic party, on the contrary, laid the blame on the law suppressing silver coinage and demanded 'Hhe free and unlimited coinage of silver at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one," — that is, sixteen ounces of silver to one ounce of gold. William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, an earnest ad- vocate of ''free silver," was nominated. The People's party, which held the same policy, also nominated Mr. Bryan. In the campaign the tariff issue was lost sight of and ''free silver" and "honest money" were the 1897] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 401 campaign cries of the two parties. Silver was then worth in the market little more than half its coinage value and Republicans held that gold was the only honest money. They won in the election, McKinley receiving a majority of ninety-five electoral votes. They also regained their former majority in the House, while the Senate was equally divided between the two parties. 8. McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION ^ From 1897 to Sept. 14, 1901 789. A New Tariff. — President McKinley was inaug- urated on March 4, 1897, and at once called an extra session of Congress to consider the state of the country. It had for some years been running into debt, its revenue being too small to meet its expenses, while a severe business depression had continued for several years. He believed that a new tariff, laying higher duties on imported goods, would overcome this difficulty, and william mcKinley. such a tariff bill was passed, receiving the President's signature in July, 1897. 790. Other Events. — The other important events of this period were an immense overflow of the Missis- 1 William McKinley was born in Ohio in 1843, served as a soldier through the Civil War, and was for several terms in Congress. In 1890, as chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, he originated the high tariff bill known as the McKinley Tariff. He was governor of Ohio from 1890 to 1894, and was elected President for two terms, dying by assassination in 1901. 26 402 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1897 sippi River, which caused great loss and suffering to the people along its banks, and the discovery of rich deposits of gold along the Klondike River, a branch of the Yukon River of Alaska. This took thousands of miners to that country and cities sprang up in the frozen desert. The Klondike is in Canada, but gold has also been found at Cape Nome, in Alaska, and that cold country, once thought worthless, is now found to be of great value in many ways. Copyright 1900 by Wm. H. Ran. Street Scene in Dawson City, on the Yukon. 791. Rebellion in Cuba.— For several years there had been a serious state of affairs in the island of Cuba^ then belonging to Spain. It had been badly governed and the people broke into rebellion, fighting so hard for liberty that Spain sent a large army there to put down the insurrection. General Weyler, who com- manded this army, treated the people so cruelly that many of them died of starvation and great sympathy was felt for them in this country. 1898] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 403 792. The Sinking of the Maine.— In January, 1898, the battleship Maine was sent to the harbor of Havana to look after the interests of Americans in that city. A dreadful event followed. On the night of February 15 an explosion took place under the Maine with such terrible force that the great ship was torn asunder and sank with most of her crew. In that frightful moment two hundred and sixty-four of the crew and two of the officers were killed or mortally injured. 793. Revenge Demanded. — When the news of this event reached the United States there was intense excitement and indignation. The Spanish were every- where blamed for the outrage and revenge was de- manded on all sides. Congress had the same feeling as the people. Spain, it was declared, must be punished for this outrage and Cuba taken from her cruel hands. This feehng grew stronger when a court of inquiry decided that the Maine had been destroyed by a mine of some powerful explosive placed under her bottom, and that this must have been done by Spanish hands. 794. A Declaration of War. — The war spirit now grew intense. On April 11 President McKinley sent a message to Congress, asking for authority to put an end to the cruelty of the Spanish governor by force of arms, and on the 20th a message was sent to Spain, bidding her to remove her forces from Cuba and giving her till the 23rd to reply. The reply of Spain was to send the American minister his passport, which was equivalent to a declaration of war, and on the 25th war was declared by this country. 795. The Seats of War. — The war that followed was a remarkably short one. It was all over in less than 404 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1898 four months. It was fought in two separate regions, the PhiHppine Islands in the Pacific and Cuba and Porto Rico in the Atlantic. At Hong Kong, China, was a squadron of American naval vessels under Commo- dore George Dewey, who was at once ordered by tele- graph to proceed to Manila, the capital city of the Phihppines, and capture or destroy the Spanish fleet at that place. Copyright 1898 by Arkell Publishing Company The Annihilation of the Spanish Fleet in the Harbor of Manila. 796. Dewey at Manila. — Dewey's ships reached the harbor of Manila on the night of April 30. Early the next morning he attacked the Spanish fleet, and with such success that in a few hours the whole fleet was in flames or had been sunk and all the crews were dead or captives. On the American side not a ship was seriously injured and not a man killed. The victory was so notable that Commodore Dewey was rewarded by being made rear-admiral, and soon after admiral, 1898] McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 405 the highest rank in our navy, and reserved for men of exceptional worth. 797. Manila is Taken. — As soon as possible ships and soldiers were sent to Dewey and on August 13 the city of Manila was captured by a combined assault of the American army and fleet. This happened after the end of the war, for the Americans had been equally successful in the west and a preliminary treaty of peace was signed on August 12. What took place elsewhere must be briefly told. 798. The Blockade of Santiago. — The blockade of Havana and the neighboring coast was the first step in the Cuban War. This extended until all the impor- tant ports were blockaded, including that of Santiago, on the southeast coast. This was of importance, for a squadron of Spanish cruisers, under Admiral Cervera, had reached the harbor of Santiago in advance of the American ships. In consequence this city became the chief seat of the war, it having a strong Spanish garrison, while in its harbor lay all the Spanish naval vessels of any importance. 799. The Merrimac Sunk. — An attempt was made on June 3 to block up the Spanish ships in Santiago har- bor by sinking a large coaling vessel, the Merrimac, in the narrow channel leading to it. This effort failed through an injury to the rudder by a shot, and Lieu- tenant Hobson and his men were captured. The Merrimac sank lengthwise instead of across the chan- nel, leaving room to pass the sunken wreck. • 800. Cuba Invaded. — Meanwhile an army of inva- sion had been gathered in the United States and in middle June a force of 15,000 men, under Major- 406 PROGRESS OF THE NEW UNION [1898 General Shafter, landed at a point east of Santiago. A march was at once made towards that city and some hard fighting took place, chiefly on the fortified hill of San Juan and before the village of El Caney. An attack was made on the Spanish intrenchments on the 1st of July, the battle lasting through most of the day and the Spaniards being driven from their works before nightfall. Among those who took part in this charge was Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, of later fame, and his regi- ment of dismounted cowboys known as" Rough Riders." The Naval Batti.k at SANii.\-'l-'l->l-'MMM _ ■wJOV in >t> 05 tsi 1-* O to (K tCl-J P 5 2 ^ ^=5 p (c -( 7 a> 3 5"-^ L, S" ffi p" o tr O P P E 5'3 B ~ , CO (/J P 5:; P p c 1-i 03 1^ ^s P en tJ" • 5' • 'a . o GC OS CO GC 00 y;' (X 00 00 OO QO 00 ^J CO 00 -^1 ^1 ^ ^T -.1 ^7 ^KI ^1 Cntn >**■ GOOJOJcoeotO to O O cOOOOO^CD-^100 0> CJJCn Cn --J00 CO ^JW^OH-itO t^S 00 to h-it^^OlUOiOOitO ^J *^0 ** >t>.CO CO h-* COM'Oiosi-'CO C)i Oi Oi OOWSrfi.OtDl-OI-'lO Cn O0I-' C5 QO CO -J to lO '£i s ^ 3S OH P (T> cc O OI-'H 055K 3 3.<3 , s-i^*" X • ^ 3 ID 2 ci- S <^ 5S^ •-; i-s ►-. » ►-. ^ (T> t:;.^,p p' ie^?- ■ 3 p. ■ a Km B p c :^ '-'tot?' Cro P 3 trS OS H-. H^ 3 '-^ &_^ ^Sp c ii^c c 3 "-s "^ ►- 3 rt) » '- o ? 3 2.2.P 3;g 2 ^ ►^^ "-» o o o 3 3 3. 2 -» ^ g|Hg^33 ^ p > 3 5-1 SD "^ O B >-! 3;b3 ?r WW w wwowww w W w Democr Whigs Whigs Democr Whigs Whigs Democr Democr W wt> w w ^^ 3 3 3 epubl: epubli epubli emocT epubli emocr 3 ft ff 3 3 o o §5" CO ^ "g 3 W^ E2 o; o; a; o; o:i a; ct; g 21, ;)27; cai)tur(> of, 3()6. i)e Gourgii(>s, I)()mini((uc, 'M'), 37. De la R(j(Hie, :\\). De Monts in Acadia, 39. De Soto, Fernando, 32-34, 75. Dearborn, General, 256. Debt, United States, 233, 368. Decatur, Stephen, 244, 266. Declaration of Independence, committee on, 189; passage of, 189. XXX INDEX Delaware, government of, 113. Delaware, Lord, 59. Delaware River, naming of, 107. Demarcation, line of, 16, 17, 37. Democratic Party, 279. Denys, John, 37. Detroit, surrender of, 255, 257. Dewey, Commodore, at Manila, 404. Diaz, Bartholomew, 6. Dinwiddie, Governor, 134, 130. Dorr Rebellion, the, 296. Draft riots, the, 368. Drake, voyages of, 44. Dred Scott case, the, 318, 319. Dress, colonial, 154-156. Douglas, Stephen A., 313, 322, 323. Duke of York takes New Amster- dam, 102, 104, 108, 109. Dunmore, Lord, 187. Dutch claim, the, 102. Dutch explorers, the, 46. Dutch, claim of the, 48, 54; in Comiecticut, 91; in New Jersey, 105; settlement at Lewes, Del- aware, 107; capture of New Sweden, 108. Dustin, Hannah, 127. E Early's raid on Washington, 358. Earth, ignorance about the, 1, 2; circunmavigation of the, 18, 44. Eartluiuake, Cl)arlestc)ii, ;>92; San Francisco, 415. Emancipation of slaves pro- claimed, 347. lilmbargo Act, the, 250. English claims in America, 48, 102. l"]ndicott, John, 78. Era of Good Feeling, the, 271, 279. Ericsson, Captain, 334. Erie Canal, the, 274, 275. Essex, the frigate, defeats the Alert, 257; capture of, 259. Europe in 15th century, 5. Events, summary of, 29, 50, 124, 148, 213, 267, 306, 325, 369, 409. Fair Oaks, battle of, 343. Faneuil Hall, 173. Farragut, Admiral, on the Missis- sippi, 340; at Mol^ile, 361. Federal party, the, 236, 254. Ferdinand, King, 9. Field, Cyrus, \\., 321. Fillmore, Millard, elected Vice- President, 305, 307; succeeds as President, 311, 317. Fisheries, American, 16. Five Nations, the, 121. Flag, the American, 198. Flctclier, (Jovernor, 113. Floiida, discovery of, 31; inva- sion of, 273; purchase of, 274. Food, C'olonial, 154. Foote, Admiral, 337, 338. Forest reservations, 415. Fort Duquesne, 136; capture of, 143. Fort Fisher, capture of, 362. Forts Henry and Donelson, 336, 337. Fort Lee, 191. Fort McIIenry, attack on, 264. Fort Moultrie, d(^fence of, 187. l<'ort Necessity, culture of, 137. lM)rt Sumter threatened, 324; bombarded, ;>26; surrenders, 327. Fort Ticonderoga, 140; attack on, 142; capture of, 181. Fort Washington, 191. Fort William Henry, 140; mas- sacre at, 142. Fountain of Youth, the, 30. INDEX XXXI I France, snipport of, 195; treaty with, 200; aid from, 201; naval troubles with, 240. Francis I., 37. Franklin, battle of, 360. Franklin seeks colonial union, 138, 189; in France, 200, 213. Fredericksburg, battle of, 347. Free Silver campaign, 400. Fremont, John C, in California, 303, 317. French claims in America, 48. French colonies, English gains possession of, 146. French explorers, 37-39. French and Indian War, 131. Frobisher's voyage, 44. Fugitive Slave law, the, 310. Fulton, Robert, 249. Fur trade, the, 39, 99. G Gadsden Purchase, the, 304. Gage, General, 171, 175, 178. Gama, Vasco da, 6. Garfield, James A., elected Presi- dent, 386; assassination of, 388. Garrison, William Lloyd, 288. Gates, General, 199, 200; defeat of, 207. Geography in 15th century, 2; ignorance of, 7. George III., 166, 168, 172. Georgia, settlement of, 122; made a royal province, 123; laws of, 123. Germantown, battle of, 196. Gerry, P^lbridge, Vice-President, 266. Gettysl)urg, battle of, 349-351. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 44, 45. Goffe the regicitle, 95. Gold discovered in California, 304; in Alaska, 402. Gold standard adopted, 385. Gorges, Ferdinando, 80. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 52. Government, forms of, 163, 164; character of American, 229. Grand Model government, 119. Grant, General U. S., 336, 337, 338, 339; at Vicksburg, 352; at Chattanooga, 353; commander- in-chief, 355; marches on Rich- mond, 356; takes Richmond and captiu-es Lee's army, 365; elected President, 377, 380. Gray, Captain, discovers tlio Col- umbia River, 24(). Great Law, the, 111. Green Mountain Boys, the, 181. Greene, General, 208, 209, 210. Greenland, discovery of, 3. Guilford Court-house, battle of, 209. H Hamilton, Alexander, 226, 232, 233, 234, 236; death of, 248. Hancock, John, 178, 179, 189. Harmar, General, 235. Harrison, Benjamin, elected Presi- dent, 392; inaugurated, 393, 397. Harrison, General, defeats In- dians, 253; march of, 257; defeats the British, 261, 289; elected President, 291; dies, 292. Harvard College founded, 85. Hawaii, annexation asked by, 399; annexation to United States, 407. Hawkins, Sir John, 44. Hayes, R. B., elected President, 383, 384. Heights of Abraham, the. 144. Hennepin's exploration, 42. Henry, Patrick, 169, 228. Henry VII., 15, 16. Herkimer, General, 197. XXXIl INDEX Hispaniola, discovery of, 12. Hobson and the Merrimac, 405. Hood, General, at Atlanta, 859; at Nashville, 360. Hooker, General, at Chancellors- ville, 348; at Lookout Moun- tain, 354. House of Burgesses, 64. Houses, Colonial, 152, 153. Houston, General, 295. Howe, General, 186, 190. 195. Hudson's discoveries, 46, 47. Hudson River, discovery of the, 54. Hudson-Fulton celebration, the, 422. Huguenot colonists, the, ;>5; mas- sacre of, 36; settlers, 72, 118. Hull, General William, 255, 256. Hutchinson, Anne, 81, 89. I Iceland, discovery of, 3, 4. Ignorance, an age of, 1. Immigration into United States, 299. Independence, gaining of, 213. Independence Hall, 182, 226. Indians of Florida, 273. Indian War in New England, 85, 86. Indian wars, 147, 235, 253, 286, 381, 394. Indians, naming of, 13, 19; con- dition of, 20; customs of, 21; farming of, 22; domestic habits of> 23, 24; travel of, 24; tribes of, 25, 26; Florida, 31; New England, 76; Penn's treaty with, 112. Intemperance, prevalence of, 156. Invention, progress of, 287. Iron-clads in battle, the first, 333-335. Iroquois Indians, houses of, 22, 25; Champlains' battle with, 40, 100, 101, 126, 128, 133, 202. Irrigation in the West, 417. Jackson, General, defeat.s the Creeks, 264; at New Orleans, 265; in Florida, 273, 278; elected President, 282; his policy, 283; vetoes U. S. Bank charter, 285, 289. Jackson, Thomas J. (See Stone- wall Jackson.) James I., 61. Jauies River, 54. Jamestown, naming of, 54; set- tlement of, 55, 59, 66; burning of, 70. Jamestown exposition, the, 413. Japan, 8; the opening of, 316, 317. Jasper, Sergeant, 187. Jay, John, 213; treaty of, 237. Jefferson, Thomas, writes Dec- laration, 189; heads Demo- cratic party, 236; Vice-Presi- dent, 238; President, 242; inauguration of, 243; messages, 243; purchases Louisiana, 245, 246; re-elected, 248. Johnson, Andrew, elected Vice- President, 366; succeeds as President, 371; seeks to reor- ganize States, 372; opposed by Congress, 373; impeachment of, 375. Johnston, General A. S., 339. Johnston, General J. E., 343; at Atlanta, 358; in North Caro- lina, 364; surrender of, 365. Johnstown flood, the, 394. Joliet, 42. Jones, Captain Paul, 204. K Kansas, fighting in, 314. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the, 313. Kearney, General, in New Mex- ico, 303. Kentucky, invasion of, 336, 341. INDEX xxxm Key, Francis R., 2G4. Kidd, Captain, 105. Kieft, Governor, 101. King George's War, 129. King Philip's War, 85, 86. King William's War, 126. King's Mountain, battle of, 207 Knoxville, siege of, 354. La Rabida, convent of, 9. La Salle, explorations ol, 42, 43 Lafayette, General, 195, 210; visits United States, 277. Lake Champlain, battle on, 190, Lake'krie, battle of, 260, 261. Lake George, battle of, 139. Lawrence, Captain, defeat and death of, 259. Laws and penalties, Colonial, 159, 162. Lee, General Charles, 191, 202. Lee, General R. E., 344-347; at Chancellorsville, 348; at Get- tysburg, 349-351; opposes (jrant, 355-357; retreats from Richmond, 364; surrenders, 365. Lee, Henry, 209. Lee, Richard Henry, resolution of, 198. Leisler's revolt, 104. Lewis and Clark expedition, the, 247. Lexington, battle of, 179, 180. Lincoln, Abraham, 322; elected President, 323; policy of, 326; calls for troops, 328, 344; pro- claims emancipation, 347; re- elected, 366; assassination of, 367. Locke, John, 119. London Company, the, 52, 53, 60, 64, 72. Long Island, battle of, 190. Longstreet, General, 354. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 354. Louisburg, fortress of, captured, 129; restored, 130; recaptured, 142. Louisiana, naming of, 42; pur- chase of, 245; purchase expo- sition, 412. Lundy's Lane, battle-of, 262. M McClellan, General, 332; advance to Peninsula, 342; in Seven Days' fight, 344; at Antietam, 346; removal of, 347. McDonough, Commodore, 263. McDowell, General, 331. McKinley, William, elected Presi- dent, 400; inaugurated, 401; re-election of, 408; assassina- tion of, 409. Madison, James, elected Presi- dent, 251, 254. Magellan, exploit of, 18. Maine, sinking of battleship, 403. Maine, settlement in, 53, 87; pro- hibition in, 281. Mandan Indians, 22. Manhattan Island, the Dutch on, 47, 54, 99, 102. Manila, capture of, 405. Manufactures, prohibition of, 167, 218. Marco Polo, 5, 8. Marion, General, 207, 208, 210. Marquette explores the Missis- sippi, 42. Maryland, setting of, 113-116; invasion of, 346. Mason, John, 86. Mason and Dixon line, 116. Massachusetts Bay, colony of, 78. Massacre, Indian, 66, 67, 126, 128. Massasoit, 76, 85, 88. Maximilian, Emperor, 376. XXXIV INDEX Mayflower, voyage of the, 73. Meade, General, 349-351. Mecklenburg resolution, the, 188. Memphis, capture of, 340. Menendez, Pedro, 35, 36. Merrimac, the iron-clad, 333; battle with Monitor, 334; end of, 335. Mexico, war with, 300-303; French in, 376. Miles, General, 407. Military service, 159. Minuit, Peter, 99. Minute men, the, 178, 180. Missionaries, French, 41. Missionary Ridge, battle of, 354. Mississippi, discovery of the, 34; exploration of the, 42, 43; opening of the, 352. Missouri, fighting in, 339. Missouri Compromise, the, 272, 273, 308, 313. Monitor and Merrimac, battle of, 334. Monmouth, battle of, 202. Montcalm, Marquis de, 141, 142, 145. Montgomery, General, 185. Montreal, 38; capture of, 146, 185. Monroe, James, 245; elected Presi- dent, 266, 269, 276. Monroe Doctrine, the, 275, 276. Moqui Indians, 28. Morgan, Daniel, 208, 209. Mormons, the, 297; emigration of, 298. Morris, Robert, 205, 216. Morse and the telegraph, 298. Mound building Indians, 27. Murfreesboro, battle of, 341. Muskoki Indians, 25. N Napoleon sells Louisiana, 245; duplicity of, 252. Narragansetts, the, 86, 92. Nashville, battle of, 360. Natural resources, conservation of, 418, 424. National road, 248, 274, 280. Narvaez, Panfilo de, 32. Navigation Acts, the, 167. Naval victories, American, 257, 258. Naval voyage round the world, 419. Navy of United States, new, 419. New Amsterdam, 99; taken by the English, 102. New England, naming of, 72; education in, 85; United Colo- nies of, 94. New Hampshire, naming of, 87. New Jersey, 105-107. New Netherland, 99. New Orleans, settlement of, 43; assault on, 264, 265; capture of, 340; exposition at, 389. New Sweden, 107. New York, 103, 190, 212, 213, 219. Non-Intercourse Act, 250, 252. Norfolk, burning of, 187. North, Lord, 199, 212. North American, discovery of, 15. North Carolina, 120. North and South, comparative strength of in Civil War, 329. Northmen, country of the, 2; exploits of, 3; discovery of America by, 4. North Pole, discovery of, 422. Northwest Territory, the, 224. Nova Scotia, 39. Nullification, 280, 283, 284. O Oglethorpe, colony o^, 122; war with Spaniards, 123. Ohio Company, the, 133. Oklahoma, opening of, 393; ad- mitted to Union, 416. INiiEX XXXV Opechankano, 66. Oregon country, the, 294; boun- dary of, 295. Otis, James, 169. Pacific Ocean, discovery of, 18. Paine's "Common Sense," 188. Pakenham, General, defeat of, 265. Palos, town of, 9; return of Colum- bus to, 13. Panama Canal, the, 413, 414. Panic of 1837, 290; of 1857, 320; of 1873, 380; of 1893, 398. Pariets, early political, 236; later, 279, 281, 289, 315, 397. Patroons, the, 100, 297. Pea Ridge, battle of, 341. Peary discovers North Pole, 422. Pemberton, General, 352. Penn William, 106, 108; obtains a province, 109; great law of, 110; treaty with Indians, 112. Pennsylvania, naming of, 109. Pension list, soldiers', 395. People, work of the, 217; dress of the, 219. Peoples' party, the, 397. Pepperell, William, 130. Pequot Indians, the, 92; war with, 93. Perry, Captain, on Lake Erie, 260. Petersburg, siege of, 357, 363. Philadelphia, founding of, 110, 219. Philadelphia, loss of frigate, 244. Philippine insurrection, 407. Pickens, (ieneral, 210. Pickett's charge, 351. Pierce, Franklin, elected Pres- dent, 312, 313. Pike, General, 256. Pilgrims, the, 72-77; landing of the, 74. Pinckney, Charles, 239, 251. Pirates, the, 105. Pittsburg, strike riot at, 386. Pizarro, exploits of, 33. Plymouth, settlement of, 74; people of, 77. Plymouth Company, the, 52, 53, 72, 74, 78. Pocahontas, 58; marriage of, 61. Polk, General, 336-338. Polk, James K., elected Presi- dent, 299. PoHtical liberty, 162. Ponce de Leon, 30. Pontiac's War, 147. Pope, General, 338, 345. Population, Colonial, 149. Porter, Captain, 259. Portland exposition, the, 413. Portugal, area given to, 16; claim of to Brazil, 16, 17. Portuguese discoveries, 6. Portuguese King, treachery of, 9. Postage, Colonial, 151, 152. Postal reforms, 312. Poutrincourt's settlement, 39. Powhatan, 57, 65. President and Little Belt, the, 253. Princeton, battle of, 194. ProhilMtion of li(iuor selling, 281. Protection, the policy of, 251. Providence founded, 88, 90. Pueblo Indians, 20, 27, 28. Puritans, the, 78, 79; bigotry of the, 80, 87; persecute Quakers, 82; hang witches, 84; churches of the, 160, 161. Putnam, Israel, ISl. Q Quakers in Boston, 82, 83; a home for, 109. Quebec, founding of, 40; siege of, 144; capture of, 145; attack on, 185. . XXXVl INDEX Queen Anne's War, 128. Queen Isabella, 9. R Railroad, transcontinental, 378. Ralfeigh's colony, 45, 46. Rawdon, Lord, 210. Rebellion, colonies in, 178. Religious liberty, 87, 111, 115, 118, 160. Repul)lican party formed, 315. Revere's ride, Paul, 178, 179. Rhode Island, 87, 89. Ribault, Jean, 35, 36. Richmond, fall of, 364. Roanoke Island, 45, 53. Rolfe, John, (U. Roosevelt, Theodore, at Santiago, 406; elected Vice-President, 408; succeeds as President, 411, 413, 414; elected President, 415; aids peace, 415, 419, 424. Rosecrans, General, 353. Rotation in office, 283. Rough Riders, the, 406. Sachem, the Indian, 26. St. Augustine, 35, 36, 43, 50, 123. St. Clair, General, 235. St. Lawrence, Gulf of, 37, 38. St. Leger, march of, 197; defeat of, 198. St. Louis, exposition at, 412. St. Mary's, settlement at, 114, 116. Salem, settlement of, 78. Salem witchcraft, 83, 84. Samoa, acquisition in, 408. San Francisco, growth of, 304; earthquake at, 415. San Salvadore Island, 11; people of, 12. Santa Anna, General, 295, 302. Santiago, blockade of, 405; attack on, 406. Sargasso Sea, the, 10. Savannah, settlement of, 122; attack on, 206; evacuation of, 212. Schenectady, attack on, 127. Schofield, General, 360. Schuyler, General, 196, 199. Scott, General, at Niagara, 262; in Mexico, 300; takes Vera Cruz, 302; takes City of Mexico, 303, 312, 332. Seattle exposition, 422. Secession of South Carolina and (Uilf States, 323>; of other slave States, 329. Seward, Secretary, attack on, 367. Shafter, General,' 406. Shays' Rebellion, 221. Sheridan, General, defeats Early, 358; at Five Forks, 364. Sherman, General, at Vicksburg, 341; at Knoxville, 354; ad- vance on Atlanta, 358-360; march through Georgia, 361; through the Carolinas, 363, 364. Shiloh, l^attle of, 339. Silver coinage, 385. Six Nations, the, 121. Slavery, beginning of, 63; ques- tion of, 271; movement against, 288; system of, 307; opposition to, 308; political contest, 313; abolition of, 372. Slaves, emancipation of, 347. Sloughter, Governor, 104. Smith, Captain John, 56-58, 72. Smith, Joseph, 297, 298. South America, discovery of, 14. South Carolina, 120. South reorganization of the, 377; expositions in, 389. Souther 1 hospitality, 157, 158. Spain, claims of, 15, 48; area given to, 16; new territory of, 146; war with, 403. INDEX XXXVII Spanish army, surrender of, 407. Spanish ships, sinking of, 404, 40(). Specie payments resumed, 384. Spoils system, the, 2S3. Stage coach travel, 150, 151. Stamp Act, the, 168-170. Stamp-act Congress, the, 176. Standard time adopted, 390. Standish, Captain Miles, 75-77. Stanton, Edwin M., 375. Star Spangled Banner, the, 264. Stark, John, 181; at Bennington, 198. Starving time, the, 58. SI ate banks, growth of, 286, 289. States, claims of the, 224. Steamboat, invention of the, 249. Stephens, Alexander H., Vice- President of Confederate States, 324. Stevenson, Adlai E., elected Vice- President, 397. Stonewall Jackson, 331; in Shenandoah Valley, 343; at second Bull Run, 345; at Harper's Ferry and Antietam, 346; death of, 349. Stony Point, capture of, 203. Strikes, railroad and coal, 386; Pullman car, 398; coal, 414. Stuyvesant, Peter, 101, 103. Sub-treasury system, the, 291. Sullivan, General, defeats the Iroquois, 202. Sumner, Charles, assault on, 314. Sumter, General, 210. Swedish colony, the, 107. Taft, William H., elected Presi- dent, 420. Tariffs of 1816 and 1824, 270; of 1828, 279; of 1832, 284; of 1890, 395; of 1894, 398; of 1897, 401; revision of, 421, 4«'^2. TarleLon, Colonel, 207, 200. Taxation, British, 171. Taylor, General, 300; at Buena Vista, 302; elected President, 305, 307; death of, 311. Tea party, Boston, 174. Tea, the tax on, 172. Tecumseh, Chief, 253; death of, 262. Telegraph, invention of the, 298; Atlantic, 321, 376. Temperance cause, the, 281. Tennessee, invasion of, 338. Territory gained from Mexico, ;503. Texas, insurrection in, 29."); ;m- nexation of, 296, 308. Thames, battle of the, 261. Thomas, General, at Chicka- mauga, 353; at C'hattanooga, 354; defeats Hood, 360. Tippecanoe, battle of, 253. Tobacco, culture of, 61. Tompkins, Daniel D., Vice-Presi- dent, 267. Tools, Indian, 23. Tories, 202; treatment of the, 223. Toronto, capture of, 256. Travel, Colonial, 150, 151. Treaty of Peace, 146, 213, 266, 303, 407, 415. Trent affair, the, 332. Trenton, battle of, 193. Tribes, Indian, 25, 26. Tripoli, war with, 244. Tuscarora Indians, war with the, 121. Tyler, John, elected Vice-Presi- dent, 292; succeeds as Presi- dent, 292; vetoes U. S. Bank Bill, 293. U Underground Railroad, the, 311. United States, boimdaries of, in 1783, 215; population of, 215, XXXVIU INDEX 216; northern boundary, 294; new area, 304, 408. United States Bank, 234, 266; veto of charter, 285; deposits removed, 286; bill vetoed by Tyler, 293. United States, the frigate, cap- tures the Macedonian, 258. Utah admitted to Union, 400, Vaca, Cabeza de, 32, 34. Van Buren, Martin, elected Presi- dent, 288, 305. Van Rensselaer, General, 256. Venezuela controversy, the, 399. Verrazano, voyage of, 37, 38. Vespucci, voyages of, 17; America named after, 18. Vicksburg, siege of, 352. Vinland, 4. Virginia, naming of, 45, 53; set- tlement in, 54; government of, 63; a royal province, 65. W Wadsworth, Captain, 97. WaldseemuUer, 17. Wampanoags, the, 86. War, King William's, 126; Queen Anne's, 128; King George's, 129; Indian, 129; French and Indian, 131; Pontiac's, 147; Revolutionary, 180; with Great Britain, 254; with Mexico, 300; Civil, 328; with Spain, 403. Warren, General, 184. Washington, George, 133; seeks French forts, 135; first battle of, 137, 139; takes Fort Du- quesne, 143; made commantler- in-chief, 182; takes command, 185, 186; retreat from New York, 191, 192; at Trenton, 193, 194; at Valley Forge, 199; at Monmouth, 201; at York- town, 211; patriotism of, 221 elected President, 230, 231 re-elected, 236; retires, 238 death of, 241. Washington, William, 208. Washington, city of, 243; British capture, 263. Washington Monument, the, 389. Wayne, General, 203; defeats Indians, 235. Weapons, Indian, 23. Weather Bureau, the, 379. Weaver, James B., 397. Webster, Daniel, 234, 283, 293; death of, 311. West, settlement of the, 217. West Virginia, fighting in, 330. Weyler, General, 402. Whig party, the, 289. Whiskey rebellion, the, 235. Wigwams, Indian, 21. Wilderness, battle of the, 356. William III., 104. Williams, Roger, 81, 87-90, 92. Wilmot proviso, the, 308. Winthrop, John, 79, 91. Wolfe, General, 144, 145. Woman Suffrage States, 400, World's Fair in New York, 317; in Philadelphia, 380; in Chicago, 396; in St. Louis, 412. Writs of Assistance, 168. Wyoming, massacre of, 202. Yellow fever in South, 386. Yorktown, siege of, 211; surrender of, 212, 342. Young, Brigham, 29S. Zollicoffer, General, 336. Zuni Indians, 28. [ ¥ JUN 9 19" One copy del. to Cat. Div. IIJN S 19tl -i'^W v'-I-Jn N-^*^*"' >t^>'^''i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 011 527 521 5 '■R